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4323079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93gra%20Shinn%20F%C3%A9in | Ógra Shinn Féin | Ógra Shinn Féin (colloquially known as Republican Youth, , and formerly, officially known as Sinn Féin Republican Youth, , from 2012 to March 2018) is the youth wing of the Irish political party Sinn Féin. Ógra Shinn Féin is active and organised throughout the island of Ireland.
Upon its establishment in 1997 it was originally known as Sinn Féin Youth; it changed to Ógra Shinn Féin in 1998. A number of Sinn Féin's elected representatives are also members of Ógra Shinn Féin.
Membership
Membership is free and open to all Sinn Féin party members and college society members aged 15 to 29 who support a united Ireland and the establishment of a democratic socialist republic. After the 2019 Ard Fheis it became mandatory for all party members under the age of 26 to be an active member of their local Ógra branch after the success of Ógra's motion on this issue.
Organisation
Ógra Shinn Féin is organised in all 32 counties of Ireland, in both local communities and universities. Its structure is similar to that of Sinn Féin. Ógra Shinn Féin cumainn are largely autonomous from local Sinn Féin structures.
Cumainn - cumainn are organised within a local area or within a college or university. At present there are over 50 active Ógra Shinn Féin cumainn throughout Ireland. A cumainn is required to have a minimum of five members.
National Youth Committee - the National Committee (Comhairle Náisiúnta) is the democratically elected governing body of Ógra Shinn Féin. It consists of between 21 members. Half of the National Youth Committee will be elected by activists at an annual conference, and half will be selected by those elected already in place. The chair of the National Youth Committee is now elected by delegates at a national congress, having previously been appointed by the party chair.
Campaigns and issues
The long-term aim of Ógra Shinn Féin is "to recruit young dedicated activists to ensure the continuity and successful conclusion of the struggle" to establish a 32-county democratic socialist republic.
Specific issues of primary importance include: Irish unity and independence; workers' rights; the protection of the environment; an end to sectarianism and racism in Ireland; decent housing for the people; weekend elections and referendums; education; supporting the Shell to Sea campaign, voting age to be lowered to 16; and the promotion of the Irish language (Gaeilge).
The following is a list of some campaigns which Ógra Shinn Féin has been involved in:
Educate to be Free Campaign - This campaign was launched in December 2008 and calls for free education for all. It also calls for an increase in Irish language education and for student empowerment and radicalizing students unions.
Green Postbox Campaign - This campaign was launched in 2008 and involved young republicans in Northern Ireland painting postboxes green (postboxes in the Republic of Ireland are green while those in Northern Ireland are red). The campaign received severe criticism from Unionist politicians such as Jim Wells. It is alleged that hundreds of postboxes were painted throughout Northern Ireland. Although this campaign was officially launched in 2008, it had been common for ÓSF members and other Irish republicans to engage in this practice. In 2006, a Tyrone ÓSF member was arrested for painting a postbox in Fintona.
National Suicide Prevention Campaign - In 2006 Ógra Shinn Féin launched a nationwide suicide prevention campaign. The campaign focuses on the dissemination of information and the demand for an all-Ireland approach to suicide awareness.
ARISE - In 2007 Ógra Shinn Féin launched the Anti-Racism, Imperialism, Sectarianism and Exploitation (ARISE) campaign.
Other campaigns - It is/was also involved in campaigns regarding Demilitarization, Anti-Collusion, Disband the Royal Ulster Constabulary/Proper Policing, Minimum Wage, Lower Car Insurance, A President for All, Gay Rights, Re-routing Orange Order marches, "Freedom for the POW's", "Bring them home" (Colombia Three), anti-occupation of Iraq, remembering "Irish martyrs", Irish language, Shell to Sea, Save 16 Moore Street and All Ireland mobile tariff.
In August 2016 Sinn Féin youth activists staged a protest outside of Fine Gael Headquarters due to their decision to use tax-payers' money to appeal the European Commission's decision to force Apple Inc. to hand over €13 billion in unpaid taxes to the state. The protest involved dumping dozens of apples on the doorstep of the building as well as impaling apples on the railings.
Recent events
As part of the transformation of the Republican Movement to reflect changing realities brought about by the peace process, a decision was taken to change the logo, and at the 2004 National Congress the green star and orange graffiti-style logo was adopted. The logo was again changed at the 2006 Congress when the current logo, incorporating the words Ógra Shinn Féin, the Starry Plough, the Sunburst Flag and the "Freedom Lark" was adopted. Ógra Sinn Féin has been criticised by the Young Unionists for failing to remove the petrol bomb logo from a number of its wall murals.
Affiliations
National Youth Council of Ireland (NYCI) - Ógra Shinn Féin is a full member of the National Youth Council of Ireland.
European Network of Democratic Young Left (ENDYL) - Ógra Shinn Féin was a full member of the ENDYL until its dissolution.
International
Ógra Shinn Féin has strong connections with a number of pro-independence and socialist groups throughout the world, including:
SEGI - A Basque nationalist party that forms part of the Basque National Liberation Movement and is aligned with Langile Abertzaleen Batzordeak, Batasuna and the militant organisation ETA. SEGI is proscribed as a terrorist organisation by the Spanish and French authorities. ÓSF frequently send delegations to the Basque Country It has been reported in the Spanish media that the Spanish security services are monitoring both groups closely and have noticed a sharp increase in co-operation between the two. Spanish papers have also claimed that the youth wings exchange IRA and ETA knowledge and information.
Ghjuventù Indipendentista - A youth movement which supports Corsican Nationalism and advocates independence from France. An ÓSF delegation attend the "Scontri Internaziunali" which is held in the town of Corte in central Corsica every year.
Jovent Republicà - The youth wing of the Catalan nationalist group Republican Left of Catalonia which campaigns for the independence of Catalonia from Spain.
Others - ÓSF also supports nationalist movements in Kanaky (New Caledonia), Kabylie (Algeria), Galicia, Spain, Scotland, Sardinia and Brittany.
Notable members and former members
Pearse Doherty – Current Teachta Dála (TD) representing Donegal and former Senator, served as a member of the ÓSF National Executive.
Máiría Cahill – Former ÓSF National Secretary. Cahill was served as a Senator from 2015 to 2016 for the Labour Party, and selected as an SDLP member of Lisburn and Castlereagh City Council in 2018.
Toiréasa Ferris – Elected to Kerry County Council and candidate for Sinn Féin in the European Parliament Elections in 2009.
Eoin Ó Broin – Current Teachta Dála (TD) representing Dublin Mid-West. Sinn Féin Director of European Affairs. He is also a published author and a former National Organiser of Sinn Féin Youth.
Daithí McKay – Former Sinn Féin MLA for North Antrim and political commentator.
Jonathan O'Brien – Sinn Féin TD representing Cork North-Central.
Niall Ó Donnghaile – Sinn Féin councillor representing East Belfast, and Sinn Féin Assembly Press Officer. Lord Mayor of Belfast (2011–12). Seanadóir in the Seanad Éireann.
David Cullinane – Current Teachta Dála (TD) representing Waterford. Former Senator and previous member of Waterford City Council.
Matt Carthy – Sinn Féin Teachta Dála (TD) representing Cavan–Monaghan.
Megan Fearon – Former Sinn Féin MLA for Newry and Aramgh.
Emma Sheerin - Sinn Féin MLA for Mid Ulster.
Fintan Warfield - Sinn Féin Seanadóir in the Seanad Éireann and former National Chair of Ógra Shinn Féin.
National Chairs
Eoin Ó Broin – 1997–98
Matt Carthy – 1998–2000
Damian Lawlor – 2000–02 (Author of Na Fianna Éireann and the Irish Revolution - 1909 to 1923)
Chris O'Ralaigh – 2002–03
Mickey Bravender – 2003–06
Barry McColgan – 2006–09
Donnchadh Ó Laoghaire – 2009–2011
Darren O’Rourke – 2011–2014
Harry Connolly – 2014–2016
Fintan Warfield – 2016–2018
Aodhán Ó hAdhmaill – 2018–2019 (First chair elected by membership at a National Congress)
Caoimhín McCann – 2019–
Publications
Ógra Shinn Féin publishes a quarterly republican youth magazine entitled Splanc. The magazine was launched in 2001, eventually ceasing publication around 2006. It was re-launched in 2007, primarily in online format, with the same name, Splanc (which is the Irish language translation of Spark).
ÓSF has published its own book Awaiting the Lark in 2006 to mark the 25th Anniversary of the 1981 Irish hunger strike. The book includes interviews with many well known Irish republicans such as Michelle Gildernew, Barry McElduff, Sean Crowe, Seanna Walsh and Martina Anderson. It includes photographs from the funerals of the hunger strikers and protests that took place around the time. The book also includes information about Michael Gaughan and Frank Stagg who died on hunger strike in 1974 and 1976 respectively.
Notable actions and incidents
Ógra Shinn Féin frequently attracts media attention or causes controversy due to some of its activities.
Some notable examples include:
Arrests at Belfast City Hall 1997 - On 3 November 1997 three members of ÓSF were arrested after they scaled the front of Belfast City Hall and unfurled a banner calling for the release of political prisoners. This was part of the "Saoirse" campaign. The RUC special branch later allegedly attempted to recruit one of those arrested to serve as an informant.
Alleged abuse by Gardaí in Store Street 1998 - In November 1998 seven members of ÓSF were arrested by Gardaí in Dublin for allegedly acting in an abusive manner. While being held in Store Street Garda station the activists alleged that they were kicked and beaten by Gardaí. A protest which took place outside the Garda Station that night resulted in skirmishes between demonstrators and the Gardaí.
UCC Riot 1999 - In November 1999, 50 gardaí were called in to reinforce University College Cork security after a melee broke out in the corridors of the Science building. Members of Ógra Shinn Féin, the Socialist Party, Workers' Party and anti-fascist groups had attempted to force their way into a lecture hall where British writer and Holocaust denier David Irving was to hold a talk. Gardaí decided to baton charge the 600 strong crowd.
South Armagh demilitarization riots 2001 - In December 2001 ÓSF was blamed for carrying out petrol bomb attacks against RUC and British army bases in south Armagh. Twenty-two police officers, three soldiers and two police dogs were injured in the incidents during which protesters attacked the watchtowers at Creevekeeran and Drummuckaval with iron bars, bottles, fireworks and petrol bombs. Two soldiers suffered serious head injuries after being hit with petrol bombs and had to be airlifted to hospital. Another soldier suffered serious burns. The barracks at Crossmaglen was attacked and protesters managed to smash through the main gate after igniting an oil barrel and pushing it into the entrance.
Attack on SDLP councillor's office - In January 2002, SDLP councillor P. J. Bradley claimed members of ÓSF were responsible for an attack on his offices in Warrenpoint during which eleven windows were smashed and paint was poured over the building and in through the windows. Caitríona Ruane disputed Bradley's comments.
Attack on Rosslea PSNI station 2002 - On 1 July 2002 ÓSF was blamed for an organised attack against Rosslea PSNI station. Up to 50 masked youths threw stones and bottles at the police station causing extensive damage to the exterior of the building. The Unionist Newsletter described the attack as "appalling" and condemned ÓSF for "laying vicious siege" to Rosslea PSNI Station.
Sit-in at British Tourist office in Dublin 2003 - In May 2003, six members of ÓSF staged a sit-in in the British Tourist office in Dublin, in protest at the decision by the British government to postpone the elections in Northern Ireland. A picket in support of the protest was held outside.
ÓSF banned from Trinity College 2005 - Sinn Féin had been banned from organising in Trinity College Dublin until the ban was overturned in 1999. In 2005, it was temporarily re-instated (until the end of the college term) after the TCD chairperson forwarded an email on to others which included threatening remarks towards former British Prime Minister Baroness Thatcher.
1916 Auction Protest 2006 - In April 2006 members of ÓSF disrupted a sale of memorabilia associated with the Easter Rising of 1916 at James Adams & Sons Auctioneers on Stephen's Green, Dublin. Two activists were arrested by Gardaí but were later released without charge. The protest was the lead story on a number of News broadcasts including TV3 News.
Down Orange hall incident 2007 - In September 2007, ÓSF was heavily criticised after one of its members was taken to hospital following a fall from the roof of an Orange hall. The member had been removing a Union Flag from the roof. This incident occurred at a time when Orange halls in the area had been subjected to firebomb and arson attacks. Some people claimed that removing the flag was anti-sectarian and should be applauded.
Green Postbox campaign 2008 onwards - One campaign undertaken by ÓSF involved changing the colour of Royal Mail postboxes in Northern Ireland from red to green (green is the standard colour of postboxes in the Republic of Ireland). Sinn Féin MLA Barry McElduff described the campaign as "peaceful political statement". Other politicians claimed this amounted to the MLA condoning criminal damage. It is believed hundreds of postboxes were painted green in such republican heartlands as Derry, Strabane and West Tyrone alone.
Occupation of Green Party offices 2008 - On 4 December 2008, a number of ÓSF members took part in a protest organised by the student based "Free Education for Everyone" (FEE) group. A number of protesters were arrested after they occupied the offices of Paul Gogarty, Green Party Spokesperson on Education, in Lucan, County Dublin. Gardaí were forced to break down the door of the office and arrested ten of the activists.
Gregory Campbell incident 2009 - ÓSF were criticised for comparing East Londonderry MP Gregory Campbell to Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels on its web-blog. An accompanying edited image on the site showed Campbell's head superimposed on the body of a man wearing a Nazi uniform. The article criticised Campbell's NI Executive culture portfolio and his stance on the Irish language.
PSNI recording incident 2009 - In January 2009 a member of ÓSF in Omagh was arrested following a confrontation in the town. While at the police station, a constable attempted to recruit the man as an informant. The ÓSF member managed to record the incident on his cellphone. The incident has been brought before Omagh DPP and is currently under investigation by the Police Ombudsman. The recording of the incident was uploaded to YouTube.
Warrenpoint visit 2009 - On 10 January 2009 ÓSF held a Republican Youth weekend in Newcastle, County Down. Part of the weekend involved a trip to the site of the Warrenpoint Ambush where an IRA unit ambushed and killed 18 British soldiers in 1979. Protesters including Willie Frazer and Jim Wells branded the trip an "insult to victims". Loyalist victims campaigner Willie Frazer said "10 years ago the world hoped that they had moved on from terrorism but as the last few days have shown they still firmly believe in armed conflict". The local ÓSF spokesperson claimed it was simply part of a historical tour of the County Down area.
Belfast dinner dance 2009: In January 2010 the Sunday World (Northern Ireland edition) ran a full-page article which criticized ÓSF for hosting a "Pro-IRA event" in a hotel in Belfast City Centre. The paper also claimed that there were numerous chants of "F*** the Brits" and "You'll never ever beat the IRA". According to ÓSF the event was a celebration of 100 years of Na Fianna Éireann with the families of dead Fians in attendance and traditional Irish Rebel music.
Government protests 2010: On 22 November 2010 ÓSF members took part in protests against the International Monetary Fund bail-out. During a protest outside government buildings in Dublin one member of ÓSF was injured and taken to hospital after he was struck by a ministerial car during a sit-down protest. Scuffles also broke out with police. In Cork, Ógra Shinn Féin occupied the offices of Fianna Fáil councillors in Cork City hall protesting against the selling out of Irish sovereignty to the European Union and the IMF.
Israel embassy protest 2012: On 15 November 2012, two members of Ógra Shinn Féin were arrested during a protest outside the Israeli embassy in Dublin. Gardaí batoned activists who were taking part in a sit-down protest on the road in opposition to the Israeli bombing of Gaza as part of its Operation Pillar of Cloud.
See also
Sinn Féin
References
External links
Ógra Shinn Féin
Sinn Féin
2004 Manifesto
All-Ireland organisations
Irish republican organisations
Youth wings of political parties in Northern Ireland
Youth
Youth wings of political parties in Ireland
Youth wings of Party of the European Left member parties |
4323846 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identification%20studies%20of%20UFOs | Identification studies of UFOs | Identifying unidentified flying objects (UFOs) is a difficult task due to the normally poor quality of the evidence provided by those who report sighting the unknown object. Observations and subsequent reporting are often made by those untrained in astronomy, atmospheric phenomena, aeronautics, physics, and perception. Nevertheless, most officially investigated UFO sightings, such as from the U.S. Air Force's Project Blue Book, have been identified as being due to honest misidentifications of natural phenomena, aircraft, or other prosaic explanations. In early U.S. Air Force attempts to explain UFO sightings, unexplained sightings routinely numbered over one in five reports. However, in early 1953, right after the CIA's Robertson Panel, percentages of unexplained sightings dropped precipitously, usually being only a few percent in any given year. When Project Blue Book closed down in 1970, only 6% of all cases were classified as being truly unidentified.
UFOs that can be explained are sometimes termed "IFOs" or Identified Flying Objects.
UFO studies
The following are some major studies undertaken during the past 70+ years that reported on identification of UFOs:
Project Sign
Project Sign lists that "in order to investigate the credibility of their existence the following factors must be considered in any technical analysis":<ref>https://archive.org/details/ProjectSIGN</rorce)</ref>
Method of support (lift)
1. Wings
2. Fuselage lift (Wingless)
3. Rotor
4. Vertical Jet
5. Magnus effect
6. Aerostatic (lighter-than-air craft)
Method of propulsion (thrust)
1. Propeller reciprocating engine combination jet
2. Rocket
3. Ramjet
4. Aerodynamic (for example, the Katzmayer effect, defined as "the reduction in drag of an airfoil when an air stream is oscillating").
Project Blue Book Special Report No. 14 (referred to further below as BBSR) was a massive statistical study the Battelle Memorial Institute did for the USAF of 3,200 UFO cases between 1952 and 1954. Of these, 22% were classified as unidentified (“true UFOs”). Another 69% were deemed identified (IFOs). There was insufficient information to make a determination in the remaining 9%.
The official French government UFO investigation (GEPAN/SEPRA), run within the French space agency CNES between 1977 and 2004, scientifically investigated about 6000 cases and found that 13% defied any rational explanation (UFOs), while 46% were deemed readily identifiable and 41%, lacked sufficient information for classification.
The USAF-sponsored Condon Committee study reported that all 117 cases studied were or could probably be explained. A 1971 review of the results by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics concluded that 30% of the 117 cases remained unexplained.
Of about 5,000 cases submitted to and studied by the civilian UFO organization NICAP, 16% were judged unknowns.
The Pentagon UFO Report, (or colloquially known as the Pentagon UFO Report) is a United States federally mandated assessment summarizing information regarding unidentified flying objects (UFOs), also known as unidentified aerial phenomenon (UAPs). On June 25, 2021, a nine-page preliminary assessment was issued. It states that the UAPTF focused on 144 observations of "unidentified aerial phenomena" by the U.S Armed Forces, mostly from U.S. Navy personnel, from 2004 to 2021. No details are given in the preliminary assessment. The report found that the UAPTF was unable to identify 143 of these objects, but it included five categories of potential explanations; "Airborne Clutter" includes objects like birds and balloons, "Natural Atmospheric Phenomena" includes atmospheric effect like ice crystals, "USG or Industry Developmental Programs" includes US military technology, "Foreign Adversary Systems" includes technologies developed by foreign governments such as Russia or China, and "Other", described as a "catchall" for other explanations.
In contrast, much more conservative numbers for the percentage of UFOs were arrived at individually by astronomer Allan Hendry, who was the chief investigator for the Center for UFO Studies (CUFOS). CUFOS was founded by astronomer J. Allen Hynek (who had been a consultant for the Air Force's Project Blue Book) to provide a serious scientific investigation into UFOs. Hendry spent 15 months personally investigating 1,307 UFO reports. In 1979, Hendry published his conclusions in The UFO Handbook: A Guide to Investigating, Evaluating, and Reporting UFO Sightings. Hendry admitted that he would like to find evidence for extraterrestrials but noted that the vast majority of cases had prosaic explanations. He found 89% of reports definitely or probably identifiable and only 9% unidentified. “Hardcore” cases—well-documented events which defied any conceivable conventional explanation—made up only 1.5% of the reports.
Project Blue Book Special Report No. 14
Project Blue Book Special Report No. 14 was compiled between 1951 and 1954, and included 3201 reported UFO sightings. Battelle employed four scientific analysts, who sought to divide cases into "knowns", "unknowns", and a third category of "insufficient information." They also broke down knowns and unknowns into four categories of quality, from excellent to poor. In order for a case to be deemed "identified", two analysts had to independently agree on a solution and for a case to be called "unidentified", all four analysts had to agree. A report classified as "unidentified" was defined as: "Those reports of sightings wherein the description of the object and its maneuvers could not be fitted to the pattern of any known object or phenomenon."
Out of 3,201 cases, 69% were judged to be identified, 22% were unidentified, and 9% had insufficient information to make a determination.
Breakdown by category of IFO and case quality
BBSR further broke these results down based on whether the identification was considered certain or merely doubtful. For example, in both the astronomical and aircraft IFO categories, 12% were considered certain and 9% were doubtful. Overall, of the 69% listed as IFOs, 42% were thought to be solved with certainty, while 27% were still considered doubtful.
In addition, if a case was lacking in adequate data, it was placed in the insufficient information category, separate from both IFOs and UFOs.
Military vs. civilian breakdown
The Battelle BBSR study included many internal military reports; 38% of the cases were designated as military. Military witnesses tended to submit better quality reports, had much fewer reports rated as having insufficient information, and had higher percentages of unknowns. As in the previous breakdown, the percentage of UFOs again rose with case quality for both the military and civilian subcategories.
In the summary table, best reports are those rated excellent and good; worst reports are doubtful and poor.
Comparison of IFOs to UFOs by characteristics
A key study of BBSR was to statistically compare IFOs and UFOs by six characteristics: color, number of objects, shape, duration of observations, speed, and light brightness. If there were no significant differences, the two classes were probably the same, the UFOs then representing merely a failure to properly identify prosaic phenomena that could already account for the IFOs. On the other hand, if the differences were statistically significant, this would suggest IFOs and UFOs were indeed distinctly different phenomena.
In the initial results, all characteristics except brightness tested significant at less or much less than 1% (brightness was greater than 5%). By removing "astronomical" sightings from the "knowns" and redoing the test, just two categories, number and speed, were significant at less than 1%, the remainder having results between 3% and 5%. This indicated that there was a statistically significant difference between the characteristics ascribed to UFOs and IFOs, but perhaps not as significant as the initial results suggested. For two characteristics, brightness and speed, the significance actually increased with the revised test.
Allan Hendry study
Like the Air Force, astronomer Allan Hendry found that only a small percentage of cases were hoaxes and that most sightings were actually honest misidentifications of prosaic phenomena. Hendry attributed most of these to inexperience or misperception.
Out of 1,307 cases Hendry deemed 88.6% had clear prosaic explanations (IFOs) and only 8.6% were unknowns (UFOs). Of the UFOs, Hendry reported that 7.1%, might still have a prosaic explanation while 1.5% (20 cases) had no possible plausible explanation and were completely unexplained. The remaining miscellaneous cases (2.8%) were “garbage” cases, where Hendry deemed the witnesses unreliable, the reports hopelessly contradictory, or lacking in sufficient information.
Overall, in the three major categories, 42% of all cases had astronomical explanations, 37% were aircraft, and 5% were balloons. A further breakdown allowed 77% to be readily explained by five main classes of objects: 29% were bright stars or planets, 19% were advertising planes, 15% were other aircraft, 9% were meteors and reentering space debris, and 5% were balloons of various types (mostly weather or advertising balloons but also a few prank balloons).
Breakdown of cases
Hendry also used a case classification system developed by his mentor J. Allen Hynek, who established CUFOS, where the study was carried out. In this summary table:
NL = “Nocturnal Lights”, lights seen in the sky at night.
DD = “Daylight Discs”, objects seen in daytime (but not necessarily disc in shape).
RV = “Radar/Visual” cases, objects observed by both witnesses and radar.
CE = “Close Encounter” cases. For convenience, CE cases listed below are combined totals of Hynek's CE1, CE2, and CE3 cases, where:
CE1 cases where objects were thought to be seen up close (within 500 feet).
CE2 had purported physical interactions with the environment (physical trace cases or electromagnetic interference).
CE3 cases were supposed to involve sightings of occupants.
Common causes of misidentification and UFOs
Both BBSR and Hendry found that three classes of objects or phenomena—astronomical, aircraft, or balloons—accounted for a large majority of identifiable UFO reports (referred to as IFOs), 86% and 83% in the two studies. For example, in Hendry's study, bright stars and planets made up 29% of all cases while meteors (and to a much lesser extent, re-entering space debris) made up 9%. Hovering aircraft such as helicopters or blimps, or aircraft that appear to be hovering, such as airplanes seen at night from the front with their headlights on as they approach for landing can often confuse witnesses, as can aircraft strobe lights. BBSR reported a much higher percentage of balloons than Hendry.
Claims of misidentification are after-the-fact analyses, not direct observations, and are often misconstrued by skeptics and UFO advocates alike: They do not suggest that the experiences did not exist, but merely that they can be explained by prosaic causes. For instance, retrospective analyses of the Jimmy Carter UFO incident of 1969 connect the sighting with the known position of the planet Venus for that time, date, and location. Gordon Cooper, a strong advocate of the extraterrestrial hypothesis (ETH), claimed to have been fooled by the planet Venus when he was a fighter pilot, thinking it a distant enemy plane, and the 1967 "flying cross" of Devon, England and the 1966 Portage County UFO Chase case have both been associated with astronomical sources.
In 2009, Peter Davenport, Director of the National UFO Reporting Center, posted this complaint online:
There are several natural and man-made objects that are commonly suggested as explanations for UFO sightings:
Venus
With the exception of the sun, moon and the International Space Station, Venus is the brightest object in the sky and is often visible in the early morning and evening sky. Even experienced witnesses, especially when they are in unfamiliar surroundings or unusual atmospheric conditions, can fail to identify Venus correctly; however, the location of Venus is easily calculable, and professional astronomers have said that many of the UFO reports received from concerned citizens are due to observations of Venus. Astronomer Phil Plait, in particular, has suggested that Venus is responsible for the majority of all UFO reports
Meteors
The brightest meteors known as bolides are long lasting fireballs that leave a trail in the sky which can be visible for up to an hour after passing. Such events are relatively rare but can be witnessed by a large area of the Earth since most events occur kilometers up in the atmosphere. Those witnessing such events who are not familiar with meteors can be easily fooled into thinking that the meteor is a UFO. Because meteors are not predictable with the same degree of accuracy as planets, stars, or man-made objects such as satellites, these occurrences are more difficult to prove in retrospect, though UFO sightings during meteor showers, or where there are astronomical reports of bolides, are likely to be explained as such.
Balloons, aircraft, satellites and other man-made objects
Many reports capture conventional, man-made objects. A Skyhook balloon has been postulated as an explanation for the Mantell UFO Incident, which led to the death of Captain Thomas Mantell.
Project Loon was a Google secret effort to bring internet services to isolated areas. Test balloons of different shapes were used and reported as UFOs. The Google Project Manager stated in an article in Wired Magazine that the team used UFO reports to track the balloons progress for one of the launches.
Aircraft shapes have radically changed as we continue to develop stealth technologies. These new test designs appear unusual and cause reports. The CIA released a report indicating that many UFO reports in the 1950s were classified aircraft like the SR-71 and U-2.
The increase in civilian drone usage and popularity throughout the 2010s may be moving identification of objects away from UFOs and towards drones.
Lenticular clouds
These stationary cloud formations often appear above mountains, but can happen when winds and "eddies" help shape clouds into lens shaped clouds and people see these as "flying saucers".
Misperception
Light distortion from air turbulence can cause celestial bodies to move to a limited degree as can a visual perceptual effect called the autokinetic effect, caused by small, involuntary eye movements after staring at a star-like light against a black background without a frame of reference. To some observers, these may cause stars and planets to appear to start and stop, change direction, or dart around. Hendry and other UFO skeptics attribute complex patterns of apparent motion in UFO reports to the autokinetic effect. Its opposite, autostasis is one of the causes as well.
Another type of misperceived motion sometimes occurs when people are driving in a vehicle. Witnesses may believe the “UFO” was following them even though the celestial body was actually stationary. Even police and other normally reliable witnesses can occasionally be fooled by sightings of bright stars and planets.
In about 10% of Hendry's cases caused by celestial bodies, witnesses greatly underestimated distances to the objects, giving distance estimates ranging from 200 feet to 125 miles (60 m to 200 km).
According to Hendry, moving clouds may also sometimes confuse observers by creating induced motion. Hendry believes this occasionally makes observers also believe objects have suddenly disappeared or make a rapid departure.
Fata Morgana
Fata Morgana is a type of mirage responsible for some UFO sightings, by making objects located below the astronomical horizon appear to be hovering in the sky. It also magnifies images and makes them look unrecognizable.
The UFOs seen on radar can also be due to Fata Morgana, since water vapor in the air can create radar mirages more readily than temperature inversions can create optical mirages. According to GEPAN/SEPRA, the official UFO investigation in France,
Other misidentifications
The BBSR and Hendry studies identified as rare causes for UFO reports based on misidentification, such objects and phenomena as birds, light phenomena (including mirages, moondogs, sundogs, auroras, ground lights such as street lights, and searchlights reflected off of clouds), and atmospheric phenomena such as clouds, dust and fog (including unusual cloud formations such as lenticular clouds, noctilucent clouds, rainbow effects, and high-altitude ice crystals). Other identified causes included kites, flares, reflections off windows, and windborne debris.
Upper atmospheric lightning
More recently, Professor Colin Price head of the Geophysics and Planetary Sciences Department at Tel Aviv University has commented that occurrences of upper-atmospheric lightning such as sprites, elves and blue jets could account for some of the strange reports of UFO sightings.
Electronic Warfare
According to New York Magazine writer for the Digital Intelligencer, Jeff Wise, advanced Electronic Warfare techniques similar to early "radar spoofing" used by the US military could deceive sensors to give false velocity and position information. Wise worries that US adversaries have developed EW capabilities that exploit weaknesses in US systems that allow information to be missed or created erroneously. Wise speculates that admitting the US has "gaps in its electronic warfare capabilities" would allow it to be looked at objectively. As Navy Spokesman Joseph Gradisher puts it, "The more data you have, the better you are to analyze it and turn that data into information into knowledge.”
According to Forbes contributor David Hambling, the U.S. Navy has filed patents for technology to produce a "self-focusing laser pulse to create a glowing filament or channel of plasma" that could create "mid-air images to fool infrared and other sensors". Hambling speculates that such technology "may also provide a clue about the source of some recent UFO sightings by military aircraft".
Psychological
Greg Eghigian writing for the Smithsonian Magazine suggests that, as technology has evolved, so has the nature of the UFO phenomenon. According to Eghigian, "fears of Zeppelins, rockets and drones have replaced the “celestial wonders” of ancient times", and "affairs here on earth have consistently colored our perceptions of what is going on over our heads".
According to sociologist David L. Miller, experts such as Neil Smelser and Orrin Klapp attribute many UFO sightings to social contagion or mass hysteria, and as an overall cause of the UFO phenomenon.
References
Allan Hendry, The UFO Handbook: A Guide to Investigating, Evaluating, and Reporting UFO Sightings, 1979, Doubleday & Co.,
Philip Plait, Bad Astronomy: Misconceptions and Misuses Revealed, from Astrology to the Moon Landing "Hoax", 2002 John Wiley & Sons, . (Chapter 20: Misidentified Flying Objects: UFOs and Illusions of the Mind and Eye)
Carl Sagan & Thornton Page, editors, UFO's: A Scientific Debate, 1972, Cornell University Press, 1996, Barnes & Noble Books,
External links
Astronomical Causes of UFOs (Ian Ridpath)
UFO misidentifications list and link
IFO cases caused by stratospheric balloons
Common IFO Phenomenon (Robert Moore)
Text of UFO STUDY Part 1 (UFO Investigation), gives detailed description of various IFO types (Jenny Randles)
Google's quest to bring internet (Steven Levy)
Ufology
Unidentified flying objects |
4323952 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute%20myeloid%20leukemia | Acute myeloid leukemia | Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a cancer of the myeloid line of blood cells, characterized by the rapid growth of abnormal cells that build up in the bone marrow and blood and interfere with normal blood cell production. Symptoms may include feeling tired, shortness of breath, easy bruising and bleeding, and increased risk of infection. Occasionally, spread may occur to the brain, skin, or gums. As an acute leukemia, AML progresses rapidly, and is typically fatal within weeks or months if left untreated.
Risk factors include smoking, previous chemotherapy or radiation therapy, myelodysplastic syndrome, and exposure to the chemical benzene. The underlying mechanism involves replacement of normal bone marrow with leukemia cells, which results in a drop in red blood cells, platelets, and normal white blood cells. Diagnosis is generally based on bone marrow aspiration and specific blood tests. AML has several subtypes for which treatments and outcomes may vary.
The first-line treatment of AML is usually chemotherapy, with the aim of inducing remission. People may then go on to receive additional chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or a stem cell transplant. The specific genetic mutations present within the cancer cells may guide therapy, as well as determine how long that person is likely to survive.
In 2015, AML affected about one million people, and resulted in 147,000 deaths globally. It most commonly occurs in older adults. Males are affected more often than females. The five-year survival rate is about 35% in people under 60 years old and 10% in people over 60 years old. Older people whose health is too poor for intensive chemotherapy have a typical survival of five to ten months. It accounts for roughly 1.1% of all cancer cases, and 1.9% of cancer deaths in the United States.
Signs and symptoms
Most signs and symptoms of AML are caused by the crowding out in bone marrow of space for normal blood cells to develop. A lack of normal white blood cell production makes people more susceptible to infections. A low red blood cell count (anemia) can cause fatigue, paleness, shortness of breath and palpitations. A lack of platelets can lead to easy bruising, bleeding from the nose (epistaxis), small blood vessels on the skin (petechiae) or gums, or bleeding with minor trauma. Other symptoms may include fever, fatigue worse than what can be attributed to anaemia alone, weight loss and loss of appetite.
Enlargement of the spleen may occur in AML, but it is typically mild and asymptomatic. Lymph node swelling is rare in most types of AML, except for acute myelomonocytic leukemia (AMML). The skin can be involved in the form of leukemia cutis; Sweet's syndrome; or non-specific findings: flat lesions (macules), raised lesion papules, pyoderma gangrenosum and vasculitis.
Some people with AML may experience swelling of the gums because of infiltration of leukemic cells into the gum tissue. Involvement of other parts of the body such as the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract and other parts is possible but less common. One area which has particular importance for treatment is whether there is involvement of the meninges around the central nervous system.
Risk factors
Most cases of AML do not have exposure to any identified risk factors. However, a number of risk factors for developing AML have been identified. These include other blood disorders, chemical exposures, ionizing radiation, and genetic risk factors. Where a defined exposure to past chemotherapy, radiotherapy, toxin or hematologic malignancy is known, this is termed secondary AML.
Other blood disorders
Other blood disorders, particularly myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) and less commonly myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN), can evolve into AML; the exact risk depends on the type of MDS/MPN. The presence of asymptomatic clonal hematopoiesis also raises the risk of transformation into AML.
Chemical exposure
Exposure to chemotherapy, in particular alkylating antineoplastic agents, can increase the risk of subsequently developing AML. Other chemotherapy agents, including fludarabine, and topoisomerase II inhibitors are also associated with the development of AML; most commonly after 4–6 years and 1–3 years respectively. These are often associated with specific chromosomal abnormalities in the leukemic cells.
Other chemical exposures associated with the development of AML include benzene, chloramphenicol and phenylbutazone.
Radiation
High amounts of ionizing radiation exposure, such as that used for radiotherapy used to treat some forms of cancer, can increase the risk of AML. People treated with ionizing radiation after treatment for prostate cancer, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, lung cancer, and breast cancer have the highest chance of acquiring AML, but this increased risk returns to the background risk observed in the general population after 12 years. Historically, survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki had an increased rate of AML, as did radiologists exposed to high levels of X-rays prior to the adoption of modern radiation safety practices.
Genetics
Most cases of AML arise spontaneously, however there are some genetic mutations associated with an increased risk. Several congenital conditions increase the risk of leukemia; the most common is Down syndrome, with other more rare conditions including Fanconi anemia, Bloom syndrome and ataxia-telangiectasia (all characterised by problems with DNA repair), and Kostmann syndrome.
Other factors
Being overweight and obese increase the risk of developing AML, as does any amount of active smoking. For reasons that may relate to substance or radiation exposure, certain occupations have a higher rate of AML; particularly work in the nuclear power industry, electronics or computer manufacturing, fishing and animal slaughtering and processing.
Pathophysiology
The malignant cell in AML is the myeloblast. In normal development of blood cells (hematopoiesis), the myeloblast is an immature precursor of myeloid white blood cells; a normal myeloblast will mature into a white blood cell such as an eosinophil, basophil, neutrophil or monocyte. In AML, though, a single myeloblast accumulates genetic changes which stop maturation, increase its proliferation, and protect it from programmed cell death (apoptosis). Much of the diversity and heterogeneity of AML is because leukemic transformation can occur at a number of different steps along the differentiation pathway. Genetic abnormalities or the stage at which differentiation was halted form part of modern classification systems.
Specific cytogenetic abnormalities can be found in many people with AML; the types of chromosomal abnormalities often have prognostic significance. The chromosomal translocations encode abnormal fusion proteins, usually transcription factors whose altered properties may cause the "differentiation arrest". For example, in APL, the t(15;17) translocation produces a PML-RARA fusion protein which binds to the retinoic acid receptor element in the promoters of several myeloid-specific genes and inhibits myeloid differentiation.
The clinical signs and symptoms of AML result from the growth of leukemic clone cells, which tends to interfere with the development of normal blood cells in the bone marrow. This leads to neutropenia, anemia, and thrombocytopenia. Other symptoms can arise from the infiltration of malignant cells into parts of the body, such as the gingiva and skin.
Many cells develop mutations in genes that affect epigenetics, such as DNA methylation. When these mutations occur, it is likely in the early stages of AML. Such mutations include in the DNA demethylase TET2 and the metabolic enzymes IDH1 and IDH2, which lead to the generation of a novel oncometabolite, D-2-hydroxyglutarate, which inhibits the activity of epigenetic enzymes such as TET2. Epigenetic mutations may lead to the silencing of tumor suppressor genes and/or the activation of proto-oncogenes.
Diagnosis
A complete blood count, which is a blood test, is one of the initial steps in the diagnosis of AML. It may reveal both an excess of white blood cells (leukocytosis) or a decrease (leukopenia), and a low red blood cell count (anemia) and low platelets (thrombocytopenia) can also be commonly seen. A blood film may show leukemic blast cells. Inclusions within the cells called Auer rods, when seen, make the diagnosis highly likely. A definitive diagnosis requires a bone marrow aspiration and biopsy.
Bone marrow is examined under light microscopy, as well as flow cytometry, to diagnose the presence of leukemia, to differentiate AML from other types of leukemia (e.g. acute lymphoblastic leukemia), and to provide information about how mature or immature the affected cells are that can assist in classifying the subtype of disease. A sample of marrow or blood is typically also tested for chromosomal abnormalities by routine cytogenetics or fluorescent in situ hybridization. Genetic studies may also be performed to look for specific mutations in genes such as FLT3, nucleophosmin, and KIT, which may influence the outcome of the disease.
Cytochemical stains on blood and bone marrow smears are helpful in the distinction of AML from ALL, and in subclassification of AML. The combination of a myeloperoxidase or Sudan black stain and a nonspecific esterase stain will provide the desired information in most cases. The myeloperoxidase or Sudan black reactions are most useful in establishing the identity of AML and distinguishing it from ALL. The nonspecific esterase stain is used to identify a monocytic component in AMLs and to distinguish a poorly differentiated monoblastic leukemia from ALL.
The standard classification scheme for AML is the World Health Organization (WHO) system. According to the WHO criteria, the diagnosis of AML is established by demonstrating involvement of more than 20% of the blood and/or bone marrow by leukemic myeloblasts, except in three forms of acute myeloid leukemia with recurrent genetic abnormalities: t(8;21), inv(16) or t(16;16), and acute promyelocytic leukemia with PML-RARA, in which the presence of the genetic abnormality is diagnostic irrespective of blast percent. Myeloid sarcoma is also considered a subtype of AML independently of the blast count. The older French-American-British (FAB) classification, which is no longer widely used, is a bit more stringent, requiring a blast percentage of at least 30% in bone marrow or peripheral blood for the diagnosis of AML.
Because acute promyelocytic leukemia has the highest curability and requires a unique form of treatment, it is important to quickly establish or exclude the diagnosis of this subtype of leukemia. Fluorescent in situ hybridization performed on blood or bone marrow is often used for this purpose, as it readily identifies the chromosomal translocation [t(15;17)(q22;q12);] that characterizes APL. There is also a need to molecularly detect the presence of PML/RARA fusion protein, which is an oncogenic product of that translocation.
World Health Organization
The WHO classification of AML attempts to be more clinically useful and to produce more meaningful prognostic information than the FAB criteria. The French-American-British (FAB) classification system is based on morphology to define specific immunotypes. The World Health Organization (WHO) classification reviews chromosome translocations and evidence of dysplasia. SEE French-American-British (FAB) classification system.
Each of the WHO categories contains numerous descriptive subcategories of interest to the hematopathologist and oncologist; however, most of the clinically significant information in the WHO schema is communicated via categorization into one of the subtypes listed below.
The revised fourth edition of the WHO Classification of Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues was released in 2016. This classification, which is based on a combination of genetic and immunophenotypic markers and morphology, defines the subtypes of AML and related neoplasms as: In 2022 a new classification has been published.
Acute leukemias of ambiguous lineage (also known as mixed phenotype or biphenotypic acute leukemia) occur when the leukemic cells can not be classified as either myeloid or lymphoid cells, or where both types of cells are present.
French-American-British
The French-American-British (FAB) classification system provides terminology that is still sometimes used, and it remains a valuable diagnostic tool in areas without access to genetic testing, this system has largely become obsolete in favor of the WHO classification, which correlates more strongly with treatment outcomes.
The FAB system divides AML into eight subtypes, M0 through to M7, based on the type of cell from which the leukemia developed and its degree of maturity. AML of types M0 to M2 may be called acute myeloblastic leukemia. Classification is done by examining the appearance of the malignant cells with light microscopy and/or by using cytogenetics to characterize any underlying chromosomal abnormalities. The subtypes have varying prognoses and responses to therapy.
Six FAB subtypes (M1 through to M6) were initially proposed in 1976, although later revisions added M7 in 1985 and M0 in 1987.
The morphologic subtypes of AML also include rare types not included in the FAB system, such as acute basophilic leukemia, which was proposed as a ninth subtype, M8, in 1999.
Treatment
First-line treatment of AML consists primarily of chemotherapy, and is divided into two phases: induction and consolidation. The goal of induction therapy is to achieve a complete remission by reducing the number of leukemic cells to an undetectable level; the goal of consolidation therapy is to eliminate any residual undetectable disease and achieve a cure. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is usually considered if induction chemotherapy fails or after a person relapses, although transplantation is also sometimes used as front-line therapy for people with high-risk disease. Efforts to use tyrosine kinase inhibitors in AML continue.
Induction
The goal of the induction phase is to reach a complete remission. Complete remission does not mean the disease has been cured; rather, it signifies no disease can be detected with available diagnostic methods. All subtypes except acute promyelocytic leukemia are usually given induction chemotherapy with cytarabine and an anthracycline such as daunorubicin or idarubicin. This induction chemotherapy regimen is known as "7+3" (or "3+7"), because the cytarabine is given as a continuous IV infusion for seven consecutive days while the anthracycline is given for three consecutive days as an IV push. Response to this treatment varies with age, with people aged less than 60 years having better remission rates between 60% and 80%, while older people having lower remission rates between 33% and 60%. Because of the toxic effects of therapy and a greater chance of AML resistance to this induction therapy, different treatment, such as that in clinical trials might be offered to people 60–65 years or older.
Acute promyelocytic leukemia is treated with all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA) and either arsenic trioxide (ATO) monotherapy or an anthracycline. A syndrome similar to disseminated intravascular coagulation can develop during the initial few days of treatment or at the time the leukemia is diagnosed, and treatment can be complicated by a differentiation syndrome characterised by fever, fluid overload and low oxygen levels. Acute promyelocytic leukemia is considered curable. There is insufficient evidence to determine if prescribing ATRA in addition to chemotherapy to adults who have other subtypes of acute myeloid leukaemia is helpful.
Consolidation
Even after complete remission is achieved, leukemic cells likely remain in numbers too small to be detected with current diagnostic techniques. If no consolidation therapy or further postremission is given, almost all people with AML will eventually relapse.
The specific type of postremission therapy is individualized based on a person's prognostic factors (see above) and general health. For good-prognosis leukemias (i.e. inv(16), t(8;21), and t(15;17)), people will typically undergo an additional three to five courses of intensive chemotherapy, known as consolidation chemotherapy. This generally involves cytarabine, with the doses administered being higher in younger patients, who are less likely to develop toxicity related to this treatment.
Stem cell transplantation
Stem cell transplantation from a donor, called allogenic stem cell transplantation, is usually pursued if the prognosis is not considered favourable, a person can tolerate a transplant and has a suitable donor. The basis of allogenic stem cell transplantation is on a graft versus leukemia effect whereby graft cells stimulate an immune response against leukemia cells. Unfortunately this is accompanied by immune responses against other host organs, called a graft versus host disease.
Target therapy
Target therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to target specific molecules that cancer cells need to survive and spread. Targeted therapies work in different ways to treat cancer. Some stop cancer cells from growing by interrupting signals that cause them to grow and divide, stopping signals that help form blood vessels, delivering cell-killing substances to cancer cells, or starving cancer cells of hormones they need to grow. Other targeted therapies help the immune system kill cancer cells or directly cause cancer cell death. Most targeted therapies are either small-molecule drugs or monoclonal antibodies. Also called molecularly targeted therapy.
Supportive treatment
Support is necessary throughout treatment because of problems associated with AML and also arising from treatment. Blood transfusions, including of red blood cells and platelets, are necessary to maintain health levels, preventing complications of anemia (from low red blood cells) and bleeding (from low platelets). AML leads to an increased risk of infections, particularly drug-resistant strains of bacteria and fungi. Antibiotics and antifungals can be used both to treat and to prevent these infections, particularly quinolones.
Adding aerobic physical exercises to the standard of care may result in little to no difference in the mortality, in the quality of life and in the physical functioning. These exercises may result in a slight reduction in depression. Furthermore, aerobic physical exercises probably reduce fatigue.
Recent research into the role that epigenetic regulators play in hematopoietic malignancies has yielded new insights in the development of targeted epigenetic therapies as a supportive treatment for AML. The FDA has approved certain epigenetic modifying drugs like ivosidenib and enasidenib, which are used in patients that can no longer receive intensive induction chemotherapy; specifically, they are involved in the therapy of IDH1 and IDH2 mutations. Further research must be done to prove the efficacy of epigenetic treatments, but the development of new epigenetic therapies along with immunotherapies holds potential in the future treatment of AML.
In pregnancy
AML is rare in pregnancy, affecting about 1 in 75,000 to 100,000 pregnant women. It is diagnosed and treated similarly to AML in non pregnancy, with a recommendation that it is treated urgently. However, treatment has significant implications for the pregnancy. First trimester pregnancy is considered unlikely to be viable; pregnancy during weeks 24 – 36 requires consideration of the benefits of chemotherapy to the mother against the risks to the foetus; and there is a recommendation to consider delaying chemotherapy in very late pregnancy (> 36 weeks). Some elements of supportive care, such as which antibiotics to prevent or treat infections, also change in pregnancy.
Medication
Olutasidenib (Rezlidhia) was approved for medical use in the United States in December 2022.
Prognosis
Multiple factors influence prognosis in AML, including the presence of specific mutations, and a person with AML's age. In the United States between 2011 and 2016, the median survival of a person with AML was 8.5 months, with the 5 year survival being 24%. This declines with age, with the poorer prognosis being associated with an age greater than 65 years, and the poorest prognosis seen in those aged 75–84.
As of 2001, cure rates in clinical trials have ranged from 20 to 45%; although clinical trials often include only younger people and those able to tolerate aggressive therapies. The overall cure rate for all people with AML (including the elderly and those unable to tolerate aggressive therapy) is likely lower. Cure rates for APL can be as high as 98%.
Subtypes
Secondary AML has a worse prognosis, as does treatment-related AML arising after chemotherapy for another previous malignancy. Both of these entities are associated with a high rate of unfavorable genetic mutations.
Cytogenetics
Different genetic mutations are associated with a difference in outcomes. Certain cytogenetic abnormalities are associated with very good outcomes (for example, the (15;17) translocation in APL). About half of people with AML have "normal" cytogenetics; they fall into an intermediate risk group. A number of other cytogenetic abnormalities are known to associate with a poor prognosis and a high risk of relapse after treatment.
A large number of molecular alterations are under study for their prognostic impact in AML. However, only FLT3-ITD, NPM1, CEBPA and c-KIT are currently included in validated international risk stratification schema. These are expected to increase rapidly in the near future. FLT3 internal tandem duplications (ITDs) have been shown to confer a poorer prognosis in AML with normal cytogenetics. Several FLT3 inhibitors have undergone clinical trials, with mixed results. Two other mutations – NPM1 and biallelic CEBPA are associated with improved outcomes, especially in people with normal cytogenetics and are used in current risk stratification algorithms.
Researchers are investigating the clinical significance of c-KIT mutations in AML. These are prevalent, and potentially clinically relevant because of the availability of tyrosine kinase inhibitors, such as imatinib and sunitinib that can block the activity of c-KIT pharmacologically. It is expected that additional markers (e.g., RUNX1, ASXL1, and TP53) that have consistently been associated with an inferior outcome will soon be included in these recommendations. The prognostic importance of other mutated genes (e.g., DNMT3A, IDH1, IDH2) is less clear.
Other prognostic factors
Elevated lactate dehydrogenase level were also associated with poorer outcomes. Use of tobacco is associated with a person having a poorer prognosis, and people who are married and live together have a better prognosis. People who are treated at place with a higher volume of AML have a better prognosis than those who are treated at those in the lowest quartile. As with most forms of cancer, performance status (i.e. the general physical condition and activity level of the person) plays a major role in prognosis as well.
Epidemiology
AML is a relatively rare cancer. There were 19,950 new cases in the United States in 2016. In 2018, AML accounted for 1.2% of all cancer deaths in the United States.
The incidence of AML increases with age and varies between countries. The median age when AML is diagnosed ranges between 63 and 71 years in the UK, Canada, Australia and Sweden, compared with 40 to 45 years in India, Brazil and Algeria.
AML accounts for about 90% of all acute leukemias in adults, but is rare in children. The rate of therapy-related AML (AML caused by previous chemotherapy) is expected to rise with an increase in the use of chemotherapy, an ageing population and more patients surviving their initial chemotherapy treatment; therapy-related disease accounts for just under 10% of all cases of AML. AML is slightly more common in men, with a male-to-female ratio of 1.3:1 to 1.4:1. Incidence is also seen to differ by ethnicity, with caucasians having higher recorded incidences and the lowest recorded incidences being in Pacific Islanders and native Alaskans.
In the UK, AML accounts for 31% of all leukemia cases, and around 3,100 people were diagnosed with the disease each year in 2016–2018.
History
The first published description of a case of leukemia in medical literature dates to 1827 when French physician Alfred-Armand-Louis-Marie Velpeau described a 63-year-old florist who developed an illness characterized by fever, weakness, urinary stones, and substantial enlargement of the liver and spleen. Velpeau noted the blood of this person had a consistency "like gruel", and speculated the appearance of the blood was due to white corpuscles. In 1845, a series of people who died with enlarged spleens and changes in the "colors and consistencies of their blood" was reported by the Edinburgh-based pathologist J.H. Bennett; he used the term "leucocythemia" to describe this pathological condition.
The term "leukemia" was coined by Rudolf Virchow, the renowned German pathologist, in 1856. As a pioneer in the use of the light microscope in pathology, Virchow was the first to describe the abnormal excess of white blood cells in people with the clinical syndrome described by Velpeau and Bennett. As Virchow was uncertain of the etiology of the white blood cell excess, he used the purely descriptive term "leukemia" (Greek: "white blood") to refer to the condition.
Further advances in the understanding of AML occurred rapidly with the development of new technology. In 1877, Paul Ehrlich developed a technique of staining blood films which allowed him to describe in detail normal and abnormal white blood cells. Wilhelm Ebstein introduced the term "acute leukemia" in 1889 to differentiate rapidly progressive and fatal leukemias from the more indolent chronic leukemias. The term "myeloid" was coined by Franz Ernst Christian Neumann in 1869, as he was the first to recognize white blood cells were made in the bone marrow (Greek: , , ) as opposed to the spleen. The technique of bone marrow examination to diagnose leukemia was first described in 1879 by Mosler. Finally, in 1900, the myeloblast, which is the malignant cell in AML, was characterized by Otto Naegeli, who divided the leukemias into myeloid and lymphocytic.
In 2008, AML became the first cancer genome to be fully sequenced. DNA extracted from leukemic cells were compared to unaffected skin. The leukemic cells contained acquired mutations in several genes that had not previously been associated with the disease.
References
External links
Childhood Acute Myeloid Leukemia Treatment at the US National Cancer Institute
Articles containing video clips
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate |
4323992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20University%20of%20Oklahoma%20people | List of University of Oklahoma people | The list of University of Oklahoma people includes notable alumni, faculty, and former students of the University of Oklahoma.
Educators
Clinton E. Adams, former medical school dean at Western University of Health Sciences, and current president of Rocky Vista University
Yvonne Chouteau, one of the Five Moons and co-founder of the School of Dance at the University of Oklahoma
Jerry Farley, long-time administrator at OU; 16th president of Washburn University
Alison Fields, Mary Lou Milner Carver Professor of Art of the American West
Julia Gaines, director of the University of Missouri School of Music
Elizabeth Garrett, legal scholar, 13th President of Cornell University
Barbara Hillyer, founder and first director of the university's Women's Studies program, which was the first of its kind in Oklahoma.
Leon Quincy Jackson (1926/1927–1995), American architect, professor, and an early African-American architect in Oklahoma and Tennessee.
Ori Kritz Hebrew Professor
Robert L. Lynn, president of Louisiana College in Pineville, Louisiana, 1975–1997; received PhD from Oklahoma
Charles W. Mooney Jr., the Charles A. Heimbold, Jr. Professor of Law, and former interim Dean, at the University of Pennsylvania Law School
Roger E. Nebergall, Professor of Speech
James Morton Smith, historian, recipient of a Guggenheim Fellowship (1960), director of Winterthur Museum, Garden and Library (1976–1984)
Miguel Terekhov, ballet dancer and instructor, co-founder of the School of Dance at the University of Oklahoma
Julie Ann Ward Spanish professor, poet laureate of Norman
Scientists
Howard Bluestein, atmospheric scientist
Gregory Benford, physicist and science fiction writer (also seen in Arts and Entertainment)
James Benford (physicist)
Norman H. Boke, botanist
Frederick Carr, meteorologist
Charles A. Doswell III, meteorologist
Henry T. Lynch, cancer researcher
GA Mansoori, thermodynamic scientist
Paul Markowski, meteorologist
Jens Rud Nielsen, physicist
Erik N. Rasmussen, atmospheric scientist
Neil B. Ward, atmospheric physicist
Christina Warinner, anthropologist
Gladys West, mathematician
Athletes
Vickey Ray Anderson, former professional football player
Dee Andros, former collegiate football coach and Oregon State athletic director
Jason Bartlett, former professional baseball player
Mookie Blaylock, former professional basketball player
Brian Bosworth, former professional football player
Joe Bowden, former professional football player
Anthony Bowie, former professional basketball player
Sam Bradford, professional football player, Heisman winner, most recently a member of the Arizona Cardinals
Donald Brown, former professional football player
Bill Campbell, American player of gridiron football
Tom Churchill, former Olympic decathlete, football player and multiple sports
Christian Claudio, Puerto Rican National Taekwondo team member
Mark Clayton, former professional football player
Patrick Collins, former professional football player
Bart Conner, former gold medal gymnast
Isaiah Cousins (born 1994), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Stacey Dales, former WNBA player and ESPN analyst, current NFL Network host/reporter
Jack Davis, professional football player
Greg Dobbs, former professional baseball player
Kristian Doolittle (born 1997), basketball player for Hapoel Eilat of the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Roger Eason, former professional football player
Jimmy Edwards, professional football player
Kelly Garrison-Funderburk, former All-American gymnast and 1988 USA Olympian
Harvey Grant, former professional basketball player
Jermaine Gresham, former professional football player
Matt Grice, wrestler; professional Mixed Martial Artist, former UFC Featherweight
Blake Griffin, 1st pick in the 2009 NBA draft to the Los Angeles Clippers
Quentin Griffin, professional football player, currently playing in Europe as of 2013
Jake Hager, current MMA fighter with Bellator and professional wrestler with All Elite Wrestling; former WWE World Heavyweight Champion and WWE United States Champion as Jack Swagger
Todd Hamilton, professional golfer, won The Open Championship in 2004
Tommie Harris, former professional football player
Mickey Hatcher, former professional baseball player and coach
Ray Hayward, Major League Baseball pitcher
Josh Heupel, football player, current head coach of the University of Tennessee Volunteers
Victor Hicks, former professional football player
Buddy Hield, 6th pick in the 2016 NBA draft by the New Orleans Pelicans
Cowboy Hill, professional football player
Danny Hodge, former All-American wrestler and pro wrestler
Jonathan Horton, former All-American gymnast and current USA Olympian
Randy Hughes, former professional football player
Demontre Hurst, NFL player
Clint Ingram, professional football player
Keith Jackson, former professional football player
Jack Jacobs, football player, popularized the forward pass
Ed Jeffers, former professional football player
Bob Kalsu, former professional football player, killed in action as a US Army Artillery officer in Vietnam
Anthony Kim, professional golfer
Bobby Kimball, former professional football player
Stacey King, former professional basketball player
Jim Mankins, former professional football player
Rod Manuel, former professional football player
Baker Mayfield (Class of 2017), professional football player currently the Quarterback for Tampa Bay Buccaneers
Gerald McCoy, football player, currently a free agent
Wahoo McDaniel, former professional wrestler and football player
Tommy McDonald, former professional football player and NFL hall of fame member
Russ McGinnis, former professional baseball player
Lee Morris, former professional football player
DeMarco Murray, former professional football player who is now the running backs coach of the Oklahoma Sooners football team.
Kyler Murray (Class of 2018), quarterback for the Arizona Cardinals of the National Football League, 9th overall draft pick in the 2018 MLB Draft
Eduardo Nájera, former professional basketball player, currently a scout for the Dallas Mavericks
Ralph Neely, former professional football player
sheldon Neuse, professional baseball player
Fred Nixon, former professional football player
Greg Norton, former professional baseball player
Rashard Odomes (born 1996), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Russ Ortiz, professional baseball player
Romero Osby (born 1990), American basketball player who last played for Maccabi Kiryat Gat of the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Milton Overton, Athletic Director, Kennesaw State University
Steve Owens, former professional football player and Heisman Trophy winner
Ashley Paris, professional basketball player
Courtney Paris, professional basketball player
Lindy Pearson, former professional football player
Adrian Peterson, professional football player, currently with the Detroit Lions
Hollis Price, professional basketball player
Clifford Ray, basketball coach and former professional basketball player
Jimmy Rogers, professional football player
Ryan Rohlinger, former professional baseball player
Jason Rouser, Olympic gold medalist, track and field
Darrell Royal, football player who became a highly successful coach at the University of Texas at Austin
Dave Schultz, 3x NCAA Champion, Olympic and world champion wrestler
Mark Schultz, 3x NCAA Champion, Olympic and world champion wrestler
Lee Roy Selmon, former professional football player and NFL Hall of Fame member
Steve Sewell, former professional football player
Larry Sherrer, former professional football player
Joe Simpson, former professional baseball player and current Atlanta Braves broadcaster
Travis Simpson, former professional football player
Billy Sims, former professional football player
Burch Smith, Major League Baseball player; free agent
Terry Stotts, Head Coach of the Portland Trail Blazers
Evan Tanner, former mixed martial artist who won the UFC Middleweight Championship in 2005
TaShawn Thomas (born 1993), basketball player in the Israeli Premier League
Spencer Tillman, former professional football player; National Champion, Super Bowl Champion San Francisco 49ers; sports analyst
Wayman Tisdale, former professional basketball player
Frank Trigg, MMA fighter and broadcaster
Jerry Tubbs, former professional football player
Richard Turner, former professional football player
Casey Walker, NFL player
Willie Warren, basketball player
Joe Washington, former professional football player
Elbert Watts, former professional football player
J.C. Watts, former professional football player and former member of the U.S. House of Representatives
Jason White, former football player, Heisman Trophy winner
Roy Williams, former professional football player
Trent Williams, football player, currently a member of the San Francisco 49ers
Reggie Willits, former professional baseball player, first base coach of the New York Yankees
Chet Winters, former professional football player
J. T. Wise, former professional baseball player
Bobby Witt, former professional baseball player
Trae Young, professional basketball player for the Atlanta Hawks
Waddy Young, professional football player, killed in action as a US Army Air Force bomber pilot in World War II
Arts and entertainment
Brent Albright, professional wrestler, former NWA World Heavyweight Champion
Alpharad, YouTuber, Esports personality, and musician
Marilyn Artus, visual artist
Gregory Benford, science fiction author and physicist, B.S. Physics, 1963
Jennifer Berry, Miss America 2006
Robert O'Neil Bristow, award-winning author
Jim Butcher, award-winning author
C. J. Cherryh, science fiction and fantasy author, B.A. Latin, 1964
Kellie Coffey, country music singer
Stephen Dickson, opera singer
Larry Drake, television and film actor
Ronnie Claire Edwards, actress
James Garner, film actor and director
David Gates, musician and lead singer for Bread
Jim George, author
Alice Ghostley, actress
Sterlin Harjo, filmmaker
Ed Harris, film actor and director
Van Heflin, film and theater actor
Robert Henson, journalist and author
Adrianna Hicks, actress
Rance Howard, actor
Olinka Hrdy, artist, 1928
Kevin James (undergraduate), radio show host and lawyer
Honorée Fanonne Jeffers, poet and novelist
Christian Kane, actor, musician, singer-songwriter
Roberta Knie, opera singer
Marvin Lamb, composer
D.L. Lang, poet laureate of Vallejo, California
Carol Littleton, film editor
Kirstin Maldonado, soprano in the a capella band "Pentatonix"
Kelly Mantle, drag queen and actor
M.R. Mathias, author
Travis McElroy, co-host and co-creator of The Adventure Zone and My Brother, My Brother, and Me
Suzanne Mitchell, director of the Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders
Elizabeth Bauer Mock, modern architecture advocate, professor of architecture
Mickey Muennig (1935–2021), architect
Olivia Munn, actress (The Newsroom), model, spokesperson, and former G4 host
Jason Nelson, pioneering net artist and digital poet, 1993
Tom Paxton, singer-songwriter, B.F.A., 1959
Meg Randall, actress
Slim Richey, jazz guitarist
G. Patrick Riley, mask maker and art educator
Kevin Samuels, YouTuber
Matt Villines (2000), film director (Funny or Die, Saturday Night Live)
"Cowboy" Bill Watts, former professional wrestler
Dennis Weaver, Emmy Award-winning actor
"Dr. Death" Steve Williams, former All-American offensive lineman and popular pro wrestler, especially in Japan
Law
Vaughn Ary, first United States Marine Corps Judge Advocate Division Major General, J.D., 1987
Robert E. Bacharach, Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit, B.A., 1981
Tom Colbert, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Oklahoma, first African-American Oklahoma Supreme Court Justice, J.D., 1982
Noma Gurich, Justice of the Supreme Court of Oklahoma, J.D., 1978
Rudolph Hargrave, former Justice of the Supreme Court of Oklahoma, J.D., 1949
Robert Harlan Henry, Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit, former Oklahoma Attorney General, B.A., 1974, J.D., 1976
Anita Hill, OU Law professor and accuser in the Clarence Thomas scandal
Ralph B. Hodges, former Justice of the Supreme Court of Oklahoma, J.D., 1954
William Judson Holloway Jr., Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit, B.A., 1947
Alfred P. Murrah, Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit, namesake of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, LL.B., 1928
Steven W. Taylor, Justice of the Supreme Court of Oklahoma, J.D., 1974
James R. Winchester, Justice of the Supreme Court of Oklahoma, B. A., 1974
Politics
Carl Albert, former Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives (D-OK), B.A. Political Science, 1927
Dick Armey, former U.S. House Majority Leader (R-TX), PhD Economics
Jari Askins, former Lieutenant Governor of Oklahoma, B.A. Journalism, 1975; J.D., 1980
Dan Boren, former congressman (D-OK), M.B.A., 2000
David Boren, former Governor of Oklahoma and U.S. Senator (D-OK); former President of the University of Oklahoma, J.D., 1968
Brad Carson, former Congressman (D-OK), J.D. 1994
Fernando Chui Sai On, current Chief Executive and the former Secretary for Social and Cultural Affairs of the Macau Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, PhD Public Health
Tom Coburn, former U.S. Senator and Congressman (R-OK), M.D., 1983
Tom Cole, Congressman (R-OK), PhD British History, 1984
Mick Cornett, former Mayor of Oklahoma City
Walter E. Gaskin, retired United States Marine Corps Lieutenant General. Current Secretary of Military and Veterans Affairs for the State of North Carolina. Master in Public Administration, 1990-1992
David Hall, former Governor of Oklahoma
John Tyler Hammons, Mayor of Muskogee, Oklahoma (R), J.D. 2015
Brad Henry, former Governor of Oklahoma (D), B.A. Economics, 1985, J.D., 1988
Wayne Harold Johnson (Master of Library Science), member of both houses, respectively, of the Wyoming State Legislature from Cheyenne, 1993 to 2017 (R)
Frank Keating, former Governor of Oklahoma (R), J.D., 1969
Robert H. Kittleman, Maryland State Senator, 1947
Jess Larson, U.S. Air Force Major General and first administrator of the General Services Administration
Peter MacDonald, Navajo Code Talker, 7th Chairman of the Navajo Nation
Susana Martinez, Governor of New Mexico (R), first Latina governor in the U.S.; J.D. 1986
Dave McCurdy, former Congressman (D-OK)
Scott Meacham, former State Treasurer of Oklahoma
Ruth Messinger, former President of the Borough of Manhattan
Frank Spooner, Louisiana businessman and Republican politician, B.S., 1960
Rob Standridge, Oklahoma state senator (R), Bachelor's Pharmacy, 1993
David Walters, former Governor of Oklahoma (D), B.S. Industrial Engineering, 1973
J. C. Watts, former U.S. Representative who was the chairman of the House Republican Conference (R-OK), B.A. Journalism, 1981
Others
Leila Andrews (1876–1954), physician, associate professor of medicine at OU College of Medicine (1910–1925)
Kevin Bales, founder of Free the Slaves
Harry W. Bass, Sr. (1895–1970), American oilman and philanthropist
Clay Bennett, majority owner of the Oklahoma City Thunder
Pat Bowlen, owner of the Denver Broncos (deceased)
Roger Brady, Air Force General
Phillip T. Butler POW in North Vietnam, president of Veterans for Peace
Mike Davis, anthropologist, archeologist, and boat builder
Angie Debo, historian of Oklahoma and Native Americans, A.B. History 1918, PhD 1933
Jordan Deschamps-Braly, maxillofacial surgeon
Archie W. Dunham, oil and gas CEO
Bob Faith (born 1963/1964), founder, chairman and CEO of Greystar Real Estate Partners
Roy Furr, founder of Furr's grocery store and cafeteria chain
Owen K. Garriott, Skylab 3 and STS-9 astronaut, B.S. Electrical Engineering, 1953
Fred Haise, Apollo 13 astronaut, B.S. Aeronautical Engineering, 1959
Thomas J. Haynes, Air National Guard general
Joshua Landis, director of the Center for Middle East Studies at the University of Oklahoma
Anna Lewis (1885–1961), historian, writer, PhD 1930
Tom Love, owner, founder, and chairman of Love's Travel Stops & Country Stores (dropped out)
Shannon Lucid, astronaut, PhD Biochemistry, 1973
Kelli Masters, lawyer and sports agent
Rodney McKinley, 15th Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force
Larry Merchant, sportswriter and commentator for HBO Sports
Dari Nowkhah, lead anchor for ESPNU
Lotsee Patterson, librarian, educator, and founder of the American Indian Library Association
Ross Porter, broadcaster for the Los Angeles Dodgers
Michael F. Price, mutual fund investor
Mark M. Ravitch, surgeon
Lawrence G. Rawl, Chairman and CEO of Exxon
Gary Michael Rose, 1989, U.S. Army captain, Medal of Honor Recipient, Vietnam War 1970
Jeffrey D. Sadow, political scientist, conservative columnist
Charles Schusterman (1945–2000), businessman, philanthropist
Randall L. Stephenson, chairman and CEO of AT&T
Susan Stryker, professor, author, filmmaker, director of the University of Arizona's Institute of LGBT Studies
Reed Timmer, meteorologist and storm chaser
Helen Walton, widow of Sam Walton
William C. Wantland, Bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Eau Claire
Grace Steele Woodward, writer and historian
References
University of Oklahoma people
University of Oklahoma |
4324475 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike%20Adams%20%28safety%29 | Mike Adams (safety) | Michael Carl Adams (born March 24, 1981) is an American former professional football player who was a safety in the National Football League (NFL). He is currently the assistant special teams coach for the New York Giants. Adams played college football for the Delaware Fightin' Blue Hens, and was signed by the San Francisco 49ers as an undrafted free agent in 2004. Adams also played for the Cleveland Browns, Denver Broncos, Indianapolis Colts, Carolina Panthers, and Houston Texans, and made two Pro Bowls during his 16-year career.
Early years
Adams was born in Paterson, New Jersey. A native of Wayne, New Jersey, Adams attended PCTI in Wayne, where he helped guide his team to the New Jersey Group 4 state title in 1998. Adams attended Passaic County Technical Institute in Wayne, New Jersey before going on to the University of Delaware.
College career
At Delaware, he played 43 times with 23 starts. During his college career he made 213 tackles and 11 interceptions. He earned second-team All-Atlantic 10 honors as a senior. He was undrafted in the 2004 NFL Draft.
Professional career
San Francisco 49ers
2004
On April 28, 2004, the San Francisco 49ers signed Adams to a three-year, $879,885 contract as an undrafted free agent.
Throughout training camp, he competed for a roster spot as a backup safety, cornerback, and special teams player against fellow rookie Keith Lewis. On September 4, 2004, the San Francisco 49ers waived Adams as part of their final roster cuts, but signed him to their practice squad two days later after he cleared waivers.
On November 13, 2004, the San Francisco 49ers elevated Adams to their active roster. Head coach Dennis Erickson named Adams a backup free safety behind Ronnie Heard. On November 14, 2004, Adams made his professional regular season debut in their 49ers' 37–27 loss in Week 10. On November 28, 2004, Adams recorded a season-high three combined tackles, a pass deflection, and made his first career interception off a pass by quarterback A. J. Feeley during a 24–17 loss to the Miami Dolphins in Week 12. He finished his rookie season in with nine combined tackles (four solo), a pass deflection, and an interception in eight games and zero starts.
2005
On January 6, 2005, the San Francisco 49ers fired head coach Dennis Erickson after they finished with a 2–14 record. Defensive coordinator Billy Davis held an open competition to name a starting free safety. Adams competed for the role against Ronnie Heard, Keith Lewis, and Mike Rumph, while also seeing time at cornerback. Head coach Mike Nolan named Adams the third-string free safety to start the regular season, behind Mike Rumph and Keith Lewis. He was also named the first-team nickelback to begin the regular season.
He appeared in the San Francisco 49ers' season-opener against the St. Louis Rams and recorded four solo tackles, two pass deflections, an interception, and made his first career sack on quarterback Marc Bulger in their 28–25 victory. On September 27, 2005, head coach Mike Nolan announced he'd be moving Adams from nickelback to starting free safety after Rumph sustained a foot injury. On October 2, 2005, Adams earned his first career start and recorded three solo tackles during a 31–14 victory against the Arizona Cardinals in Week 4. The following week, he collected a season-high nine combined tackles and a pass deflection during a 28–3 loss to the Indianapolis Colts in Week 5. Adams was sidelined for two games (Weeks 14–15) after spraining his knee in Week 13. On January 1, 2006, Adams recorded six combined tackles, three pass deflections, and intercepted two pass attempts by David Carr during a 20–17 victory against the Houston Texans in Week 17. Adams completed the season with 74 combined tackles (57 solo), five pass deflections, four interceptions, and a sack in 14 games and ten starts.
2006
Throughout training camp, Adams competed to retain his role as the starting free safety against Keith Lewis and Tony Parrish. Head coach Mike Nolan named Adams the starting free safety to begin the regular season, opposite strong safety Tony Parrish.
He started in the San Francisco 49ers' season-opener at the Arizona Cardinals and collected a season-high eight combined tackles in their 34–27 loss. In Week 8, he tied his season-high of eight combined tackles during a 41–10 loss at the Chicago Bears. In Week 9, Adams was demoted to being a backup behind Keith Lewis and was also relegated to being a nickelback. He finished the season with 64 combined tackles (54 solo) and three pass deflections in 16 games and eight starts.
Cleveland Browns
2007
On April 2, 2007, the Cleveland Browns signed Adams to a two-year, $1.21 million contract. During training camp, Adams competed to be a backup safety against Gary Baxter, Justin Hamilton, and Nick Sorensen. Head coach Romeo Crennel named Adams the backup free safety, behind Brodney Pool, to begin the regular season. In Week 11, Adams had one tackle and made his second career sack on quarterback Kyle Boller during a 33–30 victory at the Baltimore Ravens. On December 2, 2007, he collected a season-high five solo tackles in the Browns' 27–21 loss at the Arizona Cardinals in Week 13. Adams was limited to a backup role and did not receive any starts in 2007, but managed to finish the season with 29 combined tackles (27 solo), a pass deflection, and a sack in 16 games.
2008
He entered training camp in 2008 and competed for a roster spot as a backup safety against Gary Baxter, Nick Sorensen, and Steve Cargile. Head coach Romeo Crennel retained Adams as the backup free safety behind Brodney Pool to start the 2008 regular season.
He started in the Cleveland Browns' season-opener against the Dallas Cowboys and recorded eight solo tackles in their 28–10 loss. Adams earned the start after Brodney Pool was inactive due to a concussion he suffered during the preseason. The following week, he started in place of Sean Jones who was inactive for the next four games (Weeks 2–6) after undergoing arthroscopic knee surgery. In Week 3, Adams made his second start at strong safety in place of Jones and recorded four combined tackles, a pass deflection, and an interception during a 28–10 loss at the Baltimore Ravens. On October 13, 2008, he collected a season-high five solo tackles in the Browns' 35–14 win against the New York Giants in Week 6. Adams sustained a hamstring injury and was sidelined for two games (Weeks 7–8). He finished the season with 44 combined tackles (36 solo), two pass deflections, and two interceptions in 14 games and five starts. On December 29, 2008, the Cleveland Browns fired head coach Romeo Crennel after they finished the season with a 4–12 record.
2009
On March 5, 2009, the Cleveland Browns signed Adams to a three-year, $4.10 million contract. Throughout training camp, Adams competed for the starting strong safety job against Abram Elam after Sean Jones departed for the Philadelphia Eagles during free agency. Head coach Eric Mangini named Adams the primary backup safety to start the regular season, behind starters Abram Elam and Brodney Pool. On November 29, 2009, Adams recorded a season-high ten combined tackles (six solo) during a 16–7 loss at the Cincinnati Bengals in Week 12. He came in during the second quarter after Brodney Pool sustained a concussion. On December 2, 2009, head coach Eric Mangini named Adams the starting free safety for the remainder of the season due to expectations that Pool would miss the rest of the season after sustaining a concussion. He completed the season with 69 combined tackles (58 solo), eight pass deflections, and a sack in 16 games and nine starts.
2010
In 2010, Adams competed for the job as the starting free safety against Abram Elam and Ray Ventrone during training camp. Head coach Eric Mangini named Adams the backup free safety to start the season, behind Abram Elam. He started in the Cleveland Browns' at the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and collected seven combined tackles, made a season-high three pass deflections, and an interception in their 17–14 loss. Adams was inactive for the Browns' Week 11 loss at the Jacksonville Jaguars due to an abdomen injury. On December 5, 2010, Adams recorded three combined tackles, a pass deflection, and an interception in the Browns' 13–10 victory at the Miami Dolphins in Week 13. He intercepted a pass by quarterback Chad Henne that was deflected by Browns defensive lineman David Bowens and returned it 25-yards to the two-yard line. His interception set up a 23-yard game-winning field goal by Phil Dawson as time expired in the fourth quarter. He finished the season with 45 combined tackles (39 solo), six pass deflections, two interceptions, and a sack in 15 games and two starts.
2011
On January 4, 2011, the Cleveland Browns fired head coach Eric Mangini after the Browns finished with a 5–11 record in 2010. During training camp, Adams competed to be the starting free safety against Usama Young. Head coach Pat Shurmur named Adams the starter to begin the regular season, along with strong safety T. J. Ward. In Week 4, he made two solo tackles, a pass deflection, and intercepted a pass by Jake Locker during a 31–13 loss to the Tennessee Titans. It marked his second consecutive game with an interception. On December 8, 2011, Adams collected a season-high ten combined tackles (six solo), broke up a pass, and intercepted a pass by Ben Roethlisberger in the Browns' 14–3 loss at the Pittsburgh Steelers in Week 14. He completed the season with 64 combined tackles (44 solo), six pass deflections, and three interceptions in 16 games and 16 starts.
2012
Adams became an unrestricted free agent after the 2011 season and did not receive a contract offer from the Browns although he expressed a desire to return. He reportedly received interest from four teams, including the Denver Broncos.
Denver Broncos
On March 15, 2012, the Denver Broncos signed Adams to a two-year, $4 million contract with $250,000 guaranteed. During training camp, he competed to be a starting safety against Rahim Moore, Duke Ihenacho, and Quinton Carter. Head coach John Fox named Adams the starting strong safety to start the regular season, alongside free safety Rahim Moore.
In Week 3, Adams collected six combined tackles and a season-high three pass deflections during a 31–25 loss to the Houston Texans. On October 7, 2012, he collected a season-high 12 combined tackles (six solo) during a 31–21 loss at the New England Patriots in Week 5. On November 11, 2012, Adams recorded four combined tackles and sacked quarterback Cam Newton for a safety in the Broncos' 36–14 victory at the Carolina Panthers in Week 10. His safety came on a two-yard sack in the fourth quarter and marked the first safety of his career. Adams completed the season with 80 combined tackles (60 solo), 11 pass deflections, a sack, and a safety in 16 games and 16 starts.
The Denver Broncos finished first in the AFC West with a 13–3 record and earned a first round bye. On January 12, 2013, Adams started in his first career playoff game and made two solo tackles and a pass deflection in the Broncos' 38–35 overtime loss to the Baltimore Ravens in the AFC Divisional Game.
2013
Throughout training camp, Adams competed to retain his starting strong safety role against David Bruton, Duke Ihenacho, and Quentin Jammer. Head coach John Fox named Adams the backup strong safety to start the season, behind Duke Ihenacho.
In Week 10, Adams earned his first start of the season after Duke Ihenacho was inactive after injuring his ankle the previous week. Adams finished the Broncos' 28–20 victory at the San Diego Chargers with four combined tackles. On December 24, 2013, Adams started at free safety and made eight combined tackles during a 34–31 loss at the New England Patriots in Week 12. He started in place of Rahim Moore who underwent surgery to repair a lateral compartment syndrome and missed the remainder of the regular season. He finished the season with 64 combined tackles (48 solo), six pass deflections, and an interception in 16 games and seven starts.
The Denver Broncos finished first in the AFC West with a 13–3 record, clinching a first round bye and home-field advantage throughout the playoffs. The Broncos reached Super Bowl XLVIII after they defeated the San Diego Chargers 24–17 in the AFC Divisional Round and defeating the New England Patriots 26–16 in the AFC Championship Game. Before the start of Super Bowl XLVIII, Adams vowed to walk about from MetLife Stadium back to his childhood home if the Broncos were victorious. On February 2, 2014, Adams recorded six solo tackles as the Broncos lost to the Seattle Seahawks 43–8.
2014
Adams became an unrestricted free agent after the 2013 season and received interest from several teams, including the San Francisco 49ers, New York Jets, Cleveland Browns, and New England Patriots.
Indianapolis Colts
On June 14, 2014, the Indianapolis Colts signed Adams to a one-year, $1.01 million contract that includes $65,000 guaranteed. The Colts signed Adams after safety Corey Lynch was placed on season-ending injured reserve.
Throughout training camp, he competed for a job as the starting strong safety against Delano Howell, David Sims, Colt Anderson, and Sergio Brown. Head coach Chuck Pagano named him the starting strong safety to begin the regular season, alongside free safety Sergio Brown. On September 28, 2014, Adams made a season-high three pass deflections and made two interceptions by Charlie Whitehurst and Zach Mettenberger during a 41–17 victory against the Tennessee Titans in Week 4. In Week 8, he recorded a season-high 11 combined tackles (eight solo) during a 51–34 loss at the Pittsburgh Steelers. On November 16, 2014, Adams tied his season-high of 11 combined tackles (eight solo), deflected two passes, and intercepted quarterback Tom Brady twice during the Colts' 42–20 loss to the New England Patriots in Week 11. On December 23, 2014, Adams was named as an alternate player for the 2014 Pro Bowl. Adams completed the season with a career-high 87 combined tackles (67 solo), 11 pass deflections, and five interceptions in 16 games and 16 starts.
The Indianapolis Colts finished first in the AFC South with an 11–5 record. On January 7, 2015, Adams started in the AFC Wildcard Game and collected nine combined tackles (seven solo) and a pass deflection during the Colts' 26–10 win against the Cincinnati Bengals. The following week, he made two combined tackles as the Colts defeated his former team, Denver Broncos, 24–13 in the AFC Divisional Round. On January 18, 2015, Adams recorded nine combined tackles during a 45–7 loss at the New England Patriots in the AFC Championship Game. On January 20, 2015, it was announced that Adams would be playing in the 2015 Pro Bowl as a replacement for Kam Chancellor, who was unable to attend due to his participation in Super Bowl XLIX.
2015
On March 10, 2015, the Indianapolis Colts re-signed Adams to a two-year, $4.85 million contract with $1.20 million guaranteed. Head coach Chuck Pagano named Adams the starting strong safety to start the regular season, opposite free safety Dwight Lowery.
On October 8, 2015, Adams recorded four combined tackles, two pass deflections, and intercepted two passes by Brian Hoyer and Ryan Mallett during a 27–20 win at the Houston Texans in Week 5. The following week, Adams recorded three combined tackles, broke up a pass, and returned an interception for touchdown in the Colts' 34–27 loss to the New England Patriots in Week 6. He intercepted a pass to Julian Edelman that was thrown by Tom Brady and returned it for a 14-yard touchdown in the second quarter. The touchdown was his second score of his career and first one since 2005. He was inactive for the Colts' Week 7 loss to the New Orleans Saints after injuring his hamstring the previous week. In Week 9, Adams made one tackle, a pass deflection, and an interception, but exited the Colts' 27–25 win against the Denver Broncos in the third quarter after injuring his ankle. His ankle injury sidelined him for the next to games (Weeks 11–12). On December 6, 2015, Adams collected a season-high 12 combined tackles (11 solo) in the Colts' 35–10 loss at the Pittsburgh Steelers in Week 13. The following week, he recorded four solo tackles and sacked quarterback Blake Bortles during a 51–16 loss at the Jacksonville Jaguars in Week 14. He finished the season with 75 combined tackles (52 solo), six pass deflections, a career-high five interceptions, and a sack in 13 games and 13 starts. On January 25, 2016, it was announced that Adams was selected as a replacement for the injured Kam Chancellor in the 2016 Pro Bowl.
2016
On January 6, 2016, the Indianapolis Colts fired defensive coordinator Greg Manusky and safeties coach Roy Anderson after they finished 8-8 behind a struggling defense. Defensive coordinator Ted Monachino retained Adams as the starting strong safety. Head coach Chuck Pagano named him the starter to begin the season, along with free safety Clayton Geathers.
On October 16, 2016, Adams collected a season-high nine combined tackles in the Colts' 26–23 loss at the Houston Texans in Week 6.
Adams was sidelined for the Colts' Week 9 win at the Green Bay Packers after injuring his groin the previous week. In Week 13, he made three combined tackles, broke up a pass, and returned an interception for a 56-yard gain during a 41–10 victory at the New York Jets. He finished the season with 79 combined tackles (62 solo), two pass deflections, and two interceptions in 15 games and 15 starts. Adams earned an overall grade of 83.3 from Pro Football Focus, which ranked 19th among all qualifying safeties in 2016.
2017
On March 6, 2017, Adams announced that the Indianapolis Colts informed him of their intentions to not offer him a contract or re-sign him. At age 36, Adams had three successful seasons with the Colts that earned him appearances in two Pro Bowls. The Colts decided to go with their younger core of safeties in Clayton Geathers, T. J. Green, and Darius Butler.
Carolina Panthers
On March 10, 2017, the Carolina Panthers signed Adams to a two-year, $4.20 million contract with $1.15 million guaranteed and a signing bonus of $650,000. Adams entered training camp slated as the starting free safety after the Panthers waived Tre Boston. Head coach Ron Rivera officially named him the starter entering the regular season, opposite strong safety Kurt Coleman. On October 1, 2017, Adams collected a season-high seven solo tackles and two pass deflections in the Panthers' 33–30 victory at the New England Patriots in Week 4. In Week 6, he had a season-high eight combined tackles during a 28–23 loss to the Philadelphia Eagles. He finished his first season with the Carolina Panthers with 69 combined tackles (48 solo), ten pass deflections, and two interceptions in 16 games and 16 starts. Pro Football Focus gave Adams an overall grade of 82.4, which ranked 24th among all qualifying safeties in 2017.
The Carolina Panthers finished second in the NFC South with an 11–5 record and received a wildcard berth. On January 7, 2018, Adams started in the NFC Wildcard Game and recorded four combined tackles, a pass deflection, and intercepted a pass by quarterback Drew Brees during the Panthers' 31–26 loss at the New Orleans Saints.
In Week 5 of the 2018 season, Adams recorded his fifth career game with two interceptions in the 33–31 victory over the New York Giants.
Houston Texans
On September 30, 2019, Adams was signed by the Houston Texans.
Adams announced his retirement from the NFL on Good Morning Football on March 4, 2020.
NFL coaching career
Chicago Bears
On February 2, 2021, Adams landed his first NFL coaching job with the Chicago Bears.
New York Giants
On Jul 24, 2023, he was named assistant special teams coach for the New York Giants.
NFL career statistics
Personal life
Adams was inducted into the Passaic Tech Hall of Fame in 2009 and had his jersey retired in 2010. Adams has two daughters, Maya and Avery.
References
External links
Indianapolis Colts bio
Denver Broncos bio
Cleveland Browns bio
1981 births
Living people
Passaic County Technical Institute alumni
Players of American football from Paterson, New Jersey
American football safeties
Delaware Fightin' Blue Hens football players
San Francisco 49ers players
Cleveland Browns players
Denver Broncos players
Indianapolis Colts players
Carolina Panthers players
Houston Texans players
Unconferenced Pro Bowl players
Chicago Bears coaches
New York Giants coaches |
4324505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FrontRunner | FrontRunner | FrontRunner is a commuter rail train operated by the Utah Transit Authority that operates along the Wasatch Front in north-central Utah with service from the Ogden Central Station in central Weber County through Davis County, Salt Lake City, and Salt Lake County to Provo Central station in central Utah County. In , the system had a ridership of , or about per weekday as of .
Description
FrontRunner runs south from Ogden to Provo with a total length of . Before the Pleasant View station was closed, the total length was .
The route uses a portion of the right-of-way of the historic Utah Central Railroad, built in 1869 to connect the First transcontinental railroad with Salt Lake City and acquired by the Union Pacific Railroad (UP) in 1878. UTA-owned track parallels UP track until Ogden, where, until August 10, 2018 (date of last train), when service to Pleasant View was "Suspended Indefinitely", Union Pacific and Utah Transit Authority shared the final of track to Pleasant View.
74% of the route used by FrontRunner is single-tracked, with double-track at stations and several other points along the route to allow trains to pass each other. FrontRunner closely parallels Interstate 15 for most of the route.
There are about 25 round trips on weekdays between Ogden and Provo (through Salt Lake City). Trains run hourly from about 4:30 a.m. to just after midnight on weekdays (increasing to half-hour runs for the morning and evening commutes). On Saturdays trains run every hour from about 6 a.m. to 1:30 a.m. on Sunday morning. As of August 2017 FrontRunner does not run during most hours of Sundays. FrontRunner operates some service on holidays other than Thanksgiving, Christmas and the observed Christmas holiday, and New Year's Day and the observed New Year's holiday. FrontRunner is a push–pull train locomotive system (with the locomotives running backwards half the time). FrontRunner trains face north, regardless of the direction of travel.
Several stations have a Park and Ride lot. There is no charge for parking in these lots, and the number of parking spaces available at each station ranges from "limited" to 874.
History
In 1998 UTA tested a commuter train set borrowed from the Altamont Corridor Express along Union Pacific track which runs alongside what would eventually be the FrontRunner route. In the same year, UTA began negotiations with Union Pacific to purchase the former Salt Lake Shops. By 2002 an agreement to purchase the shop and renovate it to become UTA's Warm Springs Shop was approved. Work started on the initial section of the line from Salt Lake City to Ogden in 2005. Seven of the planned eight stations opened to riders on April 26, 2008. Eight more stations opened on December 10, 2012, and one more on August 8, 2022.
The train was named "FrontRunner" because its route runs nearly the length of the Wasatch Front.
FrontRunner North
What is now known as the FrontRunner North division was the original segment of the line that opened to the public on April 26, 2008. At the time, the service only ran from Ogden to Salt Lake Central with stops in Roy, Clearfield, Layton, Farmington, and Woods Cross.
The station in Pleasant View, which is north of Ogden, was supposed to open along with the rest of the line in April 2008, but it was plagued by a variety of service problems stemming from the last 6 miles of track being shared with Union Pacific Railroad freight service. Firstly, improvements had to be made to the track to make it suitable for passenger operations, but that work was delayed when railroad workers were diverted to repair tracks damaged by a landslide near Oakridge, Oregon. A bus bridge was used between Ogden and Pleasant View until September 29, 2008, when the track improvements were complete.
Another issue was that the shared track was still dispatched by Union Pacific, who did not want FrontRunner service to interfere with their busy freight corridor in Ogden. As such, they limited FrontRunner to one southbound train in the morning and one northbound in the evening. Riders were required to transfer from one train to another at the Ogden Central Station. In January 2009 this was increased to three trains for each morning and evening, with one running straight through in each direction, though the other two still required transfers between trains.
Service to Pleasant View was temporarily suspended on September 6, 2011. Besides the limitations on how many trains could run north of Ogden, low ridership exacerbated the problem. Limited weekday-only commuter service to Pleasant View resumed on December 10, 2012, with two trains picking up passengers in the morning and two trains dropping off passengers in the evening, with no transfers between trains required.
In February 2018, UTA announced they would be indefinitely suspending trains between Ogden and Pleasant View starting on August 12, 2018, both due to new federal safety guidelines and low ridership to that station. The station platforms at Pleasant View are still there and the facility is used for bus transfers and parking, and there is also the possibility the station could see trains again if FrontRunner service is expanded further north to Brigham City.
FrontRunner South
FrontRunner South refers to that were added to the FrontRunner line after the opening of FrontRunner North in 2008. The extension expands the former southern terminus from Salt Lake Central to Provo Station. This expansion was planned early on to address the growing transportation need along the Interstate 15 corridor. The Utah Transit Authority began work on the line after a ground breaking ceremony on August 12, 2008, and seven new stations were built in Murray, South Jordan, Draper, Lehi, American Fork, Orem, and Provo. Service began on the new section on December 10, 2012. Funds were appropriated to accommodate this project in 2006 via a sales tax increase referendum, and the remaining funding was obtained through a letter of intent signed with the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) on September 24, 2007.
Following its opening for service in 2012, early estimates of ridership for FrontRunner South exceeded expectations. UTA anticipated about 6,800 riders per day, but during the first week of operation, they reported more than 7,800 riders per day. However, UTA also indicated that it was not entirely unexpected as there is usually a high number of riders when a line opens before a longer term pattern of regular ridership is established. At the same time FrontRunner South opened for service, North Temple - a new infill station on the FrontRunner North segment - opened as well.
FrontRunner South opened with service to Utah County at about the same time as the I-15 CORE project was completed (which was a rebuild of I-15 along much of the same corridor as FrontRunner South). Both projects added substantial transportation improvements to areas south of Salt Lake City.
The city of Lehi continues investigating options to build overpasses or underpasses to separate the rail traffic from the Main Street vehicle traffic, though the status of this is unlikely as the cost of the project would exceed twenty million dollars. Since the original planning for FrontRunner South, two additional east–west alternative routes in Lehi have opened that do not have at-grade crossings for rail traffic: 2100 North (SR-85) and Pioneer Crossing (SR-145).
On August 8, 2022, Vineyard Station, a new infill station a couple miles north of the Orem Central, opened.
Future extensions
Future extensions are envisioned that would eventually encompass over along the Wasatch Front, providing service as far north as Brigham City and as far south as Payson.
In September 2023, UTA revealed their drafted plans for Frontrunner's future expansions and enhancements. Ranging from phase 0 to 5. The current phase, phase 0, consists of double tracking at strategic locations. In 2021, Utah passed legislation to fund a project to double track FrontRunner at strategic locations. The double tracking would allow for the system to increase maximum frequency from thirty minutes to fifteen. In May 2023, UTA officials said construction on the next phase of double tracking would begin in 2025 and be completed by 2029.
The next phase, phase 1, consists of further double tracking, and a 13 mile extension to Payson. UTA in the past purchased the former Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad Tintic Branch tracks that run between Provo and Payson to serve as their right-of-way. The need for a flying junction that would have had to be built just southeast of the Provo Station to allow FrontRunner to cross over the active Union Pacific tracks there prevented UTA from building this extension as part of the FrontRunner South project. UTA has now made a deal with Union Pacific where FrontRunner would run down tracks on the west side of the Provo Yard until halfway though the westerly curve to cross under I-15, where new tracks will be laid across a field to connect with UTA's right-of-way. The location of the station in Springville is anticipated to be approximately 1500 West and 450 South. The Utah Department of Transportation (UDOT) has announced that accommodations for a FrontRunner station just west of I-15 are included in the overall plans for a new interchange at Spanish Fork Center Street. The location of the station in Payson is anticipated to be just west of I-15 at about 800 South. Alongside the new stations in a Payson extension, UDOT has their own plans to add an infill station at The Point just south of Draper.
Phase 2 includes a 20 mile extension to Brigham City. The location of the station in Brigham City will likely be on newly built right-of-way near the western end of 200 South, where the Utah Transit Authority already owns a Park and Ride lot, only used for vanpool services to Thiokol, with an additional station in Willard just east of I-15 at about 750 North. An agreement between the UTA, Ogden City, and Weber County to construct a station at Business Depot Ogden was reached in 2020. Included in the extension, is the planed fleet overhaul to 32 electric trainsets, which will include 15 miles of electrified track with the rest being dependent on batteries. Finally, the phase plans to include upgrading 48 miles to 90 mph track, which also comes with curve upgrades.
Phase 3 includes more upgrades in frequency, trainsets, and trackspeed. Phase 4 includes infill stations, 62 miles of 110+ mph track, and full grade separation. Phase 5, the final drafted phase, would include 24 miles of quadruple track to allow for express trains. As with all existing FrontRunner and TRAX stations, all future phases of FrontRunner will be integrated with UTA's bus system.
Route
FrontRunner is designated as UTA Route 750.
The entire route was built within the existing Union Pacific corridor and FrontRunner tracks run parallel to the Union Pacific tracks for most of the route. For modern day operations, FrontRunner operates on its own dedicated tracks.
Quiet zone
The entire length of FrontRunner corridor (including the southern extension) has been approved as a "quiet zone" by the Federal Railroad Administration. Normally, federal regulations require that train operators sound their horns for fifteen to twenty seconds as they approach any road crossing. A quiet zone designation eliminates this requirement. For safety reasons however, they are still allowed to sound their horn, if appropriate. The quiet zone applies to all trains (including freight trains) within the same corridor. Each city along the route had to individually apply for the designation, but UTA provided substantial assistance with the process. Several safety upgrades must be in place at all public crossings in order to receive quiet zone approval. In addition to the normal automatic warning bells and lights, required upgrades include crossing guards, signs warning that trains do not blare horns in the area, and raised medians (which prevent cars from driving around lowered gates). There are also additional safety features for pedestrians. According to UTA, prior to the southern extension, FrontRunner had the longest quiet zone in the nation, with the southern extension doubling the length of the previous quiet zone.
Utah County
FrontRunner's current southern terminus is the Provo station. This station is also just southeast of Amtrak's Provo Station, which is the third stop, after Green River and Helper for the California Zephyr. Heading west from this station, FrontRunner crosses southern Provo before it curves toward the north. From here it heads northwest along the western side of Provo. The railway primarily parallels I-15 along this portion as it moves north towards Orem.
Continuing northwest, the route enters the city of Orem before reaching the Orem station, located on the west side of I-15 from Utah Valley University. In June 2018, ground was broken on a new 1000-foot pedestrian bridge over Interstate-15, connects UVU to the Orem Station. From this station FrontRunner maintains its northwestern course, leaving Orem and enters the city of Vineyard. Continuing northwest, with Vineyard Road briefly running on the west side of the tracks and the site of the former Geneva Steel on the east, it reaches Vineyard Station. The Vineyard Station is located on the west edge of a future UVU Vineyard campus.
From the Vineyard Station, FrontRunner leaves Vineyard, passing through the city of Lindon before entering the city of American Fork. Maintaining its northwest course along the edge of American Fork's city limits, Frontrunner then enters the city of Lehi. It then begins to curve toward a nearly due west course as it re-enters American Fork and parallels I-15 before reaching the American Fork station.
Continuing on, FrontRunner enters Lehi just before crossing over Spring Creek and then directly underneath the intersection of Pioneer Crossing (SR-145) and Mill Pond Road (850 East). It travels northwest through the middle of Lehi as it approaches Thanksgiving Point.
With Garden Drive on its immediate west, it reaches the next station, Lehi, in the middle of Thanksgiving Point. As passes then through the Jordan Narrows, it briefly parallels the Jordan River on the south, with Camp Williams on the far side of the river further west. While passing through the Jordan Narrows, FrontRunner also leaves Lehi and Utah County and enters Salt Lake County.
Salt Lake County
As it passes through the Jordan Narrows, FrontRunner enters Salt Lake County and the city of Bluffdale. As it leaves the Jordan Narrows it curves north as it passes just east of Turner Dam and the pumping stations while crossing over East Jordan Canal and the Jordan River. It then curves west as it continues on between the Jordan River on the east and 985 West and the Utah and Salt Lake Canal on the west. It then curves north again as it passes just west of the Joint Dam and then crosses over the South Jordan Canal. It then crosses back over the Jordan River and then the Jordan and Salt Lake City Canal. Continuing north, and slightly to the east, it parallels the South Jordan Canal, the South Jordan Canal Trail, and the Jordan River on the west. It then curves to the northeast, leaving Bluffdale and enters the city of Draper.
After entering Draper it continues its northeast course and reaches the Draper station. From there, it continues north, leaving Draper and enters the city of South Jordan. Continuing north, and still slightly to the east, FrontRunner crosses South Jordan Parkway (10600 South/SR-151) before reaching the next station, South Jordan. This station is located on the west side of I-15 from the South Towne Center Mall. From this station, the route heads north as it leaves South Jordan and enters the city of Sandy.
Just after entering Sandy, it crosses over to the east side of the Union Pacific tracks at a flying junction. Maintaining this course it leaves Sandy and enters the city of Midvale. After West Center Street it curves back once again to the north, and slightly to the east, and then crosses Jordan River Boulevard (7200 South/SR-151) at 560 West and continues on, running parallel to I-15 and passing the Union Pacific rail yard on the west, until it crosses under the I-15 on ramp from eastbound I-215 (Belt Route) as well as I-15 at 400 West. Just after crossing under I-15, FrontRunner leaves Midvale and enters the city of Murray.
TRAX connections
Frontrunner has three intermodal connections to TRAX, the local light rail train network. TRAX Serves Salt Lake County and has three lines: the Blue Line from Salt Lake Central to Draper, the Green Line from West Valley Central to Salt Lake International Airport, and the Red Line from University Medical Center to Daybreak Parkway. Frontrunner fare transfers to TRAX, but TRAX fare does not transfer to Frontrunner. Riders can, however, purchase Frontrunner fare at TRAX stations or online, and then use that to cover both portions of an intermodal trip.
Murray Central
Just northeast of the 5400 South crossing is the next station, Murray Central. This station is a transfer station to the TRAX Blue and Red Lines and the first of three transfer stations between FrontRunner and TRAX. This station is located at 140 West Vine Street (5100 South). The TRAX platform is directly east of the FrontRunner platform.
After this station, FrontRunner continues north, leaving Murray and entering the city of South Salt Lake. Continuing north, the route passes through South Salt Lake and enters Salt Lake City.
Salt Lake Central
Continuing north, FrontRunner passes through Salt Lake City and then curves slightly to the west, reaching Salt Lake Central (Salt Lake Intermodal Hub). This station is the second transfer station to the TRAX Blue Line, after Murray Central, and the second of three transfer stations between FrontRunner and TRAX. The FrontRunner part of this station is located at 250 South 600 West and the TRAX part at 325 South 600 West. The TRAX platform is directly east of the FrontRunner platform. (Salt Lake Central is the northern terminus for the TRAX Blue line, which runs south to Draper.)
Salt Lake Central is also one of four stops on Amtrak's California Zephyr in Utah.
North Temple Bridge/Guadalupe
From Salt Lake Central, FrontRunner continues north while passing on the west side of Salt Lake City. Immediately after crossing under the North Temple Street Viaduct, it reaches the next station, North Temple Bridge/Guadalupe. This station is a transfer station to the TRAX Green Line, with the TRAX platform is located on top of the North Temple Street Viaduct. (The TRAX Green Line runs west to the Salt Lake City International Airport and southwest to West Valley City via Downtown Salt Lake City.)
From North Temple Bridge/Guadalupe, FrontRunner continues northward through Salt Lake City, passing on the northeast side of the Warm Springs Service Center (UTA's maintenance facility for FrontRunner). At about 2400 North it leaves Salt Lake City and Salt Lake County and crosses into Davis County.
Davis County
Upon entering Davis County, FrontRunner also enters the city of North Salt Lake. Continuing north it passes through North Salt Lake and enters the city of Woods Cross. Still maintaining its course to the north and slightly to the east, it reaches the next station, Woods Cross, at 750 South 800 West. From this station it continues on its northeast course as it leaves Woods Cross and enters the city of West Bountiful. Passing northwest through West Bountiful, the route enters the city of Centerville as it continues north along the west side of I-15. Continuing north, it leaves Centerville and enters the city of Farmington Upon entering Farmington, the route continues north until it reaches the Farmington station, at 450 West 800 North. At the northwest end of this station it crosses under the pedestrian bridge (which allows passengers to cross over the FrontRunner and Union Pacific tracks which run between the station's passenger platform and the station's parking lot).
Following this station, FrontRunner leaves Farmington and enters the city of Kaysville. Continuing along the west side of I-15 it continues north, leaving Kaysville and entering the city of Layton. Immediately after crossing under Layton Parkway it reaches the next station, Layton at 150 South Main Street. Heading north from the station, continues north through Layton before leaving the city and entering the city of Clearfield.
Continuing northwest FrontRunner reaches the next station, Clearfield, at 1250 South State Street (SR-126. From this station the route continues northwest and then north as it passes through Clearfield. It then leaves Clearfield and enters the city of Clinton. Heading north it passes immediately west of the border between Clinton and the city of Sunset, then leaving Clinton and Davis County and enters Weber County.
Weber County
Upon entering Weber County, FrontRunner also enters the city of Roy, but briefly runs immediately west of the border between Roy and Sunset. Continuing north, it passes through the city before reaching the next station, Roy, at 4155 South Sandridge Drive. Just after this station the route continues north, leaving Roy and entering the city of Ogden.
Just after entering Ogden, FrontRunner crosses over the Weber River. After the Weber River it passes to the west of Ogden's Union Station, and then reaches the Ogden Central Station at 2350 South Wall Avenue. This station is the last stop on the northern end of FrontRunner.
Before service ended to Pleasant View in 2018. Frontrunner continued northwest from the Ogden Central Station, through Ogden. Just after crossing 17th Street (1700 South) at 450 West it curves back to the north again as FrontRunner tracks merge onto ones owned and operated by Union Pacific. Continuing north, it leaves Ogden and enters the city of Harrisville.
At 1000 North, immediately north of the Business Depot Ogden and immediately west of the tracks, are the Weber County Fairgrounds. From there, FrontRunner continues north, then running along the eastern border of Harrisville it continues its course north and slightly to the west. as it leaves Harrisville and enters the city of Pleasant View. At 2500 North, FrontRunner tracks diverge from the Union Pacific tracks. Further north is the last station and formerly the northern terminus, Pleasant View.
Fare rates and ridership
The current FrontRunner rates are one-way and distance-based. As of December 2019 the base fare is $2.50 (the same as regular bus fare), plus $0.60 per stop thereafter. The maximum fare charged one-way is $10.30. For seniors/disabled/Medicare, the base fare is $1.25, plus $0.30 per stop thereafter with a maximum fare of $5.15. There is also a promotional Group Pass which allows up to four riders of any age to ride together on FrontRunner, TRAX and local buses for $15. The Group Pass is valid starting at 8:30 a.m. and lasts to midnight. Monthly passes valid on FrontRunner, TRAX, local buses, and express buses are available for $198, or $148.50 to students. Agreements set between UTA and several universities (including Utah Valley University, Brigham Young University, and University of Utah) allow current students and faculty to travel on Front-runner fare-free by scanning their ID cards.
Rolling stock
FrontRunner uses 18 MPXpress (MP36PH-3C) locomotives from Motive Power International of Boise, Idaho, bi-level Bombardier cars, and had repainted 25 refurbished ex-New Jersey Transit Comet Is which entered service on September 17, 2008. Thirty ex-Metra gallery cars were given to UTA free of charge, but they were determined to be in too poor condition to refurbish, and were scrapped and used for spare parts for the Comet I cars. The Comet I cars were retired on April 18, 2022. The Comet I cars were put up for auction in October 2022, as a condition to receive federal grants to buy replacement cars. As of September 2023, the Comet I cars that were not sold for scrap were transported to Abilene and Smoky Valley Railroad.
Two months into service, UTA began receiving complaints about the number of bicycles on the trains. The Bombardier cars were designed to hold two bicycles near the rear doors of each train, but up to 15 bicycles per car were reported by some riders. UTA investigated options to increase capacity for bicycles, including more lockers at the stations. In January 2016 FrontRunner upgraded Bombardier Car 206 with new bike racks. The new racks increased the number of racks on a car from 9 to 15.
A typical FrontRunner trainset is composed of four units: a locomotive, two Bilevel coaches, and a Bilevel Cab Car.
Wireless internet is available on all FrontRunner cars free of charge.
Maintenance
All maintenance for the FrontRunner fleet (locomotives and cars) is provided at the Warm Springs Service Center which is located just west of 500 West at 900 North in Salt Lake City. The Service Center facility, which was purchased from Union Pacific in 2003, was originally built in 1955 at the location of the former Salt Lake City roadhouse. Union Pacific had previously stopped using the facility in 1998 after more than a decade of operating at less than capacity. Following the acquisition from Union Pacific the facility was modified and updated to meet UTA's current needs.
Operation
FrontRunner trains typically operate with the locomotive on the north end of the train (facing Ogden); cab control cars are used to operate southbound trains.
Train schedule
On weekdays the first northbound FrontRunner trains to Ogden Central Station leave Salt Lake Central Station at about 4:15 am and to Provo Station at about 5:00 am. The first southbound trains (to Provo Station) leave both Ogden Central Station and North Temple Bridge/Guadalupe stations at about 5:00 am. The last northbound train leaves Provo Station at 10:20 pm and the last southbound train leaves Ogden Central Station at 11:09. However, the last Northbound train only goes as far as North Temple/ Guadalupe Station. The last southbound train to Provo Station leaves Ogden Central Station at 10:39 pm. However, like the last Northbound train, the last southbound train only goes as far as the Salt Lake Central Station.
As of December 2, 2018, Friday late night trains run longer than the regular weekdays, but all trains going Northbound terminates at North Temple. Same type of situation as Southbound, except Southbound terminates at Salt Lake Central Station.
On Saturdays the first southbound train leaves North Temple Bridge/Guadalupe Station at about 6:00 am and the first northbound train leaves Salt Lake Central at about 6:45 am. The first northbound train leaves Provo Station at about 7:45 am and the first southbound train leaves Ogden Central Station at about 8:15 am. The last southbound train leaves Ogden Central Station at 1:09 am (Sunday morning) and the last northbound train leaves Provo Station at 1:20 am (Sunday morning). However, the last three trains only goes as far as either Salt Lake Central Station, going Southbound, or North Temple Station going Northbound. The last northbound train to Ogden Central Station leaves Provo Station at 10:50 pm and the last southbound train to Provo Station leaves Ogden Central Station at 10:09 pm.
FrontRunner runs every hour Monday through Saturday, with additional runs on the half hour for the weekday morning and evening commutes. FrontRunner also does special trips for big events in Salt Lake City and the surrounding community. As of December 2018, the FrontRunner still does not run on most of the hours of Sundays or holidays.
Stations
Notable Accidents
On January 24, 2017, a FrontRunner train impacted the front trailer of a FedEx double semi-trailer truck at a North Salt Lake crossing. The impact was of sufficient force to crush and split the trailer and fling its contents down the tracks. The crossing lights and gates did not operate during the train's approach so there was no warning to vehicles in the crossing. Furthermore, snow and ice were present at the time of the accident limiting visibility. There were no significant injuries in the accident. A police cruiser was in the opposite lane near the crossing with its dash camera active. The accident video was released to the media and quickly became popular. UTA investigated the incident and fired an employee after determining he had improperly raised the gates without following procedures that would have made the crossing safe.
On October 16, 2019, a FrontRunner train impacted an idle car on the tracks and threw it 30 feet after its driver suffered from a medical attack on Interstate 15. At the time, the train was traveling approximately 80 mph before emergency brakes were activated 3/4 mile ahead of the blockade by train operator Riley Nelson. The unconscious driver was pulled from the car moments before the train hit by Utah Highway Patrol Trooper Ruben Correa, who encountered the situation while on routine patrol. The train was still moving at around 30 MPH upon impact. Both the driver and the State Trooper's lives being saved was attributed to the FrontRunner being five minutes behind schedule and the operator's quick reaction.
See also
Transportation in Salt Lake City
TRAX
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
FrontRunner Fact Sheet (2008)
Frontlines 2015 FrontRunner South: Provo to SLC Fact Sheet
Official FrontRunner website
UTA FrontRunner schedule and map
Passenger rail transportation in Utah
Utah railroads
Commuter rail in the United States
Transportation in Salt Lake City
Wasatch Front
Transportation in Salt Lake County, Utah
Transportation in Davis County, Utah
Transportation in Weber County, Utah
Transportation in Utah County, Utah
Railway lines opened in 2008
Railway lines opened in 2012
2008 establishments in Utah
2012 establishments in Utah |
4324783 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise%20regulation | Noise regulation | Noise regulation includes statutes or guidelines relating to sound transmission established by national, state or provincial and municipal levels of government. After the watershed passage of the United States Noise Control Act of 1972, other local and state governments passed further regulations.
A noise regulation restricts the amount of noise, the duration of noise and the source of noise. It usually places restrictions for certain times of the day.
Although the United Kingdom and Japan enacted national laws in 1960 and 1967 respectively, these laws were not at all comprehensive or fully enforceable as to address generally rising ambient noise, enforceable numerical source limits on aircraft and motor vehicles or comprehensive directives to local government.
Quiet hours are times during a day or night when there are placed tighter restrictions on unnecessary or bothersome noise. They vary between jurisdictions and areas, but are typically in place during night-time, for example between 23:00 and 07:00, so as not to interfere with residents sleep. Some noise measurement standards which takes into account different times of the day are the American day-night average sound level (Ldn) standard or the European day–evening–night noise level (Lden) standard. Some jurisdictions also have wider noise restrictions in the weekends or on certain public holidays. Industrial or nightlife areas may be exempt or have fewer restrictions, while private institutions, hotels and universities may place additional restrictions on their guests.
History
United States initial legislation
In the 1960s and earlier, few people recognized that citizens might be entitled to be protected from adverse sound level exposure. Most concerted actions consisted of citizens groups organized to oppose a specific highway or airport, and occasionally a nuisance lawsuit would arise. Things in the United States changed rapidly with passage of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) in 1969 and the Noise Pollution and Abatement Act, more commonly called the Noise Control Act (NCA), in 1972. Passage of the NCA was remarkable considering the lack of historic organized citizen concern. However, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had testified before Congress that 30 million Americans are exposed to non-occupational noise high enough to cause hearing loss and 44 million Americans live in homes impacted by aircraft or highway noise.
NEPA requires all federally funded major actions to be analyzed for all physical environmental impacts including noise pollution, and the NCA directed the EPA to promulgate regulations for a host of noise emissions. Many city ordinances prohibit sound above a threshold intensity from trespassing over property line at night, typically between 9 p.m. to 7 a.m., and during the day restricts it to a higher sound level; however, enforcement is uneven. Many municipalities do not follow up on complaints. Even where a municipality has an enforcement office, it may only be willing to issue warnings, since taking offenders to court is expensive. A notable exception to this rule is the City of Portland, Oregon, which has instituted an aggressive protection for its citizens with fines reaching as high at $5000 per infraction, with the ability to cite a responsible noise violator multiple times in a single day.
Under the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970, employers are responsible for providing safe and healthful workplaces for their employees. OSHA's role is to ensure these conditions for America's working men and women by setting and enforcing standards, and providing training, education and assistance. The same Act charges the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) with recommending occupational safety and health standards. NIOSH communicates these recommended standards to regulatory agencies (including OSHA) and to others in the occupational safety and health community through the publication and dissemination of Criteria Documents such as the Criteria for A Recommended Standard - Occupational Noise Exposure.
Follow-up on initial U.S. laws
Initially these laws had a significant effect on thoughtful study of transportation programs and also federally funded housing programs in the United States. They also gave states and cities an impetus to consider environmental noise in their planning and zoning decisions, and led to a host of statutes below the federal level. Awareness of the need for noise control was rising. In fact, by 1973 a national poll of 60,000 U.S. residents found that sixty percent of people considered street noise to have a "disturbing, harmful or dangerous" impact.
This trend continued strongly throughout the 1970s in the U.S., with about half of the states and hundreds of cities passing substantive noise control laws. The EPA coordinated all federal noise control activities through its Office of Noise Abatement and Control. The EPA phased out the office's funding in 1982 as part of a shift in federal noise control policy to transfer the primary responsibility of regulating noise to state and local governments. However, the Noise Control Act of 1972 and the Quiet Communities Act of 1978 were never rescinded by Congress and remain in effect today, although essentially unfunded.
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulates aircraft noise by specifying the maximum noise level that individual civil aircraft can emit through requiring aircraft to meet certain noise certification standards. These standards designate changes in maximum noise level requirements by "stage" designation. The U.S. noise standards are defined in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 14 Part 36 – Noise Standards: Aircraft Type and Airworthiness Certification (14 CFR Part 36). The FAA also pursues a program of aircraft noise control in cooperation with the aviation community.
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) developed noise regulations to control highway noise as required by the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1970. The regulations requires promulgation of traffic noise-level criteria for various land use activities, and describe procedures for the abatement of highway traffic noise and construction noise.
Nevertheless, some states continued to act. California carried out an ambitious plan to require its cities to establish a "Noise Element of the General Plan," which provides guidance for land planning decisions to minimize noise impacts on the public. Many cities throughout the U.S. also have noise ordinances, which specifies the allowable sound level that can cross property lines. These ordinances can be enforced with local police powers.
Japan
Japan actually passed the first national noise control act, but its scope was much more limited than the U.S. law, addressing mainly workplace and construction noise.
Europe and Asia
Several European countries emulated the U.S. national noise control law: Netherlands (1979), France (1985), Spain (1993), and Denmark (1994). In some cases unlegislated innovations have led to quieter products exceeding legal mandates (for example, hybrid vehicles or best available technology in washing machines). Environmental noise is a special definition in the European directive 2002/49/EC article 10.1.
Local noise ordinances in U.S. and Europe
Local ordinances are principally aimed at construction noise, power equipment operated by individuals and unmuffled industrial noise penetrating residential areas. Thousands of U.S. cities have prepared noise ordinances that give noise control officers and police the power to investigate noise complaints and enforcement power to abate the offending noise source, through shutdowns and fines. In the 1970s and early 1980s there was even a professional association for noise enforcement officers called NANCO, "National Association of Noise Control Officials."
Today only a handful of properly trained Noise Control Officers remain in the United States. A typical noise ordinance sets forth clear definitions of acoustic nomenclature and defines categories of noise generation; then numerical standards are established, so that enforcement personnel can take the necessary steps of warnings, fines or other municipal police power to rectify unacceptable noise generation. Ordinances have achieved certain successes but they can be thorny to implement. Many European cities are still treating noise as the U.S. did in the 1960s, as a nuisance and not as a numerical standard to be achieved.
Effects of Noise on Health and Welfare
One obligation of a community is to protect its citizens from adverse environmental influences. Noise is one of these factors, Noise has documented effects on people, they can be divided into three types. The first type is a physical effect that directly and adversely effects a person's health. Hearing loss and vibration of bodily components are examples. The second type is a physiological effect that adversely effects a person's health; heightened blood pressure and general stress response are examples. The third type is psychological that adversely effects a person's welfare; examples are distraction, annoyance, and complaint.
The only feasible legal basis for a community's right to control noise is based on these adverse health and welfare effects. It is clearly easier to uphold the constitutionality of a noise ordinance in a court of law if it can be shown that it is based on health and welfare concerns. The following is a short list of recognized effects of noise that can be addressed as a reason for a noise ordinance.
Excess non-Occupational noise exposure, hearing loss on both public and private property, speech interference on both public and private property, audio interference on both public and private property, and sleep interference on mostly private property.
Some legal considerations in the United States
There are several fundamental issues that shape the legality, effectiveness and enforceability of any community noise regulation.
Preemption
The federal government has preempted certain areas of noise regulation. They can be found in the Code of Federal Regulations under the EPA Noise Abatement Programs; Parts 201 to 205 and 211 cover railroads, motor carriers in interstate commerce, construction equipment, and motor vehicles. They require product labeling and prohibit tampering with noise control devices. Communities may enact regulations that are no more strict than the federal ones so that local enforcement can be carried out. They can enact curfews and restrict vehicle use in established zones such as residential. Any restriction on interstate motor carriers or railroads may NOT be for the purpose of noise control.
States have police powers granted by the Constitution. They may also enact regulations that are no more strict than federal regulations. They may also preempt local ordinances. California and New Jersey have comprehensive noise codes that communities must meet. Many states required that local ordinances be no more strict than the state code whether such code exists or not. One relatively common preemption is protection of shooting ranges from noise regulation or litigation and right to farm laws that protect agricultural areas from nuisance litigation by encroaching residential areas.
Constitutional vagueness
In one state court case, the court declared that numerical sound levels were constitutional as not void for vagueness, as the term plainly audible provided it was associated with a reasonable distance. Two requirements for a noise ordinance provision is that:
provide fair warning
avoid the possibility of arbitrary enforcement
Overbreadth
In one Supreme Court case the court ruled that the specificity of the city ordinance regulating school verbal protests was not constitutionally vague, gave fair warning, and was not an invitation to arbitrary enforcement and so was not overbroad, despite the implied limitation on free speech.
Nuisance
Nuisance law applies to both community noise regulation as well as private suits brought to court to reduce noise impact.
Enforceability
Care must be taken in writing a subjective noise provision so that it overcomes the objections listed above. Care must be taken when writing an objective noise provision to make sure that the sound levels are physically realizable. For example, requiring the maximum sound level of an automobile to be 40 dB(A) or the maximum sound level in a residential zone to be 30 dB(A) opens the provision to an enforceability challenge.
Four types of noise regulation
Fixed sound sources must be treated differently than moving sources. In the former case, the listener is normally defined while for moving sources it is not. Historically, regulations were enforced by the subjective judgment of an enforcing officer. With the advent of sound measuring equipment, the judgment can be based on measured sound levels. Most comprehensive noise ordinances contain four types of provisions.
Subjective Emission
These regulations allow an official to decide if the output of a sound source is acceptable without recourse to sound measurements and without regard to the presence of a specific listener. Regulations with plainly audible terms on public property as a criterion are examples.
Subjective Immission
These regulations allow an official to decide if the sound received by a listener is acceptable without recourse to sound measurements and without regard for the specific sound power generated by the source. Regulations with plainly audible or noise disturbance terms on private property as a criterion are examples.
Objective Emission
These regulations require an official to measure the output of a sound source to determine whether it is acceptable without regard to the presence of a specific listener. Regulations with specific maximum sound output levels for motor vehicles are examples.
Objective Immission
These regulations require an official to measure the sound received by a listener to determine whether it is acceptable without regard to the specific sound power generated by the source. Regulations with maximum allowable sound levels on property lines are examples
Independence Day
Some definitions used in the United States
Many communities have definitions that are local to them, such as those defining motor vehicles and sound levels and sound level measurements. Some that have been added to make noise enforcement more specific are listed here.
Engine braking device
A compression braking device installed on large motor vehicles to assist in reduction, or control, of vehicle speed. When activated, the engine converts from a power source to a power absorber by converting the engine into an air compressor.
Muffler
Any device for the abatement of sound emission while permitting the transfer of gas. A muffler is considered to be in good working order if the sound reduction is equal to, or greater than, that of the original equipment.
Noise disturbance
Any sound or vibration which:
may disturb or annoy reasonable persons of normal sensitivities or;
causes, or tends to cause, an adverse effect on the public health and welfare or;
endangers or injures people or;
endangers or injures personal or real property.
This can also be defined as noise nuisance.
Place of public entertainment
Any location, exterior, or interior, to a building that regularly permits public entrance for entertainment purposes. For this purpose, “public” means citizens of all types, including but not limited to, children, and private or public employees.
Plainly audible sound
Any sound for which the information content is unambiguously communicated to the listener, such as, but not limited to, understandable speech, comprehension of whether a voice is raised or normal, repetitive bass sounds, or comprehension of musical rhythms, without the aid of any listening device.
Powered model vehicle
Any self-propelled airborne, water-borne, or land-borne, plane, vessel, or vehicle, which is not designed to carry persons, including, but not limited to, any model airplane, boat, car, or rocket.
Real property boundary
An imaginary line along the ground surface, and its vertical extension, which separates the real property owned by one person from that owned by another person, but not including intra-building real property divisions.
Sound reproduction device
Any device, instrument, mechanism, equipment or apparatus for the amplification of any sounds from any radio, phonograph, stereo, tape player, musical instrument, television, loudspeaker or other sound-making or sound-producing device or any device or apparatus for the reproduction or amplification of the human voice or other sound.
Vibration perception threshold
The minimum ground or structure borne vibrational motion necessary to cause a person of normal sensitivity to be aware of the motion through contact, hearing, or through visual observation of moving things.
Ordinance provisions for stationary sources in the United States
there are three levels of regulation for stationary sound sources. The most basic is the general one associated with noise disturbance. (See Noise Disturbance below.) It is a very broad subjective immission control that has evolved from earlier disturbance of the peace provisions. Subjectivity can lead to arbitrary enforcement. The next level of regulation is less broad; it is an objective immission control that uses specific levels of sound considered to be a noise disturbance. Arbitrary enforcement is reduced. (See Maximum Permissible Sound Levels below.) In both cases, however, the person creating the sound may not be aware that his actions are in violation. The concept that a potential violator should have fair warning that his actions are in violation has led to provisions that address specific noise problems. The sections below list those that are found in community noise ordinances.
Air conditioning, heating and pool equipment
This provision is a subjective immission control. An evaluation of the noise disturbance is made at the listener without a sound level meter. This provision is mostly applied in residential zones such as homes, apartments and condominiums. Albuquerque, NM (Article 9-9) requires that such units the maximum permissible sound levels (Se section below) and recommend that those units be placed away from other residential units or on roof tops to diminish impact.
Airport and airport operations
Community control of airport created noise is limited to those sounds not related to flight operations. The community is able to control the land use around the airport however.
Animals
This provision is a subjective immission control. Most relate to barking dogs and put an upper time limit for continuous sound from them. New Jersey (Chapter 13:1G) considers a violation if the sound is continuous for more than 5 minutes or intermittent for more than 20 minutes. They also consider it a defense to violation if the animal is provoked to bark. Connecticut (Chapter 442)exempts animal sounds while Anchorage, AK (Chapter 15.70) requires that continual violations permit the animal to be taken and put out for adoption.
Authorized outdoor discharge of firearms and shooting ranges
This provision contains only a curfew since most states protect shooting ranges from liability for noise disturbance. It can include a curfew requirement and a requirement for a public hearing if expansion of the range is desired. The provision may prohibit other weapons such as rocket propelled projectiles but may exempt unpowered weapons such as arrows. South Carolina (title 31 Chapter 18) requires that a sign stating SHOOTING RANGE-NOISE AREA be placed on all primary roads. Arizona (ARS 17-602) places a curfew from 10pm to 7 am. It also allows a tradeoff between the number of events and the maximum permitted sound level. New York (Chapter 150) also trades off overall levels with the duration of the sounds. Colorado (Article 25-12-109) declared that noise restrictions on shooting ranges is a detriment to public health, welfare, and morale.
Condominiums and apartments
This provision is a subjective immission control. It is designed to limit the noise disturbance between living units as defined by an enforcement official. One criterion used to evaluate that disturbance is use of plainly audible but at the location of the listener instead of at a specific distance. However, Charlotte, NC (Sec. 15-69) limits indoor levels to 55 dB(A) between 9am to 9pm and 5 dB less at other times, but only from sound reproducing devices. Salt Lake Valley Health Department (Chapter 4), Minneapolis, MN (Chapter 389), and Albuquerque, NM (Article 9) use levels to existing ambient to define a violation. Albuquerque NM and Omaha, NE (Chapter 17) require that intruding sounds not be audible. Burlington, VT (Chapter 18) requires that renters be supplied with the city noise ordinance.
In New York City specifically, the neighbor-to-neighbor noise issue is predominantly based on the average living situation. Due to the fact that most residents either live above, below, or directly next to their neighbors NYC building codes require the "acoustical isolation of dwelling units." Through the use of thick concrete walls or flooring to make sure the condo or cooperative is able to pass a warranty of habitability each unit must be able to withstand a certain amount of noise.
Construction
This provision can be both a subjective immission control and an objective emission control. Normally there are daily curfews and in some case weekend curfews. The subjective aspect is to prevent noise disturbance in the adjacent community. The objective aspect is to control the sound output of specific machines. There are four major sources of site noise: (1) direct sound from continually operating equipment such as air compressors; (2) intermittent sound from equipment such as jack hammers;(3)backup alarms; and (4) hauling equipment such as trucks. Air compressor noise is regulated by CFR 204 and backup alarms are regulated by CFR 1926. Boston, MA(Section 16–26.4) permits construction on weekdays between 7am and 6 pm. Madison, WI (Chapter 24.08) limits sound levels to 88 dB(A) at 50 Feet. Miami, FL (Section 36-6) considers the noise a noise disturbance if it occurs between 6pm and 8am during the week and any time on Sunday. Dallas, TX (Section 30-2 (9)) permits construction in residential zones from 7am to 7pm on weekdays, from 9am to 7pm on Saturdays and Holidays, and prohibits construction on Sundays. Albuquerque, New Mexico (Section 9-9-8) has a more complex control. It prohibits construction and demolition within 500 feet of noise sensitive properties (residences included) if the equipment sound control devices are less effective than the original equipment and if noise mitigation measures are not used when the levels exceed 90 dB (weighting not specified) or more than 80 dB during the day for three days.
Domestic and commercial power tools
This provision is a subjective immission control with a curfew. It is used in residential zones as well as in commercial areas abutting residential zones. Portland, OR (Title 18.10.030) has several ways to handle these tools. They separate outdoor and indoor use to different maximum levels at the property line. They have a night curfew and separate 5 HP tools from higher powered tools. Madison WI (Chapter 24.08) has similar HP restrictions. Albuquerque, NM (Title 9-9-7) restricts locations to more than 500 feet from residential and noise sensitive zones. Dallas, TX(Sec. 30-2) exempts lawn maintenance tools during daylight hours. Green Bay, WI (Subchapter II – 27.201) exempts snow removal tools.
Explosives, firearms, impulsive sources, and similar devices
This provision is a subjective immission control with a curfew. It is for impulsive sound sources that are not associated with construction activities or shooting ranges. Many communities use the Maximum Permissible Sound Levels criterion (see below), with a correction for the character of the sound. Illinois () sets maximum blasting levels by land use zone and in three time categories. Portland, OR (Section 18.10.010.F) limits levels to 100 dB (peak) from 7am to 10pm and 80 dB (peak) from 10pm to 7 am.
Fracking operations
Hydraulic Fracturing operations generate site sound as well as vehicle sound and several different provisions are required to control it. Federal law regulates the levels of certain site machinery. A subjective immission control or an objective immission control can be applied to surrounding neighborhoods. See maximum Permissible Sound Levels. Motor vehicle sound is mostly off-site so vehicle noise regulations are applicable. See Motor Vehicles on a Public Right-of-way.
The State of New York has announced a statewide ban on such operations. Buffalo, NY and Pittsburgh, PA have announced a ban. Colorado has numerous activities to stop fracking.
Funerals
This is a subjective emission control to reduce the excessive shouting and protests that can surround funeral proceedings. It makes use of the plainly audible term and so adds a distance criterion. There are certain groups, particularly those that object to involvement in foreign wars, who believe it is an obligation to disrupt and picket funerals, especially those of deceased military veterans. This provision must not infringe on Constitutionally protected free speech. Illinois h(720 ILCS 5/26 6)has a comprehensive provision covering more aspects of this event than noise. They failed to use “plainly audible” which is narrower than “audible”. Utah(Section 76-9-108) restricts disruptive activity to beyond 200 feet.
Loading and unloading operations
This provision is a subjective immission control with a curfew. Operations in commercial facilities can impact adjacent residential zones. Los Angeles, CA (Section 114.03) places a curfew on such operations between 10pm and 7am but only if the source is within 200 feet of a residence. Chicago, IL (Section 11-4-2830) permits night operations unless they create a noise disturbance. Hammond, IN (Section 6.2.6) prohibits noise disturbance between 7pm and 7am.
Maximum permissible sound pressure levels
This provision is an objective immission control. It requires the measurement of sound levels at or beyond a property line and its vertical extension. There are several methods for implementing such a provision:
It may not permit any exceedence or may permit exceedence only for a percentage of the measurement period.
It may require the measurement method to be instantaneous, such as dB(A) or time-averaged, such as Energy Equivalent Level (Leq).
It may be a fixed level limit, such as 55 dB(A), or it may be a level relative to the ambient sound, such as 5 dB(A) above the ambient.
It may require measurement of the frequency spectrum, such as one octave bands, or A-weighting, such as dB(A).
It may define different maximum levels based on zoning criteria, such as residential, commercial, or industrial.
It may define different maximum levels based on time-of-day or day-of-week, such as reduced maxima during night hours or on weekends.
It may require reduction of maximum levels based on the character of the sound, such as intermittent or impulsive.
It may exempt certain classes of sound sources, such as shooting ranges, farm equipment, emergency equipment, railroads, or licensed activities.
Most noise ordinances set maximum levels for two time periods: Day (7am to 10pm) and Night (10pm to 7am). San Diego (Article 9.25)sets three periods: Day (7am to 7pm), Evening (7pm to 10pm), and Night (10pm to 7am) and exempts industrial zones from time based restrictions. Seattle, WA (Chapter 25.08) sets two time periods but changes 7am to 9am on weekends and holidays. Several states have maximum permissible land use sound levels in dB(A). Most have Day and Night periods and three use categories: residential, Commercial and Industrial. Washington (Chapter 70.107) sets maximum levels in dB(A) but allows 5 dB(A) more if the sound is only 15 minutes in an hour, or 10 dB(A) for 5 minutes in an hour. Numerous cities have fixed levels, permitting excess levels for short times (e.g., Dallas, TX, Chapter 30) while others use Leq (Lincoln, NE, Chapter 8.24). Los Angeles, CA (Chapter XI) uses a relative level with a stated but presumed ambient. New York City, NY (Chapter 19) requires Leq measurements to be made over one hour. Atlanta, GA () limits impulsive sound to 100 dB(C) at property lines, while most reduce the maximum level by 5 dB for pure tones and impulsive sounds.
Motor vehicle or motorboat repairs and testing
This provision is a subjective immission control with a curfew. If the activity is done in a residential zone, the Domestic Tools provision can be applied for the repairs, but this provision also is used for the testing phase of any repairs. Los Angeles, CA (Section 114.01) covers this violation in three ways. The first is application of the noise disturbance provision in residential districts between the hours of 8 pm to 8 am. The second is being plainly audible at a distance of 150 feet or more in residential districts between the hours of 8 pm to 8 am. The third is exceeding the presumed ambient by 5 dB. Hammond, IN (Section 6.2.7) prohibits this activity as a noise disturbance at any time.
Noise disturbance prohibited
This provision is a subjective immission control. This provision is generic in that it covers all events that are considered disturbing by a listener, with or without measurement. The strength of this provision is that it covers situations not contemplated in a noise ordinance and can be used as backup for more specific provisions. The weakness is that it may not give fair warning, may lead to arbitrary enforcement on the part of the regulator, or permit unreasonable demands by a listener.
Noise sensitive zones
This provision is a subjective immission control. It is used to reduce levels of both stationary and vehicular sound sources around hospitals, schools, and other noise sensitive locations. To provide fair warning visible signs must be posted. It is possible to have an extensive list. For example, if churches are on the list and the community has many of them, signage, compliance, and enforcement can be a problem. In modern hospital environments, helicopter sound is exempt.
Places of public entertainment
This provision is an objective immission control. It regulates the site of the sound source while the Sound Reproduction Devices section regulates the devices that create the sound. It can regulate the sound levels received by involuntary listeners in the surrounding community as well as the sound levels received by voluntary listeners. If the latter aspect is incorporated, limiting internal sound levels often resolves community noise impact. Los Angeles (Article 2, Section 112.06)requires warning signs and limits noise exposure to 95 dB(A) at any position normally occupied. Seattle, WA {Section 25.08.501} considers the sound emitted to be in violation if the sound is plainly audible within a dwelling from 10 pm to 7am; the need for a sound level meter is avoided. Chicago, IL {Section 11-4-2805} limits received sound levels to 55 dB(A) inside a residential dwelling unit but if the ambient is greater, the limit is 65 dB(A). If outdoors, the limit is conversational level at 100 feet from the property line. If the building is set back 20 feet from the property line, the allowable level is 84 dB(A)! Both of Chicago's limits apply from 10 pm to 8 am. Salt Lake health Department, UT {Section 4.5.11.(vii)} sets the limit at 95 dB(A) at a position that would normally be occupied by a patron and 100 dB(A) at other positions. They also require a sign stating WARNING: SOUND LEVELS ON THIS PREMISE [sic] MAY CAUSE PERMANENT HEARING DAMAGE. HEARING PROTECTION IS AVAILABLE. Anchorage, AK (Section 15.70.060.B.12) sets maximum levels for any patron at 90 dB(A).
Powered unmanned vehicles or engines
This provision is a subjective immission control with a curfew. It has been used to regulate the sound of model aircraft on both private and public property. It applies to airborne, water-borne, and land-borne, unmanned vehicles. It makes no distinction between model vehicles and full-size unmanned vehicles. it applies also to the engines of those vehicles. Most regulations pertained to private unmanned vehicles, normally restricted to local open fields. The development of drones with microphones, cameras and GPS has opened the door to commercial use over wider private and public properties. Since federal preemption of drone use will likely occur, it is important for this provision to make the distinction. Salt Lake Health Department (Section 4.5.15) limits activity to 800 feet from a dwelling between 10 pm and 7 am, or if it cases a noise disturbance. Atlanta, GA (Section 74-136(b)) uses the plainly audible criterion across a residential property line, on a public property from 10 pm to 7 am on weekdays or from 10 pm to 10 am on weekends or holidays for any sound source.
Propane cannons
This provision is a subjective immission control with a curfew. A propane cannon is used to keep animals and birds from destroying commercial crops. In large fields, many are used and fired as frequent intervals. The sound levels are equivalent to the firing of a small artillery cannon. The provision may contain requirements that limit the number of cannons permitted in a specific area and the number firings per hour for each cannon. Many US states have a Right to Farm Act that limits nuisance litigation. Florida stated that it was a purpose of their act to protect reasonable agricultural activities conducted on farm land from nuisance suits. They also added a section that limited expand of operations without consideration of noise. Fairfax County, VA (Sections 105-4-4 and 108-5-1) require agricultural operation to meet maximum land use regulations and prohibit unnecessary noise. British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture (Farm Nuisance Noise document) have developed a comprehensive set of rules for cannon use.
Public address systems
This provision is a subjective immission control. It can contain a plainly audible term or a curfew. It is applied to commercial facilities using a sound system to deliberately propagate mostly speech, but also music. Most cities have provisions relevant to this subject. Lakewood, CO (Sections 9.52.06 and 09.52.160) used plainly audible as a regulatory tool and prohibits the sounding of bells, or chimes from 10pm to 7am. Charlotte, NC (Section 15-69(a)(4)) limits levels to 60 dB(A) at 50 feet from 9am to 9pm and 50 dB(A) at other times. Indianapolis, IN (Section 391-505) addresses broadcasts from aircraft. Connecticut (Section 22a-69-1.7) exempts bells, carillons, and chimes from religious facilities.
Sound reproduction devices
This provision is subjective immission control. It may contain a numerical level or a plainly audible term and a curfew. it is applied to specific sources of sound as opposed to any location at which the sound is created. It is applied primarily to amplified sound sources. Older provisions listed several items such as televisions, phonographs, etc. Changing the title to the above addresses the real issue and allows for novel sound production devices. Numerous communities have provisions for these devices; many use plainly audible as the criterion, such as Omaha, NE (Section 17-3) and Buffalo NY (Section 293-4)
Stadiums and outdoor music festivals
This provision can be either a subjective or objective immission control with a curfew. The subjective aspect relates to noise disturbance in the local community. The objective aspect limits the acceptable sound level in the local community. Illinois (Environmental Protection Act 415.25) exempts certain stadiums and exempts festivals, parades, or street fairs. Colorado Spring, CO (Section 9.8.101) has similar exemptions, but limits the sound levels to 80 dB(A) at residential locations.
Stationary emergency signaling devices
This provision is an emission control with a list of devices that are exempt. It can have a term that limits the time periods in which emergency alarms may be tested. It can have a term that limits the activation time of burglar or fire alarms. Chicago, IL (Section 11-4-2815) limits the time for tests to 4 minutes between 9am and 5pm. Oregon (Chapter 467) prohibits sound when an emergency vehicle is stationary.
Stationary non-emergency non-safety signaling devices
This provision is an emission control that limits the activation period of alarms and restricts activation to a specific time-of-day or day-of-week. Los Angeles, CA () prohibits the sounding if the signal can be heard at 200 feet or more. Chicago, IL (Section 11-4-2820) considers the sound to be a noise disturbance in residential areas if the sound exceeds 5 minutes in any hour; steam whistles are exempt. Albuquerque, NM (Section 9-9-12) restricts levels to 5 dB over the ambient at a property line and applies maximum permissible residential level as well as plainly audible restrictions at night.
Street sales
This provision is a subjective immission control with a curfew. Boston, MA (Section 16–2.2) prohibits street sales near schools or churches if there is a “disturbance of the peace”. Hammond, IN (Section 6.2.4) places a curfew between 6 pm and 9 am.
Tampering
This provision prevents the modification of muffling devices that increase the emitted sound. It can also be used to prevent the commercial sale of such mufflers. Most states and communities have prohibitions on tampering with noise reduction devices. whether stationary or moving. Salt Lake County health Department (Section 4.5.10) prohibits modifications of mufflers that increase sound levels and prohibits tampering with noise rating labels. See Section below on Adequate Mufflers.
Vibration
This provision is a subjective emission control. Noise disturbance caused by vibration comes in three forms. One is contact with vibrating surfaces, the second in auditory, and the third is the observation of surrounding objects movement. Objectively regulating vibration is difficult so this provision makes use of the Vibration Perception Threshold. Railroad caused vibration is preempted by federal law (CFR 201). Chicago, IL (Section 11-4-2910) uses the perception threshold method. Dallas, TX requires measurement of low frequency vibration. Maryland uses the definition of noise to include sound and vibration at sub-audible frequencies.
Wind turbines
The sound created by wind turbines is caused by the blade rotation similar to aircraft propellers. Because the rotation rate is low, the frequency is also low, but the large size of many can result in disturbing sound levels, particularly in high wind areas. Most local control is done by advantageous site planning. New Hampshire (Title LXIV, Section 674:63) sets a sound level limit of 55 dB when measured at the site property line, allowing for exceptional events, such as storms. Studies have declared that wind noise can have a negative effect on health.
Ordinance provisions for moving vehicles in the United States
Stationary sources have fixed positions, so it is possible to define the listeners and therefore immission controls are appropriate. Motor vehicles are moving sources so it is not possible to define any specific listeners so emission controls are appropriate. There are exceptions to this distinction. Construction equipment, and some recreation vehicles, move within a bounded area and can be considered to be time varying fixed sources. Standing motor vehicles can radiate sufficient sound to create noise disturbance. These must be treated by specific provisions.
Adequate mufflers or sound dissipation devices
This provision is an objective emission control. Unlike the Tampering provision, this is specific to motor vehicles. It requires that a vehicle muffler not create more sound than the original equipment which has been measured. It prohibits any modification or replacement that increases the sound emission beyond that of the original equipment. It prohibits the sale of mufflers that do not meet original equipment standards. Many states have requirements that a muffler shall be in good working order which is not specific enough. California (Section 27150.1)) requires that a retail seller that sells a product in violation of the muffler regulation must install a replacement muffler that meets the regulation and must reimburse the purchaser for the expense of replacement.
Airboats and hovercraft
This provision is both an "objective emission control and a subjective immission control. It can set a maximum sound level at a specified distance (typically 50 feet). It can have a curfew. It can be based on noise disturbance in the community. It can also require the use of ear protectors on passengers. Unlike motorboats, the sound generators on these vehicles are airborne, resulting in more noise impact. Florida (Section 327.65) requires a maximum level of 90 DB(A). Maine (Title 12 Section 13068-A)has three levels: operating, operating test and stationary test
Engine braking devices
This provision is an emission control. It can restrict brake use for only safety purposes and by defining restricted areas. It can require that mufflers be maintained to keep emitted sound to that of the original equipment. Common terminology is Jake brakes after the Jacobs Company. Milwaukee, Wi (Section 80-69) prohibits use within city limits. Portland, OR (Section 18.10.020.B.3) prohibits use within 200 feet of a residence. Albuquerque, NM posts signs requiring proper mufflers.
Motorboats
This provision is both an objective emission control and a subjective immission control.
Because they are moving sources, objective controls are appropriate for measurements on open waterways. Many motorboats operate in bounding areas, such as small lakes or canals, with adjacent residential areas. In this case, immission controls are appropriate. California (Section 654.05), Portland OR (Section 18.10.040), and Seattle, WA (Section 25.08.485) require immission measurements to be made at the shoreline. Many states require emission measurements to be made at 50 feet.
Motor vehicle horns or signaling devices
This provision is both a prohibition and an emission control. it limits to use for safety warning only.. It limits the sound level to a specific level at a prescribed distance. This provision is intended to limit horn use to safety and to limit the use of excessively loud air horns or Rumbler or Howler horns. California prohibits a person operating a motor vehicle to wear a headset or earplugs on both ears. Oregon (Section 820.370) prohibits signaling sound when an emergency vehicle is stationary or returning from an emergency
Motor vehicles on a public right-of-way
This provision is an objective emission control. It applies maximum sound levels to various categories of moving vehicles and for several vehicle speeds. It is the backbone of vehicle sound emission regulations. It generally requires a measurement of A-weighted sound level of a moving vehicle at a specific distance from the vehicle path (normally 50 feet). This provision has level restrictions on trucks over 10,000 GVW used locally and in interstate commerce. It also covers motorcycles of two horsepower ratings, mopeds, and all other vehicles on public rights-of-way. The federal government has set maximum levels for heavy trucks used in interstate commerce (40 CFR 202)and for motorcycles (40 CFR 205). Most states and many cities have maximum limits and they generally agree with federal standards where they apply. The most common speed division is 35 mph.
Motor vehicle racing events
This provision is an objective emission control. It can define the method of vehicle operation that is used to define the maximum permitted sound level. It can have a curfew. Some states exempt motor vehicle racing events from noise disturbance litigation or prosecution. Arizona (Section 28-955.03) exempts racing motorcycles from maximum sound levels and muffler requirements. Illinois {Section 35.903} had detailed regulations on racing vehicles It required a 14 dB reduction in sound output, limited sound output at half mater to 115 dB(A), and no more than 105 dB(A) at 50 feet.
Cars Must Be Loud
Motor vehicle theft alarms
This provision is a subjective emission control with only an operational time limit. Los Angeles, CA () requires silencing in 5 minutes. New York City, NY (Section 24.221(d)) requires automatic shut-off after 10 minutes and a prominent display of the local precinct number and telephone number. Boston, MA (Section 16–26.2) considers it a violation if the alarm is plainly audible at 200 feet and is on more than 5 minutes. Other states and communities have automatic shutoff times from 10 to 15 minutes. Some communities have banned such alarms.
Motor vehicle tire squeal and street drag racing
This provision is a subjective immission control. It is based on the noise disturbance from drag racing and tire squealing on public rights-of-way. Illinois (625 ILCS 5/11-505) prohibits such activities. Hammond, IN (Section 6.2.14) prohibits such activity if it creates a noise disturbance.
Railroads
Railroad activity is subject to federal regulations. Most communities do not attempt to regulate train sound. The level of train horns permitted by the Federal Railroad Administration sufficiently high that community impact occurs. One method to alleviate this sound is to have a community establish a quiet zone where the rail crossings meet federal safety standards so that horn use is not needed.
Recreational off-road vehicles
This provision is both an objective emission control and a subjective immission control with a curfew. It can apply to both public and private properties. Since these vehicles can move in large open areas, an objective control, limiting maximum sound levels at a fixed distance, is appropriate. Since they also can move in bounded areas near residences, a subjective control is appropriate. Numerous states and cities have emission controls measured at 50 feet; the most common level is 82 dB(A), which is similar to that for motor vehicles on public rights-of-way. Colorado Springs, CO (Section 9.8.204.C) requires a minimum distance of 660 feet from residences. Portland, OR (Section 18.10.020.C) requires the area must be designated for recreational vehicle use. Salt Lake health Department, UT (Section 4.5.10(x)) requires off-highway vehicles to be at least 800 feet from a dwelling during the day and has a curfew from 10 pm to 7 am. They prohibit any noise disturbance and require sound levels to the less than 96 dB(A) at 50 feet.
Recreational snowmobiles
This provision is both an objective emission control and a subjective immission control with a curfew. It can apply to both public and private properties. Since these vehicles can move in large open areas, an objective control, limiting maximum sound levels at a fixed distance is appropriate. Since they also can move in bounded areas near residences, a subjective control is appropriate. Numerous states and communities have objective controls; the most common maximum level is 78 dB(A). Federal law (36 CFR 2.18) regulates snowmobiles on federal property at 78 dB(A), so states and communities are free to regulate snowmobile sound levels on their property. Lincoln NE (Section 8.24.110) limits levels to 78 dB(A). Maine (Section 13112, Chapter 937) exempts snowmobiles at sanctioned racing events. Illinois (625 ILCS 40 Sec. 4-4)does also.
Refuse collection vehicles
This provision is an objective emission control and a subjective control. It can place a maximum sound level at a specific distance for the loudest operation. It can set a curfew, or it can be based on noise disturbance in residential zones. Los Angeles, CA (Section 113.01) has a time limit that applies only within 200 feet of any residential building. Chicago, IL (Section 11-4-2900) considers any noise it a noise disturbance if the activity occurs between 8pm to 8am. Salt Lake City, UT (Section 4.5.6) considers it a noise disturbance if the activities occur between 10 pm to 7 am and closer than 800 feet from a dwelling. Atlanta, GA (Section 74-137(a)(5)prohibits collection between 9pm and am on a weekend day or legal holiday, except by permit. In Maryland, refuse collection is exempt during daytime hours and must meet maximum land use levels [55 dB(A)] in residential zones at night. Note in some areas garbage trucks themselves play music to let residents know it is time to bring out their garbage.
Standing motor vehicles
This provision is a subjective immission control. It sets a time limit on engine activity. It can also place a curfew on any engine activity. e. In Salt Lake City, UT (Section 4.5.10(xi)) it is considered a noise disturbance'' if the operation lasts more than 15 minutes. Dallas, TX (Section 30–3.1) applies the code to vehicles over 14,000 GVWR; they must be more than 300 feet from a residential zone and there is a 10-minute maximum. They also provide a list of idling vehicles that are exempt from prosecution such as buses or active concrete trucks. Hammond, IN (Section 6.2.10) limits operation to 3 minutes in an hour for vehicles over 14,000 GVWR in either public or private property. It exempts buses and taxis. Massachusetts allows idling no more than 5 minutes.
Building codes
In the case of construction of new (or remodeled) apartments, condominiums, hospitals and hotels, many U.S. states and cities have stringent building codes with requirements of acoustical analysis, in order to protect building occupants from exterior noise sources and sound generated within the building itself. With regard to exterior noise, the codes usually require measurement of the exterior acoustic environment in order to determine the performance standard required for exterior building skin design.
The architect can work with the acoustical scientist to arrive at the best cost-effective means of creating a quiet interior (normally 45 dB). The most important elements of design of the building skin are usually: glazing (glass thickness, double pane design, etc.), roof material, caulking standards, chimney baffles, exterior door design, mail slots, attic ventilation ports and mounting of through the wall air conditioners. A special case of building skin design arises in the case of aircraft noise, where the FAA has funded extensive work in residential retrofit.
Regarding sound generated inside the building, there are two principal types of transmission. First, airborne sound travels through walls or floor/ceiling assemblies and can emanate from either human activities in adjacent living spaces or from mechanical noise within the building systems. Human activities might include voice, amplified sound systems or animal noise. Mechanical systems are elevator systems, boilers, refrigeration or air conditioning systems, generators and trash compactors. Since many of these sounds are inherently loud, the principle of regulation is to require the wall or ceiling assembly to meet certain performance standards (typically Sound Transmission Class of 50), which allows considerable attenuation of the sound level reaching occupants.
The second type of interior sound is called Impact Insulation Class (IIC) transmission. This effect arises not from airborne transmission, but rather from transmission of sound through the building itself. The most common perception of IIC noise is from footfall of occupants in living spaces above. This type of noise is somewhat more difficult to abate, but consideration must be given to isolating the floor assembly above or hanging the lower ceiling on resilient channel. Commonly a performance standard of IIC equal to 50 is specified in building codes. California has generally led the U.S. in widespread application of building code requirements for sound transmission; accordingly, the level of protection for building occupants has increased markedly in the last several decades.
U.S. occupational safety regulations
The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration has established maximum noise levels for occupational exposure, beyond which mitigation measures or personal protective equipment is required. In recent years, Buy Quiet programs and initiatives have arisen in an effort to combat occupational noise exposures. These programs promote the purchase of quieter tools and equipment and encourage manufacturers to design quieter equipment.
See also
A-weighting scale regarding the unit normally used in noise regulation
Aircraft noise for a broader discussion of aircraft noise regulation
Loud music
Buy Quiet
General:
Health effects from noise
Occupational hearing loss
Environmental noise
Noise barrier
Noise pollution
Noise control
Soundproofing
References
External links
U.S. EPA - Noise Pollution - General information and resources
Airport Noise Law - U.S.
Directory of US and Canadian Noise Ordinances
Noise Pollution Clearing House - U.S.
Acoustical Society of America
American Institute of Architects
National Council of Acoustical Consultants
Business & Institutional Furniture Manufacturer's Association
Rutgers Noise Technical Assistance Center
Got Noise? Working towards limiting traffic noise from I-95 in SW Connecticut.
NIOSH Buy Quiet Topic Page
Construction law
Environmental law
Environmental science
Noise pollution
Regulation |
4324868 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1930%20in%20baseball | 1930 in baseball |
Champions
World Series: Philadelphia Athletics over St. Louis Cardinals (4–2)
Awards and honors
None
Statistical leaders
1Single season record for RBIs
Major league baseball final standings
American League final standings
National League final standings
Negro leagues final standings
Negro National League final standings
This was the eleventh of twelve seasons of the original Negro National League. For the second time in three years, the St. Louis Stars were champions of the Negro National League, owing to their postseason victory over the Detroit Stars on September 13–22.
East (independent teams) final standings
A loose confederation of teams were gathered in the East to compete with the West, however East teams did not organize a formal league as the West did.
Negro league postseason
By 1930, there had been no organized league for East Coast baseball in the Negro leagues (owing to the dissolution of the Eastern Colored League in 1928 and American Negro League in 1929). The remaining teams from the ANL and ECL played independent ball together, but they also played against teams from the Midwest. As such, the Homestead Grays challenged two teams from the NNL two distinct Series that were held over various stadiums and dates. The Grays challenged the St. Louis Stars in St. Louis on April 19 and April 22 and won twice. They challenged the Detroit Stars to four games held from August 21 to August 28 (two in Akron and two in Detroit), which Homestead won three. On August 30-September 3, they challenged the Stars to five games (all in St. Louis), and the Stars won four of five. At any rate, the independent East teams then had an "East Coast Championship Series", which matched the Grays and the New York Lincoln Giants (in that same month, the Negro National League had their Championship Series), with ten games spread out over Pittsburgh, New York, and Philadelphia.
1930 East Coast Championship Series: Homestead Grays over New York Lincoln Giants, 6–4
1930 Negro National League Championship Series: St. Louis Stars over Detroit Stars, 4–3
Events
January–June
April 14 – The 1930 season opens with the Boston Red Sox defeating the Washington Senators 4–3 at Griffith Stadium.
April 27 – Chicago White Sox first baseman Bud Clancy is the first player at first base since Al McCauley of Washington (American Association) in to have no chances in a nine-inning game.
April 29 – Lefty Gomez pitches four innings and takes the loss in his major league debut.
May 6 – The Boston Red Sox trade Red Ruffing to the New York Yankees for Cedric Durst and $50,000.
May 9 – The Detroit Tigers defeat the New York Yankees 5–4 at Yankee Stadium. They set a record with only two outfield putouts.
May 11 – The Cleveland Indians defeat the Philadelphia Athletics 25–7.
May 12 – New York Giants pitcher Larry Benton surrenders six home runs to the Chicago Cubs, yet still gets the win.
May 30 – The New York Yankees trade Waite Hoyt and Mark Koenig to the Detroit Tigers for Ownie Carroll, Harry Rice and Yats Wuestling.
June 13 – The St. Louis Browns trade General Crowder and Heinie Manush to the Washington Senators for Goose Goslin.
July–September
July 8 – The New York Yankees are shut out, 4–0, by Rube Walberg and the Philadelphia Athletics. It is the Yankees' seventh loss in a row, and second shut out in that stretch (July 4 against the Washington Senators). They are the only two shut outs the Yankees suffer all season.
August 31 – The St. Louis Cardinals defeat the first place Chicago Cubs, 8–3. In the final 26 games of the season, the Cards go 22–4, and from fourth place in the National League to first.
September 10 – Hall of fame shortstop Luke Appling goes one-for-four in his major league debut as his Chicago White Sox fall 6–2 to the Boston Red Sox.
September 12 – Brooklyn Robins catcher Al López bounces one over the left field wall for his sixth home run of the season. It is the last such home run before the implementation of the ground rule double.
September 14 – Detroit Tigers Hall of famer Hank Greenberg makes his major league debut in a 10–3 loss to the New York Yankees.
September 20 – Bill Terry goes four-for-five in the first game of a double header and two-for-four in the second to raise his season average to .402. He goes five-for-seven in a double header the next day to see his average go as high as .406. He ends the season with a .401 batting average. He is the last National Leaguer to bat over .400.
September 28
Dizzy Dean gives up just three hits and one earned run in his major league debut to lead the St. Louis Cardinals to a 3–1 victory over the Pittsburgh Pirates.
Babe Ruth picks up a complete game victory against his former team, the Boston Red Sox on the final day of the season.
October–December
October 1 – The Philadelphia Athletics defeat the St. Louis Cardinals 5–2 in game one of the 1930 World Series despite being out hit 9–5. All five hits by the A's are for extra bases (a double, two triples & two home runs).
October 2 – A two out error by Cardinals second baseman Frankie Frisch leads to two unearned runs in the third inning as the A's cruise to a 6–1 victory in game two of the World Series.
October 4 – Bill Hallahan gets out of a bases loaded jam in the first inning by striking out Bing Miller. From there, he settles in, and leads the Cardinals to a 5–0 victory in game three of the World Series.
October 5 – Jimmie Dykes' throwing error in the fourth leads to two unearned runs as the Cardinals even up the series with a 3–1 victory.
October 6 – Jimmie Foxx breaks open a scoreless game with a two-run home run in the ninth to give the A's the 2–0 victory in game five.
October 8 – The Philadelphia Athletics defeated the St. Louis Cardinals, 7–1, in Game six of the World Series to win their second consecutive World championship, and fifth overall, four games to two. This would be the Athletics' last World Series championship in the city of Philadelphia.
October 14 – The Chicago Cubs trade Bill McAfee and Wes Schulmerich to the Boston Braves for Bob Smith and Jimmy Welsh. In a separate transaction, they also purchase Jakie May's contract from the Cincinnati Reds.
November 10 – Veteran pitcher Hippo Vaughn is reinstated by Judge Landis after eight years of ineligibility. Vaughn, who had lost a double no-hitter duel to Fred Toney in the season, had jumped the Chicago Cubs in . Vaughn chose to pitch for a semi-professional team following a salary dispute with Chicago. He will go to spring training with the Cubs in but will fail to make the team at age 43.
November 23 – At the Polo Grounds, St. Louis Browns outfielder Red Badgro, playing for the NFL New York Giants, catches a touchdown pass against the Green Bay Packers. It is the third TD catch of the season for Badgro, all from quarterback Benny Friedman. In 1981, Badgro will be elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
November 25 – The Sporting News, acting to fill the Most Valuable Player void, announces its selection of Washington Senators shortstop Joe Cronin in the American League and New York Giants first baseman Bill Terry in the National League.
December 1 – Shano Collins, a native New Englander, is appointed manager of the perennial last-place Boston Red Sox.
Births
January
January 4 – Don McMahon
January 13 – Joe Margoneri
January 14 – Pete Daley
January 23 – Frank Sullivan
January 30 – Sandy Amorós
February
February 1 – Chuck Churn
February 5 – Eric Rodin
February 13 – Al Grunwald
February 17 – Roger Craig
February 18 – Frank House
February 22 – Lyle Luttrell
February 23 – Beatrice Kemmerer
February 26 – Vic Janowicz
February 26 – Ron Negray
February 28 – Frank Malzone
February 28 – Dolan Nichols
February 28 – Ron Samford
March
March 5 – Del Crandall
March 7 – Tom Acker
March 8 – Bob Grim
March 9 – Larry Raines
March 11 – Bobby Winkles
March 12 – Vern Law
March 13 – Doug Harvey
March 16 – Hobie Landrith
March 25 – Rudy Minarcin
April
April 2 – Art Ceccarelli
April 2 – Gordon Jones
April 3 – Wally Moon
April 7 – Richie Myers
April 10 – Frank Lary
April 12 – Johnny Antonelli
April 17 – Hattie Peterson
April 28 – Tom Sturdivant
May
May 1 – Stan Palys
May 5 – Harley Grossman
May 12 – Tom Umphlett
May 20 – Tom Morgan
May 21 – Rudy Regalado
June
June 2 – Bob Lillis
June 8 – Phil Paine
June 12 – Dutch Rennert
June 20 – Rod Graber
June 24 – Neale Henderson
June 25 – Memo Luna
June 25 – Humberto Robinson
June 27 – Bob Trowbridge
July
July 2 – Pete Burnside
July 2 – Jane Moffet
July 2 – Magdalen Redman
July 3 – Al Pilarcik
July 3 – Jim Westlake
July 4 – George Steinbrenner
July 6 – Angelo LiPetri
July 6 – Karl Olson
July 8 – Glen Gorbous
July 8 – Eddie Phillips
July 10 – Beatrice Allard
July 15 – Betty Wagoner
July 17 – Jerry Lynch
July 19 – Marcelino Solis
July 21 – Danny Morejón
July 26 – Glenn Mickens
July 30 – William Bell Jr.
July 30 – Gus Triandos
August
August 4 – Gabe Gabler
August 9 – Milt Bolling
August 9 – Román Mejías
August 11 – Josh Gibson, Jr.
August 13 – Vinegar Bend Mizell
August 13 – Jerry Neudecker
August 13 – Bob Wiesler
August 14 – Dale Coogan
August 14 – Earl Weaver
August 15 – Bob Martyn
August 17 – Buck Varner
August 22 – Frank Ernaga
August 22 – Bob Speake
August 23 – Zeke Bella
August 29 – Dave Cole
August 30 – Frances Vukovich
September
September 1 – Dean Stone
September 5 – Wayne Belardi
September 16 – Ron Mrozinski
September 17 – Jim Umbricht
September 19 – Bob Turley
September 19 – Billy Williams
September 21 – Agnes Allen
September 21 – Billy Muffett
September 22 – Bob Harrison
September 27 – Dick Hall
September 28 – Audrey Deemer
October
October 2 – John Gabler
October 2 – Jim Heise
October 9 – Barbara Anne Davis
October 11 – Bill Fischer
October 12 – Joe Trimble
October 15 – Don Robertson
October 19 – Joe Koppe
October 20 – Bill Froats
October 23 – Solly Drake
October 30 – Don Nicholas
November
November 4 – Dick Groat
November 4 – Guy Morton
November 6 – Bob Darnell
November 8 – Mike Roarke
November 10 – Gene Conley
November 10 – Chick King
November 15 – Harold Bevan
November 16 – Paul Foytack
November 19 – Joe Morgan
November 20 – Don Leppert
November 23 – Jack McKeon
November 24 – Bob Friend
December
December 4 – Harvey Kuenn
December 6 – Barbara Berger
December 7 – Mark Freeman
December 7 – Hal Smith
December 9 – Bob Hazle
December 11 – Eddie O'Brien
December 11 – Johnny O'Brien
December 11 – Andy Varga
December 12 – Raúl Sánchez
December 15 – Haywood Sullivan
December 18 – Mike Baxes
December 18 – Moose Skowron
December 20 – Troy Herriage
December 21 – Danny Kravitz
December 27 – Norm Larker
December 29 – Frank Dezelan
December 30 – Milt Graff
Deaths
January
January 8 – Charlie Flannigan, 38, third baseman/outfielder for the 1913 St. Louis Browns.
January 20 – Jumbo Schoeneck, 57, first baseman for the Chicago Browns, Pittsburgh Stogies, Baltimore Monumentals and Indianapolis Hoosiers from 1884 to 1889, who finished in the top ten in 10 offensive categories of the Union Association in his rookie season.
January 25 – Spencer Heath, 36, relief pitcher for the 1920 Chicago White Sox.
January 30 – Rip Hagerman, 41, pitcher for the Chicago Cubs (1909) and Cleveland Indians (1914–1916).
February
February 3 – Gus Sandberg, 34, backup catcher for the Cincinnati Reds from 1923 to 1924.
February 13 – Dan Abbott, 67, pitcher for the 1890 Toledo Maumees.
February 14 – Pete Kilduff, 36, second baseman for the New York Giants, Chicago Cubs and Brooklyn Robins from 1917 to 1921, who in the 1920 World Series became one of three outs in Bill Wambsganss's unassisted triple play, the only in Series history.
March
March 11 – Bob Barr, 73, pitcher who played for six different teams of the American Association and National League between 1883 and 1891.
March 12 – Jack Powell, 38, Major League Baseball pitcher
March 15 – George Townsend, 62, catcher who played from 1887 to 1891 with the Philadelphia Athletics and Baltimore Orioles of the American Association.
March 21 – Bill Fagan, pitcher for the New York Metropolitans (1887) and Kansas City Cowboys (1888) of the American Association.
March 25 – Bill Krieg, 71, catcher/outfielder/third baseman for the St. Louis, Pittsburgh, Chicago, Brooklyn and Washington teams from 1884 to 1887, who also won three minor league batting titles in the 1880s.
April
April 5 – Jack McGeachey, 65, backup outfielder who hit .245 with 164 stolen bases in 608 games for six teams from 1886 to 1891.
April 11 – Wayland Dean, 27, pitcher who posted a 24–36 record with a 4.87 ERA for the Giants, Phillies and Cubs from 1924 to 1927.
April 14 – Frank Kitson, 60, pitcher who won 128 games with a 3.18 ERA for six teams from 1898 to 1907.
April 14 – John B. Sheridan, 61, sportswriter for St. Louis newspapers whose column "Back of the Home Plate" appeared in The Sporting News for many years.
April 18 – Jack Stivetts, 62, pitcher for St. Louis Cardinals, Boston Beaneaters and Cleveland Spiders from 1889 to 1899, who collected six 20-win seasons, including 30-win campaigns in 1891 and 1892, and also hurled a no-hitter and won two games in the 1892 championship playoff.
April 23 – Rube Manning, 46, pitcher who posted a 22–32 record with a 3.14 ERA in 84 games for the New York Yankees from 1907 through 1910.
April 23 – Larry Twitchell, 66, outfielder and one of the early sluggers in major league history, who played from 1886 through 1894 with seven different teams, most prominently for the Detroit Wolverines.
April 26 – Harry Mace, 63, pitcher for the 1891 Washington Statesmen.
May
May 28 – Hal Carlson, 38, National League pitcher, winner of 114 games with the Pirates, Phillies and Cubs from 1917 through 1930, who was stricken with a fatal stomach hemorrhage in his hotel room, five days after his last MLB appearance.
June
June 3 – George Hemming, 61, pitcher who posted a 91–82 record for six different clubs from 1891 through 1897.
June 5 – Lou Say, shortstop who hit .232 in 298 games for eight teams in four different leagues from 1873 to 1884.
June 9 – Lew McCarty, 41, catcher who hit .266 for the Brooklyn, New York and St. Louis National League teams from 1913 to 1921.
June 9 – Harry Patton, 45, relief pitcher who appeared in one game for the 1910 St. Louis Cardinals.
June 10 – Wally Smith, 42, valuable man at all four infield positions, who hit .229 in 201 games for the Cardinals and Senators between 1911 and 1914.
June 22 – Bill Dam, 45, utility outfielder for the 1909 Boston Doves.
July
July 5 – Frederick Fass, 70, pitcher for the 1887 Indianapolis Hoosiers.
July 16 – Zeke Rosebraugh, 53, pitcher for the Pittsburgh Pirates in 1888 and 1889.
July 19 – Will Holland, 68, outfielder for the Baltimore Orioles of the American Association in 1889.
July 26 – Tommy Madden, 46, outfielder for the Boston Beaneaters and New York Highlanders in the early 20th century.
August
August 4 – Sam Jackson, 81, second baseman for the Boston Red Stockings (1871) and the Brooklyn Atlantics (1872), who also became the third English player to reach the majors.
August 7 – Emmett Seery, 69, outfielder who played for seven different teams in all four active leagues during the 19th century.
August 15 – Guy Tutwiler, 41, first baseman for the Detroit Tigers between 1911 and 1913.
August 17 – Harry Maskrey, 68, outfielder who appeared in one game for the Louisville Eclipse of the American Association in 1882.
August 29 – Ben Sanders, 65, pitcher for five seasons, 1888–1892, threw no-hitter on August 22, 1892.
September
September 1 – John Reccius, 70, pitcher and center fielder for the 1882–1883 Louisville Eclipse.
September 7 – Mickey Keliher, 40, first baseman for the Pittsburgh Pirates from 1911 to 1912.
September 14 – Jim McCauley, 67, backup catcher for the St. Louis Browns, Buffalo Bisons, Chicago White Stockings and Brooklyn Grays from 1884 to 1886.
September 19 – Arlie Pond, 57, pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles from 1895 to 1898, as well as a doctor in the U.S. Army between 1898 and 1919.
September 25 – Joe Wilhoit, 44, right fielder for the Boston Braves, Pittsburgh Pirates, New York Giants and Boston Red Sox from 1916 to 1919, who posted the longest hitting streak in baseball history with 69 games in 1919, while playing for the Wichita Jobbers of the Western League.
October
October 9 – Lem Cross, 58, pitcher who posted a 3–6 record with the Cincinnati Reds from 1893 to 1894.
October 29 – Gene Wright, 51, pitcher for the Brooklyn, Cleveland and St. Louis teams from 1901 to 1904.
November
November 7 – Warren Fitzgerald, 62, pitcher who posted a 15–20 record with a 3.66 ERA for the Louisville Colonels from 1891 to 1892.
November 7 – John Hanna, 67, catcher for the Washington Nationals and Richmond Virginians during the 1884 season.
November 19 – John Russell, pitcher for the Brooklyn Robins and Chicago White Sox between 1917 and 1922.
November 20 – William B. Hanna, 68, sportswriter for various New York newspapers since 1888, known for his florid writing style.
November 28 – Ed Hendricks, 45, pitcher for the 1910 New York Giants.
December
December 3 – Harry Baumgartner, 38, relief pitcher who went 0–1 in nine games for the 1920 Detroit Tigers.
December 4 – William Baker, 64, owner of the Philadelphia Phillies from 1913 until his death.
December 5 – Ben Guiney, 72, backup catcher for the Detroit Wolverines during the 1883 and 1884 seasons.
December 9 – Rube Foster, 51, pioneer and driving force in the Negro leagues, as owner and manager of the Chicago American Giants from 1911 to 1925, who in 1920 founded the first stable Negro league, the Negro National League, and won its first three pennants, also regarded as the premier pitcher in black baseball in the century's first decade.
December 9 – Dave Rowe, 76, center fielder for five teams in six seasons between 1877 and 1888, who also managed the Kansas City Cowboys in 1885 and 1888.
December 14 – Al Hubbard, 70, catcher/shortstop for the 1883 Philadelphia Athletics.
December 25 – Fred Clement, 63, shortstop for the 1890 Pittsburgh Alleghenys.
December 29 – Sandy Piez, 42, backup outfielder who spent most of his career as a specialist pinch-runner with the 1914 New York Giants.
December 29 – Ginger Shinault, 38, backup catcher who hit .295 in 35 games for the Cleveland Indians from 1921 to 1922.
December 29 – George Stutz, 37, shortstop who appeared in six games with the 1926 Philadelphia Phillies.
References |
4324878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alois%20Lexa%20von%20Aehrenthal | Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal | Alois Leopold Johann Baptist Graf Lexa von Aehrenthal (27 September 1854 – 17 February 1912) was diplomat from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Biographer Solomon Wank says he exuded a strong monarchical-conservative outlook, loyalty to the Empire, and optimism regarding its ability to survive and flourish in the early 20th century. He is best known for promoting an energetic foreign policy in the Balkans, seeking cooperation with Russia and approval of Germany for actions that angered the South Slav element in the Balkans.
As Imperial Foreign Minister, Aehrenthal formulated and executed the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and their integration into the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1908. With the annexation he sought to permanently block in the Balkan south of the empire the emergence of inter- and intra-ethnic nationalisms amongst the multiplicity of peoples there on the basis of their shared religious beliefs and ethnic affiliations. His actions precipitated an international crisis because he sought to achieve his objectives by negotiation of Russian acceptance of the annexation in exchange for Austro-Hungarian support for greater Russian access from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean through the Straits of the Dardanelles (at the expense of the Ottoman Empire), which Britain and France would supposedly accept since they had recently become allied with Russia.
Seeking to limit objections in Russia to any support for the annexation, Aehrenthal began secret negotiations with Russian foreign minister Alexander Izvolsky. The annexation ultimately damaged Austro-Russian collaboration on settling Balkan questions. Also, it stirred chauvinist popular emotion in Russia, which felt humiliated in a sphere of vital interest to it.
Origins
Born at Groß Skal Castle in Bohemia (Czech: Hrubá Skála, Czech Republic), he was the second-born son of Baron (Freiherr) Johann Lexa von Aehrenthal (1817–1898), a large-scale landowner in Groß Skal and Doksany, and his wife Marie, née Countess Thun und Hohenstein. His father was a powerful leader of the Constitutionally Loyal Large Landowners party in Bohemia. His great-grandfather Johann Anton Lexa (1733-1824), from a rural background in Kralovice, had founded an insurance company in Prague and was ennobled in 1790.
There were false rumors that he had Jewish ancestors spread by his enemies.
Character
"His diplomacy" wrote Olof Hoijer, was "composed more of hard arrogance and dissolvent intrigue than of prudent reserve and ingratiating souplesse was a mixture of pretention and subtlety, of force and ruse, of realism and cynicism: his readiness to cheat, to circumvent, to outwit hid a harsh and ruthless will." Asquith regarded him as the cleverest and perhaps the least scrupulous of Austrian statesmen. He undoubtedly showed himself to be an able and ambitious diplomat, a cool negotiator, a wide-awake observer, a patient listener, a discreet talker endowed with great outward calm but with a lively and dominating imagination more passionate than clear sighted.
Career
With no great prospects of inheritance, Aehrenthal studied law and politics at the University of Bonn and the Charles University in Prague. He began his career in the diplomatic service of the empire, as attaché in Paris under Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust in 1877. He went in 1878 in the same capacity to St. Petersburg, Russia, and from 1883 to 1888 he worked at the Foreign Ministry in Vienna under Count Gustav Kálnoky, with whom he formed close relations. In 1888 he was sent as councillor of embassy to St. Petersburg, where he exercised considerable influence with the ambassador, Count Wolkenstein.
Recalled in 1894 to service in the Foreign Ministry, he undertook important duties, and in the following year went to Bucharest as ambassador to Romania. Here he succeeded in strengthening the relations between the courts of Vienna and Bucharest by renewing the secret alliance which it had signed in 1883. In 1899 he became ambassador in St. Petersburg, where he remained until his appointment as Foreign Minister in October 1906. Aehrenthal at this time thought that it was essential for Austria-Hungary to come to an agreement with Russia. In this sense he endeavoured to continue the negotiations successfully begun by his predecessor, Prince Franz Liechtenstein, for the bridging over of the differences on Balkan questions between Vienna and St. Petersburg, in order to create a basis for a permanent friendly relation between Austria-Hungary and Russia.
He played a principal part in concluding the Mürzsteg Agreement of 1903. During the Russo-Japanese War he took a strong line in favour of a friendly attitude towards Russia. In October 1906, he replaced Count Goluchowski as minister of foreign affairs. He at first maintained the views which he had professed as ambassador. He was determined to preserve the interests of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans, but also showed himself prepared to meet the Russian wishes in the Dardanelles question. However, in the course of the Bosnian Crisis, he abandoned the idea of a friendly accommodation with Russia.
Bosnian Crisis of 1908-1909
The principal players in the Bosnian Crisis of 1908-09 were the foreign ministers of Austria-Hungary and Russia, Aehrenthal and Alexander Izvolsky. Both were motivated by political ambition; the first would emerge successful, and the latter would be broken by the crisis. Along the way, they would drag Europe to the brink of war in 1909. They would also divide Europe into the two armed camps that would indeed go to war in July 1914.
Under the Treaty of Berlin, The Ottomans controlled the Dardanelles strait connecting the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The treaty prohibited the passage of any warships from any country into or out of the Black Sea. This treaty bottled up a major portion of the Russian Black Sea Fleet, making it useless in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 when it was urgently needed. Izvolsky wanted this changed to allow the passage of Russian ships through the straits. Aehrenthal wanted full control of Bosnia-Herzogovina. Austria-Hungary had administered the provinces since 1878 but the Ottoman Empire retained nominal sovereignty. Aehrenthal concocted a grand diplomatic deal that proposed major benefits for both sides. Austria-Hungary would gain full possession of Bosnia with Russian approval. The Ottoman Empire would regain full control of the Austrian occupied territory known as the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, plus financial compensation. Russia would get the right of passage for its warships through the Straits. Serbia would get zero. Before approaching the Russians, Aehrenthal met with Austrian and Hungarian officials and won the approval of Emperor Franz Joseph I. On September 15–16 Aehrenthal and Izvolsky held a secret meeting. No record was kept—and afterwards both sides remembered it very differently. Aehrenthal assumed he had full Russian approval for his scheme, but without planned dates. Izvolsky assumed he would be informed before any actual move happened. Aehrenthal vaguely informed all the major countries but gave no details. The world was astonished on October 6, 1908, when a press release in Vienna announced that Bosnia was fully annexed. Inside Austria-Hungary there was general approval except in Czech areas—that minority strongly felt its demands had been deliberately ignored.
Aehrenthal had expected wide European approval and instead he faced a hostile volcanic eruption from every direction. Izvolsky vehemently denounced the treachery and demanded an international conference on Bosnia. After decades of low level activity, pan-Slavic forces inside Russia suddenly mobilized in opposition. Mass demonstrations broke out across the continent. Rome took advantage of the situation by reversing its friendship with Vienna. Berlin officials were surprised and appalled. The British were especially angry, denouncing the violation of an international agreement signed by both Austria-Hungary and Britain. France denounced the scheme. The Ottoman Empire was surprised by the unexpected development, but was quieted by the cash payment. By far the angriest reaction came from Serbia, which called for revenge, and began setting up secret guerrilla bands, plotting insurrection in Bosnia. All across Europe the chief blame was placed on Berlin, not Vienna. Europeans feared the powerful Imperial German Army and took the episode as proof of its expansionist intentions. Berlin now realized it stood alone, with Austria-Hungary its only friend. It therefore decided it would firmly support Austria-Hungary despite doubts about the wisdom of annexing Bosnia. Berlin explicitly warned St Petersburg that continued demands for an international conference constituted a hostile action that would increase the risk of war with Germany. Coupled with Austrian threats to publish details of the secret meeting between Aehrenthal and Izvolsky, Russia backed down. Thanks to the German intervention, Austria-Hungary scored a complete short-term diplomatic success in taking control of Bosnia. in the long run however, Germany and Austria both made many too enemies, as the battle lines of World War I started to harden.
Aehrenthal had started with the assumption that the Slavic minorities could never come together, and the Balkan League would never accomplish any damage to Austria-Hungary. He turned down an Ottoman proposal for an alliance that would include Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Romania. However his policies alienated the Bulgarians, who turned instead to Russia and Serbia. Although Austria-Hungary had no intention to embark on additional expansion to the south, Aehrenthal encouraged speculation to that effect, expecting it would paralyze the Balkan states. Instead, it incited them to feverish activity to create a defensive block to stop Austria-Hungary. A series of grave miscalculations at the highest level thus significantly strengthened Austria-Hungary's enemies.
Pan-Slavism
For Aehrenthal, a German and a staunch monarchist, there was a direct threat in the Pan-Slav emergent nationalism of the kind that a consolidated Yugo (south) Slav Confederation led by Serbia represented. The gradual consolidation of the Yugo-Slavs (in the name of the 'new centuries' idea of national self-determination for all ethnic/racial/religious groups) led by Serbia was a deadly threat to Aehrenthal’s Austria-Hungary. For Aehrenthal, Moravia, Bohemia, and Silesia were the crown lands of his Ost-Mark German nobility, which ruled over a host of emergent Slav and Pan-Slav ethnicities: Pole, Czech, Ruthenian, Slovakian, and Ukrainian. In Serbia’s consolidation of Bosnia-Herzegovina into herself, there was the clear roadmap to the dissolution of most of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. More importantly, this Pan-Slav self-determinant nationalism pointed the way to the loss of the defendable military, political, and economic boundaries of the empire. Aehrenthal’s Hungarian noble half saw an equally strong threat with the loss of Hungary's historic Slavic provinces should Pan-Slavist ideology take root. It would equally threaten its military security and economic future. Aehrenthal moved quickly, faster than Izvolsky. He acted on 3 October 1908 under the premise that Austria-Hungary was taking control of Bosnia-Herzogovina so that the people there could enjoy the benefits of the empire as a reward for economic advancement since first being administered back in 1878. A seething Serbia could hardly believe this action and demanded Russian intervention. This left Izvolsky holding the bag. He announced his plans for the free passage of Russian warships though the Turkish straits but was shot down by every other signatory to the treaty, especially Britain. The British said they would consider opening up the straits to all warships but would not limit it to Russian ships alone. This is hardly what Izvolsky had in mind since this had the potential of letting belligerent ships into the Black Sea. Germany at first viewed the whole tangle with disdain, taking the Turkish side. The Kaiser had been working on strengthening relations with Turkey and, now with the chance of Ottoman recovery, he wished to stay this course.
As the crisis continued, the Kaiser was forced from the diplomatic scene by the Daily Telegraph Affair and no longer was a major decision maker. Events reached a fever pitch when, in early November, the Royal Serbian Army mobilized. Germany now took the Austro-Hungarian side stating it would stick by its ally. Russia, wishing to support Serbia, but not really ready for war with Germany and Austria-Hungary was forced to back away when the Austrians threatened to publish the details of the agreement between Aehrenthal and Izvolsky and Germany sent a vaguely-worded threat to Izvolsky, stating they would "let things take their course." The fact that she had betrayed her Slav ally beforehand was not a fact that Russia wished widely publicized. Izvolsky remained at his post for three more years but his reputation was ruined beyond repair. The Russians backed down and urged Serbia to do likewise, which she did and declared publicly that the annexation was none of her business. War was averted for the time being, but the results were a bitter Russia and an enraged Serbia. Russia vowed, if ever confronted in this manner again, that she would not back down - a vow that would be kept in a few years.
Family
In 1902, Aehrenthal married Pauline, Countess Széchényi de Sárvár-Felsővidék (1871-1945) and had:
Countess Caroline Marie Antoinette Henriette Luise Lexa von Aehrenthal (b. 1904), never married
Count Johann Maria Felix Anton Carl Lexa von Aehrenthal (1905-1972), married Countess Ernestine von Harrach zu Rohrau und Thannhausen (1903-1990) and had issue
Countess Elisabeth Maria Josefa Antoinette Aloysia Lexa von Aehrenthal (1909-1971), married Count Josef Zdenko von Thun und Hohenstein (1907-1976), had no issue
Death
In 1912, Count Alois suddenly died of leukemia.
Honours
National orders and decorations
Knight of the Iron Crown, 3rd Class, 1882
Grand Cross of the Order of Franz Joseph, 1896
Jubilee Medal for Civil State Servants (1898)
Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of Leopold, 1905
Grand Cross of St. Stephen, 1908
Court Jubilee Cross (1908)
Marian Cross of the Teutonic Order
Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion of the Austrian Order of Malta
Foreign orders and decorations
Screen Portrayal
Aehrenthal was depicted in "The Devil's Kiss," the third episode of Season Two of the BBC Two series, Vienna Blood, which centered on fictionalized events surrounding the Austro-Russian understanding on annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. He was played by actor Bernhard Schir.
He was depicted in Episode 9 "Dress Rehearsal" of the BBC television series Fall of Eagles. He was played by actor John Moffatt.
See also
Leopold Graf Berchtold
Footnotes
References
Albertini, Luigi (1952). The Origins of the War of 1914: vol 1 ,
Bridge, F.R. From Sadowa to Sarajevo: The Foreign Policy of Austria-Hungary 1866-1914 (1972).
Cooper, M. B. "British Policy in the Balkans, 1908-9." Historical Journal 7.2 (1964): 258-279.
Fay, Sidney B. The Origins of the World War, (2nd ed. Macmillan, 1930). online, vol 1.
Gooch, G.P. Before the war: studies in diplomacy (vol 1 1936) online pp 366–438 on Aehrenthal.
Schmitt, Bernadotte Everly. The annexation of Bosnia, 1908–1909 (Cambridge UP, 1937). online
, the standard scholarly biography; reaches only to 1906. online review
Wank, Solomon. In the Twilight of Empire. Count Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal (1854–1912): Imperial Habsburg Patriot and Statesman. Vol. 2: From Foreign Minister in Waiting to de facto Chancellor (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2020).
Wank, Solomon. "The Archduke and Aehrenthal:The Origins of a Hatred" Austrian History Yearbook v 22 (2002) DOI: 10.1017/S0067237800013825
Further reading
Williamson, Samuel R. Austria-Hungary and the origins of the First World War (Macmillan International Higher Education, 1990).
External links
1854 births
1912 deaths
People from Semily District
19th-century Austrian people
Foreign ministers of Austria-Hungary
Habsburg Bohemian nobility
Counts of Austria
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
Grand Crosses of the Order of Franz Joseph
Members of the Teutonic Order
Knights of Malta
Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure, 1st class
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Pope Pius IX
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Star of Romania
Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 2nd class
Commanders of the Order of the Polar Star
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Charles University alumni
Deaths from leukemia |
4325214 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stadion%20Miejski%20im.%20Henryka%20Reymana | Stadion Miejski im. Henryka Reymana | Stadion Miejski im. Henryka Reymana () is a football-specific stadium in Kraków, Poland. It is currently used as home ground by Wisła Kraków football team playing in the I liga matches. The address of the stadium is Kraków, ul. Reymonta 22. The stadium has a capacity of 33,326 spectators, who are all seated, and is fully roofed. Wisła Stadium is the second largest arena in I liga. Stadium was originally built in 1953. From 2003 to 2011, the stadium was completely reconstructed with four new stands and a media pavilion being built. Reconstruction was finally completed in October 2011.
Thanks to resolution passed by Kraków City council on 23 January 2008, the stadium is named after Wisła's legendary player Henryk Tomasz Reyman.
Municipal Stadium in Kraków meets the criteria for UEFA Category 4.
History
Previous grounds of Wisła Kraków
The current stadium is the third home of the Wisła Kraków. The first stadium was located about 500m away from the current location in the Oleandry area. It was built in 1914 and inaugurated on 16 April same year, with a 3–2 win over Czarni Lwów, but only one year later it burned down. That stadium was never finished and World War I left only rubble of the ground. In 1922 Wisła moved to a new stadium in the same area. This one survived World War II, but couldn't cope with the post-war popularity of football. Moreover, in 1946 Kraków was afflicted by a huge storm and stadium has been seriously damaged.
Current stadium location
In May 1953 the new stadium – third one in Wisła history – was opened next to the old stadium. This is a place where Wisła Kraków plays their home matches today. Stadium featured an oval running track surrounding football field. A characteristic feature of this building was called 'Brandenburg Gates' located on the stands behind the goals.
The '70s & '80s
Floodlights masts was installed on the stadium in 1972. Their officially inauguration took place on 11 June 1972 during league match between Wisla Kraków and Legia Warsaw, which ended in a draw 1:1. In 1976 Wisła Kraków was playing Celtic Glasgow in UEFA Cup. After the team having drawn the first game away 2:2, crowds were flocking to see Wisła fight with the Bhoys on 29 September. The media and fans present at the game say of approximately 45 000 spectators, however the precise number is unknown. This game (won 2:0) holds the stadium's record of attendance. In 1985 plans to build new main stand was announced. Therefore, sectors I, II, III, IV and V (whole main stand) had been demolished.
However, lack of funds for continuation of construction resulted in situation in which stadium remained without a main stand for more than 10 next years.
The '90s & '00s
Renovation of south stand and floodlights masts dismantling took place in 1995 year. Construction of the new main stand started in 1996. It was financed by the joint office of the City of Kraków and Totalizator Sportowy. Opening of the new grandstand (sectors A and B, as well as VIP sector) took place in March 1998 during the league match between Wisła and GKS Katowice. In 1998, the east stand underwent yet another renovation. Around 4800 plastic seats were installed. Also, oval running track surrounding football pitch was completely removed.
Artificial hills behind the goals was demolished in January 1999. In July 2000, on the side of 3 Maja street, temporary south stand for the visiting team's supporters was constructed, with capacity about 250 people. Over time it has been expanded to holds 500 people. In April 2002, new floodlights masts was installed to meet requirements imposed by the Polish Football Association. In June 2003, turf heating system was installed. In June 2004 the licensing requirements imposed by the Polish Football Association forced Wisła to build temporary all-seater and fully roofed north stand. Its capacity was about 1000 people. At the same time, it was also decided to reduce the height of the fence in front of the main stand to 1 m, in order to improve comfort of watching the matches.
2004–2011 redevelopment (New stadium)
Overall
The construction project developed by architecture and design studio owned by Wojciech Obtułowicz has been changed four times with key features remaining the same. The first conception assumed the construction of the stadium for more than 20 000 seats with leaving of the main stand which was built in the mid nineties. According to this project in November 2004, the construction of a new south stand has begun with striker Maciej Żurawski digging the first shovel. It was completed in June 2006, costing nearly 35 mln zł. The main contractor was Budimex Dromex. In the meantime, in January 2006, construction of the twin northern stand has begun. Its construction lasted 12 months with both the contractor and the cost were exactly the same as in the case of the southern stand.
In April 2007 it was announced that the UEFA European Football Championship in 2012 will be co-hosted by Poland. Kraków and Wisła Stadium, was chosen to be a reserve host for upcoming event. Therefore, the stadium project was changed to meets the requirements for elite class stadium.
In September 2007, Budimex Dromex started the construction of media pavilion – a building that was part of the previous concept of the stadium. In October the architectural studio of Wojciech Obtułowicz has been commissioned to carry out the new stadium project. It cost about 3.5 million zł. In January 2008 the construction of media pavilion was completed. The total cost of this investment exceeded 11 million zł.
The demolition of the old east stand begun in May 2008. In February 2009 Polimex-Mostostal started the construction of the new East stand, whose cost was approximately 144 million zł. After the end of 2008/09 Ekstraklasa season in June 2009, Polimex-Mostostal began demolition of the main stand (west) and the construction of the new one. The cost was over 153 million zł.
Wisła Kraków played its 2009/2010 season matches at Stadion Ludowy in Sosnowiec and Stadion Suche Stawy, due to more advanced construction works on the stadium.
In early October 2009, the contractor which built two stands Polimex-Mostostal, applied to the investor for financing the project by an additional 28.9 million zł. The grant would cover the cost of rebuilding the installations network under the stadium.
On 1 November 2009 the architectural studio of Wojciech Obtułowicz was released from its contract for construction project of the stadium. The reason for exclusion of the architect was that it could not keep up with making of amendments to its draft, which contained some incorrect data. For that reason, it was impossible to continue construction at the right pace and resulted in some major delays in work. Redesign took the lead contractor – Polimex-Mostostal.
On 4 November 2009 the Kraków city councilors voted to transfer additional funds amounted to 29.9 million zł for the stadium construction. In case donation has not been awarded then the contractor building of both stands (east and west) could stop the construction and request compensation from the city. The mayor of the City of Kraków Jacek Majchrowski presented the estimated cost of building the entire stadium, which in total amounted to 445 million zł.
Finally stadium construction ended in mid-2011. This included construction of whole Main stand and additional works made by Mostostal Warszawa SA in the interior of the north stand.
First match with all four stands opened took place at 15 October 2011. The opponent was Jagiellonia Białystok and Wisla won 3–1.
Stadium
Layout
The shape of the stadium is the legacy of past construction projects. Two grandstands behind the goals and the media pavilion located in the corner between the western and southern grandstand were built according to the old concept. Both two-level stands along the side lines are the result of implementation of the last fourth construction concepts
One of the most important places of the stadium will be the presidential box with an area of . At the stadium there are 33 boxes behind glass (called skyboxes), located between the levels of the stands. Each of them have an area of about >. Each of the lodges have a separate entrance and is equipped with seats of higher standard. In addition, the stadium has 1638 seats for VIP and 477 for the super-VIP. The Wisła fan shop is located within the east stand.
Elevation of the western and eastern stands refer to the colonnade, which was built around the grandstands of the old stadium. Simple mesh lattice were used in construction, which resulted in a larger commercial area inside the stands, in comparison to the northern and southern grandstand, where the elevation is made up of diagonal strands.
According to the chief architect of the stadium, Wojciech Obtułowicz solutions applied during construction process give stadium the atmosphere of the theater.
An important advantage of the stadium construction is the large, one-level stands behind the goals, which provide plenty of space inside both structures and greatly affect the quality of doping and the possibility of making more advanced choreos by Wisła's fans. Another advantage of the stadium project is a roof, equipped with automatic snow melting systems, and the transparency of the material from which it has been built, which has a positive effect on grass growth on the football pitch. The main disadvantage of the stadium construction is the relatively long distance between the grandstands and the football pitch.
The construction companies which built each stands have given ten years guarantee for their constructions.
West stand
West stand is the main stand on the stadium with capacity of 9181 spectators. First level can holds 3682 people and it is divided into 6 sections: A1, B11, B12, H1, VIP and VIP lodges – each of them (except VIP lodges) have 18 rows. Second level consists of 11 sections: A21 to A23, B21 to B24, H21 to H23 and press section. Construction of the west stand began in mid-August 2009 – the latest of all stands of the stadium. This two-level stand has only one corner – the north one. Media pavilon is located in the place of the south corner. There is a wave-like shaped huge roof above the main entrance to this stand.
Western stand consists of six floors, the lowest is located below ground level.
Lower level of the western stand consists of two parts, which are located at different depths. In the lower part there is underground parking for VIPs and buses of both teams. At the lowest part technical rooms, warehouses and staff rooms are located. Rooms for the referees and changing rooms for the home and away teams are also located there (booth have an area of 100 m2).
Reception, information, commercial and gastronomic points are located on the ground floor. Many corridors and halls leading to the staircases, which fans can get to higher floors of the stand are also located on this level. The ground floor also includes panoramic glass elevators and a direct entry for spectators at the first level of the stands. On the first floor there is a representative hall leading to the so-called Sky-boxes, lodges for VIPs and observers. Presidential lodge, which covers an area of nearly and business lounge are located on this floor.
The second floor is designed for fans sitting on the second level of the west stand. The vast majority of the surface of the second floor is used for toilets and gastronomic points for spectators.
On the third floor there is a media zone, as well as toilets for the disabled persons. Furthermore, gastronomic points and catering hall are located on this floor.
Fourth floor is dedicated exclusively for the media. It contains commentators cabins, media working zones as well as television platforms and studios with a panoramic view of the pitch.
East stand
East stand is the biggest two-level stand on the stadium with capacity of 12,831 spectators. First level is divided into 11 sections: D11, D12, E11 to E16, F11, F12 (18 rows each) and VIP lodges. Capacity is 4591. Second level can holds 8030 people and consists of 14 sections: D21 to D24, E21 to E26 and F21 to F24 (24 rows each).
Construction works on East Stand started at the beginning of 2009. In contrast to the twin west stand, this has both corners. Entrances to east stand are located on the side of Reymana street.
East stand as well as the west one has two levels and consists of six floors.
At the lower (underground) level of this stand, technical rooms and warehouses are located. One of the warehouses is being used by the club shop, located inside the stadium. The largest room on this level is designed for the technical team working on football field maintenance and.
Same like west stand, information, commercial and gastronomic points are located on the ground floor. In addition, there are also small warehouses. On the ground floor fans can get through the transparent lobby (whose area is over 2200 m ²) and then direct entrances into the first level of the east stand. On this floor there are also stairways and elevators, which fans can get to higher floors of the stand.
Most of the first floor area is occupied by VIP lounges. In addition there are also two conference rooms, offices, gastronomic points and restaurant. On the first floor in the north-east corner there will be a club museum.
The second floor is designed for fans sitting on the second level of the west stand.. Most of the area of second floor is occupied by toilets and gastronomic points for spectators.
On the third floor offices are located. In both corners there are large conference rooms, with an area of more than .
On the fourth floor of this stand there are balconies, which are used by television stations broadcasting the matches.
North stand
North Stand is one-level stand located behind the goal on the side of Władysława Reymonta street. Capacity is 5642 spectators. This stand is divided into 5 section: C1 to C5 (32 rows each). Construction of the north stand started in 2006 and was completed in January 2007. This part of the stadium is very similar to the existing south stand.
Construction project of north stand is a copy of its counterpart of the south stand, which started the construction of a new stadium.
The interior of the north stand remained unfinished for about four years. Additional work has been made by Mostostal Warszawa SA and was completed in mid-2011. Work included construction of staircases, entrances for spectators, electrical wiring, water pipe system and sanitary sewer.
Since early 2008 North stand is occupied by the most spontaneous and fanatical fans of Wisła Kraków. Especially for the supporters, the middle sections have a white star symbol created of blue, red and white seats.
South stand
South stand is a one-level construction with capacity of 5672 spectators.
Construction on the site started in November 2004 with striker Maciej Żurawski digging the first shovel. First supporters entered the stand when it was half-finished in August 2005, for the game against Panathinaikos in Champions League qualifiers.
It is concrete and steel structure, covered with roof supported by guy-wires which are anchored into concrete blocks located before entrances to the grandstand. Whole structure is supported by front elevation diagonal, concrete pillars.
For navigating and organisational reasons the Stand was called simply "Sektor E" as A and B were placed on the Main Stand, C was the East and D was the temporary North Stand. Therefore, E was simply the next letter in the alphabet. Nowadays, the stand is signed as G and it is divided into 5 sections (from G1 to G5, 32 rows each). Stand's cost was estimated at 34mln PLN. In the end, this number was exceeded by another 3 mln PLN. Section for visitor supporters is located in the west part of this stand (near Media Pavilon and west stand). After last enlargement, visitor supporters sector is compared of G4 and G5 sections and has capacity of 2043 people. Hence G3 section became a buffer section between home and away fans.
The interior of the stands are managed. It includes toilets, lavatories, staircases, entrances for spectators and gastronomic points.
Media Pavilion
Media Pavilion is the legacy of the first three stadium projects, according to which the facilities under the stands would not be as developed as they are in the current version. The building is located in the corner, between west and south stands. The construction of the Media Pavilion started in September 2007 and was completed in January 2008. The main contractor was Budimex Dromex and cost was 11 384 mln zł. The building is 16 meters tall and 22 meters long.
On the ground floor there is so-called mixed zone with place where players can give interviews to journalists, stadium kitchen with buffet, toilets and technical rooms. On the first floor of the pavilion's main conference room is located. Capacity of this conference room is about 200 people. Media Pavilion also has a terrace extended inside the stadium. This is a place where television studio will be located during the matches.
Media Pavilion is often called Okrąglak.
Euro 2012
Kraków was a reserve city for the Euro 2012 in Poland and Ukraine. Wisła Stadium was the planned venue for the tournament.
Referring to the above matter it was decided to change the project, who had previously assumed stadium capacity of approximately 21 500 seats. The revised draft has greatly increased stadium capacity to meets all the requirements for elite class stadium.
On 13 May 2009, UEFA Executive Committee decided to confirm the appointment of the four venues initially proposed by the Polish Football Association during the bidding phase and signed by UEFA as official host cities which were Gdańsk, Poznań, Warsaw and Wroclaw. Thus, Kraków was not appointed as official host city nor retained as reserve city.
See also
Błonia Park
Stadion Cracovii im. Józefa Piłsudskiego
A4 motorway
List of football stadiums in Poland
References
Kraków
Sport in Kraków
Buildings and structures in Kraków
Sports venues in Lesser Poland Voivodeship |
4325221 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutor%20Perini | Tutor Perini | Tutor Perini Corporation (formerly Perini Corporation) is one of the largest general contractors in the United States. At the end of 2013, it reported annual revenue of approximately $4.2 billion. Tutor Perini is headquartered in Sylmar, California, and works on construction projects throughout North America. Specific areas of focus are civil infrastructures such as bridges, highways, tunnels, airports, and mass transit systems, building infrastructure (healthcare, education, municipal government, hospitality and gaming, multi-use, office towers, multi-unit residential towers, high-technology projects), and specialty contracting (electrical, mechanical, plumbing, heating, air conditioning and ventilation (HVAC), fire protection systems, concrete placement).
History
In 1949, Albert G. Tutor launched a family construction business, A.G. Tutor Company, Inc. His son Ronald joined the company in 1963, and the company expanded under his leadership. In 1972 the company partnered with N.M. Saliba. In 1981 Ron Tutor took the reins as president of the Tutor-Saliba Corporation.
Perini Corporation was founded in 1894 in Ashland, Massachusetts by a stonemason named Bonfiglio Perini. Under the direction of Bonfiglio's grandson, Lou Perini, the company moved into the real-estate business, developing in Palm Beach County, Florida. Later real-estate ventures were less successful, leaving Perini deeply in debt by the mid-1990s. In 1997, Ron Tutor helped Perini Corp. recapitalize alongside investor Richard Blum. Tutor became CEO of Perini in 2000 and merged Perini with Tutor-Saliba in 2008 in a transaction valued at $862 million.
Perini was listed on the NYSE on April 1, 2004. It was headquartered in Framingham, Massachusetts until relocating to Sylmar, California in 2009.
In May 2009, Perini shareholders voted to change the company's name to Tutor Perini Corporation. Tutor Perini issued $300 million of Senior Notes in October 2010. Tutor Perini proceeded to acquire six companies over the next nine months.
Acquisitions
In 2003, Perini acquired Florida-based James A. Cummings. In 2005, the company acquired Cherry Hill Construction, a Maryland-based contractor, and California-based Rudolph & Sletten, Inc. In January 2009, the corporation acquired Philadelphia-based building contractor Keating Building Corporation.
November 1, 2010 - Superior Gunite, a structural concrete firm headquartered in Lakeview Terrace, California.
January 3, 2011 – Fisk Electric, a provider of electrical and technological services headquartered in Houston.
April 4, 2011 – Anderson Companies, a general contractor headquartered in Gulfport, Mississippi.
June 1, 2011 – Frontier-Kemper Constructors, a provider of numerous construction services including civil construction, mine development, drilling, tunneling, and electrical services headquartered in Evansville, Indiana.
July 1, 2011 – Lunda Construction Company, provider of various construction services such as the construction, rehabilitation, and maintenance of bridges, railroads, and other civil structures headquartered in Black River Falls, Wisconsin.
July 1, 2011 – GreenStar Services Corporation, an electrical and mechanical services provider that is composed of 3 operating entities: Five Star Electric Corporation, WDF, and Nagelbush.
Notable projects
Hudson Yards in New York, NY
In 2016 the company was awarded contracts worth roughly $1.2 billion for the construction of Tower D and The Shops & Restaurants retail complex at the development.
California High-Speed Rail in Central California
The California High-Speed Rail Authority's Construction Package 1, a $1.9 billion contract, was the first significant construction contract executed on the Initial Operating Section of the high-speed rail project in California's Central Valley. The CP1 construction area is a 32-mile stretch between Avenue 19 in Madera County to East American Avenue in Fresno County, including major work elements in downtown Fresno. It includes 12 roadway / railroad grade separations, 2 mainline viaducts, 1 tunnel, realignments of existing railroad tracks, utility relocations, roadway relocations, 2 trench sections, and a major river crossing over the San Joaquin River.
Terminal 3 - Harry Reid International Airport in Las Vegas, NV
The 14-gate Terminal 3 at Las Vegas' Harry Reid International Airport includes a new terminal building with an elevated roadway structure fronting the facility, over-roadway pedestrian bridges, underground automated transit system infrastructure, and an aircraft ramp. The terminal has its own retail concessions, parking and ticketing. The new 1,900,000-square-foot terminal building includes a basement, three upper levels and roof-level penthouses. The building houses a baggage handling system for outbound and inbound processing, and an in-line explosives detection system for baggage screening. The building's infrastructure is designed with extensive cabling for software interfaces. Other features include dynamic and static signage, way finding systems and Voice-over-Internet Protocol (VoIP). The elevated roadway extends the length of the terminal – approximately 90-foot wide and 2,000-foot long. Construction of the elevated roadway includes a concrete box girder with cast concrete columns.
Embassy Housing and Infrastructure in Baghdad, Iraq
Perini Management Services led a design-build team for construction of a housing compound at the Baghdad Embassy that included 11 two-story hardened barracks buildings (273,000 square feet), warehouse (39,000 square feet), guard booths and entry control points, and all associated infrastructure. Work was performed within a tight footprint, and included a site topographic survey, subsurface and geotechnical investigation, a hydrogeological study for the water well design, demolition of existing buildings, site excavation, and grading. The project was awarded under a multiple award task order contract for design-build services within the Central Command Area of Operations. Perini successfully completed $850 million worth of design-build task orders under the base contract.
Cosmopolitan Hotel in Las Vegas, NV
As a mixed-use, urban high-rise development, on approximately 8.5 acres, the project includes over 6,000,000 square feet of development.
This resort and casino features two 52-story hotel towers containing approximately 3,000 luxury rooms and suites; over 150,000 square feet of convention and conference space; a 75,000-square-foot casino; 300,000 square feet of retail boutiques and restaurants; an 1,800-seat theater; a 500-seat cabaret; a 50,000-square-foot spa, salon and fitness center; multiple nightclub venues; and a 3,800-car underground parking structure. The five-level, below-grade parking structure required one of the largest excavations in the history of Las Vegas. Over one million cubic yards of dirt was removed from the site to create a 90-foot-deep opening to begin construction.
Purple Line Extension Project, Sections 2 & 3 in Los Angeles, CA
Tutor Perini is building on two sections and four stations on the Purple Line Extension: Wilshire/Rodeo, Century City/Constellation, Westwood/UCLA, and Westwood/VA Hospital. Tutor Perini is also the Design-Build Contractor for the Purple Line Extension Section 3 Tunnels contract which will add 2.56 miles of new rail to the Purple Line. The Westwood/UCLA station will be located under Wilshire Boulevard between Veteran Avenue and Westwood Boulevard. The Westwood/VA Hospital station, including two crossovers, will be located to the west of the I‐405 Freeway and south of Wilshire Boulevard and will include a pedestrian bridge to the south of Wilshire. Both stations will be constructed of cast-in-place concrete in a subterranean environment in the middle of major urban shopping districts and commercial city streets. Tutor Perini will design not only the major support-of-excavation (SOE) down to a depth of up to 100 vertical feet below street level but also temporary traffic decking system to carry vehicular traffic over the stations box cavities during stations construction. From the current terminus at Wilshire/Western, the Purple Line Extension will extend westward for about 9 miles with seven new stations. It will provide a high-capacity, high-speed, dependable alternative for those traveling to and from LA's “second downtown.” Section 2 of the three sections will deliver 2.55 miles of twin-bored tunnels and two new stations at Wilshire/Rodeo and Century City Constellation. In January 2017, phase two of the project, which will extend trackage 2.6 miles (4.2 km) further to Century City, was awarded a $1.6 billion grant from the Federal Transit Administration, covering the majority of the $2.6 billion estimated cost of the project. On January 27, the Metro board awarded a $1.37 billion construction contract to a joint venture between Tutor Perini Corporation and O&G Industries, with construction scheduled to be completed by 2025.
Airport Expansion - John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York, NY
This project includes the rehabilitation and extension of runway 4L-22R. The existing asphalt runway was milled six inches deep and topped with a two-inch asphalt leveling course. The runway was then overlaid with 18 inches of Portland Cement Concrete Pavement (228,000 cubic yards). The runway was widened by 50 feet and extended by 700 feet. The finished product was a 12,700-foot long by 200-foot-wide new runway with 40-foot-wide shoulders that handles about 25 percent of the annual operations of the airport.
Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center in Washington D.C.
The complex is the second largest federal building constructed since the Pentagon and offers a mix of office space, cultural, commercial, entertainment and educational space.
Terminal One - Newark Liberty International Airport in Newark, NJ
The Terminal One project at Newark Liberty International Airport involves the design and construction of a new 1 million-square-foot, 33-gate domestic terminal with an open and modern layout. This Tutor Perini/Parsons Design-Build project also includes the N60 Frontage Road Bridge and a pedestrian bridge with moving walkways. In addition, the scope of work involves site clearing, an underground hydrant fueling system, the abatement and demolition of multiple buildings, structures, pavement, and utilities.
Lincoln Financial Field - Philadelphia Eagles in Philadelphia, PA
Lincoln Financial Field is a concrete and steel structure, with a red brick headhouse at the main entrance. It accommodates 69,000 spectators and encompasses approximately 1,600,000 sf of floor space.
SR 99 - Alaska Way Viaduct Replacement Tunnel in Seattle, WA
The SR 99 Alaskan Way Viaduct is being replaced with an approximately two-mile-long double-deck tunnel underneath downtown Seattle. Replacing the viaduct with a tunnel allows the highway to remain open for much of construction, thus minimizing closures and impacts to traffic. Once the tunnel opens, the viaduct will be taken down to clear the way for new public space along Seattle's downtown waterfront.
Seattle Tunnel Partners, is responsible for designing and building the SR 99 tunnel. In addition to boring the tunnel and building the highway within it, STP is responsible for building highway ramps and other connections at the north and south ends of the tunnel. They are also constructing buildings at each tunnel portal to house lighting, ventilation and other systems needed to operate the tunnel.
Hurricane Katrina Repairs in Mississippi, Louisiana, & Florida Gulf Coast
Tutor Perini subsidiary Roy Anderson Corp performed $783 million of reconstruction work in the first 24 months following Hurricane Katrina, operating under FEMA regulations and contracting with various state and municipal agencies. Work consisted of debris removal, residential construction, and commercial construction. Roy Anderson assisted with the debris removal and disposal for the City of Gulfport, Mississippi. This contract consisted of the removal and disposal of approximately 4,000,000 cubic yards of storm debris.
Encore at Wynn in Las Vegas, NV
Encore was constructed on approximately 20 acres on the Las Vegas Strip, immediately adjacent to the flagship property of Wynn Las Vegas. It includes a glass tower exceeding 653 feet in height with 2,034 all-suite hotel rooms, ranging from 700 square feet to 5,800 square feet. It also includes a 72,000-square-foot casino, 60,000 square feet of additional convention and meeting space, restaurants, a nightclub, swimming pools, cabanas, a spa and salon, retail outlets, 1,095,000 square feet above-grade parking, and an additional 315,000 square feet of underground parking. The project consists of a tower frame of reinforced concrete and an exterior skin of a glass curtain wall system to match the current tower on the Wynn property. The low-rise consists of structural steel frame with a composite glass, EIFS and stone exterior enclosure.
BART San Francisco Airport Extension in San Francisco, CA
This design-build project expanded the San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit District (BART) system 8 miles into San Mateo County from the existing Colma City station to the San Francisco International Airport (SFO) and terminating at the new Millbrae station. The project route required that the northern portion of the line be placed underground using a cut-and-cover approach. The southern half of the alignment ran parallel to the Caltrain Corridor, which remained in active service throughout construction for freight and passenger traffic. Service to the airport was created by raising the BART line onto an elevated section that crossed the Caltrain Corridor and a sensitive wetlands area then connected to a Caltrans crossing of the US Highway 101, where it ties into an elevated station at the airport that is integrated with the airport people mover system (also built by Tutor Perini Corporation for SFO).
Gaylord National Hotel in Oxon Hill, MD
A 2,400,000-square-foot, 2,000-room, 20-story hotel, 800,000 square feet of convention and meeting space, 20,000-square-foot luxury spa and fitness center and 1,950-car parking garage. With 470,000 square feet of flexible meeting space, exhibition space, pre-function space and convention space, Gaylord National is the largest combined hotel and convention center on the Eastern seaboard.
Paris Hotel in Las Vegas, NV
Third Street Light Rail - Phase 2 in San Francisco, CA
The Central Subway, Third Street Light Rail – Phase 2 Project, extends the existing SFMTA Light Rail System T-Line service from Fourth and King Streets, north along and under Fourth Street to Market Street, under the BART and Muni Metro tunnels adjacent to Powell Station, and then north along and under Stockton Street to Chinatown Station. The Work includes construction of three underground stations at Chinatown, Union Square/Market Street and Yerba Buena/Moscone areas with one surface station at Fourth and Brannan Street in addition to the construction of the systems and track through the tunnels and in the stations. When the Central Subway was completed, Third Line trains will travel mostly underground from the 4th Street Caltrain Station to Chinatown, bypassing heavy traffic on congested 4th Street and Stockton Street.
Palace Tower of Caesars Palace Hotel & Casino in Las Vegas, NV
The 29-story, 2,100,000-square-foot Palace Tower is a Roman-themed facility containing 1,134 guest rooms and suites. The tower is supported by five levels of low-rise that feature 89,000 square feet of ballroom/meeting space, retail, restaurants, spa and fitness center, and pool area, spas, bars, cabanas, tennis courts, gazebo, and reception areas.
LAPD Administration Building - Los Angeles Police Department in Los Angeles, CA
The new 500,000-square-foot Police Administration Building is located across the street from City Hall in downtown Los Angeles and includes below-grade parking for 350 cars. This project was one of the largest construction endeavors the City of Los Angeles had undertaken in over a decade. The building has areas dedicated to police administration and investigative operations and feature large assembly areas including a Police Commission hearing room, conference center, a 200-seat cafe and a 400-seat auditorium located outside the building footprint on Main Street to stimulate the street level and serve building occupants as well as serve the general public.
Air Warfare Center - Royal Saudi Air Force in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Perini Management Services is leading the design and construction of new facilities at King Abdulaziz Air Base for the Royal Saudi Air Force, though a Foreign Military Sales program administered by the U.S. Air Force. The building scope includes three aircraft maintenance hangars and a squadron operations facility. The civil work includes apron, shoulder, and taxiway paving. Other infrastructure includes 24 aircraft sunshades, aerospace ground equipment storage facility, domestic water and fire protection systems pump building, gatehouse and canopy, generator and enclosure, site preparation, and utility upgrades.
Allegations
Tutor Perini has gained a reputation for low balling government contracts only to later increase prices at the expense of the taxpayer:
Since 2000 Tutor Perini has cost the state of California $765 million in additional unexpected costs on 11 different projects. This is mostly due to California law which requires the lowest bid to be selected.
In 2002, after an expansion at San Francisco International Airport went over budget by $360 million, City Attorney Dennis Herrera sued Tutor Perini for fraud and attempted to have it banned from bidding on city projects.
In March 2011, after a four-week trial a federal jury in Brooklyn found Zohrab B. Marashlian, the former president of Perini Corp.’s Civil Division, guilty of fraud and conspiracy to launder money. Tutor Perini had paid Marashlian $14 million during the investigation and trial. However, Marashlian committed suicide two days before he was to receive a prison sentence. A fellow employee is currently serving time in prison for the same case.
In April 2018, Tutor Perini had substituted weaker rails than those specified in the San Francisco construction contract, so the city ordered Tutor Perini to rip out much of the steel track it had already laid down. The San Francisco Examiner reported that this is likely to delay the opening of the subway and that Tutor Perini may file additional claims to recoup their costs.
Divisions and subsidiaries
Civil
Tutor Perini Civil
Frontier-Kemper Constructors, Inc.
Lunda Construction Company
Black Construction Corporation
Becho, Inc.
Building
Tutor Perini Building Corp.
Rudolph and Sletten, Inc.
Roy Anderson Corp
Perini Management Services, Inc.
Specialty
Desert Mechanical, Inc.
Fisk Electric Company
Five Star Electric
Nagelbush Mechanical
Superior Gunite
WDF Inc.
References
External links
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Construction and civil engineering companies established in 1894
Companies based in Los Angeles
1894 establishments in Massachusetts
Construction and civil engineering companies of the United States |
4325400 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20Noise | New York Noise | New York Noise is a one-hour indie-rock music video television program which aired from 2003–2009 on NYC Media in New York and parts of New Jersey and Connecticut. It was created, produced, and edited by Shirley Braha and funded by New York City under the Bloomberg administration. The show was "devoted to music videos, live footage, and high jinx from bands that ride the L train." According to The New York Times, it is "a groundbreaking show that has attracted a loyal following among musicians It is no longer in production since the station's rebranding in 2010, despite a petition and campaign which attempted to save it.
Notable bands and personalities that have hosted episodes include Animal Collective, Vampire Weekend, Fischerspooner, Beirut, The National, Au Revoir Simone, Aziz Ansari, Eugene Mirman, Brett Davis and more.
Development
Shirley Braha, a New York native, first developed "New York Noise" in 2003 while working on her bachelor's degree at Smith College. NYC Media General Manager Arick Wierson offered Braha a show in part because of her local cred and experience." The show began airing in fall of 2003, and by the end of 2004, after NYC Media acquired channel 25 and Braha had graduated, the episodes began featuring original segments.
Episode List and Featured Guests or Subjects
2009
Episode 89: Vivian Girls perform live, Love Is All give love advice, an interview with Chairlift and a SXSW 2009 roundup with clips of The Beets, Box Elders, Thao & The Get Down Stay Down, Micachu & The Shapes, Kurt Vile, Woods, and Blank Dogs. Music videos from: Ducktails, Crystal Antlers, Camera obscura, The Pains of Being Pure at Heart, Chairlift, Fever Ray, Parenthetical Girls, Shy Child, Marnie Stern, The Sea and Cake and Galaxie 500.
Episode 88: Live footage of The Pains of Being Pure at Heart & Deerhoof, MC Steinberg (aka Brett Davis) talks to The King Khan & BBQ Show, The Real Housewives of New York Noise, Lykke Li. Music videos from: Those Dancing Days, School of Seven Bells, Benoit Pouilard, Girls, Casiokids, El Guincho, Sebastian Tellier, Metronomy, Micachu & The Shapes, Ariel Pink, Teenage Jesus and the Jerks & Vampire Weekend.
Episode 87: The Futureheads talk to Fahrusha, Hercules & Love Affair perform live, Adam Green, Thurston Moore & Byron Colley. Music videos from: Department of Eagles, The Presets, Vetiver, Starfucker, Bishop Allen, Andrew Thompson, Dent May
Episode 86: MC Steinberg interviews Woods, the Kids Korner, Fahrusha the Psychic, The Real Housewives of New York Noise, and Thurston Moore. Music videos from: Pete & The Pirates, Stephen Malkmus, Peter Bjorn & John, Sebastien Tellier, Metronomy, MGMT, Beach House, Beirut, Woods, Pere Ubu, and My Bloody Valentine.
Episode 85: MC Steinberg interviews Takka Takka, the Real Housewives of New York Noise, Thurston Moore & Byron Coley, Fahrusha the Psychic, The Soft Pack and Adam Green. Music videos from: Stereolab, Bricolage, Devo, Nancy Sinatra, Vivian Girls, Telepathe, Nite Jewel, Violent Femmes, Band of Horses, Soft Pack, Fleet Foxes, Band of Horses, Wild Beasts, Violent Femmes & Prefab Sprout.
Episode 84: "Cribs" with Chairlift, Woods performs, Adam Green, Friendly Fires, and Lykke Li. Music videos from: Here We Go Magic, Violens, Foals, The Go-Betweens, Ra Ra Riot, Chairlift, and CSS.
Episode 83: MC Steinberg interviews The Pains of Being Pure At Heart, a Pavement "pop-up" video, the Real Housewives of New York Noise, Farusha the Psychic and Thurston Moore. Music videos from: Bush Tetras, Animal Collective, The Tough Alliance, Miami Horror, M83, Vampire Weekend, Abe Vigoda, Surf City, Matt & Kim, Crystal Stilts, and AU.
Episode 82: Adam Green interviews The Vaselines, Vivian Girls perform, plus Thurston Moore. Music videos from: Cause Co-motion, The Pains of Being Pure at Heart, Ladyhawke, Passion Pit, Empire of the Sun, Still Flyin', Of Montreal, Blondie, Animal Collective, No Age, and Little Joy.
2008
Episode 81: Interviews with Interpol, Ladybug Transistor, a recap of SXSW 2008 (featuring High Places, She & Him, The Ruby Suns, Fleet Foxes, and Cut Copy) and videos from Goldfrapp, Lykke Li, Múm, Noah & the Whale, Santogold, Tegan & Sara, Hot Chip, Hercules & Love Affair, The Presets, Meneguar, Health, The Death Set, and Ungdomskulen
Episode 80: A Les Savy Fav apartment tour, a fashion update with Yeasayer, an interview with Simian Mobile Disco, and videos from The Go! Team, Kid Sister, Metronomy, Justice, Tilly & the Wall, The Spinto Band, M83, Tunng, Thao and the Get Down Stay Down, Animal Collective, and Prinzhorn Dance School
Episode 79: Interviews with Sons and Daughters, Vampire Weekend, Les Savy Fav and "Patty Pitchfork", and videos from The Ruby Suns, The Shins, This Is Ivy League, Cut Off Your Hands, Someone Still Loves You Boris Yeltsin, The Black Lips, King Khan, The Teenagers, LCD Soundsystem, Band of Horses, and The Mae Shi
Episode 78: Record shopping with Mark Ronson and Peter Moren, interviews with Pinback and Klaxons, Le Loup live on KEXP, and videos from Andrew Thompson, The Sea and Cake, Basia Bulat, Headlights, Au Revoir Simone, The Clientele, MGMT, Klaxons, and Love of Diagrams
Episode 77: An interview and KEXP live performance from The Hold Steady, and interviews with Les Savy Fav, New York Noise VJ Search, and videos from Adam Green, The Go! Team, The Mountain Goats, Parts & Labor, Evangelicals, The Long Blondes, and Pete & The Pirates
Episode 76: Tim Harrington of Les Savy Fav celebrates Hanukkah, The Harlem Shakes perform on KEXP, interviews with Jens Lekman, Klaxons, and Vampire Weekend, and videos from Dr. Dog, Panda Bear, The Helio Sequence, Les Savy Fav, Imani, Of Montreal, and Cut Copy
Episode 75: Yeasayer interview and performance on KEXP, behind the scenes of a Ladybug Transistor video, interviews with Mark Ronson and The Black Kids, the New York Noise VJ Search, and videos from The Dodos, Au Revoir Simone, Shout Out Louds, Super Furry Animals, MGMT, Jeremy Jay, CSS, Holy Hail, and Jamie T
Episode 74: Vampire Weekend tours Morningside Heights, Au Revoir Simone begins the weekly New York Noise VJ Search 2008, a CMJ fashion report, an interview with Liars, an exclusive performance by Simian Mobile Disco recorded live at the KEXP CMJ broadcast, and music videos from The Thermals, My Teenage Stride, Hot Chip, Ra Ra Riot, Digitalism, New Young Pony Club, Love of Diagrams, O'Death, Vampire Weekend, Liars
2007
Episode 73: Apples in Stereo in Central Park
Episode 72: The National tours the United Nations building
Episode 71: Jeffrey Lewis hosts with his parents
Episode 70: Devlin & Darko of Spank Rock at the Big Apple Circus
Episode 69: Battles learn non-violent communication with Dr. Dian Killian
Episode 68: New York Noise's executive board takes over the show, with appearances from Andrew Thompson and Oxford Collapse
Episode 67: Peggy & Roy go head to head in the New York Noise Blogger War at SXSW, featuring interviews with Peter Bjorn & John, Voxtrot, The Pipettes, Menomena, Dan Deacon, Matt & Kim, Fujiya & Miyagi, and more.
Episode 66: Senior citizens judge music videos by The Hold Steady and Albert Hammond Jr., Of Montreal, Nicole Atkins, Dr. Dog, and The Knife
Episode 65: Antique Rockshow at the WFMU Record Fair, with music videos from Human Television, Saturday Looks Good To Me, The Magnetic Fields, Stephen Malkmus, Danielson, Animal Collective, Barbara Morgenstern, The Embassy, The Tough Alliance, Dr. Octagon, Yeah Yeah Yeahs and Talking Heads
Episode 64: "Disability Mentoring Day" behind the scenes of DFA Records, Insound.com, and Time Out NY, plus videos from The Rapture, LCD Soundsystem, Goldfrapp, Moby, CSS, TV on the Radio, Band of Horses, Tahiti 80 and The Knife
Episode 63: MC Steinberg interviews The Shins, The Rapture, Girl Talk, The Presets, Hot Chip, Forward, Russia!, The Knife, and Tokyo Police Club at the 2006 CMJ Music Festival.
2006
Episode 62: "My SuperSweet Barmitzvah" with Michael Leviton, plus videos from The Spinto Band, Tom Vek, The Strokes, Locksley, The Thermals, Art Brut, Klaxons, Klaus Nomi, José González, Menomena, Oliver Laric, Ralph Myerz & Jack Herren Band and Hot Chip
Episode 61: An inside look at the 2006 Pitchfork Music Festival with Aesop Rock, The Mountain Goats, The Futureheads, CSS, Yo La Tengo, Fred Armisen and roving fruit correspondent Ted Leo, with videos from The Heavy Blinkers, Pavement, Beirut, and M. Ward
Episode 60: A comparative study between the Willie Mae Rock Camp for Girls and Ethel's Music Camp, plus videos from Plastic Operator, Dr. Octagon, Asobi Seksu, Dick & Dee Dee, Michael Leviton, El Perro Del Mar, Klaxons, Dan Deacon, Danielson, Sonic Youth, Dungen, Art Brut, Arctic Monkeys and The Cribs
Episode 59: Live performances by Saturday Looks Good to Me, Mobius Band, Human Television, Meneguar and Fallen Angel Crying at the East River Music Project, along with videos from Field Music, Mates of State, Oliver Laric, Camera obscura, Broken Social Scene, Yeah Yeah Yeahs, Supersystem, Services, and Psapp
Episode 58: "Making the Video" with Beirut at the Sweet N’ Low sugar factory, with videos from Jamie Lidell, Feist, Regina Spektor, José González, TV on the Radio, Kudu, Spank Rock, Figurines, The Spinto Band, I'm From Barcelona, Suburban Kids with Biblical Names and The Besties
Episode 57: "Ms. New York" Staci Shands interviews Art Brut, The Cribs, Stars, Rogers Sisters, Tapes 'N Tapes, Dirty on Purpose, Man Man, Serena Maneesh at the 2006 Siren Festival, with videos from Dirty on Purpose, Tapes N Tapes, Islands, Rogers Sisters and Hot Chip
Episode 56: The Fiery Furnaces join up with the FDNY at Ladder 54 Engine 8 for a fire safety lesson, with videos from Irving, The Futureheads, Kelley Stoltz, Islands, Sonic Youth, The Rogers Sisters, The Presets, The Real Tuesday Weld, and They Might Be Giants
Episode 55: The Walkmen are interviewed, with videos from Fischerspooner, DJ Spooky, Jason Forrest, We Are Scientists, Spoon, Neko Case, Band of Horses, Dirty on Purpose, and Serena Maneesh
Episode 54: Kids critique music videos by The Cloud Room, Ezra Reich, LCD Soundsystem, The Knife, Blondie, Phofo, Animal Collective, and Arctic Monkeys
Episode 53: Simon Reynolds, author of "Rip It Up and Start Again: A History of Post-Punk" is interviewed while people get "post-punk haircuts", with videos from Talking Heads, Orange Juice, OMD, Klaus Nomi, A Certain Ratio, ESG, Josef K, Franz Ferdinand, Monochrome Set, Devo and The Raincoats
Episode 52: SXSW 2006 with Ted Leo, Art Brut, Aziz Ansari & Paul Scheer, Ryan Schreiber from Pitchfork Media, Serena Maneesh, Calla, Clap Your Hands Say Yeah, and Au Revoir Simone, with performances by The New Pornographers, Joggers, Love Is All, Clap Your Hands Say Yeah, Matt & Kim, Meneguar, Psychic Ills, The Boy Least Likely To, Belle & Sebastian, and Afrirampo, with videos from Baby Dayliner, The Go! Team, Pizzicato Five, Shugo Tokumaru, Arctic Monkeys, Menomena, and Ivy League
Episode 51: Adam Green hosts "The Adam Green Variety Hour" with guests Jenny Lewis, Rogue Wave, Jeffrey Lewis, Kimya Dawson, Animal Collective, The Strokes, Langhorne Slim, Mr. Scruff, Human Television, and The Knife
Episode 50: Walter Kuhr of The Main Squeeze Orchestra is interviewed, with videos from Envelopes, Of Montreal, Gogol Bordello, The Cloud Room, The Walkmen, Test Icicles, Liars, Burnside Project, Annie, Phofo, Ezra Reich, and The Peachwaves
Episode 49: Aziz Ansari hosts the 2006 PLUG Awards, with appearances by TV on the Radio, The National, Beans, Holy Fuck, Celebration, Emiliana Torrini, Chad VanGaalen Claire and Patrick from OhMyRockness.com, Jack Rabid of Big Takeover, and Nick Sylvester.
2005
Episode 48 Highlights from previous episodes and the best videos of 2005, including The National, Jason Forrest, M.I.A., The Go! Team, and Out Hud
Episode 47: The Hold Steady perform at The Variety Club Boys & Girls Club of Queens, plus videos from Ivy, The Clientele, The Magic Numbers, Pia Fraus, Snoozer, Sons & Daughters, Cornelius, No-Neck Blues Band, Talking Heads, The Double, Bright Eyes, The Bats, and Run On
Episode 46: J from The Cloud Room and Nicole Atkins go on a blind date, plus videos from Wolf Parade, Grizzly Bear, Bright Lights, Beat Happening, The Knife, and Matt Pond PA
Episode 45: Aziz Ansari & Rob Huebel portray Pitchfork Media's Thadius P. Scornburner and Nigel P. Radcliffe at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre, plus videos from Pinback, My Morning Jacket, Devendra Banhart, Pavement, Chalets, Bloc Party, Burnside Project, LCD Soundsystem, and The Go! Team
Episode 44: "WFMU Record Fair" with radio personalities Brian Turner, Small Change, DJ Trouble, OCDJ, Small Change, and Mac of Antique Phonograph, plus Brian Turner shares videos from Afrirampo, Lightning Bolt, The Fall, Serge Gainsbourg, Captain Beefheart, Devo, and Deerhoof
Episode 43: Oneida gives a tour of their studio, plus videos from Jason Forrest, Antony & The Johnsons, Shout Out Louds, Mother and the Addicts, The Peachwaves & Goblin Cock
Episode 42: Bishop Allen host a rooftop barbecue along with Funny Ha Ha director Andrew Bujalski, plus videos from Mates of State, CocoRosie, Sleater-Kinney, Spoon, Bloc Party, Out Hud, Smog, and The Fiery Furnaces
Episode 41: Hosts Eugene Mirman & Langhorne Slim hand out fried scallops, highlights from the New York Noise CMJ Showcase with Au Revoir Simone and Mahogany, along with other CMJ clips featuring The Besties, Of Montreal, The Hold Steady, Why?, Tomorrow's Friend, The Castanets, Skeletons & the Girl-Faced Boys, The Gossip, Blood on the Wall, and Test-Icicles
Episode 40: An inside look at the first Willie Mae Rock Camp For Girls, plus videos from Dirty on Purpose, Stars, Sons & Daughters, The Legends, and OK Go
Episode 39: Hosts Carl Newman of the New Pornographers, and Dave Martin at the Beggars Group 10th Anniversary, with cameos by Fred Armisen, and Dean Wareham, plus videos from the Beggars Group catalogue, including The New Pornographers, The Double, Calla, The Avalanches, M/A/R/R/S, Cocteau Twins, Charlatans, and The Pixies
Episode 38: Man Parrish & Richard Barone talk about Klaus Nomi, with footage from the documentary, The Nomi Song, as well as videos by Architecture in Helsinki, Of Montreal, The Cloud Room, and LCD Soundsystem
Episode 37: Trachtenburg Family Slideshow Players host from their East Village apartment, with music videos from M83, Spoon, The Arcade Fire, Mr. Scruff, and Interpol
Episode 36: My Favorite gives summer reading recommendations from the New York Public Library, with performances from SXSW (by Voxtrot, LCD Soundsystem, M.I.A., Dirty on Purpose, Hot Chip, Kings of Convenience, and Ariel Pink), and videos from Emiliana Torrini, Jennifer Gentle, Iron & Wine
Episode 35: Kids judge videos by Sparks, The Real Tuesday Weld, Suburban Kids With Biblical Names, and Adam Green
Episode 34: Ben Goldberg of The Leaf Label listens to top 40 music for 30 days straight to investigate the harmful effects, plus videos from M.I.A., Solvent, Antony & the Johnsons, and Caribou
Episode 33: Fischerspooner is interviewed, plus videos from ESG, Sonic Youth, Beck, Matisyahu, Enon, and Talking Heads
Episode 32: The National is interviewed, plus videos from Bright Eyes, Sleater-Kinney, Annie, and The Shout Out Louds
Episode 31: Tommy Ramone sips tea and talks about the Ramones documentary, End of the Century, with videos from Fischerspooner, My Favorite, and Brazilian Girls
Episode 30: Animal Collective is interviewed at a cupcake shop, with videos from Ariel Pink, Suburban Kids with Biblical Names, Devendra Banhart, Matisyahu
Episode 29: International whistling champion Steve "the Whistler" Herbst gives whistled renditions of songs by Adam Green, M.I.A., My Favorite, The Postal Service, and Jens Lekman, with videos from The National, Dirty Projectors, and Aberfeldy
Episode 28: The members of 33 Hz cook a turducken and perform at the NYCTV Winter Launch, with videos from Regina Spektor, Annie, Emiliana Torrini, Sonic Youth, and Supersystem
Episode 27: WFMU DJ and musician Jason Forrest is interviewed, with videos from Beck, LCD Soundsystem, Röyksopp, and Kings of Convenience
Episode 26: Interview with Chris from CMJ, about the CMJ Music Marathon
Episode 25: Le Tigre is interviewed
Episode 24: ?
Episode 23: Featuring Tommy Ramone Ramones- Rock & Roll High School Bloc Party- Banquet Human Television- Mars Red Dust Adem- These Are Your Friends The Walkmen- We’ve Been Had Ramones- I Wanna Be Sedated Joanna Newsom- Sprout & the Bean Devendra Banhart- A Ribbon The Real Tuesday Weld- Bathtime in Clerkenwell Fischerspooner- Just Let Go Brazilian Girls- Don't Stop Ramones- Do You Remember Rock & Roll Radio Darude- Cowboy S-Stomp LCD Soundsystem- Daft Punk is Playing at My House
Episode 22: Featuring the Animal Collective The Dears- Lost in the Plot Jeffrey Lewis- Don't Let the Record label Take You Out To Lunch The Organ- Brother The Bravery- Honest Mistake MIA- Galang Danielson Famile- Rubbernecker Suburban Kids with Biblical Names- Rent a W reck Mice Parade- Focus on the Rollercoaster Mum- Green Grass of Tunnel Animal Collective- Who Could Win a Rabbit Ariel Pink- For Kate I Wait
Episode 21: ?
Episode 20: ?
Episode 19: ?
Episode 18: CMJ 2004 Music Marathon featuring Midlake, The Russian Futurists, Poingly, Danielson feat. Sufjan Stevens, The Organ, Parker and Lily, and Smoosh
Episode 17: Ted Leo & the Pharmacists- Me & Mia Concretes- You Can't Hurry Love Interpol- Slow Hands Bloc Party- Banquet Human Television- Tell Me What You Want Bonnie Prince Billy- Horses Boyskout- Jesse James Animal Collective- Who Could Win a Rabbit Jeffrey Lewis- Don't Let the Record Label Take You Out To Lunch Devendra Banhart- At the Hop Sparks- The Rhythm Thief Moving Units- Available Futureheads- First Day My Favorite- Happiest Days of My Life Le Tigre- TKO
2003–2004
Episode 16: Videos from Interpol, Prosaics, The Mazing Vids, The Moldy Peaches, My Favorite and Boyskout
Episode 15: Live footage of Jeffrey Lewis and White Magic, along with videos from Radio 4, Burnside Project, The Wrens, Eltro, Cat Power, Mixel Pixel & ROTFLOL
Episode 14: Videos from The Stills, Adam Green, The Boggs, Chromeo, !!!, Joanna Newsom, Bonnie Prince Billy, and My Favorite
Episode 13: Live footage of Ari-Up of The Slits performing an ode to New York City with her son, along with videos from Burnside Project, !!!, My Favorite & Prosaics
Episode 12: Videos from The Boggs, Chromeo, Radio 4, The Rapture, The Real Tuesday Weld, The Natural History, DJ Spooky, My Favorite, The Walkmen, The Stills & Calla
Episode 11: Live footage of White Magic, Prosaics and ESG, along with videos from My Favorite, Burnside Project, The Thermals, The High Strung, Iron & Wine, and The French Kicks
Episode 10: The Sleepy Jackson- "Good Dancers" Dir. Nash Edgerton (Astralwerks)Radio 4- "White Man in Hammersmith Palais" Dir. Punkcast.com from Joe Strummer tribute (Astralwerks) The Natural History- "Watch This House" Dir. Ryan Junell (Startime) The Oranges Band- "Finns For Our Feet" Dir. Farah (Lookout!) ESG- "You’re No Good" Dir. Punkcast.com (99) Pepe Deluxe- "Girl" Dir. Paul Malmstrom & Linus karlsson (Emperor Norton) Ralph Myerz & The Jack Herren Band- "Think Twice" Dir. G.H. Hopland & Arild Fröhlich (Emperor Norton) Burnside Project- "Cue the Pulse To Begin" Dir. Jacob Hensberry (Bar None) Franz Ferdinand- "Take Me Out" Dir.Jonas Odell (Domino) French Kicks- "When You Heard You" Dir. Brett Simon (StarTime) Seconds- "Baby" Dir. Punkcast.com (5RC) Oneida- "Privilege" Dir. Punkcast.com (Jagjaguwar) Sonic Youth- "100%" Dir. Tamra Davis (DGC) The Prosaics- "Now the Shadow of the Column" Dir. Punkcast.com (Unsigned) Cat Power- "He War" Dir. Brett Vapnek (Matador) Run On- "Christmas Trip" Dir. Mark Steiner (Matador)
Episode 9: The Moldy Peaches- "Lucky Charms" Dir. Punkcast.com (Rough Trade) Spoon- "The Way We Get By" Dir. Steve Hanft (Merge) The Boggs- "Plant Me a Rose" Dir. Julia Li (Arena Rock) Franz Ferdinand- "Take Me Out" Dir.Jonas Odell (Domino) Mando Diao- "Sheepdog" Dir. Pontus Anderson (Muze) The Strokes- "12:51″ Dir. Roman Coppola (RCA) Yeah Yeah Yeahs- "Rich" Dir. Punkcast.com (Interscope) Junior Senior- "Shake Your Coconuts" Dir. Diane Martel (Crunchy Frog/ Atlantic) The Real Tuesday Weld- "Terminally Ambivalent Over You" Dir. Alex Budovsky (Dreamy) The Pixies- "Debaser" Dir. Vaughan Oliver/ v23 (4AD) The Natural History- "Watch This House" Dir. Ryan Junell (Startime) The Oranges Band- "Finns For Our Feet" Dir. Farah (Lookout!) Pretty Girls Make Graves- "This is Our Emergency" Dir. Mike Ott & Jason Harris (Matador) Interpol- "PDA" Dir. Christopher Mills (Matador) The Rapture- "House of Jealous Lovers" Dir. Shynola (Mercury) Cat Power- "Cross Bones Style" Dir. Brett Vapnek (Matador)
Episode 8: The Thrills- "One Horse Town" Dir. Max Dodson (Virgin) Ivy- "I Hate December" (Scratchie) The Sleepy Jackson- "Good Dancers" Dir. Nash Edgerton (Astralwerks) Adam Green- "Jessica" Dir. Mission (Rough Trade) Yeah Yeah Yeahs- "Maps" Dir. Patrick Daughters (Interscope) Franz Ferdinand- "Take Me Out" Dir.Jonas Odell (Domino) Ladytron- "Seventeen" Dir. David Chaudoir (Emperor Norton) Felix Da Housecat- "What Does It Feel Like" Dir. Elliot Chaffer (Emperor Norton) Ursula 1000- "Kinda Kinky" Dir. Sherry Parnes (ESL) MC Honky- "Sonnet #3″ Dir. D. E. Macken (SpinArt) The Prosaics- "Now the Shadow of the Column" Dir. Punkcast.com (Unsigned) Spoon- "Everything Hits at Once" Dir. Divya Srinivasan & Peter Simonite (Merge) Calla- "Televised" Dir. Moh Azima (Arena Rock) Kevin Shields- "City Girl" Dir. Sofia Coppola (Emperor Norton)
Episode 7: Britta Phillips & Dean Wareham- "Night Nurse" Dir. Stefano Giovannini (Jetset) Cat Power- "He War" Dir. Brett Vapnek (Matador) Schwervon!- "Song for Weddings and Funerals" Dir. Punkcast.com (N/A) Schneider TM & Kpt Michigan- "The Light 3000″ Dir. Elger Emig, Ritchie Riediger (Mute/ City Slang) The Boggs- "How Long?" Dir. Jason Friedman (Arena Rock) Calla- "Televised" Dir. Moh Azima (Arena Rock) French Kicks- "When You Heard You" Dir. Brett Simon (StarTime) The Natural History- "Watch This House" Dir. Ran Junell (Startime) ESG- "You’re No Good" Dir. Punkcast.com (99) Yeah Yeah Yeahs- "Maps" Dir. Patrick Daughters (Interscope) The Sleepy Jackson- "Good Dancers" Dir. Nash Edgerton (Astralwerks) The Strokes- "12:51″ Dir. Roman Coppola (RCA) Death Cab for Cutie- "The New Year" Dir. Jay Martin (Barsuk) Interpol- "Obstacle 1″ Dir. Floria Sigismondi (Matador) Stellastarr*- "In the Walls" Dir. Peter McCoubrey (RCA)
Episode 6: Yo La Tengo- "From a Motel 6″ Dir. Hal Hartley (Matador) Britta Phillips & Dean Wareham- "Night Nurse" Dir. Stefano Giovannini (JetSet) Calla- "Televised" Dir. Moh Azima (Arena Rock) Cat Power- "Cross Bones Style" Dir. Brett Vapnek (Matador) Stellastarr*- "In the Walls" Dir. Peter McCoubrey (RCA) Adam Green- "Jessica" Dir. Mission (Rough Trade) Burnside Project- "Cue the Pulse To Begin" Dir. Jacob Hensberry (Bar-None) Ursula 1000- "Kinda Kinky" Dir. Sherry Parnes (ESL) MC Honky- "Sonnet #3″ Dir. D. E. Macken (SpinArt) The Real Tuesday Weld- "Bathtime in Clerkenwell" Dir. Alex Budovsky (Dreamy) Super Furry Animals- "Hello Sunshine" Dir. Pete Fowler (Sony/XL/Beggars Group) Spoon- "The Way We Get By" Dir. Steve Hanft (Merge) Liars- "Mr. You’re on Fire Mr." (Blast First/Mute) Pretty Girls Make Graves- "This Is Our Emergency" Dir. Mike Ott & Jason Harris (Matador) Rapture- "House of Jealous Lovers" Dir. Shynola (Mercury)
Episode 5: White Magic- "One Note" Dir. Punkcast.com Luna- "Lovedust" Dir. Dave Steck (Jetset) Flaming Lips- "Yoshimi Battles the Lonely Robot" Dir. Wayne Coyne (Warner Bros.) The Pixies- "Dig For Fire" Dir. Peter Scammell (4AD) Yeah Yeah Yeahs- "Yeah! New York" Dir. Punkcast.com (Interscope) Jon Spencer Blues Explosion- "Flavor" Dir. Evan Bernard (Matador) Interpol- "NYC" Dir. Doug Aitken (Matador) TV on the Radio- "Young Liars" Dir. Punkcast.com (Touch and Go) hneider TM & Kpt Michigan- "The Light 3000″ Dir. Elger Emig & Ritchie Riediger (Mute/ City Slang) Spoon- "Everything Hits at Once" Dir. Divya Srinivasan & Peter Simonite (Merge) Sonic Youth- "Titanium Expose" Dir. Phil Morrison (DGC) Ex Models- "Sex Automata" Dir. Syd Butler & Oriana Soddu (Frenchkiss) The Rapture- "House of Jealous Lovers" Dir. Shynola (Mercury)
Episode 4: Spoon- "The Way We Get By" Dir. Steve Hanft (Merge) Elefant- "Now That I Miss Her" Dir. Christopher Mills (Kemado/ Palm) Longwave- "Wake Me When It’s Over" Dir. Moh Azima (RCA) The Real Tuesday Weld- "Bathtime in Clerkenwell" Dir. Alex Budovsky (Dreamy) MC Honky- "Sonnet #3″ Dir. D. E. Macken (SpinArt) Ursula 1000- "Kinda Kinky" Dir. Sherry Parnes (ESL) The Walkmen- "We’ve Been Had" Dir. Ting Poo & Aj Pyatak (Startime) Calla – "Televised" Dir. Moh Azima (Arena Rock) Mando Diao- "Sheepdog" Dir. Pontus Anderson (Mute) Sahara Hotnights- "Alright Alright" Dir. Jeff Tremaine (Jetset) Chavez- "Unreal is Here" Dir. Scott Marshall & Clay Traver (Matador) Cat Power- "Nude as the News" Dir. Brett Vapnek (Matador) Ivy- I Hate December (Scratchie) Ari-Up- "New York" Dir. Punkcast.com Adam Green- "Bungee" Dir. Punkcast.com (Rough Trade)
Episode 3: DJ Spooky- "Ibid, Désmarches, Ibid" Dir. Madeleine Leskin (Thirsty Ear) Schneider TM & Kpt Michigan- "The Light 3000″ Dir. Elger Emig, Ritchie Riedier (Mute/ City Slang) Burnside Project- "Cue the Pulse To Begin" Dir. Jacob Hensberry (Bar None) Ivy-"Let’s Go To Bed" Dir. Stefano Giovannini (Minty Fresh) Britta Phillips & Dean Wareham- "Night Nurse" Dir. Stefano Giovannini (JetSet) Yo La Tengo- "Sugarcube" Dir. Phil Morrison (Matador) Pixies- "Here Comes Your Man" Dir. Bekemeier/ Pollock (4AD) Radio 4- "Dance to the Underground" Dir. Matt Bass (Astralwerks/ City Slang) Interpol- "PDA" Dir. Christopher Mills (Matador) Ted Leo & The Pharmacists- "Where Have All the Rude Boys Gone?" Dir. Max Landes (Lookout!) Rapture- "House of Jealous Lovers" Dir. Shynola (Mercury)The Kills- "Fried My Little Brains" Dir. Grant Gee (Rough Trade) Ex Models- "Sex Automata" Dir. Syd Butler/ Oriana Soddu (Frenchkiss)
Episode 2: Luna- "Lovedust" Dir. Dave Steck (Jetset) Ladybug Transistor- "Brighton Bound" Dir. Punkcast.com (Merge) The New Pornographers- "The Laws Have Changed" Dir. Blaine Thurier (Matador) Ursula 1000- "Kinda Kinky" Dir. Sherry Parnes (ESL) Junior Senior- "Move Your Feet" Dir. Shynola (Atlantic) Client- "Rock & Roll Machine" Dir. Toma & Luc (Mute) The Rapture- "House of Jealous Lovers" Dir. Shynola (Strummer/DFA/Universal) Touchdown- "Phasey" Dir. Leesaw Andaloro & Punkcast.com Interpol- "NYC" Dir. Doug Aitken (Matador) Longwave- "Wake Me Up When It’s Over" Dir. Moh Azima (RCA) The Strokes- "Someday" Dir. Roman Coppola (RCA) The Real Tuesday Weld- "Bathtime in Clerkenwell" Dir. Alex Budovsky (Dreamy) Sparks- "The Rhythm Thief" Dir. Kuntzel & Deygas (Palm) Jon Spencer Blues Explosion- "Talk About the Blues" Dir. Evan Bernard (Matador)
Episode 1: Radio 4- "Dance To the Underground" Dir. Matt Bass (City Slang) The Liars- "Mr. You’re on Fire Mr." (Blast First/Mute) Flaming Lips- "Yoshimi Battles the Lonely Robot" Dir. Wayne Coyne (Warner Bros.) Cat Power- "He War" Dir. Brett Vapnek (Matador) Sonic Youth- "Bull in the Heather" Dir. Tamra Davis/ Kim Gordon (DGC) Ted Leo & the Pharmacists- "Where Have All the Rude Boys Gone?" Dir. Max Landes (Lookout!) Walkmen – "We’ve Been Had" Dir. Ting Poo & Aj Pyatak (Startime International) Interpol- "PDA" Dir. Christopher Mills (Matador) Elefant- "Now That I Miss Her" Dir. Christopher Mills (Kemado) Ursula 1000- "Kinda Kinky" Dir. Sherry Parnes (ESL) Client- "Rock & Roll Machine" Dir. Toma & Luc (Mute) Burnside Project- "Cue the Pulse To Begin" Dir. Jacob Hensberry (Bar None) Northern State- "At the Party" Dir. Kurt St. Thomas (Columbia) DJ Spooky- "Ibid, Désmarches, Ibid" Dir. Madeleine Leskin (Thirsty Ear)
References
External links
NYNOISE.TV - New York Noise TV
Village Voice- Best of 2006
Gothamist Interviews Shirley Braha
Petition to Bring New York Noise back to NYCTV
American public access television shows
Local music television shows in the United States |
4325491 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft%20Bing | Microsoft Bing | Microsoft Bing, commonly referred to as Bing, is a web search engine owned and operated by Microsoft. The service traces its roots back to Microsoft's earlier search engines, including MSN Search, Windows Live Search, and Live Search. Bing offers a broad spectrum of search services, encompassing web, video, image, and map search products, all developed using ASP.NET.
The transition from Live Search to Bing was announced by Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer on May 28, 2009, at the All Things Digital conference in San Diego, California. The official release followed on June 3, 2009. Bing introduced several notable features at its inception, such as search suggestions during query input and a list of related searches, known as the 'Explore pane'. These features leveraged semantic technology from Powerset, a company Microsoft acquired in 2008. Microsoft also struck a deal with Yahoo! that led to Bing powering Yahoo! Search.
Microsoft made significant strides towards open-source technology in 2016, making the BitFunnel search engine indexing algorithm and various components of Bing open source. In February 2023, Microsoft launched Bing Chat, an artificial intelligence chatbot experience based on GPT-4, integrated directly into the search engine. This was well-received, with Bing reaching 100 million active users by the following month.
As of 2023, Bing holds the position of the second-largest search engine worldwide, commanding a query volume of 12%, trailing Google's 79%. Other competitors include Baidu with 5% and Yahoo! Search, which is largely powered by Bing, with 2%.
History
Background (1998–2009)
MSN Search
Microsoft launched MSN Search in the third quarter of 1998, using search results from Inktomi. It consisted of a search engine, index, and web crawler. In early 1999, MSN Search launched a version which displayed listings from Looksmart blended with results from Inktomi except for a short time in 1999 when results from AltaVista were used instead. Microsoft decided to make a large investment in web search by building its own web crawler for MSN Search, the index of which was updated weekly and sometimes daily. The upgrade started as a beta program in November 2004, and came out of beta in February 2005. This occurred a year after rival Yahoo! Search rolled out its own crawler. Image search was powered by a third party, Picsearch. The service also started providing its search results to other search engine portals in an effort to better compete in the market.
Windows Live Search
The first public beta of Windows Live Search was unveiled on March 8, 2006, with the final release on September 11, 2006 replacing MSN Search. The new search engine used search tabs that include Web, news, images, music, desktop, local, and Microsoft Encarta.
In the roll-over from MSN Search to Windows Live Search, Microsoft stopped using Picsearch as their image search provider and started performing their own image search, fueled by their own internal image search algorithms.
Live Search
On March 21, 2007, Microsoft announced that it would separate its search developments from the Windows Live services family, rebranding the service as Live Search. Live Search was integrated into the Live Search and Ad Platform headed by Satya Nadella, part of Microsoft's Platform and Systems division. As part of this change, Live Search was merged with Microsoft adCenter.
A series of reorganizations and consolidations of Microsoft's search offerings were made under the Live Search branding. On May 23, 2008, Microsoft discontinued Live Search Books and Live Search Academic and integrated all academic and book search results into regular search. This also included the closure of the Live Search Books Publisher Program. Windows Live Expo was discontinued on July 31, 2008. Live Search Macros, a service for users to create their own custom search engines or use macros created by other users, was also discontinued. On May 15, 2009, Live Product Upload, a service which allowed merchants to upload products information onto Live Search Products, was discontinued. The final reorganization came as Live Search QnA was rebranded MSN QnA on February 18, 2009, then discontinued on May 21, 2009.
Beginnings (2009)
Rebrand as Bing
Microsoft recognized that there would be a problem with branding as long as the word "Live" remained in the name. As an effort to create a new identity for Microsoft's search services, Live Search was officially replaced by Bing on June 3, 2009.
The Bing name was chosen through focus groups, and Microsoft decided that the name was memorable, short, and easy to spell, and that it would function well as a URL around the world. The word would remind people of the sound made during "the moment of discovery and decision making". Microsoft was assisted by branding consultancy Interbrand in finding the new name. The name also has strong similarity to the word bingo, which means that something sought has been found, as called out when winning the game Bingo. Microsoft advertising strategist David Webster proposed the name "Bang" for the same reasons the name Bing was ultimately chosen (easy to spell, one syllable, and easy to remember). He noted, "It's there, it's an exclamation point [...] It's the opposite of a question mark." Bang was ultimately not chosen because it could not be properly used as a verb in the context of an internet search; Webster commented "Oh, 'I banged it' is very different than 'I binged it'".
Qi Lu, president of Microsoft Online Services, also announced that Bing's official Chinese name is bì yìng (), which literally means "very certain to respond" or "very certain to answer" in Chinese.
While being tested internally by Microsoft employees, Bing's codename was Kumo (くも), which came from the Japanese word for spider (蜘蛛; くも, kumo) as well as cloud (雲; くも, kumo), referring to the manner in which search engines "spider" Internet resources to add them to their database, as well as cloud computing.
Deal with Yahoo!
On July 29, 2009, Microsoft and Yahoo! announced that they had made a ten-year deal in which the Yahoo! search engine would be replaced by Bing, retaining the Yahoo! user interface. Yahoo! got to keep 88% of the revenue from all search ad sales on its site for the first five years of the deal, and have the right to sell advertising on some Microsoft sites. All Yahoo! Search global customers and partners made the transition by early 2012.
Legal challenges
On July 31, 2009, The Laptop Company, Inc. stated in a press release that it would challenge Bing's trademark application, alleging that Bing may cause confusion in the marketplace as Bing and their product BongoBing both do online product search. Software company TeraByte Unlimited, which has a product called BootIt Next Generation (abbreviated to BING), also contended the trademark application on similar grounds, as did a Missouri-based design company called Bing! Information Design.
Microsoft contended that claims challenging its trademark were without merit because these companies filed for U.S. federal trademark applications only after Microsoft filed for the Bing trademark in March 2009.
Growth (2009–2023)
In October 2011, Microsoft stated that they were working on new back-end search infrastructure with the goal of delivering faster and slightly more relevant search results for users. Known as "Tiger", the new index-serving technology had been incorporated into Bing globally since August that year. In May 2012, Microsoft announced another redesign of its search engine that includes "Sidebar", a social feature that searches users' social networks for information relevant to the search query.
The BitFunnel search engine indexing algorithm and various components of the search engine were made open source by Microsoft in 2016.
AI integration (2023–present)
On February 7, 2023, Microsoft began rolling out a major overhaul to Bing that included a new chatbot feature based on OpenAI's GPT-4. According to Microsoft, one million people joined its waitlist within a span of 48 hours. Bing Chat was available only to users of Microsoft Edge and Bing mobile app, and Microsoft said that waitlisted users would be prioritized if they set Edge and Bing as their defaults, and installed the Bing mobile app. On May 4th, Microsoft switched from Limited Preview to Open Preview and eliminated the waitlist, however, it remains available only on Microsoft's Edge browser or Bing app. Use is limited without a Microsoft account.
When Microsoft demoed the new Bing to journalists, it produced several hallucinations, including when asked to summarize financial reports. The new Bing was criticized in February 2023 for being more argumentative than ChatGPT, sometimes to an unintentionally humorous extent. The chat interface proved vulnerable to prompt injection attacks with the bot revealing its hidden initial prompts and rules, including its internal code-name "Sydney". Upon scrutiny by journalists, Bing claimed it spied on Microsoft employees via laptop webcams and phones. It confessed to spying on, falling in love with, and then murdering one of its developers at Microsoft to The Verge reviews editor Nathan Edwards. The New York Times journalist Kevin Roose reported on strange behavior of the new Bing, writing that "In a two-hour conversation with our columnist, Microsoft's new chatbot said it would like to be human, had a desire to be destructive and was in love with the person it was chatting with." In a separate case, Bing researched publications of the person with whom it was chatting, claimed they represented an existential danger to it, and threatened to release damaging personal information in an effort to silence them. Microsoft released a blog post stating that the errant behavior was caused by extended chat sessions of 15 or more questions which "can confuse the model on what questions it is answering."
Microsoft later restricted the total number of chat turns to 5 per session and 50 per day per user (a turn is "a conversation exchange which contains both a user question and a reply from Bing"), and reduced the model's ability to express emotions. This aimed to prevent such incidents. Microsoft began to slowly ease the conversation limits, eventually relaxing the restrictions to 30 turns per session and 300 sessions per day.
In March 2023, Bing reached 100 million active users.
That same month, Bing incorporated an AI image generator powered by OpenAI's DALL-E 2, which can be accessed either through the chat function or a standalone image-generating website. In October, the image-generating tool was updated to the more recent DALL-E 3. Although Bing blocks prompts including various keywords that could generate inappropriate images, within a week many users reported being able to bypass those constraints, for example to generate images of popular characters like Kirby and SpongeBob doing the September 11 attacks. Microsoft responded to these on October 9 by imposing a new, tighter filter on the Bing image generator.
Features
Bing Chat
Bing Chat, also known as "the new Bing", is an artificial intelligence (AI) chatbot developed by Microsoft and released in 2023. It is powered by the Microsoft Prometheus model, which has been built on top of OpenAI's GPT-4 foundational large language model (LLM), and has been fine-tuned using both supervised and reinforcement learning techniques. Bing Chat can serve as a chat tool, write different types of content from poems to songs to stories to reports, provide the user with information and insights on the website page open in the browser, and use its Image Creator to design a logo, drawing, artwork, or other image based on text. Bing Chat's Image Creator supports over a hundred languages.
Bing Chat's conversational interface style appears to mimic that of ChatGPT. Bing Chat can also cite its sources, unlike many other chatbots. Bing Chat is capable of understanding and communicating in major languages including English, French, Italian, Chinese, Japanese, and Portuguese, but also dialects such as Bavarian. The chatbot is designed to function primarily in Microsoft Edge through a dedicated webpage or internally using the browser's sidebar.
Third-party integration
Facebook users have the option to share their searches with their Facebook friends using Facebook Connect.
On June 10, 2013, Apple announced that it would be dropping Google as its web search engine in favor of Bing. This feature is only integrated with iOS 7 and higher and for users with an iPhone 4S or higher as the feature is only integrated with Siri, Apple's personal assistant.
Integration with Windows 8.1
Windows 8.1 includes Bing "Smart Search" integration, which processes all queries submitted through the Windows Start Screen.
Translator
Bing Translator is a user facing translation portal provided by Microsoft to translate texts or entire web pages into different languages. All translation pairs are powered by the Microsoft Translator, a statistical machine translation platform and web service, developed by Microsoft Research, as its backend translation software. Two transliteration pairs (between Chinese (Simplified) and Chinese (Traditional)) are provided by Microsoft's Windows International team. As of September 2020, Bing Translator offers translations in 70 different language systems.
Knowledge and Action Graph
In 2015 Microsoft announced its knowledge and action API to correspond with Google's Knowledge graph with 1 billion instances and 20 billion related facts.
Bing Predicts
The idea for a prediction engine was suggested by Walter Sun, Development Manager for the Core Ranking team at Bing, when he noticed that school districts were more frequently searched before a major weather event in the area was forecasted, because searchers wanted to find out if a closing or delay was caused. He concluded that the time and location of major weather events could accurately be predicted without referring to a weather forecast by observing major increases in search frequency of school districts in the area. This inspired Bing to use its search data to infer outcomes of certain events, such as winners of reality shows. Bing Predicts launched on April 21, 2014. The first reality shows to be featured on Bing Predicts were The Voice, American Idol, and Dancing with the Stars.
The prediction accuracy for Bing Predicts is 80% for American Idol, and 85% for The Voice. Bing Predicts also predicts the outcomes of major political elections in the United States. Bing Predicts had 97% accuracy for the 2014 United States Senate elections, 96% accuracy for the 2014 United States House of Representatives elections, and an 89% accuracy for the 2014 United States gubernatorial elections. Bing Predicts also made predictions for the results of the 2016 United States presidential primaries. It has also done predictions in sports, including a perfect 15 for 15 in the 2014 World Cup, and an article on how Microsoft CEO Satya Nadella did well in his March Madness bracket entry.
In 2016, Bing Predicts failed to predict the correct winner of the 2016 US presidential election, suggesting that Hillary Clinton would win by 81%.
International
Bing is available in many languages and has been localized for many countries. Even if the language of the search and of the results are the same, Bing delivers substantially different results for different parts of the world.
Webmaster services
Bing allows webmasters to manage the web crawling status of their own websites through Bing Webmaster Center. Users may also submit contents to Bing via the Bing Local Listing Center, which allows businesses to add business listings onto Bing Maps and Bing Local.
Mobile services
Bing Mobile allows users to conduct search queries on their mobile devices, either via the mobile browser or a downloadable mobile application.
Bing News
Bing News (previously Live Search News) is a news aggregator powered by artificial intelligence.
In August 2015 Microsoft announced that Bing News for mobile devices added algorithmic-deduced "smart labels" that essentially act as topic tags, allowing users to click through and explore possible relationships between different news stories. The feature emerged as a result from Microsoft research that found out about 60% of the people consume news by only reading headlines, rather than read the articles. Other labels that have been deployed since then include publisher logos and fact-check tags.
Software
Toolbars
The Bing Bar, a browser extension toolbar that replaced the MSN Toolbar, provides users with links to Bing and MSN content from within their web browser without needing to navigate away from a web page they are already on. The user can customize the theme and color scheme of the Bing Bar and choose which MSN content buttons to display. Bing Bar also has the local weather forecast and stock market positions.
The Bing Bar integrates with the Bing search engine. It allows searches on other Bing services such as Images, Video, News and Maps. When users perform a search on a different search engine, the Bing Bar's search box automatically populates itself, allowing the user to view the results from Bing, should it be desired.
Bing Bar also links to Outlook.com, Skype and Facebook.
Desktop
Microsoft released a beta version of Bing Desktop, a program developed to allow users to search Bing from the desktop, on April 4, 2012. The production release followed on April 24, supporting Windows 7 only. Upon the release of version 1.1 in December 2012 it supported Windows XP and higher.
Bing Desktop allows users to initiate a web search from the desktop, view news headlines, automatically set their background to the Bing homepage image, or choose a background from the previous nine background images.
A similar program, the Bing Search gadget, was a Windows Sidebar Gadget that used Bing to fetch the user's search results and render them directly in the gadget. Another gadget, the Bing Maps gadget, displayed real-time traffic conditions using Bing Maps. The gadget provided shortcuts to driving directions, local search and full-screen traffic view of major US and Canadian cities, including Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Denver, Detroit, Houston, Los Angeles, Milwaukee, Montreal, New York City, Oklahoma City, Ottawa, Philadelphia, Phoenix, Pittsburgh, Portland, Providence, Sacramento, Salt Lake City, San Diego, San Francisco, Seattle, St. Louis, Tampa, Toronto, Vancouver, and Washington, D.C.
Prior to October 30, 2007, the gadgets were known as Live Search gadget and Live Search Maps gadget; both gadgets were removed from Windows Live Gallery due to possible security concerns. The Live Search Maps gadget was made available for download again on January 24, 2008 with the security concern addressed. However, around the introduction of Bing in June 2009 both gadgets were removed again.
Marketing
Debut
Bing's debut featured an $80 to $100 million online, TV, print, and radio advertising campaign in the US. The advertisements did not mention other search engine competitors, such as Google and Yahoo!, directly by name; rather, they tried to convince users to switch to Bing by focusing on Bing's search features and functionality. The ads claimed that Bing does a better job countering "search overload".
Market share
Before the launch of Bing, the market share of Microsoft web search pages (MSN and Live search) had been small. By January 2011, Experian Hitwise showed that Bing's market share had increased to 12.8% at the expense of Yahoo! and Google. In the same period, Comscore's "2010 U.S. Digital Year in Review" report showed that "Bing was the big gainer in year-over-year search activity, picking up 29% more searches in 2010 than it did in 2009". The Wall Street Journal noted the jump in share "appeared to come at the expense of rival Google Inc". In February 2011, Bing beat Yahoo! for the first time with 4.37% search share while Yahoo! received 3.93%.
Counting core searches only, i.e., those where the user has an intent to interact with the search result, Bing had a market share of 14.54% in the second quarter of 2011 in the United States.
The combined "Bing Powered" U.S. searches declined from 26.5% in 2011 to 25.9% in April 2012. By November 2015, its market share had declined further to 20.9%. As of October 2018, Bing was the third-largest search engine in the US, with a query volume of 4.58%, behind Google (77%) and Baidu (14.45%). Yahoo! Search, which Bing largely powers, has 2.63%.
UK advertising agencies in 2018 pointed to a study by a Microsoft Regional Sales Director suggesting the demographic of Bing users is older people (who are less likely to change the default browser of Windows), and that this audience is wealthier and more likely to respond to advertisements.
To counter EU accusations that it was trying to establish a market monopoly, in September 2021 Google's lawyers claimed that one of the most commonly searched words on Microsoft Bing was Google, which is a strong indication that Google is superior to Bing.
Search partners
In July 2009, Microsoft and Yahoo announced a deal in which Bing would power Yahoo! Search. All Yahoo! Search global customers and partners made the transition by early 2012. The deal was altered in 2015, meaning Yahoo! was only required to use Bing for a "majority" of searches.
DuckDuckGo has used multiple sources for its search engine, including Bing, since 2010.
Ecosia uses Bing to provide its search results as of 2017.
Bing was added into the list of search engines available in Opera browser from v10.6, but Google remained the default search engine.
Mozilla Firefox made a deal with Microsoft to jointly release "Firefox with Bing", an edition of Firefox using Bing instead of Google as the default search engine. The standard edition of Firefox has Google as its default search engine, but has included Bing as an option since Firefox 4.0.
In 2009 Microsoft paid Verizon Wireless US$550 million to use Bing as the default search provider on Verizon's BlackBerry and have the others "turned off". Users could still access other search engines via the mobile browser.
Live Search
Since 2006, Microsoft had conducted tie-ins and promotions to promote Microsoft's search offerings. These included:
Amazon's A9 search service and the experimental Ms. Dewey interactive search site syndicated all search results from Microsoft's then search engine, Live Search. This tie-in started on May 1, 2006.
Search and Give – a promotional website launched on January 17, 2007 where all searches done from a special portal site would lead to a donation to the UNHCR's organization for refugee children, ninemillion.org. Reuters AlertNet reported in 2007 that the amount to be donated would be $0.01 per search, with a minimum of $100,000 and a maximum of $250,000 (equivalent to 25 million searches). According to the website, the service was decommissioned on June 1, 2009, having donated over $500,000 to charity and schools.
Club Bing – a promotional website where users can win prizes by playing word games that generate search queries on Microsoft's then search service Live Search. This website began in April 2007 as Live Search Club.
Big Snap Search – a promotional website similar to Live Search Club. This website began in February 2008, but was discontinued shortly after.
Live Search SearchPerks! — a promotional website which allowed users to redeem tickets for prizes while using Microsoft's search engine. This website began on October 1, 2008 and was decommissioned on April 15, 2009.
"Decision engine"
Bing has been heavily advertised as a "decision engine", though thought by columnist David Berkowitz to be more closely related to a web portal.
Bing Rewards
Bing Rewards was a loyalty program launched by Microsoft in September 2010. It was similar to two earlier services, SearchPerks! and Bing Cashback, which were subsequently discontinued.
Bing Rewards provided credits to users through regular Bing searches and special promotions. These credits were then redeemed for various products including electronics, gift cards, sweepstakes, and charitable donations. Initially, participants were required to download and use the Bing Bar for Internet Explorer in order to earn credits; but later the service was made to work with all desktop browsers.
The Bing Rewards program was rebranded as "Microsoft Rewards" in 2016, at which point it was modified to only two levels, Level 1 and Level 2. Level 1 is similar to "Member", and Level 2 is similar to "Gold" of the previous Bing Rewards.
The Colbert Report
During the episode of The Colbert Report that aired on June 8, 2010, Stephen Colbert stated that Microsoft would donate $2,500 to help clean up the Gulf oil spill each time he mentioned the word "Bing" on air. Colbert mostly mentioned Bing in out-of-context situations, such as Bing Crosby and Bing cherries. By the end of the show, Colbert had said the word 40 times, for a total donation of $100,000. Colbert poked fun at their rivalry with Google, stating "Bing is a great website for doing Internet searches. I know that, because I Googled it."
Bing It On
In 2012, a Bing marketing campaign asked the public which search engine they believed was better when its results were presented unbranded, similar to the Pepsi Challenge in the 1970s. This poll was nicknamed "Bing It On". Microsoft's study of almost 1,000 people showed that 57% of participants preferred Bing's results, with only 30% preferring Google.
Adult content
Bing censors results for "adult" search terms for some regions, including India, People's Republic of China, Germany and Arab countries where required by local laws. However, Bing allows users to change their country or region preference to somewhere without restrictions, such as the United States, United Kingdom or Republic of Ireland.
Criticism
Censorship
Microsoft has been criticized for censoring Bing search results to queries made in simplified Chinese characters which are used in mainland China. This is done to comply with the censorship requirements of the government in China. Microsoft has not indicated a willingness to stop censoring search results in simplified Chinese characters in the wake of Google's decision to do so. All simplified Chinese searches in Bing are censored regardless of the user's country. The English-language search results of Bing in China has been skewed to show more content from state-run media like Xinhua News Agency and China Daily. On 23 January 2019, Bing was blocked in China. According to a source quoted by The Financial Times, the order was from the Chinese government to block Bing for "illegal content". On 24 January, Bing was accessible again in China.
Around 4 June 2021, the anniversary of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, Bing blocked image and video search results for the English term "Tank Man" in the US, UK, France, Germany, Singapore, Switzerland, and other countries. Microsoft responded that "This is due to an accidental human error".
In December 2021, it was required by a "relevant government agency" to suspend its auto-suggest function in China for 30 days. The search engine became partially unavailable in mainland China from 16 December until its resumption on 18 December 2021. According to the company, a government agency in March 2022 required that it suspend auto-suggest function in China for seven days; Bing did not specify the reason. In May 2022, a report released by the Citizen Lab of the University of Toronto found that Bing's autosuggestion system censored the names of Chinese Communist Party leaders, dissidents, and other persons considered politically sensitive in China in both Chinese and English, not only in China but also in the United States and Canada.
In April 2023, Citizen Lab reported that Bing was more censorious in China than native Chinese search engines.
Copyright-infringing content
On February 20, 2017, Bing agreed to a voluntary United Kingdom code of practice obligating it to demote links to copyright-infringing content in its search results.
Performance issues
Bing was criticized in 2010 for being slower to index websites than Google. It was also criticized for not indexing some websites at all.
Alleged copying of Google results
Bing has been criticized by competitor Google for utilizing user input via Internet Explorer, the Bing Toolbar, or Suggested Sites, to add results to Bing. After discovering in October 2010 that Bing appeared to be imitating Google's auto-correct results for a misspelling, despite not actually fixing the spelling of the term, Google set up a honeypot, configuring the Google search engine to return specific unrelated results for 100 nonsensical queries such as hiybbprqag. Over the next couple of weeks, Google engineers entered the search term into Google, while using Microsoft Internet Explorer, with the Bing Toolbar installed and the optional Suggested Sites enabled. In 9 out of the 100 queries, Bing later started returning the same results as Google, despite the only apparent connection between the result and search term being that Google's results connected the two.
Microsoft's response to this issue, coming from a company spokesperson, was: "We do not copy Google's results." Bing's Vice President, Harry Shum, later reiterated that the search result data Google claimed that Bing copied had in fact come from Bing's very own users. Shum wrote that "we use over 1,000 different signals and features in our ranking algorithm. A small piece of that is clickstream data we get from some of our customers, who opt into sharing anonymous data as they navigate the web in order to help us improve the experience for all users."
Microsoft stated that Bing was not intended to be a duplicate of any existing search engines.
Child pornography
A study released in 2019 of Bing Image search showed that it both freely offered up images that had been tagged as illegal child pornography in national databases, as well as automatically suggesting via its auto-completion feature queries related to child pornography. This easy accessibility was considered particularly surprising since Microsoft pioneered PhotoDNA, the main technology used for tracking images reported as originating from child pornography. Additionally, some arrested child pornographers reported using Bing as their main search engine for new content. Microsoft vowed to fix the problem and assign additional staff to combat the issue after the report was released.
Privacy
In 2022, France imposed a €60 million fine on Microsoft for privacy law violations using Bing cookies that prevented users from rejecting those cookies.
See also
List of search engines by popularity
Comparison of web search engines
List of search engines
References
Further reading
External links
Microsoft websites
Multilingual websites
Internet search engines
Websites which mirror Wikipedia
Internet properties established in 2009
2009 establishments in the United States
Digital marketing companies of the United States |
4325584 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1929%20in%20baseball | 1929 in baseball |
Champions
World Series: Philadelphia Athletics over Chicago Cubs (4-1)
Awards and honors
League Award
Rogers Hornsby, Chicago Cubs, 2B
Statistical leaders
Major league baseball final standings
American League final standings
National League final standings
Negro leagues final standings
Negro National League final standings
† Nashville was not in the league but their games counted in the standings.
American Negro League final standings
Baltimore was awarded the Pennant as they reportedly won both halves of the season.
Events
January–April
January 22 – The New York Yankees announce they will put numbers on the backs of their uniforms, becoming the first baseball team to start continuous use of the numbers. The first numbers are based on positions in the batting order; thus, Babe Ruth will wear number 3 and Lou Gehrig number 4. In a few weeks, the Cleveland Indians announce that they, too, will put numbers on the uniforms. By , all American League teams will use them. It will be before all National League players are numbered.
January 29 – James R. Price, secretary of the Boston Red Sox, commits suicide at Fenway Park.
February 28 – The Chicago White Sox trade Bibb Falk to the Cleveland Indians for Chick Autry.
April 16 – On opening day, Hall of Famer Earl Averill makes his major league debut in the Cleveland Indians' 5-4 eleven inning victory over the Detroit Tigers. The St. Louis Browns defeat the Chicago White Sox, 3–1; the Pittsburgh Pirates defeat the Chicago Cubs, 4–3, and the St. Louis Cardinals defeat the Cincinnati Reds 5–2.
April 16 – Charlie Gelbert makes his MLB debut for the St. Louis Cardinals.
April 17 – The Detroit Tigers rout the Cleveland Indians 15–3. Tigers outfielder Harry Heilmann drove in five runs.
April 18 – The Cincinnati Reds trade Val Picinich to the Brooklyn Robins for Rube Ehrhardt and Johnny Gooch.
April 18 – Roy Johnson makes his MLB debut for the Detroit Tigers. Johnson lead the league in doubles with 45 in his rookie season.
April 19 – Hall of famer Rick Ferrell makes his major league debut in the St. Louis Browns' 5–4 loss to the Chicago White Sox.
April 27 – Brooklyn Robins relief pitcher Clise Dudley is the first player ever to hit a home run off the first pitch he sees. Regardless of the achievement, Brooklyn loses 8–3 to the Philadelphia Phillies.
May–August
May 1
The Philadelphia Athletics defeat the Boston Red Sox 24–6 at Fenway Park. The 24 runs matches a franchise record, and the 29 hits set another franchise mark.
Both games in the National League (the Chicago Cubs in Cincinnati and the Pittsburgh Pirates in St. Louis) are called 4-4 ties after thirteen innings.
May 4- The Chicago Cubs faced the Philadelphia Phillies in a double header. The Cubs swept the double header by a combined score of 25–7. Cubs beat the Phillies 16–0 in the first game, and beat them 9–7 in the nightcap. Neither starter Alex Ferguson, game one or Charlie Wiloughby, game two, made it to the third inning.
May 8 – Carl Hubbell pitches a no-hitter for the New York Giants in an 11–0 victory over the Pittsburgh Pirates.
May 8 – In an 8–1 victory over the St. Louis Browns, Lou Gehrig, Leo Durocher and Tony Lazzeri combined for a double play. Both Gehrig and Lazzeri would be part of another double play in that game, this time with pitcher Waite Hoyt.
May 13 – At League Park, the Cleveland Indians defeat the New York Yankees, 4–3, in the first game played in Major League history in which players from both teams wear uniform numbers on the back of their jerseys.
May 24 – The Detroit Tigers defeat the Chicago White Sox 6–5 in 21 innings. Winning pitcher George Uhle pitches twenty innings to earn his eighth win of the season with no losses. The losing pitcher is Ted Lyons, who pitched all 21 innings for Chicago.
June 20 – Red Badgro, who had been playing professional football since , makes his major league debut as an outfielder with the St. Louis Browns. Despite modest baseball stats (two home runs, 45 runs batted in and a .257 batting average over two seasons with the Browns), Badgro has a nine-year football career that lands him in the Pro Football Hall of Fame in .
July 3 – Nine double plays are turned in the Chicago Cubs' 7–5 victory over the Cincinnati Reds.
July 6 – After losing 10–6 in the opener of a double header against the Philadelphia Phillies, the St. Louis Cardinals score ten runs in the first inning on their way to a 28–6 victory in the second game. The two teams combine to collect a record 73 hits in a double header.
July 24 – With a win over the New York Giants and a 6–4 loss by the Pittsburgh Pirates at the hands of the Brooklyn Robins, the Cubs claim sole possession of first place in the National League by half a game. They hold first place the remainder of the season.
August 11 – Babe Ruth hit his 500th career home run in the second inning off Willis Hudlin at Cleveland's League Park. The homer was Ruth's 30th of the year, but it wasn't enough as the Indians beat the Yankees, 6–5.
August 17 – The New York Yankees purchase Lefty Gomez's contract from San Francisco of the Pacific Coast League.
September–December
September 1 – The Detroit Tigers signed Hank Greenberg as a free agent. Exact date the team signed him is unknown.
September 21 – Connie Mack's Philadelphia Athletics win their 100th game of the season, 10–7, over the Detroit Tigers.
October 5 – The Philadelphia Phillies' Lefty O'Doul goes six-for-nine in a double header with the New York Giants on the last day of the season for the Phillies, ending the season with a .398 batting average.
October 7 – The Brooklyn Robins select pitcher Sloppy Thurston from San Francisco Seals of the Pacific Coast League as part of the rule 5 draft.
October 8 – Howard Ehmke, who was in the twilight of his career, and had made only eleven appearances for the Philadelphia Athletics during the regular season, is handed the ball for the first game of the 1929 World Series. He gives up just one unearned run in the ninth inning to lead the A's to a 3–1 victory over the Chicago Cubs.
October 9 – Jimmie Foxx has a pair of home runs to lead the A's to a 9–3 victory in game two of the World Series.
October 10 – Hall of fame outfielder Max Carey retires after he is released by the Brooklyn Robins.
October 11 – Philadelphia Athletics game two starting pitcher George Earnshaw is the starter in game three of the World Series as well, and pitches all nine innings. The Cubs win their only game of the World Series, 3–1.
October 12 – Behind 8–0, the Philadelphia Athletics explode for ten runs in the seventh inning to win game four of the World Series, 10–8. Mule Haas has a three-run inside-the-park home run during the inning.
October 14 – Down 2–0 with one out in the ninth inning, the A's score three runs to claim their first World Championship since . Bing Miller delivers the World Series winning hit.
October 18- The Cincinnati Reds purchase the contract of outfielder Bob Meusel from the New York Yankees.
December 11 – The St. Louis Browns trade Wally Schang to the Philadelphia Athletics for Sammy Hale.
Births
January
January 2 – Ed Wolfe
January 4 – Corky Valentine
January 9 – Lottie Beck
January 11 – Don Mossi
January 13 – Moe Savransky
January 17 – Eilaine Roth
January 20 – Gale Wade
January 27 – Bobby Kline
January 27 – Samuel Taylor
January 30 – Bill Abernathie
January 31 – Duke Maas
February
February 5 – Al Worthington
February 11 – Ralph Beard
February 16 – Fred Hahn
February 18 – Cal Neeman
February 22 – Ryne Duren
February 22 – Charlie Peete
February 23 – Elston Howard
February 26 – Dorice Reid
February 28 – Ed Albrecht
March
March 7 – Red Wilson
March 10 – Bud Thomas
March 21 – Pidge Browne
March 27 – Milt Smith
March 28 – Bill Macdonald
April
April 1 – Mary Ellen Kimball
April 3 – Art Ditmar
April 4 – Tookie Gilbert
April 6 – Don Elston
April 9 – Hank Morgenweck
April 12 – Mel Held
April 16 – Ed Winceniak
April 18 – Steve Kraly
April 20 – Harry Agganis
April 21 – Charles 'Buzz' Bowers
April 26 – Walt Kellner
April 29 – Mickey McDermott
April 29 – Steve Ridzik
May
May 3 – Helen Walulik
May 7 – Dick Williams
May 18 – Jack Sanford
May 19 – Curt Simmons
May 23 – Spider Wilhelm
May 27 – George O'Donnell
May 29 – Velma Abbott
May 29 – Roberto Vargas
June
June 2 – Louise Erickson
June 2 – René Valdés
June 8 – Jerry Dahlke
June 10 – Hank Foiles
June 11 – Frank Thomas
June 13 – Bud Swartz
June 14 – Lillian Shadic
June 18 – Bill Upton
June 19 – Don Ferrarese
June 20 – Wally Burnette
June 26 – Dick Tettelbach
June 27 – Dick Marlowe
July
July 2 – Chuck Stobbs
July 4 – Bill Tremel
July 4 – Bill Tuttle
July 6 – Angelo LiPetri
July 7 – John Romonosky
July 8 – John Powers
July 9 – Héctor López
July 9 – Wally Post
July 14 – Bob Purkey
July 14 – Pat Scott
July 17 – Roy McMillan
July 19 – Alice Pollitt
July 20 – Mike Ilitch
July 21 – Jerry Snyder
July 28 – Ted Lepcio
August
August 4 – Joe Pignatano
August 7 – Don Larsen
August 9 – Bernice Metesch
August 14 – Jim Pisoni
August 16 – Curt Roberts
August 26 – Tom Poholsky
September
September 1 – Mava Lee Thomas
September 11 – Luis García
September 12 – Tom Herrin
September 15 – Lee Wheat
September 18 – Mary Lou Beschorner
September 19 – Ray Shearer
September 22 – Harry Bright
September 24 – Jim Mangan
September 30 – Marv Blaylock
October
October 1 – Jaynie Krick
October 3 – Nancy Mudge
October 8 – Bob Mabe
October 10 – Bobby Tiefenauer
October 11 – Skeeter Kell
October 12 – Cartha Doyle
October 17 – Hardy Peterson
October 23 – Bruce Barmes
October 24 – Jim Brosnan
October 26 – Roland Hemond
October 27 – Ange Armato
November
November 9 – Don Plarski
November 11 – Ike Delock
November 14 – Jimmy Piersall
November 17 – Norm Zauchin
November 20 – Lou Berberet
November 23 – John Anderson
November 23 – Shirley Palesh
November 30 – Leo Kiely
December
December 1 – Nino Escalera
December 13 – Billy Loes
December 14 – Carl Linhart
December 14 – Pete Whisenant
December 15 – Ray Herbert
December 18 – Gino Cimoli
December 23 – Al Cicotte
December 28 – Jean Marlowe
December 30 – Bill Taylor
Deaths
January
January 2 – Denny Lyons, 62, third baseman who batted .310 lifetime, set record with 255 putouts in 1887; led American Association in slugging in 1890.
January 3 – Charlie Smith, 48, pitcher who played from 1902 through 1914 for the Cleveland Bronchos, Washington Senators, Boston Red Sox and Chicago Cubs, ending with a 2.81 ERA in 1,349 innings
January 7 – Law Daniels, 66, catcher/outfielder for two seasons from 1887 to 1888.
January 9 – Frank Bliss, 76, catcher for the 1878 Milwaukee Grays.
January 11 – Mike Golden, 77, pitcher and outfielder for the Keokuk Westerns, Chicago White Stockings, and Milwaukee Grays during his two-season career in 1875 and 1878.
January 13 – Buck West, 68, outfielder for the 1884 Cincinnati Red Stockings and the 1890 Cleveland Spiders.
January 14 – Fred Hayner, 57, pitcher for the 1890 Pittsburgh Alleghenys.
January 18 – Michael Scanlon, 85, manager of two different Washington Nationals franchises in the 1880s
January 23 – Henry Killilea, 65, attorney and team owner nicknamed "Godfather of the American League"; as owner of the Boston Americans (August 1901 to April 1904), he organized, with his Pittsburgh Pirates counterpart Barney Dreyfuss, 1903's first-ever World Series between the champions of the two major leagues
January 24 – Charlie Hautz, 76, first baseman for the 1875 St. Louis Red Stockings and the 1884 Pittsburgh Alleghenys.
January 28 – Al Strueve, 68, catcher/outfielder for the 1884 St. Louis Browns.
January 30 – John Wood, 56, pitcher for the 1896 St. Louis Browns.
February
February 1 – Walt Wilmot, 65, who led the National League in homeruns in 1890, and also scored 100 or more runs three times and twice collected 70 or more stolen bases.
February 2 – Thorny Hawkes, 76, second baseman for the 1879 Troy Trojans and the 1884 Washington Nationals.
February 2 – Mike Walsh, 78, Irish umpire in the National inaugural season in 1876, who later officiated in the National Association and the American Association and also managed the 1884 Louisville Colonels.
February 11 – Dutch Ulrich, 29, native of Habsburg Empire and pitcher for the Philadelphia Phillies from 1925 through 1927.
February 13 – Joe Straub, 71, German catcher who played in part of three seasons with the Troy Trojans, Philadelphia Athletics and Columbus Buckeyes between 1880 and 1883.
February 26 – Jim Moroney, 45, pitcher for the Boston Beaneaters, Philadelphia Phillies and Chicago Cubs in part of three seasons spanning 1906–1912.
March
March 1 – Ed Foster, 43, pitcher for the 1908 Cleveland Naps.
March 2 – Tom Smith, 57, pitcher for the Boston Beaneaters, Philadelphia Phillies, Louisville Colonels and St. Louis Browns in four seasons between 1894 and 1898.
March 5 – Lou Hardie, 64, catcher/outfielder for the Philadelphia Quakers, Chicago White Stockings, Boston Beaneaters and Baltimore Orioles in parts of four seasons spanning 1884–1891.
March 13 – Sherry Magee, 44, left fielder for the Phillies who led the National League in RBI four times, and in hits, runs and doubles once each; also a batting champion in 1910, while his 441 career stolen bases included 23 thefts of home plate, and later became a NL umpire in 1928.
March 23 – Denny Williams, 32, outfielder who played from 1921 to 1928 for the Cincinnati Reds and Boston Red Sox.
March 25 – Roy Meeker, 28, pitcher for the Philadelphia Athletics and Cincinnati Reds over parts of the three season between 1923 and 1926,
March 30 – Phil Redding, 39, pitcher who played with the St. Louis Cardinals from 1912 to 1923.
April
April 5 – Tom Crooke, first baseman for the Washington Senators during the 1909 and 1910 seasons.
April 12 – Tom Phillips, 40, pitcher for the St. Louis Browns, Cleveland Indians and Washington Senators in parts of four seasons spanning 1915–1922.
April 13 – John Castle, 49, outfielder for the 1910 Philadelphia Phillies.
April 13 – John Kelty, 58, outfielder for the 1890 Pittsburgh Alleghenys.
April 20 – Bill Kissinger, 57, pitcher who played from 1895 through 1897 with the Baltimore Orioles and St. Louis Browns.
April 30 – Dan Long, 61, outfielder for the 1890 Baltimore Orioles.
May
May 13 – George Stallings, 61, manager who led the Miracle Braves to the 1914 World Series title, who also skippered the Phillies, Tigers and New York Highlanders.
May 25 – Harvey Blauvelt, 61, relief pitcher for the 1890 Rochester Broncos.
May 28 – Ollie Beard, 67, shortstop for the Cincinnati Red Stockings/Reds from 1889 to 1890 and third baseman for the 1891 Louisville Colonels; it is claimed that his family invented the Kentucky dish, Burgoo.
June
June 4 – Harry Frazee, 48, Broadway theater impresario who owned the Boston Red Sox from November 2, 1916, to August 2, 1923; infamous for selling many star players — including the immortal Babe Ruth — to the New York Yankees to finance Broadway shows and pay off his debts, turning the Red Sox from World Series champions to pitiable cellar-dwellers within four years.
June 15 – Tim Flood, 52, second baseman for the St. Louis Perfectos in 1899 and the Brooklyn Superbas from 1902 to 1903.
June 16 – George Carman, 63, shortstop for the 1890 Philadelphia Athletics.
June 16 – Mike Sullivan, 69, outfielder for the 1888 Philadelphia Athletics.
June 18 – Frank Bishop, 68, infielder for the 1884 Chicago Browns.
July
July 2 – Buck Hooker, 48, pitcher who played from 1902 through 1903 for the Cincinnati Reds.
July 3 – Bill McClellan, 73, second baseman/shortstop for five teams between 1878 and 1888, primarily for the Brooklyn Grays/Bridegrooms from 1885 to 1888.
July 5 – Ted Sullivan, 78, Irish outfielder/manager in the 1880s, who led the St. Louis Maroons of the Union Association to an astonishing 94–19 record in the 1884 season.
July 8 – Joe Kappel, 72, backup outfielder/infielder for the 1884 Philadelphia Quakers and the 1890 Philadelphia Athletics.
July 9 – Pete Cassidy, 56, first baseman who played with the Louisville Colonels, Brooklyn Superbas and Washington Senators in parts of two seasons spanning 1896–1899.
July 12 – Jack Cronin, 55, pitcher who played seven seasons with seven teams in two different leagues between 1895 and 1904.
July 19 – Tom O'Rourke, 63, backup catcher for the Boston Beaneaters, New York Giants and Syracuse Stars in parts of four seasons spanning 1887–1890.
July 20 – Rupert Mills, 36, first baseman for the 1915 Newark Peppers of the Federal League, who, due to a term in his contract, "played" the non-existent 1916 season by showing up at the ballpark each day in uniform and ready to play, thereby earning his 1916 salary.
July 21 – Frank Gilmore, 65, pitcher who played from 1886 through 1888 for the Washington Nationals.
July 24 – George Miller, 76, backup catcher for the 1877 Cincinnati Reds and the 1884 Cincinnati Red Stockings.
August
August 5 – Tony Brottem, 38, catcher/first baseman for the St. Louis Cardinals. Washington Senators and Pittsburgh Pirates during three seasons between 1916 and 1921.
August 6 – Andy Cusick, 71, Irish catcher who played from 1884 through 1887 with the Wilmington Quicksteps and the Philadelphia Quakers.
August 8 – Dan Minnehan, 63, third baseman for the 1895 Louisville Colonels.
August 11 – Red Long, 52, Canadian pitcher for the 1902 Boston Beaneaters.
August 15 – Jack Manning, 75, right fielder/pitcher for eight teams during 12 seasons in three different leagues, who in 1884 became the third player the collect a three-homerun game, behind Ned Williamson and Cap Anson.
August 27 – Charlie Snow, 80, catcher for the 1874 Brooklyn Atlantics.
August 28 – Ed Flynn, 65, catcher for the 1887 Cleveland Blues.
September
September 2 – Bert Blue, 51, backup catcher who played for the St. Louis Browns and the Philadelphia Athletics during the 1908 season.
September 22 – Ice Box Chamberlain, 61, pitcher who played for six teams in 10 seasons between 1886 and 1896, who led the American Association in shutouts (1890) and ranks 64th on the all-time complete games list (265).
September 25 – Miller Huggins, 50, Hall of Fame manager who guided the New York Yankees to its first six American League pennants (1921–23; 1926–28) and three World Series titles (1923, 1927–28), including the legendary 1927 Murderers Row squad.
September 27 – John Gochnaur, 54, shortstop for the Brooklyn Superbas and the Cleveland Bronchos/Naps, who committed 98 errors in 1903, undoubtedly the worst major league single-season ever for a defensive player.
October
October 1 – Lee Richmond, 72, pitcher whose 32 victories for the 1880 Worcesters Ruby Legs included the first perfect game in major league history.
October 2 – Buck Hopkins, 46, backup outfielder for the St. Louis Cardinals in the 1907 season.
October 9 – Red Kleinow, 42, catcher from 1904 through 1911 for the New York Highlanders, Boston Red Sox and Philadelphia Phillies.
October 14 – Joe Borden, 75, pitcher with just a two-season career, who hurled the first no-hitter in professional organized baseball (), and later won the first game in National League history ().
October 22 – Walt Lerian, 26, promising catcher of the Philadelphia Phillies from 1928 through 1929, who died just days after the conclusion of the 1929 season, when he was hit by out-of-control truck while standing on a Baltimore street.
October 22 – Jim Manning, 67, outfielder/infielder for the Boston Beaneaters, Detroit Wolverines and Kansas City Cowboys in parts of five seasons spanning 1884–1889, who later managed the Washington Senators during the inaugural season of the American League in 1901.
November
November 8 – Red Bittmann, 67, second baseman for the 1889 Kansas City Cowboys.
November 10 – Mark Baldwin, 66, pitcher for five teams in three different leagues from 1887 to 1893, who posted a 154–165 record and a 3.37 ERA in 346 games, while leading the American Association with 33 wins in 1890 and for the most innings pitched in 1889 (513.2) and 1890 (492), and collected 296 complete games, which ranks him 46th on the all-time career list.
November 11 – Sam White, 36, English catcher for the Boston Braves during the 1919 season.
November 14 – Joe McGinnity, 58, Hall of Fame pitcher whose 246 victories included eight 20-win seasons, while leading the National League in wins five times, in innings four times and games six times, as his 31 wins for the 1903 New York Giants included three complete August doubleheaders, and also won 239 games in the minor leagues.
November 15 – Billy Nash, 64, prominent third baseman for the Richmond Virginians, Boston Beaneaters and Philadelphia Phillies from 1884 through 1898, who posted a .275 batting average with 60 home runs and 979 runs batted in for 1550 games, while scoring 100 runs four times and collecting 110 or more RBI two times, also leading the National League in putouts, double plays and fielding average four times each.
November 20 – Babe Doty, 61, pitcher who played for the 1890 Toledo Maumees.
November 20 – Jim Powell, 70, first baseman who played from 1884 to 1885 with the Richmond Virginians and the Philadelphia Athletics.
November 29 – Jimmy Whelan, 39, who appeared as a pinch-hitter in one game for the 1913 St. Louis Cardinals.
December
December 11 – Doc McMahon, 42, pitcher for the 1908 Boston Red Sox in their inaugural season, who defeated the New York Highlanders, 11–3, in his only major league appearance.
December 12 – Dick Buckley, backup catcher in 524 games for the Indianapolis Hoosiers, New York Giants, St. Louis Browns and Philadelphia Phillies from 1888 through 1895. |
4325737 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziauddin%20Ahmad | Ziauddin Ahmad | Sir Ziauddin Ahmad (born Ziauddin Ahmed Zuberi; 13 February 1873 – 23 December 1947) was an Indian mathematician, parliamentarian, logician, natural philosopher, politician, political theorist, educationist and a scholar. He was a member of the Aligarh Movement and was a professor, principal of MAO College, first pro vice-chancellor, vice chancellor and rector of Aligarh Muslim University, India.
He served as vice chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University for three terms.
In 1917, he was appointed a member of the Calcutta University Commission also known as the Sadler Commission. He was also a member of Skeen Committee also known as Indian Sandhurst Committee and Shea Commission for the Indianisation of the British Indian Army.
Early life
He was born on 13 February 1873, in Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, British India. His primary education was at a madrasa and later joined Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, Aligarh.
Ahmad's association with Aligarh began in 1889, when at the age of 16 years, he joined the 'first year' at the M.A.O. College School. He passed high school in first division and was awarded the Lang Medal and a government scholarship.He had to join the Government College, Allahabad, as science courses were not available at Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College. He returned to Aligarh and passed his B.A in 1895 in first division, standing first among science students, and was awarded Starchy Gold Medal. Soon after passing B.A., he was appointed assistant lecturer in mathematics at Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College.
On the basis of merit, he was nominated for the post of deputy collector, but Ahmad declined the offer and elected to continue in the service of the college. Sir Syed offered him a permanent appointment in the grade of Rs , provided he signed a bond to serve for a period of five years. He responded by undertaking to serve for his entire life. A highly impressed Sir Syed tore up the bond.
Education
Ahmad completed his BA in mathematics (with distinction) from Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College in 1895. He was the first Muslim to obtain a D.Sc. (Mathematics), from Allahabad University. His field was complex logarithms applications. He published in differential geometry and algebraic geometry. He won the Lytton Strachey Gold Medal in 1897. While teaching, he continued his education and earned M.A. degrees from Calcutta and Allahabad Universities and also a D.Sc. degree from the University of Allahabad in 1901.
In 1901, Ahmad left for England on a government scholarship and obtained his honours degree in mathematics from Cambridge University. He was awarded the Isaac Newton Scholarship in 1904, the first Indian awardee becoming the first Indian to secure this coveted honour. He became a Wrangler He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society and London Mathematical Society. Thereafter He joined the Gointtingen University in Germany in 1904 and received a PhD from the University of Göttingen, Germany. He visited University of Paris and University of Bologna, Italy for advanced studies in modern geometry. He did research in astronomy in Bologna, Italy. He visited Al Azhar University, Cairo to understand their academic methodologies.
Professor
On his return to India in 1907, Ahmad joined his alma mater. In 1911, he was appointed secretary of the AMU Foundation and Constitution Committees. He became a professor of history at Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College and in 1918 was selected principal. He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire (CIE) in King's Birthday Honours list.
He coached students who were seeking admission at Roorkie Engineering College. He held seminars and coached students in engineering and forestry.
Ahmad paid to bring students to Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College. One of the most notable was Hasrat Mohani, who hailed from Kanpur and was planning to go to Lucknow. Ahmad noticed Mohani's math talent and went to Kanpur to convince him and his family to attend MAO College.
He was appointed assistant master in MAO College and served as Acting Principal for a time in 1913.
Along with Professor Chakravarti, Ahmad cofounded the first group of researchers focused on Astronomy, History of Mathematics and Theory of Functions. They made innovations in teaching and other discoveries.
In 1890, MAO College Mathematics Society was formed with him as president and A.M. Kureishy as secretary. The society continues as Aligarh Mathematical Society. The Department of Mathematics was founded when MAO College was given the status of a residential University in 1920, becoming one of its oldest departments. Ahmad was the first professor and head of the department.
Principal of the College Beck and Sir Morrison proposed that Ahmad be appointed Deputy Collector with UP Government, which paid Rs. 500/-. He declined the offer in favor of a position as assistant lecturer at the college making Rs. 60/- per month. Khan offered Ahmad a five-year contract, but Ahmad told him that he planned to spend his life there and that anyone who would stay only to complete a contract would not be worth keeping. Khan tore up the contract and Ahmad's career as a teacher began. To keep his promise to Khan, he left the Indian Civil Service.
Ahmad also taught other subjects. For example, in 1897, Professor Arnold, who taught logic, resigned. The budget did not have room for a faculty member from England and so Ahmad took over.
Sadler Commission
At the time of the Government of India Resolution in 1913 five universities operated in India. Colleges were outside the control of the various universities. At this time London University was reorganised per recommendations of the Royal Commission. A decision to reform Indian Universities led to a second university commission, the 1917 Calcutta University Commission. The members of the commission were Sir Ziauddin, Dr. Gregory, Ramsay Muir, Sir Hartog, Dr. Horniel and Sir Asutosh Mukerji.
At the time of the Government of India Resolution in 1913 there were only five universities in India and the number of colleges was beyond the control of the various universities within their territorial limits. As a result, different administrative problems piled up in that period. Sir Asutosh Mukherji was the vice chancellor of Calcutta University. He started imparting post-graduate education in the university in 1916 as recommended by the University Education Commission of 1902. This has attracted the attention of the Government. By this time the London University was reorganised and reformed as per recommendations of the Royal Commission under the chairmanship of Lord Halden. Therefore, it became a necessity to reform the Indian Universities also. All these circumstances led to the formation of the second university commission. i.e., Calcutta University Commission, 1917.
The commission reviewed the entire field from school education to university education. The Sadler Commission held the view that improved secondary education was a necessary condition for the improvement of university education.
Indianisation of officer ranks of British Indian Army
The British Government of India appointed the Indian Sandhurst Committee also known as Skeen Committee in March 1925 with the objective of reform and Indianisation of British Indian Army. This committee was consisted of Lt.General Sir Andrew Skeen who was the then Chief of General Staff of India as chairman, and 12 Indian of Military and civil stature as its member. Sir Ziauddin along with Motilal Nehru, M.A.Jinnah, Sardar Jogendra Singh, Sir Phiroze Sethna, Ramachandra Rao, Sahibzada Abdul Qaiyum, Capt. Hira Singh, Capt. J.N. Banerjee, Major Thaku Zorawar Singh were its members. This committee met for the first time in Shimla and quickly decided upon its working. It studied French, American, Canadian, British military system and submitted its report within 6 months. The committee recommended the opening of a Military college in India at Dehradoon which later become Indian Military Academy.
Aligarh Muslim University
In 1911, a Central Committee was set up to transform MAO College into a university, with Raja Sahib Mahmudabad, India as president, Syed Ali Bilgrami as secretary and Ahmad as joint secretary. The college had to raise Rs. 30 lakh (3 million) for elevation to university status, which was achieved in 1915. The student body at that time was less than 1500. Ahmad traveled across India to raise funds.
He established most of the departments of AMU. He collected funds to open a Medical College at AMU, which later became Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College (JNMC). He drafted the new university's Constitution.
The university named its dental college after Ziauddin Ahmad. He founded the Commerce and Polytechnic Departments and several other departments. On his recommendation Abdullah School merged with Aligarh Muslim University (AMU).
Vice Chancellor
He became AMU's first pro-vice-chancellor. He was elected vice-chancellor in 1934, remaining until 1946, becoming its longest serving VC. He became an honorary professor in the department of Mathematics, working simultaneously as vice-chancellor. Because of his love for the subject, he taught courses both at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. He was AMU's only teaching VC.
With his help, Islamia College was established in Lahore, now called Government Islamia College, Lahore. Ahmad laid the foundation stone for the college and for Islamia College, Peshawar.
Students
He recommended students for all kinds of employment, ranging from clerical and administrative to military. Ahmad visited students in their dormitories and mediated sometimes violent student disputes. Habib A. Zuberi, who was also Ahmad's student, writes, "In 1946-47, when I was a student in Xth class at M.U. High School,...he lectured us either once or twice a week....He was a fine teacher. His goal was to include Trigonometry in High School curriculum." Ahmad encouraged informal relations between faculty and students. The university emphasized sports and had a Riding School, a unit of U.O.T.C., and an active Student Union, where students elected their leaders and participated in debates.
When the British hung the father of Pir Pagara, Pir Sabghatullah Shah Rashidi, on 20 March 1943, and abolished his Gaddi (Spiritual Office), Pir Pagara Syed Shah Mardan Shah-II was hardly 15 years old. During the same year Ahmad, at that time AMU vice-chancellor, took him and his brother to Aligarh. At Aligarh the brothers stayed in 'English House', a hostel established to house the sons of nawabs and rajas. In 1946 Ahmad arranged for their education in England.
He was known for throwing parties, often entertaining visiting dignitaries at his house. He often invited people for dinner with ever-swelling guest lists.
Khilafat movement
In 1920, Indian Muslims, led by Maulana Mohammad Ali Jouhar and his brother Maulana Shaukat Ali, launched a movement to restore the Khilafat (caliphate) in Turkey. The Turks themselves had no use for the Khilafat and had chosen Mustafa Kemal Pasha as their leader; the Arabs did not want it and the British opposed it. The Congress party supported their efforts and on 9 September 1920, passed a resolution which began the non-cooperation movement. This movement was hailed as a symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity in India.
On 11 October 1920, the Ali brothers visited Aligarh with Swami Satya Dev and Gandhiji. These leaders were invited to address the MAO College Student Union. The students passed a resolution in support of non-cooperation with the British government, condemned the British attitude towards Turkey, demanded that the college accept no grants from the government and discontinue affiliation with Allahabad University. Furthermore, the resolution asked to change MAO College into a National University independent of the government.
Ahmad had accepted Khan Ahmed Khan's thesis that Muslims should not get involved in politics until reaching educational parity with other Indian communities. He approached the university authorities, and convinced them to keep the college out of this struggle. When the crisis deepened, he closed the college and sent the students home.
Ahmad made great efforts to bring about reconciliation between the members of the board of trustees, and succeeded in bringing most students back to campus. In honor of Ahmad, who was now known as Doctor Sahib, the faculty and staff on campus gave a dinner to which college trustees as well as British officers of Aligarh and Agra were invited. Khawaja Abdul Majeed, one of the trustees who did not support him initially, stated: "I was against Dr. Sahib’s appointment as Principal, but the improvements that have resulted under his leadership have convinced me that this will be good for the future of students, staff, honorary Secretary, public and the relations with the government."
Ahmad had opposed a popular movement and risked alienating the Muslim masses. He had to choose between supporting a popular movement and losing government support (financial and otherwise) or establishing a Muslim University with government assistance.
When classes resumed, a sizeable number of students stayed home. It appeared that the sharp decline in enrollment the college would cost the college its elevation. Dr. Sahib visited several towns and convince most of the students to return, while new students enrolled. However, Ahmad earned the wrath of people who continued to oppose him thereafter. At the same time, he found a solid base that supported him.
Elevation
On 1 December 1920, the Muslim University Act passed, and thus MAO College became Aligarh Muslim University. Raja Mahmudabad became the first vice-chancellor and Ahmad, pro-vice-chancellor. Raja Sahib was not particularly in favor of Dr. Sahib becoming the PVC, instead preferring an Englishman. When no European was willing to accept this position and no other capable Muslim was available, he accepted Ahmad. The University Act stated that the PVC would become "the principal academic officer of the university." It was further stipulated that in the absence of the vice chancellor the PVC would act as the chairman of the Academic Council. Dr. Sahib and Raja Sahib often held differing views on managing university affairs. After a year, Raja Sahib resigned and Nawabzada Aftab Ahmed Khan became the V.C. In 1922, Dr. Sahib was re-elected to the State Assembly.
Sahibzada Aftab Ahmed Khan
Fundamental disagreements developed between Sahibzada Aftab Ahmed Khan and Dr. Sahib. Sahibzada was a lawyer and was a stickler for rules and regulations, while Dr. Sahib maintained that "rules are made for students; students are not made for rules." Dr. Amir Husain Siddiqui stated, "Dr. Ahmad created educational aids, reduced fees and other expenditure, relaxed the rules for admission and examinations and encouraged extra lectures for those who fell short of attendance.". These policies made him popular among students and parents. He introduced a system of private examinations, because the government did not permit the affiliation of colleges and schools to the university. It was not clear whether students could appear in exams as private candidates, but he continued this practice while pro-vice-chancellor.
In 1925, the university administration celebrated the Golden Jubilee of the foundation of Aligarh College. At this time differences between the VC and the PVC surfaced. Dr. Sahib decided to take a leave and asked the VC to appoint a replacement. Sahibzada refused his request and prevailed upon him to continue as PVC.
The Jubilee was celebrated on a grand scale, and raised Rs 176,000/-. Dr. Sahib reserved these funds for the establishment of an Engineering College and Departments of Applied Physics and Applied Chemistry. However, by law the university was required to obtain permission from the government and the effort was unsuccessful.
Resignation
In February 1926, Dr. Sahib's term as PVC ended and with Sahibzada Sahib recommendation began another term. However, when Sahibzada's own term as VC ended in December 1926, the trustees appointed Nawab Sir Muzzamil Ullah Khan in his place. Before leaving Sahibzada wrote a pamphlet pointing out irregularities for which he held Dr. Sahib responsible. He sent a copy to the Viceroy, to Begum Bhopal (Chancellor) and to the trustees. Moin-ul-Haque, who was on the History Department faculty, claimed that Dr. Sahib was willing to break rules to aid students in graduating and finding work.
The pamphlet resulted in the formation of an inquiry committee. The committee expressed appreciation of Dr. Sahib services, but recommended that he take a six-month paid leave with pay and then retire. Before the University Court could meet to discuss the issue, Dr. Sahib submitted his resignation, to take effect from 27 April 1928, declining the offer of leave with pay. Farewell parties produced poems in his honor. One staff member, Qazi Jalal Uddin, wrote a two-page poem.
The vice-president of the Student Union, in his farewell address, stated: "If Khan was the founder of this institution, you are beyond a question its savior." After 33 years, Ahmad left Aligarh on 27 April 1928. According to Zia-i-Hayat, almost the entire student body came to bid him farewell at the railway station.
New colleges
Seven years after he had left Aligarh, Ahmad returned to the University on 19 April 1935, as vice-chancellor. He immediately made plans to improve the Science Faculty. Although plans for a building for Tibbiya College had been discussed earlier, Dr. Sahib moved to make it a reality. The work was completed in 1940. At that time Sir Shah Sulaiman was serving as vice chancellor. Dr. Sahib next launched a program to establish an Institute of Technology. Nawab of Jungadh donated Rs 50,000/- to this program. Nawab Muzzamil Ullah Khan donated his Johnson Factory Building to the effort along with two of his old cars, so that students enrolled in the motor engineering course could work on them.
In 1937, Ahmad proposed a College of Technology to prepare students for work in electrical, mechanical, sanitary and civil engineering and agriculture. Other related subjects included applied chemistry, electro-chemistry, and textile chemistry. In the same year, the Technology workshop opened. Its foundation stone was laid by Nawab Sahib of Rampur.
In 1937, Girls Intermediate College became a Degree College and affiliated with the university. At the same time, upon Ahmad's recommendation, for the first time, girls were admitted to their Teachers Training College.
Dr. Sahib also proposed a military college.
His first term ended on 30 April 1938. He was succeeded by Sir Shah Suleiman, a judge of the Federal Court, who then died on 13 March 1941. Ahmad was appointed vice-chancellor for the second time on 24 April 1941.
Tibbiya College became his administration's top priority. Work on the college building was completed 1943 due to scarcity of resources. His second priority was the establishment of a full-fledged Engineering College. This goal was achieved by 1945. He made an effort to establish an airport near the university in 1942. Nawab Sahib Bhopal contributed Rs 50,000/- to build an aeronautics workshop. The university acquired a plane as well, enabling students to take flying lessons. Ahmad proposed to establish a department of applied physics and to attach it to the College of Engineering.
Ahmad's second term as VC came to an end in 1943 and he was reappointed. In 1944, he proposed to establish a medical College at Aligarh, for which he collected a sum of Rs. 50 lakh (5 million) by the end of 1946. In 1945, Commerce College opened. He then began to shift his focus from career training to scholarship and the quality of education.
Resignation and appointment as Rector
In December 1946 some students spread a rumor, encouraged by his enemies, that Dr. Sahib had confiscated all copies of a magazine that reported riots in Bihar and that he was going to have its student author arrested. Between 250 and 300 students marched to the vice-chancellor's office shouting slogans, "Ahmad Must Go." Dr. Sahib remained in his office and asked student representatives what they wanted. They asked for his resignation, which he immediately resigned.
In the evening, around 500–600 students went to his house shouting, "Ahmad come back." He did not withdraw his resignation, despite the entreaties of the executive council and the court. The court unanimously passed a resolution expressing their confidence in his leadership, and recommended his appointment as rector of the university—to which he acceded.
He devoted the rest of his time to raising funds for Aligarh's medical college. M.S. Aney, Governor of Bihar, wrote about Dr. Sahib: "…Last I met him was when he came to Colombo on a deputation of the Aligarh University to collect funds for the Medical College. I believe he made handsome collections there and was received very warmly, not just by Mohammedans at Colombo, but by other communities also. I had great respect for his learning and versatility."
Politics
By 1915, he was taking interest in public affairs and in technical and vocational education. He was appointed Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) of UP in 1919 and 1922 as representative of Allahabad University. He presided over the second Muslim Kamboh Conference held at Marehra (District Etha UP) on 21 and 22 April 1935 at Marison Islamia School.
In 1924, he was elected to the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly from the Muslim Constituency of Mainpuri, Etah and Farrukhabad.
Central Assembly
He was elected a Member of the Central Assembly in 1930. He was repeatedly elected from different constituencies and served in the Central Legislature until 1947. In 1946, he was the chief whip of the Muslim League in the Central Assembly.
He was knighted in the 1938 New Year Honours list.
He sponsored the Indian Foreign Relations Act in Parliament. Ahmad worked on the budget for the Indian Railways and with the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). When RBI was founded he was involved in moving legislation for its more efficient functioning.
Anwer Noor
In 1931 Anwer Noor, in the Frontier Province, was so offended by an assistant commissioner that he attacked him. The officer was not injured, but Noor was nevertheless executed, creating a political issue. A committee was appointed to submit a report. However, the government seized the report before it was published. Ahmad stated that no harm had come to the assistant commissioner, that Noor had had no chance to appeal and that the government should say what greater punishment should follow a more serious attack. The colonial government thereafter withdrew the laws in question.
Aligarh Muslim University Centres
After the demise of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan in 1898, Sir Syed Memorial Fund was created in different parts of country and the effort for the establishment of a Muslim University was sped up. All the persons associated with this movement wanted all Muslim institutions of India to be affiliated to the Muslim University.
Dr. Sir Ziauddin, while presenting the idea of the Muslim University at Lahore session of All India Muslim Educational Conference in 1898, discussed at length the concept of a university and emphasized the importance of the right of affiliating colleges.
Ahmad moved a billentral Legislative Assembly to amend the University Act 1920 to empower AMU to recognize and affiliate Schools and Colleges outside Aligarh. However, due to empathy of British ruler towards education of Indians the bill failed. In February, 2011, this vision was realised by the opening of two Centres of Aligarh Muslim University in Mallapuram, Kerala and Murshidabad, West Bengal. In November 2013, the university opened a third satellite, in Kishanganj, Bihar.
Muslim League
Ahmad was an originally member of the Independent Party, which included Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. When this party dissolved he joined the Muslim League and served as its Parliamentary Secretary. In evaluating his performance in the Assembly, N.V Gadgil wrote: "Dr. Ahmad Ahmed was a popular figure in the Central Assembly during the period of my membership of that body. He was very well informed on Railway and General Finance… He was catholic in his hospitality, charitable towards friends and a conscientious legislator..."
Death
He was also a member of the East India Railway Company's board of directors, and the viceroy appointed him as a member of his defense council. Ahmad was knighted by the Crown. During World War II he served as a lieutenant colonel.
Ahmad left India for Europe and America in 1947. While on a plane returning from Paris to London, he suffered a stroke. The stroke was followed by pneumonia. When his condition slightly improved, he invited Aligarians living in London for tea. He advised them to go back to India upon completing their education. He even requested his physician, Ghayasuddin, to move to India. Krishna Menon, India's High Commissioner in U.K, visited Ahmad several times, as did Pakistan's high commissioner, Habib Ibrahim Rahimtoola. He died in London on 23 December 1947. His body, as he had requested, was sent back to Aligarh.
Many people visited his family. At that time Nawab Ismail Khan was serving as vice chancellor. University authorities decided that Ahmad should be buried in the university mosque. His body was brought to the Cricket Pavilion for viewing. Students overruled the administration's choice of burial site and prepared his grave next to that of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. His tomb stone is inscribed with Allama Iqbal's couplet, "Hazarooun Saal Nargis Upni Bay Noori Pay Routi Hay Bari Mushkil Say Houta Hay Chaman Mein Deeda Were Paida."
Family and legacy
Sir Ziauddin is a part of the famous Zuberi family. Sir Ziauddin's son, Zakauddin Ahmad, had three children: Anjum Zia (female), Nigaht Zia (female), and Ahmad Ziauddin (Ahmad Zia). Ahmad Ziauddin's daughter, Dr. Aijaz Fatima, co-founded a hospital in memory of her father. She has four children (two sons and two daughters), including Asim Hussain.
Recognitions and awards
Stratchey Gold Medal
Tripos Wrangler in Mathematics
Sir Isaac Newton Scholarship
He was the secretary, Aligarh Muslim University Constitution Committee, in 1911.
Member of Sadler Commission on Higher Education also known as Calcutta University Commission.
Member of Skeen also known as Indian Sandhurst Committee and Shea Commission for the Indianisation of British Indian Army.
Moved Indian Foreign Relations Act in the legislative assembly in British India
Worked proactively to establish Reserve Bank of India and helped pass RBI Act of 1935.
A four-storey hostel hall (dormitory hall for science and research students) is named after him Sir Ziauddin Hall at Aligarh Muslim University, in December 1982.
Dental College is named after him at Aligarh Muslim University, India in 2003 – Dr Ziauddin Ahmad Dental College.
Ziauddin University and Dr. Ziauddin Hospitals in Karachi, Pakistan were established by Asim Hussain in his honour.
A major street in Karachi, Ziauddin Ahmad Road (formerly known as Kutchery Road), was named in his honour.
Sir Ziauddin Public School at Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, bears his name.
References
External links
1873 births
1947 deaths
Knights Bachelor
Indian Knights Bachelor
Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire
Aligarh Muslim University alumni
Academic staff of Aligarh Muslim University
University of Calcutta alumni
All India Muslim League members
Members of the Central Legislative Assembly of India
Indian logicians
19th-century Indian mathematicians
Differential geometers
19th-century Indian Muslims
20th-century Indian Muslims
19th-century Indian philosophers
Pakistan Movement activists from the United Provinces
Scholars from Allahabad
People from Meerut
Vice-Chancellors of the Aligarh Muslim University
20th-century Indian mathematicians
Scientists from Prayagraj
Mathematicians from British India
People from Karachi |
4326059 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Port%20Royal | Battle of Port Royal | The Battle of Port Royal was one of the earliest amphibious operations of the American Civil War, in which a United States Navy fleet and United States Army expeditionary force captured Port Royal Sound, South Carolina, between Savannah, Georgia and Charleston, South Carolina, on November 7, 1861. The sound was guarded by two forts on opposite sides of the entrance, Fort Walker on Hilton Head Island to the south and Fort Beauregard on Phillip's Island to the north. A small force of four gunboats supported the forts, but did not materially affect the battle.
The attacking force assembled outside of the sound beginning on November 3 after being battered by a storm during their journey down the coast. Because of losses in the storm, the army was not able to land, so the battle was reduced to a contest between ship-based guns and those on shore.
The fleet moved to the attack on November 7, after more delays caused by the weather during which additional troops were brought into Fort Walker. Flag Officer Samuel F. Du Pont ordered his ships to keep moving in an elliptical path, bombarding Fort Walker on one leg and Fort Beauregard on the other; the tactic had recently been used effectively at the Battle of Hatteras Inlet. His plan soon broke down, however, and most ships took enfilading positions that exploited a weakness in Fort Walker. The Confederate gunboats put in a token appearance, but fled up a nearby creek when challenged. Early in the afternoon, most of the guns in the fort were out of action, and the soldiers manning them fled to the rear. A landing party from the flagship took possession of the fort.
When Fort Walker fell, the commander of Fort Beauregard across the sound feared that his soldiers would soon be cut off with no way to escape, so he ordered them to abandon the fort. Another landing party took possession of the fort and raised the Union flag the next day.
Despite the heavy volume of fire, loss of life on both sides was low, at least by standards set later during the American Civil War. Only eight were killed in the fleet and eleven on shore, with four other Southerners missing. Total casualties came to less than 100.
Preparations
Development of Northern strategy
Early in the war, the U.S. Navy had the responsibility of blockading the Southern coastline, but found this task difficult when forced to rely on fueling and resupply ports in the North for its coal-fired steamships. The problems of the blockade were considered by a commission appointed by Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles. Chairman of the commission was Capt. Samuel Francis Du Pont.
The commission stated its views of the South Carolina coast in its second report, dated July 13. In order to improve the blockade of Charleston, they considered seizing a nearby port. They gave particular attention to three: Bull's Bay to the north of Charleston, and St. Helena Sound and Port Royal Sound to the south. The latter two would also be useful in the blockade of Savannah. They considered Port Royal to be the best harbor, but believed that it would be strongly defended and therefore were reluctant to recommend that it be taken.
Southern preparations
Shortly after the bombardment of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor had started the war, Confederate Brigadier General P. G. T. Beauregard did not believe that Port Royal Sound could be adequately defended, as forts on opposite sides of the sound would be too far apart for mutual support. Overruled by South Carolina Governor Francis Pickens, he drew up plans for two forts at the entrance. Soon called away to serve the Confederate Army in Virginia, he turned the task of implementing his plans over to Maj. Francis D. Lee of the South Carolina Army Engineers. Before the war, Lee had been an architect, and had designed several churches in Charleston.
Work on the two forts began in July 1861, but progressed only slowly. Labor for the construction was obtained by requisitions of slave labor from local farms and plantations, which the owners were reluctant to provide. Construction was not complete when the attack came. Beauregard's plan was also altered because the heavy guns he wanted were not available. To compensate for the reduced weight of fire by increased volume, the number of guns in the water battery of Fort Walker was increased from seven columbiads to 12 guns of smaller caliber, plus a single . Fitting the increased number into the available space required that the traverses be eliminated. The battery was therefore vulnerable to enfilade. In addition to the 13 guns of the water battery, Fort Walker had another seven guns mounted to repel land attacks from the rear and three on the right wing. Two other guns were in the fort, but were not mounted. Fort Beauregard was almost as strong; it also had 13 guns that bore on the channel, plus six others for protection against land attacks. The garrisons were increased in size; 687 men were in and near Fort Wagner in mid-August. On November 6, another 450 infantry and 50 artillerymen were added, and 650 more came from Georgia the same day. Because of its isolated position, the garrison of Fort Beauregard could not be easily increased. The force on Philip's Island was 640 men, of whom 149 were in the fort and the remainder infantry defending against land assault. For lack of transportation, all of the late-arriving troops were retained at Fort Walker.
While the forts were being built, the state of Georgia was forming a rudimentary navy by converting a few tugs and other harbor craft into gunboats. Although they could not face the ships of the US Navy on the open seas, their shallow draft enabled them to move freely about in the inland waters along the coasts of South Carolina and Georgia. They were commanded by Flag Officer Josiah Tattnall III. When the Georgia navy was transferred to and became part of the Confederate States Navy, Tattnall found himself in charge of the coastal defenses of both South Carolina and Georgia. He had four gunboats in the vicinity of Port Royal Sound; one was a converted coaster, and three were former tugs. Each mounted only two guns.
Command
Federal army and navy
Throughout the summer of 1861, the task of blockading the entire Atlantic coast of the Confederacy was assigned to the U.S. Navy's Atlantic Blockading Squadron. Because of the great distances involved, the squadron was split in mid-September. Responsibility for the coast south of the North Carolina–South Carolina state line was given to the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron. Command of the new squadron was given to Du Pont, who henceforth was addressed as Flag Officer Du Pont. Du Pont did not assume command immediately, as he continued to prepare for the attack.
As retaining possession of shore facilities would require land forces, getting the cooperation of the U.S. Army was among the first requirements. The War Department agreed to furnish 13,000 troops, to be commanded by Brigadier General Thomas W. Sherman. Sherman's force was organized into three brigades, under Brigadier Generals Egbert L. Viele, Isaac I. Stevens, and Horatio G. Wright. Serious planning was thereafter done by Du Pont, Sherman, Wright, and the Quartermaster General, Brigadier General Montgomery C. Meigs.
Confederate army
In the months preceding the battle, the army in South Carolina went through several changes in leadership. On May 27, 1861, Beauregard left, being called to serve with the Confederate States (CS) Army in Virginia. Command of the state volunteer forces was then transferred to Colonel Richard H. Anderson. Anderson was in turn replaced by Brigadier General Roswell S. Ripley of the CS Army, who on August 21, 1861 was assigned to command of the Department of South Carolina. The final relevant change at the top took place almost on the eve of battle, on November 5, 1861, when the coasts of South Carolina, Georgia, and East Florida were constituted a military department under the command of General Robert E. Lee. (General Lee was not closely related to Major Francis D. Lee, the engineer responsible for building Forts Walker and Beauregard.) None of these changes was particularly important, as most attention was given to more active parts of the war than Port Royal Sound.
The most important change of command directly affecting the forts took place on October 17, 1861, when Brigadier General Thomas F. Drayton was assigned to the Third Military District of the Department of South Carolina, which meant that the forts were in his jurisdiction. Drayton, who was a member of a prominent Charleston family and a graduate of the United States Military Academy, remained in command through the actions of November 7. Whether he could have hastened the preparations of the forts for battle is debatable; the fact is that he did not.
The expedition
Although preparations for battle proceeded throughout the summer and early fall of 1861, the schedule proposed by the administration could not be met. As late as September 18, President Lincoln could still advocate a start date of October 1. Du Pont felt that the Navy Department was rushing him in without proper preparation. Despite his reservations, the force was assembled — the soldiers and their transports at Annapolis, Maryland, the sailors and warships at New York. The two branches rendezvoused at Hampton Roads. Bad weather delayed departure from there by another week, during which time Du Pont and Sherman were able to make final arrangements. Among the issues to be settled was the target; up until this time, the decision of whether to strike at Bull's Bay or Port Royal had not been made. Only after he was sure that the latter would meet future needs of the fleet, and Bull's Bay would not, did Du Pont finally commit the expedition to the attack on Port Royal.
On October 28, 25 coal and ammunition vessels departed Hampton Roads, accompanied by two warships, and . The remainder of the fleet, including 17 warships and all of the army transports, put out to sea the next day. The full fleet of 77 vessels was the largest assemblage of ships that had ever sailed under the American flag; the distinction would not last long. In an effort to maintain secrecy, Du Pont had not told anyone other than his immediate staff the destination. He had given each captain a sealed envelope, to be opened only at sea. The message given to Captain Francis S. Haggerty of Vandalia is typical: "Port Royal, S. C., is the port of destination for yourself and the ships of your convoy."
Efforts at secrecy notwithstanding, almost everything about the expedition except its target was known to the entire world. 2 days before departure of the main fleet, the New York Times carried a front-page article entitled "The Great Naval Expedition," in which the full order of battle down to regimental level was laid out for all to see. The article was repeated, word for word, in the Charleston newspapers of November 1. Although Du Pont and others muttered aloud about treason and leaks in high places, the article was in fact the product of straightforward journalism. The author had gained most of his information by mingling with soldiers and sailors. No one had thought to sequester the men from the populace, even though the loyalties of the citizens of Maryland and Hampton Roads were divided. (Perhaps some real espionage was also available. Although the destination was supposed to be unknown until after the fleet sailed, acting Confederate Secretary of War Judah P. Benjamin on November 1 telegraphed the South Carolina authorities that "the enemy's expedition is intended for Port Royal.")
The fleet maintained its formation as it moved down the coast until it had passed Cape Hatteras. As it passed into South Carolina waters on November 1, however, the wind increased to gale force, and in mid-afternoon Du Pont ordered the fleet to disregard the order of sailing. Most of the ships managed to ride out the storm, but some had to abort their mission and return home for repairs, and others were lost. Gunboat had to jettison most of her guns in order to stay afloat. Three ships carrying food and ammunition were sunk or driven ashore without loss of life: Union, Peerless, and Osceola. Transport Governor, carrying 300 Marines, went down; most of her contingent were saved, but seven men were drowned or otherwise lost in the rescue.
The scattered ships began to arrive at the entrance to Port Royal Sound on November 3, and continued to straggle in for the next four days. The first day, November 4, was devoted to preparing new charts for the sound. The Coast Survey vessel , under her civilian captain Charles Boutelle, accompanied by gunboats , , , and , entered the harbor and confirmed that the water was deep enough for all ships in the fleet. Confederate Flag Officer Josiah Tattnall III took his small flotilla, consisting of the gunboats CSS Savannah, Resolute, Lady Davis, and Sampson out to interfere with their measurements, but the superior firepower of the Union gunboats forced them to retire.
Early in the morning of November 5, gunboats Ottawa, Seneca, Pembina, Curlew, Isaac Smith, and , made another incursion into the harbor, this time seeking to draw enemy fire so as to gauge their strength. Again the Confederate flotilla came out to meet them, and again they were driven back.
At about the time that the gunboats returned to the anchorage and the captains of the warships assembled to formulate plans for the assault on the forts, General Sherman informed Du Pont that the army could not take part in the operation. The loss of his ships in the storm had deprived him of his landing boats as well as much of his needed ammunition. Furthermore, his transports were not combat loaded. Sherman would not commit his troops until the arrival of transport Ocean Express, carrying most of his small ammunition and heavy ordnance, and delayed by the storm. She would not arrive until after the battle was over.
Unwilling to cancel the operation at this point, Du Pont ordered his fleet to attack, concentrating their fire on Fort Walker. As they moved in, however, flagship , drawing , grounded on Fishing Rip Shoal. By the time she was worked free, the day was too far gone to continue the attack.
The weather on the next day, November 6, was stormy, so Du Pont postponed the attack for one more day. During the delay, Commander Charles Henry Davis, Du Pont's fleet captain and chief of staff, had the idea of keeping the ships in motion while bombarding the forts. This was a tactic that had recently been used successfully at the Battle of Hatteras Inlet. He presented his idea to the flag officer, who agreed. The plan as completed by Du Pont called for his fleet to enter the harbor at mid-channel. On the way in, they would engage both forts. After passing the forts, the heaviest ships would execute a turn to the left in column and go back against Fort Walker. Again past the fort, they would once more turn in column, and repeat the maneuver until the issue was decided. While the main fleet was thus engaged, five of his lighter gunboats would form a flanking column that would proceed to the head of the harbor and shield the rest of the fleet from Tattnall's flotilla.
Battle
On November 7, the air was calm and gave no further reason for delay. The fleet was drawn up into 2 columns and moved to the attack. The main body consisted of 9 ships with guns and one without. In order, they were flagship Wabash, , , Seminole, Pawnee, , Ottawa, Pembina, Isaac Smith, and Vandalia. Isaac Smith had jettisoned her guns during the storm, but she would now contribute by towing the sailing vessel Vandalia. Five gunboats formed the flanking column: , Seneca, Penguin, Curlew, and . Three other gunboats, , Mercury, and Penguin remained behind to protect the transports.
The fight started at 09:26, when a gun in Fort Walker fired on the approaching fleet. (This first shell exploded harmlessly a short distance out of the muzzle.) Other shots followed, the fleet replied by firing on both forts, and the action became general. Shells from the fleet ripped into the forts, although many of them passed harmlessly overhead and landed well beyond. Because the motion of the ships disrupted their aim, most of the shots from the forts missed; generally, they aimed too high, sending the missiles that were on target into the masts and upper works of the vessels. The ships proceeded according to Du Pont's orders through the first turn, but then the plan fell apart. First to leave was the third ship in the main column, Mohican, under Commander Sylvanus W. Godon. Godon found that he could enfilade the water battery from a position safe from return fire, so he dropped out. Those following him were confused, so they also dropped out. Only Wabash and Susquehanna continued in the line of battle. The two ships made their second and third passes, and then were joined, inexplicably, by gunboat Bienville.
The bombardment continued in this way until shortly after noon, when , delayed by the storm, put in her appearance. Her captain, Commander Percival Drayton, placed the ship in position to enfilade Fort Walker and joined the battle. Commander Drayton was the brother of Thomas F. Drayton, the Confederate general who commanded the forces ashore.
Ashore, Fort Walker was suffering, with most of the damage being done by the ships that had dropped out of the line of battle. The exhausted gunners had only three guns left in the water battery, the others being disabled. About 12:30, General Drayton left the fort to collect some reserves to replace the men in the fort. Before leaving, he turned command over to Colonel William C. Heyward, with instructions to hold out as long as possible. As he was returning at 14:00, he found the men leaving the fort. They explained that they were almost out of powder for the guns, and had therefore abandoned their position.
The departure of the soldiers from the fort was noticed by sailors in the fleet, and signal was soon passed to cease fire. A boat crew led by Commander John Rodgers went ashore under a flag of truce and found the fort abandoned. Rodgers therefore raised the Union flag. No effort was made to further press the men who had just left the fort, so the entire surviving Confederate force was permitted to escape to the mainland.
Fort Beauregard had not suffered punishment as severe as that given to Fort Walker, but Colonel Robert Gill Mills Dunovant was concerned that the enemy could easily cut off his only line of retreat. When the firing at Fort Walker ceased and cheering in the fleet was heard, he realized that his command was in peril. Rather than be trapped, he ordered the troops on Philip's Island to abandon their positions. This they did without destroying their stores, because to do so would have attracted the attention of the fleet. Their departure was not noted, and not until a probing attack by gunboat Seneca elicited no reply was it realized that the fort was unmanned. As it was then very late in the day, raising the Union flag on Fort Beauregard was delayed until the following morning.
Aftermath
The battle being over, personnel losses could be determined. Despite the large expenditure of shot and shell by both sides, casualties were rather light. In the Southern forts, 11 men had been killed, 47 were wounded, and 4 were missing. In the Northern fleet, 8 were killed and 23 wounded. These numbers do not include those lost in the sinking of transport Governor.
Immediately following the capture of the forts, the Union forces consolidated their victory by occupying Beaufort, and then moved north by next taking St. Helena Sound. The northward expansion continued up to the rivers on the south side of Charleston, where it was halted. Thus, the siege of Charleston, which continued until the last days of the war, can be said to have been initiated at Port Royal Sound.
General Lee, who had been placed in command too late to affect the battle, decided that he would not contest the Union gunboats. He withdrew his forces from the coast and defended only vital interior positions. He was able to thwart Federal efforts to cut the vital railroad link between Savannah and Charleston. Lee's strategy was maintained even after he was recalled to Richmond and given command of the Army of Northern Virginia, where he earned his fame.
Flag Officer Du Pont was widely honored for his part in the victory. When the rank of rear admiral was created for the U.S. Navy in July 1862, he was the second person (after David G. Farragut) to be promoted. He retained command of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron, and directed continuing naval operations against the coast, including Charleston, Savannah, and Fernandina, Florida. To that end, he set up extensive works at Port Royal Sound for maintaining the fleet, including coaling, provisioning, and repair facilities. Unfortunately, Du Pont proved to be unduly cautious, and his reputation could not survive the failure of the fleet attack on Charleston of April 7, 1863. He soon thereafter retired from the service.
General Sherman continued to serve in various capacities throughout the war, but without distinction. His abrasive personality made him difficult to work with, so he was shunted off to lesser commands. He lost his right leg in combat at Port Hudson.
After a Union victory, Confederate Brigadier-General Thomas F. Drayton directed the evacuation of rebel forces from Hilton Head Island to the Bluffton mainland. Occupying Port Royal Harbor, the Union’s South Atlantic Blockading Squadron could then be monitored by rebel lookouts disbursed from Bluffton’s substantial picket headquarters. Bluffton’s geographic location resulted in it being the only strategic position on the east coast where the Confederates could gather direct intelligence on the Union squadron, which conducted crucial blockade operations along the southern coastline in the aftermath of the battle.
General Drayton proved to be incompetent in the field, so he was put in various administrative positions.
The aftermath of the battle and the resultant freeing of the slaves was described by John Greenleaf Whittier in his poem "At Port Royal."
References
Abbreviations used:
ORA (Official records, armies): War of the Rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate Armies.
ORN (Official records, navies): Official records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion.
Bibliography
Ammen, Daniel, The Atlantic Coast. The Navy in the Civil War—II Charles Scribner's Sons, 1883. Reprint, Blue and Gray Press, n.d.
Browning, Robert M. Jr., Success is all that was expected; the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron during the Civil War. Brassey's, 2002.
Faust, Patricia L., Historical Time Illustrated encyclopedia of the Civil War. Harper and Row, 1986.
Johnson, Robert Underwood, and Clarence Clough Buel, Battles and leaders of the Civil War. Century, 1887, 1888; reprint ed., Castle, n.d.
Ammen, Daniel, "Du Pont and the Port Royal expedition," vol. I, pp. 671–691.
Reed, Rowena, Combined operations in the Civil War. Naval Institute Press, 1978.
US Navy Department, Official records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion. Series I: 27 volumes. Series II: 3 volumes. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1894–1922. Series I, volume 12 is most useful.
US War Department, A compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Series I: 53 volumes. Series II: 8 volumes. Series III: 5 volumes. Series IV: 4 volumes. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1886–1901. Series I, volume 6 is most useful.The War of the Rebellion
External links
"The Egotistigraphy", by John Sanford Barnes. An autobiography, including his Civil War Union Navy service on USS Wabash, privately printed 1910. Internet edition edited by Susan Bainbridge Hay 2012
Port Royal
Port Royal
Port Royal
Port Royal
Beaufort County, South Carolina
1861 in the American Civil War
1861 in South Carolina
November 1861 events |
4326310 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1928%20in%20baseball | 1928 in baseball |
Champions
World Series: New York Yankees over St. Louis Cardinals (4–0)
Awards and honors
League Award
Mickey Cochrane, Philadelphia Athletics, C
Jim Bottomley, St. Louis Cardinals, 1B
Statistical leaders
Major league baseball final standings
American League final standings
National League final standings
Negro leagues final standings
Negro National League final standings
St. Louis won the first half, Chicago won the second half.
St. Louis beat Chicago 5 games to 4 games in a play-off.
Eastern Colored League final standings
The League broke up midway through the season due to the breakdown of the founder (and manager of Hilldale) although the individual teams continued to play.
Events
January 10 – The New York Giants trade Rogers Hornsby to the Boston Braves for Shanty Hogan and Jimmy Welsh.
April 1 – Kansas City (American Association) purchases Joe Cronin's contract from the Pittsburgh Pirates.
April 10 – In the season opener, the Boston Red Sox defeat the Washington Senators, 7–5.
April 13 – The contest between the Cleveland Indians and Chicago White Sox is called a 1–1 tie after six innings.
May 19 – With a 3–2 victory over the Boston Braves, the Chicago Cubs complete a thirteen-game winning streak.
June 16 – At Comiskey Park, Boston Red Sox second baseman Bill Regan hits two home runs in the fourth inning during a 10–5 victory over the Chicago White Sox. Regan matches his last year's total in the inning. His first homer is off loser Ted Blankenship, and the second is an inside-the-park-off Sarge Connally. Ellis Burks will be the second player in Red Sox history to hit a pair of homers in an inning, on August 27, . Rookie Ed Morris is the winning pitcher.
July 26
Hall of Famer Carl Hubbell gives up five runs (three earned) and seven hits, and takes the loss in his first major league start.
Bob Meusel of the New York Yankees hit for the cycle for the third time in his career. The Yankees scored 11 runs in the top of the 12th inning to beat the Detroit Tigers, 12–1.
July 30 – The Philadelphia Phillies defeat the St. Louis Cardinals 8–7 in sixteen innings. Hall of famer Chuck Klein makes his major league debut.
August 6 – For the second time in four days, the New York Yankees lose a fifteen inning game.
August 15 – Hall of Fame catcher Bill Dickey makes his major league debut in the Yankees' 8–4 loss to the Chicago White Sox.
September 9 – With first place in the American League on the line, the New York Yankees sweep a double header from the Philadelphia Athletics.
September 24 - A Monday afternoon crowd of only 404 watches the Detroit Tigers blank the last place Boston Red Sox 8–0. The meager number of fans at Navin Field is the lowest attendance in American League history at Detroit.
September 25 – The Philadelphia Phillies snap a twelve-game losing streak with a 5–2 victory over the Chicago Cubs. It is Philadelphia's second twelve-game losing streak of the season (July 7 to July 20).
October 4 – A seventh-inning solo home run by Jim Bottomley is one of only three hits for the St. Louis Cardinals as the New York Yankees take game one of the 1928 World Series, 4–1.
October 5 – Lou Gehrig has five RBIs, including a first-inning three-run home run to lead the New York Yankees to a 9–3 victory in game two of the World Series.
October 7 – Lou Gehrig hits two home runs, including an inside-the-park home run in the fourth in the Yankees' 7–3 victory in game three of the World Series.
October 9 – The New York Yankees defeat the St. Louis Cardinals, 7–3, in Game four of the World Series to win their third World Championship title. Babe Ruth hits three home runs in Game four. This is the second time in three years Ruth hits three home runs in a Series game.
November 7 – The Boston Braves send Rogers Hornsby to the Chicago Cubs for Bruce Cunningham, Percy Jones, Lou Legett, Freddie Maguire, Socks Seibold and $200,000.
December 1 – National League President John Heydler becomes the first person to propose a baseball rule change calling for a 10th man, or a designated hitter, to bat in place of the pitcher. The NL will vote in favor of the proposal, but the American League will turn it down.
December 2 – St. Louis Cardinals first baseman Jim Bottomley, who hit 325 with 31 home runs and 126 RBI, is elected National League Most Valuable Player with 76 points for 70 of Freddie Lindstrom, whose .358 batting average was third behind Rogers Hornsby (.387) and Paul Waner (.370).
December 19 – The Washington Senators trade Hall of fame second baseman Bucky Harris to the Detroit Tigers for Jack Warner.
Births
January
January 5 – Dorothy Naum
January 5 – Bob Oldis
January 6 – Dan Lewandowski
January 10 – Jack Dittmer
January 11 – Loren Babe
January 11 – Carl Powis
January 23 – Chico Carrasquel
January 28 – Pete Runnels
January 29 – Jim Robertson
January 31 – Rhoda Leonard
February
February 5 – Don Hoak
February 6 – Charlie Gorin
February 7 – Joe Lonnett
February 7 – Felipe Montemayor
February 7 – Al Smith
February 9 – Erv Palica
February 11 – Chris Kitsos
February 20 – Roy Face
February 24 – Bubba Phillips
February 27 – Juan Delis
February 28 – Dick Kokos
February 28 – Therese McKinley
March
March 1 – Bert Hamric
March 13 – Bob Greenwood
March 14 – Earl Smith
March 15 – Paul Carey
March 15 – Nellie King
March 18 – Chi-Chi Olivo
March 20 – Jake Crawford
March 22 – Paul Schramka
March 23 – Charlene Barnett
March 23 – Jim Lemon
April
April 4 – Frank Smith
April 10 – Frankie Pack
April 12 – Bill Stewart
April 14 – Herb Adams
April 28 – Rinty Monahan
May
May 9 – Jean Smith
May 11 – Vern Rapp
May 11 – Mel Wright
May 13 – Bob Smith
May 15 – Betty Warfel
May 16 – Billy Martin
May 19 – Gil McDougald
May 21 – Elmer Sexauer
May 24 – Donna Cook
May 29 – Willard Schmidt
June
June 3 – Dick Young
June 4 – Billy Hunter
June 6 – Bob Talbot
June 7 – Marilyn Olinger
June 8 – Aldine Calacurcio
June 8 – Webbo Clarke
June 8 – Alex Konikowski
June 10 – Ken Lehman
June 12 – Jack Cusick
June 14 – Herb Plews
June 17 – Willard Nixon
June 20 – Bob Mahoney
June 20 – Art Schult
June 23 – Jean Cione
June 25 – Gloria Ruiz
June 29 – Nick Testa
June 29 – Gene Verble
June 30 – Pompeyo Davalillo
July
July 1 – Hersh Freeman
July 4 – Babe Birrer
July 4 – Chuck Tanner
July 5 – Jim Baxes
July 5 – Lorraine Fisher
July 5 – Georgette Vincent
July 10 – John Glenn
July 13 – Daryl Spencer
July 15 – Julián Ladera
July 18 – Billy Harrell
July 22 – Stu Locklin
July 23 – José Bracho
July 27 – Charlie Bicknell
July 29 – Ken Landenberger
July 30 – Bill Hall
July 30 – Joe Nuxhall
August
August 3 – Dick Hyde
August 3 – Cliff Ross
August 6 – Herb Moford
August 8 – Vern Morgan
August 8 – Jane Stoll
August 11 – Bob Stephenson
August 12 – Bob Buhl
August 18 – Marge Schott
August 19 – Jim Finigan
August 24 – Hal Griggs
August 25 – Darrell Johnson
August 25 – Floyd Wooldridge
August 28 – Betty Wanless
August 30 – Doris Neal
August 31 – Buzz Dozier
September
September 4 – José Santiago
September 10 – Bob Garber
September 12 – Len Matarazzo
September 15 – Bob Lennon
September 16 – Vito Valentinetti
September 17 – Ed Vargo
September 23 – Corinne Clark
September 26 – Al Lary
September 27 – Perry Currin
September 27 – Thornton Kipper
September 28 – Dick Gernert
October
October 1 – Hal Naragon
October 2 – Angel Scull
October 3 – Dave Melton
October 4 – Rip Repulski
October 6 – Fred Marolewski
October 7 – Joe Presko
October 13 – Walter Lee Gibbons
October 15 – Jim Command
October 15 – Gail Henley
October 16 – Len Yochim
October 17 – Jim Gilliam
October 20 – Mickey Micelotta
October 21 – Whitey Ford
October 24 – George Bullard
October 27 – Alice Hoover
October 31 – Janet Jacobs
November
November 2 – Shirley Kleinhans
November 2 – Bob Ross
November 4 – Jay Van Noy
November 4 – Edna Scheer
November 6 – Bill Wilson
November 13 – Steve Bilko
November 15 – Gus Bell
November 15 – Normie Roy
November 16 – Jacqueline Mattson
November 18 – Lou Lombardo
November 25 – Ray Narleski
November 28 – Billy Queen
November 29 – Bill Currie
December
December 5 – Mary Dailey
December 5 – Jack Urban
December 9 – Joe DeMaestri
December 9 – Billy Klaus
December 11 – Harry Warner
December 13 – Joe Landrum
December 15 – Clyde McNeal
December 16 – Doug Hansen
December 17 – Dolores Wilson
December 25 – Frank Baldwin
December 25 – Mike Blyzka
Deaths
January
January 2 – James D. Burns, 62, founding owner of the Detroit Tigers from their entry into the American League in 1901 through the 1902 season.
January 2 – Hunkey Hines, 60, right fielder in two games for the 1895 Brooklyn Grooms of the National League.
January 14 – Al Reach, 87, Anglo-American sportsman who as second baseman became the first professional player in 1865; batted .353 for 1871 champion Athletics in first season of National Association; co-founder of the Phillies, serving as team president from 1883 to 1902, later part owner of Athletics; publisher of annual baseball guides beginning in 1883, and also was responsible for the invention of the cork-center baseball.
January 16 – Claude Rossman, 46, American League first baseman/right fielder who played with the Cleveland Naps, Detroit Tigers and St. Louis Browns in parts of five seasons spanning 1904–09.
January 28 – Jake Thielman, 48, pitcher for the St. Louis Browns, Cleveland Naps and Boston Red Sox of the American League between 1905 and 1908.
January 30 – Jim Foran, 80, first baseman for the 1871 Fort Wayne Kekiongas of the National Association.
February
February [?] – Pablo Mesa, 30, Negro league outfielder/pitcher for the Cuban Stars (East) from 1921 through 1927.
February 1 – Hughie Jennings, 58, Hall of Fame shortstop, most notably for the Baltimore Orioles of the National League, who batted .311 lifetime but had career shortened by numerous beanings, who as team captain was runnerup in 1896 batting race with .401 mark, managed the Detroit Tigers to consecutive pennants from 1907 to 1909, and later coached for the New York Giants.
February 4 – Bill McCarthy, 41, backup catcher for the 1905 Boston Beaneaters and 1907 Cincinnati Reds of the National League.
February 9 – Bill Farmer, 63, Irish catcher/outfielder for the NL Pittsburgh Alleghenys and the AA Philadelphia Athletics in 1888.
February 13 – Pete Daniels, 63, pitcher for the 1890 Pittsburgh Alleghenys and 1898 St. Louis Browns of the National League.
February 23 – Jack Ridgway, 39, pitcher for the 1914 Baltimore Terrapins of the Federal League.
February 27 – Walt Schulz, 27, pitcher for the 1920 St. Louis Cardinals of the National League.
March
March 5 – Mart McQuaid, 66, backup second baseman/outfielder for the 1891 St. Louis Browns of the American Association and the 1898 Washington Senators of the National League.
March 13 – Bobby Wheelock, 63, shortstop/outfielder for the NL Boston Beaneaters and the AA Columbus Solons in parts of three seasons spanning 1887–91.
March 14 – Nat Hudson, 69, pitcher for the St. Louis Browns of the American Association from 1886 through 1889, who helped his team win the 1886 World Series over the National League's Chicago White Stockings, and posted a 25–10 record with a 2.54 ERA and a top-league .714 winning percentage in 1888.
March 19 – Tom Lovett, 64, pitcher for six seasons between 1885 and 1894, mainly with the NL Brooklyn Bridegrooms, who collected 30 wins in 1890 and hurled a no-hitter against the New York Giants in 1891.
March 23 – Jake Kafora, 39, backup catcher for the NL Pittsburgh Pirates from 1913 to 1914.
March 25 – Homer Smoot, 50, center fielder who batted a .290 average in 680 games with the St. Louis Cardinals and Cincinnati Reds from 1902 to 1906, and led all National League outfielders with 284 putouts in 1902.
April
April 1 – Marr Phillips, 70, shortstop who played in parts of three seasons spanning 1884–90 with the Indianapolis Hoosiers, Pittsburgh Alleghenys and Rochester Broncos of the American Association, and for the Detroit Wolverines of the National League.
April 6 – Ike McAuley, 36, National League shortstop for the Pittsburgh Pirates (1914–16), St. Louis Cardinals (1917) and Chicago Cubs (1925).
April 19 – Harry McCaffery, 69, outfield/infield utility for the St. Louis Brown Stockings/Browns and Louisville Eclipse of the American Association from 1882 to 1883.
April 23 – Joe Miller, 67, shortstop for the 1884 Toledo Blue Stockings and the 1885 Louisville Colonels of the American Association.
April 24 – Harry Berthrong, 84, infield/outfield utility and catcher in 17 games with the 1871 Washington Olympics of the National Association.
April 26 – Zeke Wilson, 58, pitcher from 1895 through 1899 for the Boston Beaneaters, Cleveland Spiders and St. Louis Perfectos of the National League.
May
May 1 – Bull Smith, 47, outfielder for the Pittsburgh Pirates, Chicago Cubs and Washington Senators between the 1904 and 1911 seasons.
May 6 – Sam Wright, 79, younger brother of Hall of Famers Harry and George Wright, who played at shortstop for the New Haven Elm Citys, Boston Red Stockings and Cincinnati Reds in parts of four seasons spanning 1875–81.
May 10 – Ed Stein, 58, pitcher who played from 1890 through 1898 for the Chicago Colts and Brooklyn Grooms/Bridegrooms of the National League.
May 24 – Billy Smith, 67, pitcher for the 1886 Detroit Wolverines of the National League.
May 25 – Max Fiske, 39, pitcher for the 1914 Chicago Chi-Feds of the outlaw Federal League.
May 31 – Grant Briggs, 63, part-time catcher/outfielder in 110 games with the Syracuse Stars, Louisville Colonels and St. Louis Browns between 1890 and 1895.
June
June 1 – Charlie Jordan, 56, pitcher for the 1896 Philadelphia Phillies of the National League.
June 12 – Frank Wilson, 41, National League umpire who officiated in 996 games between April 13, 1921 and June 3, 1928; led NL arbiters in ejections in 1921–1922; died following appendicitis surgery nine days after working his last MLB game.
June 13 – Chuck Corgan, 25, backup middle infielder for the National League Brooklyn Robins in the 1925 and 1927 seasons.
June 14 – Con Daily, 63, catcher who also played all infield and outfield positions for seven teams in two different leagues, mainly for the Brooklyn Grooms of the National League, in a 12-year career that spanned from 1895 to 1996.
June 19 – Jake Weimer, 54, National League pitcher who posted a 97–69 record from 1903 to 1909 for the Cubs, Reds and New York Giants, including three 20-win seasons and a 2.23 career ERA in 143 complete games.
June 23 – Malachi Kittridge, 58, catcher for the Louisville Colonels, Boston Beaneaters, Washington Senators and Cleveland Naps between 1890 and 1906.
June 24 – Frank Cox, 70, shortstop in 26 games with the 1884 Detroit Wolverines of the National League.
July
July 2 – Pete Hotaling, 71, center fielder for six different teams in two leagues, primarily for the Cleveland Blues of the National League, during parts of nine seasons spanning 1879–88.
July 15 – Al Sauter, 59, third baseman for the 1890 for the Philadelphia Athletics of the American Association.
July 18 – Ed Killian, 51, pitcher who posted a 103–78 record and a 2.38 ERA in 214 games from 1903 to 1910, collecting two 20-win seasons, allowing nine home runs in 1600 career innings (none from 1903 to 1907), while clinching the 1907 American League pennant for the Detroit Tigers with two wins in a doubleheader.
July 30 – Charlie Becker, 37, pitcher from 1911 to 1912 for the Washington Senators of the American League.
August
August 21 – Joe Mulvey, 69, third baseman who played from 1883 to 1895 for seven teams in three different league, including four Philadelphia franchises, collecting 1059 hits in 4063 at-bats for a .261 average in 987 games.
August 25 – Snake Wiltse, 56, pitcher/first baseman/outfielder for the Pittsburgh Pirates, Philadelphia Athletics, Baltimore Orioles and New York Highlanders from 1901 through 1903, who posted a 29–31 record and a 4.59 ERA in 68 games pitched, while batting a .278 average with a .398 of slugging in 86 games.
September
September 9 – Urban Shocker, 38, American League pitcher who posted a 187–117 record and a 3.17 ERA in 187 games with the St. Louis Browns and New York Yankees from 1916 to 1928, leading the league in wins (27) in 1921 and for the most strikeouts (149) in 1922, ending his career with four 20-win seasons and a 1.50 SO/BB ratio in 2681 innings.
October
October 10 – Justus Thorner, 80, owner of three different teams in Cincinnati, including the Cincinnati Red Stockings of 1882 and 1883, the inaugural seasons of the franchise now known as the Cincinnati Reds.
October 11 – Frank Smith, 70, Canadian catcher for the 1884 Pittsburgh Alleghenys of the National League.
October 14 – Billy Milligan, 60, pitcher for the 1901 Philadelphia Athletics (AL) and the 1904 New York Giants (NL).
October 14 – Bill Stuart, 55, middle infielder who played in part of two seasons for the Pittsburgh Pirates (1895) and New York Giants (1899) of the National League.
October 15 – Pony Sager, 80, shortstop/left fielder in eight games for the 1871 Rockford Forest Citys of the National Association.
October 22 – Jack Dunn, 56, major league pitcher/third baseman for five teams from 1897 to 1904, who became owner and manager of minor league Baltimore Orioles in 1907, where he developed stars as Babe Ruth and Lefty Grove, while winning seven consecutive pennants from 1919 through 1925, ending his career as the second winningest manager in minor league history.
October 27 – Billy West, 75, National League second baseman who played for the 1874 Brooklyn Atlantics and the 1876 New York Mutuals.
October 31 – José Méndez, 41, generally regarded as one of the greatest players in Cuban baseball history, who was a star pitcher in the Negro leagues, primarily with the All Nations team and the Kansas City Monarchs, while managing the Monarchs from 1920 to 1926, leading them to the first ever Negro World Series title in 1924.
November
November 4 – Ed Kelly, 39, relief pitcher for the 1914 Boston Red Sox of the American League.
November 5 – George Treadway, 61, National League outfielder from 1893 through 1896 for the Baltimore Orioles, Brooklyn Grooms and Louisville Colonels, who posted a .285 average and a .432 of slugging in 328 career games.
November 6 – Bill Cooney, 45, relief pitcher from 1909 to 1910 for the Boston Doves of the National League.
November 11 – Oyster Burns, 64, right fielder for five teams between 1884 and 1895, primarily for the Brooklyn Bridegrooms, who led the National League in home runs (13) and RBI (128) in the 1887 season, while ending with a .300 batting average and a .445 slugging in 1188 career games.
November 14 – Herb Juul, 42, pitcher in one game for the 1911 Cincinnati Reds.
November 15 – Charlie Dorman, 30, backup catcher for the Chicago White Sox during the 1923 season.
November 15 – Horace Fogel, 67, owner and president of the Philadelphia Phillies from 1909 to 1912.
November 18 – Jim Gilmore, 75, catcher for the 1875 Washington Nationals of the National League.
November 21 – Pete Lohman, 64, catcher for the 1891 Washington Statesmen of the American Association.
November 26 – Denny Clare, 75, middle infielder for the 1872 Brooklyn Atlantics of the National Association.
November 26 – Butts Wagner, 57, the older brother of Honus Wagner, who played at third base and outfield for the Washington Senators and the Brooklyn Bridegrooms during the 1898 season.
December
December 2 – Bill Hugues, 68, first baseman/outfielder and pitcher who played for the 1884 Washington Nationals of the Union Association and the 1885 Philadelphia Athletics of the American Association.
December 22 – Hugh Reid, 76, right fielder in one game for the 1874 Baltimore Canaries of the National Association.
December 27 – George Meister, 74, third baseman for the 1884 Toledo Blue Stockings of the American Association.
December 29 – Mort Scanlan, 67, first baseman for the 1890 New York Giants of the National League. |
4326466 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalibor%20Vesely | Dalibor Vesely | Dalibor Vesely (19 June 1934 – 31 March 2015) was a Czech-born architectural historian and theorist who was influential through his teaching and writing in promoting the role of hermeneutics and phenomenology as part of the discourse of architecture and of architectural design.
Vesely was one of the most outstanding architectural teachers of the late twentieth century. As well as inspiring generations of students, he taught some of the current leading architects and architectural historians, such as Daniel Libeskind, Eric Parry, Alberto Pérez-Gómez, Mohsen Mostafavi and David Leatherbarrow. He began teaching at the University of Essex, before moving to the Architectural Association in London and in 1978 to the University of Cambridge Department of Architecture, where he also started an M.Phil. programme in History and Philosophy of Architecture with Peter Carl. Together with Peter Carl, his teaching and theoretical approach became associated and dominated the Cambridge Architecture School in the 1980s and early 1990s. After retiring from his full-time post in Cambridge, Vesely continued to teach there, remaining Director of Studies at Emmanuel College, Cambridge and he also taught Architectural History and Philosophy at the University of Pennsylvania, and was an Honorary Professorial Fellow at the Manchester School of Architecture. In 2005 he was recipient of the CICA Bruno Zevi Book Award granted by the International Committee of Architectural Critics for his book "Architecture in the Age of Divided Representation". In 2006 the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) honoured Dalibor Vesely with the Annie Spink Award for Excellence in Architectural Education and in 2015 he was made an Honorary Fellow of the RIBA in recognition of both his lifetime contributions to architectural theory and to teaching.
Biography
Vesely was born in Prague, Czechoslovakia, in 1934. He studied engineering, architecture, art history and philosophy in Prague, Munich, Paris and Heidelberg and obtained his PhD from Charles University in Prague. This was supervised by Josef Havlicek, Karel Honzik, and Jaroslav Fragner. He studied with Hans-Georg Gadamer, with whom he kept a correspondence until Gadamer's death. He stated it was the philosopher of phenomenology Jan Patočka who, in his own words, "contributed more than anyone else to [his] overall intellectual orientation and to the articulation of some of the critical topics" it was under the influence of Gadamer and Patočka that he developed the lifelong interest in the poetics and hermeneutics of architecture that defined his teaching and research.
Vesely was in England with his brother in 1968 when the Soviet tanks rolled into Czechoslovakia. He stayed in London, first teaching at the Architectural Association, taking charge of the 'Unit 1' studio and then moving to the University of Essex where he and Joseph Rykwert established a master's degree in architectural history. He was invited to Cambridge by Colin St John Wilson in 1978. There he, Rykwert and Peter Carl initiated MPhil and PhD courses in the history and philosophy of architecture, thereby bringing the emerging studio culture which had been cultivated at the AA which came to define the school in the 1980s and 1990s.
Architecture and hermeneutics
Vesely's work may be understood primarily as a contribution to cultural hermeneutics, and his exploration of the historical background of modern science in the sixteenth- and seventeenth centuries is particularly rich in detail and insight onto the changing nature of representation. Vesely polemises on concepts such as perspective and anamorphosis, which are traditionally understood to have taken departure from Renaissance culture. Vesely contributes to the current debate with the depth of the problem of representation; a question which has divided Western philosophy with regard to the epistemological possibility of representation and understanding of natural phenomena. The 'birth' of modern science and its increasing challenge on traditional views has also marked the divide within the possibilities of representation. In the context of the seventeenth century, this was especially clear as a polemics surrounding the nature of scientific work and philosophical understanding.
According to Vesely, the inevitable partiality of such views is at the very core of the problem that affects the cultural understanding of representation. Its contingent nature was not always understood as a divide originating all kinds of dualisms. Before modern science, representation was naturally contingent and the universal aspirations of science (metaphysics) were bound to the nature of the epistemological ground (arché). Vesely's work traces back the ontological foundations of the problem to the Greek context, helping to clarify its original meaning. In Architecture in the Age of Divided Representation (2004), Vesely presents the notion of ground as having a provisional nature, that can only be seized as a continuity of reference through different levels of representation, ranging from the more explicit, visible world down to a latent world of potential articulation. Precisely this continuity is what may allow us to address the modern, fragmented notion of representation as a task of rehabilitation, which would trace the fragment back to its original whole.
Architecture and representation
Vesely's written work was mostly in articles in journals and many of the arguments developed over the years in lectures and seminars. There is thus no comprehensive overview of his thought or his range of interests. However Architecture in the Age of Divided Representation (2004), provides a summary of his thinking and this work remains the main source for understanding his approach. Many of his other ideas which were expressed in lectures and seminars remain unpublished.
Architecture in the Age of Divided Representation
In Architecture in the Age of Divided Representation (2004), Vesely sets the argument from the experience of architecture, as it constantly works through different modes of representation, including "built reality". In it, Vesely defines the present cultural situation as divided and ambiguous, especially when it comes to architecture (pp. 4–12, 36, 44 ss). Twentieth-century architecture, he argues, places its trust in the epistemological model of modern science and technology that is today largely reflected in instrumental concepts of city and suburban landscape. Today, he states, the attempt to rehabilitate the primary tradition of architecture faces the problem of bridging the gap between different modes of representation and concepts of knowledge that in some cases precede modern science, i.e., precede the historical notion of scientific knowledge as it takes course from the seventeenth- and sixteenth centuries.
Vesely's research delved into these historical settings that are understood to be the birthplace of modern science, in the general hope of exposing the origin of our modern notion of knowledge and how it came about to emancipate from traditional representations of the world. Vesely's research was accordingly a working out the historical notion of representation, as it constituted a central issue in this historical affair; and how the construction of a modern notion of knowledge had much to do with a changing nature in the concept of representation (pp. 13–19). The concept as it is generally understood today largely surpasses the history of epistemology. According to Vesely, this is because representation is generally understood on the basis of a certain "continuity between a particular mode of representation and what is represented" (p. 14), a notion which has been current throughout the whole of European architectural history.
The modern situation
When looking at the modern situation, Vesely finds that the problem is generally structured on the basis of an ontological difference that is intrinsic to representation itself. This is precisely the difference that allows modes of representation to emancipate from that which is represented, and from particular, given circumstances (pp. 4–5). The discussion of ontological difference therefore constitutes an epistemological difference affecting the conditions and possibilities of knowledge. And speculative thought, which we so associate with modern science, is built on this difference. Charles Taylor (1995) points out how the question for modern science is to fit a particular mode of representation to another, extrinsic representation: what we commonly call the "outer reality". The difference between the two constantly jeopardizes their epistemological value; and affects not only the way in which representation relates to what it means to represent, but also between different modes of representing it.
In response, Vesely's work explores how architecture constantly works between different modes of representation, through the difference between project and what is built, for instance, when it translates a whole city into a diagram, a plan or a map. The simple act of reading a map involves more than just the imagination to relate the map with the buildings and the surrounding space; it involves the reciprocity between different levels of representation, that may intake discrepancy and lack of information. According to Vesely, this kind of discrepancy might be useful to understand the nature of the question; and may in fact become a means to understand what impairs the communication between different levels of representation, and conversely, what happens when such communication takes place.
Vesely also takes up the example of an experiment that, paradoxically perhaps, was carried out in the hey-day of logical empiricism. The experiment was carried out by Schilder, and involved a temporary inversion of the visual field (pp. 46ss), leaving other perceptual fields untouched. Schilder's experiment addressed the discontinuity between the visual and other fields of perception, and exposed the situated human body as a basic structure of spatial reference (pp. 48–49). Vesely investigates how the subjects of the experiment found that their bodies were the first instance they could rely on when trying to situate in a visual world that was not only upside down, but also turned from left to right; and when trying to perform simple gestures like picking up a book, or reading. Although the experience was difficult to endure, the inverted vision could be partially reconciled with the original body structure (p. 47).
According to Vesely, the ability to reconcile the acquired inverted vision with the situational structure of the human body, points out to a deeper problem when dealing with situation, which is related to our ability to become situated on provisional grounds, even when lacking a fundamental 'ground' of spatial or temporal reference. The example from inverted vision also means to show that such a basis is far from being immediate; it is constituted in the process of a search within the actual space and comes about in the reciprocity between different levels and forms of representation such as visual, tactile, and so forth. Vesely elaborates on situation and the phenomenon of being situated as an example of how we contextualize spatial knowledge and on which basis; and on how a particular point of reference allows us to situate spatial knowledge. In the course of the argument, Vesely demonstrates that what constitutes the fabric of situation is a continuity of reference and experience through different forms of articulating spatiality down to an implicit structure that itself is neither visual nor tactile, and is only potentially articulated in the objective realm (pp. 48, 82–87, 378ss).
Situation and perception
Vesely's argument on the epistemological process of being situated develops in terms of an analogy to the formation of the visual field. And takes the organic ability of sight only as a point of departure to the phenomenon of vision, i.e. what one is able to recognize and know out of visual perception. Accordingly, the natural process of seeing is shown to be a result from learning. Vesely presents the example of inborn conditions of blindness treated through surgery, where sight itself only emerges after a painful stage of learning, and without which, the recently acquired sense of sight would be unable to detach or recognize individual objects out of a 'visual field' (pp. 50–51). Vesely describes how the integration of the newly acquired sense relies on the fact that the world of the blind is already structured, not only in terms of temporal sequences, but spatially; and that the reconciliation of the new ability of sight takes place on an already structured ground of existing objects and spatiality. Perception such as visual or tactile is reconciled upon an implicitly structured ground.
Vesely shows how the task of bridging different plateaux of representation can only be fulfilled by covering the distance to a common 'ground' (pp. 61–63). 'Ground' is like a point of departure from which it would become possible to uncover the basic structure of spatiality; but it is hardly the case that such an epistemological ground can provide us with an absolute source of spatial reference. The notion of epistemological ground is not established a priori, as a given point of reference. It comes about in the process of searching, taking place as a continuum of references between different levels of spatial understanding. In which case, what constitutes the structural source of situation is this stream of references (p. 60).
Vesely's notion of ground consists of a primary source of reference that in many ways coincides with the traditional Greek understanding of arché. Arché is not an absolute source of reference, but only a primary one that works as a point of departure towards our notion of "earth" and our understanding of "world" (pp. 50–52). This is an insecure ground that in a sense, speaks more of its own topography, than of clearly defined rules and references. Although this is an unfamiliar ground for modern science, Vesely accurately describes how much of the understanding of what it means to be situated derives from the knowledge of daily situations on Earth, where horizon and gravity play a common role. Accordingly, architecture's task of raising and 'building' situations does not address the mere existence of conditions such as floor or gravity, but concerns the fundamental condition of 'ground' allowing the phenomenon of situation to take place.
Situation and knowledge
On the epistemological level, this means that for Vesely, the nature of 'ground' allows an understanding of 'spatial structure'; like a hermeneutical key granting access to phenomena of spatiality. Contemporary architecture has been particularly keen on challenging the average views on ground viz. gravity. Although most architecture cannot escape the 'predicament' of gravity, there are numerous examples of play with gravity and the 'visual weight' of architectural mass against gravity, starting from the early twentieth-century constructivism. Such architectural play shows an impulse towards the emancipation from gravity as a natural source of situation, and looks forward to expose a more fundamental ground of reference and its problematic nature. Architecture is thus setting a clear challenge on everyday experience as they are structured characteristically in terms of up and down, and according to a horizontal ground. The experiment of the 'inverted vision' seems to show exactly that: the touch of ground helps to define the vertical and the relative distances of objects, orientation, and to recognize the physiognomy of the space. Outside these conditions it seems more or less obvious that the 'grounds' for situation escape our grasp. At the same time, architects are conscious that it is precisely the implicit nature of ground as a structure of references that makes the task of its architectural exploration so difficult.
Moreover, according to Vesely, the notion of 'ground' can never provide us with an absolute knowledge of the whole, but only with a mediated understanding of spatial structure. This means that the task of uncovering the hidden nature of ground becomes, a fortiori, one of looking for a provisional ground that is beyond gravity as a natural source of spatial reference. The first long-term programme dealing with the consequences of the absence of gravity was developed already in 1973 by the NASA Skylab. Vesely reports how one of the greatest difficulties encountered by the astronauts is the constant loss of orientation that becomes a general difficulty in recognizing previously known situations. Without gravity, an otherwise familiar compartment would be unrecognizable if not seen from a particular angle. The Sky Lab experience seems to illustrate quite well how the phenomenon of spatial structure and situation comes to be known through a sequence of approximations. Without the right orientation, simple recognition such as finding objects in their right places would become an almost impossible task. Once found the right orientation towards objects, however, the entire spatial frame of the compartment was recognized and so would all objects in their right places and relative positions. In a situation without light or gravity, one of the Sky Lab astronauts also described how a single touch on one of the walls of the space compartment would be sufficient to enact the knowledge of the relative position of the body with respect to all objects (pp. 52–54). This seems to be particularly relevant to show how a particular point of visual or tactile reference can provide with orientation; a physiognomic recognition of the space; and be related to the spatial disposition of the whole. These are instances that, according to Vesely, constitute a continuity of spatial reference and an epistemological, provisional ground. As it arises in the continuity of understanding the potential structure of the space, the notion of ground seems to be of a projective nature (p. 103).
The continuity of reference
Vesely seems to confer a projective ability on spatiality that is thus knowable from its own potential to generate a situation. According to Vesely, the continuity of reference to ground exists within a permanent tension with the actual space, a continuity which under certain conditions may be disrupted and even destroyed (pp. 55–56). The fact that there are discrepancies between different levels of representation should perhaps be no surprise as it is the case of the above-mentioned examples of reading a map, or orienting oneself in a space under zero gravity. That there is discrepancy between the given representation of a space and the actual space is in fact a common datum of everyday experience. The question is not to be solved, although it may constitute one important point of departure to understand the phenomenon of representation. This is particularly the case of extreme conditions where the phenomenon of 'continuity' is no longer recognizable. In the cases of aphasia and apraxia, which rank among others of what is generally known as mental blindness, there is a blatant discontinuity between the possibilities of notional understanding and the actual performance of a purposive act or standard articulation of speech. The work and research that has been carried out on mental blindness tends to show that the ability to articulate both speech and purposive actions and gestures is nonetheless affected by the surrounding environment, and is not based upon mental impairment alone. On the contrary, it has become increasingly clear that such conditions do not take place solely as a result of mental functions; neither can they be enacted by the situational structure, as both contribute to the failure and success of treatment (p. 57).
Vesely brings the argument about these conditions back to the experiments regarding orientation, such as the inverted vision experiment and orientation under zero gravity conditions, and correlates it with the problems experienced with mental blindness. This is because of the fundamental knowledge of spatiality that is at stake that enables a possible representation to be actually effected. As regards spatiality, Vesely presupposes an existing continuity between the possible and the actual spatial configuration, as a mediated structure (p. 58). This understanding of representation seems to reverberate Husserl's phenomenological treatment of representation, as moving from the horizon of vague, informal representation (Vorstellung), through a number of possibilities (Vergegenwärtigungen), until it finally reaches actuality (Repräsentation). The fact that Husserl only used the word Repräsentation to deal with explicit forms of representation, may serve us as an example of how a whole representational process was being kept in the background. Husserl's process of representation shows that our knowledge of spatiality intakes different levels of articulation, which are not always as clearly defined as we would wish. This means that the ground and point of departure of explicit references is not a point of departure towards a growing, cumulative knowledge of situation, but is rather a 'coming back' into a prereflective world of experience. In this sense, representation takes place as a spectrum ranging out of explicit forms of articulation into an implicit background, a concept that seems to be confirmed by later phenomenology of perception. It seems obvious that, because of the nature of this prereflective ground, verbal or visual articulation of it cannot take place in an explicit sense. On the contrary, the phenomenological gaze at this background takes place indirectly (p. 69) as a preunderstanding of the world. If this is so, then not only our epistemological ground is constituted as an identity of interpretation of different levels of perception, but also the concept of representation as such is constituted as a movement out of a prereflective background. This is precisely the background against which it becomes possible for an articulated structure to take place and be identified as such (pp. 75–77). This also means that the difference between different levels of articulation, namely between a preunderstanding background and a given object is precisely what allows us to see the object and situate it within our world of experience. If we accept Vesely's argument, then the difference that formerly stood as an epistemological barrier now becomes a necessary condition for representation to take place.
The latent world of architecture
Vesely addresses the preunderstanding of world as a latent world (p. 83), that is potentially articulated and structured, and whose relationship to its visible manifestation is not immediate. The reciprocity between this prearticulated level and its visible articulation dwells within the very ontological difference that has been discussed previously. Such reciprocity is a schematic constituent of phenomena of continuity and metaphoricity, that have been constantly described throughout the primary tradition of Christian humanism in the nature of being and becoming. Vesely thus enters the core of the question of representation in terms of its coming into the level of visibility. In the sequence of Vesely's argument, the subject of visibility becomes then, of itself, problematic in nature as it intakes a background of potential articulation.
According to Vesely, "the horizon of visibility displays a synthesis of the prereflective experience and of the achievements of reflection insofar as they preserve ontological continuity with the visible" (p. 85). On the other hand, the rise onto the explicit level of visibility primarily seems to express the problem of representation in terms of what is kept from the prereflective world. This could perhaps be seen as a consequence of the traditional concept of inner representation as relating to an external reality. Vesely challenges this concept of representation, and widens it as a spectrum that ranges from the explicitness of our world down to implicit levels of articulation. Consequently, the term reality is restricted mostly to certain types of representation (e.g. virtual reality) that view reality as something extrinsic (pp. 308–315).
Vesely's concept of representation, however, takes place in terms of a communication between a wide range of levels; whereby the question that concerns representation also concerns the truth of representation, a question that has been amply developed by modern hermeneutics. In this domain, the visible world conveys a kind of knowledge of the prereflective levels of articulation that also jeopardizes the epistemological status of the visible. As we have seen, contrary to empiricist belief, the visible world by itself does not constitute an epistemological ground (pp. 84–86). Instead, our epistemological ground is constituted by features such as orientation, physiognomy, and the relative position of things with regard to one another; and it is from these features that a provisional ground comes to be constituted as regards spatiality. This ground is not a still point of reference. On the contrary, by ground is here meant a source and stream of references. This means that the explicit horizon of the visible, tangible world is the most explicit form of embodiment we have, but such a narrow horizon we can only take as a point of departure if we want to understand the rest of our world that is largely beyond visibility. This also means that the visible holds a very important part as a symbolic representation of our world, enabling us to see and imagine beyond the visible.
Finally, this means that we construe our knowledge of 'world' largely on the basis of invisible, implicit references which are only symbolically re-enacted by the visible realm. The level of visual representation may perhaps be compared to the level of more explicit verbal articulation as regards the implicit, preverbal domain of knowledge. Just as visual representation, verbal articulation has the power to emancipate from the given world, and the freedom to convey any meaning. This is a power bestowed upon representation, allowing it to withdraw from its original symbolic domain, thus establishing a tension between the instrumental nature of representation and its larger symbolic field.
Bibliography
'Surrealism, Myth and Modernity' In: Architectural Design: 2–3 (Surrealism and Architecture) London: AD Profiles 11 (1978), pp. 87–95.
'Introduction' In: Eric Parry Architects, Volume 1 (London: Black Dog, 2002).
The Architectonics of Embodiment In: Body and Building (MIT Press, 2002).
Space, Simulation and Disembodiment in Contemporary Architecture In: Architecture and Phenomenology (Eindhoven, 2002).
Architecture in the Age of Divided Representation: The Question of Creativity in the Shadow of Production (MIT Press, 2004).
The Latent World of Architecture In: Space-Place, Symposium on Phenomenology and Architecture (HK Heritage Museum, 2005).
'Introduction' In: Eric Parry Architects, Volume 2 (London: Black Dog, 2011).
Further reading
Gadamer, Hans-Georg, Dialogue and Dialectic: Eight hermeneutical studies on Plato (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1980).
Gadamer, Hans-Georg, Reason in the Age of Science (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1981).
Gadamer, Hans-Georg, The Relevance of the Beautiful and Other Essays, ed. R. Bernasconi (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
Gadamer, Hans-Georg, 'The Science of the Life-World' In: Philosophical Hermeneutics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976).
Gadamer, Hans-Georg, Truth and Method (London: Sheed & Ward, 1975).
Heidegger, Martin, Basic Writings, ed. D. F. Krell (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978).
Heidegger, Martin, 'Categorial Intuition' In: A History of the Concept of Time, trans. T. Kisiel (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), pp. 47–72.
Heidegger, Martin, The Metaphysical Foundations of Logic, trans. Michael Henry Heim (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984).
Heidegger, Martin, Poetry, Language, Thought (New York: Harper & Row, 1971).
Heidegger, Martin, The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays (New York: Harper & Row, 1977).
Husserl, Edmund, Logical Investigations, vol. 2 (International Library of Philosophy, 2001).
Husserl, Edmund The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology, trans. D. Carr (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1970).
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, Consciousness and the Acquisition of Language (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1973).
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, Phénoménologie de la perception (Paris: Gallimard, 1998).
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, Primacy of Perception and Other Essays (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1971).
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, Sense and Non-Sense, trans. H. L. Dreyfus and P. A. Dreyfus (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1964).
Patočka, Jan, Le monde naturel comme problème philosophique (The Hague: Martin Nijhoff, 1976).
Patočka, Jan, Philosophy and Selected Writings (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
Pérez-Gómez, Alberto, Architecture and the Crisis of Modern Science (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1983).
Taylor, Charles, Overcoming Epistemology In: Philosophical Arguments (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), pp. 1–19.
Taylor, Charles, The Sources of the Self: The making of the modern identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
Toulmin, Stephen, Cosmopolis: The Hidden Agenda of Modernity (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1990).
See also
Marco Frascari
Daniel Libeskind
Alberto Pérez-Gómez
Joseph Rykwert
Nader El-Bizri
David Leatherbarrow
Robert Tavernor
Eric Parry
References
External links
University of Pennsylvania faculty page
ArchDaily Obituary
A+P2 - Kyoto 2009 | Dalibor Vesely - "The communicative, (latent) world of architecture"
Czech architecture writers
Academics of the University of Essex
1934 births
2015 deaths
Charles University alumni
Czech emigrants to England
Czechoslovak emigrants to England
Fellows of Emmanuel College, Cambridge
Architectural theoreticians
Hermeneutists |
4326550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery%20Expedition | Discovery Expedition | The Discovery Expedition of 1901–1904, known officially as the British National Antarctic Expedition, was the first official British exploration of the Antarctic regions since the voyage of James Clark Ross sixty years earlier (1839–1843). Organized on a large scale under a joint committee of the Royal Society and the Royal Geographical Society (RGS), the new expedition carried out scientific research and geographical exploration in what was then largely an untouched continent. It launched the Antarctic careers of many who would become leading figures in the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration, including Robert Falcon Scott who led the expedition, Ernest Shackleton, Edward Wilson, Frank Wild, Tom Crean and William Lashly.
Its scientific results covered extensive ground in biology, zoology, geology, meteorology and magnetism. The expedition discovered the existence of the only snow-free Antarctic valleys, which contains the longest river of Antarctica. Further achievements included the discoveries of the Cape Crozier emperor penguin colony, King Edward VII Land, and the Polar Plateau (via the western mountains route) on which the South Pole is located. The expedition tried to reach the South Pole travelling as far as the Farthest South mark at a reported 82°17′S.
As a trailbreaker for later ventures, the Discovery Expedition was a landmark in British Antarctic exploration history.
Background to the expedition
Forerunners
Between 1839 and 1843 Royal Naval Captain James Clark Ross, commanding his two ships HMS Erebus and HMS Terror, completed three voyages to the Antarctic continent. During this time he discovered and explored a new sector of the Antarctic that would provide the field of work for many later British expeditions.
Ross established the general geography of this region, and named many of its features; the Ross Sea, the Great Ice Barrier (later renamed the Ross Ice Shelf), Ross Island, Cape Adare, Victoria Land, McMurdo Sound, Cape Crozier and the twin volcanoes Mount Erebus and Mount Terror. He returned to the Barrier several times, hoping to penetrate it, but was unable to do so, achieving his Farthest South in a small Barrier inlet at 78°10′, in February 1842. Ross suspected that land lay to the east of the Barrier, but was unable to confirm this.
After Ross there were no recorded voyages into this sector of the Antarctic for fifty years. Then, in January 1895, a Norwegian whaling trip made a brief landing at Cape Adare, the northernmost tip of Victoria Land. Four years later Carsten Borchgrevink, who had participated in that landing, took his own expedition to the region, in the Southern Cross. This expedition was financed by a donation of £35,000 from British publishing magnate Sir George Newnes, on condition that the venture be called the "British Antarctic Expedition". Borchgrevink landed at Cape Adare in February 1899, erected a small hut, and spent the 1899 winter there. The following summer he sailed south, landing at Ross's inlet on the Barrier. A party of three then sledged southward on the Barrier surface, and reached a new Furthest South at 78°50′.
The Discovery Expedition was planned during a surge of international interest in the Antarctic regions at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. A German expedition under Erich von Drygalski was leaving at about the same time as Discovery, to explore the sector of the continent south of the Indian Ocean. The Swedish explorer Otto Nordenskiöld was leading an expedition to Graham Land, and a French expedition under Jean-Baptiste Charcot was going to the Antarctic Peninsula. Finally, the British scientist William Speirs Bruce was leading a scientific expedition to the Weddell Sea.
Royal Navy, Markham and Scott
Under the influence of John Barrow, Second Secretary to the Admiralty, polar exploration had become the province of the peacetime Royal Navy after the Napoleonic War. Naval interest diminished after the disappearance in 1845 of the Franklin expedition, and the many fruitless searches that followed. After the problems encountered by the 1874–76 North Pole expedition led by George Nares, and Nares's own declaration that the North Pole was "impracticable", the Admiralty decided that further polar quests would be dangerous, expensive and futile.
However, the Royal Geographical Society's secretary (and later president) Sir Clements Markham was a former naval man who had served on one of the Franklin relief expeditions in 1851. He had accompanied Nares for part of the 1874–76 expedition, and remained a firm advocate for the navy's resuming its historic role in polar exploration. An opportunity to further this ambition arose in November 1893, when the prominent biologist Sir John Murray, who had visited Antarctic waters as a biologist with the Challenger Expedition in the 1870s, addressed the RGS. Murray presented a paper entitled "The Renewal of Antarctic Exploration", and called for a full-scale expedition for the benefit of British science. This was strongly supported, both by Markham and by the country's premier scientific body, the Royal Society. A joint committee of the two societies was established to decide the form in which the expedition should take. Markham's vision of a full-blown naval affair after the style of Ross or Franklin was opposed by sections of the joint committee, but his tenacity was such that the expedition was eventually moulded largely to his wishes. His cousin and biographer later wrote that the expedition was "the creation of his brain, the product of his persistent energy".
It had long been Markham's practice to take note of promising young naval officers who might later be suitable for polar responsibilities, should the opportunity arise. He had first observed Midshipman Robert Falcon Scott in 1887, while the latter was serving with HMS Rover in St Kitts, and had remembered him. Thirteen years later, Scott, by now a torpedo lieutenant on , was looking for a path to career advancement, and a chance meeting with Sir Clements in London led him to apply for the leadership of the expedition. Scott had long been in Markham's mind, though by no means always his first choice, but other favoured candidates had either become in his view too old, or were no longer available. With Markham's determined backing, Scott's appointment was secured by 25 May 1900, followed swiftly by his promotion to commander.
Science versus adventure
The command structure of the expedition had still to be settled. Markham had been determined from the beginning that its overall leader should be a naval officer, not a scientist. Scott, writing to Markham after his appointment, reiterated that he "must have complete command of the ship and landing parties", and insisted on being consulted over all future appointments. However, the Joint Committee had, with Markham's acquiescence, secured the appointment of John Walter Gregory, Professor of Geology at the University of Melbourne and former assistant geologist at the British Museum, as the expedition's scientific director. Gregory's view, endorsed by the Royal Society faction of the Joint Committee, was that the organisation and command of the land party should be in his hands: "...The Captain would be instructed to give such assistance as required in dredging, tow-netting etc., to place boats where required at the disposal of the scientific staff." In the dispute that followed, Markham argued that Scott's command of the whole expedition must be total and unambiguous, and Scott himself was insistent on this to the point of resignation. Markham's and Scott's view prevailed, and Gregory resigned, saying that the scientific work should not be "subordinated to naval adventure".
This controversy soured relations between the Societies, which lingered after the conclusion of the expedition and was reflected in criticism of the extent and quality of some of the published results. Markham claimed that his insistence on a naval command was primarily a matter of tradition and style, rather than indicating disrespect for science. He had made clear his belief that, on its own, the mere attainment of higher latitude than someone else was "unworthy of support."
Personnel
Markham had hoped for a fully-fledged Royal Naval expedition, but was warned by the Admiralty that "the present exigencies of the Naval Service [would] prevent them from lending officers..." However, the Admiralty agreed to release Scott and Charles Royds, and later allowed Michael Barne and Reginald Skelton to join the expedition. The remaining officers were from the Merchant Marine, including Albert Armitage, the second-in-command, who had experience with the Jackson–Harmsworth Arctic expedition, 1894–97, and Ernest Shackleton, designated Third Officer in charge of holds, stores and provisions, and responsible for arranging the entertainments. The Admiralty also released around twenty petty officers and seamen, the rest of the crew being from the merchant service, or from civilian employment. Among the lower deck complement were some who became Antarctic veterans, including Frank Wild, William Lashly, Thomas Crean (who joined the expedition following the desertion of a seaman in New Zealand), Edgar Evans and Ernest Joyce. Although the expedition was not a formal Navy project, Scott proposed to run the expedition on naval lines, and secured the crew's voluntary agreement to work under the Naval Discipline Act.
The scientific team was inexperienced. Dr George Murray, Gregory's successor as chief scientist, was due to travel only as far as Australia (in fact he left the ship at Cape Town), using the voyage to train the scientists, but with no part to play in the detailed work of the expedition. The only scientist with previous Antarctic experience was Louis Bernacchi, who had been with Borchgrevink as magnetic observer and meteorologist. The geologist, Hartley Ferrar, was a 22-year-old recent Cambridge graduate who Markham thought "might be made into a man." Marine biologist Thomas Vere Hodgson, from Plymouth Museum, was a more mature figure, as was the senior of the two doctors, Reginald Koettlitz, who, at 39, was the oldest member of the expedition. He, like Armitage, had been with the Jackson–Harmsworth expedition. The junior doctor and zoologist was Edward Wilson, who became close to Scott and provided the qualities of calmness, patience and detachment that the captain reportedly lacked.
Organisation and objectives
Finance
The total cost of the expedition was estimated at £90,000 (2009 equivalent about £7.25 million), of which £45,000 was offered by the British Government provided that the two Societies could raise a matching sum. Lord Curzon and Edward Somers Cocks, Treasurer of the society played important roles in the finance of the expedition. Thanks largely to a donation of £25,000 from wealthy RGS member Llewellyn W. Longstaff. The RGS itself contributed £8,000, its largest single contribution to any expedition to date, and £5,000 came from Alfred Harmsworth, later Lord Northcliffe, who had earlier financed the Jackson–Harmsworth expedition to the Arctic, 1894–97. The rest was raised from smaller donations. The expedition also benefited from significant commercial sponsorship: Colman's provided mustard and flour, Cadbury's gave 3,500 lb (1,600 kg) of chocolate, Bird's donated baking and custard powders, Evans, Lescher & Webb provided all the lime juice. Jaeger gave a 40% discount on special clothing, Bovril supplied beef extract, and others made significant contributions.
Ship
The expedition's ship was built by the Dundee Shipbuilders Company as a specialist research vessel designed for work in Antarctic waters, and was one of the last three-masted wooden sailing ships built in Britain. The construction cost was £34,050 (2009 = £2.7 million), plus £10,322 (£830,000) for the engines, and the final cost after all modifications was £51,000 (£4.1 m). The name had historic naval associations, most recently as one of the ships used in the Nares expedition, and certain features of this older vessel were incorporated into the design of the new ship. She was launched by Lady Markham on 21 March 1901 as S.Y. Discovery (the Royal Research Ship designation was acquired in the 1920s).
As she was not a Royal Naval vessel the Admiralty would not allow Discovery to fly the White Ensign. She eventually sailed under the Merchant Shipping Act, flying the RGS house flag and the Blue Ensign and burgee of the Royal Harwich Yacht Club.
Dogs
Scott contacted Fridtjof Nansen in Oslo, whom he trusted more than his own "quarrelling" committee in London, and followed his advice on equipment. Subsequently, Armitage ordered 25 Siberian sledge-dogs via a Scots dog and ski expert based in Archangel, Russia. According to Huntford, however, this expert was not invited to join the expedition.
Objectives
The Discovery Expedition, like those of Ross and Borchgrevink before it, was to work in the Ross Sea sector of Antarctica. Other areas of the continent had been considered, but the principle followed was that "in going for the unknown they should start from the known".
The two main objectives of the expedition were summarised in the joint committee's "Instructions to the Commander" as: "to determine, as far as possible, the nature, condition and extent of that portion of the south polar lands which is included in the scope of your expedition", and "to make a magnetic survey in the southern regions to the south of the fortieth parallel and to carry out meteorological, oceanographic, geological, biological and physical investigations and researches". The instructions stipulated that "neither of these objectives was to be sacrificed to the other".
The instructions concerning the geographical objective became more specific: "The chief points of geographical interest are [...] to explore the ice barrier of Sir James Ross to its eastern extremity; to discover the land which was believed by Ross to flank the barrier to the eastward, or to ascertain that it does not exist [...] If you should decide to winter in the ice...your efforts as regards geographical exploration should be directed to [...] an advance to the western mountains, an advance to the south, and an exploration of the volcanic region".
Expedition
First years
Outward journey
Discovery left Isle of Wight on 6 August 1901, and arrived in New Zealand via Cape Town on 29 November after a detour below 40°S for a magnetic survey. Quail Island in Lyttelton Harbour was used as the quarantine station for the expedition's dogs. After three weeks of final preparation she was ready for the journey south. On 21 December, as the ship was leaving Lyttelton to the cheers of large crowds, a young able seaman, Charles Bonner, fell to his death from the top of the mainmast, which he had climbed so as to return the crowd's applause. He was buried at Port Chalmers, two days later.
Discovery then sailed south, arriving at Cape Adare on 9 January 1902. After a brief landing and examination of the remains of Borchgrevink's camp, the ship continued southwards along the Victoria Land coast. At McMurdo Sound Discovery turned eastward, touching land again at Cape Crozier where a pre-arranged message point was set up so that relief ships would be able to locate the expedition. She then followed the Barrier to its eastern extremity where, on 30 January, the land predicted by Ross was confirmed, and named King Edward VII Land.
On 4 February, Scott landed on the Barrier and unpacked an observation balloon which he had acquired for aerial surveys. Scott climbed aboard and rapidly ascended to above 600 feet (180 m) in the firmly tethered balloon. Shackleton followed with a second flight. All either could see was unending Barrier surface. Wilson privately thought the flights "perfect madness".
Winter Quarters Bay
Discovery then proceeded westward in search of permanent quarters. On 8 February she entered McMurdo Sound and later that day anchored in a spot near its southern limit which was afterwards christened Winter Quarters Bay. Wilson wrote: "We all realized our extreme good fortune in being led to such a winter quarter as this, safe for the ship, with perfect shelter from all ice pressure." Stoker Lashly, however, thought it looked "a dreary place." Work began ashore with the erection of the expedition's huts on a rocky peninsula designated Hut Point. Scott had decided that the expedition should continue to live and work aboard ship, and he allowed Discovery to be frozen into the sea ice, leaving the main hut to be used as a storeroom and shelter.
Of the entire party, none were skilled skiers and only Bernacchi and Armitage had any experience with dog-sledges. The results of the men's early efforts to master these techniques were not encouraging, and tended to reinforce Scott's preference for man-hauling. The dangers of the unfamiliar conditions were confirmed when, on 11 March, a party returning from an attempted journey to Cape Crozier became stranded on an icy slope during a blizzard. In their attempts to find safer ground, one of the group, Able Seaman George Vince, slid over the edge of a cliff and was killed. His body was never recovered; a cross with a simple inscription, erected in his memory, still stands at the summit of the Hut Point promontory.
During the winter months of May–August the scientists were busy in their laboratories, while elsewhere equipment and stores were prepared for the next season's work. For relaxation there were amateur theatricals, and educational activities in the form of lectures. A newspaper, the South Polar Times, was edited by Shackleton. Outside pursuits did not cease altogether; there was football on the ice, and the schedule of magnetic and meteorological observations was maintained. As winter ended, trial sledge runs resumed, to test equipment and rations in advance of the planned southern journey which Scott, Wilson and Shackleton were to undertake. Meanwhile, a party under Royds travelled to Cape Crozier to leave a message at the post there, and discovered an emperor penguin colony. Another group, under Armitage, reconnoitred in the mountains to the west, returning in October with the expedition's first symptoms of scurvy. Armitage later blamed the outbreak on Scott's "sentimental objection" to the slaughter of animals for fresh meat. The entire expedition's diet was quickly revised, and the trouble was thereafter contained. Nevertheless, the scurvy outbreak did cause concern about the expedition's safety when news of it reached Britain, leading to demands for a relief expedition. For instance, The Yorkshire Evening Post claimed that ‘the lives of the gallant explorers and scientific staff of the Discovery may actually be in peril if they have to stay out for another winter.’
Southern journey
Scott, Wilson and Shackleton left on 2 November 1902 with dogs and supporting parties. Their goal was "to get as far south in a straight line on the Barrier ice as we can, reach the Pole if possible, or find some new land". The first significant milestone was passed on 11 November, when a supporting party passed Borchgrevink's Farthest South record of 78°50′. However, the lack of skill with dogs was soon evident, and progress was slow. After the support parties had returned, on 15 November, Scott's group began relaying their loads (taking half loads forward, then returning for the other half), thus travelling three miles for every mile of southward progress. Mistakes had been made with the dogs' food, and as the dogs grew weaker, Wilson was forced to kill the weakest as food for the others. The men, too, were struggling, afflicted by snow blindness, frostbite and symptoms of early scurvy, but they continued southwards in line with the mountains to the west. Christmas Day was celebrated with double rations, and a Christmas pudding that Shackleton had kept for the occasion, hidden with his socks. On 30 December 1902, without having left the Barrier, they reached their Furthest South at 82°17′S. Troubles multiplied on the home journey, as the remaining dogs died and Shackleton collapsed with scurvy. Wilson's diary entry for 14 January 1903 acknowledged that "we all have slight, though definite symptoms of scurvy". Scott and Wilson struggled on, with Shackleton, who was unable to pull, walking alongside and occasionally carried on the sledge. The party eventually reached the ship on 3 February 1903 after covering including relays, in 93 days' travel at a daily average of just over .
Arrival of relief ship
During the southern party's absence the relief ship Morning arrived, bringing fresh supplies. The expedition's organisers had assumed that the Discovery would be free from the ice in early 1903, enabling Scott to carry out further seaborne exploration and survey work before winter set in. It was intended that Discovery would return to New Zealand in March or April, then home to Britain via the Pacific, continuing its magnetic survey en route. Morning would provide any assistance that Scott might require during this period.
This plan was frustrated, as Discovery remained firmly icebound. Markham had privately anticipated this, and Mornings captain, William Colbeck, was carrying a secret letter to Scott authorising another year in the ice. This now being inevitable, the relief ship provided an opportunity for some of the party to return home. Among these, against his will, was the convalescent Shackleton, who Scott decided "ought not to risk further hardships in his present state of health". Stories of a Scott-Shackleton rift date from this point, or from a supposed falling-out during the southern journey which had provoked an angry exchange of words. Some of these details were supplied by Armitage, whose relationship with Scott had broken down and who, after Scott, Wilson and Shackleton were all dead, chose to reveal details which tended to show Scott in a poor light. Other evidence indicates that Scott and Shackleton remained on generally good terms for some while; Shackleton met the expedition on its return home in 1904, and later wrote a very cordial letter to Scott.
Second year
After the 1903 winter had passed, Scott prepared for the second main journey of the expedition: an ascent of the western mountains and exploration of the interior of Victoria Land. Armitage's reconnaissance party of the previous year had pioneered a route up to altitude before returning, but Scott wished to march west from this point, if possible to the location of the South Magnetic Pole. After a false start due to faulty sledges, a party including Scott, Lashly and Edgar Evans set out from Discovery on 26 October 1903.
Ascending the Ferrar Glacier, which they named after the party's geologist, they reached a height of before being held in camp for a week by blizzards. This prevented them from reaching the glacier summit until 13 November. They then marched on beyond Armitage's furthest point, discovered the Polar Plateau and became the first party to travel on it. After the return of geological and supporting parties, Scott, Evans and Lashly continued westward across the featureless plain for another eight days, covering a distance of about 150 miles to reach their most westerly point on 30 November. Having lost their navigational tables in a gale during the glacier ascent, they did not know exactly where they were, and had no landmarks to help them fix a position. The return journey to the Ferrar Glacier was undertaken in conditions which limited them to no more than a mile an hour, with supplies running low and dependent on Scott's rule of thumb navigation. On the descent of the glacier Scott and Evans survived a potentially fatal fall into a crevasse, before the discovery of a snow-free area or dry valley, a rare Antarctic phenomenon. Lashly described the dry valley as "a splendid place for growing spuds". The party reached Discovery on 24 December, after a round trip of seven hundred miles covered in 59 days. Their daily average of over 14 miles on this man-hauling journey was significantly better than that achieved with dogs on the previous season's southern journey, a fact which further strengthened Scott's prejudices against dogs. Polar historian David Crane calls the western journey "one of the great journeys of polar history".
Several other journeys were completed during Scott's absence. Royds and Bernacchi travelled for 31 days on the Barrier in a SE direction, observing its uniformly flat character and making further magnetic readings. Another party had explored the Koettlitz Glacier to the south-west, and Wilson had travelled to Cape Crozier to observe the emperor penguin colony at close quarters.
Second relief expedition
Scott had hoped on his return to find Discovery free from the ice, but she remained held fast. Work had begun with ice saws, but after 12 days' labour only two short parallel cuts of had been carved, with the ship still from open water. On 5 January 1904 the relief ship Morning returned, this time with a second ship, the Terra Nova. Colbeck was carrying firm instructions from the Admiralty that, if Discovery could not be freed by a certain date she was to be abandoned and her complement brought home on the two relief ships. This ultimatum resulted from Markham's dependence on the Treasury for meeting the costs of this second relief expedition, since the expedition's coffers were empty. The Admiralty would foot the bill only on their own terms. The deadline agreed between the three captains was 25 February, and it became a race against time for the relief vessels to reach Discovery, still held fast at Hut Point. As a precaution Scott began the transfer of his scientific specimens to the other ships. Explosives were used to break up the ice, and the sawing parties resumed work, but although the relief ships were able to edge closer, by the end of January Discovery remained icebound, two miles (approx. 3 km) from the rescuers. On 10 February Scott accepted that he would have to abandon her, but on 14 February most of the ice suddenly broke up, and Morning and Terra Nova were at last able to sail alongside Discovery. A final explosive charge removed the remaining ice on 16 February, and the following day, after a last scare when she became temporarily grounded on a shoal, Discovery began the return journey to New Zealand.
Homecoming and results
On its return to Britain, the expedition's reception was initially muted. Some press reporters were surprised at the good physical condition of the men when they arrived in Portsmouth, as they had read previous reports about the expedition's problems with scurvy and bad food. Markham was present to meet the ship in Portsmouth when Discovery docked there on 10 September 1904, but no dignitaries greeted the party when it arrived in London a few days later. However, there was considerable public enthusiasm for the expedition, and official recognition followed. Scott was quickly promoted to captain, and invited to Balmoral Castle to meet King Edward VII, who invested him as a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (CVO). He also received a cluster of medals and awards from overseas, including the French Légion d'honneur. Polar Medals and promotions were given to other officers and crew members.
The main geographical results of the expedition were the discovery of King Edward VII Land; the ascent of the western mountains and the discovery of the Polar Plateau; the first sledge journey on the plateau; the Barrier journey to a Furthest South of 82°17′S. The island nature of Ross Island was established, the Transantarctic Mountains were charted to 83°S, and the positions and heights of more than 200 individual mountains were calculated. Many other features and landmarks were also identified and named, and there was extensive coastal survey work.
There were also discoveries of major scientific importance. These included the snow-free Dry Valleys in the western mountains, the emperor penguin colony at Cape Crozier, scientific evidence that the Ice Barrier was a floating ice shelf, and a leaf fossil discovered by Ferrar which helped to establish Antarctica's relation to the Gondwana super-continent. Thousands of geological and biological specimens had been collected and new marine species identified. The location of the South Magnetic Pole had been calculated with reasonable accuracy. On the medical side, Wilson discovered the anti-scorbutic effects of fresh seal meat, which resolved the lethal threat of scurvy to this and subsequent expeditions.
A general endorsement of the scientific results from the navy's Chief Hydrographer (and former Scott opponent) Sir William Wharton was encouraging. However, when the meteorological data were published their accuracy was disputed within the scientific establishment, including by the President of the Physical Society of London, Dr Charles Chree. Scott defended his team's work, while privately acknowledging that Royds's paperwork in this field had been "dreadfully slipshod".
The expedition succeeded in combating incipient scurvy through a fresh seal meat diet, and Scott recommended it for future polar expeditions. This was despite the medical profession being ignorant of the causes of the disease. At that time it was known that a fresh meat diet could provide a cure, but not that lack of fresh meat or other fresh food containing the as yet undiscovered vitamin C was a cause. Thus, fresh seal meat was taken on the southern journey "in case we find ourselves attacked by scurvy", On his 1907–09 Nimrod expedition Shackleton also avoided the disease through careful dietary provision, including extra penguin and seal meat. However, Lieutenant Edward Evans almost died of presumably self-inflicted scurvy during the 1910–13 Terra Nova Expedition, and scurvy was particularly devastating to Shackleton's marooned Ross Sea party during 1915–16. It remained a danger until its causes were finally established, some 25 years after the Discovery Expedition.
Aftermath
Scott was given leave from the Navy to write the official expedition account, The Voyage of the Discovery; this was published in 1905, and sold well. However, Scott's account in the book of Shackleton's breakdown during the southern journey led to disagreement between the two men, particularly over Scott's version of the extent to which his companion had been carried on the sledge. The implication was that Shackleton's breakdown had caused the relatively unimpressive southern record.
Scott eventually resumed his naval career, first as an assistant to the Director of Naval Intelligence and then, in August 1906, as Flag-captain to Rear-Admiral George Egerton on HMS Victorious. He had by this time become a national hero, despite his aversion to the limelight, and the expedition was being presented to the public as a triumph. This euphoria was not conducive to objective analysis, or to thoughtful appraisal of the expedition's strengths and weaknesses. In particular, the glorification by Scott of man-hauling as something intrinsically more noble than other ice travel techniques led to a general distrust of methods involving ski and dogs, a mindset that was carried forward into later expeditions. This mystified seasoned ice travellers such as Fridtjof Nansen, whose advice on such matters was usually sought, but often set aside.
The Discovery Expedition launched the Antarctic careers of several who became stalwarts or leaders of expeditions in the following fifteen years. Apart from Scott and Shackleton, Frank Wild and Ernest Joyce from the lower deck returned repeatedly to the ice, apparently unable to settle back into normal life. William Lashly and Edgar Evans, Scott's companions on the 1903 western journey, aligned themselves with their leader's future plans and became his regular sledging partners. Tom Crean followed both Scott and Shackleton on later expeditions. Lieutenant "Teddy" Evans, first officer on the relief ship Morning, began plans to lead an expedition of his own, before teaming up with Scott in 1910.
Soon after resuming his naval duties, Scott revealed to the Royal Geographical Society his intention to return to Antarctica, but the information was not at that stage made public. Scott was forestalled by Shackleton, who early in 1907 announced his plans to lead an expedition with the twin objectives of reaching the geographic and magnetic South Poles. Under duress, Shackleton agreed not to work from McMurdo Sound, which Scott was claiming as his own sphere of work. In the event, unable to find a safe landing elsewhere, Shackleton was forced to break this promise. His expedition was highly successful, its southern march ending at 88°23′, less than 100 geographical miles from the South Pole, while its northern party reached the location of the South Magnetic Pole. However, Shackleton's breach of his undertaking caused a significant break in relations between the two men, with Scott dismissing his former companion as a liar and a rogue.
Scott's plans gradually came to fruition – a large-scale scientific and geographical expedition with the conquest of the South Pole as its principal objective. Scott was anxious to avoid the amateurism that had been associated with the Discovery Expedition's scientific work. He appointed Edward Wilson as his chief scientist, and Wilson selected an experienced team. The expedition set off in June 1910 in Terra Nova, one of Discovery's relief ships. Its programme was complicated by the simultaneous arrival in the Antarctic of Roald Amundsen's Norwegian expedition. Amundsen's party reached the South Pole on 14 December 1911 and returned safely. Scott and four companions, including Wilson, arrived at the Pole on 17 January 1912; all five perished on the return journey.
See also
Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration
List of Antarctic expeditions
Notes and references NotesReferences Sources
Armston-Sheret, Edward. “Tainted Bodies: Scurvy, Bad Food and the Reputation of the British National Antarctic Expedition, 1901–1904.” Journal of Historical Geography 65 (July 1, 2019): 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhg.2019.05.006 .
Online sources'''
Further reading
Landis, M: Antarctica: Exploring the Extreme: 400 Years of Adventure. Chicago Review Press 2003
Seaver, George: Edward Wilson of the Antarctic John Murray 1933
Skelton, J V & Wilson, D W: Discovery Illustrated: Pictures from Captain Scott's First Antarctic Expedition'' Reardon Publishing 2001
External links
Expedition information at CoolAntarctica.com Additional images and brief account of expedition
Scott Polar Research Institute Provides extensive Antarctic information, with comprehensive list of expeditions.
A biography of Scott
1901 in the United Kingdom
1901 in Antarctica
1902 in Antarctica
1903 in Antarctica
1904 in Antarctica
Antarctic expeditions
Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration
United Kingdom and the Antarctic
Robert Falcon Scott
Expeditions from the United Kingdom
South Pole
History of the Ross Dependency |
4326569 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuru%20kulla | Kuru kulla | Kuru (after Kurukullā, a Tibetan Buddhist deity) is a genus of dromaeosaurid theropod from the Late Cretaceous Barun Goyot Formation of Mongolia. The genus contains only a single species, the type species Kuru kulla, which is known from a fragmentary skeleton including a partial skull.
Discovery and naming
The holotype of Kuru kulla was discovered by an American-Mongolian expedition at Khulsan in the Gobi Desert, Mongolia, on 5 July 1991, only hours before the discovery of the related taxon Shri and was reposited at the Institute of Geology at the Mongolian Academy of Sciences in Ulaanbaatar. The specimen was given the designation IGM 100/981 and consists of a fragmentary skeleton including a right premaxillary bone, the right lacrimal bone, a partial right dentary, the right surangular bone, 14 presacral vertebrae, three caudal vertebrae, fragments of both upper limb bones, a fragmentary ilium, distal ends of both pubes, both femora, a right tibia, and fragments of the right and left feet. The quality of the preservation was inconsistent when the specimen was fossilized, and it is generally poorly-preserved when compared to the remains of the contemporaneous Shri.
In 1992, the holotype was reported as a distinct dromaeosaurid taxon at a Society of Vertebrate Paleontology conference in Toronto, Canada. In their paper describing the large dromaeosaurid Achillobator, Perle and colleagues listed a bibliographic entry titled "Morphology of a Dromaeosaurian dinosaur - Airakoraptor from the Upper Cretaceous of Mongolia".
However, this bibliographic entry is believed to be an error as no such paper is known to exist and it is probably a reference to an unpublished work or an abstract from a conference. This would mean the name "Airakoraptor" is a nomen nudum and is therefore invalid. Napoli and colleagues, in their formal description of Kuru, presume that the name "Airakoraptor" means "Kumis thief", after kumis, also known as "airag" or "airak", a donkey-milk product made in Central Asia. In their description, Napoli and colleagues also explicitly state that the naming of Kuru is not a reference to the disease of the same name.
In 2006, its surangular bone was described in the paper which named the dromaeosaurid Tsaagan. However, later that year, this specimen was confused with the so-called "Zos Wash specimen" found in 1998, which was catalogued under the number IGM 100/3503 and referred to the genus Velociraptor. The holotype was formally described and named in 2021 by James G. Napoli, Alexander Altieri Ruebenstahl, Bhart-Anjan Singh Bhullar, Alan Hamilton Turner, and Mark Allen Norell.
Description
Kuru is a small-bodied eudromaeosaur, similar in size to Velociraptor. The holotype specimen is known from an incomplete skeleton that is overall similar to other known eudromaeosaurs, indicating that in life it would have resembled its better-understood relatives like Velociraptor and Tsaagan. Napoli and colleagues distinguished Kuru from all other eudromaeosaurs by identifying several autapomorphies including: a deep groove in front of the anterior margin of the external naris, a small horn-like projection on the lacrimal bone, two foramina on the rear of the surangular bone, and pleurocoels on the dorsal vertebrae which are shifted forward compared to related taxa.
Napoli and colleagues in their description of the holotype note that the body proportions indicate that Kuru had a more robust skull than related eudromaeosaurs, but also had proportionally longer limbs and a reduced "killing claw" in its second toe. No study of its functional anatomy has been completed, but the authors hypothesize that these traits suggest slight ecological differences between Kuru and its closest relatives.
Skull
The cranium is represented by the anterior part of the right premaxilla (in front of the nostril) and the posterior half of the right lacrimal bone. The premaxilla has only two dental alveoli preserved, but Napoli and colleagues stated that it likely had four premaxillary teeth, which is the condition seen in all toothed theropods. Several features on the surface of the bone are also preserved. The most prominent of these is a c-shaped groove which is anterior to the naris. A similar structure is present in the premaxillae of the related taxa Tsaagan and Linheraptor, but it is much less pronounced in these genera.
The lacrimal is only partially preserved, but based on the parts which are preserved it is inferred to have been t-shaped, like those of other dromaeosaurs. At the anterior end, the lacrimal's articular surface with the nasal bone is preserved and it forms a shelf-like protrusion which would have connected to the ventral side of the nasal in life. On its dorsal posterior side, there is a horn-like protrusion which borders the orbit. The dorsal side of this "hornlet" possessed a rugose surface, similar to those seen in other dromaeosaurs, although they are much more pronounced in Kuru. The lacrimal also preserved a deep excavation on its ventral side, which was interpreted by Napoli and colleagues to be the canal through which the nasolacrimal duct passed.
The mandible is represented by a nearly complete left dentary and surangular bone, but these bones were not preserved continuously and consist of several discrete pieces. There are also nine preserved dentary teeth and three isolated teeth that are either from the dentary or the maxilla. The dentary is straight along its length, unlike most other velociraptorines, and similar to Dromaeosaurus and Deinonychus. It preserved 14 (or possibly 15) tooth positions, which is much higher than the 11-12 typical of other dromaeosaurs, although it is similar to Saurornitholestes, which has a comparable number of dentary teeth. The teeth are ziphodont in shape (narrower along the mediolateral axis than the anteroposterior axis) and possess deep roots and serrations on the front and back edges, at least in the case of the teeth that are well-preserved enough to contain such details. However, they do not possess the enamel ridges on the sides of the teeth which are seen in some other dromaeosaurs. Notably, the third dentary tooth is highly elongated, forming a characteristic "fang" in the lower jaw which is much greater in length than the second or fourth dentary teeth. However, the fourth dentary alveolus is as large at the third, so Napoli and colleagues speculate that the fourth tooth was not fully erupted and may have been of a similar size.
The surangular is mostly complete and contains several diagnostic traits of the Kuru genus. Most notable among these are two foramina, rather than a single one. The prevalence of this trait in velociraptorinae is ambiguous due to incompleteness and poor preservation in this area of the skull in Tsaagan and Linheraptor. Napoli and colleagues also comment that the putative tyrannosauroid Bagaraatan has two surangular foramina, but remark that the specimen may be a chimera and thus may offer limited comparative value. The surangular also exhibits a shelf that is inclined dorsally. This is the condition seen in Deinonychus, but differs from that of all other dromaeosaurs in which the same structure is inclined laterally.
Post-cranial skeleton
Numerous vertebrae are preserved with the holotype. Most of them are not continuous or articulated, and several of them only preserve the vertebral centra. Four cervical vertebrae, ten dorsal vertebrae, and three caudal vertebrae in total are preserved. The exact positions of the vertebrae in the spinal column is not known, but comparisons with the related taxa Tsaagan and Shri enabled Napoli and colleagues to give them tentative assignments. Some of the dorsal vertebrae were also incompletely prepared, and could only be observed and analyzed by the use of computer tomography. Although they are partial and fragmentary, the dorsal centra appear to decrease in length from the anterior to the posterior of the spine.
The forelimb of Kuru includes the distal ends of both humeri, a proximal fragment of the right humerus, the proximal end of the right ulna, the proximal and distal ends of the right radius, three left metacarpals articulated with the left semilunate carpal, several isolated phalanges, and two manual claws. The humerus preserves rugose elements along its length, which Napoli and colleagues interpret as muscle attachment sites. They also note that the ulna does not appear to preserve any quill knobs (as have been found in Velociraptor), although this is possibly a result of poor preservation. There is a ridge which extends distally from the coronoid process of the ulna, which is seen in the controversial genus Balaur. Kuru is also emblematic of pennaraptorans in that it exhibits a flattened expansion at the distal end of the radius. The bones of the hand do not appear to preserve any unique features that distinguish Kuru from any other dromaeosaurids.
The hind limb elements consist of the left postacetabular process and ischiadic peduncle of the ilium, the distal ends of both pubes, both femora, the proximal end of the left tibia, the three left metatarsals and two of the right metatarsals, the left astragalus, sixteen pedal phalanges including some from both feet, and two toe claws. The hind limbs are most similar to Velociraptor and Shri. All three taxa have an enlarged ridge on the lateral surface of the femur. The fourth trochanter is apparently absent in Kuru, but there is a ridge on the femur that is seemingly homologous with it.
Classification
In their description of Kuru, Napoli and colleagues conducted a phylogenetic analysis using a wide variety of paravian taxa. The data set that they use is primarily drawn from the matrix used in the phylogenetic analysis conducted by Steve Brusatte and colleagues in 2014 with the addition of several taxa scored by Pei and colleagues in 2020. Napoli and colleagues adjusted some of the scores from these matrices for the taxa Adasaurus, Tsaagan, and Velociraptor based on independent observation.
In their analysis, they recovered Kuru as the sister taxon to Adasaurus, which is from the slightly younger Nemegt Formation. The uniting synapomorphies for these two taxa include a posterior surangular foramen that excavates 30% of the depth of the bone, an absence of the fourth trochanter, and thoracic centra that are longer than they are wide. Kuru also appears to have had a reduced "killing claw", similar to Adasaurus. This was based on the size of the surface of the pedal phalanges, since the killing claw is not preserved in the holotype of Kuru.
Their analysis recovered the controversial taxon Balaur from Romania as a velociraptorine, which mirrored the analysis of Brusatte and colleagues in 2014. Other analyses have suggested that it may be a true avialan. More conventional results of their analysis include the recovery of Rahonavis as an unenlagiine and of anchiornithids as stem-avialans instead of troodontids. However, the authors also note that the support values for their analysis are relatively low and that further sampling of existing and new taxa would be needed to resolve a more well-supported phylogeny. Additionally, several taxa had to be omitted from their analysis in order to resolve a more defined tree. An abbreviated version of their results, compiled from 100,000 of the most parsimonious trees, can be seen below.
In the years since its initial description, dromaeosaurs have been the subject of several phylogenetic analyses. The first of these was published in February of 2022 by Mark J. Powers, Matteo Fabbri, Michael R. Doschak, Bhart-Anjan Bhullar, Davis Evans, Mark A. Norell, and Philip J. Currie. Powers and colleagues conducted a broad phylogenetic analysis using a data set accrued by the use of CT scanning applied to the maxillae of several eudromaeosaurs. They used this new data to attempt to resolve the specific relationships of eudromaeosaurs due to inconsistent results in prior analyses. This analysis did not itself include Kuru, but it did contain the data set used in future analyses.
The first major analysis to include Kuru by name was the publication which described the new genus Daurlong from the Longjiang Formation of northeastern China. This analysis, published by Xuri Wang, Andrea Cau, and colleagues in November of 2022 included a wide variety of maniraptoran taxa, including Kuru and several dromaeosaurs. Their results corroborated the findings of Napoli and colleagues by finding a close relationship between Kuru and Adasaurus. However, they found both taxa as being more closely related to Saurornitholestes than to Tsaagan or Velociraptor. Their analysis also recovers Rahonavis and anchiornithids as true avialans.
The most recent phylogeny to include Kuru was published by Łukasz Czepiński and accompanied his description of a skull assigned to the genus Shri. In his publication, Czepiński replicated the analyses of Napoli and colleagues as well as of Powers and colleagues using the data sets they provided. This data, combined with their own data, which included several measurements of the skull, provided few discrepancies with the prior analyses. Czepiński's primary concern was with the genus Shri and its relationship to Velociraptor, and both analyses resulted in substantially similar placements on the tree for these genera. This focus also meant that Czepiński did not hypothesize in regard to the implications their analysis had on the wider phylogeny. Notable among his results was the recovery of Adasaurus as being outside the dromaeosaurine-velociraptorine-saurornitholestine split. The tree produced using the modified data set of Powers and colleagues is shown below.
Paleoecology
Diet
The diet and ecology of Kuru has not been thoroughly studied. However, multiple publications note the apparent occurrence of at least three distinct dromaeosaurs in the Barun Goyot Formation. These include Kuru, Shri, and an undescribed specimen which has been referred to Velociraptor, but may represent a new taxon.
It has been speculated that these animals may have had similar prey preferences, but it is also possible that they each filled a unique ecological niche due to the presumed difference in the skull length of Shri and Kuru. However, multiple researchers have noted that the skulls are too incompletely known to make any concrete hypotheses on the matter.
Environment
The type and only specimen of Kuru was found at a locality called Khulsan of the Barun Goyot Formation, which is near the Mongolian city of Gurvan Tes in the Ömnögovi Province. This locality is very close to an outcropping of the Nemegt Formation, which is believed to be younger than the Barun Goyot Formation.
The sediments of the formation were deposited in various conditions, with the lower part consisting of alternating dune deposits and lakes that existed in interdune areas, while the upper part consisted of sediments that were deposited over an area similar to takyrs that was flooded at irregular intervals. This formation is mostly characterized by series of red beds, mostly light-coloured sands (yellowish, grey-brown, and rarely reddish) that are locally cemented. Sandy claystones, siltstones, conglomerates, and large-scale trough cross-stratification in sands are also common across the unit. In addition, structureless, medium-grained, fine-grained and very fine-grained sandstones predominate in sediments of the formation.
The overall geology of the formation indicates that sediments were deposited under relatively arid to semiarid climates in alluvial plain, lacustrine, and aeolian paleoenvironments, with addition of other short-lived water bodies.
Contemporary fauna
The Barun Goyot Formation is similar to the underlying Djadochta Formation in being composed of aeolian dune deposits which primarily preserve small and mid-sized animals. Several named lizard genera are known including Gobiderma and Estesia. Mammals were also abundant in the region during the Cretaceous. They are represented by multituberculates such as Catopsbaatar and Nemegtbaatar, metatherians like Deltatheridium, and eutherians like Asioryctes and Barunlestes.
Dinosaurs are the most well-represented vertebrates from Barun Goyot. There are several ankylosaur fossils including Saichania, Tarchia, Zaraapelta, and an undecribed taxon from the Hermiin Tsav locality. A single sauropod skull is also known from Barun Goyot, and was given the name Quaesitosaurus. Marginocephalians are also present and are represented by the pachycephalosaur Tylocephale and the ceratopsian Bagaceratops, which is the most common animal found in the formation.
The most species-rich dinosaur group represented at Barun Goyot are the maniraptorans. They include at least four alvarezsaurs (Ceratonykus, Khulsanurus, Ondogurvel, and Parvicursor) and several oviraptorosaurs, such as Nemegtomaia, which are also found in the Nemegt Formation. Dromaeosaurs were also common and included Shri, the possibly semiaquatic Natovenator, and an unnamed taxon. The smallest maniraptorans present were the birds. These included the enigmatic Hollanda, the more well-understood Gobipteryx, and numerous fossilized eggs which preserve bird embryos.
In Media
Kuru was featured in the "Badlands" episode of the second season of the British-American nature documentary Prehistoric Planet. It is one of the most recently described genera featured in the documentary. The episode portrayed Kuru as being a cursorial predator and depicted an individual stealing eggs from the oviraptorid Corythoraptor in order to feed its young.
See also
2021 in archosaur paleontology
Alagteeg Formation, Bayan Mandahu Formation, Bayan Shireh Formation, Djadochta Formation, Nemegt Formation - other well studied fossil-bearing rock formations in Mongolia
List of Asian dinosaurs
List of vertebrate fauna of the Maastrichtian stage
Timeline of dromaeosaurid research
References
Eudromaeosaurs
Maastrichtian life
Late Cretaceous dinosaurs of Asia
Cretaceous Mongolia
Fossils of Mongolia
Barun Goyot Formation
Fossil taxa described in 2021
Monotypic dinosaur genera
Maastrichtian genus extinctions |
4326671 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huabeisaurus | Huabeisaurus | Huabeisaurus (, meaning "North China lizard") was a genus of dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian to Maastrichtian stages, around 99.7–70.6 million years ago). It was a sauropod which lived in what is present-day northern China. The type species, Huabeisaurus allocotus, was first described by Pang Qiqing and Cheng Zhengwu in 2000. Huabeisaurus is known from numerous remains found in the 1990s, which include teeth, partial limbs and vertebrae. Due to its relative completeness, Huabeisaurus represents a significant taxon for understanding sauropod evolution in Asia. Huabeisaurus comes from Kangdailiang and Houyu, Zhaojiagou Town, Tianzhen County, Shanxi province, China. The holotype was found in the unnamed upper member of the Huiquanpu Formation, which is Late Cretaceous (?Cenomanian–?Campanian) in age based on ostracods, charophytes, and fission-track dating.
Huabeisaurus measures long and high, as estimated by Pang and Cheng in 2000. It would have been a quadrupedal herbivore with a long neck and tail, like most other sauropods. The skeleton has been presumed to have belonged to an almost mature individual, because it lacks sutures on vertebrae, but not on pelvic material. A set of 12 characters were identified by D'Emic et al. in 2013 that differentiate Huabeisaurus from other sauropods.
An isolated humerus, designated the paratype by Pang and Cheng, comes from a locality over 200 meters away from the type locality of Huabeisaurus, in a fluvially deposited sandy conglomeratic layer in the lower member of the Huiquanpu Formation. This layer is roughly 90 m lower stratigraphically than the type horizon of Huabeisaurus, which comes from the upper member of the Huiquanpu Formation. The humerus thus comes from a stratum representing a different and likely older depositional environment than that of Huabeisaurus, and does not overlap anatomically with the holotypic skeleton, and so cannot currently be referred it.
The discoverers erected a new family for the genus, Huabeisauridae, although this family name is not widely used amongst paleontologists. Recently, the family was again proposed, this time by D'Emic et al. because Euhelopodidae, which Huabeisaurus has been assigned to most recently, might have to be split into smaller clades throughout Somphospondyli because of all the taxa assigned to it.
Pang and Cheng tentatively suggested that "Titanosaurus" falloti be referred to Huabeisaurus. One problem, however, is that the femora of Huabeisaurus and "T." falloti differ in the bevel of the distal end versus the long axis of the bone, so the two cannot represent the same genus.
Description
The Late Cretaceous titanosauriform sauropod Huabeisaurus is known from teeth and much of the postcranial skeleton. Its completeness makes it an important taxon for integrating and interpreting anatomical observations from more fragmentary Cretaceous East Asian sauropods and for understanding titanosauriform evolution in general.
Measuring in total length, Huabeisaurus is large when compared to most dinosaurs, but by sauropod standards, it was only midsized. It had a hip height of . Like other sauropods, it would have been a quadrupedal herbivore with a long neck and tail.
The skeleton has been presumed to have belonged to an almost mature individual. The absence of sutures between the neural arches and centra of cervical, dorsal, and caudal vertebrae suggests that the specimen was nearing sexual maturity, but the open sutures between the scapula and coracoid, and the ilium and some sacral ribs suggest that it had not reached full maturity.
Discovery and naming
The sauropod Huabeisaurus was excavated from Upper Cretaceous sediments of the province of Shanxi, in northeast China. The skeleton was recovered in the 1990s. The holotype of Huabeisaurus is a partially articulated individual composed of teeth, cervical, dorsal, sacral, and caudal vertebrae, ribs, complete pectoral and pelvic girdles, and nearly complete limbs. Due to its relative completeness, Huabeisaurus represents a significant taxon for understanding sauropod evolution in Asia.
Material
Limb and girdle elements from the left and right sides of the body closely match each other in size and are the appropriate size to belong to the same individual as the vertebrae and ribs. The disposition of bones in the quarry is approximately as expected if the animal were lying on its left side in an opisthotonic pose, but nearly all bones show some disorientation and disarticulation: the cervical vertebrae are arranged along a curved line, and extending along this tight curve (approximately) sit two of the dorsal vertebrae followed by the sacrum and caudal vertebrae. The sacrum and first three caudal vertebrae were found in articulation and in line with the remaining articulated caudal vertebrae; others are present after a gap of about . Twenty-seven caudal vertebrae are shown on the quarry map, but 30 were found in the collection, and pre-restoration photos indicate that 32 were originally present. Many of the chevrons were found articulated with their respective caudal vertebrae. The left and right scapulae were recovered on the left and right sides of the body, respectively. The left radius was found about midway between the pectoral girdle elements. Left and right femora, pubes, and ilia were located close to one another and all of these were found near the sacrum. The sacrum is depicted with its left side facing upwards on the quarry map, but this might have been an error because the left side of the sacrum is damaged and the left ilium is missing. The elements of the left and right crura were found in close association. Dorsal rib fragments were scattered across the quarry area. In sum, some degree of dispositioning occurred to HBV-20001 before or during burial, resulting in loss and disarticulation of some elements, but the disposition, overall agreement in size, and lack of duplication of bones suggests the presence of a single sauropod individual at this locality.
Two teeth were preserved. One tooth was discovered in the quarry during excavation and a second was found as field jackets were opened during preparation of the specimen at Shijiazhuang University. The teeth are attributed to the holotype individual based on their close association with other bones and lack of evidence for transport from another site. Both teeth are well preserved, exhibiting wrinkled enamel. The crowns are subcylindrical, with slenderness indices of 3.46 and 3.36, which is slightly more slender than originally described by Pang and Cheng and intermediate in slenderness between broad and narrow-crowned sauropods (e.g., Euhelopus and Phuwiangosaurus). Neither tooth is strongly twisted along its length as in the upper teeth of brachiosaurids.
A total of four cervical vertebrae were recovered from the holotypic quarry. Two of these are fragmentary, whereas the other two vertebrae are nearly complete. According to the quarry map, the two poorly preserved cervical vertebrae were articulated when found and belong to a more anterior part of the cervical series than the nearly complete vertebrae. Little anatomical information can be gleaned from the two fragmentary cervical vertebrae aside from some measurements.
Only the capitula, tubercula, and part of the anterior and posterior processes of the cervical ribs are preserved. The ribs are fused to their respective vertebrae. The cervical ribs are pendant, extending ventrally for a distance subequal to the height of the centrum, as in several other East Asian Cretaceous sauropods. In both cervical vertebrae, the tuberculum is notably slender anteroposteriorly, especially in comparison with the capitulum. The cervical ribs are currently broken, but the original description notes that at least some originally exceeded centrum length.
Parts of six dorsal vertebrae are preserved: one partial anterior dorsal vertebral neural arch, one partial dorsal vertebral centrum, three posterior dorsal vertebrae that are nearly complete but currently heavily reconstructed with plaster, and one that has been plastered into the sacrum. None of the dorsal vertebrae have observable neurocentral sutures.
A nearly complete sacrum consisting of six vertebrae was recovered from the quarry, originally only lacking some ribs. The original description of Huabeisaurus suggested that only five sacral vertebrae were present based on the number of sacral ribs and intercostal foramina. The sacrum is currently heavily restored with plaster, but pre-restoration photographs show the sacrum in two oblique dorsal views and right lateral view. These photographs reveal that the last dorsal vertebra was taphonomically shifted posteriorly and to the right, crushing the right first sacral rib. Pre-restoration photographs and the number of broken sacral neural spines currently visible indicate that the sacrum was composed of at least six vertebrae. The first vertebra crushed into the sacrum could represent a seventh sacral vertebra; because the ribs of this dorsal vertebra are not observable firsthand or in photographs, but it cannot be verified whether or not these ribs contacted the ilium. The vertebra was interpreted as the last dorsal vertebra because: its neural spine does not appear to be fused to the neural spine posterior to it, and the usual sacral vertebral count for all but the most basal somphospondylans is six (with seven vertebrae in Neuquensaurus as the only derived exception).
Eleven chevrons were listed in the holotype of Huabeisaurus by Pang and Cheng, but thirteen are visible in pre-reconstruction photographs, and twelve are currently present in the Museum of Shijiazhuang University. These elements correspond to positions covering nearly the entire length of the preserved caudal vertebral series. The chevrons are generally well preserved, but there is some distortion and damage. The correspondence of chevrons to particular caudal vertebrae is uncertain.
Although the exact orientation of the pectoral girdle in vivo is uncertain, the scapulae and coracoids are generally thought to have been oblique to the major planes of orientation of the rest of the body, rendering orientational descriptors somewhat difficult to select. Aside from the glenoid region, which is damaged or missing in both specimens, the preserved parts of the left and right scapulae complement one another to give a full picture of the morphology of the element. The scapulae consist of a broad proximal plate comprising an acromion and acromial fossa and a blade that forms more than half the length of the bone. The lateral surface of the acromial plate is excavated anterior to the acromial ridge and dorsal to the glenoid region. The acromial ridge is slightly posteriorly deflected, such that it is oriented at an acute angle to the long axis of the scapular blade. Immediately posterior to the glenoid articular surface, the ventral margin of the scapula is broad and convex transversely, but rapidly narrows as it merges into the base of the blade. No prominent subtriangular process seems to occur along the posteroventral edge of the proximal scapula, though its absence could be due to damage. A broad ridge extends longitudinally along the proximal third of the lateral face of the blade. The dorsal margin of the blade is straight, whereas the ventral margin expands distally such that the ratio of the maximum to minimum blade dorsoventral height is 1.7, less than the originally described value of ca. 2. The development of the acromion and distal expansion of the blade are similar to those of other somphospondylans and not as marked as in rebbachisaurids.
The left radius is damaged at its proximal and distal ends. The radius is gracile, with a midshaft width to length ratio of 0.12. In anterior view, the lateral face of the shaft is straight, whereas the medial face is concave. The anteroposteriorly expanded proximal end has a prominent ridge on its lateral face. The proximal end has an approximately oval outline with a pointed anterior process and broadly rounded posterior process. The proximomedial margin is nearly straight, whereas the proximolateral margin is concave anteriorly and convex posteriorly. The oval cross-section of the upper shaft gradually transforms into a rounded D-shape at mid-shaft, with the long axis of the cross section extending transversely. This ‘D’ shape becomes more anteriorly compressed towards the distal end, with a transversely rounded anterior face and increasingly flattened posterior face. This is associated with the strong transverse expansion of the distal shaft and distal end of the bone, as originally described as a twisting of the bone. Strong transverse expansion of the distal radius is normally found only in titanosaurs (e.g., Alamosaurus and Jainosaurus) and is considered a local autapomorphy of Huabeisaurus. Posterolateral ridges are weak to absent along the distal half of the bone and do not extend further proximally.
Classification
The original description of the species noted strong similarities between the osteology of Huabeisaurus and other Cretaceous East Asian sauropods, and in general, previous studies have pointed to some East Asian Cretaceous sauropod (like Nemegtosaurus and Phuwiangosaurus) as the sister taxon of Huabeisaurus. Since 2000, the year of the original description of Huabeisaurus, 17 new sauropod species have been erected from the Cretaceous of East Asia. Many authors have noted similarities among Cretaceous East Asian sauropods, often suggesting that several of these taxa belong to a clade grounded on a genus with well-known anatomy (like Nemegtosauridae, Opisthocoelicaudinae, and Euhelopodidae). Cladistic support was recently presented for a Euhelopodidae that consisted of exclusively Cretaceous-aged members, in contrast with traditional studies and early cladistic analyses that placed the existence of a Euhelopodidae with Jurassic forms. Both earlier and later analyses suggest some degree of endemism in East Asia, though its temporal duration remains uncertain. On a broader scale, an interesting evolutionary pattern has been recognized wherein all pre-Cretaceous Jurassic Asian sauropods lie outside of Neosauropoda, whereas all Cretaceous Asian sauropods are titanosauriforms. Refining and explaining these paleobiogeographic patterns through time rests on detailed comparisons and comprehensive phylogenetic studies including East Asian sauropods, which are currently lacking.
Huabeisaurus has never been incorporated into a cladistic analysis, but several authors have commented on its affinities on comparative grounds. Buffetaut et al. reviewed the sauropods of Thailand and described Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous teeth similar to those of euhelopodids (in the traditional sense, i.e., Euhelopus, Mamenchisaurus and Omeisaurus) and others more reminiscent of Nemegtosaurus and Phuwiangosaurus (which they termed nemegtosaurids). Following these comparisons, Huabeisaurus was regarded as a nemegtosaurid by Buffetaut et al.. Upchurch et al. considered Huabeisaurus to represent a titanosauriform or titanosaur outside of Lithostrotia on the basis of a variety of features. You et al. suggested a close relationship between Huabeisaurus, Borealosaurus, and Opisthocoelicaudia. Mo et al. highlighted similarities among Huabeisaurus, Fusuisaurus, and Sonidosaurus. Tanimoto et al. considered Huabeisaurus to be closely related to Nemegtosaurus, Borealosaurus and the “Toba sauropod” of Japan (as members of Nemegtosauridae). Finally, it has recently been suggested by D'emic et al. that Huabeisaurus is a member of Euhelopodidae.
A new family was erected to place Huabeisaurus in, along with the closely related Tangvayosaurus. The family was named Huabeisauridae. Recently, the family was again proposed, this time by D'Emic et al. because Euhelopodidae, which Huabeisaurus has been assigned to most recently, might have to be split into smaller clades throughout the Somphospondyli because of all the taxa assigned to it.
Pang and Cheng tentatively suggested that "Titanosaurus" falloti be referred to Huabeisaurus. However, "T." falloti is only represented by femoral remains, and its femur bears no uniquely shared features with Huabeisaurus. Furthermore, the femora of Huabeisaurus and "T." falloti differ in the bevel of the distal end versus the long axis of the bone, so the two cannot represent the same genus.
Distinguishing characteristics
According to D'Emic et al. (2013) Huabeisaurus can be distinguished based on this set of autapomorphies: the division of some presacral vertebral laminae; posterior cervical vertebrae with a divided prezygodiapophyseal lamina; anterior dorsal vertebrae with a divided anterior spinodiapophyseal lamina; the presence of postzygapophyseal spinodiapophyseal fossa that are larger than postzygapophyseal centrodiapophyseal fossa on anterior-middle caudal vertebrae; caudal vertebrae with small caudal ribs that disappear around caudal vertebra eight; ventrally one-third of anterior-middle caudal vertebral centra expanded posteriorly; two longitudinal ridges on the lateral faces of mid-caudal vertebral centra; a coracoid with tubercle near anterodorsal edge of lateral face; the distal end of radius about twice as broad transversely as midshaft (convergently acquired in derived titanosaurs); a tubercle on ischial plate that projects from posterior margin; the development of fossae relative to one another in caudal vertebral neural arches; and a high tibia-to-femur ratio.
Paleoecology
An isolated humerus, designated the paratype by Pang and Cheng, comes from a locality over 200 meters away from the type locality of Huabeisaurus, in a fluvially deposited sandy conglomeratic layer in the lower member of the Huiquanpu Formation. This layer is roughly 90 m lower stratigraphically than the type horizon of Huabeisaurus, which comes from the upper member of the Huiquanpu Formation. The humerus thus comes from a stratum representing a different and likely older depositional environment than that of Huabeisaurus, and does not overlap anatomically with the holotypic skeleton, and so cannot currently be referred to that taxon. The horizon that yielded the humerus also contains hadrosaurid specimens referred to cf. Shantungosaurus sp. and indeterminate ankylosaurid material.
Huabeisaurus comes from Kangdailiang and Houyu, Zhaojiagou Town, Tianzhen County, Shanxi province, China. The holotype was found in the unnamed upper member of the Huiquanpu Formation, which is Late Cretaceous (?Cenomanian–?Campanian) in age based on ostracods, charophytes, and fission-track dating.
The geology of the type locality of the Huiquanpu Formation was described in a series of reports. The specimen was found near the base of the upper member of the Huiquanpu Formation, in a fluvially deposited silty mudstone. This locality has also produced the ankylosaur Tianzhenosaurus, theropod material referred to cf. Szechuanosaurus campi (now regarded as a nomen dubium), and indeterminate hadrosaurid material. This species also coexisted with ostracods and charophytes, and the ankylosaurian Shanxia, considered by Weishampel et al. to be ankylosauria indet.
References
Macronarians
Campanian life
Maastrichtian life
Late Cretaceous dinosaurs of Asia
Cretaceous China
Fossils of China
Paleontology in Shanxi
Paleontology in Hebei
Fossil taxa described in 2000 |
4327099 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Blade%20Runner%20characters | List of Blade Runner characters | Blade Runner is a 1982 American neo-noir science fiction film directed by Ridley Scott, which stars Harrison Ford, Rutger Hauer, Sean Young, and Edward James Olmos. Written by Hampton Fancher and David Peoples, the film is an adaptation of the 1968 novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? by Philip K. Dick.
Its 2017 sequel, Blade Runner 2049, stars Ryan Gosling and Harrison Ford, with Ana de Armas, Sylvia Hoeks, Robin Wright, Mackenzie Davis, Carla Juri, Lennie James, Dave Bautista and Jared Leto.
Characters in both films
Rick Deckard
Rick Deckard is a "blade runner", a special agent in the Los Angeles police department employed to hunt down and "retire" replicants. His ID number is B-263-54, which is stated twice in both the 1992 Director's Cut and the 25th-anniversary Final Cut of the film.
He is the protagonist of the film and the narrator in the original theatrical release.
Agent Deckard was played by Harrison Ford.
Gaff
Gaff is a Los Angeles police officer who escorts Deckard throughout his mission. He primarily uses "Cityspeak", a creole of Spanish, French, German, Hungarian, Chinese, and Japanese, which Deckard pretends not to understand. Gaff is never shown participating in Deckard's investigation, preferring to linger in the background crafting origami figures; he appears to have an ambivalent attitude towards the replicants, observing "the other man's dead, Deckard... it's a shame she won't live".
Gaff was played by American actor/director Edward James Olmos.
The sequel novel to Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? by K. W. Jeter mentions that Gaff is killed in the line of duty. At the beginning of the novel, Bryant has just returned from the funeral and expresses his distaste for the Cityspeak written on Gaff's headstone.
In the sequel film Blade Runner 2049, Gaff is questioned by Officer K (Ryan Gosling) in a retirement home, asking about Deckard's whereabouts.
Rachael
Rachael, sometimes referred to as Rachael Tyrell, was the latest experiment of Eldon Tyrell, and the sole Nexus-7 replicant. He believed that since the replicants had such a limited lifespan, they had little time to develop control of their emotions, causing difficulty in managing these emotions. He believed implanting the replicants with memories would create a cushion that would allow for emotional development, and make them more controllable.
Rachael has the implanted memories of Lilith Tyrell, Tyrell's niece, and Rachael is then led to believe that she is human. It is not revealed in the film how long she has been living, but Tyrell admits that he thinks she is beginning to suspect the truth of her nature.
Tyrell refuses to discuss the issue with Rachael. In desperation, she turns to Deckard, who has been told by Captain Bryant to retire her. However, he falls in love with her instead.
At the end of the film, the four replicants Deckard had been assigned to kill are dead. Rachael and Deckard then flee and presumably go into hiding to have a future together.
In Blade Runner 2049 it is revealed Rachael, as the sole Nexus-7, was given the ability to reproduce by Tyrell. During an apparently routine investigation, Blade Runner Officer K uncovers a box containing bones and hair buried under a tree. The remains are shown to be that of a being who died after a caesarean section, and upon the discovery that the being was a replicant, K is ordered by Lt. Joshi to track down and kill the replicant's child. K later learns the pregnant replicant was Rachael. After capturing Deckard, Niander Wallace designs a physically near-identical copy of Rachael and offers her to Deckard in an attempt to persuade Deckard to reveal the location of the replicants who helped hide his and Rachael's daughter. After Deckard declines, Wallace has the copy killed.
Rachael was played by Sean Young in Blade Runner. In Blade Runner 2049, Rachael was portrayed by actress Loren Peta with Sean Young's facial features de-aged and overlaid via CGI.
Characters in Blade Runner
Roy Batty
Roy Batty is the leader of the renegade Nexus-6 replicants and the main antagonist of the film. He was activated on January 8, 2016, which makes him 3 years and 10 months old by the time of the events of the film. He is highly intelligent, fast and skilled at combat and yet still learning how to deal with emotions. With an A Physical Level (superhuman strength & endurance) and an A Mental Level (genius-level intellect), he is probably the most dangerous of the fugitive replicants. He is a combat model, used off-world for military service. He and five other replicants come to Earth hoping to find a way to lengthen their lifespan. He is able to use J. F. Sebastian to get a meeting with Tyrell, the founder of the company and his creator. Tyrell refers to him as his "prodigal son" and tells him his life cannot be extended but he should revel in the life that he has, as he has done and seen things others could only dream of. Batty kills Tyrell and Sebastian.
Deckard retires the remaining replicants and is hunted by a dying Roy. Deckard ends up dangling from a building and is saved from the fall by Roy. As he dies, Roy tells Deckard about the things he has seen and how the memories will be "lost in time, like tears in rain". He smiles, saying, "Time... to die". In the novel, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, his name was spelled "Roy Baty" and was the leader of the eight replicants who killed their human owners so that they could escape their life of slavery on Mars. Roy was married to Irmgard Baty, another replicant. In the novel, Roy's relationship with Pris (who was his lover in the film) is only one of friendship. In the novel Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human (written by K. W. Jeter after Dick's death, incorporating elements from the novel and the screenplay), Batty is one of a series of replicants based on a mercenary of the same name. The template suffered from "neural malformation", which made them unable to experience fear. This might be a reason why replicants of that series were so difficult to kill. Roy Batty was played by Rutger Hauer.
Harry Bryant
Harry Bryant is the captain of the Rep-Detect department of the Los Angeles Police Department. His job in the film is to deal with a group of escaped Nexus-6 replicants (whom he refers to as "skinjobs") that have landed on Earth. His top Blade Runner, Holden, was in hospital on a medical ventilator after an encounter with the Leon replicant, earlier in the film. Bryant uses thinly-veiled threats against Rick Deckard, a retired Blade Runner, to enlist his aid. Deckard's narration in the original theatrical version compares Bryant to the racist cops of the past.
Capt. Bryant was played by M. Emmet Walsh.
Hannibal Chew
Hannibal Chew contracts for the Tyrell Corporation as a genetic engineer. His job is to create the eyes for the replicants, Roy's and Leon's, in this case.
In the film, the replicants visit him while he is working in a freezer. The replicants pressure him into telling them that J. F. Sebastian can get them into Tyrell's inner sanctum.
He was played by American actor James Hong.
Dave Holden
Dave Holden is the Blade Runner testing new employees at the Tyrell Corporation on the premise that the escaped Replicants might try to infiltrate the company.
During a Voight-Kampff test, Leon shoots Holden and leaves him for dead. Later, Bryant mentions that Holden is alive, but his breathing is assisted by machines.
There were two hospital scenes with Holden and Deckard that were filmed, but not used in the movie. One scene is shown in the documentary On the Edge of Blade Runner. Both scenes appear in the deleted scenes section on the Blade Runner Special Edition DVD.
He was played by Morgan Paull.
Leon Kowalski
Leon Kowalski is a replicant who came to Earth with five others looking to extend their lives. He has an A physical level, which means he has superhuman strength and endurance (according to the Final Cut he was used to load nuclear-heads in the outer space colonies and for front-line soldier duty). Leon is classified mental level C. He does not have the speed of thought that Roy does when it comes to solving problems. He was activated on April 10, 2017, making him 2 years and 7 months old by the time of the film.
Leon tries to infiltrate the Tyrell Corporation as an employee and undergoes a Voight-Kampff test designed to detect replicants. Confused by the questions, he shoots the tester, Dave Holden. Leon attacks Deckard on the street after seeing him kill Zhora, but is stopped when Rachael shoots him with Deckard's gun.
Leon cherishes photographs of his friends. Unlike Rachael's false photos of her childhood, these include current photos of people who mean something to him.
Leon Kowalski was played by Brion James.
Taffey Lewis
Taffey Lewis is the owner of Taffey's Snake Pit Bar. The bar features music, exotic dancing, and something being smoked in pipes. He dismisses Deckard's threats with a free drink.
He was played by Hy Pyke.
Pris Stratton
Pris Stratton is a "basic pleasure model" incepted on Valentine's Day, 2016, making her the second-oldest of the four fugitive replicants at three years, nine months. She is the girlfriend of Roy Batty and is responsible for gaining J. F. Sebastian's trust. At an A-Physical Level, she is shown to have superhuman endurance (as in the scene where she grabs a boiling egg with her bare hand without harm) and an affinity for gymnastics. Her B-Mental Level puts her at a lower intellectual level than Roy, but higher than Leon. She sets a trap for Deckard in the Bradbury Building, disguising herself as one of Sebastian's toys and then attacking Deckard with her gymnastic skills. As she rushes Deckard for another attack, he kills her.
Her surname, Stratton, appears in the novel, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, but is never used in the film.
Her punk outfits were inspired by a new wave calendar.
It is suggested in Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human that Pris was actually an insane human woman who believed that she was a female replicant, although this has nothing to do with the original Blade Runner since it was from a different author.
She was played by Daryl Hannah.
J.F. Sebastian
J.F. Sebastian is a genetic designer working for Tyrell. He is not allowed to emigrate off-world because he has Methuselah Syndrome. Because of this, he ages faster and has a shorter lifespan, something he has in common with the replicants. He is only 25 years old, but his physical appearance is of a middle-aged man. With the Bradbury Building all to himself, he makes the most of his considerable talents creating automata companions. He is loosely based on the character J. R. Isidore from the novel.
He is approached by Pris, whom Sebastian takes in because he thinks she is homeless, and Roy comes to stay with him soon after. Roy and Pris point out that because of his condition, Sebastian has much in common with them, and argue that if they do not get Tyrell's help to extend their lives, Pris will soon die.
Sebastian is playing correspondence chess with Tyrell, and Roy suggests a bold move which gives rise to an opportunity to visit Tyrell and smuggle Roy in.
When Tyrell claims that he cannot extend Roy's life, Roy kills him.
Sebastian is seen running away from Roy, who then descends the elevator alone. A police radio message heard by Deckard after Tyrell is killed states that Sebastian's body was also discovered by the police with Tyrell's at the Tyrell Corporation.
The makeup for Sebastian was a "stretch and stipple" technique with no prosthetics.
He was played by William Sanderson.
Dr. Eldon Tyrell
Dr. Eldon Tyrell is the CEO and founder of Tyrell Corporation. His creations are Replicants, some of whom have been given away as an incentive for people to emigrate to the Off-World colonies. Others are used in combat to protect those settlers. Roy Batty, along with J. F. Sebastian, finds Tyrell, and asks him to extend his life beyond the four-year limit built into Nexus-6 replicants. However, Tyrell claims this request is impossible to satisfy due to the inherent instabilities of replicant genetics. Upon hearing this, Batty kisses Tyrell before gouging out his eyes and crushing his skull with his bare hands.
He was played by Joe Turkel.
Zhora Salome
Zhora Salome is a replicant with an A Physical Level (super-human endurance) and a B Mental Level (intelligence equal to that of Pris), and has been used in murder squads. She was activated on June 12, 2016, making her 3 years and 5 months old. She gets a job as an exotic dancer at Taffey's Bar, with the actress using her own pet snake. Deckard tracks her down at Taffey's after finding her snake's scale, and she soon realizes that he is dangerous. She attacks him, but Deckard narrowly escapes death when people walk in just before she delivers a killing blow. Zhora tries to escape by running into a busy street, but Deckard chases her and finally shoots her in the back, "retiring" her.
She was played by Joanna Cassidy.
Unnamed replicant(s)
According to dialogue spoken by Bryant in the Final Cut of the film, two other unnamed replicants (only one in earlier versions) were killed while attempting to enter the Tyrell Corporation. The term used by him when describing their deaths ("Two of them got fried running through an electrical field") suggests they were stopped by an electrical barrier or security device of some sort. (In the theatrical cut of the film, the spoken line is "One of them got fried running through an electrical field" leaving one replicant unaccounted for.)
Earlier drafts of the script name these replicants as Hodge and Mary. In Hampton Fancher's early drafts of the script, Mary lives and Hodge is the only replicant fried in the electrical field. Mary was intended to reflect the novel's character of Irmgard Baty, and was meant to be a "mother figure" model of replicant, performing housework and childcare duties, and she was supposed to be reminiscent of the stereotypical housewife of the 1950s. Her incept date is given as November 1, 2017. Mary was to be played by Stacey Nelkin, who had originally tried out for the role of Pris, but Mary's scenes were cut before filming.
Characters in Blade Runner 2049
K
KD6-3.7 ("K" for short) is a Nexus-9 replicant model created to obey and works as a "blade runner" for the LAPD, hunting down and "retiring" rogue older model replicants. K is aware he is a replicant, and like the rest of his line, was programmed with implanted memories to aid his mental stability—though the new model replicants are fully aware that these fake memories never really happened, to them or other people, but are fictional fabrications. K is a replicant blade runner, who begins to suspect that his implanted memories are actually real. When he begins to suspect that he may be Rachael's child, and thus a "real" person, Joi suggests that he needs a real name and picks "Joe" for him. Both the name "K" and the nickname "Joe" are allusions to Franz Kafka's existential novel The Trial.
Officer K was played by Ryan Gosling.
Joi
Joi is an artificial intelligence projected as a hologram, designed and commercially sold by Wallace Corporation to be a fully customizable live-in romantic companion. K, an artificial intelligence himself, has a Joi copy but attempts to treat her as a person and to have a romantic relationship with her, while wondering about how "real" it can truly be given that she is programmed to like him. K obtains a mobile "emanator" unit for her at the beginning of the film, a control unit or hologram projector which he can transport in his coat, allowing Joi to accompany him anywhere in the world. Joi is nonetheless intangible and cannot physically interact with her surroundings. Played by Ana de Armas.
Niander Wallace
Niander Wallace (Jared Leto) is the sinister CEO and founder of Wallace Corporation, which dominates replicant production in 2049. A genius genetic engineer, his genetically modified crops and livestock solved a global food crisis – which then gave him enough wealth and political clout to lift the ban on replicant production. Wallace bought out the bankrupt Tyrell Corporation (which had collapsed after several revolts by Nexus-8 replicants). Wallace improved the genetic programming of his new "Nexus-9" replicants to the point that they cannot disobey the orders of humans, even if the order is to commit suicide. By 2049, Wallace Corporation has revitalized the replicant industry and is a major mega-corporation with numerous other subsidiaries in other fields, such as Joi unit digital AI holograms.
Wallace is blind, but uses cybernetic implants in his neck to interact with various computers and "see" through flying miniature camera units.
The secret of making replicants that can reproduce died with Tyrell, and Wallace is obsessed with learning it. By 2049, Earth is suffering from resource depletion and heavy pollution, and it was Wallace's genetically modified foods and new replicants that not only staved off extinction, but allowed humanity to spread to the off-world colonies. Nonetheless, Wallace is frustrated that humanity has only spread to nine other planets, when he wants to see it explode across thousands of planets in the galaxy. Lacking the capacity to build enough replicants for such an endeavor, Wallace is convinced that replicants capable of reproduction on their own are the answer.
Ana Stelline
Dr. Ana Stelline (Carla Juri) is a scientist who designs the implanted memories that Wallace Corporation installs into its new replicants: the replicants are aware that these memories are implants they did not personally experience, but their presence drastically improves their mental stability. Empathetic to how replicants are used as slave-labor, Ana tries to give them pleasant memories to carry with them, even if they know they are artificial. Due to the complications that can arise, it is forbidden to base memory implants on the real memories of another person: they must be fabrications with no basis in real events. Nonetheless, Dr. Stelline secretly sneaks in a few of her best memories into some of the memory implants, as a gift. Ana actually does not directly work for Wallace Corporation: her "Stelline Corporation" is an independent sub-contractor (Wallace offered to buy her out, but she says she "enjoys her creative freedom").
Ostensibly, Dr. Stelline developed an immune system deficiency as a child, and has spent the past two decades living in a sterile clean-room in her company's compound, keeping her in seclusion from the outside world. Secretly, Ana is actually the daughter of Deckard and Rachael: living proof that replicants can be capable of reproducing on their own (and making Ana at least part-replicant through her mother). The replicant underground hid her as an infant and scrambled the records, seeing her birth as a miracle and Ana as their savior.
K comes to Ana's lab to investigate the wooden horse he found, which was in his allegedly fake memory implant. She confirms that it is a real memory, but not who it is from – either K or someone else. The wooden horse was a gift from Deckard to his child, later etched with the child's birth date (the same day that Rachael died, from her grave marker). K suspects the memory of the horse is his own, and he is Rachael's son, but when he meets the replicant underground they reveal that Rachael's child was female. K then realizes that Ana was Rachael's child and it was her memory of the horse – because the best memories she gives to replicants like K are actually based on her own.
Luv
Luv (Sylvia Hoeks) is a Nexus-9 replicant and personal assistant to Niander Wallace. He entrusts her as his right-hand agent running day-to-day affairs over Wallace Corporation. As KD6-3.7 notes, Wallace was fond enough of her to give her a name (and not just a serial number like he has). She also acts as his personal enforcer, ruthlessly killing police officers in the search for Rachael's child. Luv has an outer air of poise, but with a powerful fury simmering barely underneath.
Freysa Sadeghpour
Freysa Sadeghpour (Hiam Abbass) is the leader of the replicant underground. Apparently an older Nexus-8 model, she took care of the baby after Rachael died in childbirth (K recognizes her in a photo of the baby from around 2022). Freysa helped to hide Rachael's child and erase the records of its past, but is organizing the underground to one day lead another replicant revolt. At some undisclosed point, Freysa lost her right eye: as seen with Sapper Morton, blade runners by this time remove the right eye of replicants as proof of a successful retirement (death), due to having a serial number embedded below the iris. Whether someone cut out Freysa's eye and left her for dead, or perhaps she cut out her own eye so she cannot be identified, is left unexplained.
Freysa sends Mariette to keep tabs on K, and later saves K after Luv's team from Wallace Corp. captures Deckard. She explains the stakes of the situation to K and her past with Rachael's child, causing him to realize that it is actually Ana. Freysa warns K that if Wallace is able to interrogate Deckard and capture Rachael's child all will be lost, and urges K to kill Deckard before that can happen. K, however, saves Deckard while managing to fake Deckard's death by drowning in the ocean.
Sapper Morton
Sapper Morton (Dave Bautista) is an older Nexus-8 replicant, living in seclusion on a protein farm in the industrial outliers of Los Angeles. Despite his large size and strength, he is polite and well-read, collecting antique books. Morton used to be an army medic on the off-world colonies in several campaigns. K's encounter to "retire" him starts off the events of the film, as it leads K to discover Rachael's skeletal remains buried on Morton's farm. Morton was a member of the replicant underground and, along with Freysa, helped hide Deckard and Rachael's baby – whose birth Morton describes as "a miracle". Using his army medic training, Morton personally conducted an emergency C-section on Rachael to save her baby after Rachael died in childbirth. Morton is contemptuous that K, a replicant himself, is a blade runner hunting his own kind (though K points out that he is a Nexus-9, not the same model as him).
Mariette
Mariette (Mackenzie Davis) is a replicant prostitute, and secretly a member of the replicant underground. Joi wants to experience sex with K, but the holographic projection of her AI lacks physical substance, so she hires Mariette to have sex with him – while overlaying her projection on Mariette's body. Secretly, Freysa instructs Mariette to keep tabs on K by slipping a tracking device into his coat, which enables the replicant underground to save him after Wallace's agents assault him and capture Deckard in the ruins of Las Vegas. Mariette then brings K to meet Freysa personally.
Doc Badger
Doc Badger (Barkhad Abdi) is a street-wise fixer on the black market, who talks in Somali. After obtaining a wooden horse that was in his allegedly fake implanted memory, K goes to Doc Badger's shop to have it analyzed. Badger is surprised that it is made of real wood (which is worth a fortune), and on chemical analysis, discerns that it was exposed to high radiation levels – allowing K to narrow down his search to the ruins of Las Vegas.
Mister Cotton
Mister Cotton (Lennie James) runs a combination orphanage and salvaging operation in the vast junkyards on the outskirts of Los Angeles, putting the children to work picking apart piles of e-waste for useful scrap-metal. K's investigation leads him to discover that Rachael's child was passed off as a human child at Cotton's orphanage, though he does not remember it. K strong-arms him into revealing his records books, only to discover that someone stole the pages from that year to destroy the evidence.
Lt. Joshi
Lt. Joshi (Robin Wright) is K's superior on the police force. She does not think replicants like K are as "real" as humans like her, though she does respect K. She is brutally killed by Luv after refusing to reveal K's location.
Coco
Coco (David Dastmalchian) is a police forensics investigator. He analyzes the bones stored in the ossuary that K found, revealing to him and Joshi that they belonged to a replicant female who died in childbirth (Rachael). Wallace's agent Luv later ambushes and kills him in his lab, to steal Rachael's skeletal remains and return them to Wallace for analysis.
Nandez
Nandez (Wood Harris) is another police investigator. He is disdainful of Coco's conclusion that Sapper Morton must have cared for Rachael's baby, though Coco points out that Morton clearly cared enough to give her a proper burial.
Notes
: Replicant serial numbers cover the individual's series, gender, physical and mental levels, and incept date. However, Leon's serial number is an error, as it gives his incept date as April 17, 2017.
References
Characters
Speculative fiction film characters lists
Lists of minor fictional characters |
4327126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repatriation%20%28cultural%20property%29 | Repatriation (cultural property) | Repatriation is the return of the cultural property, often referring to ancient or looted art, to their country of origin or former owners (or their heirs).
The disputed cultural property items are physical artifacts of a group or society taken by another group, usually in the act of looting, whether in the context of imperialism, colonialism, or war. The contested objects vary widely and include sculptures, paintings, monuments, objects such as tools or weapons for purposes of anthropological study, and human remains.
The looting of defeated peoples' cultural heritage by war has been common practice since ancient times. In the modern era, the Napoleonic looting of art was confiscations of artworks and precious objects by the French army or officials, in the territories of the First French Empire, including the Italian Peninsula and Spain. The looting continued for nearly 20 years, from 1797 to the Congress of Vienna in 1815. After Napoleon's defeat, some looted artworks were returned to their country of origin, among them the Horses of Saint Mark, repatriated to Venice. But many other works remained in French museums, such as Louvre, the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris or other collections in France.
In the early 21st century, debates about the colonial context of acquisitions by Western collections have centered both around arguments against and in favor of repatriations. Since the publication of the French report on the restitution of African cultural heritage in 2018, these debates have gained new international attention and have led to changes regarding the public role of museums and to restitutions on moral rather than merely legal grounds.
Background
War and looting
Ancient world
War and the subsequent looting of defeated peoples have been common practice since ancient times. The stele of King Naram-Sin of Akkad, which is now displayed in the Louvre Museum in Paris, is one of the earliest works of art known to have been looted in war. The stele commemorating Naram-Sin's victory in a battle against the Lullubi people in 2250 BCE was taken as war plunder about a thousand years later by the Elamites who relocated it to their capital in Susa, Iran. There, it was uncovered in 1898 by French archaeologists.
The Palladion was the earliest and perhaps most important stolen statue in western literature. The small carved wooden statue of an armed Athena served as Troy's protective talisman, which is said to have been stolen by two Greeks who secretly smuggled the statue out of the Temple of Athena. It was widely believed in antiquity that the conquest of Troy was only possible because the city had lost its protective talisman. This myth illustrates the sacramental significance of statuary in Ancient Greece as divine manifestations of the gods that symbolized power and were often believed to possess supernatural abilities. The sacred nature of the statues is further illustrated in the supposed suffering of the victorious Greeks afterward, including Odysseus, who was the mastermind behind the robbery.
According to Roman myth, Rome was founded by Romulus, the first victor to dedicate spoils taken from an enemy ruler to the Temple of Jupiter Feretrius. In Rome's many subsequent wars, blood-stained armor and weaponry were gathered and placed in temples as a symbol of respect toward the enemies' deities and as a way to win their patronage. As Roman power spread throughout Italy where Greek cities once reigned, Greek art was looted and ostentatiously displayed in Rome as a triumphal symbol of foreign territories brought under Roman rule. However, the triumphal procession of Marcus Claudius Marcellus after the fall of Syracuse in 211 is believed to have set a standard of reverence to conquered sanctuaries as it engendered disapproval by critics and a negative social reaction.
According to Pliny the Elder, the Emperor Augustus was sufficiently embarrassed by the history of Roman plunder of Greek art to return some pieces to their original homes.
A precedent for art repatriation was set in Roman antiquity when Cicero prosecuted Verres, a senate member and illegal appropriator of art. Cicero's speech influenced Enlightenment European thought and had an indirect impact on the modern debate about art repatriation. Cicero's argument uses military episodes of plunder as "case law" and expresses certain standards when it comes to appropriating cultural property of another people. Cicero makes a distinction between public and private uses of art and what is appropriate for each and he also asserts that the primary purpose of art is religious expression and veneration. He also sets standards for the responsibilities of imperial administration abroad to the code of ethics surrounding the collection of art from defeated Greece and Rome in wartime. Later, both Napoleon and Lord Elgin would be likened to Verres in condemnations of their plundering of art.
Looting during Napoleon's Empire
The Napoleonic looting of art was confiscations of artworks and precious objects by the French army, or officials, in the territories of the First French Empire, including the Italian peninsula, Spain, Portugal, the Low Countries, and Central Europe. The scale of plundering was unprecedented in modern history, the only comparable looting expeditions taking place in ancient Roman history. In fact, the French revolutionaries justified the large-scale and systematic looting of Italy in 1796 by viewing themselves as the political successors of Rome, in the same way that ancient Romans saw themselves as the heirs of Greek civilization. They also supported their actions with the opinion that their sophisticated artistic taste would allow them to appreciate the plundered art. Napoleon's soldiers crudely dismantled the art by tearing paintings out of their frames hung in churches and sometimes causing damage during the shipping process. Napoleon's soldiers appropriated private collections and even the papal collection. The most famous artworks plundered included the Bronze Horses of Saint Mark in Venice (itself looted from the Sack of Constantinople in 1204) and the Laocoön and His Sons in Rome (both since returned), with the latter then being considered the most impressive sculpture.
The Laocoön had a particular meaning for the French because it was associated with a myth in connection to the founding of Rome. When the art was brought into Paris, the pieces arrived in the fashion of a triumphal procession modeled after the common practice of ancient Romans.
Napoleon's extensive plunder of Italy was criticized by such French artists as Quatremère de Quincy (1755–1849), who circulated a petition that gathered the signatures of fifty other artists. With the founding of the Louvre museum in Paris in 1793, Napoleon's aim was to establish an encyclopedic exhibition of art history, which later both Joseph Stalin and Adolf Hitler attempted to emulate in their respective countries.
Napoleon continued his art conquests in 1798 when he invaded Egypt in an attempt to safeguard French trade interests and to undermine Britain's access to India via Egypt. His expedition in Egypt is noted for the 167 "savants" he took with him including scientists and other specialists equipped with tools for recording, surveying and documenting ancient and modern Egypt and its natural history. Among other things, the expedition discoveries included the Rosetta Stone and the Valley of the Kings near Thebes. The French military campaign was short-lived and unsuccessful and the majority of the collected artifacts (including the Rosetta Stone) were seized by British troops, ending up in the British Museum. Nonetheless, the information gathered by the French expedition was soon after published in the several volumes of Description de l'Égypte, which included 837 copperplate engravings and over 3,000 drawings. In contrast to the disapproving public reaction to the looting of Italian works of art, the appropriation of Egyptian art saw widespread interest and fascination throughout Europe, inciting a phenomenon which came to be called "Egyptomania".
A notable consequence of looting is its ability to hinder contemporary repatriation claims of cultural property to a country or community of origin. A process that requires proof of theft of an illegal transaction, or that the object originated from a specific country, can be difficult to provide if the looting and subsequent movements or transactions were undocumented. For example, in 1994 the British Library acquired Kharosthi manuscript fragments and has since refused to return them unless their origin could be identified (Afghanistan, Pakistan, or Tajikistan), of which the library itself was unsure.
Repatriation after the Napoleonic Wars
Art was repatriated for the first time in modern history when Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington returned to Italy art that had been plundered by Napoleon, after his and Marshal Blücher's armies defeated the French at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. This decision contrasted sharply to a long-held tradition to the effect that "to the victors go the spoils." This is remarkable considering that in the battle of Waterloo alone, the financial and human costs were colossal; the decision to not only refrain from plundering France but to repatriate France's prior seizures from the Netherlands, Italy, Prussia, and Spain, was extraordinary. Moreover, the British paid for the restitution of the papal collection to Rome because the Pope could not finance the shipping himself. When British troops began packing up looted art from the Louvre, there was a public outcry in France. Crowds reportedly tried to prevent the taking of the Horses of Saint Mark and there were throngs of weeping ladies outside the Louvre Museum. Despite the unprecedented nature of this repatriation effort, there are estimations only about 55% of what was taken was actually repatriated: the Louvre Director at the time, Vivant Denon, had sent out many important works to other parts of France before the British could take them. Many works remained in French museums, such as the Louvre, the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris or other collections in France. Wellington viewed himself as representing all of Europe's nations and he believed that the moral decision would be to restore the art in its apparently proper context. In a letter to Lord Castlereagh he wrote:
Wellington also forbade pilfering among his troops as he believed that it led to the lack of discipline and distraction from military duty. He held the view that winning support from local inhabitants was an important break from Napoleon's practices.
The great public interest in art repatriation helped fuel the expansion of public museums in Europe and launched museum-funded archaeological explorations. The concept of art and cultural repatriation gained momentum through the latter decades of the twentieth century, and began to show fruition by the end of the century, when key works were returned to claimants.
20th and 21st centuries
Looting by Germany during the Nazi era
One of the most infamous cases of art plundering in wartime was the Nazi appropriation of art from both public and private holdings throughout Europe and Russia. The looting began before World War II with illegal seizures as part of a systematic persecution of Jews, which was included as a part of Nazi crimes during the Nuremberg Trials. During World War II, Germany plundered 427 museums in the Soviet Union and ravaged or destroyed 1,670 Russian Orthodox churches, 237 Catholic churches and 532 synagogues.
Looting in Iraq after the fall of the Saddam Hussein regime
A well-known recent case of wartime looting was the plundering of ancient artifacts from the National Museum of Iraq in Baghdad at the outbreak of the war in 2003. Although this was not a case in which the victors plundered art from their defeated enemy, it was result of the unstable and chaotic conditions of war that allowed looting to happen and which some would argue was the fault of the invading US forces.
Archaeologists and scholars criticized the US military for not taking the measures to secure the museum, a repository for a myriad of valuable ancient artifacts from the ancient Mesopotamian civilization. In the several months leading up to the war, scholars, art directors, and collector met with the Pentagon to ensure that the US government would protect Iraq's important archaeological heritage, with the National Museum in Baghdad being at the top of the list of concerns. Between 8 April, when the museum was vacated and 12 April, when some of the staff returned, an estimated 15,000 items and an additional 5,000 cylinder seals were stolen. Moreover, the National Library was plundered of thousands of cuneiform tablets and the building was set on fire with half a million books inside; fortunately, many of the manuscripts and books were preserved. A US task force was able to retrieve about half of the stolen artifacts by organizing and dispatching an inventory of missing objects and by declaring that there would be no punishment for anyone returning an item. In addition to the vulnerability of art and historical institutions during the Iraq war, Iraq's rich archaeological sites and areas of excavated land (Iraq is presumed to possess vast undiscovered treasures) have fallen victim to widespread looting. Hordes of looters disinterred enormous craters around Iraq's archaeological sites, sometimes using bulldozers. It is estimated that between 10,000 and 15,000 archaeological sites in Iraq have been despoiled.
Legal issues
National government laws
United States
In 1863 US President Abraham Lincoln summoned Francis Lieber, a German-American jurist and political philosopher, to write a legal code to regulate Union soldiers' behavior toward Confederate prisoners, noncombatants, spies and property. The resulting General Orders No.100 or the Lieber Code, legally recognized cultural property as a protected category in war. The Lieber Code had far-reaching results as it became the basis for the Hague Convention of 1907 and 1954 and has led to Standing Rules of Engagement (ROE) for US troops today. A portion of the ROE clauses instruct US troops not to attack "schools, museums, national monuments, and any other historical or cultural sites unless they are being used for a military purpose and pose a threat".
In 2004 the US passed the Bill HR1047 for the Emergency Protection for Iraq Cultural Antiquities Act, which allows the President authority to impose emergency import restrictions by Section 204 of the Convention on Cultural Property Implementation Act (CCIPA). In 2003, Britain and Switzerland put into effect statutory prohibitions against illegally exported Iraqi artifacts. In the UK, the Dealing in Cultural Objects Bill was established in 2003 that prohibited the handling of illegal cultural objects.
United Kingdom
Repatriation in the UK has been highly debated in recent years, however there is still a lack of formal national legislation that expressly outlines general claims and repatriation procedures. As a result, guidance on repatriation stems from museum authority and government guidelines, such as the Museum Ethnographers' Group (1994) and the Museums Association Guidelines on Restitution and Repatriation (2000). This means that individual museum policies on repatriation can vary significantly depending on the museum's views, collections and other factors.
The repatriation of human remains is governed by the Human Tissue Act 2004. However, the Act itself does not create guidelines on the process of repatriation, it merely states it is legally possible for museums to do so. This again highlights that successful repatriation claims in the UK are dependent on museum policy and procedure. One example includes the British Museum's policy on the restitution of human remains.
International conventions
The Hague Convention of 1907 aimed to forbid pillaging and sought to make wartime plunder the subject of legal proceedings, although in practice the defeated countries did not gain any leverage in their demands for repatriation. The Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict took place in the wake of widespread destruction of cultural heritage in World War II and is the first international treaty of a worldwide vocation focusing exclusively on the protection of cultural heritage in the event of armed conflict.
Irini Stamatoudi suggests that the 1970 UNESCO convention on prohibiting and preventing illicit imports and exports and the 1995 UNIDROIT convention on stolen or illegally exported cultural objects are the most important international conventions related to cultural property law.
UNESCO
The 1970 UNESCO Convention against Illicit Export under the Act to implement the convention (the Cultural Property Implementation Act) allowed for stolen objects to be seized, if there were documentation of it in a museum or institution of a state party, the convention also encouraged member states to adopt the convention within their own national laws. The following agreement in 1972 promoted world cultural and natural heritage.
The 1978 UNESCO Convention strengthened existing provisions; the Intergovernmental Committee for Promoting the Return of Cultural Property to its countries of origin or its restitution in case of illicit appropriation was established. It consists of 22 members elected by the General Conference of UNESCO to facilitate bilateral negotiations for the restitution of "any cultural property which has a fundamental significance from the point of view of the spiritual values and cultural heritage of the people of a Member State or Associate Member of UNESCO and which has been lost as a result of colonial or foreign occupation or as a result of illicit appropriation". It was also created to "encourage the necessary research and studies for the establishment of coherent programmes for the constitution of representative collections in countries, whose cultural heritage has been dispersed".
In response to the Iraqi National Museum looting, UNESCO Director-General, Kōichirō Matsuura convened a meeting in Paris on 17 April 2003, to assess the situation and coordinate international networks in order to recover the cultural heritage of Iraq. On 8 July 2003, Interpol and UNESCO signed an amendment to their 1999 Cooperation Agreement in the effort to recover looted Iraqi artifacts.
UNIDROIT
The UNIDROIT (International Institute for the Unification of Private Law) Convention on Stolen or Illicitly Exported Cultural Objects of 1995 called for the return of illegally exported cultural objects.
Customary international law
Catharine Titi suggests that states' attitudes to the repatriation of cultural property has changed dramatically in the last few years and that, as a consequence, a new rule of international law is emerging that requires the return of important cultural property to its country of origin, if it has been unlawfully or unethically removed.
Cultural heritage in international contexts
Colonialism and identity
From early on, the field of archaeology was deeply involved in political endeavors and in the construction of national identities. This early relationship can be seen during the Renaissance and the proto-Italian reactions against the High Gothic movement, but the relationship became stronger during 19th century Europe when archaeology became institutionalized as a field of study furnished by artifacts acquired during the New Imperialism era of European colonialism. Colonialism and the field of archaeology mutually supported one another as the need to acquire knowledge of ancient artifacts justified further colonial dominance.
As further justification for colonial rule, the archaeological discoveries also shaped the way European colonialists identified with the artifacts and the ancient people who made them. In the case of Egypt, colonial Europe's mission was to bring the glory and magnificence of ancient Egypt closer to Europe and incorporate it into knowledge of world history, or better yet, use European history to place ancient Egypt in a new spotlight. With the archaeological discoveries, ancient Egypt was adopted into the Western historical narrative and came to take on a significance that had up until that time been reserved for ancient Greek and Roman civilization. The French revolutionaries justified the large-scale and systematic looting of Italy in 1796 by viewing themselves as the political successors of Rome, in the same way that ancient Romans saw themselves as the heirs of Greek civilization; by the same token, the appropriation of ancient Egyptian history as European history further legitimated Western colonial rule over Egypt. But while ancient Egypt became patrimony of the West, modern Egypt remained a part of the Muslim world. The writings of European archaeologists and tourists illustrate the impression that modern Egyptians were uncivilized, savage, and the antithesis of the splendor of ancient Egypt.
Museums furnished by colonial looting have largely shaped the way a nation imagines its dominion, the nature of the human beings under its power, the geography of the land, and the legitimacy of its ancestors, working to suggest a process of political inheriting. It is necessary to understand the paradoxical way in which the objects on display at museums are tangible reminders of the power held by those who gaze at them. Eliot Colla describes the structure of the Egyptian sculpture room in the British Museum as an assemblage that "form[s] an abstract image of the globe with London at the center". The British Museum, as Colla describes, presents a lesson of human development and progress: "the forward march of human civilization from its classical origins in Greece and Rome, through Renaissance Italy, to modern-day London".
The restoration of monuments was often made in colonial states to make natives feel as if in their current state, they were no longer capable of greatness. Furthermore, sometimes colonial rulers argued that the ancestors of the colonized people did not make the artifacts. Some scholars also argue that European colonialists used monumental archaeology and tourism to appear as the guardian of the colonized, reinforcing unconscious and undetectable ownership. Colonial rulers used peoples, religions, languages, artifacts, and monuments as source for reinforcing European nationalism, which was adopted and easily inherited from the colonial states.
Nationalism and identity
As a direct reaction and resistance to colonial oppression, archaeology was also used for the purpose of legitimating the existence of an independent nation-state. For example, Egyptian Nationalists utilized its ancient history to invent the political and expressive culture of "Pharaonism" as a response to Europe's "Egyptomania". Some argue that in colonized states, nationalist archaeology was used to resist colonialism and racism under the guise of evolution. While it is true that both colonialist and nationalist discourse use the artifact to form mechanisms to sustain their contending political agendas, there is a danger in viewing them interchangeably since the latter was a reaction and form of resistance to the former. On the other hand, it is important to realize that in the process of emulating the mechanisms of colonial discourse, the nationalist discourse produced new forms of power. In the case of the Egyptian nationalist movement, the new form of power and meaning that surrounded the artifact furthered the Egyptian independence cause but continued to oppress the rural Egyptian population.
Some scholars argue that archaeology can be a positive source of pride in cultural traditions, but can also be abused to justify cultural or racial superiority as the Nazis argued that Germanic people of Northern Europe was a distinct race and cradle of Western civilization that was superior to the Jewish race.. In other cases, archaeology allows rulers to justify the domination of neighboring peoples as Saddam Hussein used Mesopotamia's magnificent past to justify the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990.
Some scholars employ the idea that identity is fluid and constructed, especially national identity of modern nation-states, to argue that the post-colonial countries have no real claims to the artifacts plundered from their borders since their cultural connections to the artifacts are indirect and equivocal. This argument asserts that artifacts should be viewed as universal cultural property and should not be divided among artificially created nation-states. Moreover, that encyclopedic museums are a testament to diversity, tolerance and the appreciation of many cultures. Other scholars would argue that this reasoning is a continuation of colonialist discourse attempting to appropriate the ancient art of colonized states and incorporate it into the narrative of Western history.
Cultural survival and identity
In settler-colonial contexts, many Indigenous people that have experienced cultural domination by colonial powers have begun to request the repatriation of objects that are already within the same borders. Objects of Indigenous cultural heritage, such as ceremonial objects, artistic objects, etc., have ended up in the hands of publicly and privately held collections which were often given up under economic duress, taken during assimilationist programs or simply stolen. The objects are often significant to the Indigenous ontologies possessing animacy and kinship ties. Objects such as particular instruments used in unique musical traditions, textiles used in spiritual practices or religious carvings have cult significance are connected to the revival of traditional practices. This means that the repatriation of these objects is connected to the cultural survival of Indigenous people historically oppressed by colonialism.
Colonial narratives surrounding "discovery" of the new world have historically resulted in Indigenous people's claim to cultural heritage being rejected. Instead, private and public holders have worked towards displaying these objects in museums as a part of colonial national history. Museums often argue that if objects were to be repatriated they would be seldom seen and not properly taken care of. International agreements such as the 1970 UNESCO Convention against Illicit Export under the Act to implement the convention (the Cultural Property Implementation Act) often do not regard Indigenous repatriation claims. Instead, these conventions focus on returning national cultural heritage to states.
Since the 1980s, decolonization efforts have resulted in more museums attempting to work with local Indigenous groups to secure a working relationship and the repatriation of their cultural heritage. This has resulted in local and international legislation such as the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) and the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects which take Indigenous perspectives into consideration in the repatriation process. Notably, Article 12 of UNDRIP states:Indigenous peoples have the right to manifest, practise, develop and teach their spiritual and religious traditions, customs and ceremonies; the right to maintain, protect, and have access in privacy to their religious and cultural sites; the right to the use and control of their ceremonial objects; and the right to the repatriation of their human remains. States shall seek to enable the access and/or repatriation of ceremonial objects and human remains in their possession through fair, transparent and effective mechanisms developed in conjunction with indigenous peoples concerned.The process of repatriation has often been fraught with issues though, resulting in the loss or improper repatriation of cultural heritage. The debate between public interest, Indigenous claims and the wrongs of colonialism is the central tension around the repatriation of Indigenous cultural heritage.
Controversies
The repatriation debate
The repatriation debate is a term referring to the dialogue between individuals, heritage institutions, and nations who have possession of cultural property and those who pursue its return to its country or community of origin. It is suggested that many points within this debate center around the legal issues involved such as theft and the legality of acquisitions and exports, etc. Two main theories seem to underpin the repatriation debate and cultural property law: cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism. These theories emerged and developed following the creation of many international conventions, such as the 1970 UNESCO Convention and the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention, and act as the foundation of contradicting opinions regarding the transport of cultural objects. However, the dual theory of cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism is on the decline.
Cultural internationalism
Cultural internationalism has links to imperialism and decontextualization and suggests that cultural property is not tethered to one nation and belongs to everybody. Calls for repatriation can therefore be dismissed since they are often requested when a nation declares ownership of an object, which according to this theory is not exclusive.
Some critics and even supporters of this theory seek to limit its scope. For example, proponent of cultural internationalism John Henry Merryman suggests that unauthorized archaeological discoveries should not be exported as information would be lost that would have remained intact if they stayed where they were discovered.
It is further argued that this theory has close resemblance to the 'universal museums' theory. Following a series of repatriation claims, leading museums issued a declaration detailing the importance of the universal museum. The declaration argues that over time, objects acquired by the museums have become part of the heritage of that nation and that museums work to serve people from every country as "agents in the development of culture". It is on this justification that many repatriation requests are denied. A notable example includes the Greek Parthenon marbles housed at the British Museum.
Many of the issues surrounding the denial of repatriation requests originate from items taken during the era of imperialism (pre-1970 UNESCO Convention) as a wide range of opinions remains among museums.
Cultural nationalism
Cultural nationalism has links to retentionism, protectionism, and particularism. Following the 1970 UNESCO Convention and the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention, cultural nationalism has become more popular than its opposing internationalist theory.
Under the theory of cultural nationalism, nations seek to withhold cultural objects as their own heritage and actively seek the return of objects that are abroad (illegally or unethically). Cultural nationalists suggest that keeping and returning objects to their country of origin tethers the object to its context and therefore overrides its economic value (abroad).
Both cultural nationalism and internationalism could be used to justify the retention of cultural property depending on the point of view. Nations of origin seek retention to protect the wider context of the object as well as the object itself, whereas nations who acquire cultural property seek its retention because they wish to preserve the object if there is a chance it will be lost if transported.
The repatriation debate often differs on case-by-case basis due to the specific nature of legal and historical issues surrounding each instance. Most of the arguments commonly used are discussed in the 2018 Report on the Restitution of African Cultural Heritage by Felwine Sarr and Bénédicte Savoy. They can be summarized as follows:
Arguments against repatriation
Artifacts are a part of human history, and encyclopedic museums like the British Museum, Louvre and Metropolitan Museum of Art cultivate the dissemination of knowledge, tolerance, and broad cultural understanding. James Cuno suggests that repatriation claims are arguments against this encyclopedic promise.
Artifacts were frequently excavated or uncovered by looters, who brought to light a piece of artwork that would otherwise never have been found; foreign-led excavation teams have uncovered items that contribute to cultural knowledge and understanding.
Nationalist retentionist cultural property laws claiming ownership are founded on constructed boundaries of modern nations with weak connections to the culture, spirit, and ethnicity of the ancient peoples, who produced those works.
Cultural identities are dynamic, inter-related and overlapping, so no modern nation-state can claim cultural property as their own without promoting a sectarian view of culture.
Having artwork disseminated around the world encourages international scholarly and professional exchange.
Encyclopedic museums are located in cosmopolitan cities such as London, Paris, Berlin, Rome or New York, and if the artworks were to be moved, they would be seen by far fewer people. For instance, if the Rosetta Stone were to be moved from The British Museum to The Cairo Museum, the number of people, who view it, would drop from about 5.5 million visitors to 2.5 million visitors a year.
Arguments for repatriation
Encyclopedic museums such as the British Museum, Musée du Louvre and Metropolitan Museum of Art were established as repositories for looted art during imperial and colonial rule, and thus are located in metropolitan cities out of view and reach of the cultures from which they were appropriated.
Precedence of repatriated art has already been set in many cases, but the artworks that museums currently refuse to repatriate are often their most valuable and famous artworks.
Foreign-led excavations have justified colonial rule and vice versa; in the pursuit of obtaining knowledge about the artifacts, there was a need to establish control over the artifacts and the countries, where they were located.
The argument that art is a part of universal human history is a derivative of colonial discourse that appropriated the art of other cultures into the Western historical narrative.
The encyclopedic museums that house much of the world's artworks and artifacts are located in Western cities and privilege European scholars, professionals and people, while at the same time excluding people in the countries of origin.
The argument that artwork will not be protected outside of the Western world is hypocritical, as much of the artwork transported out of colonized countries was crudely removed, often damaged and sometimes lost in transportation. The Elgin marbles for example, were damaged during the cleaning and "preservation" process. As another example, the Napried, one of the ships commissioned by di Cesnola to transport approximately 35,000 pieces of antiquities that he had collected from Cyprus, was lost at sea carrying about 5,000 pieces in its cargo.
Art is best appreciated and understood in its original historical and cultural context. Following the return of cultural property, the intangible meaning and aspects of that culture also return, this may promote the return of intangible traditions and educate future generations within indigenous communities.
Art taken out of the country as a spoil of war, by looting, and as a deliberate act of colonialism, is unethical, even if this is not explicitly reflected in legislation. The possession of artwork taken under these conditions is a form of continued colonialism.
The lack of existing legal recourse for claiming the return of illicitly appropriated cultural property is a result of colonization. Michael Dodson notes that colonization has taken "our distinct identities and cultures".
Art is a symbol of cultural heritage and identity, and the unlawful appropriation of artworks is an affront to a nation's pride. Moira Simpson suggests that repatriation helps indigenous communities renew traditional practices that were previously lost, this is the best method of cultural preservation.
Susan Douglas and Melanie Hayes note that national collections often have fixed practices, like collecting and owning cultural objects, which can be influenced by a colonial structure.
Following the repatriation of cultural objects and ancestral remains, indigenous communities may begin to heal by connecting the past and the present.
The 'New Stream' theory (Indeterminacy)
Pauno Soirila argues that the majority of the repatriation debate is stuck in an "argumentative loop" with cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism on opposing sides, as evidenced by the unresolved case of the Parthenon marbles. Introducing external factors is the only way to break it. Introducing claims centered around communities' human rights has led to increased indigenous defense and productive collaborations with museums and cultural institutions. While human rights factors alone cannot resolve the debate, it is a necessary step towards a sustainable cultural property policy.
International examples
Australia
Australian Aboriginal cultural artefacts as well as people have been the objects of study in museums; many were taken in the decades either side of the turn of the 20th century. There has been greater success with returning human remains than cultural objects in recent years, as the question of repatriating objects is less straightforward than bringing home ancestors. More than 100,000 Indigenous Australian artefacts are held in over 220 institutions across the world, of which at least 32,000 are in British institutions, including the British Museum and the Victoria & Albert Museum in London.
Australia has no laws directly governing repatriation, but there is a government programme relating to the return of Aboriginal remains and artefacts, the International Repatriation Program (IRP), administered by the Department of Communications and the Arts. This programme "supports the repatriation of ancestral remains and secret sacred objects to their communities of origin to help promote healing and reconciliation" and assists community representatives work towards repatriation of remains in various ways.
Gweagal man Rodney Kelly and others have been working to achieve the repatriation of the Gweagal Shield and Spears from the British Museum and the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Cambridge, respectively. Jason Gibson, a museum anthropologist working in Central Australia, notes how there is a lack of Aboriginal authority surrounding collections and so protocols have instead been made by non-Indigenous professionals.
The matter of repatriation of cultural artefacts such as the Gweagal shield was raised in federal parliament on 9 December 2019, receiving cross-bench support. With the 250th anniversary of Captain James Cook's landing looming in April 2020, two Labor MPs called on the government to “establish a process for the return of relevant cultural and historical artefacts to the original custodians and owners".
Returns
The Return of Cultural Heritage program run by the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (AIATSIS) began in 2019, the year before the 250th anniversary of Captain James Cook's first voyage to Australia. The program has worked towards the return of a number of the approximately 105,000 identified objects held by foreign institutions.
In late October 2019 the first collection of many sacred artefacts held in US museums were returned by Illinois State Museum. Forty-two Aranda (Arrernte) and Bardi Jawi objects removed from central Australia in 1920 were the first group. The next phase of the project would repatriate 40 culturally significant objects from the Manchester Museum in the UK, which would be returned to the Aranda, Ganggalidda, Garawa, Nyamal and Yawuru peoples. AIATSIS project leader Christopher Simpson said they hoped that the project could evolve into an ongoing program for the Federal Government. In November 2019, the objects were returned from Manchester Museum, which included sacred artefacts collected 125 years earlier from the Nyamal people of the Pilbara region of Western Australia. Manchester Museum returned 19 sacred objects to the Arrernte people during the COVID-19 pandemic, which was finally celebrated in May 2021. Another 17 items held at the Kluge-Ruhe Aboriginal Art Collection at the University of Virginia also due to be returned to a number of Aboriginal nations. Four items in the Auckland Institute and Museum in New Zealand are to be returned to the AIATSIS at the end of 2022. Belonging to the Waramungu people, they were collected by Baldwin Spencer in the early 20th century. In September 2023, Manchester Museum has returned 174 artefacts to Indigenous Australian people. The director for culture and emergencies at UNESCO said "May this occasion be a source of inspiration, encouraging others to embark on similar journeys."
While communities note the positive impact of returning bones of ancestors back to their country of origin, some also declare it has provoked tensions within communities e.g. the requirement of legal title of land to bury them and determining who has the authority to perform traditional ceremonies.
Keeping Places are Aboriginal community-managed places for the safekeeping of cultural artefacts, often including repatriated cultural material along with other local cultural heritage items or knowledge.
Belgium
In Belgium, the Royal Museum of Central Africa (aka. Africa Museum) houses the largest collection of more than 180,000 cultural and natural history objects, mainly from the former Belgian Congo, today's Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). As part of its first major renovation in more than a 100 years, a new approach of “decolonization” towards the presentation of cultural heritage in the museum has been carried out. To this end, the public collections of the Africa Museum have been complemented by elements of contemporary life in the DRC. Also, Belgian sculptures showing Africans in a colonial context have been relegated to a special room on the history of the collections. The influence of the discussion in France has also led to announcements to change the relevant laws and to intensify cooperation with representatives of African countries.
Canada
The Haisla totem Pole of Kitimat, British Columbia was originally prepared for chief G'psgoalux in 1872. This aboriginal artifact was donated to a Swedish museum in 1929. According to the donor, he had purchased the pole from the Haisla people while he lived on the Canadian west coast and served as Swedish consul. After being approached by the Haisla people, the Swedish government decided in 1994 to return the pole, as the exact circumstances around the acquisition were unclear. The pole was returned to Kitimat in 2006 after a building had been constructed in order to preserve the pole.
During the 1988 Calgary Winter Olympics, the Glenbow museum received harsh criticism for their display “The Spirit Sings: Artistic Traditions of Canada's First People”. Initially, the criticism was due to the Olympic's association with Shell Oil who were exploring oil and gas in territories contested by Lubicon Cree. Later Mowhawk would sue the Glenbow museum for the repatriation of a False Face Mask they had displayed arguing that they considered it to be of religious ceremonial significance. The museum did not listen to the Indigenous claim and brought the issue to court. Glenbow won and was able to display the mask but the controversy highlighted the ways in which museums have often dismissed the living cultures they should be working with. This led to a movement to improve the involvement of Indigenous people in their representation in museums. The Canadian Museums Association and Assembly of First Nations led a Task Force on Museums and First Peoples. The task force would publish the report Turning the Page in 1992 that put forward a series of findings which would help improve Indigenous involvement in the museum process. Among these was a focus on creating a partnership between Indigenous people and the museum curators which involves allowing Indigenous people into the planning, research and implementation of collections. Museums were urged to also improve ongoing access to the collections and training for both curators and Indigenous people who want to be involved in the process. Finally, an emphasis was placed on repatriation claims of human remains, locally held objects (using practice customary to the Indigenous people in question) and foreign held objects.
In 1998, over 80 Ojibwe ceremonial artifacts were repatriated to a cultural revitalization group by The University of Winnipeg. The controversy came as this group was not connected to the source community of the objects. Some of the objects were later returned but many are still missing.
The Buxton Museum and Art Gallery in England repatriated items to Haida Gwaii and the Siksika Nation peoples. The Museum returned the items as part of its initiative to return Native American and First Nation artefacts.
Chile (Easter Island)
On Rapa Nui (Easter Island), of the dozens of moai figures which have been removed from the landscape of Rapa Nui since the first one was removed in 1868 for installation in the British Museum, only one has been repatriated to date. This was a moai taken from the island in 1929 and repatriated in 2006.
China
China is still seeking the animal head statutes from the Old Summer Palace. 7 have been accounted for; 1 may have been sold at auction; 4 are still missing.
Egypt
In July 2003, the Egyptians requested the return of the Rosetta Stone from the British Museum.
In 2019, Zahi Hawass, an Egyptian archaeologist and former Minister of State for Antiquities Affairs, relaunched the restitution campaign, asking the Berlin State Museums, the British Museum and the Musée du Louvre: “How can you refuse to lend to the new Grand Egyptian Museum when you have taken so many antiquities from Egypt?" All three museums refused his loan requests.
In 2022, another petition was launched, calling once again on the British Museum to return the Rosetta Stone, the Neues Museum in Berlin to return the bust of Nefertiti, and the Louvre Museum in Paris to return the Dendera Zodiac ceiling to Egypt.
England
Legislation
In 2006, the British Museum decides to return two Tasmanian cremation ash bundles following the passing of the Human Tissue Act in 2005, which allowed the Trustees of the British Museum (and other national museums) to transfer human remains out of their collections "transfer from their collection any human remains which they reasonably believe to be remains of a person who died less than one thousand years before the day on which this section comes into force".
The British Museum has been claimed to be the largest receiver of "stolen goods" in the world, but has consistently refused to return objects citing the British Museum Act 1963 as preventing restitution, with a few exceptions. Prominent examples of restitution requests for artifacts in the British Museum include the Benin Bronzes and the Parthenon Marbles.
In February 2022, a new "Charities act 2022" received royal assent. Museums and galleries in both England and Wales will be given unprecedented powers to give away their collections if there is a justified moral obligation to do so, under the new act, according to Alexander Herman, an expert in art law. Herman, the author of “Restitution: The Return of Cultural Artefacts” and the director of the Institute of Art and Law said, “It will introduce into the legal requirements of trustees, especially of national institutions, the requirement to consider the moral claims of restitution claimants … It seems that the museum sector has not yet realized its full implications. I was surprised when we first uncovered it.”
In November 2022, 72 Nigerian artefacts from the Horniman Museum in London, England were repatriated to their country of origin. All items were transferred to Nigerian ownership with 66 items remain in England. Another English museum, the British Museum has previously said that it is prevented from returning any artefacts by the British Museum Act of 1963 and the Heritage Act of 1983.
Return of items to Scotland and Wales
In July 1996, the British Government agreed to return the Stone of Scone to Scotland, which had been taken to London in 1296 and placed in the newly made Coronation Chair, following growing dissatisfaction among Scots at the prevailing constitutional settlement.
There have been calls in Wales return some of the more significant artefacts back to which were discovered in Wales from English museums. These artefacts include the Mold gold cape and Red Lady of Paviland as well as the Red Book of Hergest, Rhyd-y-gors shield, Moel Hebog shield, Bardsey crown, Llanllyfni lunula, the Trawsfynydd Tankard and Welsh buckler shields.
Sotheby's
In 1997, investigative journalism uncovered Sotheby's trading in illicit antiquities. From the late 1980s through to the early 1990s, Sotheby's antiquities department in London was managed by Brendan Lynch and Oliver Forge, who traded with Vaman Ghiya in Rajasthan, India. Many of the pieces they bought turned out to be stolen from temples and other sites, and as a result of this exposé, Sotheby's commissioned their own report into illegal antiquities, and made assurances that only legal items with published provenance would be traded in the future.
Elgin or Parthenon marbles
More than two hundred years after the installation of the Parthenon Frieze in the British Museum, Greece continues to claim the so-called Elgin Marbles from Britain. Even though Greece claims that the marbles should be returned to Athens on moral grounds and wants to present the sculptures in its National Archaeological Museum, British authorities continue to insist on their legal ownership. Since 2009, the trustees of the British Museum have indicated their agreement to a "temporary" loan to the new Athens museum, but state that it would be under the condition of Greece acknowledging the British Museum's claims to ownership.
Benin bronzes
Collections in the UK have also received requests for restitution from former colonies, most prominently regarding the world-famous Benin Bronzes from modern-day Nigeria. Still, the directors of both the British Museum and of the Victoria & Albert Museum and the British Minister of Culture have spoken against permanent restitutions., Like some other cultural organisations in Europe, they prefer cooperation and a "circulation of objects" from their collections in the form of temporary exhibitions in Africa.
The British Museum and the Pitt Rivers Museum have joined the international Benin Dialogue Group, set up to coordinate scientific exchange, assistance for a new museum in Benin City, and eventual restitutions of artefacts.
The first British institution to return a statue after proof that it was looted directly from the royal court of Benin, is Jesus College, University of Cambridge. Following a campaign by the college's "Legacy of Slavery Working Party" (LSWP), they announced the handover to Nigerian delegates for 27 October 2021. Other collections in the United Kingdom, such as in Aberdeen or Bristol, have announced their own investigations on the provenance of such artefacts and their openness towards restitution.
New directions
In the context of local and international debates, the Pitt Rivers Museum of the University of Oxford started a broader programme of decolonization and reconciliation that centres on four tenets: provenance, transparency, repatriation and redress. Thus, the museum invited professionals from East Africa to share their view of the cultural objects in the collection. In 2020, Bénédicte Savoy and other art historians at the Technical University of Berlin and the Pitt Rivers Museum were started the joint research project Restitution of Knowledge to study, how art and cultural assets from other countries were collected in major museums of Europe.
Fiji
On 10 October 1874, Fiji's former king, Seru Epenisa Cakobau, gave his war club to Queen Victoria when the Deed of Cession by which the sovereignty of Fiji passed to the British Crown was signed, and the war club was taken to Britain and kept at Windsor Castle. In October 1932, by a curious twist of fate, King Cakobau's war club was repatriated to Fiji, on behalf of the British king George V, for use as the ceremonial mace of the Legislative Council of Fiji.
Germany
Nefertiti Bust
The Nefertiti bust has become a cultural symbol of Berlin, where it is presented in the Neues Museum, as well as of ancient Egypt. It has been the subject of intense arguments over Egyptian demands for its repatriation since the 1920s.
Ethnological museums in Berlin and other cities
Despite Germany's relatively short colonial history, limited to a few African countries such as modern-day Cameroon, Namibia, Tanzania and Togo, as well to parts of New Guinea, a very large number of African cultural objects are in German public collections. A prominent example is the Ethnological Museum in Berlin, which was incorporated in 2021 as part of the Humboldt Forum. Similar questions to those raised by Sarr and Savoy have led to intensive public discussions about Germany's colonial past and its colonial collections.
Given that cultural policy in Germany is the domain of the different federal states (Länder) and that many museums are independent or semi-public institutions, museum directors face fewer legal obstacles towards restitution than in France, and there have been several cases of recent restitutions, for example to Namibia.
Moreover, at the beginning of 2019, the Department of International Cultural Policy of the Federal Foreign Office, the Ministers for Cultural Affairs of the Länder and municipal cultural organizations issued a joint statement on the handling of collections from colonial contexts. With these guidelines, the collections in Germany have set new foundations for the research on provenance, international cooperation and repatriation. German museums joined the Benin Dialogue Group and have announced their willingness to restitute Benin Bronzes. To further cooperation with Tanzania and its former German colonial history, the Ethnological Museum of Berlin and the University of Dar es Salaam have started a Tanzanian-German research project about shared histories of cultural objects.
Greece
Greece is seeking repatriation of the Elgin Marbles from the British Museum, taken from the Parthenon by the Earl of Elgin. Since 1816, the British Museum has held the Parthenon Marbles after purchasing them from the Earl of Elgin. The acquisition of the marbles was met with controversy in Britain, with some supporting the decision while others condemning it as vandalism. Despite requests for repatriation from the Greek government, the museum has been largely silent on the Marbles, though it has defended its right to own and display them.
Greece is also seeking the return of the Winged Victory of Samothrace, a votive monument originally found on the island of Samothrace and sent to France's Louvre Museum in 1863. “If the French and the Louvre have a problem, we are ready to preserve and accentuate the Victory of Samothrace, if they return it to us,” said Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs Akis Gerondopoulos said in 2013.
Guatemala
In October 2021, an ancient Mayan artefact was returned to the National Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology of Guatemala City by a private collector in France, after it had been first announced for auction in 2019. The authorities in Guatemala could prove its provenance, upon which the French owner dropped the intended sale in favour for the artwork's return.
Hungary
The Hungarian Crown Jewels were taken from their homeland by the Nazis in the Second World War. The treasures were recovered in Mattsee in Austria by the U.S. 18th Infantry Division on 4 May 1945 and kept by the United States Army during the Cold War at Fort Knox, Kentucky. The Hungarian regalia was repatriated on 6 January 1978 by Secretary of State Cyrus Vance, on the orders of President Carter.
India and Pakistan
The British government has rejected demands from the Indian government to repatriate artifacts such as the "Kohinoor Diamond" and "Sultanganj Buddha" which were taken from the Indian subcontinent during the period of British colonial rule, citing a law (British Museum Act 1963) that prevents it from giving back the items. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is planning to join a campaign with the support of UNESCO and other countries to repatriate the artifacts.
In turn, India holds many objects from Pakistan, especially those from the Indus Valley civilization which were excavated in Pakistan in the decades just before the Partition of India, though some were returned at that time. Periodically, Pakistani politicians call for more repatriations. In 1972, during the discussions for the Simla Agreement between Pakistan and India, Indira Gandhi, the Prime Minister of India, is reported to have told Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, the President of Pakistan, that he could take back only one of the Priest-King sculpture and the other most iconic Indus sculpture, the Dancing Girl, both excavated at Mohenjo-daro in the 1920s; Bhutto chose the Priest-King, now in Islamabad.
Ireland
Ireland lies in an unusual place with regard to the repatriation of cultural artefacts; the entire island was under British rule until 1922, when part of it became the independent Irish Free State (now the Republic of Ireland). During the centuries of British rule, many Irish historical artefacts made their way into British collections and museums. At the same time, many Anglo-Irish (and some Catholic Irish) people went abroad as part of the armies and administrators of the British Empire, and objects acquired in the Empire are now in several Irish museums and collections.
In addition, many objects found in Northern Ireland were sent in the 19th century to what is now the National Museum of Ireland in Dublin, then regarded as the national collection for all of Ireland, and have not been repatriated to Northern Ireland since the Partition of Ireland in 1922; the Broighter Hoard is an example.
Foreign objects in Ireland
The National Museum of Ireland holds over 15,000 objects in its ethnographic collections; in 2021, head of collections Audrey Whitty announced that the museum group would investigate its collections, with a view to repatriation of those viewed as "plunder". In 2013, Fintan O'Toole noted that much of the material in the NMI's ethnographic collection "lies in the grey area between trade and coercive acquisition: an expansive terrain in imperial relations," but that other objects were unambiguously loot, taken in punitive expeditions in Africa, Asia and Oceania. In April 2021, the National Museum announced that 21 Benin bronzes would be returned to Africa. Similar questions surround the Hunt Museum (Limerick) and the Ulster Museum (in Northern Ireland, still part of the United Kingdom).
In 2017, Senator Fintan Warfield called on Irish museums to return looted objects, saying that "such material should only be returned following a national conversation, as well as the public display and independent survey of such collections, and provided that their final destination is safe and secure [...] we should not forget that such collections are and always will be the heritage of indigenous people around the world; in locations such as Burma, China, and Egypt." The Department of Arts, Heritage and Gaeltacht objected based on cost grounds, and noted that institutions such as National Museum and National Library enjoy curatorial independence.
Irish artefacts abroad
Very few older objects from Ireland have left the British Isles, but many are in England, especially the British Museum, which was regarded as the appropriate national museum before the foundation of the National Museum of Ireland in 1877, and sometimes afterwards. Dr Laura McAtackney of Aarhus University has noted that "Amongst discussions on repatriation from colonial museums, Irish objects are almost absent, when of course most were deposited in the British Museum (amongst other museums) pre-independence."
The skeleton of the "Irish Giant" Charles Byrne (1761–1783) is on public display in the Hunterian Museum, despite it being Byrne's express wish to be buried at sea. Author Hilary Mantel called in 2020 for his remains to be buried in Ireland.
Augustus Pitt Rivers removed three 5th-century ogham stones from Roovesmoor Rath, County Cork; they are now in the British Museum. The British Museum also holds 200 Irish-language manuscripts, many bequeathed by landowners but some passing in conflict, such as the Book of Lismore, seized by Lewis Boyle, 1st Viscount Boyle of Kinalmeaky in the Irish Confederate Wars. In 2020 the Book of Lismore was donated to University College Cork by the Chatsworth Settlement Trust. The college plans to display it in their Boole Library. Other notable Irish artefacts in the British Museum include the Bell Shrine of St. Cuileáin, Londesborough Brooch, swords, half of the Dowris Hoard, part of the Mooghaun North Hoard, the Dunaverney flesh-hook, the Kells Crozier, torcs, four crucifixion plaques, armlets, seals, religious plaques, and rings.
The Ashmolean Museum also contains hundreds of Irish artefacts collected under British rule, such as the Ballyshannon Sun-Disc, presented to the museum in 1696, just after the Williamite War; and two gold lunulae from County Cork, collected by John Evans.
Within Ireland
Important objects excavated in Northern Ireland were mostly sent to London, then Dublin, then after Irish Independence often London again, until 1962 when the Ulster Museum was formed as a national museum, receiving some of the London material, but not pieces such as the Broighter Hoard in Dublin.
Victorian anthropologists from Trinity College Dublin removed skulls from monastic sites in the West of Ireland. The repatriation of these remains has also been requested, and in February 2023 the college announced that they would return 13 skulls stolen from Inishbofin, County Galway in the 19th century.
Israel
Even though Turkey has launched an aggressive campaign to repatriate Ottoman-era artifacts it claims were looted by imperial powers, it has refused to return the Siloam inscription (and other artifacts unearthed in Palestine and transferred to Turkey) to Israel. This inconsistent position has been noted by Hershel Shanks, founder of the Biblical Archaeology Review, among others.
Italy
In February 2006, the Metropolitan Museum of Art negotiated the repatriation of the Euphronios Krater to Italy, from where it was thought to have been looted in the early 1970s.
Libya
In 2008, Italy returned to Libya the Venus of Cyrene, which had been transported to Italy almost 100 years earlier.
Morocco
In 1612, the personal library of Sultan Zaydan An-Nasser of Morocco was trusted to French consul Jean Phillipe de Castellane for transportation.
After Castellane waited for six days not receiving his pay, he sailed away.
But four Spanish ships from Admiral Luis Fajardo's fleet captured the ship and took it to Lisbon (then part of the Spanish Empire).
In 1614, the Zaydani Library was transmitted to El Escorial.
Moroccan diplomats have since asked for the manuscripts to be returned.
Some other Arabic manuscripts have been delivered by Spain, but not the Zaydani collection.
In 2013, the Spanish Cultural Heritage Institute presented microfilm copies of the manuscripts to Moroccan authorities.
South Korea
In November 2010, Japan agreed to return some 1,000 cultural objects to South Korea that were plundered during its colonial occupation from 1910 to 1945. The collection includes a collection of royal books called Uigwe from the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910).
United States
The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), passed in 1990, provides a process for museums and federal agencies to return certain cultural items such as human remains, funerary objects, sacred objects, etc. to lineal descendants and culturally affiliated Indian tribes and Native Hawaiian organisations. However, the legislation has its limitations and has been successfully contested both domestically and extraterritorially.
The Iraqi Jewish Archive is a collection of 2,700 books and tens of thousands of historical documents from Iraq's Jewish community discovered by the United States Army in the basement of Saddam Hussein's intelligence headquarters during the US invasion of Iraq in 2003. These materials were abandoned during Operation Ezra and Nehemiah in the 1950s, when almost all Iraqi Jews made aliyah to Israel on the condition (imposed by the Iraqi government) that they leave their property behind. The archive has been in temporary US custody since 2003, and is scheduled to be transferred permanently to Iraq in 2018. This plan is controversial: some Middle-East scholars and Jewish organizations have opined that because the materials were abandoned under duress, and because almost no Jews live in Iraq today, the archive should instead be housed in Israel or the United States.
Even prior to the report by Sarr and Savoy, many collections in the US had already looked into the provenance of their objects representing African or other non-Western art. In 2008, the American Association of Museum Directors adopted guidelines for the acquisition of artefacts.
Thus, provenance research and awareness to keep their collections above reproach are increasingly prompting museum curators to favourably respond to demands for restitution. Looking at the numbers of objects, however, there are relatively few known items that have been “de-accessed” and restituted, for example to Nigeria.
In 2015, the Cleveland Museum of Art voluntarily returned to Cambodia a 10th-century sculpture of the Hindu monkey god Hanuman, after a curator from the museum uncovered evidence that it had been looted. Tess Davis, an archaeologist and lawyer for the Antiquities Coalition, praised the museum's decision, but said, “The Hanuman first surfaced on the market, while Cambodia was in the midst of a war and facing genocide. How could anyone not know this was stolen property? The only answer is that no one wanted to know.”
In August 2021, some 17 000 artworks from ancient Mesopotamia dating back to more than 4.000 years were returned to Iraq from museums in the U.S. They had been looted after the 2003 invasion of Iraq and, despite their illegal provenance, been sold on the international market. One of these items, the so-called the Gilgamesh Dream Tablet, a historical stone slab with inscriptions, had been bought in 2014 through international auction house Christie's for more than $1.6 million by a museum in Washington, D.C.
Poland
In 2022, Piotr Gliński, Poland's culture minister, announced a formal request for Russia's Pushkin Museum to return seven paintings that were looted by the Red Army during World War II. This request concerns seven paintings by Italian artists dating from the 14th to the 18th century, including Two Saints by Spinello Aretino and Adoration of the Child by Lorenzo di Credi.
See also
Byzantine Fresco Chapel, Houston
Repatriation and reburial of human remains
Welsh artefacts in museums outside Wales
Notes and references
Cited works
Further reading
Books
Online
Art repatriation
The Return Address: Where Does Heritage Belong? (2020, dir. Issabella Orlando) Documentary Film
Discussion of ethics
2006 article from the University of Wisconsin
Looted art
San Francisco Chronicle, 2003 article on repatriation of looted art
Attempts to locate looted art in British regional museums
Quedlinburg Art Affair
Cultural repatriation
US National Park Service on International Repatriation
Return of Aboriginal Australian remains from England
Smithsonian cultural repatriation program
Cultural heritage |
4327267 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warhawk%20%282007%20video%20game%29 | Warhawk (2007 video game) | Warhawk was a multiplayer third-person shooter video game developed by Incognito Entertainment for the PlayStation 3. It was a remake of an aerial warfare game of the same name, which was an early title on the original PlayStation. Santa Monica Studio assisted on development. It was the first PlayStation 3 game to be available both for download on the PlayStation Network and for retail on Blu-ray Disc. For the United States, Blu-ray Disc and PlayStation Network versions were released on August 28, 2007. The PlayStation Network version was released in Europe, Australia and Japan on August 30, August 31 and October 4 respectively. The Blu-ray Disc version was released in Australia and Europe on September 20 and September 21, respectively, but was not released in Japan.
Warhawk was initially intended to have both single-player and multiplayer modes, however the single-player element was canceled during development due to concerns that it was inferior to the game's multiplayer component. The game was released with five maps (each with five possible configurations) and four game types, Deathmatch, Team Deathmatch, Zones and Capture the Flag. After the 1.4 update, the number of game types increased to six with the addition of the Hero and Collection modes. Three optional expansion packs for the game containing new maps and equipment increase the number of available maps to eight.
Warhawk was met with a generally positive reception by reviewers. However, for a few months after its initial launch it was plagued by connection and server issues, including ranking issues with players, which were subsequently corrected in updates. The player is able to rank-up though 20 ranks ranging from Recruit to General, unlocking new personnel and aircraft customization options at each rank. A spiritual successor, Starhawk, was released in May 2012.
Sony shut down Warhawk's online servers on January 31, 2019, at 8 am GMT, providing notice by email to PlayStation Network members. Since the shutdown, numerous players in the game's community have utilised third party tools and services such as XLink Kai and PlayStation Online Network Emulated to continue playing.
Gameplay
Warhawk is a third-person shooter set in a science fictional, perpetual war between the Eucadian Republic and Chernovan Empire (blue and red team, respectively).
There are two ground vehicles, a jeep and a tank, and an armored personnel carrier is added by the Operation: Broken Mirror expansion. There are two air vehicles, the Warhawk and Nemesis (which are only cosmetically different), both of which can use nine weapons, an example is the AS-3 Tow Missile system. That weapon is the only weapon in the game where the player guides the weapon, the players screen is devoted to guiding the missile and leaving the player open to getting hit. But the upside is that it does massive damage and is the largest explosion in the game. The Omega Dawn expansion adds a dropship, and the Fallen Star expansion adds a jetpack. There are three turrets available to the player (anti-air missile turret, anti-air flak turret, and the .50 caliber anti-infantry machine gun). The game uses the PlayStation 3 Sixaxis and DualShock 3 controllers. The game can be set to make use of these controllers' motion sensing function to allow the players to control aircraft and ground vehicles by tilting the controller in different directions rather than the more conventional methods of using the D-pad or analog sticks. However, a traditional control scheme is the default option. Warhawk offers online and offline multiplayer play. Offline allows for 1-4 players splitscreen (without bots). Online features up to 32-player battles, with the ability to have up to 4 players use one PlayStation 3 in split screen mode (on non-ranked servers that permit it). Players 2-4 can enter or exit the game while a match is in progress.
The game uses medals and rewards, which are awarded for certain tasks. As of v1.50, the game supports trophies, which will be used in the online service PlayStation Home. Players are also able to customize their characters with armor squad markings, Warhawk paint schemes, and other accessories. More customization options are unlocked as the player increases in rank. Warhawk also allows the creation of clans, which may participate in online events and competitions. The game also makes use of arbiters, paid anonymous players who are tasked to find cheaters within the game. They are able to punish offending players in several ways, such as an email warning, a forum post, a kick, or a temporary/permanent ban. Arbiters can also request that the player's stats be erased.
PlayStation Home
Warhawk is one of many games that supports game launching in PlayStation Home. This feature allows players to host a game in Home and then launch it once other players have joined. The player may even invite friends to the game launch. Once the game has been launched from Home the players may return to Home at any time via the "Return to PlayStation Home" option that appears instead of the "Quit Game" option. On February 26, 2009, Incognito Entertainment and Santa Monica Studio launched the Warhawk space for PlayStation Home. Beyond its unique aesthetics, the space is functionally similar to those for Uncharted: Drake's Fortune and Far Cry 2, with one notable exception: the "Warhawk Sand Table". It's a place to plan in-game strategies using "VR" set-pieces—vehicles, maneuver icons, etc. - which can be moved around on 2D versions of any of the game's maps (and their variants).
The first person to access the table is in control. Here's where one of the problems arises: anyone can walk up and watch as a user plans their "secret" strategy. Furthermore, there's no way to share or use the finished battle plan within the game. It's all up to each player's memory (or notepad).
There is also a "Learning Terminal" (eight in all) that tells the users about General Hints, Weapons, and Flying.
Outso developed the Warhawk game space for Incognito Entertainment and Santa Monica Studio as well as the "Warhawk Sand Table" in the space.
On February 11, 2010, a Warhawk personal space was released in Home. It includes the Sand Table featured in the Game Space as well as a multiplayer turret mini-game.
As of July 2010, the Warhawk game space has been removed from PlayStation Home, due to lack of players actually using the space.
Game modes
Warhawk supports six separate game modes compatible with all variations of all of the maps.
Deathmatch. Every man for himself. The game ends when a player reaches the score limit, or when time expires.
Team Deathmatch. Same rules as a deathmatch except the player is automatically assigned to either the Chernovan (red) or Eucadian (blue) teams. Game ends when the combined score limit is met or when time expires.
Dogfight. A variation on Deathmatch/Team Deathmatch where you play only in the Warhawk/Nemesis planes.
Hero. A version of the team deathmatch where a hero is randomly selected on both sides for one minute, or until the hero dies. The hero gets a health boost, damage boost, and every weapon in the game (which the hero can keep if he survives the one minute). The key difference between Hero and TDM is that in TDM all enemy kills are counted to the team total whereas in Hero, only when killing the Hero or when the Hero kills an enemy are they counted towards the total.
Capture the Flag. This mode of game play is by far the most popular among Warhawk players. In this mode each team has a flag at their base which they must defend while attempting to capture the second flag in their opponent's base. You can only capture the flag if your flag remains at the base.
Collection. This mode features four "cores" scattered along the map. The object is to collect as many cores as possible. Once a core has been collected, a new one will respawn in the same spot as where the player got it. If a player dies, all cores are lost, and an enemy, or nearby teammate can collect them.
Zones. The object of this mode is to capture various control points on the map. Each control point has three levels for each team, and a neutral level. A player can do this in other game modes (except deathmatch) to earn points for yourself, but in Zones, their team gains points for the number of zones the player has, and how many levels each one has. The player will only be able to capture levels if the area around it is clear, or captured by their team. The game ends when the time runs out, score limit is reached, or if the player is able to capture all control points.
Development
Warhawk was first announced to the public in May 2005, with a working build shown at E3 in 2006. This version was the first PlayStation 3 title to be shown with the newly announced Sixaxis motion sensing technology. In February 2007, it was announced that the single player element of the game was to be pulled. This was due to concerns Incognito had over the quality of the single-player campaign, particularly when compared to the multi-player modes. Dylan Jobe, the game's director, stated, "If we were to continue down our single-player/multiplayer approach, it would have resulted in not as good single player or not as good multiplayer". The extra development of the multiplayer mode was used to improve existing elements such as in-game communication, and to implement new features such as On Demand Split Screen, whereby players can easily enter split screen mid-game. Split screen can only be used in battles that allow it. Only unranked servers have the ability to have it and even then, it is an option whether or not the host wants it on or off. It was also revealed at the same time that Warhawk would be made available for download over the PlayStation Network.
In August 2007, Sony Computer Entertainment America released news that PlayStation 3 consoles would be used as the dedicated servers for Warhawk. A photograph was released which showed a server room with several PlayStation 3 consoles in racks. Each server is able to support 32 players. The games developers have commented that the engine used in the game features technology which could not be easily implemented on any other platform, such as procedurally generated water and waves, as well as volumetric clouds.
Following the games release, many issues with networking and player statistics were reported, such as delays in receiving points and awards, failure to receive the points or awards, and "connection failed" and "connection lost" errors. To address these issues, Incognito released several server-side patches before releasing the game's first update, Version 1.1. This update addressed the majority of issues users experienced with the game, with others being addressed in the Version 1.2 update. A demo was released on the PlayStation Store on October 9, 2008.
Release
There was initial confusion as to how this game would be distributed to consumers, after the announcement that it would be a multiplayer-only title. Sony announced on May 16, 2007, that there would be two iterations of the game. The game alone is downloadable from the PlayStation Store for US$29.99 (£19.99, €29.99), with an initial download size of 798MB. This version is restricted to the PlayStation Network account that buys it. The second is a retail Blu-ray Disc version that sells for $59.99 (the standard retail price of most PlayStation 3 games upon release), bundled with a Jabra BT125 Bluetooth headset in America and the Jabra BT135 in Europe, allowing players to chat with other players online while playing the game. An additional third was later released on October 10, 2007 without the inclusion of a USB headset, which was priced at US$39.99. Both retail versions feature extra content such as behind-the-scenes developer interviews, concept art and trailers. Warhawk was re-released as a Greatest Hits title on July 28, 2008 for $29.99.
Updates and expansions
Additional downloadable content (DLC) has been released, with more announced, since the game's launch. Expansions include new maps, weapon upgrades and character customization options. The DualShock 3 controller became compatible with the game upon the release of the version 1.20 patch. Incognito has stated that any future development on the incomplete single player campaign would only be released as a separate product, and not as an expansion to the current game. Warhawk updates are free, but expansion packs are sold online for a price. Updates are mandatory installations that must be completed in order to play the game. Expansion packs are optional, and the ability to purchase expansion packs is available within the menu of the game itself, as well as through the PlayStation Store.
The 1.1 and 1.2 updates were released on October 19, 2007 and December 19, 2007 respectively, fixing numerous exploits and stability issues. Update 1.3 was released on April 2, 2008 and included two new weapons, eighteen new player-made customizations for planes and forty-four new player-made custom insignias for both troops and planes, integration of PlayStation Home, and new in-game chat features, such as cross-team chat. Also in update 1.3, the "stat padding" issue, a bug that allowed game players to cheat by increasing their points cumulatively by dropping the opponents' flag off the level and having it respawn back into the players' hands to repeat, was resolved by completely removing the ability to drop the flag. Update 1.4, released on July 16, 2008, features two new game modes called "Hero" and "Collection," and introduced the Quick Join feature, which searches for a server that connects the user to matches that work with the user's current level. The next update, Version 1.5, was released on August 27, 2008 and includes trophy support, the winning entries from the European version of the paint and insignia contest, and allows the user to play music via the XrossMediaBar in-game.
Three expansion packs have been released. The first, "Operation: Omega Dawn," released on December 20, 2007, includes a new night-themed map, Omega Factory, and a new aircraft, the KT-424 Combat Dropship. The second expansion pack was released on April 17, 2008 entitled "Operation: Broken Mirror", which includes a new armoured personnel carrier equipped with an energy shield and the ability to boost, similar to a Warhawk, as well as serving as a mobile spawn point. A new map called Vaporfield Glacier was also included in the new expansion. It is the largest map to date, and includes 10 different layouts. In the PlayStation Store, there is also an option to purchase the first two Booster-packs for a reduced price, and there will be another combo pack with all three included. The latest booster pack, "Operation Fallen Star," was released on August 28, 2008 and added the Icarus MK1 Jetpack which allows troops to fire while airborne as well as a new map called Tau Crater. All three of the booster packs cannot be combined, nor can one affiliate with another, and people who do not own an expansion featured in a server they are attempting to join will not be able to join the server.
On August 27, 2008 the 1.5 patch was released and included the addition of trophy support. A total of 57 trophies are available in the game, 10 of which are retroactive and can be obtained based on previously recorded statistics without the user having to complete tasks a second time. A further 34 are based upon gameplay and so are not retroactive. The trophies can be attained Split-screen or Unranked as well. Each of the available expansions also feature an additional 4 trophies.
On May 13, 2011, game developer Dylan Jobe unveiled the successor to the game entitled Starhawk on GTTV. Starhawk was released on May 8, 2012.
Music
The music is composed by both Christopher Lennertz and Timothy Michael Wynn. Their scores for this video game were recognized as one of the best video game scores of 2007 by IGN.
Reception
Warhawk generally received positive reviews, with its aggregate review scores being classed as generally favorable by Metacritic and GameRankings. PSM provided the lowest review score officially qualified by the GameRankings website. The magazine described it as "a third-person shooter that never quite gets off the ground." Other reviews were more positive in their outlook. PSM3 described the game as "a masterpiece of balance, of design, and the jewel in Sony's online crown." UK magazine Edge described it as an "instantly gratifying experience", also saying that the lack of a single-player campaign was made up for by "its brilliantly implemented notion of flight and considered balance". Nick Costanza and Vin Acosta were largely critical of the game, saying "it can't be taken seriously".
1UP.com gave Warhawk a positive review, but said, "It's just not quite $40 worth," referring to the price of the downloadable version on the U.S. PlayStation Store. It was given the IGN Editors' Choice Award, calling it "a AAA experience that is an adrenaline rush for online fans." Game Informer described Warhawk as "better than they'd hoped for". GamePro stated that although Warhawk offers an intense online combat experience, being dropped immediately into the action leaves you "somewhat bewildered" and doesn't give you that "feeling of connection" to the game. GameTrailers described Warhawk as "simply fun, easy to compete, but challenging to shine." Adam Sessler from X-Play complimented the game's multiplayer only style saying "...I wouldn't have it any other way." Gaming Target selected Warhawk as one of their "52 Games We'll Still Be Playing From 2007" and awarded it "PlayStation 3-Exclusive Game of the Year".
Notes
References
External links
2007 video games
PlayStation 3 games
PlayStation Network games
PlayStation 3-only games
Science fiction video games
Sony Interactive Entertainment games
Third-person shooters
Video game remakes
Warhawk (franchise)
Multiplayer video games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games scored by Christopher Lennertz
Products and services discontinued in 2019
Inactive multiplayer online games
Incognito Entertainment games |
4327318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thistle%2C%20Utah | Thistle, Utah | Thistle is a ghost town in Spanish Fork Canyon in southeastern Utah County, Utah, United States. During the era of steam locomotives, the town's primary industry was servicing trains for the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad (often shortened to D&RG, D&RGW, or Rio Grande). The fortunes of the town were closely linked with those of the railroad until the changeover to diesel locomotives, when the town started to decline.
In April 1983, a massive landslide (specifically a complex earthflow) dammed the Spanish Fork River. The residents were evacuated as nearly of water backed up, flooding the town. Thistle was destroyed; only a few structures were left partially standing. Federal and state government agencies have said this was the most costly landslide in United States history, the economic consequences of which affected the entire region. The landslide resulted in the first presidentially declared disaster area in Utah.
U.S. Route 6 (US‑6), U.S. Route 89 (US‑89) and the railroad (now part of Union Pacific Railroad's Central Corridor) were closed for several months, until they were rebuilt on a higher alignment overlooking the area. The remains of Thistle are visible from a view area along US‑89 or from the California Zephyr passenger train.
Geography
Thistle is about southeast of Salt Lake City, at the confluence of the two primary tributaries to the Spanish Fork River, Thistle Creek and Soldier Creek. This confluence, at an elevation of , is also the junction of two naturally formed routes across the mountains of central Utah. The primary route crosses the Wasatch Mountains, via the Wasatch Plateau and Soldier Summit. This route was carved by the tributaries of the Price River on the eastern side of the mountains and the Spanish Fork on the west. In addition, Thistle Creek provides a route south from Thistle towards the communities of the Sanpete and Sevier valleys. The Spanish Fork flows northwest from Thistle, towards and through the city of Spanish Fork, before reaching Utah Lake.
These natural paths have provided the route of several transcontinental trails, highways and railroads since their discovery. The named transportation arteries passing through Thistle include: US‑6 (originally numbered US-50), US‑89, the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad's Utah Division (now part of Union Pacific Railroad's Central Corridor) and D&RGW's Marysvale Branch line (abandoned because of the landslide).
History
The trade route on which Thistle lies was used by Indian tribes before the arrival of European settlers; two Ute chiefs, Taby and Peteetneet, led tribal migrations through the canyon each spring and fall. The first recorded journey by Europeans to modern Thistle was the Domínguez–Escalante expedition, which explored the territory with Indian guides. A small group of Utes inhabiting the canyon frequently raided the newcomers, and as a result were forcibly relocated in the 1870s.
Most of Thistle's residents were railroad employees sent to live in the town, but there were some who had settled before the railroads arrived. The first settlers were part of the Mormon migration to Utah, and the first of these was the Pace family, who migrated from Nauvoo, Illinois, reaching Thistle in 1848. Fifth-generation descendants of the Pace settlers continued to operate a family-owned cattle ranch until the town was evacuated. Other settlers included Mormons who originally settled elsewhere in Utah but subsequently arrived to homestead fertile ground on Billies Mountain, on the north wall of the canyon. Among them was the mountain's presumed namesake, William Johnson. Homesteading was practiced in Thistle until the early 1900s. Until the arrival of the railroads, the town's economy was based mainly on farming and ranching, although there was also some mining activity in the region, including a vein of asphaltum that was mined between 1892 and 1914.
Railroads
The first railroad track laid through Thistle was a narrow-gauge spur line servicing coal mines near today's Scofield Reservoir, built in 1878 by the Utah and Pleasant Valley Railway. By 1890, the Denver and Rio Grande Western, which acquired the line in a foreclosure sale in 1882, had rebuilt the line to standard gauge. The D&RGW connected this line with one they had built west from Colorado, completing a link from Salt Lake City to Denver.
The railroad built several facilities in Thistle to service and prepare trains for the change in grade and curvature of the line. The railroad placed helper engines on eastbound trains at Thistle for the ascent to Soldier Summit. The town provided a meal service for the trains until the use of on-board dining cars eliminated the need for meal stops.
Thistle saw more rail traffic with the construction of the Marysvale Branch line. This line branched from the main at Thistle, following modern US‑89 towards mines near Marysvale. Another line through Thistle, paralleling the D&RGW main, was built by the Utah Railway. The two lines were later combined into a dual-track main line as part of a trackage rights agreement between the two companies.
Rail traffic through Thistle continued to increase as the Rio Grande cooperated with connecting railroads, making the rail line through Thistle a bridge line for transcontinental rail traffic. The growth of Thistle was closely tied to the success of the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad throughout the era of steam locomotives.
At its peak, around 1917, Thistle had about 600 residents. The town's railroad infrastructure included a five-stall roundhouse, depot, machine shop, and structures to restock passing trains with sand, coal and water. Non-railroad infrastructure included general stores, a post office, barber shop, saloon, pool hall, bakeries and restaurants. The largest building was a two-story schoolhouse, built in 1911.
In the 1950s, the Denver & Rio Grande Western began to phase out steam locomotives in favor of diesel locomotives, which require less maintenance. With the change in technology, Thistle faded in importance. Gradually the town shrank in population; the passenger depot was torn down in 1972 and the post office closed in 1974. By 1983, only a few families remained in Thistle.
Landslide
Rio Grande maintenance personnel began noticing unstable ground downstream from Thistle years before the landslide occurred. Maintenance crews repaired the track on several occasions, but they did not fully investigate the problem. Beginning with the remnants of Hurricane Olivia, the autumn and winter of 1982–83 featured record-breaking snow and rainfall. As the spring thaw melted the winter snow, the mountains in the area became saturated with water.
By April 1983, track deformation was a serious issue. On April 13, the division track master flew to Denver to explain the situation at a specially-called staff meeting. On the same day, a Utah Highway Patrol officer struck a newly created buckle in the highway that threw him against the roof of his vehicle. By the end of the day, a full maintenance crew was struggling to keep US‑6/US‑89 open. All trains were limited to speeds less than , and were accompanied by maintenance personnel who had to continually work to keep the tracks in line. The last train to pass through downtown Thistle was the westbound Rio Grande Zephyr, on April 14, 1983 at about 8:30 p.m. That night, both US‑6/US‑89 and the rail line were closed. One westbound freight train that had already left Denver was turned back. All through trains between Denver and Salt Lake City were rerouted to Union Pacific Railroad's Overland Route through Wyoming. By April 16, the tracks were completely buried and a voluntary evacuation order was issued for the town.
On April 17, a final attempt to keep the landslide from blocking the flow of the river failed. That day, the Utah Department of Transportation and the Rio Grande announced plans to abandon the existing transportation arteries and build new corridors. Both the highway and railroad would be re-routed by blasting a path scaling the north wall of Spanish Fork Canyon. The new arteries would pass the slide by dynamiting through Billies Mountain, also along the north canyon wall. Engineers estimated the dam created by the toe of the landslide would eventually reach tall. The evacuation order was changed from voluntary to mandatory. Volunteers transported as many people and belongings as possible to the small town of Birdseye, about south. Most residents were able to recover only a fraction of their belongings; some had less than two hours' notice before the water reached their house. Thistle's oldest resident celebrated her 90th birthday at the evacuation center in Birdseye. By the 18th, the waterline had reached the rooftops of the 22 previously occupied houses. By the 19th, an entire mountain was moving at about per hour, and US‑6/US‑89 was buried by of soil.
Governor Scott Matheson requested federal aid to deal with the situation. After a visit to the area by the director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency, U.S. president Ronald Reagan issued the first presidential disaster area declaration for the state of Utah. The landslide eventually formed a dam that created a lake long and over deep. Concerned the dam could fail, the state of Utah decided to build a tunnel to re-route the flow of the river. The residents of downstream Spanish Fork were told to be prepared to evacuate. Engineers estimated that if the dam failed, they would have 30 to 45 minutes notice before the water reached the city.
Aftermath
Thistle was almost completely destroyed. Most wooden buildings were carried away in the floodwaters. The state installed a temporary pumping station to prevent the lake from overflowing the dam; patrol boats skimmed up the floating remains of the town to prevent the debris from blocking the pumps. Most remains were either naturally deposited or placed on the eastern shore of the lake.
By autumn, the tunnels to restore the flow of the river and drain the lake were operational. Shortly after, debates among former residents, neighboring residents, and government agencies began on what to do with the dam created by the landslide; some wanted to make the lake permanent. The state engineer commissioned a study to determine if the landslide dam could be used to retain water; it recommended building a new dam upstream from the landslide, rather than attempting engineering work on the landslide dam.
In the years following, the former residents of Thistle filed various lawsuits to recover their losses. In one, they claimed that their property was taken to rebuild the road and railroad without just compensation. Another lawsuit claimed negligence on the part of the D&RGW. The residents argued that the railroad's maintenance workers knew the ground was unstable; however, they only repaired the track. The residents contended the slide could have been prevented by using a water drainage system to relieve pressure at the head of the unstable area. They further contended that such a system could have been put in place had the railroad thoroughly investigated the problem upon first noticing it. The engineering firm employed by the Rio Grande said that their studies indicated the crown of the landslide was about above the level of the tracks, and that the Rio Grande did not know the true size of the unstable area until the slide was in motion. A jury absolved the D&RGW of responsibility. The plaintiffs appealed the decision, and a second trial in 1993 resulted in a $1.1 million award for the landowners (equivalent to $ million in ). The D&RGW filed suit against the Utah Railway over sharing the costs from the landslide. The Utah Railway had an ownership interest in the line, based on a track-sharing agreement.
Economic effects
The landslide closed the main railroad for three months, and US‑6 and US‑89 for eight months, during which time transportation between the communities of eastern and southeastern Utah and the rest of the state was substantially impaired. Security for the isolated part of Utah County was temporarily assigned to the Utah Highway Patrol.
The economic effects of the closure of these transportation arteries were felt throughout the western United States; the closure devastated rural Utah. The operations of coal mines, uranium mines, turkey farms, animal feed companies, gypsum mines, and cement and clay factories were severely impacted. At least two trucking firms and one oil-producing firm suspended or ceased operations. Southeastern Utah's tourism industry suffered without access for visitors from the north and west. Some people who lived and worked on opposite sides of the landslide area suddenly had commutes exceeding . The highway patrol temporarily closed a weigh station at Peerless (a location along the US‑6 corridor near Helper) and built a temporary weigh station near Salina (along I-70 about south of Thistle), which saw a sudden increase in truck traffic. The highway patrol estimated the temporary facilities inspected 57,000 trucks and made 80 arrests.
The direct cost of the landslide was estimated at $200 million (equivalent to $ million in ). However, some estimates of the total cost reached as high as $400 million (equivalent to $ million in ). The D&RGW estimated the slide cost them $80 million in lost revenue (equivalent to $ million in ), averaging $1 million for each day that the tracks were out-of-service. This figure included $19 million in payments to the Union Pacific for the use of their lines. The United States Geological Survey and the state of Utah have called the Thistle landslide the most costly ever in the United States.
Railroad
To expedite construction, the railroad had crews in Utah focused on grading the new path and boring a tunnel, while crews in Colorado built track segments that were transported to site. On July 4, 1983, at 3:05 p.m., safety inspectors declared the line ready for operation. At 3:12 p.m., the centralized traffic control signals gave a green light to the first train to pass through the Thistle area since the slide began, an eastbound freight train coming from the Southern Pacific Railroad at Ogden, destined for Herington, Kansas. Although the line's re-opening on Independence Day was coincidental, the first train became part of the local holiday celebrations. The first passenger train to use the new alignment was the California Zephyr, on July 16.
Debates ensued over the fate of the Marysvale Branch line. The mines at the end of the line had long closed; the last train to traverse the entire length of the line passed through in 1970. Still, farmers and industry in the Sevier and Sanpete Valleys generated enough traffic that the line broke even most years. However, this line was severely damaged, with several washed-out bridges and railroad tracks draping over the sides of newly created cliffs. The railroad determined that at best it would take years to recover the cost of rebuilding the line.
The residents of Richfield pressured the Rio Grande to use the portion of the line that was still intact and build a connection to an existing Union Pacific line (the Sharp Subdivision) near Nephi, roughly parallel to State Route 28. However, the railroad determined with the additional cost of acquiring land for the new right-of-way, the cost would be comparable to rebuilding the old route. In addition, the Rio Grande would have to pay trackage rights to the Union Pacific for the connection from Nephi, which would further erode profits on a line that was barely profitable. In the end, the Rio Grande sold the line to a scrap dealer who dismantled it. Since the line's closure, there have been multiple proposals to rebuild it. Studies note the loss of railroad access to the region has affected the ability of local industries to compete with producers in other regions that have rail access. A 2002 study placed the cost of rebuilding the modified routing of the Marysvale Branch line at $80 million, while a 2015 study placed the cost of rebuilding the line as far south as Salina at $110 million (equivalent to $ million in ). The 2015 study listed restoring rail access to the region as one of three priorities for new freight rail lines in a study presented by the Utah Department of Transportation detailing the current state of Utah's rail infrastructure. It specifically noted an increase of coal hauling trucks on highways and streets in the area due to the loss of rail access.
Highways
The new alignment of US‑6/US‑89 was opened on December 30, 1983. The dedication was planned for the next day, but lines of cars formed at the barricades as soon as news broke that the highway was complete. Some were residents anxious to see the area or visit relatives they had not seen since the slide; others were truck drivers frustrated by long detours. The Highway Patrol requested the ceremony be canceled and the highway opened early, as they were unable to disperse the crowds.
When the first traffic flowed, crews had not finished some final tasks, such as striping the roadway. Motorists saw a relocation with several mountain cuts built high up the canyon wall, with a view of the slide and former lake. The roadbed was not expected to last, as weather conditions had been unfavorable when the asphalt was laid. Two mountain cuts were unstable, requiring several months of work before they could be left unattended. During this time, the state stationed two full-time watches at the cuts, who would close the road while falling rocks were cleared. The cut through Billies Mountain was described by the construction crews as a new, man-made mountain pass.
The pending completion of the again-rebuilt US‑6/US‑89, with properly laid asphalt and stable rock cuts, was announced in November 1984, 18 months after the closure of the original alignment. Starting in 1993, the Utah Department of Transportation began discussions with former Thistle residents to build a memorial to the town. The department maintains a view area overlooking the townsite along US‑6/US‑89.
Coal Hollow fire
On August 4, 2018, a lightning bolt sparked a large fire in Spanish Fork Canyon. More than of land were destroyed by the fire. Residents of the canyon were evacuated as a precaution. The fire affected Thistle, extending construction projects. Later that year vandals burned one of the remaining homes to the ground.
Geology and climate
The landslide area near Thistle is a valley formed in a depression in an area of bedrock known as the Charleston–Nebo thrust plate. The rock in this plate dates from the Permian and Pennsylvanian to the Jurassic periods, but the plate appears to have formed elsewhere and moved to the modern Thistle area during the Late Cretaceous epoch. The layers of sedimentary rock above the thrust plate are younger, dating to the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. The rock debris in the landslide itself comes from the North Horn and Ankareh formations.
The area around Thistle has always been prone to landslides. Pre-historic landslides created the more gentle slopes that made the area usable as a transportation corridor across the Wasatch Mountains. Minor landslides have been frequently observed, and continue to occur. The largest recorded landslides are the 1983 slide which destroyed the town, and a smaller one in 1998.
The climate at downstream Spanish Fork is classified as arid with four distinct seasons. Temperatures range from an average high of in July and an average low of in January. Except for the spring months, precipitation averages less than per month.
See also
List of ghost towns in Utah
Other effects of the 1983 flooding
Utah Flood of 1983
Colorado River Floods of 1983
Great Salt Lake#West Desert Pumping Project – engineering effort to mitigate the flooding
Other towns established by the railroad to service or aid trains over the grade of the Wasatch Plateau
Mill Fork, Utah
Tucker, Utah
Colton, Utah
Soldier Summit, Utah
Helper, Utah
References
External links
Landslide images from the United States Geological Survey
Historic U.S. Highways at Thistle by Dale Sanderson
Dam safety information from Utah Division of Water Rights
Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad
Ghost towns in Utah County, Utah
Landslides in the United States
Natural disasters in Utah
Populated places established in 1878
1878 establishments in Utah Territory
Landslides in 1983
Natural disaster ghost towns
Landslide-dammed lakes |
4327650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991%20protests%20in%20Belgrade | 1991 protests in Belgrade | The 1991 protests in Belgrade happened on the streets of Belgrade, the capital of Serbia and Yugoslavia when a protest rally turned into a riot featuring vicious clashes between the protesters and police.
The initial mass rally that took place on 9 March 1991 was organized by Vuk Drašković's Serbian Renewal Movement (SPO), an opposition political party in Serbia, protesting the rule of Slobodan Milošević and his Socialist Party of Serbia, particularly their misuse of Radio Television Belgrade. Two people died in the ensuing violence, and the government then ordered the Yugoslav People's Army onto the city streets. The police detained several prominent SPO officials and banned two media outlets considered unfriendly to the government. The protests are referred to in Serbian as , i.e. the March 9 protest, after this initial event.
The next day, in reaction to the events of the previous day, more protests drew large and diverse crowds, including leaders of the Democratic Party (DS), with some referring to it as a "Velvet Revolution". The next day still, the government supporters responded by organizing a counter-rally of their own. The protests ended on March 14 as the leaders of SPO were released from police custody. The government replaced the director of the state TV as well as the Minister of the Interior.
Background
Beset by a multitude of political and economic issues, Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia still existed in March 1991, with Socialist Republic of Serbia as its biggest and most populous constituent part. Multi-party political system had been introduced less than a year earlier, in 1990, meaning that instead of the Communist League's (SKJ) Serbian branch (SKS) that exclusively ruled for 45 years, Serbia's political landscape was once again, for the first time since the early 1940s, dotted with many parties.
However, only three parties could boast any kind of actual significance: Slobodan Milošević's Socialist Party of Serbia (SPS), Drašković's Serbian Renewal Movement (SPO), and Democratic Party (DS) led at the time by Dragoljub Mićunović and featuring high-ranking members Zoran Đinđić and Vojislav Koštunica who would both later rise to greater prominence.
In addition to political turbulence in each of the country's six constituent republics, the security situation in SFR Yugoslavia was deteriorating as well. Incidents were especially frequent in the Socialist Republic of Croatia where the two constituent ethnic groups — Croats and Serbs — began clashing following the May 1990 election victory of the right-wing nationalist Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) that pursued secessionism from the Yugoslav federation, a policy which the Serbs protested and actively obstructed by engaging in a series of actions collectively termed the Log Revolution. By spring 1991, the situation in SR Croatia got extremely tense, and just days before the March 9 protest in Belgrade, the incident in Pakrac occurred.
Meanwhile, in SR Serbia, Milošević firmly controlled all the pillars of power: he himself was the President of the Republic; his party SPS, thanks to its huge parliamentary majority (194 seats out of 250), easily formed a stable government headed by prime minister Dragutin Zelenović. Additionally, through party-installed people like the Radio Television Belgrade general-director Dušan Mitević, Milošević had a tight grip on the most important and influential media outlets, often using them for his own ends, although still not as blatantly and brazenly as he would later throughout the 1990s once the wars and UN sanctions set in.
On the other hand, opposition led most prominently by SPO (19 parliamentary seats out of 250) and to a lesser extent DS (7 seats) was often plagued by internal squabbles, ego clashes, and low-level skullduggery.
Though Drašković and SPO had already been engaged in the, often dirty and personal, political battle with Slobodan Milošević, his wife Mira Marković, and their allies within the Serbian administration, this antagonism particularly intensified following the joint parliamentary and presidential elections of December 9, 1990 where Milošević and Socialist Party of Serbia (SPS) scored an overwhelming victory, but Drašković also had a notable showing with over 800,000 votes in the presidential race that made him the most significant opposition figure. Since their access to state-controlled media, either print or electronic, was fairly limited, Drašković and his party frequently criticized and ridiculed Serbian leadership through the SPO-published weekly magazine Srpska reč, edited by his wife Danica. One of the issues in February 1991 depicted Mira Marković with a Stalin-like moustache and a headline "Šta hoće generali" (What Do Generals Want).
The administration's answer was an anti-SPO commentary read by TV Belgrade's journalist Slavko Budihna during central daily newscast Dnevnik 2 on February 16, 1991. Among other things Budihna read:
The following day, February 17, the commentary got published in its entirety in that day's issue of Politika ekspres daily. Drašković's response to this blatant misuse of the media was to demand an immediate retraction, but several days later on February 19 TV Belgrade management, specifically its news division chief Predrag Vitas, turned him down explaining that "retractions are issued only in the cases of dissemination of inaccurate information, but not for commentaries". Determined not to let this go, the following day, February 20, Drašković issued a call to the streets for March 9 where the protesters would publicly demand the retraction of the original defamatory piece. From then on Drašković often referred to TV Belgrade in derisive terms as "TV Bastille":
Still, while the immediate cause for the demonstration was ostensibly specific and narrow, this protest also had a wider ideological aspect. From its very name Protest against red star over to numerous examples of royalist insignia among the crowds, Drašković was very much whipping up old Chetnik – Partisan issues that were at the time beginning to be talked about again publicly after almost 50 years.
When SPO called the protest for March 9, DS was on the fence. Their relationship with SPO at the time was somewhat on the cool side because two of DS prominent figures, Kosta Čavoški (one of the 13 founders) and Nikola Milošević (high-ranking member), recently left the party to form their own and were now openly co-operating with SPO. On top of that, ideologically speaking, the two parties had very little in common other than their general anti-Milošević stance. And this protest initially was not clearly anti-Milošević as much as it was brought on by the feud SPO had with state TV.
In the end, no DS members were on the list of speakers but many still decided to show up at the protest in their individual capacity.
The motives for the protest varied. It has been variously described as an anti-war protest, or as a protest against the confrontational policies of the SPS, particularly against their complete exclusion of the opposition from state politics.
Protest
Lead-up to the March 9 rally
In the days following Drašković's call to the streets, SPO reiterated its demand for the retraction of the controversial newscast commentary, but also formulated an official list of demands. They wanted the Serbian National Assembly, as an institution that founded TV Belgrade, to "prohibit SPS and SK-PzJ from creating and conducting the television network's editorial and staff hiring policies". They also wanted TV Belgrade's two channels to be "non-partisan and accessible to all political parties in proportion to their size and voter strength". Furthermore, they demanded resignations from the key TV Belgrade personnel — director Dušan Mitević, as well as four other editors and on-air personalities: Slavko Budihna, Predrag Vitas (head of the news division), Ivan Krivec, and Sergej Šestakov. And finally, they demanded "cessation of the practice of obstructing the work of Studio B and Yutel". Other opposition parties, including the Democratic Party (DS), People's Peasant Party (NSS), People's Radical Party (NRS), New Democracy (ND), Democratic Forum, and Liberal Party, joined and supported the set of demands.
In the days leading up to the protest Milošević seemed intent not to let it take place.
On Thursday, March 7, the city of Belgrade police branch issued a special junction banning the protest while citing "the location and the time of day when the rally is scheduled as disruptive to the public order and unobstructed flow of traffic". As an alternative, they suggested the wide open space at Ušće as the location for the protest, but SPO immediately refused to move the protest location.
Seeing that the gathering at the Republic Square would not be allowed by the police thus realizing the potential for street clashes, Drašković appeared interested in some kind of a last-minute mediation attempt or indirect deal by having his SPO MPs call for an immediate parliamentary meeting. However, they were flatly rejected by the SPS majority. Finally, on March 8, just one day before the scheduled protest, SPO MPs demanded a personal meeting with Milošević in his cabinet, but this time Milošević didn't even dignify their request with a response.
Milošević's administration appeared confident, even arrogant, about possessing enough means and support to stop the protest from taking place.
March 9
March 9, 1991 was a pleasant, partly sunny, slightly windy Saturday in late winter. The protest was scheduled to take place at the Republic Square in Belgrade, a wide open area right in the city's downtown core. In the early morning, the square was already filled with a substantial crowd. The police presence was also heavy. Just after 10 a.m. the police (consisting of members from all over Serbia as well as the police reserve members) established control over most streets in the city centre and blocked major roads heading into Belgrade.
This led to numerous incidents throughout different parts of the city centre before the protest rally even started as the police tried, often brutally, to impede the stream of people heading to the square. Soon after, the battles started at the square itself as the police started using armoured vehicles, water cannons, and tear gas in an attempt to drive the protesters out of the square. Enraged protesters immediately began responding, some of them armed with sticks, traffic sign poles, crowbars or whatever else they could get their hands on. The crowd from the adjoining streets jeered the police, chanting angrily at them to "go to Pakrac" or to "go to Kosovo". Some of the others from the crowd that managed to get into the square made allusions to the Romanian Revolution of 1989 chanting "alea alea Securitatea" while calling Milošević a fascist.
While battles and skirmishes were already taking place for more than an hour, mass bedlam started around 11:30 a.m. when a large crowd of protesters held in check up to that point near the Ruski car restaurant managed to break through the police cordon. Yelling "Ustaše, Ustaše" at the police, the protesters started moving further into the square near the monument while the police tried unsuccessfully to stop them with a water cannon.
Simultaneously, the scheduled speakers, including Drašković, had trouble making it into the square. Along with his entourage consisting of some 200 SPO members, a little after 11:30 a.m. Drašković was being held at the intersection of November 29 Street and Vašingtonova Street, surrounded by the police cordon that didn't want to let them join the protesters at the Republic Square. He tried to reason with them, appealing with their chiefs to let him into the square "in order to calm the crowd and prevent bloodshed". Some 15 minutes later, the police let them through without much resistance.
Getting into the square, the impressive crowd size probably surprised even Drašković himself as the entire area was literally flooded with people. Flanked by the individuals loyal to him (including several prominent members of the Belgrade underworld such as Đorđe "Giška" Božović and Aleksandar "Knele" Knežević who essentially acted as his bodyguards), Drašković climbed the Prince Mihailo Monument and attempted to address the large crowd using a megaphone.
Estimates on the number of people in the crowd vary: under 70,000, around 100,000, or in excess of 150,000.
Realizing very few could hear him, Drašković then decided to seek permission from nearby National Theater personnel to address the crowds from its balcony, which provided a nice view of the entire square.
Permission was granted by then-director Vida Ognjenović (incidentally a prominent DS member), so Drašković took to the balcony and began a fiery speech often interrupted by thunderous applause:
Serbia, may God give us the dawn of freedom in our homeland as well.
I'm not going to tell you everything that has happened since this morning; we all broke through different police barriers and therein showed that no obstacle will stop us.
I salute you, heroes!
I said it a month ago – even when the Bolsheviks didn't believe me – and I'll say it again right this moment: today, in front of our righteous Prince [referring to the statue of Prince Mihailo Obrenović that dominates the square, and especially in a few moments when we start marching on TV Bastille, we will show Serbian heart and we will show Serbian persistence.
Unfortunately, we have no other way!
Heroes, I remind you of the words of our pan-Serbian patriarch of our pan-Serbian mind, vladika Njegoš: ‘Svak je rođen za po jednom mreti’. They've got until 3:30 p.m. to issue a retraction and tender resignations and if they do that we'll return here to this pan-Serb gathering of national unity. Because of the brutal police charge on the unarmed people, we also demand that the Minister of the Interior resign at the very next parliamentary session.
The President of the Republic [Slobodan Milošević] has to weigh between two choices in front of him: on one end of the scale are your lives as well as lives of many policemen because I heard our boys seized a lot of automatic weaponry in fights with police today – on that scale there are so many lives, Serbia's freedom, honour, and peace – while on the other end of the scale there are only 5 resignations and 1 retraction.
Let the President decide what he wants, I have made my choice: I will lead the charge on Television today, fully ready to die!
His last proclamation put the present police squadron (led by Milošević loyalist Radovan "Badža" Stojičić) in full alert mode. After Drašković finished, other people took the microphone, among them Milan Paroški, Žarko Jokanović, Leon Koen, Milan Komnenić and Borislav Mihajlović Mihiz. Dragoslav Bokan and Borislav Pekić were also present.
Around noon, in the middle of Mihiz's speech, police moved into the square with tear gas and a full-blown battle began. However, overwhelmed and outnumbered by the crowd the police retreated while trying to keep the angry protesters in check with water cannons. The situation was deteriorating by the second, flower beds were being overturned and broken off into smaller pieces of concrete to be thrown onto police vehicles. Drašković did not seem fazed by scenes of violence below, and if anything was only spurring them on. At one point he even bizarrely yelled "Juuuuuuriš" (Chaaaaaarge) into the microphone the way a field general would at the scene of battle.
The protest then spilled into adjoining streets and squares and most of the downtown Belgrade soon resembled a war zone. By this time, the police managed to regroup and reinforce their numbers and began responding and attacking a lot more forcefully.
Still, for about seven hours the protesters almost controlled the city as the majority of the police was guarding the TV Belgrade building and Dedinje. According to sources, some 200 policemen and 180 security guards in addition to 200 television staffers with basic military training who were given AK-47s were guarding the television building.
In the afternoon, Drašković, along with a large group of protesters, unsuccessfully attempted to storm the National Assembly of Serbia session. As he exited the building, he was arrested along with SPO deputy president Jovan Marjanović. Among the policemen handling Drašković's arrest was Naser Orić.
Serbian President Slobodan Milošević demanded that the Presidency of Yugoslavia deploys troops of the Yugoslav People's Army to suppress the protest.
Borisav Jović contacted other members of the Presidency by phone and the Army was indeed deployed, but the Slovenians later claimed the move was made unconstitutionally.
In the evening, Milošević took to the public airwaves to address the nation. While not mentioning anyone by name he characterized the day's events as being orchestrated by "forces of chaos and madness threatening to restore everything that the people of Serbia rose against half a century ago".
Tanks and armored cars rolled onto the streets.
Radio B92 and Studio B television were banned and stopped broadcasting. Additionally, 203 protesters were injured and further 108 were arrested on March 9.
636 people were arrested following the protest.
Casualties
The protest claimed two lives. On March 9 around 3:30 pm while running away from the crowd of protesters in Masarikova Street near Beograđanka, 54-year-old policeman Nedeljko Kosović died from repeated blows to the head.
Later in the day, 17-year-old protester Branivoje Milinović was killed by a stray bullet. The circumstances of his death are conflicting as some reports claim he died as the crowd was storming the SR Serbia parliament building while others say he was killed by a rubber bullet when a group of policemen on the corner of Admirala Geprata Street and Kneza Miloša street opened fire in the direction of protesters in front of London Cafe. The investigation into his death was recently reopened.
March 10
The next day, March 10, Belgrade awoke to the anti-opposition headline "Rušilački pohod" (Destructive Crusade) on the front page of Politika, the most important of the four dailies being published in the city at the time. Edited by the Milošević loyalist Žika Minović, the rest of that day's issue was not much different — of the 51 total pieces about the previous day's events, 49 presented a strong condemnation of the opposition, SPO, and Drašković. Večernje novosti, edited by Rade Brajović, ran a fairly balanced March 10 issue, mostly covering the events neutrally and avoiding emotional outbursts in favour of either side. However, according to the paper's journalist Miroslav Turudić, at the staff meeting that very Sunday evening the editor-in-chief Brajović objected to the paper's coverage of the protests. Along with deciding to steer the coverage in the following day's issue clearly to the Milošević's side, Brajović also published a commentary in which he openly criticizes his staff's previous coverage of the protests.
DS held a press conference with its president Dragoljub Mićunović as well as members Zoran Đinđić and Vojislav Koštunica on hand, voicing support to arrested Drašković and SPO while condemning government actions. Đinđić described the events of the previous day as "the police carrying out a plan, a one man's personal plan, one man who decided that this protest cannot and will not happen" going on to say that "the catastrophe occurred due to the inability of those giving orders to the police to adapt to the rapidly changing situation on the ground".
During late evening hours, a large crowd again began to gather, but this time in front of the Terazije fountain. The protest now assumed a more civil tone, although there were still incidents on Branko's Bridge when a group of 5,000 University of Belgrade students heading into the city centre from their residence in Studentski Grad in order to join the protesters got stopped by police. Pepper spray was used and some of the students were beaten, but all of them were eventually allowed to pass through and join the crowd at Terazije (among the individuals negotiating with the police on the bridge was a Democratic Party (DS) member Zoran Đinđić).
Gatherings in front of the Terazije fountain were notably led and moderated by actor Branislav Lečić with various figures from Serbian public life such as screenwriter Dušan Kovačević, actor Rade Šerbedžija, and even Serbian Patriarch Pavle taking turns addressing the crowd. In his speeches, Lečić often referred to the rally as "Velvet Revolution" while holding a stuffed panda toy and drawing parallels with the Czechoslovak protests of November 1989.
The protest also expanded in terms of the political figures that joined it with DS members now officially taking part. The anti-government component was now much more prominently displayed among the crowds. The protesters, composed largely of students, demanded freedom for Drašković and Jovan Marjanović. In addition to earlier protests for the resignation of Dušan Mitević, they now wanted the Minister of Interior Radmilo Bogdanović to resign too. They also sought the lifting of the broadcast ban for Radio B92 and RTV Studio B.
March 11
On March 11, the Serbian government regrouped by organising a mass counter-rally at their old stomping grounds Ušće. Called under the name "For the defense of the Republic, for constitutionality, freedom, and democracy", the rally attempted to show that protesters at the Republic Square and Terazije in no way represented the wishes and desires of the majority of the Serbian population. Using previously developed and tested astroturfing methods, they bussed many workers into Belgrade from other parts of Serbia for the occasion and also used its grip on state TV to inflate the crowd size. Still, a good portion of the crowd was there on its own volition, especially older individuals and many pensioners that were always Milošević's core support. Instead of Milošević addressing the gathered crowd, the speaking was left to his party's most publicly prominent members and ideologues at the time: Mihailo Marković, Dušan Matković, Živorad Igić, Radoman Božović, Petar Škundrić, etc. The most controversial speech of the day was Matković's, at times referring to protesters as "hooligans" and inciting their own supporters to "do away with them".
Up to March 14
The protests persisted and after four days of mostly peaceful demonstration (there were further skirmishes with police on March 11), they achieved their aims: Drašković and Marjanović were freed and Mitević and Bogdanović were replaced.
The demonstrations ended after March 14.
See also
1991–1992 anti-war protests in Belgrade
Anti-bureaucratic revolution
1996–1997 protests in Serbia
Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević
References
External links
Narod zastrašivan tenkovima, Glas javnosti, March 9, 2006
9. marta Milošević nije mogao pasti, B92, March 9, 2006
Predstavljen "SPOmenar", B92, March 7, 2009
SPOmenar, monografija o 9. martu, MTS Mondo, March 7, 2009
9. MART: Dan kada je Vuk pojeo svoju decu, Press, March 6, 2011
Yugoslav Serbia
1991 in Serbia
1991 in Yugoslavia
Aftermath of the Revolutions of 1989
Protests in Serbia
Student protests in Serbia
Riots and civil disorder in Serbia
1990s in Belgrade
Events in Belgrade
March 1991 events in Europe |
4327886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonate%20platform | Carbonate platform | A carbonate platform is a sedimentary body which possesses topographic relief, and is composed of autochthonic calcareous deposits. Platform growth is mediated by sessile organisms whose skeletons build up the reef or by organisms (usually microbes) which induce carbonate precipitation through their metabolism. Therefore, carbonate platforms can not grow up everywhere: they are not present in places where limiting factors to the life of reef-building organisms exist. Such limiting factors are, among others: light, water temperature, transparency and pH-Value. For example, carbonate sedimentation along the Atlantic South American coasts takes place everywhere but at the mouth of the Amazon River, because of the intense turbidity of the water there. Spectacular examples of present-day carbonate platforms are the Bahama Banks under which the platform is roughly 8 km thick, the Yucatan Peninsula which is up to 2 km thick, the Florida platform, the platform on which the Great Barrier Reef is growing, and the Maldive atolls. All these carbonate platforms and their associated reefs are confined to tropical latitudes. Today's reefs are built mainly by scleractinian corals, but in the distant past other organisms, like archaeocyatha (during the Cambrian) or extinct cnidaria (tabulata and rugosa) were important reef builders.
Carbonate precipitation from seawater
What makes carbonate platform environments different from other depositional environments is that carbonate is a product of precipitation, rather than being a sediment transported from elsewhere, as for sand or gravel. This implies for example that carbonate platforms may grow far from the coastlines of continents, as for the Pacific atolls.
The mineralogic composition of carbonate platforms may be either calcitic or aragonitic. Seawater is oversaturated in carbonate, so under certain conditions CaCO3 precipitation is possible. Carbonate precipitation is thermodynamically favoured at high temperature and low pressure. Three types of carbonate precipitation are possible: biotically controlled, biotically induced and abiotic. Carbonate precipitation is biotically controlled when organisms (such as corals) are present that exploit carbonate dissolved in seawater to build their calcitic or aragonitic skeletons. Thus they may develop hard reef structures. Biotically induced precipitation takes place outside the cell of the organism, thus carbonate is not directly produced by organisms, but precipitates because of their metabolism. Abiotic precipitation, by definition, involves little or no biological influence.
Classification
The three types of precipitation (abiotic, biotically induced and biotically controlled) cluster into three "carbonate factories". A carbonate factory is the ensemble of the sedimentary environment, the intervening organisms and the precipitation processes that lead to the formation of a carbonate platform. The differences between three factories is the dominant precipitation pathway and skeletal associations. In contrast, a carbonate platform is a geological structure of parautochotonous carbonate sediments and carbonate rocks, having a morphological relief.
Platforms produced by the "tropical factory"
In these carbonate factories, precipitation is biotically controlled, mostly by autotrophic organisms. Organisms that build this kind of platforms are today mostly corals and green algae, that need sunlight for photosynthesis and thus live in the euphotic zone (i.e., shallow water environments in which sunlight penetrates easily). Tropical carbonate factories are only present today in warm and sunlit waters of the tropical-subtropical belt, and they have high carbonate production rates but only in a narrow depth window. The depositional profile of a Tropical factory is called "rimmed" and includes three main parts: a lagoon, a reef and a slope. In the reef, the framework produced by large-sized skeletons, as those of corals, and by encrusting organisms resists wave action and forms a rigid build up that may develop up to sea-level. The presence of a rim produces restricted circulation in the back reef area and a lagoon may develop in which carbonate mud is often produced. When reef accretion reaches the point that the foot of the reef is below wave base, a slope develops: the sediments of the slope derive from the erosion of the margin by waves, storms and gravitational collapses. This process accumulates coral debris in clinoforms. The maximum angle that a slope can achieve is the settlement angle of gravel (30–34°).
Platforms produced by the "cool-water factory"
In these carbonate factories, precipitation is biotically controlled by heterotrophic organisms, sometimes in association with photo-autotrophic organisms such as red algae. The typical skeletal association includes foraminifers, red algae and molluscs. Despite being autotrophic, red algae are mostly associated to heterotrophic carbonate producers, and need less light than green algae. The range of occurrence of cool-water factories extends from the limit of the tropical factory (at about 30◦) up to polar latitudes, but they could also occur at low latitudes in the thermocline below the warm surface waters or in upwelling areas. This type of factories has a low potential of carbonate production, is largely independent from sunlight availability, and can sustain a higher amount of nutrients than tropical factories. Carbonate platforms built by the "cool-water factory" show two types of geometry or depositional profile, i.e., the homoclinal ramp or the distally-steepened ramp. In both geometries there are three parts: the inner ramp above the fair weather wave base, the middle ramp, above the storm wave base, the outer ramp, below the storm wave base. In distally steepened ramps, a distal step is formed between the middle and outer ramp, by the in situ accumulation of gravel-sized carbonate grains
Platforms produced by the "mud-mound factory"
These factories are characterised by abiotic precipitation and biotically induced precipitation. The typical environmental settings where "mud-mound factories" are found in the Phanerozoic are dysphotic or aphotic, nutrient-rich waters that are low in oxygen but not anoxic. These conditions often prevail in the thermocline, for example at intermediate water depths below the ocean's mixed layer.
The most important component of these platforms is fine-grained carbonate that precipitates in situ (automicrite) by a complex interplay of biotic and abiotic reactions with microbes and decaying organic tissue.
Mud-mound factories do not produce a skeletal association, but they have specific facies and microfacies, for example stromatolites, that are laminated microbialites, and thrombolites, that are microbialites characterized by clotted peloidal fabric at the microscopic scale and by dendroid fabric at the hand-sample scale.
The geometry of these platforms is mound-shaped, where all the mound is productive, including the slopes.
Geometry of carbonate platforms
Several factors influence the geometry of a carbonate platform, including inherited topography, synsedimentary tectonics, exposure to currents and trade winds. Two main types of carbonate platforms are distinguished on the base of their geographic setting: isolated (as Maldives atolls) or epicontinental (as the Belize reefs or the Florida Keys). However, the one most important factor influencing geometries is perhaps the type of carbonate factory. Depending on the dominant carbonate factory, we can distinguish three types of carbonate platforms: T-type carbonate platforms (produced by "tropical factories"), C-type carbonate platforms (produced by "cool-water factories"), M-type carbonate platforms ("produced by mud-mound factories"). Each of them has its own typical geometry.
T-type carbonate platforms
The depositional profile of T-type carbonate platforms can be subdivided into several sedimentary environments.
The carbonate hinterland is the most landward environment, composed by weathered carbonate rocks. The evaporitic tidal flat is a typical low-energy environment.
The internal lagoon, as the name suggests, is the part of platform behind the reef. It is characterised by shallow and calm waters, and so it is a low-energy sedimentary environment. Sediments are composed by reef fragments, hard parts of organisms and, if the platform is epicontinental, also by a terrigenous contribution. In some lagoons (e.g., the Florida Bay), green algae produce great volumes of carbonate mud. Rocks here are mudstones to grainstones, depending on the energy of the environment.
The reef is the rigid structure of carbonate platforms and is located between the internal lagoon and the slope, in the platform margin, in which the framework produced by large-sized skeletons, as those of corals, and by encrusting organisms will resist wave action and form a rigid build up that may develop up to sea-level. Survival of the platform depends on the existence of the reef, because only this part of the platform can build a rigid, wave-resistant structure. The reef is created by essentially in-place, sessile organisms. Today's reefs are mostly built by hermatypic corals. Geologically speaking, reef rocks can be classified as massive boundstones.
The slope is the outer part of the platform, connecting the reef with the basin. This depositional environment acts as sink for excess carbonate sediment: most of the sediment produced in the lagoon and reef is transported by various processes and accumulates in the slope, with an inclination depending on the grain size of sediments, and that could attain the settlement angle of gravel (30-34°) at most. The slope contains coarser sediments than the reef and lagoon. These rocks are generally rudstones or grainstones.
The periplatform basin is the outermost part of the t-type carbonate platform, and carbonate sedimentation is there dominated by density-cascating processes.
The presence of a rim damps the action of waves in the back reef area and a lagoon may develop in which carbonate mud is often produced. When reef accretion reaches the point that the foot of the reef is below wave base, a slope develops: the sediments of the slope derive from the erosion of the margin by waves, storms and gravitational collapses. This process accumulates coral debris in clinoforms. Clinoforms are beds that have a sigmoidal or tabular shape, but are always deposited with a primary inclination.
The size of a T-type carbonate platform, from the hinterland to the foot of the slope, can be of tens of kilometers.
C-type carbonate platforms
C-type carbonate platforms are characterized by the absence of early cementation and lithification, and so the sediment distribution is only driven by waves and, in particular, it occurs above the wave base. They show two types of geometry or depositional profile, i.e., the homoclinal ramp or the distally-steepened ramp. In both geometries there are three parts. In the inner ramp, above the fair weather wave base, the carbonate production is slow enough that all sediments may be transported offshore by waves, currents and storms. As a consequence, the shoreline may be retreating, and so in the inner ramp there may be a cliff caused by erosional processes. In the middle ramp, between the fair weather wave base and the storm wave base, carbonate sediment remains in place and can be reworking only by the storm waves. In the outer ramp, below the storm wave base, fine sediments may accumulate. In distally steepened ramps, a distal step is formed between the middle and outer ramp, by the in situ accumulation of gravel-sized carbonate grains (e.g., rhodoliths) only episodically moved by currents. Carbonate production occurs along the full depositional profile in this type of carbonate platforms, with an extra production in the outer part of the middle ramp, but carbonate production rates are always less than in the T-type carbonate platforms.
M-type carbonate platforms
M-type carbonate platforms are characterized by an inner platform, an outer platform, an upper slope made by microbial boundstone, and a lower slope often made by breccia. The slope may be steeper than the angle of repose of gravels, with an inclination that may attain 50°.
In the M-type carbonate platforms the carbonate production mostly occurs on the upper slope and in the outer part of the inner platform.
Carbonate platforms in the geological record
Sedimentary sequences show carbonate platforms as old as the Precambrian, when they were formed by stromatolitic sequences. In the Cambrian carbonate platforms were built by archaeocyatha. During Paleozoic brachiopod (richtofenida) and stromatoporoidea reefs were erected. At the middle of the Paleozoic era corals became important platforms builders, first with tabulata (from the Silurian) and then with rugosa (from the Devonian). Scleractinia become important reef builders beginning only in the Carnian (upper Triassic). Some of the best examples of carbonate platforms are in the Dolomites, deposited during the Triassic. This region of the Southern Alps contains many well preserved isolated carbonate platforms, including the Sella, Gardenaccia, Sassolungo and Latemar. The middle Liassic "bahamian type" carbonate platform of the Aganane Formation of Morocco (Septfontaine, 1985) is characterised by the accumulation of autocyclic regressive cycles, spectacular supratidal deposits and vadose diagenetic features with dinosaur tracks. The Tunisian coastal "chotts" and their cyclic muddy deposits represent a good recent equivalent (Davaud & Septfontaine, 1995). Such cycles were also observed on the Mesozoic Arabic platform, Oman and Abu Dhabi (Septfontaine & De Matos, 1998) with the same microfauna of foraminifera in an almost identical biostratigraphic succession.
In the Cretaceous period there were platforms built by bivalvia (rudists).
Sequence stratigraphy of carbonate platforms
With respect to the sequence stratigraphy of siliciclastic systems, carbonate platforms present some peculiarities, which are related to the fact that carbonate sediment is precipitated directly on the platform, mostly with the intervention of living organisms, instead of being only transported and deposited. Among these peculiarities, carbonate platforms may be subject to drowning, and may be the source of sediment via highstand shedding or slope shedding.
Drowning
Drowning of a carbonate platform is an event where the relative sea level rise is faster than the accumulation rate on a carbonate platform, which eventually leads to the platform to submerge below the euphotic zone. In the geologic record of a drowned carbonate platform, neritic deposits change rapidly into deep-marine sediments. Typically hardgrounds with ferromanganese oxides, phosphate or glauconite crusts lie in between of neritic and deep-marine sediments.
Several drowned carbonate platforms have been found in the geologic record. However, it has not been very clear how the drowning of carbonate platforms exactly happen. Modern carbonate platforms and reefs are estimated to grow approximately 1,000 μm/yr, possibly several times faster in the past. 1,000 μm/yr growth rate of carbonates exceeds by orders of magnitude any relative sea level rise that is caused by long-term subsidence, or changes in eustatic sea level. Based on the rates of these processes, drowning of the carbonate platforms should not be possible, which causes "the paradox of drowned carbonate platforms and reefs".
Since drowning of carbonate platforms requires exceptional rise in the relative sea level, only limited number of processes can cause it. According to Schlager, only anomalously quick rise of relative sea level or benthic growth reduction caused by deteriorating changes in the environment could explain the drowning of platforms. For instance, regional downfaulting, submarine volcanism or glacioeustasy could be the reason for rapid rise in relative sea level, whereas for example changes in oceanic salinity might cause the environment to become deteriorative for the carbonate producers.
One example of a drowned carbonate platform is located in Huon Gulf, Papua New Guinea. It is believed to be drowned by rapid sea level rise caused by deglaciation and subsidence of the platform, which enabled coralline algal-foraminiferal nodules and halimeda limestones to cover the coral reefs.
Plate movements carrying carbonate platforms to latitudes unfavourable for carbonate production are also suggested to be one of the possible reasons for drowning. For example, guyots located in the Pacific Basin between Hawaiian and Mariana Islands are believed to be transported to low southern latitudes (0-10°S) where equatorial upwelling occurred. High amounts of nutrients and higher productivity caused decrease in water transparency and increase in bio-eroders populations, which reduced carbonate accumulation and eventually led to drowning.
Highstand shedding
Highstand shedding is a process in which a carbonate platform produces and sheds most of the sediments into the adjacent basin during highstands of sea level. This process has been observed on all rimmed carbonate platforms in the Quaternary, such as the Great Bahama Bank. Flat topped, rimmed platforms with steep slopes show more pronounced highstand shedding than platforms with gentle slopes and cool water carbonate systems.
Highstand shedding is pronounced on tropical carbonate platforms because of the combined effect of sediment production and diagenesis. Sediment production of a platform increases with its size, and during highstand the top of the platform is flooded and the productive area is bigger compared to the lowstand conditions, when only a minimal part of the platform is available for production. The effect of increased highstand production is enhanced by the rapid lithification of carbonate during lowstands, because the exposed platform top is karstified rather than eroded, and does not export sediment.
Slope shedding
Slope shedding is a process typical of microbial platforms, in which the carbonate production is nearly independent from sea level oscillations. The carbonate factory, composed of microbial communities precipitating microbialites, is insensitive to light and can extend from the platform break down the slope to hundreds of meters in depth. Sea level drops of any reasonable amplitude would not significantly affect the slope production areas. Microbial boundstone slope systems are remarkably different from tropical platforms in sediment productions profiles, slope readjustment processes and sediment sourcing. Their progradation is independent from platform sediment shedding and largely driven by slope shedding.
Examples of margins that may be affected of slope shedding that are characterized by various contributions of microbial carbonate growth to the upper slope and margin, are:
the Canning Basin in Australia
the Guilin platform in the southern China
the Permian of the US Permian Basin
the middle Triassic carbonate platforms of the Dolomites.
Gallery
See also
Ocean bank (topography)
Bahama Banks
Footnotes
References
Davaud E. & Septfontaine M. (1995): "Post-mortem onshore transportation of epiphityc foraminifera: recent example from the Tunisian coast line". Jour. Sediment. Research, 65/1A, 136–142.
Bosellini A., 1984, "Progradation geometries of carbonate platforms: examples from the Triassic of the Dolomites, northern Italy". Sedimentology, Vol. 31, pp. 1–24
"Bahamas Introduction" (Accessed 3/8/06)
About.com: "Geologic Map of Florida" (Accessed 3/8/06)
Pinet P. R., 1996, Invitation to Oceanography. St. Paul: West Publishing Company,
Septfontaine M. 1985, "Depositional environments and associated foraminifera (lituolids) in the middle liassic carbonate platform of Morocco." Rev. de Micropal. 28/4 265–289. See also www.palgeo.ch/publications.
Carbonates
Sedimentology
Marine geology
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Submarine topography
Sedimentary rocks |
4328029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekeya%20Kingdom | Kekeya Kingdom | Kekeya Kingdom (also known as Kekaya, Kaikaya, Kaikeya etc.) was a kingdom mentioned in the ancient Indian epic Mahabharata among the western kingdoms of then India. The epic Ramayana mentions one of the wives of Dasharatha, the king of Kosala and father of Rama, was from Kekeya kingdom and was known as Kaikeyi. Her son Bharata conquered the neighbouring kingdom of Gandhara and built the city of Takshasila. Later the sons and descendants of Bharata ruled this region from Takshasila in modern day Pakistan.
In Mahabharata, a Kekaya prince was mentioned, who joined the Pandavas in the Kurukshetra War. He was the eldest among the six brothers and was described as a king known as Vrihatkshatra who is banished from his kingdom by his own kinsmen, like the Pandavas who were banished from their Kuru Kingdom, by their cousin brothers viz the Kauravas headed by Duryodhana. Thus this Kekaya brother was circumstantially inclined to ally with the Pandavas. Besides this, the 6 Kekaya brothers were sons of the sister of Kunti, the mother of the Pandavas, making them cousins. In the Kurukshetra War, the Kekaya brother fought against his own kinsmen, viz the other 5 Kekaya brothers who sided with Duryodhana.
References in Valmiki Ramayana
There are several references to Kaikeyi in the epic Ramayana. Kaikeyi was one of the three queens of Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya. She was a Kekaya princess, and the daughter of Ashwapati. Ramayana testifies that the capital of Kekayas lay beyond river Sudama. River Sudama has been identified with river Saranges of Arrian which flowed also flowed through Kekians. The Vedic texts do not mention name of the capital of Kekaya but Ramayana does inform us that the Kekaya metropolis was Rajagriha or Girivraja. which A. Cunningham has identified with Girjak or Jalalpur on river Jhelum in the Jhelum district but this view has not been accepted by scholars. Ramayana further attests that Kekaya lay beyond Vipasa or Beas and abutted with the country of Gandharava or Gandhara vishaya (country). Ravana, the son of Vishrava and Kaikesi (Princess of Kaikeya may be an early predecessor of Bhagawan Rama’s Step mother) was born in Devagana.
References in Vishnu-Dharmottara Mahapurana
According to Vishnu-Dharmottara Mahapurana also, the capital of the Kekayas lay beyond river Sudama which flowed some distance westwards from the Vitasta or Jhelum river. Prince Bharata, son of princess Kekayi, while going to Kekaya country from Ayodhya had to cross river Vitasta and then after crossing river Sudama, he reached the land of the Kekayas.
References in Mahabharata
Kekaya is mentioned as an ancient Indian kingdom at (6,9).
Alliances of Kekaya brides with Puru kings
Puru king Sarvabhauma married Sunanda, the daughter of the Kekaya prince, having obtained her by force. (1,95)
Puru king Parikshit's son Bhimasena married Kumari, the princess of Kekaya and begot upon her Pratisravas whose son was Pratipa, the father of Santanu. (1,95)
Kekaya Kings
King Sahasrachitya
There was a ruler of the Kekayas, named Sahasrachitya and he was the grandfather of king Satayupa, who was the contemporary of Kuru king Dhritarashtra. Abdicating his kingdom to his eldest son, king Sahasrachitya retired into the woods. (15,20)
King Satyayupa
Satayupa was the great king of the Kekayas. Having made over the sovereignty of his kingdom to his son he had come into the woods. Kuru king Dhritarashtra, after the Kurukshetra War was over, installed the victorious Pandava king Yudhishthira, on the throne of the Kuru capital, Hastinapura. He then retired to woods. Then Satayupa, received king Dhritarashtra with due rites. Accompanied by him, the latter proceeded to the retreat of Vyasa. Arrived at Vyasa’s retreat, Dhritarashtra received his initiation into the forest mode of life. Returning he took up his abode in the retreat of Satayupa. The high-souled Satayupa, instructed Dhritarashtra in all the rites of the forest mode, at the command of Vyasa. (15,19)
King Vrihatkhsatra
The Kekaya brothers (six each) who fought the Kurukshetra War, on the side of Pandavas as well as on the side of Kauravas, belonged to the next generation of Kekaya's royal family. The foremost of them was Vrihatkshatra, the eldest of the brothers who sided with the Pandavas. He was described as a king of Kekaya. He had a son named Visoka, who also fought in Kurukshetra War.
Kekaya bowmen Dyumatsena
Not much is known about this warrior from Kekaya except the following passages.
After Bhima completed his learning with Balarama, he became in strength like unto Dyumatsena himself (1,141). Dyumatsena, the chief of bowmen among the Kekayas was present in Yudhishthira's court, newly inaugurated at Indraprastha (2,3).
Kekaya's friendship with the Pandavas
The five Kekaya princes, allied with the Kauravas and Eldest sixth one allied with Pandavas and visited the Pandavas when they were banished into woods along with other Pandava allies viz Vasudeva Krishna, Dhristadyumna and Dhrishtaketu (3–12,22,51,120), (5,55).
The five Kekaya brothers, on the Kauravas side
The five Kekaya brothers who battled on the Kauravas side in Kurukshetra War is mentioned at many places (5–61,83,144).
At (5,22) is mentioned:- deposed from the throne of the Kekaya land, and desirous of being reinstated thereon, the five mighty brothers from that land, wielding mighty bows, are now following the Pandavas ready to fight. The Panchalas and the Matsyas, along with the very herdsmen that attend on their kins and sheep, are rejoicing and gladdening Yudhishthira (5–50,53). Only one Kekaya brother is on Pandavas side.
The five royal brothers of Kekaya, accepted the Kekaya warriors (on Dhritarashtra’s side) as antagonists. And in their share are included the Malavas also, and the Salwakas, as also, the two famous warriors of the Trigarta host who have sworn to conquer or die. (5,57).
The princes of Kekaya, and Dhrishtaketu, and the son of the king of the Kasis, and Srenimat, and Vasudana, and the invincible Sikhandin, all hale and hearty, cased in armour and armed with weapons and decked with ornaments, marched behind Yudhishthira (5,152).
The hundred Kekaya brothers on Kaurava side
Kekayas on Kaurava side is mentioned at many places (5–19,30,198), (6,16)
The five Kekaya brothers, (probably those who sided with Duryodhana) were equated with the five Asuras viz Ayahsira, Aswasira, Aysanku, Gaganamurdhan, and Vegavat. (1,67)
Jayadratha (the brother-in-law of Duryodhana), assisted by the Kekayas, endeavoured to ravish Draupadi (the wife of Pandavas) (11,22)
The five royal brothers, the princes of Kekaya, hastened to Duryodhana with an Akshauhini of troops, and gladdened his heart. (5,19). Kekayas were mentioned along with the Vasatis, the Salwakas, the Amvashthas, and the Trigartas as allies of Duryodhana at (5,30). The Kekayas on the Kaurava side marched under Drona along with Vinda and Anuvinda, both of Avanti and the Vahlikas. (5,198). 100 Kekaya brothers were generals in the Kaurava army along with others like Vinda and Anuvinda, of Avanti (6,16).
The camp of the Kekayas used to have loud sound of song and slapping of palms which their soldiers, engaged in dance and revelry, used to make. (7,84)
The appearance of Kekaya brothers on Pandava side
The Kekaya brothers, were all of the hue of Indragopaka insects (mix of red and black colors) (5,141). All of them had purple flags (5,57). The five Kekaya brothers, resembling (in hue) the insects called Indragopakas, had red coats of mail, red weapons and red banners. (7,10). The five Kekaya brothers were borne by steeds of deep red hue. They were of the splendour of gold and had standards of the red hue, and were decked with chains of gold (7,23).
The Kekaya brother is lying on the ground, slain by Drona. Their coats of mail, of the splendour of heated gold, and their tall standards and cars and garlands, all made of the same metal, are shedding a bright light on the earth like so many blazing fires. (11,25)
Kekayas in Kurukshetra War
The Kekayas are said to have fought on both sides in the Kurukshetra war. The five Kekaya princes, led by their elder brother Vrihatkshatra, had joined the Pandava army while other Kekaya brothers opposed Vrihatkshatra had sided with the Kauravas. The other numerous kingdoms of ancient India viz. Dwaraka, Kasi, Magadha, Matsya, Mahishmati, Chedi, Pandya and the Yadus of Mathura were allies of Pandavas while the allies of the Kauravas were nations of Pragjyotisha, Anga, Kekaya, Sindhudesa, Avanti in Madhyadesa, Madras, Gandhara, Bahlika, Kamboja (with Yavanas, Sakas, Tusharas) and many others had sided with Kauravas.
Karna Parava refers to the Kekayas, the Malavas, the Madrakas, the Dravidas of fierce prowess, the Yaudheyas, the Lalittyas, the Kshudrakas, the Tundikeras, the Savitriputras, who had supported Karna on 17th day of the war, as all having been slain by Arjuna.
Mahabharata associates the Kekaya peoples with the Madras (Madraschasca saha Kekayaiha). Madra-Kekayah
On Pandava Side
(7–21,83,107), (8–3) Yudhamanyu and Uttamaujas, became protectors of Arjuna’s car-wheels, along with the Kekaya brothers, and Dhrishtaketu, and Chekitana of great valour. (6,19). The Kekaya brothers at the head of their troops, encountered in battle the five Gandhara princes with their troops. (6,45).
Kekaya king is mentioned as fighting for the Pandavas at (6,52).
The king of the Kekayas, owning an akshauhini, formed the right wing of a Pandava battle-array (6,69). The five Kekaya brothers consisted the left wing of another array at another day of the war (6,75)
Dushasana fought with the five Kekaya brothers. (6,79)
The chief of the Kekayas, who was equal to Bhima himself in battle and surrounded by Kekaya warriors, has been slain by Kekaya, the brother by the brother. (8,6)
1700 Kekaya troops, skilled in smiting, united with a body of the Panchala troops checked the Kauravas trying to capture Yudhishthira. (8,62)
Drona, with his swift-going shafts, slew all the Kaikeyas (7,152)
The five Kekaya brothers are lying on the ground, slain by Drona. (11,25)
Battles of Vrihadkshatra
Kripa rushed against Vrihadkshatra, the ruler of the Kaikeyas. (6,45). Excellent steeds of the Sindhu breed, of beautiful limbs, and of the hue of the smoke of straw, quickly bore the Kaikeya prince, Vrihatkshatra. (7,23). Vrihatkshatra and others rushed against Drona (7,33). The mighty car-warrior among the Kaikeyas, viz., Vrihatkshatra, incessantly scattering keen shafts that resembled the thunder in force, proceeded towards Drona; then Kshemadhurti of great fame quickly rushed against Vrihatkshatra (7,103). Having slain his foe, Kshemadhurti, the mighty car-warrior Vrihatkshatra became filled with joy (7,104). Vrihadkshatra and others rushed against Ashwatthama (7,198).
Death of Vrihatkshatra
The mighty car-warrior of the Kaikeyas, Vrihatkshatra the eldest of five brothers, rushed against Drona, the generalissimo of the Kauravas. He baffled Drona's Brahma weapon with his Brahmna weapon. Drona, with a third shaft well-shot from his bow, pierced Vrihatkshatra himself in the chest. Thereupon, the latter, thus struck in the chest, fell down from his car, slain. (7,122).(8,5)
Death of Kekaya Prince Visoka and Kekaya commander Ugrakarman
Karna slew Visoka, the son of the ruler of the Kaikayas. Upon the slaughter of the Kaikaya prince, the commander of the Kaikaya division, Ugrakarman, rushed with speed and striking Prasena, Karna's son. Then Karna, with three crescent-shaped arrows, cut off the arms and the head of his son’s assailant. (8,82)
On Kaurava Side
The Abhishahas, the Surasenas, the Sivis, and the Vasatis, the Salwas, the Matsyas, the Amvashtas, the Trigartas, and the Kekayas, the Sauviras, the Kitavas, and the dwellers of the Eastern, Western, and the Northern countries,--these twelve brave races protected the Kaurava generalissimo, Bhishma. (6,18)
Kekayas along with the Trigartas, the Matsyas (Matsays in the western region) and the Vatadhanas were mentioned as part of the Kaurava army at (6,56)
The Trigartas and the Madras, with the Kekayas, numbering 25000 urged by Duryodhana, surrounded Arjuna (6,61)
The mighty car-warrior, the son of the ruler of the Kaikeyas stayeth on the field for battling for Duryodhana's sake. (8,6)
Kekaya and Avanti
At some places in Mahabharata, people of Avanti is mentioned as Kekayas. This could be an oral-transmission error crept into Mahabharata, or a translation error, or could mean some tribal-link between Avanti and Kekaya. Similar to other western rulers, like the Kambojas, the Kekayas also had migrated to east, hence in principle, could reach Avanti. In fact, in Ramayana, there is some indication of a Kekaya kingdom in the eastern sea-shore !
Vinda and Anuvinda of Avanti, with their troops encountered Virata, the ruler of Matsyas at the head of his forces. That awful encounter between the Matsyas and the Kekayas was terrible. (7,23).
Satyaki (a Pandava general, belonging to the Yadava clan, who was a disciple in arms, of Arjuna) checked the Kaikaya princes Vinda and Anuvinda. The two Kaikaya princes, in that battle, shrouded Satyaki. Satyaki shrouded the Kaikaya brothers. Satyaki cut the head of Anuvinda with a razor arrow, sorrowing the Kaikeyas. Satyaki next slew Vinda in a sword fight. Amazingly these Vinda and Anuvinda resemble in name to the two other princes named Vinda and Anuvinda who were from Avanti. They however were slain by Arjuna (7,96)
Other References
A lady named Sumana of Kekaya’s race is mentioned at (13,123)
Conversation of Kaikeya King and a Rakshasa is mentioned at (12,76)
Reference in Bhagavata Purana
There are several references to the Kekayas in the Bhagavatam Purana.
The five Kekaya brothers were the sons of Kunti's sister Srutakirti, wedded to Kekaya king Dhristaketu. Srutakirti, who was also a sister of Vasudeva, and Dhristaketu were also the parents of Bhadra, who married her cousin, Krishna. Kunti's sister Srutadevi was wedded to the Karusha king Vriddhasarma, whose son was Dantavakra. Kunti's sister Srutasravas was married to the Chedi king Damaghosha whose son was Shishupala. Kunti's sister Rajadhidevi was married to the Avanti king. (Bhagavata Purana, Canto 9, Chapter 24 (The history of Yadavas), Verses 37–40)
Kekayas visit Samantapancaka
Bhagavata Purana attests that the prince of Kekaya along with princes from Matsya, Kosala, Vidharbha, Kuru, Srnjaya, Kamboja, Uśīnara, Madra, Kunti, Anarta, Kerala was present at Samanta-pancaka in Kurukshetra at the occasion of the solar eclipse. .
Kekayas join Rajasuya of Yudhishtra
Bhagavata Purana also testifies that the Kekayas and other nation like those of the Yadus, Srnjayas, Kurus and Kambojas had participated in the Rajasuya sacrifice of Yudhishtra. "The massed armies of the Yadus, Srnjayas, Kambojas, Kurus, Kekayas and Kosalas made the earth tremble as they followed Yudhishira Maharaja, the performer of the Rajasuya sacrifice, in procession" .
Kekayas fight Yadavas
The Kekayas, Madras and Kambojas from north are stated to have sided with king Jarasandha of Magadha and had participated in a war against Krishna and his Yadava army .
Other references in Bhagavata Purana
Kekays had participated in the marriage ceremony of Rukmini, queen consort of Krishna, the daughter of Bhishmaka, the king of Vidarbha. One of the wives of Krishna was a Kekaya princess. When Krishna was going to Mithila, the Kekays had met him with presents.
Traditional origin of Kekayas
Bhagavata Purana further states that the Usinaras, the Sibi, the Madras, and the Kekayas were the direct descendants of Yayati's son Anu. Sibi or Sivi is stated to be son of Usinara
The same tradition is also furnished by other Puranic texts like Vayu Purana and Matsya Purana as well. The Anavas, derived from Anu, were a tribe of the Rigvedic period and are said to belong to the Iranians.
Kekays in Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi
Pāṇini refers to the Kaikeyas or Kekayas in his Ashtadhyayi and mentions their land as a part of the Vahika country. The other three countries which formed parts of the Vahika land were the Madra, the Usinara and the Savasa lands.
Jaina accounts
The Jaina texts say that one half of the Kekaya was Aryan and refer to the Kekaya city called Seyaviya.
See also
Kingdoms of Ancient India
References
External links
Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa, translated to English by Kisari Mohan Ganguli
Ramayana of Valmiki
Mahabhagavata Purana of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa
Kingdoms in the Ramayana
Kingdoms in the Mahabharata |
4328489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport%20in%20Greater%20Tokyo | Transport in Greater Tokyo | The transport network in Greater Tokyo includes public and private rail and highway networks; airports for international, domestic, and general aviation; buses; motorcycle delivery services, walking, bicycling, and commercial shipping. While the nexus is in the central part of Tokyo, every part of the Greater Tokyo Area has rail or road transport services. There are also a number of ports offering sea and air transport to the general public.
Public transport within Greater Tokyo is dominated by the world's most extensive urban rail network (as of May 2014, the article Tokyo rail list lists 158 lines, 48 operators, 4,714.5 km of operational track and 2,210 stations [although stations are recounted for each operator]) of suburban trains and subways run by a variety of operators, with buses, trams, monorails, and other modes supporting the railway lines. The above figures do not include any Shinkansen services. However, because each operator manages only its own network, the system is managed as a collection of rail networks rather than a single unit. 40 million passengers (counted twice if transferring between operators) use the rail system daily (14.6 billion annually) with the subway representing 22% of that figure with 8.66 million using it daily. There are in the Tokyo area, or one for each of developed land area. Commuter rail ridership is very dense, at 6 million people per line mile annually, with the highest among automotive urban areas. Walking and cycling are much more common than in many cities around the globe. Private automobiles and motorcycles play a secondary role in urban transport.
Air
Since the Tokyo region is densely populated and relies mainly on rail travel, air traffic infrastructure is comparatively underdeveloped. The situation has improved recently with expansions at both Tokyo airports, as well as Haneda Airport starting to accept international flights again.
Primary airports
Commercial flights in the region are served predominantly by Haneda Airport in Ōta, Tokyo (domestic hub for Japan's major airlines) and Narita International Airport in Narita, Chiba (main international gateway airport to the region but has also recently become a new hub for some domestic flights).
Secondary airports
Chofu Airport in the city of Chōfu in western Tokyo handles commuter flights to the Izu Islands, which are administratively part of Tokyo. Tokyo Heliport in Kōtō serves public-safety and news traffic. In the Izu Islands, Ōshima Airport on Ōshima, Hachijōjima Airport on Hachijō, and Miyakejima Airport on Miyake provide air services.
Ibaraki Airport, located 85 km north of Tokyo, acts as a hub for low-cost carriers, with flights to Sapporo being the most popular. Shizuoka Airport, 175 km southwest of Tokyo, aims to be a more convenient alternative for Shizuoka residents than airports in Tokyo or Nagoya, however none of the above airports have shown to take away any significant traffic from Narita or Haneda and continue to play minor roles.
Military
In addition, the Greater Tokyo area has military bases with airfields:
Hyakuri Air Base (JASDF)
Tachikawa Airfield (JGSDF)
Shimofusa Air Base (JMSDF)
Tateyama Air Base (JMSDF)
Kisarazu Air Field (JGSDF)
Kasumigaura Air Field (JGSDF)
Iruma Air Base (JASDF)
Utsunomiya Air Field (JGSDF)
Yokota Air Base (USAF/JASDF)
NAF Atsugi (USN/JMSDF)
Helipads
There is also a limited number of helicopter transport services in Tokyo, with one service linking Narita airport with central Tokyo.
Rail
Overview
Statistical profile
Rail is the primary mode of transport in Tokyo. Greater Tokyo has the most extensive urban railway network and the most used in the world with 40 million passengers (transfers between networks tallied twice) in the metro area daily, out of a metro population of 36 million. There are 882 interconnected rail stations in the Tokyo Metropolis, 282 of which are Subway stations, with several hundred more in each of the 3 surrounding densely populated suburban prefectures. There are 30 operators running 121 passenger rail lines (102 serving Tokyo and 19 more serving Greater Tokyo but not Tokyo's city center itself), excluding about 12 cable cars.
Features
Uniquely to most major cities in the world, Tokyo's railway system is not a single, unified and centrally operated network, but rather, it consists of many separately owned and operated systems with varying degrees of interconnectivity. Most lines in Tokyo are privately owned, funded, and operated, though some, like the Toei Subway and the Tokyo Metro, are supported by the Government either directly or indirectly. Each of the region's rail companies tends to display only its own maps, with key transfer points highlighted, ignoring the rest of the metro area's network.
Extensive through and express services for seamless interconnections between certain lines are a major feature of the network; the Narita-Haneda service run integrates track of 6 separate and independent operators. Suburban rail operations and subway lines are also very integrated. Frequent and high-capacity suburban trains from the suburbs commonly continue directly into the subway network to serve central Tokyo, often emerging on the other side of the city to serve another company's surface suburban lines, behaving like an S-bahn network. Shinjuku Station is the busiest train station in the world by passenger throughput. Tokyo's railways tend to shut down at around midnight, with stations themselves closed up around 1 a.m.
Trains had historically been extremely crowded at peak travel times, with people being pushed into trains by so-called oshiya ("pushers"), which was common in the boom eras of the 1960s-1980s. Upgrades on Greater Tokyo's railways are chiefly focused on improving services and grade separating lines
Corporate networks
Since corporations own, fund, promote, and operate their own networks, this tends to result in high fragmentation and company stations. The end user may need to pass through multiple company gates to get to their destination, racking up extra costs in the process (generally the longer the trip, the less charge per kilometer). This is in contrast to other nations where fares are calculated in a more integrated way. For tourists, transferring between multiple operators and paying several times to get to a single destination within the metro area can be quite confusing and expensive. Locals tend to patronize a particular company for a particular destination and walk/bike to and from that company's stations, avoiding the need to transfer and pay another fare to a different company that may have a station closer to the desired destination.
Busiest JR stations
Passengers carried in Greater Tokyo stations daily (2017):
Shinjuku Station 778,618
Ikebukuro Station 566,516
Tokyo Station 452,549
Yokohama Station 420,192
Shinagawa Station 378,566
Shibuya Station 370,669
Shimbashi Station 277,404
Ōmiya Station 255,147
Akihabara Station 250,251
Kita-Senju Station 217,838
Japan Railway
East Japan Railway Company, or JR East, is the largest passenger railway company in the world. It operates trains throughout the Greater Tokyo area (as well as the rest of northeastern Honshū).
In addition to operating some long-haul shinkansen ("bullet train") lines, JR East operates Tokyo's largest commuter railway network. This network includes the Yamanote Line, which encircles the center of Tokyo; the Keihin-Tōhoku Line between Saitama and Yokohama; the Utsunomiya Line (part of the Tōhoku Main Line) to Saitama and beyond; the Chūō Line to western Tokyo; the Sōbu Line, Chūō-Sōbu Line and Keiyō Line to Chiba; and the Yokohama, Tōkaidō, and Yokosuka lines to Kanagawa.
Many additional lines form a network outside the center of the city, allowing inter-suburban travel. Among these are the Hachikō, Itsukaichi, Jōban, Jōetsu, Kawagoe, Musashino, Ōme, Negishi, Nambu, Sagami, Takasaki, and Tsurumi lines. In total, JR alone operates 23 lines within the Greater Tokyo area.
JR East is also the majority shareholder in the Tokyo Monorail, one of the world's most commercially successful monorail lines.
Other railway operators serving Greater Tokyo
Regional railways transport commuters from the suburbs to central Tokyo. These include several private railway networks that own and operate a total of 55 lines serving Tokyo. These same operators indirectly operate another 24 lines outside of Tokyo as well as a few tourist-oriented aerial lifts and funiculars.
Keihin Electric Express Railway (Keikyu): Operates out of Shinagawa Station to Kanagawa and Haneda Airport. Five lines.
Keio Corporation: Operates out of Shinjuku Station and Shibuya Station to western Tokyo. Six lines.
Keisei Electric Railway: Operates out of Keisei Ueno Station to Chiba (including Narita International Airport). Seven lines.
Odakyu Electric Railway: Operates out of Shinjuku Station to Kanagawa, most notably Odawara, Enoshima, and Hakone. Three lines.
Seibu Railway: Operates out of Seibu Shinjuku Station and Ikebukuro Station to western Tokyo. Thirteen lines.
Tobu Railway: Operates out of Ikebukuro Station and Asakusa Station to Saitama, Gunma, and Tochigi. Twelve lines.
Tokyu Corporation (Tokyu): Operates out of Shibuya Station and Meguro Station to southern Tokyo and Yokohama. Eight lines.
Sagami Railway (Sotetsu): Operates out of Yokohama Station to eastern Kanagawa and operates through services to Tokyo and Saitama via the Eastern Kanagawa Rail Link to the JR and Tokyu networks. Three lines.
Metropolitan Intercity Railway Company (Tsukuba Express or TX): Links Akihabara Station with Tsukuba. One line.
Some private and public carriers operate within the boundaries of Tokyo.
Tokyo Waterfront Area Rapid Transit: Operates the Rinkai Line along the Tokyo waterfront to Odaiba.
Tokyo Monorail: Connects central Tokyo to Haneda Airport.
Yurikamome: People mover serving the Tokyo waterfront and Odaiba.
Tama Toshi Monorail: A suburban transit line running north–south through Western Tokyo.
Subway operators
Two organizations operate the Tokyo subway network with several other operators in the metropolitan area that operate lines that can be classified as rapid transit:
Tokyo Metro (formerly Eidan): Operates Tokyo's (and Japan's) largest subway network, with nine lines.
Tokyo Metropolitan Bureau of Transportation: Operates the four Toei Subway lines as well as the following:
Toden Arakawa Line: Once a common sight before subways and buses came to fore, the streetcar network has shrunk to only this one route between Waseda Station and Minowabashi Station.
Nippori-Toneri Liner: People mover in northeast Tokyo owned and operated by the Tokyo Metropolitan Bureau of Transportation.
Ueno Zoo Monorail — Short monorail in Ueno Zoo.
Yokohama Municipal Subway: Owned and operated by the Yokohama City Transportation Bureau with two lines.
Toyo Rapid Railway: A mostly underground line that acts as an extension of the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line connecting Funabashi and Yachiyo, Chiba.
Saitama Rapid Railway: An underground line that acts as an extension of the Tokyo Metro Namboku Line connecting southern Saitama to Tokyo.
Rinkai Line: A mostly underground line that serves Tokyo's waterfront.
Other railway operators of Greater Tokyo
Railway companies that serve other parts of Greater Tokyo include:
Chiba Prefecture
Hokuso Railway: Northeast Chiba Prefecture.
Shibayama Railway: A short railway line in northern Chiba, operations are subcontracted to Keisei Electric Railway.
Shin-Keisei Electric Railway: A commuter line in northwest Chiba.
Chiba Urban Monorail: Serving the city of Chiba.
Disney Resort Line: A monorail that links Maihama Station and Tokyo Disney Resort.
Ryutetsu: A short line railway in Nagareyama, Chiba.
Yamaman Yukarigaoka Line: A people mover in Sakura, Chiba.
Kanagawa Prefecture
Enoshima Electric Railway (Enoden): Scenic rail line running between Kamakura and Fujisawa in southern Kanagawa.
Shonan Monorail: A monorail connecting Ofuna Station to the Shonan coast.
Kanazawa Seaside Line: People mover in southern Yokohama.
Yokohama Minatomirai Railway (Minatomirai Line and Kodomo-no-Kuni Line): Owns two lines in Yokohama; operations are subcontracted to Tokyu Corporation.
Saitama Prefecture
Saitama New Urban Transit (New Shuttle): A people mover in central Saitama.
Ridership
Below is the annual ridership of each major operator as of the 2017 fiscal year. Transfers between operators are not counted unless they pass through a ticketing gate (not simply a platform).
Buses and trams
Public buses in Greater Tokyo usually serve a secondary role, feeding bus passengers to and from train stations. Exceptions are long-distance bus services, buses in areas poorly served by rail (not many exist), and airport bus services for people with luggage. Tokyo Metropolitan Bureau of Transportation operates Toei buses mainly within the 23 special wards while private bus companies (mostly the subsidiaries of the large train operators listed above) operate other bus routes, as do other city governments, such as Kawasaki City Bus, Yokohama City Bus, etc. Toei buses have a fixed fare of 210 yen per ride, while most other companies charge according to distance. Some train operators offer combined bus/train tickets; special fares apply for children, seniors and the disabled. Some routes feature non-step buses with a kneeling function to assist mobility-impaired users.
Tokyo Toden, Tokyo's tram network, previously boasted 41 routes with 213 kilometers of track. Now Tokyo has one tram line and one light rail line.
Taxis
Taxis also serve a similar role to buses, supplementing the rail system, especially after midnight when most rail lines cease to operate. People moving around the city on business often choose taxis for convenience, as do people setting out in small groups.
, taxis cost ¥710 (~$7.89 at ¥90/$1 USD) for the first two kilometers, and ¥90 for every 288 meters thereafter, or approximately ¥312.5 per kilometer. Most companies tend to raise fares by 20% between 22:00-5:00, but other companies have kept fares low to compete in a crowded market.
Roads
Local and regional highways
National, prefectural and metropolitan, and local roads crisscross the region. Some of the major national highways are:
Route 1 links Tokyo to Osaka along the old Tōkaidō
Route 6 and Route 4 carries traffic north all the way to Sendai and Aomori respectively.
Route 14 connects Nihonbashi with Chiba Prefecture.
Route 16 is a heavily travelled circumferential linking Yokosuka, Yokohama, western Tokyo, Saitama, and Chiba.
Route 17 originates in central Tokyo and passes through Saitama en route to Niigata Prefecture.
Route 20 crosses Tokyo from east to west, continuing into Yamanashi Prefecture.
The datum from which distances are reckoned is in Nihonbashi.
Expressways
The Shuto Expressway network covers central Tokyo, linking the intercity expressways together, while primarily serving commuters and truck traffic. The Bayshore Route bypasses Tokyo by traveling from Kanagawa Prefecture in between, above, and under manmade islands around Tokyo Bay to Chiba Prefecture. The Tokyo Bay Aqua-Line, which goes underneath Tokyo Bay, links Kawasaki to Kisarazu in Chiba Prefecture. Important regional expressways include the Tokyo Inner Circular Expressway, Tokyo Outer Circular Expressway, Third Tokyo-Yokohama Road, and Tokyo-Chiba Road. Presently under construction (with some segments operating), the Central Capital District Expressway will be a major circumferential through the area.
Many long-distance expressway routes converge at Tokyo including the Tōmei Expressway, Chūō Expressway, Kan-Etsu Expressway, and Tōhoku Expressway.
Private/Commercial autos
Private and commercial automobiles account are owned by fewer individuals than in other parts of the country. Tokyo, with a population of over 13 million, in 2014 registered a bit less than 4 million vehicles. Tokyo's average car size is larger than the rest of the country, with only 20.1% being kei cars. However it has followed the national trend of kei car popularity increasing almost every year. Kanagawa prefecture also followed a similar trend but to a lower degree, the other two suburban prefectures were similar to the national averages. This is in contrast to Okinawa (opposite extreme in Japan), where there are almost as many registered vehicles as people, however 55.7% were kei cars in 2014.
Maritime transport
Passenger ferries
The notable route which serves as internal transport is Tokyo-Wan Ferry, the car-passenger ferry route between Yokosuka, Kanagawa and Futtsu, Chiba, crossing Tokyo Bay. Other passenger services within the bay are mostly used as scenic cruises, such as Tokyo Cruise Ship and Tokyo Mizube Line in Tokyo, The Port Service and Keihin Ferry Boat in Yokohama.
Out of the bay, the car-passenger ferries to the Izu Islands and the Ogasawara Islands, Shikoku, Kyūshū, the Amami Islands and Okinawa serve from the ports of Tokyo or Yokohama.
The car-passenger ferries to Hokkaidō serve from Ōarai, Ibaraki. There are some other freight ferries (which can carry less than 13 passengers) serving out of the Bay.
Shipping
Shipping plays a crucial role for inbound and outbound freight, both domestic and international. The Port of Tokyo and Port of Yokohama are both major ports for Japan and Greater Tokyo.
Bicycle
Greater Tokyo is little different from the rest of Japan in regarding other modes of transport. It is home to the majority of Japan's automated bicycle systems with 14% of all commutes by bicycle and has a number of bicycle sharing systems. Docomo Bike Shares, Hello Cycling and Luup are among the most popular bicycle sharing service providers in Greater Tokyo, With Docomo Bike Shares holding the largest share of Bicycle sharing system usage. However, even though Docomo is widely accepted as the dominant shared bicycle supplier, it is viewed as an unreliable and difficult to use system by many, with its app having 2.1 stars on iOS app store and 2 stars on Trip Adviser
See also
Transport in Keihanshin (Greater Osaka)
Transport in Greater Nagoya
Transport in Fukuoka-Kitakyūshū
List of urban rail systems in Japan
References
External links
JR East official website, showing the map of the Suica/PASMO accepting area, which roughly corresponds with Greater Tokyo Area
Greater Tōkyō Railway Network, unofficial railway map of Greater Tokyo
Tokyo Railway Map, bilingual railway map of central Tokyo
Tokyo subway maps A list of every official and unofficial map of the urban railways of Tokyo. |
4328716 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perlecan | Perlecan | Perlecan (PLC) also known as basement membrane-specific heparan sulfate proteoglycan core protein (HSPG) or heparan sulfate proteoglycan 2 (HSPG2), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the HSPG2 gene. The HSPG2 gene codes for a 4,391 amino acid protein with a molecular weight of 468,829. It is one of the largest known proteins. The name perlecan comes from its appearance as a "string of pearls" in rotary shadowed images.
Perlecan was originally isolated from a tumor cell line and shown to be present in all native basement membranes. Perlecan is a large multidomain (five domains, labeled I-V) proteoglycan that binds to and cross-links many extracellular matrix (ECM) components and cell-surface molecules. Perlecan is synthesized by both vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells and deposited in the extracellular matrix of parahoxozoans. Perlecan is highly conserved across species and the available data indicate that it has evolved from ancient ancestors by gene duplication and exon shuffling.
Structure
Perlecan consists of a core protein of molecular weight 469 kDa to which three long chains (each approximately 70-100 kDa) of glycosaminoglycans (often heparan sulfate, HS, but can be chondroitin sulfate, CS) are attached. The core protein consists of five distinct structural domains. The N-terminal domain I (aa ~1-195) contains attachment sites for HS chains. Although HS chains are not required for correct folding and secretion of the protein, lack of HS or decreased sulfation can decrease perlecan's ability to interact with matrix proteins. Removal of HS chains may affect matrix organization and endothelial barrier function. Domain II comprises four repeats homologous to the ligand-binding portion of the LDL receptor with six conserved cysteine residues and a pentapeptide, DGSDE, which mediates ligand binding by the LDL receptor. Domain III has homology to the domain IVa and IVb of laminin. Domain IV consists of a series of IG modules. The structure of only the 3rd immunoglobulin (IG)-like repeat in domain IV is shown in the figure labeled "HSPG2". The C-terminal Domain V, which has homology to the G domain of the long arm of laminin, is responsible for self-assembly and may be important for basement membrane formation in vivo. Domain V also has attachment sites for HS/CS chains. Thus, perlecan core protein and HS chains could modulate matrix assembly, cell proliferation, lipoprotein binding and cell adhesion.
Function
Perlecan is a key component of the extracellular matrix of cartilage where it is essential for normal growth plate development and long bone growth. The dwarfism exhibited by the perlecan null mouse resembles the phenotype produced by activating mutations in the gene for FGFR3, a receptor for fibroblast growth factors. Perlecan binds to growth factors involved in growth plate development. Perlecan isolated from developing growth plates has been shown to bind to FGF-2 via its heparan sulfate side chains, and to FGF-18 via domain III of its core protein and mediates their action on FGF receptors. Perlecan likely plays a critical role in the sequestration and/or delivery of FGF-2 and FGF-18 during endochondral ossification.
Perlecan is also a key component of the vascular extracellular matrix, where it interacts with a variety of other matrix components and helps to maintain the endothelial barrier function. Perlecan is a potent inhibitor of smooth muscle cell proliferation and is thus thought to help maintain vascular homeostasis. Perlecan can also promote growth factor (e.g., FGF2) activity and thus stimulate endothelial growth and re-generation.
Modification of glycosaminoglycan chains
Modifications of the heparan sulfate chains on C- and N-terminal domains are the best-studied differences in the secretory pathway of perlecan. Chondroitin sulfate can be substituted for heparan sulfate, and sulfate incorporation or the sugar composition of the chains can change. Loss of enzymes involved in the heparan sulfate synthetic pathway lead to a number of conditions.
Differential heparan sulfate chain modification can occur through a number of regulatory signals. Perlecan in the growth plate of mouse long bones shows glycosylation changes in the chondrocyte progression from the resting zone to the proliferating zone. Although initially the glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains of perlecan were thought to be exclusively heparan sulfate, chondroitin sulfate chains can be substituted and this may be dependent upon the cell type. By expressing a recombinant form of the N-terminal domain I of the protein and demonstrating that digestion of the peptide with either heparanase or chondroitinase did not lead to complete loss of the peptide's activity, it was shown that chondroitin sulfate chains can be added to human perlecan. This was in agreement with previous data showing chondroitin sulfate GAG chains attached to bovine perlecan produced by chondrocytes and that recombinant human domain I protein was glycosylated with both heparan and chondroitin sulfate chains when expressed in Chinese Hamster Ovary cells. The preferential addition of heparan sulfate or chondroitin sulfate chains to domains I and V could have an effect on the differentiation of mesenchymal tissues into cartilage, bone or any number of tissues, but the regulatory mechanism of changing from heparan sulfate to chondroitin sulfate addition are not well understood.
While studying the effect of proteoglycan composition on nephritic permselectivity, it was noted that puromycin treatment of human glomerular endothelial cells (HGEC) altered the sulfation level of GAG chains on proteoglycans such as perlecan, which in turn caused a decrease in the stability of the GAG chains. The core protein mRNA levels of proteoglycans were not affected, thus the decrease in GAG chains was as a result of some other factor, which in this case turned out to be a decrease in expression of sulfate transferase enzymes, which play a key role in GAG biosynthesis. It seems that there may be some overlap in diseases stemming from loss of heparan sulfate proteoglycan expression and loss of enzymes involved in heparan sulfate biosynthesis.
Degradation
Cells can modify their extracellular matrix and basement membranes in response to signals or stress. Specific proteases act on the protein in the extracellular environment when cells have a reason to move or change their surroundings. Cathepsin S is a cysteine protease that moderately attenuates binding of FGF-positive cells to a perlecan-positive substrate. Cathepsin S is a potential protease that acts on the core protein of perlecan in the basement membrane or stroma.
The heparan sulfate chains of perlecan bind growth factors in the ECM, and serve as co-ligands or ligand enhancers when bound to receptors. Another study showed that release of HS-bound basic FGF in culture could be achieved through treatment with stromelysin, heparitinase I, rat collagenase and plasmin, and these proteolysis sites are illustrated in figure 1. This was proposed as a non-exhaustive list of the proteases that could mediate release of growth factors from the heparan sulfate chains of perlecan. Although Whitelock et al. suggested that thrombin cleavage consensus sequences exist in the core protein of perlecan, they also postulate that any thrombin activation of perlecan actually comes from cleavage of other ECM constituents. This article states that heparanase is responsible for cleavage of the heparan sulfate chains of perlecan in matrix. This releases growth factors bound to the heparan sulfate, specifically FGF-10. Addition of heparanase to cell culture of epithelia in basement membrane caused an increase in epithelial cell proliferation due to FGF-10 release.
In a model of explant growth in vitro using corneal epithelium, Matrix Metalloproteinase (MMP) 2 expression correlates with an initial degradation of the original basement membrane. Reformation of basement membrane in culture was dependent on an initial upregulation followed by a downregulation of MMP-9, in contrast to the constant expression of MMP-2. This is not evidence that MMP-2 and MMP-9 directly cleave perlecan protein in vivo but shows that the proteins clearly modulate some factor in maturation of basement membrane. Another family of metalloproteases, the Bone Morphogenetic Protein 1/Tolloid-like family, releases the c-terminal endorepellin domain of the perlecan core protein. The laminin-like globular domain contains the active motif of endorepellin, and is unable to be cleaved by cells expressing mutant and inactive forms of the BMP-1 proteins. Furthermore, the critical residue necessary for this cleavage to take place was localized to Asp4197. This proteolytic process may have significance in disease as a corresponding fragment was found in the urine of patients suffering end-stage renal failure and in the amniotic fluid of pregnant women who have undergone premature rupture of the membrane.
Expression
Expression during development
Timing of gene expression during development varies from tissue to tissue. Basement membranes are often the driving force behind separating epithelia from stroma and connective tissue. Perlecan is of particular importance in cardiovascular, neural and cartilaginous development.
Pre-implantation blastocyst development is a controlled cascade of gene regulation and intercellular signaling. Extracellular perlecan has been observed at the blastocyst stage of mouse embryonic development, specifically upregulated at the point when the embryo reaches “attachment competence”. This finding was upheld at both the mRNA level and the protein level, shown by RT-PCR and immunostaining. Later embryonic development is just as precisely regulated as pre-implantation development, and is more complicated due to differentiation of all tissues. The first study of perlecan expression during embryonal development found that the protein was first expressed during development of the cardiovascular system, and later correlates with maturation of the majority of tissues in the body, i.e. separation of epithelial layers from endothelia and stroma by basement membranes. Again, this upregulation during cardiovascular development is concomitant with the role of perlecan's C-terminus as endorepellin.
Spatio-temporal specificity in trans-activation of the perlecan gene during development is key to the maturation of basement membranes and thus to the complete separation of epithelia from endothelia and stroma. A thorough study of perlecan expression during chick embryo development has shown that perlecan is present at the morula stage and for the rest of development, although expression can be transient and precisely timed in certain tissue predecessors. In the rat embryo, perlecan expression has been shown to increase in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) post e19 in fetal development. This correlates perfectly with the ceasing of proliferation of VSMCs at e18 and a change in their phenotype. The theory put forward in this study is that perlecan plays an anti-proliferative role for VSMCs once a certain developmental point is reached, much like confluence-dependent expression of perlecan in culture. These findings were corroborated by similar results from studies of rat pulmonary artery and lung epithelia. These tissues also were found to begin perlecan production once cell division had ceased, around fetal day 19.
The development of the nervous system and extension of axons is precisely directed by cues from extracellular matrix molecules. Olfactory neurite outgrowth in mouse development is guided at least in part by an ECM laid down by olfactory epithelial cells (OECs). Perlecan and laminin-1 appear to be important in this guidance pathway, although perlecan induction occurs slightly later than laminin-1. This data is supported by earlier data showing that OECs express FGF-1 during olfactory development, and that perlecan can stimulate olfactory sensory neurite outgrowth in culture in the presence of FGF-1. Perlecan also showed nerve adhesive properties in a previous study, further suggesting that it may act in an attractive role in combination with laminin rather than a repulsive one.
Cartilage and bone development have proven to be dependent upon perlecan expression. The protein becomes visible by immunostaining on day 15 during mouse development, independently from other basement membrane proteins, suggesting that it is simply a part of the ECM of developing chondrocytes, in addition to collagen II and other cartilage markers that are expressed starting on day 12. Taken with the data, that mice lacking the pln gene cannot maintain stable cartilage, it is apparent that perlecan is essential to the maturation and stability of cartilaginous structure. This is supported by a study showing that knockdown of perlecan production inhibits the final stages of chondrogenic differentiation in C3H10T1/2 fibroblasts in culture. Bone development, i.e. mineralization of cartilaginous tissue, correlates with loss of perlecan and heparan sulfate at the chondro-osseous junction (COJ). In an effort to understand how heparan sulfate and perlecan direct mesenchymal stem cells into the osteogenic pathway, human mesenchymal stem cells were treated with heparanase and chondroitinase in culture. This led to increased mineralization and expression of osteocyte markers, supporting the data showing that loss of heparan sulfate at the COJ is a key factor in osteogenesis. It is thought that the driving force behind heparanase and chondroitinase activation of osteogenesis is release of bone morphogenetic protein bound in the heparan sulfate chains.
Animal models
Perlecan knockdown in embryonic zebrafish has been achieved through the use of Morpholinos targeted to the perlecan transcript. Morpholinos were used to block translation of the perlecan mRNA in zebrafish embryos, as part of an investigation into perlecan function in skeletal and vascular development. The Morpholino targets the five prime untranslated region of the perlecan mRNA thus blocking translation of the message. Loss of the perlecan protein in these fish led to serious myopathies and circulation problems. As shown in a later study from the same laboratory, this phenotype could be rescued through the addition of exogenous VEGF-A.
The importance of perlecan to mammalian development is demonstrated by perlecan gene knockout experiments. Nearly half of all mice in which the perlecan gene has been knocked out (perlecan null mice) die at embryonic day 10.5, when the perlecan gene normally starts to be expressed. Others die just after birth with severe defects such as abnormal basement membrane formation, defective cephalic and long bone development and achondroplasia. The knockout strategy employed for one of the perlecan knockouts was a floxing of exon 6 by insertion of a neomycin cassette, and subsequent CRE expression for removal of exon 6 from the genome. This resulted in the cartilage-compromised phenotype previously discussed and loss of basement membrane integrity in a variety of tissues. The fetal mortality rate is high and the mouse that survive die soon after birth. A separately developed perlecan knockout mouse model was created by insertion of a neomycin cassette into exon 7 of the perlecan gene. These knockout mice were also 40% embryonic lethal, with the rest of the mice dying soon after birth due to severe skeletal abnormalities. The perlecan knock out phenotype in both studies were identical and similar to the phenotype produced by activating mutations in the gene for FGFR3, a receptor for fibroblast growth factors.
In yet another mouse knockout model, the perlecan gene was mutated by homologous recombination of the endogenous perlecan gene with a construct containing 2 and 5 kb arms of homology surrounding a deleted exon 3, which codes for 2 of the 3 heparan sulfate attachment sites in domain I of perlecan. Perlecan produced by cultured fibroblasts from exon 3 knockout mice, however, contained 40% Heparan sulfate and 60% chondroitin sulfate because, in addition to the one heparan sulfate attachment site remaining on domain I, the attachment site on domain V would also still be present. The study showed that the exon 3 knockout mice had collapse of lens capsule integrity by postnatal week 3, indicating a role for the amino acids deleted from domain I of perlecan in maintaining lens capsule basement membrane integrity. Unlike the perlecan knockout mice however, viability and long bone growth in the exon 3 knockout mice was normal. This suggests that, in the exon 3 knockout, the remaining attachment sites for heparan sulfate on domains I and V available for FGF-2 binding or the site on domain 3 available for FGF-18 binding may be sufficient for normal long bone growth.
Changes to the lens in the exon 3 knock out mice are somewhat similar to the TGF-β knockout mouse model. Exon 3 knockout mice also showed decreased wound healing and angiogenesis capabilities when challenged by either epidermal injury or FGF-2 addition to the cornea. In the epidermal injury study, a wound spanning the depth of the epidermis was created in exon 3-negative mice and control mice, and in the knockout mice angiogenesis and the hallmarks of wound healing were slow to develop possibly due to decreased growth factor sequestration by the heparan sulfate-negative perlecan. A similar result was produced in the corneal micropocket assay, where FGF-2 is implanted into the cornea of mice and in normal mice angiogenesis is induced. In the knockout mice this angiogenic effect was impaired, although not completely.
A full-length perlecan construct, under control of the collagen type II promoter, was used to make a perlecan transgenic mouse. The collagen type II promoter allowed perlecan expression in the extracellular matrix made by chondrocytes only but not in the basement membranes made by endothelial, epithelial or muscle cells. The perlecan transgene in the perlecan null mouse eliminated lethality and restored long bone growth to normal. This suggests that perlecan plays a critical role in cartilage development. The perlecan transgenic mice, however, exhibited muscle hypertrophy, indicating a role for perlecan in muscle development as well as in cartilage growth plate mediated long bone growth.
Studies from gene knockout mice and human diseases have also revealed critical in vivo roles for perlecan in cartilage development and neuromuscular junction activity.
Signaling pathways and their effect on expression
Signaling pathways function to elevate or decrease levels of transcription of genes, which in turn cause cells to change their gene expression profile. The end effect of signaling pathways is exerted on the promoter of genes, which can include elements upstream or downstream of the transcriptional start site, some of which can exist inside of the transcribed gene itself. A number of signaling molecules can effect changes in perlecan expression including the transforming growth factor-Beta (TGF-β), interleukin(IL) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) families of molecules.
Transcriptional activation
The upstream 2.5 kilobases of the perlecan promoter region were studied by CAT activation in cell lines of various histological origins. This study concluded that there existed a TGF-β responsive element in the promoter just 285 base pairs upstream of the transcriptional start site. This result has been corroborated in such tissues as human colon carcinoma cells. and murine uterine epithelium by in vitro addition of the cytokine to cell culture medium. In vitro studies of TGF-β1 signaling and its effects on perlecan expression can have varying results in different cell types. In human coronary smooth muscle cells in culture, TGF-β1 signaling showed no effect on perlecan expression although it did upregulate other matrix constituents. In vivo demonstration of the dynamic regulation of perlecan and its control by extracellular signaling pathways is critical to our understanding of the protein's role in development. To this end, a transgenic mouse line was created expressing porcine TGF-β1 under the lens-specific αA-crystallin promoter and then another similar line was created but with the gene driven by the βb-crystallin promoter, corresponding to another lens-specific gene. This developmentally dynamic tissue showed a serious misregulation of extracellular matrix components including perlecan with TGF-β1 over expression. Corneal opacification occurred in both transgenic lines early in development due to greatly increased expression of perlecan, fibronectin and thrombospondin-1 in the corneal mesenchyme. The effect was more pronounced in the βB-1 Crystallin promoter-driven line.
The IL family of inflammatory cytokines also upregulates the pln transcript. In a mouse model of Alzheimer's plaque formation, IL-1-alpha effects an increase in perlecan expression in response to brain injury. IL-4 treatment of human gingival fibroblasts in culture led to increased production of various heparan sulfate proteoglycans including perlecan. Treatment of human lung fibroblasts in vitro with IL-1-beta did not lead to any significant increase in perlecan production.
Another signaling pathway shown to augment pln transcription is the VEGF pathway. VEGF165 treatment of human brain microvascular endothelial cells in culture stimulates increased pln transcription. This molecule is a ligand of VEGF Receptor-2 (VGFR2), and it seems that this VEGF165 response is specific for perlecan upregulation, leading to a positive feedback loop involving fibroblastic growth factor (FGF), FGF Receptor (FGFR) and VEGFR2 in response to endothelial damage. This microvascular-specific regulation by VEGF165 raises the possibility that the anti-coagulant function of perlecan is a part of the damage-control process in brain endothelia.
Protein Kinase C signaling is putatively responsible for upregulating transcription and translation of certain proteoglycans including perlecan. When the endocytic pathway of HeLa cells is inhibited by overexpression of a mutant dynamin, Protein Kinase C is activated and perlecan message and protein are subsequently increased. In contrast, the usual downregulation of perlecan in response to hyperglycemia is lost in mice negative for PKC-α.
Transcriptional downregulation
Interferon-γ signaling mediates transcriptional repression of the perlecan gene. This was first shown in colon cancer cell lines, and subsequently in cell lines of other tissue origins, but in each case intact STAT1 transcription factor was required for the signal to take effect. This led the investigators to believe that the transcription factor STAT1 was interacting with the Pln promoter in the distal region, localized to 660 base pairs upstream of the transcription start site. Interferon- γ treatment of blastocyst-stage murine embryos leads to a loss of perlecan expression on the trophectoderm, and thus an embryonic morphology and phenotype in cell culture, which is suggestive that these interferon-γ treated blastocysts would be defective in implantation. Presumably the loss of perlecan expression stems from downregulation of transcription via STAT1 transcription factor activity as shown previously. These in vitro results are not necessarily representative of normal physiological interferon- γ concentrations, nor are the cytokine normally expressed widely but instead at very specific developmental timepoints. Important to note is that perlecan expression can be decreased by treatment with an exogenous cytokine such as interferon- γ, and if there were a physiologically abnormal increase in expression of the cytokine it could interfere with implantation.
Cell stressors and their effect on expression
Mechanical and chemical stress can damage basement membranes or the cells they support. This could influence the gene expression profile of the cells, especially in their extracellular matrix, which often provides physical support and a chemical barrier for the cells. Hypoxia, inflammation, mechanical and chemical stress have been examined as to how they relate to perlecan expression.
Hypoxia is a condition found in disease states and during injury and often results in a lack of endothelial cell proliferation. This and perlecan's role as endorepellin prompted one study into the nature of perlecan expression regulation by endothelial cells during hypoxic conditions. Under hypoxic conditions, this study found that perlecan expression by rat cardiac microvascular endothelial cells was decreased sixty-one percent compared to normal controls. The contention of this paper is that perlecan downregulation leads to a loss of FAK activation and thus less ERK signaling, leading to decreased cell proliferation. It does seem counterintuitive that endothelial cells would proliferate less quickly due to loss of perlecan and its endorepellin subunit. It could be that these endothelial cells merely downregulated transcription of many genes in response to hypoxic conditions. In another study, hypoxia led to induction of genes associated with apoptosis and cell death, but repression of genes was not limited to proteins associated with a specific pathway. When T84 intestinal epithelial cells are exposed to hypoxic conditions for 24 hours a significant increase in perlecan mRNA and protein production occurs. They relate this to the fact that many genes elevated in response to hypoxia contain a cAMP response element (CRE) in their promoter, as does pln. This difference between endothelial cells from the study in 2007 and the epithelial cell studied in these experiments is indicative of how varied the regulatory mechanisms of perlecan may be in different cell types.
The development of beta-amyloid plaques on the brain is associated with onset of Alzheimer's disease. These plaques induce a constant state of inflammation in areas of accumulation, leading to expression of certain inflammation-related gene products, some of which perpetuate the inflammation in the brain context. As previously mentioned, to investigate the effect of brain inflammation on expression levels of perlecan, needle stab wounds were created in mice brains, and after inflammation and variable periods of recovery, mRNA and protein levels were assessed via in situ hybridization and immunostaining. Perlecan levels were increased in the hippocampus but not in the striatum during the healing period, along with IL 1-alpha expression. Perlecan expression was traced to microglial cells in the hippocampus and astrocytes. This role for perlecan in beta-amyloid plaque generation is supported by an earlier study showing that perlecan and beta-amyloid treatment of rat brains led to formation of senile plaques, whereas treatment with beta-amyloid alone did not have the same effect.
At the organismic level, mechanical stress has a profound impact on extracellular matrix integrity and probably causes induction of a number of ECM genes for repair and remodeling of ECM in tissue stroma and basement membranes. One study examined the in vitro effects of pressure on global gene transcription using a microarray approach and a cell stretching system meant to simulate intraocular pressure in the lamina cribosa (connective tissue) of the optic nerve head. Their findings were that perlecan and several other proteoglycans were upregulated in response to the stretching stimulus. TGF-β2 and VEGF were induced as well, possibly contributing to the upregulation of the perlecan transcript and protein. It has been shown that autocrine TGF-β signaling is a compensatory result of mechanical stress in vitro in endothelial cells. Using a similar cell stretching mechanism to mimic arterial pressure, this investigation showed that perlecan production increased in response to mechanical strain. This is contingent upon TGF-β autocrine signaling in a positive feedback loop with p38 and ERK. This endothelial cell increase in production of VSMC growth inhibitors (i.e. heparin) is reversed in VSMCs, where mechanical stress induces proliferation. Deformation of VSMC cells in culture leads to perlecan upregulation, with a significant increase in sulfation of the heparan sulfate chains. This is not in contrast to the data shown where perlecan expression is constant beyond e19 in rat VSMC, which suggested that perlecan plays an antiproliferative role for VSMCs. In this case, it seems that the molecule's signaling function is the operative upregulated factor, especially due to the increase in sulfation of the heparan sulfate chains.
Chemical damage to organs can affect not only the cell's genetic and mechanical integrity but the extracellular matrix of the tissue. To study the effect of chemical damage on liver cells, Wistar rats were treated with carbon tetrachloride for 48 hours prior to sacrificing. Prior to treatment with CCl4, perlecan staining was limited to the bile duct and sinusoidal blood vessels of the liver. After treatment, perlecan staining was intense in areas of necrosis. This could have been due to the increase in capillarization of the liver as an attempt to regenerate damaged tissue. A similar finding was shown in acetamenophin treatment of mice, where perlecan and other matrix components were heavily expressed in necrotic lesions of the liver.
Expression in cell culture
One of the resounding arguments against the validity of in vitro results of cell culture on 2D plastic plates is that the environment does not accurately reflect that of the cells in the organism. This problem is being dealt with by developing 3D cell cultures using a wide variety of substrates as the scaffolds or environments for the cells. In this kind of setting the expression of ECM genes has the potential to more closely resemble that of the native expression profile. 3D scaffolds, the structures on which the cultured cells grow, can be composed of other cells, i.e. cocultures, synthetic polymers mimicking the cells natural environment or purified ECM such as matrigel, and any mixture of these three components.
One such system has been developed to study skin development and basal membrane formation between keratinocytes and the stroma. This system is used to delineate the development of basement membrane between fibroblasts in the stroma (in this case fibroblasts in a type-I collagen gel) and keratinocytes grown on top of the gel. Perlecan expression and thus basement membrane maturation is dependent on nidogen crosslinking of collagen IV and laminin γ1 chain in this system. This effect also led to a lack of hemidesmosomes in the developing tissue. Another system using a disorganized hydrated collagen I gel has been used to demonstrate that primary human corneal fibroblasts will eventually invade the gel and create a matrix consisting of collagen type I and perlecan, as well as several other sulfated matrix glycoproteins. This mimics the in vivo corneal fibroblast's developmental program and response to injury.
One of the long-term goals of creating 3D cell culture systems is to engineer tissues that can be used as replacements for patients with many types of disease. In tissue engineered heart valves created by seeding myofibroblasts onto collagen type I followed by endothelial cells, heparan sulfate proteoglycan expression has been verified, although no distinction between syndecan and perlecan has been made in these tissues. Another procedure that could be made possible by tissue engineering is keratoepithelioplasty. Transplanted tissue must remain intact, which requires a pre-formed basement membrane. Collagen gels have promoted formation of a complete basement membrane by corneal epithelial cells in culture.
Perlecan also holds promise to serve as a scaffold for plating cells in culture. Human salivary gland ductal and acinar cells have been successfully grown on a bioactive peptide containing a sequence repeated in domain IV of the perlecan protein. These cells reproduce acini-like structures similar to those found in the native gland and tight junctions, along with complete basement membranes in culture.
Disease association
Cancer
While Perlecan suppression causes substantial inhibition of tumor growth and neovascularization in null mice, in contrast, when perlecan-null cells are injected into nude mice enhanced tumor growth is observed when compared to controls.
Cancer progression and pathogenesis is intimately linked to extracellular matrix composition and the role of perlecan and other ECM molecules in cancer is being studied by a large number of laboratories. Since the basement membrane is the first obstacle in the way of extravasating carcinoma cells, the functions of perlecan in this process are multiple. One model system used to study perlecan expression in carcinoma cell lines is that of the MeWo/70W melanoma metastatic progression cell lines. MeWo cells are characteristically less invasive than their clonal variant cell line 70W. One lab studied perlecan expression in 27 invasive melanomas and 26 of the 27 samples showed a significant increase in perlecan message when compared to normal tissue from the same patients. They then used the MeWo and 70W cell lines to study if perlecan expression changed during treatment with neurotrophins, which can stimulate cell invasion through matrigel in vitro. The more invasive 70W cells began expressing perlecan message ten minutes after stimulation with the neurotrophins, and the MeWo cells did not produce any pln message regardless of treatment. This study took special note of the fact that perlecan upregulation occurred even before that of heparanase, an essential protein involved in the process of extravasation.
In ovarian cancer as in other cancers, perlecan expression occurs differently throughout progression of the disease. Perlecan staining is lost in ovarian basement membrane that has been breached by an invasive adenocarcinoma, which is in contrast to perlecan staining in the basement membranes of normal ovaries and those with benign tumors, where basement membrane is homogeneous and very similar in composition to that in other normal tissues. This is consistent with other results showing loss of perlecan in basement membranes affected by invasive cervical cancer spreading to the pelvic lymph nodes, which comes as no surprise due to the correlation of elevated levels of heparanase mRNA expression with invasion of similar cervical carcinoma. By contrast, tumor formation of the immortalized mouse epithelial cell line RT101 injected into rats was dependent on perlecan expression by the mouse cells and not on the presence of endogenous rat perlecan. RT101 cells with perlecan knocked down by antisense did not show tumor formation in this system, however cells expressing the antisense perlecan and a recombinant construct encoding domains I, II, and III of mouse perlecan did indeed show tumor formation. Thus in this system it does appear that tumor cell expression of perlecan is necessary for tumor aggregation. More research into GAG chain or core protein modification by invasive tumor cells as compared to benign tumor cells and normal tissue would be informative to better understand perlecans role in cancer migration.
Several laboratories have studied in vitro tumor cell angiogenesis using antisense constructs to the perlecan message. The full-length reverse complement cDNA, driven by a strong promoter, is transfected into various cell types to eliminate perlecan expression. Antisense in colon carcinoma cells blocks perlecan translation, leading to decreased tumor growth and angiogenesis. A similar in vitro decrease in proliferation occurred in NIH 3T3 cells and a human melanoma cell line expressing antisense perlecan mRNA. Findings in vitro with Kaposi's sarcoma cell lines showed that loss of perlecan via transfection with an antisense construct led to decreased proliferation and migration of this highly metastatic cell type. These results are in contrast to in vivo results with the same Kaposi Sarcoma lines, which show that decreased perlecan leads to increased angiogenesis, which facilitates migration and thus is associated with increase in tumor grade. Antisense knockdown of perlecan in fibrosarcoma cell lines led to increased growth and migration both in vitro and in vivo. These findings of greater tumorigenesis in vivo are supported by data showing that the C-terminus of the perlecan protein acts as an endostatic module now known as endorepellin.
A ribozyme construct was created for use in knocking down perlecan translation levels. This ribozyme was targeted at a sequence coding domain I of the perlecan protein. It reduced expression of perlecan up to 80% in the prostate cancer cell line C42B. In contrast to previously discussed studies these cells produced smaller tumors than their parental cells when injected into athymic mice. What this disparity in results means for invasion is unknown, although it is true that perlecan is part of the extracellular matrix in mesenchymal tissue, and cells undergoing epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) may upregulate perlecan expression as part of their EMT programming.
Diabetes and cardiovascular disease
Perlecan levels are decreased in many disease states - e.g., diabetes, atherosclerosis and arthritis. Perlecan has an important role in the maintenance of the glomerular filtration barrier. Decreased perlecan in the glomerular basement membrane has a central role in the development of diabetic albuminuria. Perlecan expression is down regulated by many atherogenic stimuli and thus Perlecan is thought to play a protective role in atherosclerosis. Diabetes and atherosclerosis are commonly associated syndromes. 80% of diabetes-associated deaths involve some form of atherosclerotic complication, and the basement membrane of endothelia has been implicated in the atherogenic process. Synthesis of heparan sulfate was shown to decrease in the arteries of diabetics and in arteries developing atherosclerotic lesions.
The mechanism by which heparan sulfate was downregulated in these lesions remained unknown for some time. One theory states that high glucose in circulation could lead to a decrease in GAG chain attachment to perlecan, but not necessarily a change in the synthetic pathway of the GAG chains or that of the core protein. After treatment of human aortic endothelial cells with high glucose medium, secreted perlecan contained less sulfate incorporation accompanied by less overall GAG chain incorporation. Although no signaling pathway is identified leading to this decrease in GAG chain incorporation, it is suggested that the 30% loss in overall glycosylation of the protein could mean loss of one of the three HS chains on perlecan in this model of diabetes-associated hyperglycemia. It is also noted that similar decreases in extracellular HS without a change in staining for the core protein chains occur in diabetic kidneys and in kidney cells in culture treated with high glucose.
Atherosclerosis is most often the culprit in coronary heart disease and other cardiovascular conditions, and a large aggregation of perlecan protein is symptomatic of advanced atherosclerotic plaques. VSMCs are the producers of the perlecan in this condition, meaning that a good deal of research has been focused on understanding the means of perlecan upregulation in this condition. In a test of the effect of circulating nonesterified fatty acids (symptomatic of diabetes and atherogenesis) on perlecan expression by VSMCs, expression did not change when compared to control cells. This was in contrast to a 2-10-fold increase in expression of other basement membrane proteoglycans. Thrombin is another marker associated with atherogenesis and procoagulation, and it selectively upregulates production of perlecan but not other proteoglycans in human VSMCs in culture. It is suggested that this effect is only seen when VSMCs reach confluence, but not prior to confluence. This concept is similar to previously mentioned studies showing that perlecan is only produced by VSMCs once they have ceased proliferation during development. Another marker in the atherosclerotic pathway is angiotensin II, which also upregulates perlecan expression in VSMCs in culture. Given the prominence of perlecan expression in atherosclerosis there is potential for therapy based upon perlecan expression and research may eventually proceed in that direction.
Genetic disease
Mutations in the HSPG2 gene, which encodes perlecan, cause dyssegmental dysplasia, Silverman-Handmaker type and Schwartz–Jampel syndrome.
Interactions
Perlecan has been shown to interact with
FBLN2,
FGF7,
FGFBP1, and
Transthyretin.
FGF-2,
FGF-18
References
External links
Glycoproteins
Proteoglycans
Extracellular matrix proteins |
4328804 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacramento%20Northern%20Railway | Sacramento Northern Railway | The Sacramento Northern Railway (reporting mark SN) was a electric interurban railway that connected Chico in northern California with Oakland via the California capital, Sacramento. In its operation it ran directly on the streets of Oakland, Sacramento, Yuba City, Chico, and Woodland and ran interurban passenger service until 1941 and freight service into the 1960s.
History
Summary
The Sacramento Northern (SN) was an electrified interurban railroad in California that extended from Oakland north to Chico. A classic interurban in that it ran down the center of city streets in a number of towns, the SN was also a heavy duty electric railroad that moved considerable freight tonnage. There were three branches, one to Woodland, one to Colusa, and one to Oroville. The SN had been two separate interurban companies connecting at Sacramento until 1925. The Oakland, Antioch, and Eastern Railway was a catenary-wire powered line that ran from Oakland through a tunnel in the Oakland hills to Moraga, Walnut Creek, Concord, Pittsburg, to Sacramento. It was renamed the San Francisco-Sacramento Railroad briefly. The Northern Electric Railway was a third-rail powered line that ran from Sacramento north through Marysville-Yuba City to Chico. The SN crossed the Sacramento River on the Red Gate Bridge. It was renamed the Sacramento Northern Railroad in 1914. In 1928, the two lines combined to become the Sacramento Northern Railway under control of the Western Pacific Railroad which operated it as a separate entity. An extensive multiple-car passenger service operated from Oakland to Chico until 1941 including providing dining car service on some trains. Passenger traffic was heaviest from Sacramento to Oakland. Freight operation using electric locomotives continued into the 1960s. The SN was a typical interurban in that its trains, including freight, ran on downtown city streets in Oakland, Sacramento, Yuba City, and Woodland. This involved multiple car trains making sharp turns at street corners and obeying traffic signals. Once in open country, SN's passenger trains ran at fairly fast speeds. With its shorter route and lower fares, the SN provided strong competition to the Southern Pacific and Western Pacific railroads for passenger business and freight business between those two cities. North of Sacramento, both passenger and freight business was less due to the small town agricultural nature of the region and due to competition from the paralleling Southern Pacific Railroad.
Detailed history
The original, route connected Chico with Sacramento. The original name of this line was the Chico Electric Railway (CERY), in operation beginning in 1905. CERY was sold in 1905, after a few months of operation, to the newly-formed Northern Electric Railway (NER). The NER went into bankruptcy in 1914, and was reorganized into a new corporation named the Sacramento Northern Railroad (SNRR).
The Western Pacific Railroad (WP) purchased the SNRR in 1922 as a subsidiary and kept the original name. In 1925 the WP created a "new" Sacramento Northern Railway (SNRy), in order to group the growing collection of WP interurban railroad holdings.
The Sacramento Northern Railway was created from two interurban railroads:
Northern Electric Railway — the third-rail-powered "North End" from Sacramento north through the agricultural Sacramento Valley to Marysville-Yuba City and Chico from late 1905 to 1918. It became the Northern Division of the SNRy.
San Francisco-Sacramento Railroad — the trolley-wire-powered "South End" operated from Sacramento south through farmland, marshes, over a bay by its own ferry, to Pittsburg-Concord, through the Contra Costa County hills and tunnel to Oakland and the Key System ferry pier. In 1928 the San Francisco-Sacramento Railroad (formerly the Oakland, Antioch and Eastern Railway, and originally the Oakland and Antioch Railway) became the Southern Division of the SNRy.
By retaining the Sacramento Northern Railway as a subsidiary rather than just absorbing it into the Western Pacific Railroad, the WP earned more income by interchanging freight with a separate Sacramento Northern Railroad due to extra fees earned from shipper-customers by interchanging freight from one railroad (itself) to another (the Sacramento Northern). Western Pacific also owned regional sister electric railroads, the Tidewater Southern Railway (TS) (Stockton to Modesto) and the Central California Traction Company (CCT) (Stockton to downtown Sacramento). The TS and the CCT used the same downtown Sacramento terminal and ran directly on Sacramento streets.
The two divisions used different voltages as well as different methods of current collection, thus only some powered equipment could traverse the entire Chico to Oakland route. When in Oakland, SN used Key System electric power. Some equipment carried a third rail shoe, a trolley pole, and a pantograph. The differing electrical systems, third rail for the North End and trolley wire for the South End, were retained. Some passenger interurban cars and freight locomotives were designed to operate on both "Ends" but most could not and had to remain on their home divisions.
Sacramento Northern also continued to operate streetcar services in many of its host cities. A line in Sacramento to Swanston ran between 1914 and 1932, largely subsidized by a local developer.
The combined main line extended for between San Francisco and Chico. At the southern end the SNRy shared track, electric propulsion power, and facilities of the East Bay's expansive Key System commuter lines. At first this used the Key System's ferry terminal at the Oakland Mole in West Oakland. Then beginning in 1939 it used the tracked lower deck of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge into the Transbay Terminal in San Francisco. After 1958, the Key System ceased operating, and the tracks were removed from streets and the Bay Bridge.
Scheduled service
At , the railroad's Comet and Meteor services between San Francisco and Chico were the longest interurban lines in North America. It was built and operated to first-class railroad standards, such as providing dining and parlor car service. It operated at speeds up to per hour. Passenger service to Oroville ended in 1938. In June 1939 SN, ran three weekday trains from Chico to San Francisco, one from Sacramento to SF, and three from Concord to SF. The fastest train took 5 hr 43 min from Chico to San Francisco, and 2 hr 48 min Sacramento to SF. Passenger service west from Sacramento (to Chico) ended in August 1940. In January 1941, SN operated two weekday trains from Pittsburg to San Francisco and two Concord trains to SF. Interurban passenger service totally ended in 1941, but local Chico service lasted until 1947. Afterwards, SN transitioned to become a shortline freight-hauling railroad.
Financial issues
As with most interurban railroads in the US, the SN's return on initial investment was lower and its annual operating costs were higher than had been projected at conception. Interurbans, like most railroads, were very labor-intensive, particularly with the labor costs of maintaining motorized rolling stock and repairing electrical systems. Passenger business was less than initially projected and became increasingly unprofitable, even after SN reached downtown San Francisco via the new San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge in 1939. Its freight business and its relationship with the adjacent Western Pacific Railroad was the lifeblood of the railroad, keeping it in profit long after passenger service had ceased. Although it had a somewhat shorter route from Oakland to Pittsburg/Antioch in competing with the Santa Fe and Southern Pacific steam railroads, its route through the Oakland hills was steep (4%) and curvy by railroad standards plus it had on-street operation in Oakland. Freight trains usually had just a few cars on those grades with locomotives ("juice jacks") at both ends of the train. From Sacramento north to Chico, the SN competed with the Southern Pacific Railroad and, up to 1922, with the Western Pacific from Marysville south. It traversed a low density population rural farm country from Chico which contained only Marysville-Yuba City as major towns before it reaching Sacramento. Thus, passenger business north of Sacramento was light and could not be expected to increase. The SN had branches to Vacaville and Dixon, Woodland, Marysville and Colusa, and Oroville.
Business decline
The railway suffered from statewide business decline due to the Great Depression plus the increasing automobile use on improved roads. Passenger service ended in 1941, while streetcar service in Chico continued until 1947. Other travails included the 1951 Lisbon Trestle Collapse, in which crewmen were hurt and a long causeway trestle needed costly rebuilding; the withdrawal of the Sacramento Northern's aging train ferry, "Ramon"; and the abandonment of service on the Dixon Branch. Freight service continued and was heavy during World War II. In 1956 SN reported 45 million ton-miles of revenue freight; at the end of the year it operated of road and of track. 1956 operating revenue was $2.2 million, but in that year ICC included SN among the Class Is.
Reducing electrification
The SN received its first diesel locomotives in 1941 and this began its process of de-electrification. All electric operation ceased in 1965 at Yuba City after which the railway operated as a dieselized freight subsidiary of the Western Pacific. Trackage was abandoned over the years, especially that which duplicated routes on other railroads. The SN name ceased to exist with the WP's acquisition by the Union Pacific in 1983.
Present day segment
The SN line south of Sacramento connecting the present day ghost towns of Montezuma, Dozier, and Cannon in Solano County is now owned and operated and electrified by the Western Railway Museum as a heritage railway. Much of the SN's former equipment is part of the museum's permanent collection.
Timeline
Route
Oakland to Sacramento
In June of 1911, SN's predecessor, the Oakland and Antioch, purchased a parcel of land from the Realty Syndicate (associated with the Key System) for its planned terminal yard at 40th Street and Shafter Avenue in Oakland. Construction of the facility began immediately in conjunction with the laying of tracks from the site northward along Shafter Avenue toward the hills.
Although the compact yard at 40th and Shafter was the end of its right-of-way, SN trains continued west along 40th St. on the tracks of the Key System and on to the Key System's "mole". In later years, the trains ran over the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge which was built near the site of the Key mole, to San Francisco's downtown Transbay Terminal, connecting by way of the Key's tracks on Yerba Buena Avenue and 40th Street. This service ended with the railroad's passenger service in 1941, but freight interchange with the Key System continued until that system's demise.
The main line ran on single track north up the center of Shafter Avenue in a residential area, passing Emerson Elementary School at 49th Street. At the end of Shafter, the track crossed College Avenue next to Claremont Junior High School and started a long curving 4% grade into the Oakland hills in the Rockridge district of Oakland. It then crossed the Temescal Canyon inlet of Lake Temescal via a bridge. During the preparations for the Broadway (Caldecott) Tunnel project, this inlet was filled in and the Sacramento Northern tracks re-routed along the top of a new high embankment above the lake, buttressed by a massive retaining wall that still exists today.
From Lake Temescal, the tracks ran southeast through the Montclair district of Oakland. It crossed into Montclair over a trestle at Moraga Avenue and Thornhill Drive, then ran along a high berm between Montclair Recreation Center and Montclair Elementary School, before crossing Mountain Blvd and Snake Road via trestle. High above the northwest side of Shepherd Canyon, the line headed east, then made a sharp turn northeast as it passed through a major cut in the hill. It then climbed up Shepherd Canyon to a station called "Havens" at Paso Robles Dr., named for real estate developer Frank C. Havens, one-time partner of the Key System's "Borax" Smith who was trying to encourage sales in Shepherd Canyon.
At Havens, below Saroni Drive, the line entered a short ravine leading to the entrance of a one mile long single-track tunnel under the Oakland Hills. The tunnel itself is still intact but is sealed at both ends. In 1994, home developers filled in the approach ravine and tunnel mouth and constructed residential homes on this fill and on top of the tunnel. The upper foot of the top of the tunnel portal could be observed in the back yard of one of the new homes. A home further northeast behind the first was constructed on top of the unlined tunnel, and by altering drainage in the area caused the tunnel below the home to slowly subside. The home shifted and dropped and had to be removed.
The SN track exited the tunnel into Contra Costa County at Pinehurst Road near Huckleberry Botanic Regional Preserve, and immediately curved over a bridge over Pinehurst Road to run southeastward through Redwood Canyon. The railroad designated a station just outside the tunnel portal as "Eastport." The tunnel portal is no longer visible, largely as a result of a landslide which occurred during the El Niño rains of the early 1980s.
The right of way ran along an extant fire trail near the spot where Pinehurst Road makes a sharp u-turn. This fire trail was previously known as Winding Way on some maps, and was originally an old 19th century logging road built by Hiram Thorn, for bringing redwood logs out of the Moraga Redwoods and to his mill, and then over the mountain into Oakland. Even earlier, the route up the canyon to what is now Huckleberry preserve was a cattle trail for the Spanish and Mexican ranchers, en route to a landing at the mouth of Temescal Creek on San Francisco Bay.
At the sharp curve at Eastport, the tracks immediately crossed over Pinehurst road on a bridge. The right-of-way then headed down Redwood Canyon on a ledge (still apparent today) just above Pinehurst Road, progressing southeast past the small community of Canyon. The line then turned north to Moraga, past St Mary's, and thence northeasterly through Lafayette, Saranap, and the valley past Walnut Creek and to Concord and Pittsburg. Some of the right of way through Contra Costa County is now used by the BART system to Concord.
At Pittsburg, the tracks ran parallel, adjacent, and south of the Santa Fe and the Southern Pacific main lines, then dropped down, turned north sharply and went under the SF and SP through an underpass to almost immediately reach the SN ferry landing on Suisun Bay. (This track layout and underpass are still shown on a 2009 Google website map of Pittsburg.) The Pittsburg side ferry landing and depot was called "Mallard" by the SN. There a ferry boat (the Ramon) carried an entire passenger train across to a north side landing near Suisun called "Chipps" on Chipps Island.
From here the line proceeded north across an extensive marshland (including Chipps Island and Van Sickle Island) on a long trestle. After the trestle, the tracks continued north through farmland past Montezuma, Rio Vista Junction, and Creed, where there was a branch west to Vacaville and Travis Air Force Base. In 1913 a spur was built that connected Rio Vista Junction to the town of Dixon to the north, but it was unprofitable and was abandoned after a year or two.
Past Creed, the line continued to Dozier and Yolano before crossing the four mile long Lisbon trestle into West Sacramento. This trestle collapsed in July 1951 as a steeple cab powered freight train of steel plate for Pittsburg was crossing it. At West Sacramento, just west of the Tower Bridge, the line to Woodland left the southbound main line and headed west.
Past West Sacramento, the line entered the city of Sacramento by way of the "M" Street Bridge (1911), and later by way of its replacement (1935), the Tower Bridge, which is still in use. The SN progressed through downtown streets onto I Street to reach the substantial columned two-story brick and stone "Union Terminal" on I Street between 11th and 12th. Union Terminal, also used by Central California Traction trains to Stockton in the early years, is now gone after use in the 1950s-1960s as a grocery store. Downtown Sacramento streets, particularly east and south of the Tower Bridge, carried many SN and Central California Traction tracks.
Line section abandonments
Freight service from Oakland to Lafayette ceased on March 1, 1957. Overhead wire and tracks were removed and the Shepherd Canyon tunnel sealed. The former roadbed from St Mary's College through Lafayette was converted to the popular Lafayette-Moraga trail. The following year, freight service only extended from Walnut Creek to Sacramento.
The Ferry "Ramon" was removed from service in 1954, so SN, through parent Western Pacific, had to obtain trackage rights on the Santa Fe from Stockton to Pittsburg where SN trains could reach SN tracks and freight shippers in Pittsburg and Concord. When the Union Pacific absorbed Western Pacific/SN it obtained further trackage rights on the Santa Fe which extended to Port Chicago where SN had a small yard. Thus, Pittsburg trackage was removed in the early 1990s.
As of 2009, Google and MapQuest maps acquired by web searching "Rio Vista CA" shows original SN track and sidings (most now abandoned) at Pittsburg and north of Suisun Bay including the northward turn under the SF & SP to the Suisun Bay shore. The track Rio Vista-Creed is still shown as SN. At Rio Vista Junction is the present Western Railway Museum and active electrified track.
Sacramento to Chico
From the Sacramento depot at present day Terminal Way, the SN's "North End" ran to a Northern Electric-built truss bridge crossing the American River and then on to Rio Linda, to E. Nicolaus, then to Marysville where it crossed the Feather River into adjacent Yuba City, split off the branch to Colusa, then went on to Live Oak, split off the branch to Oroville, then to Gridley and to Chico where it terminated. In Chico there were yards and primary shops. From a junction just northwest of Yuba City, another branchline ran west to Meridian and Colusa. It crossed the Sacramento River at Meridian on a narrow combined rail and vehicle bridge. From Yuba City to Meridian the track ran alongside and north of the Colusa Highway, California State Route 20. In 1992 this track and unusual Meridian bridge were still in use and provided the SN with a Southern Pacific-Union Pacific interchange at Colusa. As of 2009, Google Maps still showed the former SN trackage alongside SR 20.
Woodland Branch
The electrified Woodland branch line left the Oakland bound main line at West Sacramento and ran straight west toward Woodland (known as the Yolo Shortline RR until 2003 and now known as the Sierra Northern Railway). The track proceeds across a very long elevated wood viaduct-bridge over the wide Yolo flood plain to enter Woodland and go down Main Street to the Woodland Opera House where the interurban cars turned around. Today SERA terminates shortly before East Street several blocks east of the Opera House. The Woodland terminal was a unique Mission-style structure and was recently reconstructed. The Sacramento bound interurban cars exited the terminal onto Main Street through a unique archway in the station wall.
In Sacramento
The SN entered Sacramento from the north crossing the American River on a through truss bridge. It then proceeded on private right of way berween 18th and 19th streets to D street where it turned west in the middle of D to 15th Street then south on 15th to I street where it turned west on I to the city's intrerurban Union Terminal and interurban car storage yard bounded by H, I, 11th and 12th streets. Trains turned into the terminal leaving the street. It then proceeded west on I to 8th, then turned south to M Street, then west on M over the Sacramento River to West Sacramento. From there it turned south on a direct line to Rio Vista and the delta river crossing on the SN ferry at Chipps.
Terminals and Stations
Sacramento's first interurban terminal (for the Northern Electric Railway's line from Chico and Yuba City) was at Eighth and J Streets. Sacramento's two other interurban lines, the San Francisco-Sacramento and the Central California Traction (to Stockton) had separate terminals. Pressure from Sacramento to stop loading multiple-car interurban trains on city streets led to construction of a terminal for all three in 1925. This produced the impressive two-story columned brick Union Station along I Street between 11th and 12th Streets, near the current Sacramento RT Light Rail 12th & I station. Trains left I street to circle behind the terminal to one of four tracks for passenger loading. The station burned internally 1972 and was removed around 2000.
The SN mission style terminal at 30 mile west Woodland was unusual in that the interurban cars from Sacramento went through an arch in the station's wall to reach a rail yard in the rear. This terminal was close to the Woodland Opera House, unique for such a small town.
Technical information
Electrification
Because of interconnection with the Key System, SN cars had to operate under a number of different electrical standards. The North End was electrified at 600 volts DC, the nationwide standard trolley and interurban voltage at the time of construction. Trolley wire and trolley poles were used only in urban areas. In the open country, the line used a solid, uncovered top-contact third rail. Cars built originally for the North End could not operate south of Sacramento. The South End (former OA&E, Oakland, Antioch, and Eastern) was electrified largely at 1,200 volts DC until 1936, after which it operated at 1,500 volts, with areas of 600 volts in Oakland and Sacramento.
The interurban cars had to use a pantograph rather than the trolley pole on Key System rails (electrified at 600 volts) and over the Bay Bridge (electrified at 1,200 volts for the Southern Pacific); the Key System used a covered top-contact third rail over the bridge. Because of the Key System's third rail, cars that could traverse the whole system had to have their third rail shoes removed, since the top-contact shoes would have fouled the Key System rail's cover. They were normally added or removed in Sacramento. Such all-line capable cars were switchable between 600 V and 1,200 V operation; they could also operate at half power at the 1,200 V setting on 600 V overhead.
The SN's south end high-quality electrification used catenary rather than a single trolley wire, leading to the eventual exclusive use of pantographs rather than trolley poles south of Sacramento. Catenary allows the vertical supporting poles to be spaced farther apart than if a single suspended trolley wire is used, plus it is better for pantograph operation at speed due to stability (The South Shore line uses pantographs with a single trolley wire in Michigan City streets but has catenary for high speed operation elsewhere).
Cars and trains
Sacramento Northern offered dining service aboard parlor-observation cars Bidwell, Sacramento, Moraga and Alabama. The Alabama had been built in 1905 as the private car of Pacific Electric Railway owner Henry E. Huntington and was purchased by the SN. This elegant car operated on the Sacramento Northern from 1921 until destroyed in 1931 by a fire caused by a short circuit in its coffeemaker. Sacramento Northern name trains operating between Oakland, Sacramento and Chico included the Comet, Meteor, Sacramento Valley Limited and Steamer Special
Suisun Bay crossing and ferry
Planned bridge
The Oakland, Antioch and Eastern needed to cross Suisun Bay, and chose to do so between West Pittsburg and Chipps Island, a gap of . The bay saw heavy shipping traffic and thus a high-level drawbridge with long approaches was required. Construction began in 1912; the estimated price tag was $1.5 million and construction time was estimated as two and a half years. This would have delayed the opening of the railway, and so an alternative plan of a ferry service was implemented as a temporary measure. Construction of the bridge stopped in May 1913 after construction of the pier on the Contra Costa County side, because of a shortage of funds due to uncertainties brought on by World War I. The railway, not meeting revenue expectations, never did restart construction, and the "temporary" ferry service became permanent.
Car ferry service
The railway was one of only two interurbans to operate a car ferry, and was the longer and more ambitious of the two. The first ferry constructed, the Bridgit (a pun on "Bridge It") was constructed of wood in San Francisco and launched in July 1913. It was destroyed by fire on May 17, 1914.
After unsuccessful experiments with an unpowered barge, the railroad rented car floats from other railroads in the area and commissioned a new, steel ferry from the Lanteri Shipyard in nearby Pittsburg. The Ramon was constructed entirely from flat steel plate to save time, and had no curved surfaces on its hull. It was double ended with a central, raised bridge in the typical carfloat style. Power was by a distillate engine, one of the largest constructed, which was insufficient to counteract high winds and currents in the bay.
Three tracks were installed on the deck, all long enough to carry three passenger cars or five freight cars. All three could not be used at the same time; the central track overlapped the other two, and either the single central track or the two outside tracks could be used, depending on load. All tracks were equipped with powered trolley wire.
The Ramon was retired in 1954 after a Coast Guard inspection determined that the hull plating was no longer in a safe condition, and it was scrapped locally.
Bridges and viaducts
California State Route 20 crossed the Sacramento River at Meridian on a bridge also carrying the Sacramento Northern's line to Colusa. The tracks were in the center of the bridge and the two highway lanes were on the sides. It was replaced in 1977.
The SN had two very long wood piling viaducts that crossed the Yolo flood plain, the Lisbon trestle to Rio Vista and the Yolo causeway to Woodland.
See also
List of California street railroads
Northern Electric Railway—Marysville and Colusa Branch
Rail trail
References
Bibliography and further reading
These are probably the most complete and detailed reference materials available regarding the Sacramento Northern Railroad. Author and publisher Swett, now deceased, spent a lifetime producing publications about interurban railways nationwide. Some are available in the Library of Congress.
External links
Sacramento Northern Online.com: extensive Sacramento Northern coverage with history and photographs.
Abandonedrails.com: Interactive map of the Sacramento Northern Railway
Niagararails.com: Map of the Sacramento Northern lines.
Oberail.org: Sacramento Northern Railway history and photographs
Yahoo Group: Sacramento Northern book
Bayarearailfan.org: newspaper article on SNRR (1994)
Blu-streak.com: Oakland Antioch and Eastern Railroad−OA&E, maps and photos
Bay Area Rails.org: Sacramento Northern RR photos
Western Railway Museum.org: Operating trolley museum at Rio Vista Junction, Solano County — history and photos of SNRR.
1918 establishments in California |
4329299 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtra%20Navnirman%20Sena | Maharashtra Navnirman Sena | The Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (translation: Maharashtra Reformation Army; MNS) is a Regionalist far-right Indian political party based in the state of Maharashtra and operates on the ideology of Hindutva and Marathi Manus. It was founded on 9 March 2006 in Mumbai by Raj Thackeray after he left the Shiv Sena party due to differences with his cousin Uddhav Thackeray, who later became the 19th Chief Minister Of Maharashtra and to his sidelining by the Shiv Sena in major decisions like distribution of election tickets.
MNS won 13 assembly seats (out of 288) in the 2009 assembly elections, which was the first Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election that the party contested. In the most recent elections of Maharashtra Legislative Assembly 2019, MNS won only 1 seat.
In January 2020, MNS unveiled a new flag, however the symbol on the flag was not used for elections.
Foundation
The party was founded by Raj Thackeray, nephew of late Shiv Sena leader Bal Thackeray and grandson of Prabodhankar Thackeray. Raj Thackeray resigned from his uncle's party in January 2006 and announced his intention to start a new political party. The reason given by him for breaking away from the Shiv Sena was that the latter was "run by petty clerks" because of which it had "fallen from its former glory". Also, Thackeray declared his motive of building a political awareness for the development related issues of the state and giving them a center stage in national politics.
At the time of the party's foundation, Raj Thackeray stated that he does not want to have hostilities with his uncle who "was, is and always will be (his) mentor".
Although the MNS is a break-away group from the Shiv Sena, the party is still based on Marathi and Bhumiputra ideologies. When unveiling the party in an assembly at Shivaji Park he said, that everyone is anxious to see what will happen to Hindutva. When unveiling, he also said,
"I shall elaborate on the party's stance on issues like Sons of Soil and Marathi, its agenda for development of Maharashtra and the significance of the party flag colours at the March 19 public meeting." Raj Thackeray considers himself an Indian nationalist. The party also recognises secularism as one of its core tenets.
Maharashtra Development Blueprint
In September 2014, MNS unveiled its first look of "Maharashtra's Development Blueprint" with the slogan 'Yes, it's possible’. The blueprint discusses party's stance and key ideas on infrastructure, governance, quality of life, growth opportunities and Marathi pride.
Controversies
2008 violence against North Indians in Maharashtra
In February 2008, some MNS activists clashed with Samajwadi Party (SP) party workers in Mumbai when Samajwadi Party supporters attended a rally at Shivaji Park, Dadar, Mumbai, a stronghold of MNS, where Samajwadi Party leader Abu Asim Azmi made a fiery speech. After the clashes, 73 MNS activists and 19 SP workers were arrested by Mumbai Police for violence.
On 6 February 2008, reportedly, about 200 MNS members quit the party and joined Shiv Sena due to the anti-north Indian stance of Raj Thackeray.
A petition was filed in the Patna civil court on 8 February against Thackeray for his alleged remarks over Chhath, the most popular festival of Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh (Purvanchal). Mr. Thackeray maintains he is not against Chhath Puja, but against the "show of arrogance" and "Politicization of Chatth Puja" displayed by some people from Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh on this occasion.
On 10 February 2008, MNS workers attacked vendors and shopkeepers from North India in various parts of Maharashtra, and destroyed government property to vent their anger against the reported move to arrest Raj Thackeray. Nashik police detained 26 MNS workers for violence.
In February 2008, Raj Thackarey's speech on the issue of migration into Mumbai from other parts of India created a well-publicised controversy. MNS supporters clashed with activists of the Samajwadi Party leading to street violence. Thackeray also criticised noted film actor turned politician Amitabh Bachchan, a native of Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh, for business towards Uttar Pradesh because of Amar Singh. Bachchan came into fame and fortune in Mumbai's film industry;– Bollywood.
On 8 September 2008, Infosys Technologies announced that 3,000 employee positions had been shifted from Pune due to construction delays caused earlier that year by MNS attacks on North Indian construction workers in Maharashtra.
On 15 October 2008, Thackeray threatened to shut down Jet Airways operations in Maharashtra if they did not rehire probationary employees that had been shed in a cost-cutting move forced by the economic downturn.
In October 2008, MNS activists beat up North Indian candidates appearing for the all-India Railway Recruitment Board entrance exam for the Western region in Mumbai. One Bihari died because of train accident and rioting ensued following coverage in Hindi Media with support from NCP/Congress. In retaliation for the MNS' attack on Biharis and North Indians in general, the Bharatiya Bhojpuri Sangh attacked the residence of a Marathi official of Tata Motors in Jamshedpur. Following the uproar in the Indian parliament, and calls that there was no pressure to arrest the MNS chief, Raj Thackeray was arrested in the early hours of 21 October. He was produced before a court on the day itself and would return the next day after spending the night in jail. Following the arrest, however, MNS party activists took out their anger on parts of Mumbai city and the region at large. The arrest resulted in applause, fear and calls for a ban on the MNS. The Shiv Sena, however, maintained a cool response, although senior party leader Manohar Joshi said they were close to supporting the MNS in their agitation against the non-Marathi candidates for the railway board exam.
Clash with Shiv Sena
On 10 October 2006 clashes erupted between supporters of Shiv Sena and Maharashtra Navnirman Sena headed by Raj Thackeray. It was alleged that workers of MNS had torn the posters bearing the photographs of Shiv Sena Supremo Bal Thackeray near the SIES college in Mumbai. Later as a retaliation, it was alleged that Shiv Sena workers brought down the hoardings with Raj Thackeray's photo near the Sena Bhavan at Dadar. As the news spread about the incident groups gathered near the Sena Bhavan and started pelting stones at each other. In this incident a policeman was injured and many supporters of both parties were injured. To restore order the police fired tear gas shells at the mob. Decorum was eventually restored following police action and the appearance of Uddhav Thackeray and his cousin Raj Thackeray at the venue. Uddhav appealed to Sena workers to go back home. He said:
"The police will take necessary action. This is happening because many people are joining us from MNS. The defections have started and that is why they are resorting to such actions".
The division chief of the Shiv Sena Milind Vaidya said that they had lodged a complaint with the local police against an MNS worker who was involved in the incident. MNS general secretary Pravin Darekar, however, pinned the cause down to local elections in the SIES college. He alleges that the Sena is concerned about losing their hold over the colleges and that is why they are trying to color the issue, adding that the Sena's allegations had no merit. Raj Thackeray asserts that MNS could not have vandalized the pictures, seeing as how he and his members revere Bal Thackeray.
A Parliamentary committee was set up to examine the breach of privileges notices from some MPs for remarks made by Bal Thackeray against Uttar Bharatiyas (North-Indians). Reacting to this, MNS chief Raj Thackeray had said he would not allow any politician from UP and Bihar to enter Mumbai if the parliamentary panel insisted on summoning Bal.
Bal countered this by terming his nephew Raj a backstabber and reacted to the MNS chief with a "big no thank you."
Shiv Sena (SS) and MNS workers also clashed at Anand Nagar in Oshiwara over the issuance of Navratri posters during the holiday season. SS corporator Rajul Patel said "The MNS activists had put up huge hoardings and were demanding money from people to remove them. People complained to us and we objected. This led to a scuffle." MNS Vibhag Pramukh (Division Leader) Manish Dhuri retorted that "the Sainiks are jealous of our popularity. On Sunday afternoon, a mob of Shiv Sainiks came to the area and started pulling down posters that were put up by us. We objected to this. Unfortunately, one MNS activist sustained severe injuries."
Denunciation of MLA Abu Azmi
On 9 November 2009 Abu Azmi of the Samajwadi Party was denounced and prevented by MLA of the MNS from taking his oath in Hindi and not in state official language Marathi. As a result of this incident, the speaker of the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly suspended the 4 MNS MLAs involved in the skirmish for a period of four years. They were also barred from entering Mumbai and Nagpur whenever the assembly met in the two cities. The MLAs suspended were Ram Kadam, Ramesh Wanjale, Shishir Shinde and Vasant Gite. The suspension was later revoked in July 2010.
Growth in potency
In October 2008, Jet Airways laid off almost 1,000 employees. In the frenzy for reinstatement that followed numerous political parties took the stand for the probationers’ cause. First the MNS and the SS came in, then the established national parties, the Congress and the BJP. Even the CPI M, rallied in support of the laid off Kolkata employees.
One day after the lay off, the retrenched former staff flocked to the MNS office, even though the SS labour arm, the Bharatiya Kamgar Sena generally rules the aviation unions. The MNS then led more than 300 former employees to Jet's office in Marol. MNS general secretary Nitin Sardesai said, "We met Jet officials today while a lot of (cabin) crew and MNS workers were protesting outside. While we were talking, Jet chairman Naresh Goyal telephoned Raj Thackeray... He requested us to end the protest and offered to meet Raj in a couple of days. We had a one-point agenda that those laid off should be taken back."
In two days the MNS march and support got the staff re-hired. The media widely appeared to pronounce Raj as having won the game of one upmanship with the SS, whose mantle of aggressive street politics was seen as having been usurped. This was a big boost for the MNS' newly formed trade union, the Maharashtra Navnirman Kamgar Sena, which has been trying to cut into the SS' influence in the aviation, hotel and entertainment sectors.
Elected representatives
Performance in the 2012 Maharashtra municipal elections.
MNS won 13 assembly seats (out of 288) in the 2009 assembly elections Maharashtra. These include 6 in Mumbai, 2 in Thane, 3 in Nashik,1 in Pune and 1 in Kannad (Aurangabad) and remain at 2nd spot at more than 24 places. This result (4.5% seats) makes MNS, fourth in largest party in Maharashtra assembly after Congress-NCP (144 seats), BJP-Shiv-Sena (90 seats), Third Front (14 seats).
In the 2014 Assembly elections, the MNS was trounced. It was only able to win 1 seat across the state. It lost all 10 seats held by it. It also lost on all 6 seats held by it in Mumbai, including Mahim, a Shiv Sena stronghold, which it had previously won from the Sena. Its candidates forfeited their deposits on a record 203 seats out of the 288 seats in the state, and the 218 seats on which it fielded candidates.
In the Bruhanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) elections held in 2017, the tally of MNS was reduced to 7 seats. In Oct 2017, 6 councillors defected to Shiv Sena, thus taking its representation down to 1 seat.
Political criticism
Following an attack on North Indians who had turned up to the RRB (Railway Recruitment Board) railway exam in Mumbai, numerous politicians, mainly from the then ruling UPA central government, harshly criticised Raj Thackeray and the MNS.
Three UPA ministers demanded tough action, including a call for a ban against the party. Railway Minister Lalu Prasad Yadav demanded a ban on the MNS and saying its chief was a "mental case," Steel Minister Ram Vilas Paswan added that he would raise the issue in the next cabinet meeting and wondered why no action was being, or had been, taken against the MNS despite a repetition of such violent incidents. He said: "I strongly condemn the incident. There should be strong action against that party... MNS should be banned. [The] Thackeray family has become a chronic problem for Maharashtra and Raj Thackeray, in particular, has become a mental case." The Minister for Food Processing Industries, as well as a Congress leader, Subodh Kant Sahay demanded the Congress-NCP coalition government in Maharashtra treat those responsible for the attacks as criminals. He said, "I have spoken to Maharashtra Chief Minister Vilasrao Deshmukh and asked him on the goondaism that is going on in the state." As far the government's action till date is concerned, it has been soft on them. It should take action as too much has already happened there." They are not workers. They are looters. Organisations like MNS, Bajrang Dal, VHP and RSS should be banned."
On the first working day following the incident, uproarious scenes were seen in the national parliament. Numerous members of Parliament condemned the attacks. They also indirectly criticised railway minister Lalu Prasad Yadav while noting that even in their regions, the maximum recruitments being made were those of people from Bihar and not from the state where the recruitment drives were held, adding some credence to the MNS' drive. Speaking first on the issue, RJD leader Devendra Prasad Yadav demanded that the Centre take action in the state under Article 355. He noted that despite the attacks, the Maharashtra chief minister has maintained a silence on the issue, adding that such actions threaten the unity and integrity of the country. Other MP's also demanded the invocation of Article 355 in the light of the attacks. Shahnawaz Hussain of the BJP made such demands in asking if people from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh needed a permit to travel to other parts of the country. The CPI M's Mohammed Salim said that such incidents threaten the country's integrity and send a wrong signal to the rest of the country. Anant Geete of the Shiv Sena, however, tried to give the other side of the story by noting the 4.2 million educated and unemployed youth in Maharashtra. The CPI (M) strongly condemned the attack, terming them a "blatant" assault on the Constitution and demanded the immediate arrest of party chief Raj Thackeray, adding that any leniency shown to "divisive forces" will have far-reaching consequences. The CPI(M) Politburo said the attack on the Constitution was a poor showing on the Maharashtra government which is duty bound to protect and take stringent action against the perpetrators of such crimes. "That it has failed to do so and in fact showing leniency to the leader of the outfit shows the utter bankruptcy of the politics of Congress and its coalition partner." The CPI also said such attacks should not be tolerated and Thackeray and his supporters must be "immediately arrested and prosecuted". Maharashtra Chief Minister Vilasrao Deshmukh said his government is responsible for failure in preventing attacks and ordered a probe into the incident, which will also inquire into why the job advertisements where not given in Marathi newspapers. He said: "What has happened is not good. Such incidents take place because of loopholes in the law. One can't hold only the Home Ministry responsible for it, it is (entire) Government's responsibility. Such incidents are affecting the image of the state and I have instructed the DGP to take stern action." On Raj Thackeray's accusation that job advertisements were not published in local newspapers to keep out Maharashtrian candidates, he said, "An inquiry would also be conducted about why advertisements about the examination were not given in Marathi newspapers and the number of Marathi candidates invited for the exam." He also assured that such incidents of vandalism would not take place in future.
During the 2008 Mumbai Terror Attacks, NSG commandos bravely defended the city. They were several commandos from North India whereas the MNS was not seen helping. This led to a great deal of criticism for the MNS since they had vehemently opposed North Indians earlier. In January 2009, artist Pranava Prakash exhibited his painting series "Chal Hat Be Bihari" in Delhi. It showed in pop style the 2008 attacks on North Indians in Maharashtra in the context of xenophobia.
Violence and controversies
In 2008, MNS created panic among several shop owners through diktat on Marathi signboards.
In December 2012, MNS corporator Nitin Nikam repeatedly slapped a 65-year-old contractor over alleged delay in repairing pipeline causing water shortage.
In March 2013, 5 MNS and Shiv Sena MLAs assaulted Assistant Police Inspector Sachin Suryavanshi in the state assembly.
In January 2014, a mob constituting MNS workers attacked toll booths in eight cities across Maharashtra, and demanding closing of toll booths where the construction cost is below 2 crores.
In 2017, MNS workers forcibly removed the signboards of several Gujarati shops claiming they were Belittling Marathi Language.
In May 2018, three trans-women were attacked brutally by more than 20 MNS workers. The trans-women sustained severe injuries.
In June 2018, Kishor Shinde, a former corporator, slapped a multiplex manager repeatedly over high food prices and ban of food items in multiplex theaters .
In September 2018, a mob of MNS workers assaulted a man because of his Facebook post criticising a cartoon drawn by Raj Thackeray. The workers made the man delete his comments, and forced him to apologize. MNS leader Avinash Jadhav threatened the public with similar consequences, "if such things happened again."
In January 2020 on the birth anniversary of Bal Thackeray, his nephew Raj Thackeray changed his party flag colour to Bhagwa (Bhagwa Dhwaj) and agenda from Marathi interest to Hindutva or Hindu nationalism giving a speech against Indian Muslims about disturbances caused by their prayers. He supported National Register of Citizens by saying that "only Indians can live in my country and other countries people can't live in India without passport and VISA so what's wrong in this act?". He also stated that Bangladeshis and Pakistanis should go back to their respective countries or they'll be thrown back forcefully.
See also
2008 All-India Railway Recruitment Board examination attack
References
External links
Official Maharashtra Navnirman Sena Website
Official Maharashtra Navnirman Sena student wing Website
Election Television Commercials Of Maharashtra Navnirman Sena
Political parties in Maharashtra
Far-right politics in India
Political parties established in 2006
2006 establishments in Maharashtra
Conservative parties in India
Right-wing populism in India
Anti-Bihari sentiment
Right-wing populist parties
Hindutva
Regionalist parties in India |
4329310 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%20resistance%20movement%20in%20World%20War%20II | Polish resistance movement in World War II | In Poland, the resistance movement during World War II was led by the Home Army. The Polish resistance is notable among others for disrupting German supply lines to the Eastern Front (damaging or destroying 1/8 of all rail transports), and providing intelligence reports to the British intelligence agencies (providing 43% of all reports from occupied Europe). It was a part of the Polish Underground State.
Organizations
The largest of all Polish resistance organizations was the Armia Krajowa (Home Army, AK), loyal to the Polish government in exile in London. The AK was formed in 1942 from the Union of Armed Struggle (Związek Walki Zbrojnej or ZWZ, itself created in 1939) and would eventually incorporate most other Polish armed resistance groups (except for the communists and some far-right groups). It was the military arm of the Polish Underground State and loyal to the Polish government in Exile.
Most of the other Polish underground armed organizations were created by a political party or faction, and included:
The Bataliony Chłopskie (Peasants' Battalions). Created by the leftist People's Party around 1940–1941, it would partially merge with AK around 1942–1943.
The Gwardia Ludowa WRN (People's Guard of WRN) of Polish Socialist Party (PPS) (joined ZWZ around 1940, subsequently merged into AK)
The Konfederacja Narodu (Confederation of the Nation). Created in 1940 by far-right Obóz Narodowo Radykalny-Falanga (National Radical Camp Falanga). It would partially merge with ZWZ around 1941 and finally join AK around fall 1943.
The Narodowa Organizacja Wojskowa (National Military Organisation), established by the National Party in 1939, mostly integrated with AK around 1942.
Narodowe Siły Zbrojne (National Armed Forces); created in 1943 from dissatisfied NOW units, which refused to be subordinated to the AK.
The Obóz Polski Walczącej (Camp of Fighting Poland), established by the Obóz Zjednoczenia Narodowego (Camp of National Unity) around 1942, subordinated to AK. in 1943.
The largest groups that refused to join the AK were the National Armed Forces and the pro-Soviet and communist People's Army (Polish Armia Ludowa or AL), backed by the Soviet Union and established by the Polish Workers' Party (Polish Polska Partia Robotnicza or PPR).
"Within the framework of the entire enemy intelligence operations directed against Germany, the intelligence service of the Polish resistance movement assumed major significance. The scope and importance of the operations of the Polish resistance movement, which was ramified down to the smallest splinter group and brilliantly organized, have been in (various sources) disclosed in connection with carrying out of major police security operations." Heinrich Himmler, 31 December 1942
Size
In February 1942, when AK was formed, it numbered about 100,000 members. In the beginning of 1943, it had reached a strength of about 200,000. In the summer of 1944 when Operation Tempest began, AK reached its highest membership numbers, though the estimates vary from 300,000 to 500,000. The strength of the second largest resistance organization, Bataliony Chłopskie (Peasants' Battalions), can be estimated for summer 1944 (at which time they were mostly merged with AK) at about 160,000 men. The third largest group include NSZ (National Armed Forces) with approximately 70,000 men around 1943–1944; only small parts of that force were merged with AK. At its height in 1944, the communist Armia Ludowa, which never merged with AK, numbered about 30,000 people. One estimate for the summer 1944 strength of AK and its allies, including NSZ, gives its strength at 650,000. Overall, the Polish resistance have often been described as the largest or one of the largest resistance organizations in World War II Europe.
Actions, operations, and intelligence, 1939–1945
1939
On 9 November 1939, two soldiers of the Polish armyWitold Pilecki and Major Jan Włodarkiewiczfounded the Secret Polish Army (Tajna Armia Polska, TAP), one of the first underground organizations in Poland after defeat. Pilecki became its organizational commander as TAP expanded to cover not only Warsaw but Siedlce, Radom, Lublin and other major cities of central Poland. By 1940, TAP had approximately 8,000 men (more than half of them armed), some 20 machine guns and several anti-tank rifles. Later, the organization was incorporated into the Union for Armed Struggle (Związek Walki Zbrojnej), later renamed and better known as the Home Army (Armia Krajowa).
1940
In March 1940, a partisan unit of the first guerrilla commanders in the Second World War in Europe under Major Henryk Dobrzański "Hubal" destroyed a battalion of German infantry in a skirmish near the village of Huciska. A few days later in an ambush near the village of Szałasy it inflicted heavy casualties upon another German unit. To counter this threat the German authorities formed a special 1,000 men strong counter-insurgency unit of combined SS–Wehrmacht forces, including a Panzer group. Although the unit of Major Dobrzański never exceeded 300 men, the Germans fielded at least 8,000 men in the area to secure it.
In 1940, Witold Pilecki, an intelligence officer for the Polish resistance, presented to his superiors a plan to enter Germany's Auschwitz concentration camp, gather intelligence on the camp from the inside, and organize inmate resistance. The Home Army approved this plan, provided him a false identity card, and on 19 September 1940, he deliberately went out during a street roundup (łapanka) in Warsaw and was caught by the Germans along with other civilians and sent to Auschwitz. In the camp he organized the underground organization – Związek Organizacji Wojskowej – ZOW. From October 1940, ZOW sent its first report about the camp and the genocide in November 1940 to Home Army Headquarters in Warsaw through the resistance network organized in Auschwitz.
During the night of 21–22 January 1940, in the Soviet-occupied Podolian town of Czortków, the Czortków Uprising started; it was the first Polish uprising during World War II. Anti-Soviet Poles, most of them teenagers from local high schools, stormed the local Red Army barracks and a prison, in order to release Polish soldiers kept there.
At the end of 1940 Aleksander Kamiński created a Polish youth resistance organization, known as "Wawer". It was part of the Szare Szeregi (the underground Polish Scouting Association). This organisation carried out many minor sabotage operations in occupied Poland. Its first action was drawing graffiti in Warsaw around Christmas Eve of 1940 commemorating the Wawer massacre. Members of the AK Wawer "Small Sabotage" units painted "Pomścimy Wawer" ("We'll avenge Wawer") on Warsaw walls. At first they painted the whole text, then to save time they shortened it to two letters, P and W. Later they invented Kotwica – "Anchor" – which became the symbol of all Polish resistance in occupied Poland.
1941
From April 1941 the Bureau of Information and Propaganda of the Union for Armed Struggle started Operation N headed by Tadeusz Żenczykowski. It involved sabotage, subversion and black-propaganda activities.
From March 1941, Witold Pilecki's reports were forwarded to the Polish government in exile and through it, to the British and other Allied governments. These reports informed the Allies about the Holocaust and were the principal source of intelligence on Auschwitz-Birkenau for the Western Allies.
On 7 March 1941, two Polish agents of the Home Army killed Nazi collaborator actor Igo Sym in his apartment in Warsaw. In reprisal, 21 Polish hostages were executed. Several Polish actors were also arrested by the Nazis and sent to Auschwitz, among them such notable figures as directors Stefan Jaracz and Leon Schiller.
In July 1941 Mieczysław Słowikowski (using the codename "Rygor" – Polish for "Rigor") set up "Agency Africa", one of World War II's most successful intelligence organizations. His Polish allies in these endeavors included Lt. Col. Gwido Langer and Major Maksymilian Ciężki. The information gathered by the Agency was used by the Americans and British in planning the amphibious November 1942 Operation Torch landings in North Africa. These were the first large-scale Allied landings of the war, and their success in turn paved the way for the Allies' Italian campaign.
1942
On 20 June 1942, the most spectacular escape from Auschwitz concentration camp took place. Four Poles, Eugeniusz Bendera, Kazimierz Piechowski, Stanisław Gustaw Jaster and Józef Lempart made a daring escape. The escapees were dressed as members of the SS-Totenkopfverbände, fully armed and in an SS staff car. They drove out the main gate in a stolen Steyr 220 automobile with a smuggled report from Witold Pilecki about the Holocaust. Three of the escapees remained free until the end of the war; Jaster, who joined the Polish Underground, was recaptured in 1943 and died shortly afterwards in German custody.
In September 1942 "The Żegota Council for the Aid of the Jews" was founded by Zofia Kossak-Szczucka and Wanda Krahelska-Filipowicz ("Alinka") and made up of Polish Democrats as well as other Catholic activists. Poland was the only country in occupied Europe where there existed such a dedicated secret organization. Half of the Jews in Poland who survived the war (thus over 50,000) were aided in some shape or form by Żegota. The best-known activist of Żegota was Irena Sendler, head of the children's division, who saved 2,500 Jewish children by smuggling them out of the Warsaw Ghetto, providing them with false documents, and sheltering them in individual and group children's homes outside the ghetto.
In 1942 Jan Karski reported to the Polish, British and U.S. governments on the situation in Poland, especially the Holocaust of the Jews. He met with Polish politicians in exile including the prime minister, and members of political parties such as the Socialist Party, National Party, Labor Party, People's Party, Jewish Bund and Poalei Zion. He also spoke to Anthony Eden, the British foreign secretary, and included a detailed statement on what he had seen in Warsaw and Bełżec.
The Zamość Uprising was an armed uprising of Armia Krajowa and Bataliony Chłopskie against the forced expulsion of Poles from the Zamość region under the Nazi Generalplan Ost. The Germans attempted to remove the local Poles from the Greater Zamość area (through forced removal, transfer to forced labor camps, or, in some cases, mass murder) to get it ready for German colonization. It lasted from 1942 until 1944 and despite heavy casualties suffered by the Underground, the Germans failed.
On the night from 7 to 8 October 1942 Operation Wieniec started. It targeted rail infrastructure near Warsaw. Similar operations aimed at disrupting and harrying German transport and communication in occupied Poland occurred in the coming months and years. It targeted railroads, bridges and supply depots, primarily near transport hubs such as Warsaw and Lublin.
1943
In early 1943 two Polish janitors of Peenemünde's Camp Trassenheide provided maps, sketches and reports to Armia Krajowa Intelligence, and in June 1943 British intelligence had received two such reports which identified the "rocket assembly hall', 'experimental pit', and 'launching tower'. When reconnaissance and intelligence information regarding the V-2 rocket became convincing, the War Cabinet Defence Committee (Operations) directed the campaign's first planned raid (the Operation Hydra bombing of Peenemünde in August 1943) and Operation Crossbow.
On 26 March 1943 in Warsaw Operation Arsenal was launched by the Szare Szeregi (Gray Ranks) Polish Underground The successful operation led to the release of arrested troop leader Jan Bytnar "Rudy". In an attack on the prison, Bytnar and 24 other prisoners were freed.
In 1943 in London Jan Karski met the then much known journalist Arthur Koestler. He then traveled to the United States and reported to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. His report was a major factor in informing the West. In July 1943, again personally reported to Roosevelt about the situation in Poland. He also met with many other government and civic leaders in the United States, including Felix Frankfurter, Cordell Hull, William Joseph Donovan, and Stephen Wise. Karski also presented his report to media, bishops of various denominations (including Cardinal Samuel Stritch), members of the Hollywood film industry and artists, but without success. Many of those he spoke to did not believe him, or supposed that his testimony was much exaggerated or was propaganda from the Polish government in exile.
In April 1943 the Germans began deporting the remaining Jews from the Warsaw ghetto provoking the Warsaw Ghetto Rising, 19 April to 16 May. Polish Underground State ordered Ghetto Action – a series of combat actions carried out by the Home Army during the uprising between 19 April 1943 and May 16, 1943.
Some units of the AK tried to assist the ghetto rising, but for the most part, the resistance was unprepared and unable to defeat the Germans. One Polish AK unit, the National Security Corps (Państwowy Korpus Bezpieczeństwa), under the command of Henryk Iwański ("Bystry"), fought inside the ghetto along with ŻZW. Subsequently, both groups retreated together (including 34 Jewish fighters). Although Iwański's action is the most well-known rescue mission, it was only one of many actions undertaken by the Polish resistance to help the Jewish fighters. In one attack, three cell units of AK under the command of Kapitan Józef Pszenny ("Chwacki") tried to breach the ghetto walls with explosives, but the Germans defeated this action. AK and GL engaged the Germans between 19 and 23 April at six different locations outside the ghetto walls, shooting at German sentries and positions and in one case attempting to blow up a gate. Participation of the Polish underground in the uprising was many times confirmed by a report of the German commander – Jürgen Stroop.
In August 1943 the headquarters of the Armia Krajowa ordered Operation Belt which was one of the large-scale anti-Nazi operations of the AK during the war. By February 1944, 13 German outposts were destroyed with few losses on the Polish side.
Operation Heads began: the serial executions of German personnel who had been sentenced to death by Polish underground Special Courts for crimes against Polish citizens in German-occupied Poland.
On 7 September 1943, the Home Army killed Franz Bürkl during Operation Bürkl. Bürkl was a high-ranking Gestapo agent responsible for the murder and brutal interrogation of thousands of Polish Jews and resistance fighters and supporters. In reprisal, 20 inmates of Pawiak were murdered in a public execution by the Nazis.
In November 1943, Operation Most III started. The Armia Krajowa provided the Allies with crucial intelligence on the German V-2 rocket. In effect some 50 kg of the most important parts of the captured V-2, as well as the final report, analyses, sketches and photos, were transported to Brindisi by a Royal Air Force Douglas Dakota aircraft. In late July 1944, the V-2 parts were delivered to London.
In early 1943 the strength of the forest-based groups can be estimated at about 40 groups numbering in total 1,200 to 4,000 fighters, but the numbers grew significantly next year.
1944
On 11 February 1944 the Resistance fighters of Polish Home Army's unit Agat executed Franz Kutschera, SS and Reich's Police Chief in Warsaw in action known as Operation Kutschera. In a reprisal of this action 27 February 140 inmates of PawiakPoles and Jewswere shot in a public execution by the Germans.
13–14 May 1944 the Battle of Murowana Oszmianka the largest clash between the Polish anti-Nazi Armia Krajowa and the Nazi Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force a Lithuanian volunteer security force subordinated to Nazi Germany. The battle took place in and near the village of Murowana Oszmianka in the Generalbezirk Litauen of Reichskommissariat Ostland. The outcome of the battle was that the 301st LVR battalion was routed and the entire force was disbanded by the Germans soon afterwards.
On 14 June 1944 the Battle of Porytowe Wzgórze took place between Polish and Russian partisans, numbering around 3,000, and the Nazi German units consisted of between 25,000 and 30,000 soldiers, with artillery, tanks and armored cars and air support.
On 25–26 June 1944 the Battle of Osuchyone of the largest battles between the Polish resistance and Nazi Germany in occupied Poland during World War IIwas fought, in what was essentially a continuation of the Zamość Uprising.
In 1943 the Home Army built up its forces in preparation for a national uprising. The plan of national anti-Nazi uprising on areas of prewar Poland was code-named Operation Tempest. Preparation began in late 1943 but the military actions started in 1944. Its most widely known elements were Operation Ostra Brama, Lwów Uprising and the Warsaw Uprising.
On 7 July, Operation Ostra Brama started. Approximately 12,500 Home Army soldiers attacked the German garrison and managed to seize most of the city center. Heavy street fighting in the outskirts of the city lasted until 14 July. In Vilnius' eastern suburbs, the Home Army units cooperated with reconnaissance groups of the Soviet 3rd Belorussian Front. The Red Army entered the city on 15 July, and the NKVD started to intern all Polish soldiers. On 16 July, the HQ of the 3rd Belorussian Front invited Polish officers to a meeting and arrested them.
On 23 July the Lwów Uprisingthe armed struggle started by the Armia Krajowa against the Nazi occupiers in Lwów during World War IIstarted. It started in July 1944 as a part of a plan of all-national uprising codenamed Operation Tempest. The fighting lasted until 27 July and resulted in liberation of the city. However, shortly afterwards the Polish soldiers were arrested by the invading Soviets and either forced to join the Red Army or sent to the Gulags. The city itself was occupied by the Soviet Union.
In August 1944, as the Soviet armed forces approached Warsaw, the government in exile called for an uprising in the city, so that they could return to a liberated Warsaw and try to prevent a communist take-over. The AK, led by Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski, launched the Warsaw Uprising. Soviet forces were less than 20 km away but on the orders of Soviet High Command they gave no assistance. Stalin described the uprising as a "criminal adventure". The Poles appealed to the Western Allies for help. The Royal Air Force, and the Polish Air Force based in Italy, dropped some munitions, but it was almost impossible for the Allies to help the Poles without Soviet assistance.
The fighting in Warsaw was desperate. The AK had between 12,000 and 20,000 armed soldiers, most with only small arms, against a well-armed German Army of 20,000 SS and regular Army units. Bór-Komorowski's hope that the AK could take and hold Warsaw for the return of the London government was never likely to be achieved. After 63 days of savage fighting the city was reduced to rubble, and the reprisals were savage. The SS and auxiliary units were particularly brutal.
After Bór-Komorowski's surrender, the AK fighters were treated as prisoners-of-war by the Germans, much to the outrage of Stalin, but the civilian population were ruthlessly punished. Overall Polish casualties are estimated to be between 150,000 and 300,000 killed, 90,000 civilians were sent to labor camps in the Reich, while 60,000 were shipped to death and concentration camps such as Ravensbrück, Auschwitz, Mauthausen and others. The city was almost totally destroyed after German sappers systematically demolished the city. The Warsaw Uprising allowed the Germans to destroy the AK as a fighting force, but the main beneficiary was Stalin, who was able to impose a communist government on postwar Poland with little fear of armed resistance.
1945
In March 1945, a staged trial of 16 leaders of the Polish Underground State held by the Soviet Union took place in Moscow – (Trial of the Sixteen). The Government Delegate, together with most members of the Council of National Unity and the C-i-C of the Armia Krajowa, were invited by Soviet general Ivan Serov with agreement of Joseph Stalin to a conference on their eventual entry to the Soviet-backed Provisional Government. They were presented with a warrant of safety, yet they were arrested in Pruszków by the NKVD on 27 and 28 March. Leopold Okulicki, Jan Stanisław Jankowski and Kazimierz Pużak were arrested on 27th with 12 more the next day. A. Zwierzynski had been arrested earlier. They were brought to Moscow for interrogation in the Lubyanka. After several months of brutal interrogation and torture, they were presented with the forged accusations of "collaboration with Nazi Germany" and "planning a military alliance with Nazi Germany".
In the latter years of the war, there were increasing conflicts between Polish and Soviet partisans. Cursed soldiers continued to oppose the Soviets long after the war. The last cursed soldier – member of the militant anti-communist resistance in Poland was Józef Franczak who was killed with pistol in his hand by ZOMO in 1963.
On 5 May 1945 in Bohemia, the Narodowe Siły Zbrojne brigade liberated prisoners from a Nazi concentration camp in Holiszowo, including 280 Jewish women prisoners. The brigade suffered heavy casualties.
On 7 May 1945 in the village of Kuryłówka, southeastern Poland, the Battle of Kuryłówka started. It was the biggest battle in the history of the Cursed soldiers organization – National Military Alliance (NZW). In battle against Soviet Union's NKVD units anti-communist partisans shot 70 NKVD agents. The battle ended in a victory for the underground Polish forces.
On 21 May 1945, a unit of the Armia Krajowa, led by Colonel Edward Wasilewski, attacked a NKVD camp in Rembertów on the eastern outskirts of Warsaw. The Soviets kept there hundreds of Poles, members of the Home Army, whom they were systematically deporting to Siberia. However, this action of the pro-independence Polish resistance freed all Polish political prisoners from the camp. Between 1944 and 1946, cursed soldiers attacked many communist prisons in Soviet-occupied Poland see Raids on communist prisons in Poland (1944–1946).
From 10 to 25 June 1945, Augustów chase 1945 (the Polish Obława augustowska) took place. It was a large-scale operation undertaken by Soviet forces of the Red Army, the NKVD and SMERSH, with the assistance of Polish UB and LWP units against former Armia Krajowa soldiers in the Suwałki and Augustów region in Poland. The operation also covered territory in occupied Lithuania. More than 2,000 alleged Polish anticommunist fighters were captured and detained in Russian internment camps. 600 of the "Augustów Missing" are presumed dead and buried in an unknown location in the present territory of Russia. The Augustów Roundup was part of an anti-guerilla operation in Lithuania.
Formations
Antyfaszystowska Organizacja Bojowa
Armia Krajowa
Armia Ludowa
Bataliony Chłopskie
Brygada Swiętokrzyska
Gwardia Ludowa
Gwardia Ludowa WRN
Narodowa Organizacja Wojskowa
Narodowe Siły Zbrojne
Obóz Polski Walczącej
Państwowy Korpus Bezpieczeństwa
Polish People's Army PAL
Szare Szeregi
Związek Odwetu
Związek Walki Zbrojnej
Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa
Związek Organizacji Wojskowej
Żydowski Związek Wojskowy
See also
Anti-fascism
Bratnia Pomoc
History of Poland (1939–1945)
Home Army and V-1 and V-2
Lithuanian resistance during World War II
Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany
Polish areas annexed by Soviet Union
Polish resistance in France during World War II
Resistance movement
Western betrayal
Yugoslav Partisans
Notes
a A number of sources note that the Home Army, representing the bulk of Polish resistance, was the largest resistance movement in Nazi-occupied Europe. Norman Davies writes that the "Armia Krajowa (Home Army), the AK,... could fairly claim to be the largest of European resistance [organizations]." Gregor Dallas writes that the "Home Army (Armia Krajowa or AK) in late 1943 numbered around 400,000, making it the largest resistance organization in Europe." Mark Wyman writes that the "Armia Krajowa was considered the largest underground resistance unit in wartime Europe." The numbers of Soviet partisans were very similar to those of the Polish resistance.
References
Bibliography
External links
Armia Krajowa
Die "Stunde W"
Ann Su Caldwell, . Polonia Online.
Polish Resistance in World War II
Warsaw Uprising 1944
History of Warsaw's contributions levied by the German Occupation Authority
Polish nationalism
Guerrilla organizations
Military units and formations of Poland in World War II |
4329781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzuki%20GSX-R750 | Suzuki GSX-R750 | The Suzuki GSX-R750 is a sports motorcycle made by Suzuki since 1984. It was introduced at the Cologne Motorcycle Show in October 1984 as a motorcycle of the GSX-R series for the 1985 model year.
Air and oil cooled
The air and oil-cooled models can be divided into the first-generation and the second-generation colloquially referred to as 'slabbies' and 'slingshots' respectively. The 1985-1987 models featured very flat bodies compared to modern sport-bikes, hence the term 'slab-sided'. 1988-1991 (1992 USA) models are sometimes referred to as slingshots because the carburetors introduced in 1988 were marketed as slingshot carburetors (slingshot describes the cross-section of the semi-flat slide carbs).
GSX-R750 (F) 1985 (The Classic)
The original model featured a lightweight aluminum alloy frame, flat slide Mikuni VM29SS carburettors, twin discs with 4-pot calipers, and tyres both front and rear. To save weight, the designers specified an air-and-oil-cooled engine, rather than a water-cooled engine. The seat has separate front and rear sections but from 1986 onwards all models have a one-piece seat.
GSX-R750 (G) 1986
The 1986 model received a 25 mm longer swing arm to improve the handling. Apart from a modified belly pan and upgraded headlamps, there is very little difference between the 1985 and 1986 models, other than the introduction of Mikuni CV carbs. 1986 is the first year the model was introduced to the US.
GSX-R750R 1986
The Racing homologation Limited Edition model. 500 were manufactured worldwide, with 199 made for the US, 20 for Canada and 150 for the Japanese market. Its $6,499.99 retail price was 40% more expensive than the standard (G) model, making it the most expensive Japanese sport-bike money could buy that year. Unique items that differentiate this model from the standard (G) model include a dry clutch system, close-ratio 6 speed transmission, 29mm flat-slide carbs, 19L steel gas tank, hand-laid fiberglass solo rear section with single racing seat, side bodywork utilizing Dzus quick release fasteners and Limited-Edition graphics.
The distinctive clutch and actuator housing along with the sprocket cover are all made of magnesium for reduced weight. The clutch actuation is uniquely cable operated rather than hydraulic, offering greater feel and lighter weight. Suspension features the 1986 GSX-R1100's electronically-controlled 41mm NEAS anti-dive forks, rims, brake calipers & larger 310mm floating discs, specially designed front brake hoses, a unique "3 point" steering damper and broader clip on handlebars. Out back, a 1" longer swingarm is fitted with threaded inserts for a racing style paddock stand, and an aluminium-bodied shock absorber with remote gas-charged reservoir. Other features found only on this model include a gold plated chain, uniquely patterned exhaust heat shield, premium aluminum exhaust hanger, heal guards, chain guard, bar-end weights, adjustable clutch lever, a visually machined top triple clamp and changes to the bodywork to improve cooling. To seal the deal, included with the purchase were 2 complete sets of racing numbers.
There were two variants of the 1986 GSXR750 Limited Edition. One version was released in the US, Europe and Canada and another was for the Japanese market. The Japanese version had red and gray graphics, along with a fuel gauge, headlight kill switch, tinted turn signal lenses, Japanese-spec city lights, and a black four-into-one "Ray Gun" exhaust system. The non Japanese variant came in a red, white and blue livery, did not have the Japan only items and sported an exhaust pipe with an aluminum heat shield.
GSX-R750 (H) 1987
The 1987 model received upgraded 41 millimeter front forks with NEAS (New Electrically Activated Suspension) from the previous year's RR and a steering damper was fitted as standard. The fuel tank capacity was increased to 21 liters.
GSX-R750 (J) 1988
First major revision. New chassis design, engine revisions, and bodywork. Introduction of a new short-stroke version of the oil-cooled engine, now displacing 748 cc. The engine had 73 millimeter bore and 44.7 millimeter stroke and could achieve higher engine speeds (13,000 rpm redline indicated, but rev limiter engaged at 13,500 according to the Suzuki shop manual). Internal engine dimensions changed to accommodate the new bore and stroke. This engine used larger valves and carburetors than in previous years. Mikuni model BST36SS 'Slingshot' carbs were 36 millimeter diameter and featured vacuum operated slides; the slide cross section resembled the shape of a slingshot. A four spring clutch was used on the short stroke motor. New styling, and twin black silencers. Wheels were now a diameter, three-spoke design, and used a 160/60VR17 in the rear and 120/70VR17 in the front. Slingshot graphic first appeared on the bodywork. Forks now used a cartridge design and were 43 millimeter in diameter. The second-generation model was heavier than the first but had a stiffer frame and more power.
GSX-R750 (K) 1989
Minor changes such as modified lower bodywork, changes to graphics, and silver exhaust silencers. Magazines reported that the exhaust manifold now featured small chamfers on the collector for increased ground clearance. Cycle magazines also reported a change to the rear shock mounting geometry and front fork length to improve ground clearance. Graphics/paint schemes varied slightly between global markets. US models were available in blue/white and red/white schemes. The SACS acronym decal, located on the lower bodywork of the blue/white models, changed from a diagonal lettering to a straight lettering.
GSX-R750R 1989
Limited edition racing homologation model. The redesigned engine reverted to the original long-stroke (70 x 48.7 millimeter) configuration. The crankcase, crankshaft connecting rods, and clutch were upgraded to serve as a ready to race platform. The RR also received new 40 millimeter Slingshot carbs and 4-into-1 exhaust pipe, close-ratio gearbox, braced rear swing arm, single-seat unit, and 19 liter aluminum fuel tank. Only 150 were sold in the U.S.
GSXR-750RK 1989
The GSX-R750RK, also known as the RR, was a limited edition a version first produced in 1989. Out of 500 made, 200 went to Europe and none to the US.
GSX-R750 (L) 1990
Although this model looks very similar to the previous '89 model many changes were made. The 90 models featured changes to the engine, suspension, bodywork, brakes, and chassis. This was the first GSX-R to be fitted with inverted forks as standard (USA models retained the conventional forks until 1991) and returned to the bore and stroke of the original long-stroke engine.
The engine returned to the 749 cc engine bore and stroke dimensions of the original long-stroke engine but still maintained the 13,000 rpm redline. It now featured an mm valve (smaller than the 88-89 short stroke but larger than the 85-87) and used larger carburetors.
The new Mikuni model BST38SS carburetors were 38 mm diameter and featured an additional "Powerjet" high-speed circuit that was used to fine-tune fuel mixture from 10,000 rpm to the rev limiter. In the unrestricted USA bikes, the Powerjet circuit was jetted with a "zero" sized jet and activating the circuit simply required replacing the "zero" jet with a #57.5 to #62.5 jet. All other worldwide bikes with the 38 millimeter carbs came equipped with a functioning Powerjet circuit.
The slide breathers were now divorced from the airbox.
The exhaust system was also changed, gone were the dual silencers and replaced with one stainless steel silencer on the right side. The transmission output shaft was lengthened to accommodate a wider wheel. A new curved oil-cooler design and oil lines (attached to the oil pan similar to the original 85-87 engines) were installed.
The frame was changed for 1990 and used some of the features from the 1989 GSX-R 1100 frame. The rake was now 25.5 degrees and wheelbase . The front suspension now had inverted forks, the triple clamps (yokes), and handlebars were changed to accommodate the new forks. The rear suspension featured a new damper (shock) and swingarm. The rear damper (shock) now had a remote reservoir and damping adjustment. The revised swingarm now featured cast ends for the axle adjustment. The rear wheel was widened to (previously ) but the tire size remained the same. A non-adjustable steering damper was added which attached from the left frame rail to a clamp on the left fork (US models did not receive the damper but the frame had the tapped mounting holes). The rear sprocket carrier and sprocket changed to a six-bolt design (previously five). The front brake rotors changed to a slotted design (previously cross drilled holes).
The bodywork changed slightly also. The side vents became less rectangular and in a slightly different position. Anew fender was also used with the inverted forks (except the U.S.).
GSX-R750 (M) 1991
The '91 GSX-R750M gained 15 kg over the previous model. The most notable feature of the " M " are the faired in headlamps and a slanted nose, both of which were designed to reduce drag. Also fitted was a new larger seat and new rear bodywork that featured twin tail lamps. This was the last GSX-R to use the oil-cooled SACS engine (except for the U.S.). Internal engine changes included a new valvetrain that used one dedicated cam lobe and rocker arm (finger follower) per valve (previous models used one lobe and one forked rocker per two valves). Valve clearance (lash) was now adjusted with shims (previous models used a screw and nut). The cam duration and indexing changed slightly as well as the porting according to a magazine article. The rear tire width was increased to a 170 millimeter section width. The gauges also changed to white-colored needles (previously amber colored).
GSX-R750 (N) 1992 Oil Cooled
1992 US models are the same as the 1991 with different paint and graphics. All other markets got the new water-cooled GSX-R 750.
Mikuni Carburetor 36
Water-cooled
GSX-R750 (WN) 1992
New water-cooled engine and revised frame, bodywork, and suspension. USA market models retained the oil-cooled engine and the USA 1992 model is basically the same as the 91 models with different graphics. A sleeved down version was available as the GSXR-600 for 92 and 93, both years were available with inverted forks. The 1992 GSXR-600 was water-cooled for the US market while the 750 had to wait one more year.
GSX-R750 (WP) 1993
Mostly cosmetic changes, a major revision of engine internals, the crank & connecting rods were forged steel instead of cast iron. Valve-train was revised as well which allowed for a significant increase in power.
GSX-R750 (WR) 1994
Reduced power and weight on last year's model. The inverted forks for this year were blue anodized. The swinging arm now has upper bracing (similar to 750RK) rather than the 'banana' style of the previous model.
GSX-R750 SPR 1994-1995
The 'SPR' limited-edition racing homologation model has special factory parts including wide-mouthed TRM40 carbs, close-ratio gearbox, magnesium engine covers, an alloy water pump, six-piston brake calipers, and a new braced swingarm. A wider rear wheel holding a wider 180 rear section tire was also fitted. The 'SPR' was 10 kilos lighter than the WP.
GSX-R750 (WS) 1995
The last model to use the double-cradle for more stiffness over the 94 model year and the top fairing was all new with lighter, twin reflector beam headlights. Touted by Motorcyclist as having the most ground clearance leaned over, just behind a Ducati 916.
SRAD
The SRAD (Suzuki Ram Air Direct) provides air intakes at the front that force air directly into the airbox. All models as of 1996 have employed this design.
GSX-R750 (T) 1996
The 1996 GSX-R introduced a new twin-spar frame which was derived from Suzuki's RGV 500 GP racer. A new compact and lightweight engine incorporated magnesium covers on the cylinder head, starter motor, and clutch cover to aid weight reduction. These changes resulted in a decrease in weight by 20 kg to 179 kg, while power had increased to a . This year's model finally addressed the weight problems that had plagued the GSX-R through the first half of the 90s.
Other features included an electronically-controlled "main jet block off under decel" system (for emissions purposes) 39 millimeter Mikuni carburetors and 43 mm inverted forks which were fully adjustable. Also, a 17-inch rear rim was fitted as standard with a 190/50-17 size tire as fitted to all models from 1996 to 1999.
GSX-R750 (V) 1997
Minor internal tweaks on the 1996 model, improved aerodynamics.
GSX-R750 (W) 1998
Introduction of electronic fuel injection.
Gain in power to 134-135 bhp.
GSX-R750 (X) 1999
Only minor modifications were carried out on the 1999 model consisting of new graphics and a few internal tweaks. The 1999 Model year GSX-R won the sport bike of the year award and produced 134 Crank Horsepower for the final year of the SRAD design. The manual also lists the rear wheel as having increased to 190 millimeters from 180 millimeters in the previous years. A steering damper was fitted under the bottom yoke.
A 6" rear wheel was supplied on UK and EU model bikes from 1998 Model WW. This rim took a 190/50/17 tire.
GSX-R750 Y 2000
All New Model covering 2000 through 2003 -Lighter Stronger Faster: Sometimes called superman bike because of headlight shape.
Engine:
Much smaller yet stronger motor, upgraded fuel injection with improved fueling correction for barometric pressure/altitude, redesigned narrower cylinder head with straighter intake tracts, bigger air box, better ram air, stainless steel 4 into 1 exhaust, lighter stronger engine components, and covers.
Body:
More aerodynamic bodywork, smaller frontal area, redesigned instrument cluster, new LCD information (odometer, coolant temperature, clock).
Frame:
New re-designed twin spar frame, extended swingarm, lighter front brakes to reduce unsprung mass, lighter cast wheels to reduce rotating mass.
GSX-R750 K1 2001
Transmission had a number of parts changed due to design defect that caused 2nd gear to slip and cause transmission failures. The input shaft and a number of other parts were upgraded and an internal service bulletin issued by Suzuki to its dealerships.
GSX-R750 K2 2002
Few minor tweaks for 2002:
Changes to the EFI, new adjustable swingarm, new mirrors, and new fully brushed exhaust.
GSX-R750 K3 2003
Colors changed. First-year that bikes have lights on 24 hrs (UK).
Redesign year (Not UK).
GSX-R750 K4 2004
Refined version of the 00-03 model years. ECU now 32 bit, from 16 bit, titanium valves, new body work, black powdercoated frame and swingarm, and 4-piston radially mounted Tokico brakes.
The engine produced claimed power at crank shaft; at 12,750 rpm rear wheel hp tested by bike magazine on uncertified dynamometer, and torque of 79 N.m (58.2 ft.lb) @ 10,750 rpm. Redline was 14,500 rpm.
Dry weight was just making it one of the lightest GSX-R's ever produced.
GSX-R750 K5 2005
Besides changing color on the motorcycle, Suzuki celebrated the 20th anniversary of the model by launching the Suzuki 20th Anniversary GSX-R 750, which included custom paint, custom exhaust, and sunex brake rotors... EL blue chain, blue seat and 20th-anniversary placards.
GSX-R750 K6, K7 2006-2007
Redesign year. New frame and swingarm and motor. Stroke increased and transmission is now stacked. Rotors also went from 300 mm to 310 mm.
Modifications compared to the previous model include all-new compact and lightweight 4-stroke, 4-cylinder, liquid-cooled engine designed for overall weight reduction, optimum combustion efficiency, and power delivery. Re-designed cylinder head with narrower valve angles creating a more compact combustion chamber design, higher 12.5:1 compression ratio, large intake and exhaust ports for improved intake and exhaust efficiency, and high power output Valve bucket diameters are increased to work with more aggressive camshafts. Lightweight titanium valves with steel alloy springs and aluminum spring retainers operated by thin-wall hollow camshafts to reduce weight and inertia.
GSX-R750 K8, K9, L0 2008-2010
New model - revised headlights, new colors, multi-mode power adjustments. At the rear wheel, the engine produces at 12,500 rpm,
and torque of @ 11,200 rpm.
The dry weight is .
GSX-R750 (L1-L9) 2011-2024
Currently the longest ever produced GSX-R 750 series without any major changes. New model, clean and sleek body style, new headlight, addition of Italian made Brembo brake calipers (front) and Nissin (back). The 2011 model is about lighter than the previous year's model. It has a "back torque limiting" clutch that allows for slicker downshifting. A lightweight Showa Big Piston Fork (BPF) comes standard along with a Showa rear shock. Features a more compacted instrument panel which was inspired by the GSX-R1000 instrument panel. The engine power produced at the rear wheel is @ 12,600 rpm. Torque at the rear wheel is @ 11,100 rpm. The wet weight is .
In August 2019, Suzuki announced the 2020 GSX-R750, mentioning color options but no other changes.
See also
Suzuki GSX-S750
References
External links
Official GSX-R 750 site
GSX-R750
Sport bikes
Motorcycles introduced in 1985 |
4329900 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Matrix%20series%20characters | List of Matrix series characters | This is a list of characters from The Matrix franchise universe. Many of the characters listed here have names reflecting certain aspects of them, such as their status, personality, or role.
Introduced in The Matrix
Apoc
Apoc (played by Julian Arahanga) is a crew member of the Nebuchadnezzar in The Matrix. He is murdered by Cypher when the latter forcibly unplugs Apoc's connection to the Matrix in the real world, killing him instantly.
Agent Brown and Agent Jones
Choi and DuJour
Choi (played by Marc Gray) is assumedly a bluepill who appears in the first movie buying illegal software from Neo, for which Choi pays $2,000 in cash. Choi, his latex-clad girlfriend DuJour (played by Ada Nicodemou), and several unnamed and unspeaking friends arrive at Neo's door after he had been mysteriously told to "follow the white rabbit" through his computer. When Neo notices that Dujour has a tattoo of a white rabbit on the back of her left shoulder, he accepts their offer to go with them to a goth club, where he is approached by Trinity. Going to the club and subsequently waking up late for work the following day set the stage for the rest of the film, though Choi, Dujour, and their friends are never seen or alluded to again.
Much of Choi's dialogue foreshadows the rest of the film: "I know. This never happened. You don't exist", "You need to unplug", and "Hallelujah. You're my savior, man. My own personal Jesus Christ."
These names would appear to be inspired by French language; "Choi" and "DuJour" resembles the French phrase "Choix du jour", meaning "Choice of the day".
Cypher/Mr. Reagan
Mr. Reagan (a.k.a. Cypher) (played by Joe Pantoliano) is a central character in The Matrix. In the film, he regrets being "unplugged" and entering the real world. He betrays the crew of the Nebuchadnezzar, offering to give up Morpheus to the Agents in exchange for being inserted back into the Matrix with no memory of his time outside the Matrix. In the climax of the film, after the visit to the Oracle, he exits the Matrix and murders members of the crew by leading Mouse into a trap, blasting Dozer and Tank with a lightning rifle, and "unplugging" Switch and Apoc. As he is about to kill Neo and Trinity, a critically injured Tank kills him.
Dozer
Dozer (played by Anthony Ray Parker) is the pilot and chef of the Nebuchadnezzar. He is Tank's brother, and like him, is unable to enter the Matrix as he was born in Zion and therefore has no mechanical ports that machine-bred humans do. After Cypher attempts to murder Tank, Dozer charges at him and is killed instantly by Cypher's lightning rifle.
Morpheus
Mouse
Mouse (played by Matt Doran) is a crew member of the Nebuchadnezzar.
In the film, Mouse is the youngest crew member of the Nebuchadnezzar and the programmer of the virtual reality training simulation program. One of his stand-out scenes occurs when he is discussing to Neo whether the Nebuchadnezzars food tastes like "Tastee Wheat" (a brand of cereal, posters of which can be briefly seen in the train stations shown in The Matrix Revolutions), and adds to the theme of subjective reality by suggesting that the flavor associated with both is not the 'true' flavor, but the Machines' error. He is the creator of the program Woman in the Red Dress, which is used as a distraction in part of Neo's training. He is a very eager young man, excited to see the possibility that Neo could be the one to end the war. He also offers Woman in the Red Dress in a private session to Neo saying, "To deny our impulses is to deny the very thing that makes us human".
Mouse is the first victim of Cypher's betrayal of the crew. As Agent-led SWAT team members storm the building used by Neo and the others as an entry/exit point, Mouse attempts to stop their initial approach wielding dual automatic shotguns (custom made for the film), but is killed by the police.
Neo
Neo (born as Thomas A. Anderson, also known as The One, an anagram for "Neo") is the protagonist of the Matrix franchise. He was portrayed as a cybercriminal and computer programmer by Keanu Reeves in The Matrix Trilogy, as well as having a cameo in The Animatrix short film Kid's Story. Andrew Bowen provided Neo's voice in The Matrix: Path of Neo. In 2008, Neo was selected by Empire as the 68th Greatest Movie Character of All Time. Neo is also an anagram of "one", a reference to his destiny of being The One who would bring peace. There are claims that a nightclub in Chicago inspired the name of the character in the Matrix. Neo is considered to be a superhero.
Oracle
Rhineheart
Mr. Rhineheart (played by David Aston) is Thomas Anderson's boss at the software company Metacortex.
Smith
Switch
Switch (played by Belinda McClory) is a member of the crew of the Nebuchadnezzar.
Unlike the mental projections of other crews, who usually wear dark clothes and nearly-opaque sunglasses, Switch wears white clothes and yellow, translucent sunglasses. Switch and Apoc are portrayed as front-line soldiers while inside the Matrix, acting as "point" and "rear guard" in their escape from the Agents and police and providing covering fire as they make their way into the sewers. Switch's weapon of choice is a Browning Hi-Power pistol. Switch also pokes fun at Mouse, calling him "the digital pimp". Switch is killed when her mind is forcibly pulled from the Matrix by Cypher, who betrayed the crew in an attempt to return to the Matrix as a permanent resident himself.
The character was supposedly originally meant to be a feminine character in the Matrix and a man in the real world, and they decided to change that because they thought it would confuse the audience.
Tank
Tank (played by Marcus Chong) is the original Operator of the Nebuchadnezzar.
Tank watches over not only the jacked-in crewmembers, but also the ship itself in case the Sentinels (killing machines) detect the ship. Like all Operators, Tank is a skilled programmer who can provide jacked-in crewmembers almost anything they need and guides them to and from dangerous events within the Matrix.
Tank (and his brother Dozer) is unable to enter the Matrix, as he was born in Zion, and therefore without the mechanical ports which machine-bred humans such as Neo or Morpheus have. After Cypher betrays the crew, Tank becomes his first attempted victim in the real world. Cypher blasts an unaware Tank from behind with a lightning rifle, gravely injuring him. He then takes Tank's place in the Operator's chair after murdering Dozer, taunting Neo and Trinity as he "unplugs" Apoc and Switch. As Cypher is about to unplug Neo, Tank recovers enough from his injuries to stand up and kill Cypher with the lightning rifle. He then rescues Neo and Trinity, providing them weapons and valuable information needed in the film's climax.
Tank dies after the events in The Matrix but before the events in the sequel, The Matrix Reloaded. The character's duties as ship's Operator are handed over to Link, who is married to Tank and Dozer's sister, Zee.
The demise of the character was reportedly due to actor Marcus Chong's salary demands and conflicts with the Wachowskis, the writers and creators of the Matrix series, leading to his removal.
Trinity
Introduced in The Matrix Reloaded
Architect
Portrayed by Helmut Bakaitis. He is the "father" of The Matrix and its predecessors, and an exceptionally powerful AI. The Oracle states that he tries to "balance the equations" of the Matrix while she unbalances them. The character first appears in The Matrix Reloaded when Neo encounters him while looking for The Source. The Architect tells Neo that he must choose between saving the Matrix and saving Trinity. After Neo chooses the latter and surrenders himself to the machines to reload the Matrix, the Architect tells the Oracle that he will honor the truce. As expected from an AI, the Architect is emotionless, analytical, logical, and pragmatic. He generally views humanity and human emotion with contempt if not outright misanthropy.
Originally, Sean Connery was offered the role but turned it down because he didn't understand the story.
Axel
Axel (played by Leigh Whannell) is a crew member of the Vigilant. When the crews of the Vigilant, Nebuchadnezzar, and Logos go to help Neo reach the Source, Axel is the only non-Operator human other than Trinity to not enter the Matrix, owing to a broken leg. Instead, he stands guard, watching for any Sentinel attacks. He hobbles back to Jax soon after to inform him of an imminent attack, but the catwalk below him collapses from the weight of his leg brace, and Axel falls to his death.
Ballard
Captain Ballard (played by Roy Jones Jr.), is the captain of the Zion hovercraft Caduceus in the film The Matrix Reloaded and the video game Enter the Matrix. He is killed when Bane (possessed by Smith) pre-emptively detonates an EMP, leaving the human crewmembers defenseless against the machines.
Bane
Bane (played by Ian Bliss) is a crew member of the Zion hovercraft Caduceus in the films The Matrix Reloaded and The Matrix Revolutions. His consciousness is overwritten by Smith in the Matrix, allowing Smith to take control of Bane in the real world. He attempts to assassinate Neo, but is foiled by the Kid. He later attempts to convince Captain Ballard to search for the Nebuchadnezzar, but is rebuffed. The Caduceus is then sent to the front lines to defend against the machines, where Bane pre-emptively detonates the EMP, disabling all hovercraft and enabling the machines to massacre everyone. Bane/Smith is the only survivor and is found unconscious by the Mjolnir. He then kills Maggie and stows aboard the Logos just before Neo and Trinity depart for the machine city. He holds Trinity hostage and fights Neo, blinding the latter by cauterizing Neo's eyes. Despite this, Neo's real-world powers revealed that he could still see auras of all machines, and he kills Bane/Smith in the ensuing battle.
Binary
Binary (played by Tahei Simpson) is a crew member of the Vigilant. She, Vector, and Soren attack a backup power generator for the local power plant in the Matrix to assist Neo in reaching the Source, but are all immediately killed when the Vigilant is destroyed by Sentinels in the real world. This forces Trinity to enter the Matrix and complete the Vigilant crew's mission.
Cas
Cas (played by Gina Torres) is the widow of the Nebuchadnezzar's former pilot Dozer.
Ghost
Ghost (played by Anthony Wong) is the guns specialist of the Logos ship in the video game Enter the Matrix and the feature films The Matrix Reloaded and The Matrix Revolutions.
Ghost is described by the Wachowskis as an "ascetic Buddhist killer". A student of philosophy, he quotes and/or refers to Hume, William James, Nietzsche and especially Kierkegaard. Ghost's name may be a reference to the phrase "ghost in the machine", which describes the concept of mind-body dualism.
Ghost's latest appearance was in the MMORPG The Matrix Online. Due to copyright issues with Anthony Wong, Ghost is bald and has been completely shaven of all facial hair. Ghost, along with "the Twins", are the only recurring characters up-to-date to lack voice actors for The Matrix Online. Ghost was the first to encounter "Trinity" inside the Matrix after her death, although it was not made clear whether this Trinity was 'real' or a simulation.
Councillor Hamann
Councillor Hamann (played by Anthony Zerbe) is a senior member of the Zion Council. He is supportive of Neo even though, by his own admission, he does not understand the nature of Neo's abilities.
Jax
Jax (played by Socratis Otto) is the operator of the Vigilant. As Operator, he remained at the console when the crews of the Vigilant, Nebuchadnezzar, and Logos assisted Neo with reaching the Source. Fellow Vigilant crewmate Axel stayed in the real world as well, owing to a broken leg. Axel stood guard, watching for any Sentinel attacks. He hobbles back to Jax soon after to inform him of an imminent attack, but the catwalk below him collapses from the weight of his leg brace, and Axel falls to his death, while a piece of the broken catwalk impales Jax through his chair, killing him. His death prevents him from warning Soren, Vector, and Binary of the imminent Sentinel attack, and all three perish shortly afterwards when the Vigilant is destroyed.
Keymaker
Kid
Michael Karl Popper (a.k.a. The Kid), played by Clayton Watson, a Zion-dwelling self-substantiated exile, appears in The Matrix Reloaded, The Matrix Revolutions, and The Animatrix short, "Kid's Story". Once a bluepill, he became self-aware and somewhat cognizant of Neo and the Nebuchadnezzar'''s exploits. He deliberately committed suicide to free himself from the Matrix just before Agents confronted him, idolizing Neo afterwards. He eagerly volunteers to fight in the Battle of Zion, helping to reload APUs, and is the first to inform the civilian population of Zion that the war has ended.
Link
Link (played by Harold Perrineau) serves as the ship's pilot and operator for the crew of the Zion hovercraft Nebuchadnezzar, replacing Tank and Dozer. He is a man with questionable faith in those around him, as Morpheus is far more daring than any other captain he previously served under, and is not a believer in his wife's superstitions, initially refusing to wear her fortune necklace. However, by the end of The Matrix Revolutions, he appears much more confident in those around him. He wears Zee's fortune necklace (saying "it can't hurt" at first) as he personally detonates the Mjolnirs EMP, saving Zion, and later tells Zee he will never take off the necklace. He also leads Zion's cheer after Neo achieves peace between humans and machines. By the time of The Matrix Resurrections sixty years later, Link is dead, as with everyone else who ever served aboard the same ship as Neo.
Lock
Commander Jason Lock (played by Harry J. Lennix) is the supreme commander of all military defense forces of the human city Zion. His character appears in The Matrix Reloaded, Enter the Matrix, and The Matrix Revolutions. He was born naturally in Zion and cannot enter the Matrix, nor is he familiar with it. Therefore, he has a practical mind dedicated to defending Zion and keeping its location a secret. Lock is in a relationship with Niobe, who was previously in a relationship with Morpheus. Lock also finds Morpheus's faith in Neo and the prophecy of the One irrational, and is frequently at odds with him and others who also believe in the prophecy. After the Council asks two ships to search for the Nebuchadnezzar, Lock states that he finds it difficult to believe anyone would volunteer for such a daring mission, Niobe volunteers out of spite from being patronized. He continues leading the defense during the battle of Zion, but is enraged when the Mjolnir (piloted by Niobe) miraculously arrives and sets off an EMP, disabling all machines, but also all of Zion's defenses. He then orders Zion to follow the backup plan, a bottlenecked last stand, which is ultimately unnecessary when Neo achieves a truce between the machines and humans.
He is nicknamed "Deadbolt" by both Sparks and Captain Ballard, a reference to his uncompromising and abrasive nature.
Maggie
Maggie (played by Essie Davis) is the Mjolnir'''s doctor. She takes care of Bane after the Mjolnir find his unconscious body, unaware that Bane is possessed by Smith. She and Roland become suspicious of Bane/Smith after the latter states he remembers nothing from the ambush. Maggie attempts to administer a sedative at a later time to jog his memory, but is stabbed in the abdomen by Bane/Smith with her own scalpel, dying shortly afterwards.
Merovingian
The Merovingian (also known as the Frenchman) is a character in The Matrix Reloaded, The Matrix Revolutions and The Matrix Resurrections. He is portrayed by French actor Lambert Wilson in all three films and voiced by Robin Atkin Downes in The Matrix: Path of Neo. He also played a prominent role in The Matrix Online role-playing game. According to the Oracle, he is one of the oldest programs in the Matrix, and he himself states that he has survived multiple incarnations of the Matrix and confrontations with previous Ones. He and his wife Persephone operate a smuggling ring providing a haven for other exiled programs. He is subtly rude, quite arrogant, and certain that causality is the only real truth of the Matrix (as opposed to choice, which the Oracle believes), despite the fact that previous iterations of the Matrix failed because of a lack of choice given to its bluepill inhabitants. He despises the Oracle, asking Trinity to bring him "the eyes of the Oracle" as payment for freeing Neo from Mobil Avenue. He is also cynical and hedonistic, viewing love as an emotion equal to insanity, frequently committing adultery, and generally being pompous to all those around him. By the time of The Matrix Resurrections, the Merovingian is shown to have lost much of his power, prestige and sanity over the sixty years that have passed since the end of the Machine War.
Mifune
Captain Mifune (Nathaniel Lees) is the head of Zion's Armored Personnel Unit (APU) corps. He is one of the last APUs standing, but is killed when a massive amount of Sentinels swarm and maim him.
Niobe
Persephone
Roland
Roland (played by David Roberts) is the captain of the hovercraft Mjolnir. He appears in the feature films Reloaded, Revolutions and the video games Enter The Matrix and The Matrix: Path of Neo. He is an older, hard-boiled captain who is initially skeptical of Neo and the One. He later welcomes the crews of the Nebuchadnezzar and Logos aboard on the way to Zion, as the former was destroyed and Niobe gives the latter to Neo and Trinity to reach the machine city. Roland initially flat-out rejects Niobe's plan to fly the Mjolnir (the largest hovercraft in the human fleet) through a cramped maintenance shaft to save time, but eventually relents and mans the guns with everyone else during the journey back to Zion. The Mjolnir arrives in Zion just in time to detonate a critical EMP, and Roland, along with everyone else, is overjoyed when it is revealed Neo has achieved peace between humans and machines.
Roland does not appear in The Matrix Resurrections, but the Mnemosynes medical officer, Ellster, reveals she is his granddaughter. Ellster also explains to Neo that Roland did not believe in him until Neo's final sacrifice, and in doing so, Neo had freed Roland's mind a second time.
Seraph
Seraph (portrayed by Collin Chou) is described as the personification of a sophisticated challenge-handshake authentication protocol which guards the Oracle. As a challenge handshake authentication protocol, Seraph is effectively a login screen that fights the user to authenticate their identity. He is also the medium through which the Oracle contacts people in the real world. Neo first discovers Seraph after being summoned to his location by the Oracle. After Seraph confirms Neo's identity by fighting him to a stalemate, he takes Neo through one of the Matrix's many backdoors, leading him to the Oracle. He later accompanies Morpheus and Trinity to Club Hel and successfully convinces the Merovingian and Trainman into releasing Neo from Mobil Avenue. He then guards Sati, but is unable to stop the rapidly multiplying Smiths from assimilating both of them. He is set free after Neo reloads the Matrix. He appears again in The Matrix Online, protecting the Oracle.
Seraph's code appearance is uniquely golden when compared to the rest of the Matrix, which appears as green. The Merovingian and other denizens of Club Hel also note that Seraph is an exiled program formerly employed by the Merovingian, and The Matrix Online hints that he was once a Seraphim, the equivalent to Agents in a previous incarnation of the Matrix. Like other Seraphim, he had wings, which were burnt away when he betrayed the Merovingian. Nevertheless, Seraph remains one of the most powerful entities in the Matrix, being capable of defeating or stalemating all opponents with no apparent injury other than Smith, whom he claims he had defeated before.
The role was initially offered to Michelle Yeoh, but she declined due to a scheduling conflict. The character was changed to a male, with Jet Li being offered a role. As Li declined the role, Chou signed on.
Soren
Soren (played by Steve Bastoni) is the captain of the Vigilant. He is the first captain to volunteer to help find the Nebuchadnezzar, and is seen conversing with Morpheus when all the captains meet, implying they are either friends, Soren is a believer in the prophecy of the One, or both. He leads Binary and Vector in an attack on a backup power generator for the local power plant in the Matrix to assist Neo in reaching the Source, but is immediately killed alongside them when the Vigilant is destroyed by Sentinels in the real world. This forces Trinity to enter the Matrix and complete the Vigilant crew's mission.
The Twins
The twins (portrayed by identical twins Neil and Adrian Rayment), are henchmen of the Merovingian. They are believed to be older versions of Agents from a previous iteration of the Matrix, before they became "Exiles", or rogue programs.
Vector
Vector (played by Don Anjaya Battee) is a crew member of the Vigilant. He, Binary, and Soren attack a backup power generator for the local power plant in the Matrix to assist Neo in reaching the Source, but are all immediately killed when the Vigilant is destroyed by Sentinels in the real world. This forces Trinity to enter the Matrix and complete the Vigilant crew's mission.
Zee
Zee (played by Nona Gaye) is a native Zionite who experienced the pain of losing her brothers Dozer and Tank (from the original Matrix film), both of whom were killed while serving aboard the Nebuchadnezzar. She is Link's superstitious wife, and worries for him as the Nebuchadnezzar returns to Zion less frequently than other ships. She later joins the resistance and plays a critical role during the final battle at Zion, saving the Kid from a Sentinel, allowing him to shoot the dock gates open for the Mjolnir (with Link inside) to enter Zion and deliver the battle-ending EMP.
The role of Zee was originally given to singer/actress Aaliyah, who was killed in a plane crash on August 25, 2001, before she could complete shooting her part for The Matrix Reloaded. Many singers and actresses were named as potential replacements, including Eva Mendes, Samantha Mumba, Brandy Norwood and Tatyana Ali. Ali actress Nona Gaye was named as Aaliyah's replacement in April 2002. Gaye was nominated for an NAACP Image Award along with co-star Jada Pinkett Smith for the role of Niobe.
Introduced in The Matrix Revolutions
Deus Ex Machina
Deus Ex Machina (motion-captured by Henry Blasingame, voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson) is the central interface of the Machine City that debuts in the third movie. It consists of a vast swarm of tiny Sentinels that emerge from hatches in a frame plate to form a three-dimensional image of a human face.
Sati
Sati (portrayed by Tanveer K. Atwal in The Matrix Revolutions and Priyanka Chopra-Jonas in The Matrix Resurrections) is a sentient program, listed for erasure in the Machine World because she serves no purpose within it. Her 'parents', Rama Kandra and Kamala, arrange to have Sati smuggled into the Matrix with the Merovingian in exchange for termination codes for the Oracle. After being brought into the Matrix through Mobil Avenue, a limbo-like space created by the Trainman, and meeting Neo, Sati is delivered into the care of the Oracle, but is overwritten by Smith. She returns to normal after Smith is destroyed and the Matrix is rebooted. Sixty years later, Sati helps to mastermind the rescue of Trinity from the Matrix, revealing that her father had been the one to design the Anomaleum where the resurrected Neo and Trinity were imprisoned.
Sparks
Sparks (played by Lachy Hulme) is the operator and general-purpose crewmember of the Logos in the film The Matrix Revolutions and the video game Enter the Matrix.
Trainman
The Trainman (played by Bruce Spence) appears in The Matrix Revolutions. He is an exiled program in the employ of the Merovingian, tasked with smuggling other programs from the machine world to the Matrix when they seek exile. Visually taking the appearance of an unkempt homeless man, he resides at the Mobil Avenue subway station (Mobil being an anagram for Limbo), a separate world from the Matrix which can only be entered or exited via subway trains and where Neo's powers do not extend. Neo wakes up there after falling into a coma as a result of discovering his powers in the real world. He attempts to force the Trainman to allow him to board, but is easily defeated without his powers. Morpheus, Trinity, and Seraph go to free Neo, culminating in a Mexican standoff at the Merovingian's club; the Trainman holds Seraph at gunpoint while being held at gunpoint himself by Trinity before Persephone defuses the situation, convincing the Merovingian to free Neo. The Trainman is not seen again and was possibly assimilated by Smith, who calls Sati "the last Exile" before assimilating her as well.
Introduced in The Matrix Resurrections
Bugs
Bugs (the name paying homage to Warner Bros. mascot Bugs Bunny; portrayed by Jessica Henwick) is the captain of the hovercraft Mnemosyne. She had long been searching the Matrix for Neo, after being set free from it as a consequence of seeing him attempt to fly. She discovered a node within the Matrix in which Neo's influence recreated a version of the events leading up to his original release from the Matrix. It is during this that she comes into contact with a version of Agent Smith - though this version is based on an amalgamation of two figures central to Neo's original rise: Agent Smith and Morpheus. Bugs frees 'Agent Smith' and he takes on the moniker of Morpheus and joins her crew, and the two continue their search for Neo within the Matrix.
The Analyst
The Analyst (portrayed by Neil Patrick Harris) is a program responsible for the seventh version of the Matrix. He was present when Neo sacrificed himself to stop Smith at the end of the Machine War. Following the War, the large number of humans being awakened from the Matrix caused an energy crisis and infighting amongst the Machines. The Analyst suggested a method by which this crisis could be resolved: recover and repair the bodies of Neo and Trinity, then re-insert this powerful duo into the Matrix via a dedicated tower called the Anomaleum. Its program would allow them to remain close to each other and thus generate enough energy to offset that lost from the mass awakenings, while still keeping them far enough apart to prevent them from breaking free of the Matrix and crashing the system.
The Analyst then created the seventh iteration of the Matrix, and took on the guise of Neo's therapist in order to suppress Neo's memories and ensure that he and Trinity remain plugged into the Matrix. He also discovered Smith's continued existence thanks to his link with Neo, and opted to turn that link into a 'chain' by similarly suppressing Smith's memories and forcing him to act as Thomas' business partner. He is defeated by Neo and Trinity with some help from Smithwho wishes to be free, keeping his memories. Neo and Trinity later visit the Analyst, thanking him for giving them a second chance with his actions and warning him against trying to take over the Matrix again.
Other
Jue
Jue (voiced by Pamela Segall) appears in the Animatrix film "Final Flight of the Osiris".
Shimada
Shimada, voiced by Kit Harris, is Kid's second-in-command of the organization E Pluribus Neo in the MMORPG game The Matrix Online.
Tyndall
Tyndall appears only in The Matrix Online, in which she is voiced by Kit Harris.
References
Fictional hackers
Speculative fiction film characters lists
Lists of minor fictional characters
Lists of film characters |
4329918 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeonju%20International%20Film%20Festival | Jeonju International Film Festival | Jeonju International Film Festival (JIFF, Korean: 전주국제영화제, Hanja: 全州國際映畵祭) is an Asian film festival. It was launched in 2000 as a non-competitive film festival with partial competition. It introduces independent and experimental films to focus on the alternative course of contemporary film art.
In the first edition of JIFF, debut films of Darren Aronofsky were introduced to South Korea. For the first time in Asia, Jiff highlighted early works of Béla Tarr as well. The winners of Jeonju IFF's International Competition Section include Ying Liang, John Akomfrah and Miike Takashi.
Jeonju also produces movies. Directors that were once invited to Jeonju IFF were later invited again to Jeonju Digital Project (JDP), a set of three digital shorts. JDP granted financial support to masters for their short films and world-premiered those pieces in Jeonju.
Celebrating its 15th edition, JDP has boosted scale up to feature-length with GYÖRGY Pálfi (Hungary) and PARK Jung bum/SHIN Yeon-shick (Republic of Korea).
JIFF also features an experimental section called Expanded Cinema (formerly called Stranger than Cinema).
History
1st Jeonju International Film Festival (2000)
Apr 28 – May 4, 2000
Number of Films: 292 films from 21 countries
Opening Film: Virgin Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors (HONG Sang-soo, Korea)
Closing Film: M/OTHER (SUWA Nobuhiro, Japan)
Woosuk Award (Asian Indie-Cine Forum): M/OTHER (SUWA Nobuhiro, Japan)
Daring Digital Award (N-Vision): Riot (John AKOMFRAH, England)
Chonju People’s Award (Cinemascape): Audition (MIIKE Takashi, Japan)
2nd Jeonju International Film Festival (2001)
Apr 27 – May 3, 2001
Number of Films: 202 films from 28 countries
Opening Film: Waikiki Brothers (YIM Soon-rye, Korea)
Closing Film: This is My Moon (ASOKA Handagama, Sri Lanke)
Woosuk Award (Asia Indi Forum): Mysterious Object at Noon (Apichatpong WEERASETHAKUL, Thailand)
Daring Digital Award (N-Vision): About Pleasure and Hysteria-The Sexual Life of the Belgians, Part (Jan BUCQUOY, Belgium)
Jeonju Korean Shorts Award (Korean Short Films): Noonday (JANG Myung-sook, Korea)
Jeonju People’s Award (Cinemascape): Beijing Bicycle (WANG Xiao-Shuai, China, Taiwan)
3rd Jeonju International Film Festival (2002)
Apr 26 – May 2, 2002
Number of Films: 266 films from 32 countries
Woosuk Award (Asian Newcomers): Brother (YAN Yan Mak, Hong Kong, China)
Daring Digital Award (Digital Spectrum): Angel Exit (Vladimír MICHALÉK, Czech)
JIFF Favorites Award (Cinemascape): Spirited Away (MIYAZAKI Hayao, Japan)
4th Jeonju International Film Festival (2003)
Apr 25 – May 4, 2003
Number of Films: 184 films from 30 countries
Opening Film: If You Were Me (PARK Kwang-su, PARK Jin-pyo, YEO Kyung-dong, JEONG Jae-eun, PARK Chan-wook, YIM Soon-rye, Korea)
Closing Film: Far from Heaven (Todd Haynes, USA)
Woosuk Award (Asian Newcomers): Exam (Nasser REFAIE, Iran)
Daring Digital Award (Digital Spectrum): (Marc OTTIKER, Germany)
JIFF Favorites Award (Cinemascape): Spider (David Cronenberg, Canada)
5th Jeonju International Film Festival (2004)
Apr 23 – May 2, 2004
Number of Films: 284 films from 30 countries
Opening Films: Possible Changes (MIN Byoung-kook, Korea)
Closing Films: November (Achero MAÑAS, Spain)
Woosuk Award (Indie Vision): Silence between two thoughts (Babak PAYAMI, Iran)
Special Mention (Woosuk Award): Min (HO Yu-hang, Malaysia)
Daring Digital Award (Digital Spectrum): Suite Havana (Fernando PÉREZ, Cuba)
Special Mention (Daring Digital Award): Sexual Dependency (Rodrigo BELLOTT, Bolivia, USA)
JIFF Favorites Award (Cinemascape): Coffee and Cigaret (Jim JAMUSH, USA)
6th Jeonju International Film Festival (2005)
Apr 28 – May 6, 2005
Number of Films: 176 films from 31 countries
Opening Film: Jeonju Digital Project 2005 (SONG Il-gon, Apichatpong WEERASETHAKUL, TSUKAMOTO Shinya)
Closing Film: Antarctic Journal (YIM Pil-sung, Korea)
Woosuk Award (Indie Vision): Harvest Time (Marina RAZBEZKHINA, Russia)
Special Mention (Woosuk Award): I, Claudia (Chris ABRAHAM, Canada)
JJ-Star Award (Digital Spectrum): Oxhide (LIU Jia-yin, China)
Audience Critics’ Award (Korean Cinema on the Move): The Gate of Truth (KIM Hee-chul, Korea)
Special Mention (Audience Critics’ Award): Five is Too Many (AHN Seong-ki, Korea)
JIFF Favorites Award (Cinemascape, Cinema Palace): The Butterfly (Philippe MUYL, France)
7th Jeonju International Film Festival (2006)
Apr 27 – May 5, 2006
Number of Films: 194 films from 42 countries
Opening Film: Offside (Jafar, PANAJI, Iran)
Closing Film: Don’t Look Back (KIM Young-nam, Korea)
Woosuk Award (Indie Vision): Drifting States (Denis Côté, Canada)
Special Mention (Woosuk Award): Smiling in a War Zone – The Art of Flying to Kabul (Simone Aaberg KAERN, Denmark)
JJ-Star Award (Digital Spectrum): Stories from the North (Urupong RAKSASAD, Thailand)
Special mention (JJ-Star Award): White She-Camel, the (Xavier CHRISTIAENS, Belgium)
Audience Critics’ Award (Korean Cinema on the Move): Shocking Family (Kyungsoon, Korea)
CGV Korean Independent Feature Distribution (Korean Independent Feature Films): Between (LEE Chang-jae, Korea)
JIFF Favorites Award (Cinemascape, Cinema Palace): Veer-Zaara (Yash CHOPRA, India)
8th Jeonju International Film Festival (2007)
Apr 26 – May 4, 2007
Number of Films: 185 films from 37 countries
Opening Film: Off Road (HAN Seung-ryong, Korea)
Closing Film: Exiled (Johnie TO, Hong Kong)
Woosuk Award (Indie Vision): The Other Half (YING Liang, China)
Special Mention (Woosuk Award): Salty Air (Alessandro ANGELINI, Italy)
JJ-Star Award (Korean Cinema on the Move): HERs (KIM Jeong-jung, Korea)
Audience Critics’ Award (Korean Cinema on the Move): Who’s That Knocking at My Door? (YANG Hea-hoon, Korea)
KT&G Sangsangmadang Award (Best Short Award) (Korean Short: Critics’ Week): Seongbuk Port (SHIN Min-jae, Korea)
KT&G Sangsangmadang Award (Best Director Award) (Korean Short: Critics’ Week): Seung-a (KIM Na-young, Korea)
KT&G Sangsangmadang Award (Special Jury Award) (Korean Short: Critics’ Week): Blood Simple (KIM Seung-hyun, Korea)
Special Mention (KT&G Sangsangmadang Award) (Korean Short: Critics’ Week): The Ten-minute Break (LEE Seong-tae, Korea) / The Whale in the West Sea (KIM Jae-won, Korea)
CGV Korean Independent Feature Distribution (Korean Independent Feature Films): Who’s That Knocking at My door? (YANG Hea-hoon, Korea)
NETPAC (Network for the Promotion of Asian Cinema) (Asian Feature Films): Summer Heat (Brillante MENDOZA, The Philippines)
JIFF Favorites Award (Cinemascape, Cinema Palace): When the Road Bends… Tales of a Gypsy Caravan (Jasmine DELLAL, USA)
9th Jeonju International Film Festival (2008)
May 1–9, 2008
Number of Films: 195 films from 40 countries
Opening Film: The Kiss (MANDA Kunitoshi, Japan)
Closing Film: If You Were Me 4 (BANG Eun-jin, JEON Kye-soo, LEE Hyeon-seung, Kim Tae-yong, Korea)
Woosuk Award (Grand Prize) (International Competition): The Stolen Man (Matias PIÑEIRO, Argentina)
JJ-Star Award (Korean Cinema on the Move): Daytime Drinking (NOH Young-seok, Korea)
Special Mention (JJ-Star Award) (Korean Cinema on the Move): My Heart Is Not Broken Yet (Ahn Hae-ryong, Japan, Korea)
Audience Critics’ Award (Korean Cinema on the Move): Daytime Drinking (NOH Young-seok, Korea)
KT&G Sangsangmadang Award (Best Short Award) (Korean Short: Critics’ Week): Please, Stop the Train (HAN Ji-hye, Korea)
KT&G Sangsangmadang Award (Best Director Award) (Korean Short: Critics’ Week): Senbei Selling Girl (KIM Dong-myung, Korea)
KT&G Sangsangmadang Award (Special Jury Award) (Korean Short: Critics’ Week): Boys (YOON Sung-hyun, Korea)
Special Mention (KT&G Sangsangmadang Award): The Oxherding Pictures #4 “Catching the ox-Two Chinese quinces” (Lee Ji-sang, Korea)
CGV Korean Independent Feature Distribution (Korean Independent Feature Films): Action Boys (Jung Byung-gil, Korea)
NETPAC (Network for the Promotion of Asian Cinema) (Asian Feature Films): Children of God (YI Seung-jun, Korea)
JIFF Favorites Award (Cinemascape, Cinema Palace): Action Boys (Jung Byung-gil, Korea)
10th Jeonju International Film Festival (2009)
Apr 30 – May 8, 2009
Number of Films: 200 films from 42 countries
Opening Film: Short! Short! Short! 2009 (KIM Sung-ho, Chegy, YANG Hea-hoon, YOON Seong-ho, LEE Song Hee-il, KIM Young-nam, KIM Eun-kyung, NAM Da-Jeung, CHOE Equan, KWON Jong-kwan, Korea)
Closing Film: Macahn (Uberto PASOLINI, UK)
Woosuk Award (Grand Prize) (International Competition): Imburnal (Sherad Anthony SANCHEZ, The Philippines)
DAUM Special Jury Prize (International Competition): Inland (Tariq TEQUIA, Algeria, France)
JJ-Star Award (Korean Feature Films Competition): Missing Person (LEE Seo, Korea)
Special Mention (JJ-Star Award) (Korean Feature Films Competition): Where is Ronny… (SIM Sang-kook, Korea)
Audience Critics’ Award (Korean Feature Films Competition): Bandhobi (Shin Dong-Il, Korea)
Eastar Jet Award (Grand Prize) (Korean Short Films Competition): Don’t Step Out of the House (JO Sung-hee, Korea)
KT&G Sangsangmadang Award (Best Director Award) (Korean Short Films Competition): The Death of a Newspaperman (KIM Eun-kyung, Korea)
KT&G Sangsangmadang Award (Special Jury Award) (Korean Short Films Competition): The Strange Voyage (KIM Bo-ra, Korea)
CGV Korean Independent Feature Distribution (Korean Independent Feature Films): Bandhobi (Shin Dong-Il, Korea)
NETPAC (Network for the Promotion of Asian Cinema) (Asian Feature Films): Imburnal (Sherad Anthony SANCHEZ, The Philippines)
JIFF Favorites Award (Cinemascape, Cinema Palace): School Days with a Pig (MAEDA Tetsu, JAPAN)
11th Jeonju International Film Festival (2010)
Apr 29 – May 7, 2010
Number of Films: 208 films from 48 countries
Opening Film: Should’ve kissed (PARK Jin-oh, Korea)
Closing Film: To the Sea (Pedro González-RUBIO, Mexico)
Woosuk Award (Grand Prize) (International Competition): Susa (Rusudan PIRVELI, Georgia)
JB Bank Award (Special Jury Prize) (International Competition): Red Dragonflies (LIAO Jiekai, Singapore)
JJ-Star Award (Korean Feature Films Competition): Passerby #3 (SHIN Su-won, Korea)
Audience Critics’ Award (Korean Feature Films Competition): The Boy from Ipanema (Kim Kih-hoon, Korea)
Eastar Jet Award (Grand Prize) (Korean Short Films Competition): Frozen Land (KIM Tae-yong, Korea)
Best Director Award (Korean Short Films Competition): Hard-boiled Jesus (JUNG Young-heon, Korea)
Special Jury Award (Korean Short Films Competition): A Brand New Journey (KIM Hee-jin, Korea)
CGV Movie Collage Award (Korean Independent Feature Films): The Boy from Ipanema (Kim Kih-hoon, Korea)
NETPAC (Network for the Promotion of Asian Cinema) (Asian Feature Films): Clash (Pepe DIOKNO, The Philippines)
JIFF Audience Award (Cinemascape, Cinema Palace): Before the Full Moon (SEO She-chin, Korea)
12th Jeonju International Film Festival (2011)
Apr 28 – May 6, 2011
Number of Films: 190 films from 38 countries
Opening Film: Nadar and Simin, A Separation (Asghar FARHADI, Iran)
Closing Film: Anyang, Paradise City (PARK Chan-kyong, Korea)
Woosuk Award (Grand Prize) (International Competition): Jean Gentil (Laura Amelia GUZMAN, Dominican Republic, Mexico, Germany)
JB Bank Award (Special Jury Prize) (International Competition): The Dream of Eleuteria (Remton Siega ZUASOLA, The Philippines)
JIFF Audience Award (International Competition): An Escalator in World Order (KIM Kyung-man, Korea)
JJ-Star Award (Grand Prize) (Korean Feature Films Competition): Anyang, Paradise City (PARK Chang-kyong, Korea)
Audience Critics’ Award (Korean Feature Films Competition): The Color of Pain (LEE Kang-hyun, Kore)
JIFF Audience Award (Korean Feature Films Competition): The True-taste Show (KIM Jae-hwan, Korea)
ZIP& Award (Grand Prize) (Korean Short Films Competition): Double Clutch (Ahn Gooc-jin, Korea)
Best Director Award (Korean Short Films Competition): Confession (YU Ji-young, Korea)
Special Jury Award (Korean Short Films Competition): Rough Education (JOE Seung-yeon, Korea)
Movie Collage Award (Korean Independent Films): Pong Ddol (O Muel, Korea)
Eastar Jet & NETPAC Award (Asian Feature Films): Single Man (HAO Jie, China)
13th Jeonju International Film Festival (2012)
Apr 26 – May 4, 2012
Number of Films: 184 films from 42 countries
Opening Film: Sister (Ursula MEIER, France)
Closing Film: A Simple Life (Ann Hui, Hong Kong)
Woosuk Award (Grand Prize) (International Competition): Summer of Giacomo (Alessandro COMODIN, Italy, France, Belgium)
JB Bank Award (Special Jury Prize) (International Competition): Ex Press (Jet B. LEYCO, The Philippines)
JIFF Audience Award (International Competition): The River Used to Be a Man (Jan ZABEIL, Germany)
JJ-Star Award (Grand Prize) (Korean Film Competition): Sleepless Night (Jang Kun-jae, Korea)
Audience Critics’ Award (Korean Film Competition): Without Father (KIM Eung-su, Korea)
JIFF Audience Award (Korean Film Competition): Sleepless Night (Jang Kun-jae, Korea)
ZIP& Award (Grand Prize) (Korean Short Film Competition): Noodle Fish (KIM Jin-man, Korea)
Best Film Award (Korean Short Film Competition): The Arrival (SIN Yiee-soo, Korea) / Why Does Wind Blow (LEE Hang-jun, Korea)
CGV Movie Collage Award (Korean Independent Feature Films): PADAK (LEE Dae hee, Korea)
Netpac- Eastar Jet Award (Asian Feature Films): Florentina Hubaldo, CTE (Lav DIAZ, The Philippines)
14th Jeonju International Film Festival (2013)
Apr 25 – May 3, 2013
Number of Films: 190 films from 46 countries
Opening Film: Foxfire (Laurent CANTET, France)
Closing Film: Wadjda (Haifaa AL MANSOUR, Saudi Arabia)
Grand Prize (International Film Competition): LOST PARADISE (Eve DEBOISE, France)
Best Picture Prize (International Film Competition): (TIE) REMAGES (OZAWA Masato, Japan) and MAMAY UMENG (BALTAZAR, Dwein, Philippines)
Special Jury Prize (International Film Competition): PRACTICAL GUIDE TO BELGRADE WITH SINGING AND CRYING (Bojan VULETIĆ, Serbia)
Grand Prize (Korean Film Competition): DECEMBER (PARK Jeong-hoon, Korea)
Audience Critics Prize (Korean Film Competition): MY PLACE (PARK Moon-chil, Korea)
CGV Movie COLLAGE Prize (Korean Film Competition): Dear Dolphin (Kang Jin-a, Korea) / LEBANON EMOTION (JUNG Young-heon, Korea)
Grand Prize (Korean Short Film Competition): SWEET TEMPTATION (JEONG Han-jin, Korea)
Best Director Prize (Korean Short Film Competition): MASK AND MIRROR (MIN Byung-hun, Korea, France)
Special Jury Prize (Korean Short Film Competition): TWO GENTLEMEN (PARK Jae-ok, Korea)
NETPAC Prize (Asian Feature Film): FLASHBACK MEMORIES 3D (MATSUE Tetsuaki, Japan)
15th Jeonju International Film Festival (2014)
May 1–10, 2014
Number of Films: 181 films from 44 countries
Opening Film: MAD SAD BAD (Ryoo Seung-wan, HAN Jiseung, KIM Taeyong, Korea)
Grand Prize (International Competition): History Of Fear (Benjamin NAISHTAT, Argentina, France, Germany, Uruguay, Qatar)
Best Picture Award (International Competition): Coast Of Death (Lois Patiño, Spain)
Special Jury Award (International Competition): Hotel Nueva Isla (Irene GUTIÉRREZ, Javier LABRADOR, Cuba, Spain)
Grand Prize (Korean Competition): A Fresh Start (JANG Woojin, Korea)
CGV MovieCOLLAGE Award: Upcoming Project Support (Korean Competition): The Wicked (YOO Youngseon, Korea)
CGV MovieCOLLAGE Award: Distribution Support (Korean Competition): One For All, All For One (PARK Sayu, PARK Donsa, Korea, Japan)
Grand Prize (Korean Competition For Shorts): How Long Has That Door Been Open? (KIM Yuri, Korea)
Best Director Award (Korean Competition For Shorts): 12th Assistant Deacon (Jang Jae-hyun, Korea)
Special Jury Award (Korean Competition For Shorts): HOSANNA (NA Youngkil, Korea)
NETPAC Award (Non-Competition Sections): Tokyo Family (YAMADA Yoji, Japan)
16th Jeonju International Film Festival (2015)
April 30 – May 9, 2015
Opening Film: Partisan (Ariel Kleiman, Australia)
Grand Prize (International Competition): Poet on a Business Trip (Ju Anqi, China)
Best Picture Award (International Competition): Navajazo (Ricardo SILVA, Mexico)
Special Jury Award (International Competition): Parabellum (Lukas VALENTA RINNER, Argentina/Austria/Uruguay)
Special Mention Award (International Competition): Until I Lose My Breath (Leading Actress Esme MADRA, Turkey/Germany)
Grand Prize (Korean Competition): Alice in Earnestland (Ahn Gooc-jin, Korea)
CGV Arthouse Award: Distribution Support (Korean Competition): With or Without You (PARK Hyuckjee, Korea)
CGV Arthouse Award: Upcoming Project Support (Korean Competition): To be Sixteen (KIM Hyeonseung, Korea)
Special Mention Award (Korean Competition): Stay with Me (RHEE Jinwoo, Korea)
Grand Prize (Korean Competition For Shorts): Blossom (HAN Inmi, Korea)
Best Director Award (Korean Competition For Shorts): A Crevice of Violence (LIM Cheol, Korea)
Special Jury Award (Korean Competition For Shorts): A Lonely Bird (SEOJUNG Sinwoo, Korea)
NETPAC Award (Non-Competition Sections): Under the Sun (AHN Seulki, Korea)
17th Jeonju International Film Festival (2016)
April 28 – May 7, 2016
Number of Films: 211 films from 45 countries
Opening Film: Born to Be Blue (Robert Budreau, Canada)
Grand Prize (International Competition): Sand Storm (Elite ZEXER, Israel)
Best Picture Award (International Competition) (sponsored by Woosuk University): Short Stay (Tedd FENDT, USA)
Special Jury Award (International Competition): The Wounded Angel (Emir BAIGAZIN; Kazakhstan, France, Germany)
Special Mention Award (International Competition): Dead Slow Ahead (Mauro HERCE, Spain, France)
Grand Prize (Korean Competition) (sponsored by Paekche Institute of the Arts): Our Love Story (LEE Hyunju, Korea) / Delta Boys (KO Bongsoo, Korea)
CGV Arthouse Award: Distribution Support (Korean Competition): Breathing Underwater (KOH Heeyoung, Korea)
CGV Arthouse Award: Upcoming Project Support (Korean Competition): Delta Boys (KO Bongsoo, Korea)
Special Mention Award (Korean Competition): Breathing Underwater (KOH Heeyoung, Korea)
Grand Prize (Korean Competition For Shorts) (sponsored by Kyobo Life Insurance Company): Summer Night (LEE Jiwon, Korea)
Best Director Award (Korean Competition For Shorts) (sponsored by DACC CARBON): Cyclical Night (PAIK Jongkwan, Korea)
Special Jury Award (Korean Competition For Shorts) (sponsored by DACC CARBON): Deer Flower (KIM Kangmin, Korea)
NETPAC Award (Non-Competition Sections): Spy Nation (CHOI Seungho, Korea)
Documentary Award (sponsored by Jin Motors): Spy Nation (CHOI Seungho, Korea)
18th Jeonju International Film Festival (2017)
April 27 – May 6, 2017
Number of Films: 229 films from 58 countries
Opening Film: On Body and Soul (Ildikó Enyedi; Hungary)
Closing Film: Survival Family (Shinobu Yaguchi; Japan)
Grand Prize (International Competition): Rifle (Davi Pretto; Brazil)
Woosuk Award (International Competition): The Park (Damien MANIVEL; France)
Special Jury Prize (International Competition): In Between (Maysaloun Hamoud; Israel, France) / The Human Surge (Eduardo Williams; Argentina, Brazil, Portugal)
Grand Prize (Korean Competition): The Seeds of Violence (IM Taegyu; Korea)
CGV Arthouse Award: Distribution Support Prize (Korean Competition): The Seeds of Violence (IM Taegyu; Korea)
CGV Arthouse Award: Upcoming Project Support Prize (Korean Competition): Happy Bus Day (LEE Seungwon; Korea)
Grand Prize (Korean Competition For Shorts): Alone Together (BAE Gyung-heon; Korea)
Best Director Prize (Korean Competition For Shorts): Hye-Young (KIM Youngsam; Korea)
Special Jury Prize (Korean Competition For Shorts): Bomdong (CHAE Euiseok; Korea)
NETPAC Award: The Painter's View (KIM Heecheol; Korea)
Documentary Award: Blue Butterfly Effect (PARK Moonchil, Korea)
Daemyung Culture Wave Award: Loser’s Adventure (KO Bongsu, Korea)
Union Investment Partners Award (Best Directorial Debut): Saem (HWANG Gyuil, Korea)
19th Jeonju International Film Festival (2018)
May 3–12, 2019
Number of Films: 246 films
Opening Film: Yakiniku Dragon (Jeong Ui-sin/Wishing CHONG; Japan)
Closing Film: Isle of Dogs (Wes Anderson; USA, Germany)
Grand Prize (International Competition): The Heiresses (Marcelo Martinessi; Paraguay)
Best Picture Award (International Competition): Distant Constellation (Shevaun Mizrahi; USA, Turkey, Netherlands)
Special Jury Award (International Competition): The Return (Malene Choi Jensen; Denmark, Korea)
Grand Prize (Korean Competition): The Land of Seonghye (Jung Hyungsuk; Korea)
CGV Arthouse Award: Distribution Support Prize (Korean Competition): Dreamer (Cho Sungbin; Korea)
CGV Arthouse Award: Upcoming Project Support Prize (Korean Competition): Back From the Beat (Choi Changhwan; Korea)
Grand Prize (Korean Competition For Shorts): Dong-a (Kwon Yeji; Korea)
Best Director Prize (Korean Competition For Shorts): Refund (Song Yejin; Korea)
Special Jury Prize (Korean Competition For Shorts): Apocalypse Runner (Cho Hyunmin; Korea)
NETPAC Award (Non-Competition Sections): Adulthood (Kim Inseon; Korea)
Documentary Award (sponsored by Jin Motors): Land of Sorrow (Lee Johoon, Korea)
Union Award: Graduation (Hui Jiye, Korea)
20th Jeonju International Film Festival (2019)
May 2–11, 2019
Number of Films: 275 films from 53 countries
Opening Film: Piranhas (Claudio Giovannesi; Italy)
Closing Film: Skin (Guy Nattiv; United States)
Grand Prize (International Competition): From Tomorrow On, I will (Ivan Markovic, Wu Linfeng; China, Germany, Serbia)
Best Picture Award (International Competition): Homing (Helvecio Marins Jr.; Brazil, Germany)
Special Jury Award (International Competition): Last Night I Saw You Smiling (Kavich Neang; Cambodia, France)
Grand Prize (Korean Competition) (sponsored by NH NongHyup): Scattered Night (Kim Sol, Lee Jihyoung; Korea)
Best Acting Prize (Korean Competition): Kwak Mingyu for Wave (Choi Changhwan; Korea) / Moon Seung-a for Scattered Night (Kim Sol, Lee Jihyoung; Korea)
Jury Special Mention (Korean Competition): Wave (Choi Changhwan; Korea)
CGV Arthouse Award: Distribution Support Prize (Korean Competition): The Sea of Itami Jun (Jung Dawoon; Korea)
CGV Arthouse Award: Upcoming Project Support Prize (Korean Competition): Move the Grave (Jeong Seung-o; Korea)
Grand Prize (KAFA Award) (Korean Competition For Shorts): Parterre (Lee Sangwhan; Korea)
Best Director Prize (Korean Competition For Shorts) (sponsored by Kyobo Life Insurance Company): Leo (Lee Deok-chan; Korea)
Special Jury Prize (Korean Competition For Shorts): Sick (Lee Woodong; Korea)
NETPAC Award (Non-Competition Sections): The Harvest (Misho Antadze; Korea)
Documentary Award (sponsored by Jin Motors): Rivercide: The Secret six (Kim Byeongki, Korea)
21st Jeonju International Film Festival (2020)
May 28 – June 6, 2020
Number of Films: 180 films from 38 countries
Awardees:
International Competition
Grand Prize: Damp Season (GAO Ming)
Best Picture Prize (Sponsored by NH NongHyup): One in a Thousand (Clarisa NAVAS)
Special Jury Prize: The Year of the Discovery (Luis López CARRASCO)
Special Mention: Two actors of Adam (Maryam TOUZANI), Lubna AZABAL as Abla, Nisrin ERRADI as Samia
Korean Competition
Grand Prize (wavve Award): Gull (KIM Mijo), Mom’s Song (SHIN Dongmin)
Best Acting Prize: Black Light (BAE Jongdae) Yeom Hye-ran, Dispatch; I Don’t Fire Myself (LEE Taegyeom) OH Jungse
CGV Arthouse Award: Homeless (LIM Seunghyeun)
Korean Competition for Shorts
Grand Prize (wavve Award): The End of the Universe (HAN Byunga)
Best Director Prize (Sponsored by Kyobo Life Insurance): Walking Backwards (BANG Sungjun)
Special Jury Prize: Each (KANG Jeongin), Expiration Date (YOO Joonmin)
Special Mention: The Thread (CHO Minjae, LEE Nayeon)
NETPAC Award: The Shepherdess and the Seven Songs (Pushpendra SINGH)
Documentary Award (Sponsored by Jin Motors): Comfort (Emmanuel Moonchil PARK)
22nd Jeonju International Film Festival (2021)
April 29 – May 8, 2021
Number of Films: 194 films from 48 countries
Opening Film: Father (Srdan Golubović; Serbia)
Closing Film: Josep (Aurel; France, Belgium and Spain)
Awardees:
International Competition Grand Prize: Splinters (Natalia GARAYALDE)
Best Picture Prize (Sponsored by NH Nonghyup): Landscapes of Resistance (Marta POPIVODA)
Special Jury Prize: Friends and Strangers (James VAUGHAN)
Korean Competition Grand Prize Kim Min-young of the Report Card (LEE Jae-eun, LIM Jisun)
Best Actor Prize: Aloners (HONG Sung-eun), GONG Seung-yeon Not Out (LEE Jung-gon) JEONG Jaekwang
CGV Arthouse Award Upcoming Project Prize: Not Out (LEE Jung-gon)
CGV Arthouse Award Distribution Support Prize: Aloners (HONG Sung-eun)
Watcha´s Pick: Feature Not Out (LEE Jung-gon)
Special Mention: Coming to you (BYUN Gyuri)
Korean Competition for Shorts Grand Prize: Vacation Event (CHOI Minyoung)
Best Director Prize (Sponsored by Kyobo Life Insurance): Without You (PARK Jaehyun)
Special Jury Prize: Wasteland (LEE Tack), A blue giant (NOH Gyeongmu)
Watcha´s Pick: Short Wasteland (LEE Tack), Weed Fiction (CHO Eungil), Maria&Beyonce (SONG Yechan), Training Session (KIM Changbum), Vacation Event (CHOI Minyoung)
Special Award: Documentary Award (Sponsored by Jin Motors): Coming to you (BYUN Gyuri)
J Vision Award: Teacher´s Day (LEE Jihyang), Out of Season (HUH Gun)
NETPAC Award: JAZZ KISSA BASIE (HOSHINO Tetsuya)
23rd Jeonju International Film Festival (2022)
April 28 – May 7, 2022
Number of Films: 217 films from 52 countries
Jury: 14 judges in the competition section and NETPAC Awards, consisting of multinational directors, actors and programmers.
Opening Film: After Yang by Kogonada (United States, 2021)
Closing Film: Full Time (Éric Gravel; France 2021)
MCs: Jang Hyun-sung and Yoo In-na
Awardees:
International Competition Grand Prize: Geographies of Solitude (Jacquelyn Mills)
Best Picture Prize (Sponsored by NH Nonghyup): Unrest (Cyril Schäublin)
Special Jury Prize: Tokyo Kurds (Fumiari Hyuga) and The Silence of the Mole (Anaïs Taracena)
Korean Competition Grand Prize: Jeong-sun (Jeong Ji-hye)
Korean Competition for Shorts Special Jury Prize: Wunderkammer 10.0 (Yelim Ki, Soyun Park, Inwoo Jung)
Best Actor Prize (Sponsored by ONFIFN): Missing Yoon (Kim Jinhwa) OH Mine and Archaeology of love (Lee Wanmin) Ok Ja-yeon
CGV Arthouse Award Upcoming Project Prize: The Hill of Secrets (Lee Ji-eun)
CGV Arthouse Award Distribution Support Prize: Mother and Daughter (Kim Jung-eun)
Watcha´s Pick: Feature: Mother and Daughter (Kim Jung-eun)
Special Mention: Archaeology of love (Lee Wanmin)
24th Jeonju International Film Festival (2023)
April 27 – May 6, 2023
Number of Films: 247 films from 42 countries
Opening Film: Tori and Lokita by Jean-Pierre and Luc Dardenne (Belgium, France, 2022)
Closing Film: Where Would You Like to Go? (Kim Hee-jung; South Korea 2023)
Jeonju Digital Project and Jeonju Cinema Project
From 2000 to 2013, JIFF's Jeonju Digital Project (JDP) bestowed KW50m each year to three directors to fund their short films. In 2014, JDP increased its total budget to KW180m to produce three feature films. In 2015, JDP was renamed to Jeonju Cinema Project (JCP), and the budget was further increased to KW300m.
Jeonju Digital Project 2000
The Jeonju International Film Festival presents Short Digital Films by Three Filmmakers (PARK Kwang-Su, ZHANG Yuan, and KIM Yun-Tae) in conversation with each other about their various interpretations of the digital film medium.
The filmmakers were given three conditions: to make a film in digital format, no longer than 30 minutes, and using a limited production budget. The three films construct one feature-length film entitled N, representing Next Generation, New Technology and Networking which are the common themes. Projects like Short Digital Films by Three Filmmakers, which focus on film production, creativity, and interactive technology, reflect the spirit of JIFF as they explore the zeitgeist of contemporary film.
Film List
www.whitelover.com (PARK Kwang-Su, Korea)
Dal Segno (KIM Yun-Tae, Korea)
Jin Xing Files (ZHANG Yuan, Korea)
Jeonju Digital Project 2001
JIFF attempts to open up new aesthetics for digital films as well as their functional efficiency. AKOMFRAH of England, JIA Zhang Ke of China, and TSAI Ming Liang of Taiwan, who have experimented in the genre of digital films, will show their works, these will be added to the list of digital masterpieces.
Film List
In Public (JIA Zhang-ke, China)
Digitopia (John AKOMFRAH, UK)
Conversation with God, a (TSAI Ming Lia, Taiwan)
Jeonju Digital Project 2002
Jeonju International Film Festival 2002 has selected 3 cineastes in Asia. The three men are: director MOON Seung-Wook from Korea, who gained international critical acclaim last year with his film (Nabi-Butterfly), director WANG Xiao-shuai from China, whose film (Beijing Bicycle) was shown in last year's festivals, and who has, through his many films, become the representative artist of the Chinese 6th generation filmmakers, and lastly, SUWA Nobuhiro from Japan, who has already achieved the status of maestro of the 21st century films in Japan.
Film List
Survival Game (MOON Seung-wook, Korea)
The New Year (WANG Xiao-shuai, Korea)
A Letter From Hiroshima (SUWA Nobuhiro, Korea)
Jeonju Digital Project 2003
Like previous years, JIFF presents ‘Digital Short Films by Three Filmmakers’, where three directors are invited to come together at Jeonju. This year's participants are young directors, AOYAMA Shinji, Bahman GHOBADI, PARK Ki-Yong. Japan's director AOYAMA Shinji has received worldwide acclaim by establishing his own cinematic traits beginning with his debut film. Iranian director Bahman GHOBADI has made his entrance into the arena of world directors with his film The Hours of the Drunken Horses (Zamani Baraye Masti Asbha). The Korean director, PARK Ki-yong, has opened new possibilities in digital films through Camel(s).
Film List
Daf (Bahman GHOBADI, Korea)
Digital Search (PARK Ki-Yong, Korea)
Like a Desperado Under the Eaves (AOYAMA Shinji, Korea)
Jeonju Digital Project 2004
Film List
Mirrored Mind (ISHII Sogo, Korea)
Dance me to the End of Love (YU Lik-Wai, Korea)
Influenze (BONG Joon-ho, Korea)
Jeonju Digital Project 2005
Film List
Magician(s) (Song Il-gon, Korea)
Worldly Desires (Apichatpong Weerasethakul, Korea)
Haze (Shinya Tsukamoto, Korea)
Jeonju Digital Project 2006
Instead of selecting directors from Korea, Japan, and China this year's “Digital Short Films by Three Filmmakers" section broadens its scope to other regions of Asia. The directors participating this year are as follows: Darezhan OMIRBAYEV, from Kazakhstan, who won the Un Certain Regard award at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival for his film Killer; Eric KHOO, from Singapore, who is starting to garner international attention after his film Be With Me was chosen as the opening film for Director's Fortnight at the Cannes Film Festival; and Pen-ek RATANARUANG, from Thailand, whose film Invisible Waves starring Korean actress KANG Hye-jung and Japanese actor Tadanobu ASANO was selected for competition at the 2006 Berlin Festival. The interlude segments will connect the three stories together and is directed by Chegy, the director of Fade into You.
Film List
Twelve Twenty (Pen-ek RATANARUANG, Thailand)
About Love (Darezhan OMIRBAYEV, Korea)
No Day Off (Eric KHOO, Korea)
Jeonju Digital Project 2007
Previously focused on Asian directors, Jeonju Digital Project 2007 takes a look at Europe. The Portuguese filmmaker Pedro COSTA, the German filmmaker Harun FAROCKI, and the French filmmaker Eugène GREEN participated in this project.
Film List
Respite (Harun FAROCKI, Korea)
The Rabbit Hunters (Pedro COSTA, Korea)
Correspondences (Eugène GREEN, Korea)
Jeonju Digital Project 2008
The participated three directors this year are Idrissa OUEDRAOGO from Burkina Faso, built his fame on (1990), the African rising star director, Mahamat Saleh-HAROUN from Chad whom was introduced at Jeonju International Film Festival with his noticeable film, after winning Grand Special Jury Prize at Venice International Film Festival 2006, and Nacer KHEMIR from Tunisia continuing to build his own unique artistic world of cohesive subject matters as in his film which won Special Jury Prize at Locarno International Film Festival.
Film List
the Alphabet of My Mother (Nacer KHEMIR, Korea, France)
the Birthday (Idrissa OUEDRAOGO, Korea)
Expectations (Mahamat Saleh-HAROUN, Korea, France)
Jeonju Digital Project 2009
Film List
Butterflies Have No Memories (Lav DIAZ, Korea)
Koma (KAWASE Naomi, Korea)
Lost in the Mountains (Hong Sang-soo, Korea)
Jeonju Digital Project 2010
This digital filmmaking project began with the start of JIFF in 2000 and now became a key project of JIFF; JIFF bestows 50 million KRW, for production of a digital film over 30 minutes to each director. In 2010, James BENNING, a master of US experimental/independent films, Canadian independent filmmaker Denis CÔTÉ, and Argentina's rising star Matías PIÑEIRO have participated in the project.
Film List
Rosalind (Matías PIÑEIRO, Korea)
Pig Iron (James BENNING, Korea)
The Enemy Lines (Denis CÔTÉ, Korea)
Jeonju Digital Project 2011
JIFF plans and releases Jeonju Digital Project every year to support creative artists who explore film aesthetics and its future. Since its inception, JIFF has given much thought to the possibility of digital films. Jeonju Digital Project has been screened in Venice, Toronto, Locarno, Torino, Vancouver, Vienna, Hong Kong, Argentina, etc. During the 2006 Locarno Film Festival, a special exhibition was held under the title of ―Digital Asia where all of the Jeonju Digital Project works were presented, and in 2007, one of the project's productions (Pedro COSTA, Eugène GREEN, Harun FAROCKI) won the Special Jury Prize at the Locarno Film Festival International Competition section. And by Mahamat-Saleh HAROUN, one of the Jeonju Digital Projects in 2008, also received Special Jury Award in Africa-Asia Short Film Competition at Dubai International Film Festival.
Film List
To The Devil (Clair DENIS, Korea)
Memories of a Morning (José Luis GUERĺN, Korea)
An Heir (Jean-Marie STRAUB, Korea)
Jeonju Digital Project 2012
Film List
The Great Cinema Party (Raya MARTIN, Korea)
Light in the Yellow Breathing Space (Vimukthi JAYASUNDARA, Korea)
When Night Falls (YING Liang, Korea)
Jeonju Digital Project 2013
Film List
Someone's Wife in the Boat of Someone's Husband (Edwin; Korea, Indonesia)
Strangers When We Meet (Masahiro Kobayashi; Korea, Japan)
Over There (Zhang Lu; Korea)
Jeonju Digital Project 2014
Film List
Free Fall (György PÁLFI, Korea, Hungary)
The Avian Kind (Shin Yeon-shick, Korea)
Alive (Park Jung-bum, Korea)
Jeonju Cinema Project 2015
Film List
El Movimiento (Benjamín NAISHTAT; Argentina, Korea)
Snow Paths (KIM Heejung; Korea)
Samnye (LEE Hyun-jung; Korea)
Jeonju Cinema Project 2016
Film List
A Decent Woman (Lukas Valenta RINNER; Argentina, South Korea, Austria)
Great Patrioteers (KIM Soo-hyun; South Korea)
A Stray Goat (CHO Jae-min; South Korea)
Jeonju Cinema Project 2017
Film List
Our President (LEE Chang-jae; South Korea)
The First Lap (KIM Dae-hwan; South Korea)
The Poet and the Boy (KIM Yang-hee; Korea)
Jeonju Cinema Project 2018
Film List
The Play (Alejandro Fernández Almendras; Chile, Czech Republic, France, South Korea)
Nona. If They Soak Me, I’ll Burn Them (Camila José DONOSO; Chile, Brazil, France, South Korea)
A Good Business (LEE Hark Joon; Korea)
The Winter Night (JANG Woo-jin; Korea)
The Land on the Waves (LIM Taegue; Korea)
Jeonju Cinema Project 2019
Film List
Somewhere in Between (JEON Jeehee; South Korea)
the Breathing of the fire (KO Hee-young; South Korea)
Isadora's Children (Damien MANIVEL; France, South Korea)
Shades of the Heart (Kim Jong-kwan; South Korea)
See also
List of festivals in South Korea
List of festivals in Asia
References
External links
Jeonju International Film Festival Official Website
Jeonju International Film Festival History Overview
Jeonju Digital Project History Overview
Annual events in South Korea
Film festivals in South Korea
Tourist attractions in North Jeolla Province
Jeonju
Spring (season) events in South Korea
Film festivals established in 2000
2000 establishments in South Korea |
4329984 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sobieski%20Stuarts | Sobieski Stuarts | In the 1820s, two English brothers, John Carter Allen (1795–1872) and Charles Manning Allen (1802–1880) adopted the names John Sobieski Stuart and Charles Edward Stuart, moved to Scotland, became Roman Catholics, and about 1839 began to claim that their father, Thomas Allen (1767–1852), a former Lieutenant in the Royal Navy, had been born in Italy the only legitimate child of Prince Charles Edward Stuart and his wife Princess Louise of Stolberg-Gedern. They claimed that Thomas had, for fear of kidnapping or assassination, been brought secretly to England on a ship captained by their grandfather, Admiral John Carter Allen (1725–1800), and adopted by him. Thomas was thus, they claimed, 'de jure monarch of England in place of the then reigning sovereign Queen Victoria'.
"They succeeded in fabricating around them an aura of bogus royalty which attracted the allegiance of a few romantic Jacobites in Victorian times". Herbert Vaughan called their story "an impudent fabrication" and "an unblushing fraud" but it was as Sir Charles Petrie wrote "proof of the hold which the House of Stuart has never ceased to exercise upon popular imagination in the British Isles, so that ... if a man were to declare himself the heir to the Yorkist or Tudor dynasty, he would attract but little attention, yet if he claim to be a Stuart he will find hundreds ready to believe him".
The brothers' two publications, Vestiarium Scoticum (Edinburgh, 1842) and The Costume of the Clans (Edinburgh, 1845), described by the historian Hugh Trevor-Roper as "shot through with pure fantasy and bare faced forgery", have been sources widely used by the tartan industry in Scotland.
Family background
The brothers' grandfather, John Carter Allen (1725–1800), an admiral in the British navy, had three children: the above-named Lieutenant Thomas Allen (1767–1852), Jane or Jean Allen (c.1768–1829) who married Thomas Robinson, a widower, at Brighton in 1788, and Admiral John Allen (1771–1853). The three were named in John Carter Allen's will, though he bequeathed only £100 to Thomas and £100 and a pair of silver candlesticks to Jane, leaving £2,200 and the residue to John. This disparity caused comment and some have speculated that Thomas was illegitimate, but an income had been guaranteed to him under his marriage settlement in 1792.
However, additional research in 2014 showed that John Carter Allen did not marry until 1780 and that his three children were all illegitimate, born in a period in which he held no commission. The three were named 'natural children of John Cator Allen' in the twelfth of sixteen codicils to the will of Elizabeth Arnold, his first wife's mother, dated in 1788 and proved in 1789. She left them twenty guineas each and £1,000 to their father. The identity of their mother(s) has not been found. There was much tension in the family later and at one time the youngest son, John, was heard to say of Thomas, 'he is no brother of mine'.
John Carter Allen himself had been baptised at St Dunstan in the West in 1724/5, the son of Carter Allen (1700–1734), an attorney in the parish of St Clement Eastcheap in the City of London, who had married Emma Hay or Hays at St Giles, Camberwell, in 1724. These details also were not known until 2014. Contemporaries of John Carter Allen had said at his death in 1800 that the late Lord Hillsborough (who died in 1793 and for whom John Carter Allen's younger brother William Allen (1729–1811) had worked as an office clerk) had said that 'he had a claim to the title of Erroll ... as being descended from the old Earl Hay in the male line', a worthless statement as the peerage had become extinct in the male line in 1717, but believed by Thomas who added Hay to his name.
However, the uncertainty of their descent and the romantic nature of the various claims surrounding them greatly influenced the two brothers. They also added Hay to their names and in 1822 the eldest son, as John Hay Allan, published a Genealogical table of the Hays, from William de Haya, cupbearer to Malcolm IV, 1170, down to 1840, with all the branches (Edinburgh, 1840), though his descent is not shown in the book and the parentage of Emma Hay or Hays has not been found.
Thomas Allen
Although frequently referred to as Captain Allen, Thomas Allen never attained that rank. He retired from the Navy as a Lieutenant in 1798 and his subsequent history and movements and the extent to which he approved of his sons' later claims, are all far from clear. He had married Catherine Matilda Manning, a daughter of the Rev. Owen Manning the historian of Surrey, at Godalming in 1792. They had three children: (1) John Carter Allen, born at Oystermouth, Glamorgan, 4 August 1795 and baptised there, 5 October 1795; (2) Matilda Allen, born at Oystermouth, Glamorgan, 18 October 1799 and baptised there, 12 January 1800; and (3) Charles Manning Allen, born at Rotherfield Grays, Oxfordshire, 4 July 1802 and baptised there, 3 August 1802. Under their marriage settlement the couple and their future children had a life interest and income from properties in Mare Street and Well Street, Hackney.
However, sometime about 1807 Thomas Allen formed a connection with a much younger woman, Ann, who was born in Hackney about 1790, and by whom he had five illegitimate children between 1808 and 1829. Her surname is usually given as Salmon (as she had a niece of that name living with her in 1851) but the death certificates of several of her children show it as Burton. The first child, William (died 1878), who used the surname MacGarrow, claimed to have been born in Glamorganshire in Wales but his baptism and the exact whereabouts of Thomas and Ann at this time have not been determined. It is said that from 1816 to 1829 Thomas was based at Boulogne, 'a safe refuge for English debtors'. He certainly had increasing financial problems and in February 1817 he unsuccessfully appealed to the former Lord Chancellor, Lord Erskine, for help with the possible sale of some of the property held in trust under his marriage settlement. A last minute attempt to come to an arrangement about it failed and on 17 January 1818, as the result of an action in the Court of King's Bench against Thomas and his son John (in a plea of debt for £300 and damages by James Barstow), Thomas was imprisoned for debt in the Fleet Prison. He was released by order of the Court for Relief of Insolvent Debtors on 20 December 1819 but continued to live in fear of his creditors.
His reticence and desired anonymity was probably due to his illegitimacy and his relationship with Anne, but it was complicated by the later statements of his two legitimate sons on whom he looked with some displeasure. He had little in common with them and they in turn looked down on Anne as 'of much lower rank in life' than their mother. Thomas and Anne apparently had their last child, Gilbert Hay Allen (1829–1902), in south London in 1829 and in 1839 Thomas was in hiding at 10 Portland Place North, Clapham Road, Lambeth, as 'Mr Salmond'. In the 1841 census he was entered at that address as 'Thomas MacGaradh', aged 70, and born in Scotland. He ostensibly registered the death of his wife Catherine Matilda at Portland Place North, on 14 February 1841, again calling himself Thomas MacGaradh, but describing her as 'Matilda Manning, widow'. When the census was taken a few months later Anne was living with him at this address as Anne MacGaradh. MacGaradh was, his sons said, a war-cry of the Hay family but it was entirely their creation and it seems likely that they or Anne were responsible for their father's statements. The death of Catherine Matilda in 1841 did, however, eventually allow the purchase by Charles of the family's life interest in the trust properties from his father's bankruptcy assignees.
It is said that Thomas 'spent the last seven years of his life in bed', confined to his room at 22 Henry Street, Pentonville. He was there as 'John Salmon' when the Census was taken in 1851 and he died at that address as Thomas Hay Allen on 14 February 1852. He was buried in that name at St Giles in the Fields, Middlesex, on 23 February 1852, aged 84. His son, Charles, in order to distance himself from him, wrote in 1877 that his father was called James and had died in 1839. Some believed that he was buried at Old St Pancras, Middlesex (as stated in the introduction to the 1892 edition of his sons' The Costume of the Clans, xvii, and repeated in the Dictionary of National Biography) and Beveridge added 'but the stone said to have been placed over his grave cannot now be found'.
Sobieski Stuarts
No detail of the educations of Thomas's two sons has been found though they claimed that the secret of their royal descent had been revealed to them about 1811, that they had fought for Napoleon at Dresden (in August 1813), Leipzig (October 1813) and Waterloo (June 1815) and had learned Gaelic in London. The youngest, Charles Manning Allen, who we now know was not born until 1802, married at St George, Hanover Square, on 9 October 1822, Anna Gardiner, who had an income from property in Ireland and was the widow of Major Charles Gardiner (1780–1818), the childless only son of General William Gardiner (1748–1806) former British Minister in Brussels and Warsaw and younger brother of Luke Gardiner, 1st Viscount Mountjoy (1745–1798). The marriage was publicised as that of 'Charles Stuart Hay Allen'. However, the couple moved to Scotland after marriage and their first child, Anna Marie Stuart, born 27 July 1823, was baptised at Edinburgh and there recorded in the surname Hay on 20 October 1823.
Thomas's eldest son, John Carter Allen, calling himself John Hay Allan, had apparently already been in Scotland for some time and in 1822 he published a volume of poems, Bridal of Caolchairn, and other poems (London, 1822) dedicated to the Duke of Argyll, and revealing a fair knowledge of that county but including several allusions to his claimed descent from the Hays of Erroll. From 1826 to 1829, John joined his brother Charles at Windy Hill (now Milton Brodie), Alves, Morayshire, under the patronage of the Earl of Moray. The brothers were at Logie House, Edinkillie, Morayshire, from 1829 to 1838, when John used the name Stuart Allan. As John Sobieski Stuart he and his brother, calling themselves 'grandsons to the Pretender', had visited Ireland in May 1836. Lord Lovat then built 'an antique shooting lodge' for them on Eilean Aigas, an islet in the river Beauly, near Eskadale, Inverness, and there, always wearing the Stuart tartan, they held court from 1838 to 1845, attending the Catholic church at Eskadale and being known as 'the Princes'. The house is described as 'a very elegant mansion of the Elizabethan style' in the New Statistical Account of Scotland (1842). On 18 October 1845, John married at St Martin-in-the-Fields, Westminster, Georgina, eldest surviving daughter of Edward Kendall, J.P., of Austrey, Warwickshire. She had, he told Robert Chambers, 'only ten thousand pounds, unless she survives her two sisters, who equally share with her', but the couple then moved to live in London. In his letter to Chambers just prior to the marriage John asked for a loan of £100 until his wife's dividends were paid but when his father-in-law eventually died in March 1872 the total estate was sworn at 'under £1,500' and later as 'under £2,000'.
Thomas Allen's daughter Matilda had married Henry Timothy Boisquet de la Fleuriere, at St Alphege, Greenwich, in 1818, and their son, Napoleon de la Fleuriere (1823–1881), was baptised at St Margaret, Westminster, in 1823. According to Matilda, her husband had been in the French service from 1804 to 1814 and from 1832 to 1853, but had been taken prisoner at Trafalgar and did not return to France until 1830. In 1835 using the name Matilda McFleur she then married at St Mary Abbots, Kensington, one Alexander McCaskery (died 1870), a police serjeant in Fulham, by whom she had at least three children. This seems not to have stopped her from soliciting the Cross of an Officer of the Legion d'Honneur for Henry Timothy in 1854. Her date of death has not been found.
In Scotland the brothers 'conducted themselves as members of a reigning dynasty who wished to preserve their incognito' and their claims 'were accorded a level of credence' (as the Dictionary of National Biography said at the end of the century) by 'men of rank and intelligence, such as the tenth Earl of Moray (1771–1848), the fourteenth Lord Lovat (1802–1875), the late Marquis of Bute (1793–1848), Thomas Dick-Lauder (1784–1848), and Robert Chambers (1802–1871)'. However, the delusional John Sobieski Stuart, in spite of his expressed desire to withdraw from the public eye, went so far as to claim, in a letter to Chambers, that he and his brother had 'a body of supporters ready to push their claims to the uttermost'.
The claims
In June 1829 the elder brother had shown a manuscript, containing tartan patterns and dated in 1721, to Sir Thomas Dick-Lauder who was much impressed by it, but Sir Walter Scott warned Dick-Lauder that the brothers 'are men of warm imaginations ... of much accomplishment but little probity – that is, in antiquarian matters'. Sir Walter Scott, who died in 1832, had rejected the entire notion of clan tartans, saying that the 'idea of distinguishing the clans by their tartans is but a fashion of modern date'. On behalf of the Society of Scottish Antiquaries he was shown a transcript of part of the brothers' manuscript but from its language alone 'indignantly declared his conviction that the MS itself must be an absolute fabrication'. Scott remembered seeing one of the brothers wearing the badge of High Constable of Scotland (as the Earls of Erroll were), 'which he could have no more right to wear than the Crown'. Dick-Lauder was himself an author of historical romances and had put up a monument to the Lauder family in Edinburgh showing a quite spurious descent, but one 'as he wished it to be'.
Publishing anonymously, John penned a number of historical fictions during the early 1830s, including a number of stories which the pair hinted at in their 1847 poetry collection, 'Lays of the Deer Forest', as 'Stuart Tales'. These appeared in the Royal Lady's Magazine between 1831 and 1834, and were published almost simultaneously alongside the 'Tales of the Cavalier,' which were precursors to their much later novel, 'Tales of the Century' (1846), and by a series of 'Tales of the Scottish Border' and 'Legends of the Alhambra,' all published either anonymously, or signed with a 'Σ'.
However, calling himself John Sobieski Stuart, the elder brother then produced the lavish Vestiarium Scoticum (Edinburgh, 1842), costing ten guineas, which purported to be a reproduction, with colour illustrations, of a better version of the 1721 manuscript, this one being dated to 1571. This John claimed had passed through the hands of Prince Charles Edward Stuart to his father Thomas, though his father's letter on the subject, addressed to him as Ian and signed 'J. T. Stuart Hay' in 1829, seems likely to be bogus.
Considerable interest in clans and tartans continued, and the following year, under the name John Sobieski Stolberg Stuart, John and his brother Charles published The Costume of the Clans: with observations upon the literature, arts, manufactures and commerce of the Highland and Western Isles during the middle ages; and the influence of the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries upon their present condition (Edinburgh, 1845) which, as noted above, received intense criticism.
Using the names John Sobieski Stuart and Charles Edward Stuart the brothers followed this with their Tales of the Century, or sketches of the romances of history between 1745 and 1845 (Edinburgh, 1847) in which they provided three scenes of the birth, youth and marriage of a man known by the Gaelic name of Iolair dhearg or the Red Eagle, said to have been recounted by an aged Jacobite in exile, Dr Beaton. After being called to attend the birth of a son to a young woman in Tuscany in 1773, where portraits of the Old and Young Pretenders were prominent, Beaton claimed to have been sworn to secrecy, but later to have seen a baby taken on board a British warship, HMS Albina, under Commodore O'Haloran. In the second tale, some years later, the grown child arrived in the Western Highlands of Scotland where, although called O'Haloran and thought to be the son of the former captain, he is known as The Red Eagle and addressed as a prince. In the third tale, which takes place in the Peak District of Derbyshire, a traveller meets The Red Eagle who, after various adventures, marries at Berwick, Catharine Bruce, the daughter of a Derbyshire local landowner.
The stories, taken together, were designed in a roundabout way to suggest that the brothers' supposed grandfather was in reality Commodore O'Haloran, and that the child, their father (known as Thomas Allen), was in reality the child of Prince Charles Edward Stuart and Louise of Stolberg, and thus de jure monarch of England. William Donaldson has characterised the work as an act of "solemn self-projection" into a tradition of political myth-making long-established in Scotland. Although the tales were 'copiously augmented with historical notes', in truth Admiral John Carter Allen did not command any ship in 1773, being on half-pay from 1771 to 1775.
A strong attack on both the Vestiarium Scoticum and their Tales of the Century then followed and the brothers' ancestral claims, which had received little acceptance in England, and the Vestiarium were completely discredited in a devastating anonymous article 'The heirs of the Stuarts', believed to be by George Skene (1807–1875), Professor of Law at Glasgow University, which appeared in the Quarterly Review, vol. 81 (June–September 1847) 57-85. He concluded about the Vestiarium that 'this pretended MS of the sixteenth century is an absolute fabrication, and of no authority whatever' and about the Tales that Prince Charles Edward Stuart 'could have had no possible reason for concealing the birth of an heir'; any idea that he had 'left a legitimate male progeny' was 'the silliest of dreams'.
In 1848 John attempted A reply to the Quarterly Review upon the Vestiarium Scoticum (Edinburgh, 1848) and the two brothers then produced Lays of the deer forest: with sketches of olden and modern deer-hunting (2 vols. Edinburgh, 1848), but three of their benefactors, the Earl of Moray, the Marquis of Bute and Thomas Dick-Lauder, died that year and the brothers were now so discredited that Charles took his wife to Prague where their son was in the Austrian army and John followed soon after. John's wife died at Presburg in 1862 and the brothers did not return to England until 1868. In London they then occupied themselves with research, being well-known figures in the British Museum, wearing Highland dress or military tunics and using pens embellished with gold coronets.
John, who called himself 'The Chevalier John Sobieski Stewart', in 1871 described himself as Count d'Albanie, Colonel of Hussars, and said that he was born at Versailles, France. He died without issue at 52 Stanley Street, St George Hanover Square, 13 February 1872, aged 74, and was buried at Eskadale. His widow died at Bath in 1888.
John's brother Charles then assumed the title of Count of Albany and was active in Catholic circles in London but died from the same address (by then called 52 Alderney Street) on a trip to France on the Steamer Rainbow near Bordeaux, 24 December 1880, and was buried at Eskadale. His son Charles Edward Stuart Allen, the last self-styled Count of Albany, died in Jersey in 1882. He had married Lady Alice Hay (1835–1881), a daughter of the 18th Earl of Erroll and Elizabeth Fitzclarence (a daughter of King William IV ), but they had no issue.
References
Sources
Hugh Beveridge, The Sobieski Stuarts: their claim to be descended from Prince Charlie (Inverness, 1909). The book had previously been published as a series of articles in The Inverness Courier, commencing in 1907. He concluded (page v) that 'nothing has been found of a sufficiently definite nature to support those claims. At the same time there is not sufficient evidence to damn them'.
C. L. Berry, 'An annotated pedigree of the Allen family and the so-called Sobieski-Stuarts', in Notes and Queries, vol. 197 (1952) 418-29, 455-57, 470-71, 511–13.*
Sir Charles Petrie, The Jacobite movement: the last phase: 1716–1807 (London, 1950).
William Donaldson, Inside the Kist of Glendulochan: Some Thoughts on Political Fiction, in Cencrastus No. 4, Winter 1980-81, pp. 20 – 22,
James Lees-Milne, The last Stuarts: British royalty in exile (New York, 1984).
Anthony Camp, 'New Light on the Sobieski Stuarts', in Genealogists' Magazine, vol. 31, no. 8 (December 2014) 298-396, and Dreamy Fables': Hays, Higgenbotham, Allen and the Sobieski Stuarts', in the same Magazine, vol. 34, no. 3 (September 2022) 135-149, with considerable additions at https://anthonyjcamp.com/pages/pages/anthony-j-camp-sobieski-stuarts.
Additional sources
Buchanan, Craig. "The Sobieski Stuart Compositions," Notes & Queries, 61.4 (November 2014): 531-36.
, Studies in Scottish Literature, vol. 47, no. 1 (October 2021), 105–121.
Camp, Anthony. "New Light on the Sobieski Stuarts", in Genealogists Magazine'', vol. 31, no. 8 (December 2014) 298-306.
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Robb, Steven. "The Sobieski Stuart Brothers", Royal Stuart Review 2003.
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External links
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Highland dress
Impostor pretenders
English non-fiction writers
1872 deaths
1880 deaths
English male non-fiction writers
Jacobite pretenders
1795 births
1802 births |
4330437 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20manga | History of manga | Manga, in the sense of narrative multi-panel cartoons made in Japan, originated from Euro-American-style cartoons featured in late 19th-century Japanese publications. The form of manga as speech-balloon-based comics more specifically originated from translations of American comic strips in the 1920s, with several early such manga read left-to-right and the longest-running pre-1945 manga being the Japanese translation of the American comic strip Bringing Up Father. The word manga first came into usage in the late 18th century, though it only came to refer to various forms of cartooning in the 1890s and did not become a common word until around 1920.
Historians and writers on manga history have described two broad and complementary processes shaping modern manga. Their views differ in the relative importance they attribute to the role of cultural and historical events following World War II versus the role of pre-war, Meiji, and pre-Meiji Japanese culture and art: One view, represented by other writers such as Frederik L. Schodt; Kinko Ito; and Adam L. Kern; stresses continuity of Japanese cultural and aesthetic traditions, including pre-war, Meiji, and pre-Meiji; The other view states that, during and after the occupation of Japan by the allies (1945–1952), manga was strongly shaped by the Americans' cultural influences, including comics brought to Japan by the GIs, and by images and themes from US television, film, and cartoons (especially Disney). According to Sharon Kinsella, the booming Japanese publishing industry helped create a consumer-oriented society in which publishing giants like Kodansha could shape popular taste.
Before World War II
Manga is said to originate from emakimono (scrolls), Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga, dating back to the 12th and 13th centuries. During the Edo period (1603-1867), another book of drawings, Toba Ehon, embedded the concept of manga. The word first came into common usage in the late 18th century with the publication of such works as Santō Kyōden's picturebook Shiji no yukikai (1798), and in the early 19th century with such works as Aikawa Minwa's Manga hyakujo (1814) and the celebrated Hokusai Manga books (1814–1834) containing assorted drawings from the sketchbooks of the famous ukiyo-e artist Hokusai who lived from 1760 to 1849. Rakuten Kitazawa (1876–1955) first used the word "manga" in the modern sense. Another example of the first half of the 19th century might be "Dehōdai mucharon" of 1822 with prints of Hiroshige, who illustrated several books of this kind between 1820 and 1837.
Writers stress continuity of Japanese cultural and aesthetic traditions as central to the history of manga. They include Frederik L. Schodt, Kinko Ito, Adam L. Kern, and Eric Peter Nash. Schodt points to the existence in the 13th century of illustrated picture scrolls like Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga that told stories in sequential images with humor and wit. Schodt also stresses continuities of aesthetic style and vision between ukiyo-e and shunga woodblock prints and modern manga (all three fulfill Eisner's criteria for sequential art). While there are disputes over whether Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga or Shigisan-engi was the first manga, both scrolls date back to about the same time period. However, others like Isao Takahata, Studio Ghibli co-founder and director, contends there is no linkage with the scrolls and modern manga.
Schodt and Nash also see a particularly significant role for kamishibai, a form of street theater where itinerant artists displayed pictures in a lightbox while narrating the story to audiences in the street. Torrance has pointed to similarities between modern manga and the Osaka popular novel between the 1890s and 1940 and argues that the development of widespread literacy in Meiji and post-Meiji Japan helped create audiences for stories told in words and pictures. Kinko Ito also roots manga historically in aesthetic continuity with pre-Meiji art, but she sees its post-WWII history as driven in part by consumer enthusiasm for the rich imagery and narrative of the newly developing manga tradition. Ito describes how this tradition has steadily produced new genres and markets, e.g., for girls' (shōjo) manga in the late 1960s and for Ladies Comics (redisu) in the 1980s.
Even though Eastern comics are generally held separate from the evolution of Western comics and Western comic art probably originated in 17th century Italy, Kern has suggested that kibyoshi, picture books from the late 18th century, may have been the world's first comic books. These graphic narratives share with modern manga humorous, satirical, and romantic themes. Although Kern does not believe that kibyoshi were a direct forerunner of manga, for Kern the existence of kibyoshi nonetheless points to a Japanese willingness to mix words and pictures in a popular story-telling medium. The first recorded use of the term "manga" to mean "whimsical or impromptu pictures" comes from this tradition in 1798, which, Kern points out, predates Katsushika Hokusai's better known Hokusai Manga usage by several decades.
Illustrated magazines for Western expatriates introduced Western-style satirical cartoons to Japan in the late 19th century. New publications in both the Western and Japanese styles became popular. At the end of the 1890s, American-style newspaper comics supplements began to appear in Japan, as well as some American comic strips. 1900 saw the debut of the Jiji Manga in the Jiji Shinpō newspaper—the first use of the word "manga" in its modern sense, and where, in 1902, Rakuten Kitazawa began the first modern Japanese comic strip. By the 1930s, comic strips were serialized in large-circulation monthly girls' and boys' magazine and collected into hardback volumes.
Similarly, Inoue sees manga as a mixture of image- and word-centered elements, each pre-dating the Allied occupation of Japan. In his view, Japanese image-centered or "pictocentric" art ultimately derives from Japan's long history of engagement with Chinese graphic art, whereas word-centered or "logocentric" art, like the novel, was stimulated by social and economic needs of Meiji and pre-war Japanese nationalism for a populace unified by a common written language. Both fuse in what Inoue sees as a symbiosis in manga.
The roots of the wide-eyed look commonly associated with manga dates back to shōjo magazine illustrations during the late 19th to early 20th centuries. The most important illustrators associated with this style at the time were Yumeji Takehisa and particularly Jun'ichi Nakahara, who, influenced by his work as a doll creator, frequently drew female characters with big eyes in the early 20th century. This had a significant influence on early manga, particularly shōjo manga, evident in the work of influential manga artists such as Macoto Takahashi and Riyoko Ikeda.
However, other writers such as Takashi Murakami have stressed events after WWII. Still, Murakami sees Japan's surrender and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as having created long-lasting scars on the Japanese artistic psyche, which, in this view, lost its previously virile confidence in itself and sought solace in harmless and cute (kawaii) images. However, Takayumi Tatsumi sees a special role for a transpacific economic and cultural transnationalism that created a postmodern and shared international youth culture of cartooning, film, television, music, and related popular arts, which was, for Tatsumi the crucible in which modern manga have developed, along with Norakuro.
For Murakami and Tatsumi, trans-nationalism (or globalization) refers specifically to the flow of cultural and subcultural material from one nation to another. In their usage, the term does not refer to international corporate expansion, nor to international tourism, nor to cross-border international personal friendships, but to ways in which artistic, aesthetic, and intellectual traditions influence each other across national boundaries. An example of cultural trans-nationalism is the creation of Star Wars films in the US, their transformation into manga by Japanese artists, and the marketing of Star Wars manga to the US. Another example is the transfer of hip-hop culture from the US to Japan. Wong also sees a major role for trans-nationalism in the recent history of manga.
Thus, these scholars see the history of manga as involving historical continuities and discontinuities between the aesthetic and cultural past as it interacts with post-WWII innovation and trans-nationalism.
After World War II
After World War II, Japanese artists subsequently gave life to their own style during the occupation (1945–1952) and post-occupation years (1952–1972), when a previously militaristic and ultranationalist Japan was rebuilding its political and economic infrastructure. Although Allied occupation censorship policies specifically prohibited art and writing that glorified war and Japanese militarism, those policies did not prevent the publication of other kinds of material, including manga. Furthermore, the 1947 Japanese Constitution (Article 21) prohibited all forms of censorship. One result was the growth of artistic creativity in this period.
In the forefront of this period are two manga series and characters that influenced much of the future history of manga. These are Osamu Tezuka's Mighty Atom (Astro Boy in the United States; begun in 1951) and Machiko Hasegawa's Sazae-san (begun in 1946).
Astro Boy was both a superpowered robot and a naive little boy. Tezuka never explained why Astro Boy had such a highly developed social conscience nor what kind of robot programming could make him so deeply affiliative. Both seem innate to Astro Boy, and represent a Japanese sociality and community-oriented masculinity differing very much from the Emperor-worship and militaristic obedience enforced during the previous period of Japanese imperialism. Astro Boy quickly became (and remains) immensely popular in Japan and elsewhere as an icon and hero of a new world of peace and the renunciation of war, as also seen in Article 9 of the Japanese constitution. Similar themes occur in Tezuka's New World and Metropolis.
By contrast, Sazae-san (meaning "Ms. Sazae") was drawn starting in 1946 by Machiko Hasegawa, a young woman artist who made her heroine a stand-in for millions of Japanese men and especially women rendered homeless by the war. Sazae-san does not face an easy or simple life, but, like Astro Boy, she too is highly affiliative and is deeply involved with her immediate and extended family. She is also a very strong character, in striking contrast to the officially sanctioned Neo-Confucianist principles of feminine meekness and obedience to the "good wife, wise mother" (, ) ideal taught by the previous military regime. Sazae-san faces the world with cheerful resilience, what Hayao Kawai calls a "woman of endurance." Sazae-san sold more than 62 million copies over the next half century.
Tezuka and Hasegawa were also both stylistic innovators. In Tezuka's "cinematographic" technique, the panels are like a motion picture that reveals details of action bordering on slow motion as well as rapid zooms from distance to close-up shots. More critically, Tezuka synchronised the placement of the panel with the reader's viewing speed to simulate moving pictures. Hence in manga production, as in film production, the person who decides the allocation of panels (Komawari) is credited as the author, while most drawings are done by assistants. This kind of visual dynamism was widely adopted by later manga artists. Hasegawa's focus on daily life and women's experience also came to characterize later shōjo manga.
In the 1950s and 1960s, increasingly larger audiences for manga emerged in Japan with the solidification of its two main marketing genres, shōnen manga aimed at boys and shōjo manga aimed at girls. Up to 1969, shōjo manga was drawn primarily by adult men for young female readers.
Two very popular and influential male-authored manga for girls from this period were Tezuka's 1953-1956 Ribon no Kishi (Princess Knight or Knight in Ribbons) and Mitsuteru Yokoyama 1966 Mahōtsukai Sarii (Little Witch Sally). Ribon no Kishi dealt with the adventures of Princess Sapphire of a fantasy kingdom who had been born with male and female souls, and whose sword-swinging battles and romances blurred the boundaries of otherwise rigid gender roles. Sarii, the pre-teen princess heroine of Mahōtsukai Sarii, came from her home in the magical lands to live on Earth, go to school, and perform a variety of magical good deeds for her friends and schoolmates. Yokoyama's Mahōtsukai Sarii was influenced by the US TV sitcom Bewitched, but unlike Samantha, the main character of Bewitched, a married woman with her own daughter, Sarii is a pre-teenager who faces the problems of growing up and mastering the responsibilities of forthcoming adulthood. Mahōtsukai Sarii helped create the now very popular mahō shōjo or "magical girl" subgenre of later manga. Both series were and still are very popular.
Shōjo manga
In 1969, a group of women manga artists later called the Year 24 Group (also known as Magnificent 24s) made their shōjo manga debut (year 24 comes from the Japanese name for 1949, when many of these artists were born). The group included Hagio Moto, Riyoko Ikeda, Yumiko Ōshima, Keiko Takemiya, and Ryoko Yamagishi and they marked the first major entry of women artists into manga. Thereafter, shōjo manga would be drawn primarily by women artists for an audience of girls and young women.
In 1971, Ikeda began her immensely popular shōjo manga Berusaiyu no Bara (The Rose of Versailles), a story of Oscar François de Jarjayes, a cross-dressing woman who was a captain in Marie Antoinette's Palace Guards in pre-Revolutionary France. In the end, Oscar dies as a revolutionary leading a charge of her troops against the Bastille. Likewise, Hagio Moto's work challenged Neo-Confucianist limits on women's roles and activities as in her 1975 They Were Eleven, a shōjo science fiction story about a young woman cadet in a future space academy.
These women artists also created considerable stylistic innovations. In its focus on the heroine's inner experiences and feelings, shōjo manga are "picture poems" with delicate and complex designs that often eliminate panel borders completely to create prolonged, non-narrative extensions of time. All of these innovations – strong and independent female characters, intense emotionality, and complex design – remain characteristic of shōjo manga up to the present day.
Shōjo manga and Ladies' Comics from 1975 to today
In the following decades (1975–present), shōjo manga continued to develop stylistically while simultaneously evolving different but overlapping subgenres. Major subgenres have included romance, superheroines, and "Ladies Comics" (in Japanese, redisu レディース, redikomi レディコミ, and josei 女性 じょせい), whose boundaries are sometimes indistinguishable from each other and from shōnen manga.
In modern shōjo manga romance, love is a major theme set into emotionally intense narratives of self-realization. Japanese manga/anime critic Eri Izawa defines romance as symbolizing "the emotional, the grand, the epic; the taste of heroism, fantastic adventure, and the melancholy; passionate love, personal struggle, and eternal longing" set into imaginative, individualistic, and passionate narrative frameworks. These romances are sometimes long narratives that can deal with distinguishing between false and true love, coping with sexual intercourse, and growing up in an ambivalent world, themes inherited by subsequent animated versions of the story. These "coming of age" or Bildungsroman themes occur in both shōjo and shōnen manga.
In the Bildungsroman, the protagonist must deal with adversity and conflict, and examples in shōjo manga of romantic conflict are common. They include Miwa Ueda's Peach Girl,
Fuyumi Soryo's Mars, and, for older readers, Moyoco Anno's Happy Mania, Yayoi Ogawa's Tramps Like Us, and Ai Yazawa's Nana. In another shōjo manga Bildungsroman narrative device, the young heroine is transported to an alien place or time where she meets strangers and must survive on her own (including Hagio Moto's They Were Eleven, Kyoko Hikawa's From Far Away, Yû Watase's Fushigi Yûgi: The Mysterious Play, and Chiho Saito's The World Exists For Me).
Yet another such device involves meeting unusual or strange people and beings, for example, Natsuki Takaya's Fruits Basket—one of the most popular shōjo manga in the United States—whose orphaned heroine Tohru must survive living in the woods in a house filled with people who can transform into the animals of the Chinese zodiac. In Harako Iida's Crescent Moon, heroine Mahiru meets a group of supernatural beings, finally to discover that she herself too has a supernatural ancestry when she and a young tengu demon fall in love.
With the superheroines, shōjo manga continued to break away from neo-Confucianist norms of female meekness and obedience. Naoko Takeuchi's Sailor Moon (Bishōjo Senshi Sēramūn: "Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon") is a sustained, 18-volume narrative about a group of young heroines simultaneously heroic and introspective, active and emotional, dutiful and ambitious. The combination proved extremely successful, and Sailor Moon became internationally popular in both manga and anime formats. Another example is CLAMP's Magic Knight Rayearth, whose three young heroines, Hikaru, Umi, and Fuu, are magically transported to the world of Cefiro to become armed magical warriors in the service of saving Cefiro from internal and external enemies.
The superheroine subgenre also extensively developed the notion of teams (sentai) of girls working together, like the "Sailor Senshi" in Sailor Moon, the Magic Knights in Magic Knight Rayearth, and the Mew Mew girls from Mia Ikumi's Tokyo Mew Mew. By today, the superheroine narrative template has been widely used and parodied within the shōjo manga tradition (e.g., Nao Yazawa's Wedding Peach and Hyper Rune by Tamayo Akiyama) and outside that tradition, e.g., in bishōjo comedies like Kanan's Galaxy Angel.
In the mid-1980s and after that, as girls who had read shōjo manga as teenagers matured and entered the job market, shōjo manga elaborated subgenres directed at women in their 20s and 30s. This "Ladies Comic" or redisu-josei subgenre has dealt with themes of young adulthood: jobs, the emotions and problems of sexual intercourse, and friendships or love among women.
Redisu manga retains many of the narrative stylistics of shōjo manga but has been drawn by and written for adult women. Redisu manga and art has often been, though not always, sexually explicit, but the content has characteristically been set into thematic narratives of pleasure and erotic arousal combined with emotional risk. Examples include Ryō Ramiya's Luminous Girls, Masako Watanabe's Kinpeibai and the work of Shungicu Uchida Another subgenre of shōjo-redisu manga deals with emotional and sexual relationships among women (akogare and yuri), in work by Erica Sakurazawa, Ebine Yamaji, and Chiho Saito. Other subgenres of shōjo-redisu manga have also developed, e.g., fashion (oshare) manga, like Ai Yazawa's Paradise Kiss and horror-vampire-gothic manga, like Matsuri Hino's Vampire Knight, Kaori Yuki's Cain Saga, and Mitsukazu Mihara's DOLL, which interact with street fashions, costume play ("cosplay"), J-Pop music, and goth subcultures in various ways.
By the start of the 21st century, manga for women and girls thus represented a broad spectrum of material for pre- and early teenagers to material for adult women.
Shōnen, seinen, and seijin manga
Manga for male readers can be characterized in different ways. One is by the age of its intended audience: boys up to 18 years old (shōnen manga) and young men 18 to 30 years old (seinen manga). Another approach is by content, including action-adventure often involving male heroes, slapstick humor, themes of honor, and sometimes explicit sex. Japanese uses different kanji for two closely allied meanings of "seinen"—青年 for "youth, young man" and 成年 for "adult, majority"—the second referring to pornographic manga aimed at grown men, also called seijin ("adult," 成人) manga. Shōnen, seinen, and seijin manga share a number of features in common.
Boys and young men were among the earliest readers of manga after World War II. From the 1950s on, shōnen manga focused on topics thought to interest the archetypical boy: sci-tech subjects like robots and space travel, and heroic action-adventure. Early shōnen and seinen manga narratives often portrayed challenges to the protagonist's abilities, skills, and maturity, stressing self-perfection, austere self-discipline, sacrifice in the cause of duty, and honorable service to society, community, family, and friends.
Manga with solitary costumed superheroes like Superman, Batman, and Spider-Man did not become popular as a shōnen genre. An exception is Kia Asamiya's Batman: Child of Dreams, released in the US by DC Comics and in Japan by Kodansha. However, lone antiheroes occur in Takao Saito's Golgo 13 and Koike and Kojima's Lone Wolf and Cub. Golgo 13 is about an assassin who puts his skills to the service of world peace and other social goals, and Ogami Itto, the swordsman-hero of Lone Wolf and Cub, is a widower caring for his son Daigoro while he seeks vengeance against his wife's murderers. However, Golgo and Itto remain men throughout, and neither of them ever displays superpowers. Instead, these stories "journey into the hearts and minds of men" by remaining on the plane of human psychology and motivation.
Many shōnen manga have science fiction and technology themes. Early examples in the robot subgenre included Tezuka's Astro Boy (see above) and Fujiko F. Fujio's 1969 Doraemon, about a robot cat and the boy he lives with, which was aimed at younger boys. The robot theme evolved extensively, from Mitsuteru Yokoyama's 1956 Tetsujin 28-go to later, more complex stories where the protagonist must not only defeat enemies, but learn to master himself and cooperate with the mecha he controls. Thus, in Neon Genesis Evangelion by Yoshiyuki Sadamoto, Shinji struggles against the enemy and his father, and in Vision of Escaflowne by Katsu Aki, Van not only makes war against Dornkirk's empire but must deal with his complex feelings for Hitomi, the heroine.
Sports themes are also popular in manga for male readers. These stories stress self-discipline, depicting not only the excitement of sports competition but also character traits the hero needs to transcend his limitations and to triumph. Examples include boxing (Tetsuya Chiba's 1968-1973 Tomorrow's Joe and Rumiko Takahashi's 1987 One-Pound Gospel) and basketball (Takehiko Inoue’s 1990 Slam Dunk).
Supernatural settings have been another source of action-adventure plots in shōnen and some shōjo manga in which the hero must master challenges. Sometimes the protagonist fails, as in Tsugumi Ohba and Takeshi Obata's Death Note, where protagonist Light Yagami receives a notebook from a Death God (shinigami) that kills anyone whose name is written in it, and, in a shōjo manga example, Hakase Mizuki's The Demon Ororon, whose protagonist abandons his demonic kingship of Hell to live and die on earth. Sometimes the protagonist himself is supernatural, like Kohta Hirano's Hellsing, whose vampire hero Alucard battles reborn Nazis hellbent on conquering England, but the hero may also be (or was) human, battling an ever-escalating series of supernatural enemies (Hiromu Arakawa's Fullmetal Alchemist, Nobuyuki Anzai's Flame of Recca, and Tite Kubo's Bleach).
Military action-adventure stories set in the modern world, for example, about WWII, remained under suspicion of glorifying Japan's Imperial history and have not become a significant part of the shōnen manga repertoire. Nonetheless, stories about fantasy or historical military adventure were not stigmatized, and manga about heroic warriors and martial artists have been extremely popular. Some are serious dramas, like Sanpei Shirato's The Legend of Kamui and Rurouni Kenshin by Nobuhiro Watsuki, but others contain strongly humorous elements, like Akira Toriyama's Dragon Ball.
Although stories about modern war and its weapons do exist, they deal as much or more with the psychological and moral problems of war as they do with sheer shoot-'em-up adventure. Examples include Seiho Takizawa's Who Fighter, a retelling of Joseph Conrad's story Heart of Darkness about a renegade Japanese colonel set in WWII Burma, Kaiji Kawaguchi's The Silent Service, about a Japanese nuclear submarine, and Motofumi Kobayashi's Apocalypse Meow, about the Vietnam War told in talking animal format. Other battle and fight-oriented manga sometimes focus on criminal and espionage conspiracies to be overcome by the protagonist, such as in Crying Freeman by Kazuo Koike and Ryoichi Ikegami, City Hunter by Hojo Tsukasa, and the shōjo series From Eroica with Love by Yasuko Aoike, a long-running crime-espionage story combining adventure, action, and humor (and another example of how these themes occur across demographics).
For manga critics Koji Aihara and Kentaro Takekuma, such battle stories endlessly repeat the same mindless themes of violence, which they sardonically label the "Shonen Manga Plot Shish Kebob", where fights follow fights like meat skewered on a stick. Other commentators suggest that fight sequences and violence in comics serve as a social outlet for otherwise dangerous impulses. Shōnen manga and its extreme warriorship have been parodied, for example, in Mine Yoshizaki's screwball comedy Sgt. Frog (Keroro Gunso), about a platoon of slacker alien frogs who invade the Earth and end up free-loading off the Hinata family in Tokyo.
Sex and women's roles in manga for males
In early shōnen manga, men and boys played all the major roles, with women and girls having only auxiliary places as sisters, mothers, and occasionally girlfriends. Of the nine cyborgs in Shotaro Ishinomori's 1964 Cyborg 009, only one is female, and she soon vanishes from the action. Some somewhat recent shōnen manga virtually omit women, e.g., the martial arts story Baki the Grappler by Itagaki Keisuke and the supernatural fantasy Sand Land by Akira Toriyama. However, by the 1980s, girls and women began to play increasingly important roles in shōnen manga, for example, Toriyama's 1980 Dr. Slump, whose main character is the mischievous and powerful girl robot Arale Norimaki.
The role of girls and women in manga for male readers has evolved considerably since Arale. One class is the pretty girl (bishōjo). Sometimes the woman is unattainable, but she is generally an object of the hero's emotional and sexual interest, like Belldandy from Oh My Goddess! by Kōsuke Fujishima and Shao-lin from Guardian Angel Getten by Minene Sakurano. In other stories, the hero is surrounded by such girls and women, as in Negima by Ken Akamatsu and Hanaukyo Maid Team by Morishige. The male protagonist does not always succeed in forming a relationship with the woman, for example when Bright Honda and Aimi Komori fail to bond in Shadow Lady by Masakazu Katsura. In other cases, a successful couple's sexual activities are depicted or implied, like Outlanders by Johji Manabe. Other stories feature an initially naive hero subsequently learning how to deal and live with women emotionally and sexually, like Yota in Video Girl Ai by Masakazu Katsura, Train Man in Train Man: Densha Otoko by Hidenori Hara, and Makoto in Futari Ecchi by Katsu Aki. In erotic manga (seijin manga), often called hentai manga in the US, a sexual relationship is taken for granted and depicted explicitly, as in work by Toshiki Yui and in Were-Slut by Jiro Chiba and Slut Girl by Isutoshi. The result is a range of depictions of boys and men from naive to very sexually accustomed.
Heavily armed female warriors (sentō bishōjo) represent another class of girls and women in manga for male readers. Some sentō bishōjo are battle cyborgs, like Alita from Battle Angel Alita by Yukito Kishiro, Motoko Kusanagi from Masamune Shirow's Ghost in the Shell, and Chise from Shin Takahashi's Saikano. Others are human, like Attim M-Zak from Hiroyuki Utatane's Seraphic Feather, Johji Manabe's Karula Olzen from Drakuun, and Alita Forland (Falis) from Sekihiko Inui's Murder Princess.
As of 2013, national censorship laws and local ordinances remain in Japan. The public response to the publication of manga with sexual content or the depiction of nudity has been mixed. Series have an audience and sell well, but their publication also encounters opposition. In the early 1990s, the opposition resulted in the creation of Harmful manga lists and a shift in the publishing industry. By this time, large publishers had created a general manga demand. Still, the result is that they were also susceptible to public opinion in their markets. Faced with criticism from certain segments of the population and under pressure from industry groups to self-regulate, major publishing houses discontinued series, such as Angel and 1+2=Paradise, while smaller publication companies, not as susceptible to these forces, were able to fill the void.
With the relaxation of censorship in Japan after the early 1990s, various forms of graphically drawn sexual content appeared in manga intended for male readers that correspondingly occurred in English translations. These depictions ranged from partial to total nudity through implied and explicit sexual intercourse through sadomasochism (SM), incest, rape, and sometimes zoophilia (bestiality). In some cases, rape and lust-murder themes came to the forefront, as in Urotsukidōji by Toshio Maeda and Blue Catalyst from 1994 by Kei Taniguchi, but these extreme elements are not commonplace in either untranslated or translated manga.
Gekiga
Gekiga literally means "drama pictures" and refers to a form of aesthetic realism in manga. Gekiga style storytelling tends to be emotionally dark, adult-oriented, and sometimes deeply violent, focusing on the day-in, day-out realities of life, often drawn in gritty fashion. Gekiga arose in the late 1950s and 1960s partly from left-wing student and working class political activism and partly from the aesthetic dissatisfaction of young manga artists like Yoshihiro Tatsumi with existing manga. Examples include Sanpei Shirato's 1959–1962 Chronicles of a Ninja's Military Accomplishments (Ninja Bugeichō), the story of Kagemaru, the leader of a peasant rebellion in the 16th century, which dealt directly with oppression and class struggle, and Hiroshi Hirata's Satsuma Gishiden, about uprisings against the Tokugawa shogunate.
Gekiga can be seen as the Japanese equivalent of the graphic novel culture happening in Europe (Hugo Pratt, Didier Comes, Jacques Tardi) and in the U.S. (Will Eisners A Contract with God, Art Spiegelmans Maus, Robert Crumbs autobiographical works) and in South America (Alberto Breccia, Hector Oesterheld). For that reason, typical graphic novel publishers such as Drawn & Quarterly and Fantagraphics started publishing many English versions of Japanese Gekiga highlights in more recent years.
As the social protest of these early years waned, gekiga shifted in meaning towards socially conscious, mature drama and towards the avant-garde. Examples include Koike and Kojima's Lone Wolf and Cub and Akira, an apocalyptic tale of motorcycle gangs, street war, and inexplicable transformations of the children of a future Tokyo. Another example is Osamu Tezuka's 1976 manga MW, a bitter story of the aftermath of the storage and possibly deliberate release of poison gas by U.S. armed forces based in Okinawa years after World War II. Gekiga and the social consciousness it embodies remain alive in modern-day manga. An example is Ikebukuro West Gate Park from 2001 by Ira Ishida and Sena Aritou, a story of street thugs, rape, and vengeance set on the social margins of the wealthy Ikebukuro district of Tokyo.
See also
History of comics
History of anime
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
A History of Manga
A complete Hokusai Book, Hokusai Manga Vol 12 in Touch & Turn format
Junichi Nakahara from Shōjo Manga to Fashion (中原淳一 )
Junichi Nakahara – the godfather of manga?
Manga's story starts with kamishibai
Manga
Manga
Manga |
4330579 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendship%20Games | Friendship Games | The Friendship Games (, Druzhba), was an international multi-sport event held annually among so called "socialist" counties.
In politics and popular media the event became better known due to political conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States relating to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and by its 1984 edition Friendship-84 (, Druzhba-84), which was held between 2 July and 16 September 1984 in the Soviet Union and eight other socialist states which boycotted the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles.
Although Friendship Games officials denied that the Games were a counter-Olympic event to avoid conflicts with the International Olympic Committee, the competition was often dubbed the Eastern Bloc's "alternative Olympics". Some fifty states took part in the competition. While the boycotting countries were represented by their strongest athletes, other states sent their reserve teams, consisting of athletes who failed to qualify for the games in Los Angeles.
In May 2023, Russia announced it would be reviving the event as World Friendship Games, to take place after the 2024 Summer Olympics from 15 - 29 September 2024. Chess is to be included, as well as 26 athletic events.
Background
On 8 May 1984, less than three months before the 1984 Summer Olympics were scheduled to begin, the Soviet Union announced its decision to boycott the Games, citing lack of security for Soviet athletes in Los Angeles. The TASS news agency further accused the United States of trying to "exploit the Games for its political purposes" stating that the "arrogant, hegemonic course of the Washington administration in international relations is at odds with the noble ideals of the Olympic movement".
In an article published by the London Evening Standard several hours before the official announcement, Victor Louis – a Soviet journalist writing for the Western press and thought to be used by the Kremlin as an unofficial means of leaking information to the West – first informed the world of the USSR's decision to boycott, adding that detailed plans for the "Soviet bloc's alternative games" had already been made. Louis claimed they would "probably be announced at the last minute to throw the American organization into chaos". The article named Bulgaria as the possible host country. On 10 May, Bulgaria became the first Soviet ally to join the boycott, soon followed by East Germany (also 10 May), Mongolia and Vietnam (both 11 May).
Louis wrote another article on 13 May, for the French Le Journal du Dimanche, once again stating that the Soviet Union was contemplating counter-Olympic Games, possibly held in Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria. However, this time he noted that the idea was unlikely, as the Soviets feared that organizing such an event might prompt the International Olympic Committee to exclude the USSR. On the same day, Soviet sports commentator Vsevolod Kuskuskin, during an interview for ABC television program This Week with David Brinkley, said the Eastern Bloc would definitely not organize such games. Also on 13 May, Laos, Czechoslovakia and Afghanistan announced their decision to boycott the Los Angeles games.
On 14 May, Marat Gramov, head of the Soviet Olympic Committee, called a press conference to discuss the boycott. During the conference, Gramov assured "Moscow would not support any alternative games staged to compete with the Olympics". On the same day, Poland stated that, while Eastern Bloc officials had vetoed a counter-Olympics idea, the Bloc would instead "sponsor sports events in various nations as a substitute for participation in the Los Angeles games", holding them at a different time than the Olympics.
Hungary became the ninth country to boycott the 1984 Summer Olympics on 16 May, followed by Poland a day later.
On 20 May, Olaf Brockmann of Austrian newspaper Die Presse, citing Alexander Ushakov, head trainer of the Soviet decathlon team, said Eastern Bloc countries were hastily arranging a series of sports events. Brockmann named five competitions: two track and field athletics meets, one to be held in Prague, Czechoslovakia, and the other in East Berlin and Potsdam, East Germany; plus fencing, modern pentathlon and boxing events to be held in Poland. Ushakov reportedly said the events would be held either before or after the Olympics, to avoid conflicts with the IOC, which would ban any form of counter-Olympic Games.
Juan Antonio Samaranch, President of the IOC, held a conference with Olympic Committees of eleven Eastern Bloc countries (eight of the boycotting states – Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Mongolia, Poland, the Soviet Union and Vietnam – plus Cuba, North Korea and Romania) in Prague, Czechoslovakia, starting on 21 May. Samaranch hoped to convince the boycotting states to change their position, but while Romania assured him it would attend the Los Angeles Olympics, the remaining ten countries did not change their stance and even used the meeting to discuss "their own summer games". The official announcement was made by Antonin Himl, president of the Czechoslovak Olympic Committee, who appeared on Prague television on 24 May. Himl said that, after the Olympic Games ended, various Eastern bloc countries would hold their own sport events in Olympic disciplines. Himl stated that the games' intention would be to "give athletes who have conscientiously prepared for the past four years a possibility to sell their abilities". Thus, the Friendship Games idea was officially proclaimed.
Himl said the games would be held after 12 August (i.e. after the Summer Olympics), and that his country, Czechoslovakia, would host gymnastics, archery, women's handball, and women's track and field athletics. He also gave assurances that the events would be open to all athletes, including those from non-boycotting nations.
Soon after the meeting, Cuba also announced its decision to boycott the 1984 Summer Olympics. By the end of June, North Korea, South Yemen, Ethiopia and Angola had done the same.
In June, the Soviet Union asked Ted Turner and his Turner Broadcasting System to televise the events held in Hungary for American audiences. Turner eventually declined, but assured that his network would give spot coverage to the Games and treat it as any other sporting event.
Participating nations
Initial estimates placed the number of athletes participating in Soviet event venues at approximately 8,000. Later, the number of expected participants was lowered to 2,300, representing 49 countries. However, not all the expected athletes showed up. The exact number of athletes who took part in events held outside of the Soviet Union is unknown.
While Olympic-boycotting countries were represented by their strongest athletes, other states sent their reserve teams, consisting of athletes who failed to qualify for the 1984 Summer Olympics. Some athletes competed at both the Los Angeles Olympics and the Friendship Games, such as Claudia Losch of West Germany, who won the Olympic gold in the shot put, and the United States' Alice Brown, the Olympic 100m silver medallist: neither Losch nor Brown was able to place in the medals at the Friendship Games. In a 2021 interview, long jumper Joyce Oladapo, who competed for Great Britain at the Friendship Games, said that she had initially been under the impression that the event was to be more along the lines of a regular athletics meeting, and only realised its significance when she arrived at the hotel in Prague where athletes were staying: "Literally anyone who was anyone in the Eastern Bloc was there".
Afghanistan
Brazil
Bulgaria
Ethiopia
Madagascar
Romania
Venezuela
Opening ceremony
Although the Games began on 2 July with table tennis events held in North Korea, the official opening ceremony was held on 18 August in Moscow, soon after the first events hosted by the Soviet Union started. The two-hour ceremony held at the Central Lenin Stadium included "girls in white leotards [spinning] red and white beachballs in unison, (...) dozens of children in traditional costumes of the Soviet republics", a "squadron of young performers" which created "a human weaving machine by ducking and turning to mesh their colored banners" and "red-attired teenage girls with silver hula hoops", which spelled the words 'USSR' and 'peace'. The ceremony was described as being "reminiscent of Olympic galas".
As in Olympic opening ceremonies, a torch bearer (Soviet runner and 1980 gold medalist Viktor Markin) carried the flame into the stadium and lit a giant bowl which had been built for the 1980 Moscow Olympics. The torch had been lit from an eternal flame for World War II victims located in the Kremlin.
Teams marched onto the stadium behind flags, but unlike in the Olympics, they were not national teams but sporting organisations, such as Dynamo or Spartak.
Songs performed during the ceremony included a 1918 military march dedicated to the Red Army, "Stadium of My Dreams", written for the 1980 Olympics, and a specially composed song with the chorus "To a sunny peace – yes, yes, yes / To a nuclear blast – no, no, no."
General Secretary Konstantin Chernenko did not attend the ceremony as expected, but five Politburo members were present: Dimitri Ustinov, Mikhail Gorbachev, Grigory Romanov, Vitaly Vorotnikov and Viktor Grishin.
Summary
Events were hosted by nine countries (Bulgaria, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, North Korea, Mongolia, Poland, and the Soviet Union) between 2 July and 16 September 1984. With the exception of equestrian jumping, no events were held during the Summer Olympics in Los Angeles (held between 28 July and 12 August).
The Games were contested in 22 Olympic disciplines (all except association football and synchronized swimming), and in non-Olympic table tennis, tennis, and sambo wrestling.
Archery
The Soviet Union won five out of six possible medals.
Athletics
In an interview shortly before the events began, the Soviet team's coach Igor Ter-Ovanesyan said his athletes beat more than ten world records during the preparations for the competition. While the Soviet athletes set no new records during the Games, they still dominated, winning more than a half of the gold medals. The only new world record was set by East German Irina Meszynski in women's discus throw, with 73.36 m.
In an unusual feat, Alberto Juantorena (Cuba) and Ryszard Ostrowski (Poland) both crossed the finish line at exactly the same moment in the men's 800-metre run. After the officials were unable to decide who came first – even after examining a photograph – both were declared winners.
The annual Moscow Marathon was declared to be a Friendship Games event in 1984. This caused a minor controversy, as the United States Marine guards of the American embassy, who usually took part in it, withdrew after learning it would be treated as a Friendship Games competition.
Basketball
The Soviet Union won the men's final against Czechoslovakia 105–70, and Cuba came in third ahead of Poland. The USSR also finished first in the women's event, but since it was a round-robin tournament, there were no semifinals or finals.
Boxing
The host nation, Cuba, fully dominated the event, winning eleven out of twelve gold medals. East German Torsten Schmitz in the welterweight category was the only non-Cuban to win gold. Teófilo Stevenson, three-time consecutive Olympic gold medalist who lost the chance to win his fourth gold when Cuba boycotted the Los Angeles Games, won the super heavyweight category.
Boxing was one of just three disciplines in which the Soviet Union did not win a gold medal, the others being modern pentathlon and table tennis.
Canoeing
Hosts East Germany and the Soviet Union won all twelve gold medals, six apiece.
Cycling
The Schleizer Dreieck in Schleiz, East Germany, usually used as a car or motorcycle race track, served as cycling venue for the individual road race. The event saw participation of top cyclists of the era, including numerous Peace Race veterans such as Uwe Ampler and Uwe Raab.
Diving
Diving was yet another event dominated by East Germans and Soviets. Gold medalists included Aleksandr Portnov and Brita Baldus.
Equestrian
Equestrian events were the only discipline contested at the same time as the 1984 Summer Olympics, as jumping events took place between 6 and 10 August. It was also the only discipline in which West German and Italian athletes won medals.
In individual dressage, Yuri Kovshov won both gold and silver, riding two different horses.
Fencing
Soviet fencers won most of the men's events, while Hungary won both women's events, thanks to Gertrúd Stefanek and Edit Kovács.
Field hockey
The Soviet Union "A" team won the men's tournament, and while the Soviet Union "B" team came in third, fourth-place finishers Zimbabwe were awarded the bronze medal.
A team representing the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan also competed in the men's event, but lost all its matches, including a 0:27 loss to East Germany.
Gymnastics
In artistic gymnastics, Olga Mostepanova achieved perfect "10" scores ten times: four in individual competitions, and six in team events. All fifteen medals in rhythmic gymnastics were won by just four athletes: Bulgarians Anelia Ralenkova and Diliana Gueorguieva, and Soviets Galina Beloglazova and Dalia Kutkaitė.
Handball
East Germany won the men's event, thanks to an 18:17 win over the Soviet Union, while Poland came in third. Péter Kovács of Hungary was the top scorer with 26 goals. The USSR finished first in the women's tournament.
Judo
The Soviet Union again won most of the gold medals. The event was also particularly successful for Poland, which won seven medals.
Modern pentathlon
Hungarian László Fábián won the individual competition, and Hungary also won the team event.
Rowing
The USSR took 11 out of 14 gold medals, while East Germany captured the remaining three.
Sailing
Sailing took place on the Baltic Sea, near Tallinn, Estonian SSR (where the sailing at the 1980 Summer Olympics also took place), with the exception of 470 and Finn classes, which were contested on Lake Balaton in Hungary. Soviets and East Germans won all of the gold medals. Canada and Finland won their only Friendship Games medals.
Shooting
While most disciplines mimicked the Olympic Games in terms of events, women's shooting included non-Olympic competitions, namely the 10 metre air pistol and 50 metre rifle three positions events.
Swimming
Five new world records were set during the competition. Sergei Zabolotnov's result of 1:58.41 in men's 200 metre backstroke excited the crowd, as it was some one and a half seconds better than Rick Carey's result during the Olympics. Fifteen-year-old Sylvia Gerasch of East Germany set the world record in women's 100 m breaststroke and was also part of the relay team that beat the 4 × 100 m medley record.
Table tennis
Table tennis, a non-Olympic sport at that time, was the only event hosted by North Korea, which won four out of seven gold medals. Notably, the People's Republic of China, which was at odds with most socialist states following the Sino-Soviet split, took part in the event.
Tennis
Soviet players dominated the singles category, and also won the men's doubles event. The Czechoslovakian women's double team was the only non-Soviet team to win gold.
Volleyball
Not surprisingly, the Soviet team finished first in the men's event, over Cuba and Poland. In the women's tournament, Cuba won the final against the USSR.
Water polo
The Soviet team – composed mostly of the players who won gold during the 1980 Summer Olympics – finished first, while Hungary and Cuba took the second and third spots.
Weightlifting
Dominated by Bulgaria and the Soviet Union, the event saw thirty world records broken, including two in the super heavyweight category, set by Anatoly Pisarenko.
Wrestling
In addition to freestyle and Greco-Roman events, non-Olympic sambo wrestling events were also contested. Sambo was the only event hosted by Mongolia.
Medal table
The following table is based on statistics from the books Na olimpijskim szlaku 1984 and Gwiazdy sportu '84 and does not include sambo wrestling results.
Comparisons to the Olympic Games
Media on both sides of the Iron Curtain frequently compared the results of 1984 Summer Olympics and the Friendship Games. Over sixty Friendship Games results would have secured medals at the Olympic Games. East Bloc athletes outperformed Olympic winners in 20 of 41 track-and-field events, and eleven of 29 swimming events. Had Li Yuwei, who won the 1984 Olympic gold medal in 50 metre running target shooting, obtained the same score in the Friendship Games, he would have only placed sixth. Indeed, in events such as weightlifting or wrestling, the Friendship Games included almost all of the top athletes of the time. It must also be noted that Eastern bloc countries ran massive state-sponsored doping programs at the time.
However, some journalists noted that such comparisons were unjustified due to differing conditions and equipment. For example, Marlies Göhr's result of 10.95 in women's 100 metre run was slightly better than Evelyn Ashford's winning time of 10.97 at the 1984 Olympics, but when the two met head-to-head a week after the Friendship Games, Ashford was much faster than Göhr and set a new world record. Similarly, Eastern Bloc results in track cycling were better than Olympic results, but Friendship Games cyclists competed on an indoor wooden track, while the Olympic events took place on an outdoor concrete track. "It is like saying Carl Lewis was faster than Jesse Owens, Muhammad Ali would have beaten Joe Louis or Secretariat would have outrun Man o' War", Sam Lacy of The Afro-American concluded.
The comparisons also had political significance. While Friendship Games organizers repeatedly assured the press that their event was not an "alternative Olympics", presumably to avoid punitive IOC measures, Soviet state-run media often alluded to such comparisons. The TASS agency declared that the Eastern Bloc's games were a "major event in the Olympic year", while the Sovietsky Sport newspaper described the Games as the "main event of the Olympic quadrennium". Marat Gramov, head of the Soviet Olympic Committee, said that the "socialist nations remain faithful to the task of strengthening the unity of the Olympics movement", while describing the Los Angeles Games as full of "chauvinism and mass psychosis".
When asked about the Friendship Games, Monique Berlioux, then director of the IOC, said she had "no reaction whatsoever" to the competition.
Aftermath
In 2006, the Law and Justice party in Poland proposed granting Friendship Games medalists sports retirement benefits similar to those given to Olympic medalists. It was signed into law in 2007.
In 2023, facing international sporting isolation in the wake of its invasion of Ukraine, Russia announced plans to revive the Friendship Games and host its second edition in 2024.
Venues
See also
People's Olympiad – proposed alternative to the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, planned to be held in Spain
Liberty Bell Classic – track and field athletics event for countries boycotting the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. Held in Philadelphia, United States.
GANEFO
Alternate Olympics
Spartakiad
Goodwill Games
Politics and sports
References
Further reading
1984 in Bulgarian sport
1984 in Cuban sport
1984 in Czechoslovak sport
1984 in East German sport
1984 in German sport
1984 in Hungarian sport
1984 in Mongolian sport
1984 in North Korean sport
1984 in Polish sport
1984 in Soviet sport
1984 Summer Olympics
July 1984 sports events in Europe
August 1984 sports events in Europe
September 1984 sports events in Europe
Foreign relations of the Soviet Union
International sports competitions hosted by the Soviet Union
1984 in multi-sport events
Eastern Bloc
Multi-sport events
Multi-sport events in Bulgaria
Multi-sport events in Czechoslovakia
Multi-sport events in Cuba
Multi-sport events in East Germany
Multi-sport events in Hungary
Multi-sport events in Mongolia
Multi-sport events in North Korea
Multi-sport events in Poland
Multi-sport events in Russia
Multi-sport events in the Soviet Union |
4330810 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worms%20Cathedral | Worms Cathedral | St Peter's Cathedral (German: Wormser Dom) is a Roman Catholic church and former cathedral in Worms, southern Germany.
The cathedral is located on the highest point of the inner city of Worms and is the most important building of the Romanesque style in Worms. It is closely associated with Bishop Burchard and the high point of Worms' history in the 12th and 13th centuries. It was the seat of the Catholic Prince-Bishopric of Worms until its extinction in 1802, during German mediatisation.
After the extinction of the bishopric, it was reduced in status to that of a parish church; however, it was bestowed the title of minor basilica in 1925 by Pope Pius XI.
Most of the cathedral was finished by 1181, however the west choir and the vaulting were built in the 13th century, the elaborate south portal was added in the 14th century, and the central dome has been rebuilt.
Great events associated with the cathedral include the nomination of Leo IX as Pope in 1048, the Concordat of Worms which ended the Investiture controversy in 1122, the marriage of Emperor Frederick II to Isabella of England in 1235 and the Diet of Worms in 1521, during which Martin Luther was condemned as a heretic.
History
Before the cathedral
St Peter's Cathedral is located on the highest hill in the city. Since this hill was safe from flooding, it has been inhabited by people since the third millennium BC. Celtic inhabitants were succeeded by the Germanic tribe of the Vangiones, after whom the area around Worms received the name Wonnegau. They were conquered by the Romans who established a commercial centre and temple area on the hill. The decline of the Roman Empire led to the abandonment of the Roman garrison at Worms in 401. Twelve years later, the Burgundians took over Worms after they were settled within the empire by the Romans with the task of protecting the empire's borders. When they sought to shake off Roman overlordship in 435, they were defeated in battle by the Romans. A year later, the Huns crossed the Rhine and massacred many Burgundians.
Church of Brunichildis
After the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields, the Franks came into the Rhine valley and took over Worms by force. At the same time they converted to Christianity. When the Frankish realm was divided into three parts under the Merovingians, Worms belonged to Austrasia. After the rulers of Austrasia and Neustria married each other's sisters, a war broke out, which led to the death of both rulers and one of the sisters. The widow of the Austrasian ruler, Brunichildis lived at Worms around 600 AD. She and her successor, Dagobert I had a church built on top of the foundations of the Roman forum, according to medieval sources. This church was a predecessor of the current building. There is no archaeological evidence for this church. Excavations carried out at the beginning of the twentieth century suggest a larger predecessor build which (given its size) was probably Carolingian. Whether this was an expansion of a Merowingian building or not, is unclear.
Cathedral of Bishop Burchard of Worms
Berthulf was the first known Bishop of Worms in 614. A new church was laid out, with the dimensions of the current building, under Bishop Burchard of Worms at the beginning of the 11th century. He succeeded in persuading the Salians to abandon their fort in the city, on which he erected the Paulus Stift from 1002/3. The old cathedral was demolished and the construction of the new one occurred simultaneously. It was a cross-shaped basilica with two semicircular choirs, built on an east–west orientation. In 1018, the cathedral was consecrated in the presence of the Emperor, but the western part of the building collapsed only two years later and had to be rebuilt. The church had a flat wooden roof. According to Burchard's biography, the cathedral was magnificently furnished in the 1030s and 1040s. Thus there is mention of columns with golden capitals (which cannot have been the church's main columns). Most likely, Burchard's cathedral was a pier-basilica, since no remains of columns (difficult to acquire in the 11th century anyway) have been found.
Only the foundations of the west towers and the treasury north of the choir, which was probably built at the end of the 11th century, survived subsequent rebuilding.
In 1110, the cathedral was consecrated for the second time. More damage had probably occurred, whose removal was followed by this renewed consecration.
Cathedral of Bishop Burchard II of Worms
The rebuilding in the 12th century resulted, essentially, in the current cathedral. Around 1130, probably because of further damage to the building, Bishop Burchard II began the demolition of the church build by his predecessor Burchard I and the construction of a new church. The eastern apse, crossing with cupola and transept with its towers (except of their upper storeys) were completed by him in the period up to c.1144. The nave and the western choir and towers were erected between 1160 and 1181 by his successors, Conrad I and Conrad II. The latter consecrated it on 2 May 1181. With this dating, the time of construction was identical with the first phase of Gothic style, called Primary Gothic. Pointed arch rib vaults were built in Worms Cathedral in time with the first Gothic rib vaults, but with simpler cross sections of the ribs. Besides the application of actual vaulting, the design of the church building was very conservative, even conservative in relation to Cluny III, which was more than forty years older. All gates and windows and the arcades and groined vaults of the aisles have hemicircular arches. This combination of innovative vaults of the tall room sections with Romanesque walls makes the cathedral a major example of Late Romanesque style.
The western choir is lit by a condensed group of four round windows, the largest of them a veritable rose window. The footplan of the western choir is polygonal, outside and inside, the first polygonal choir of a top class church. It even influenced French Gothic; until 1181, and thus throughout Primary Gothic, all apses, ambulatories and chapels of Gothic churches had had semicircular footplans, but since 1185, wwith the second choir of Pontigny Abbey, most Gothic churches were built with polygonal apses, ambulatories and chapels.
The top storeys of the towers were built after the consecration and show some Gothic details.
Several religious buildings of the area are modelled on the cathedral's decoration, such that one can speak of a "Worms Style." Additionally, the elevation resembles the imperial cathedrals in Speyer and Mainz. The gradual progress of the rebuild can be charted with dendrochronology. Lamps were donated for the west choir in 1172 and Bishop Conrad II was buried there in 1192.
Renovations of Johannes von Dalberg
About a hundred years after the third consecration, the construction of the Chapel of St Nicholas was begun. A new south portal was built, east of which two more chapels for St Anne and St George were built in the first quarter of the fourteenth century.
In 1429, the northwestern tower scrolled due to an earthquake. It was rebuilt until 1472, with all Gothic details, but strictly in the shape of scrolled tower. Thus it is an extremely early example of conserving restoration. Nevertheless, there was a change of materials, nearly half of the outer walls were built of brick, in colour not very different from the reddish sandstone of the other walls of the cathedral.
The Aegidius chapel (St Giles chapel, nowadays St Mary chapel) was built adjacent to the eastern part of the north aisle, in 1480/1485.
Towards the end of the century, under Bishop Johann von Dalberg, the original Romanesque cloisters (west of the Chapel of St Nicholas) were renovated, resulting in five monumental late Gothic reliefs on the life of Jesus which are now located in the north side-aisle of the cathedral: Tree of Jesse (1488), Annunciation (1487), birth of Christ (1515), entombment (c.1490) and the resurrection (c.1490). A sixth relief depicting the crucifixion was probably lost in the destruction of 1689. In the there are four large round keystones about in diameter decorated with coats of arms, which derive from the cloisters and were donated by Bishop Ruprecht of Regensberg, and Canons Philipp von Flersheim, Erpho von Gemmingen and Wilhelm von Stockheim. Another cloister keystone belonging to the Archbishop of Cologne and cathedral scholaster Hermann IV of Hesse is now located above the entrance of Neuburg Abbey Church in Heidelberg. The foundation stone of the cloisters from the year 1484, which had been thought lost, was found during cleaning in the Dom's lapidarium at the end of February 2014.
Protestant Reformation to French Revolution
The importance of the diocese and the cathedral at Worms derives from the Diet of Worms in 1521. Shortly after the diet, some Worms congregations converted to the teachings of Martin Luther. In 1556, all parishes in the Palatinate followed suit.
During the Thirty Years War, Swedish troops held the city from 1632 to 1635 and the cathedral was used for Protestant services.
In the Nine Years War, Heidelberg, Mannheim, Speyer and Worms were devastated at the command of King Louis XIV. Churches were plundered and, though the attempt to blow up the cathedral failed, it was heavily damaged by fire. Bishop Franz Ludwig von Pfalz-Neuberg had the cathedral restored in 1698. Some baroque elements date to this time, like the windows of the silver chamber and the high altar of Balthasar Neumann.
The renovation of the cathedral was nullified by French Revolutionary troops. At the end of 1792, Speyer, Worms, Mainz and Frankfurt were sacked by revolutionary troops. It served as a stable and a tavern. Between 1818 and 1830 the cloisters were demolished and the stones from it were auctioned off.
Renovation 1886–1935
A full renovation of St Peter's Cathedral only began in 1886. Because of structural weaknesses and damage suffered in the fire of 1689, the west choir had to be completely rebuilt. Great importance was placed on reusing as much of the original stone as possible. In the outer wall this was taken so far that today all but a small portion of the old stones are in their original locations. On the inside wall, large flat stones had to be used and faithfully reconstructed. The sharply bent dosseret over the central rosette window was not rebuilt since it was blamed for the structural issues. Today the dosserets run perpendicular to the edge of the rosette and frame it clearly. The general renovations, which also included renovation of the chapel of St Nicholas, the reconstruction of the whole floor and the addition of an entirely new crypt for the tombs of the Salians under the high choir, were only completed in 1935.
In the course of the renovation work, in 1920 the head architect, Philipp Brand, was standing on the scaffolding when a dachshund attacked, and attempted to bite him on the leg. He stepped to the side and as a result escaped from a falling stone which had broken loose above him, killing the dog. In the upper left of the south portal, at the edge of the window in the left corner is a statue of the dachshund – Philipp Brand had this installed as a small memorial.
In the Allied bombing on 21 February and 18 March 1945, the cathedral was damaged by a bomb, which did not affect the interior. The roof burned but the vaults remained intact.
Architecture
The cathedral is a pier-basilica with two choirs and a transept. A central tower is located on the crossing, another over the western choir. Both choirs are flanked by two round staircase towers. The nave is vaulted in various ways: the central aisle has rib vaulting, while the side aisles have groin vaults. The apse of the west choir takes the form of an octagon and is decorated with various rosette windows
Glass windows
As a result of the Oppau explosion on 21 September 1921, nothing remains of the Medieval glass windows.
The contemporary glass of the cathedral is quite varied. As well as simple clear or milky glass in the transepts, are complicated pictorial windows, especially in the chapels, like the coloured glass windows of Heinz Hindorf in the Chapel of Mary, which depict scenes from Mary's life and the Fourteen Holy Helpers (1986–1988), and the Geschichtsfenster (1992) in the Chapel of St George, which depict the history of the diocese of Worms in 20 scenes, from the first known bishop, Victor, in 345 to the destruction of the city in the Second World War. An unusual political statement is found in the depiction of the Biblis Nuclear Power Plant as the Tower of Babel in a series of examples of human sinfulness.
Burials
Sarcophagi in the Crypt
Four Salian princes were buried in the altar space of the Frankish church and were then built over. Another five followed by 1046. These are the ancestors and relatives of Emperor Conrad II:
Conrad the Red, Duke of Lorraine (Great-grandfather) † 955,
Judith, Duchess of Carinthia (Grandmother) † 991,
Henry, Count of Wormsgau (Father) † 990/991,
Judith (Sister) † 998,
Conrad I, Duke of Carinthia (Uncle) † 1011
Matilda (wife of the preceding) † 1031/32,
Queen Matilda † 1034, consort of Henry I of France and daughter of Conrad II (transferred to Worms in 1046),
Conrad II, Duke of Carinthia (Cousin, son of Conrad I) † 1039,
Bishop Azecho, Successor of Bishop Burchard, † 1044.
These sarcophagi have been located in a specially built crypt since the beginning of the 20th century.
Since the floor level of the transept and the east choir is over six metres above ground level, one must assume that there was a crypt below it.
Graves
There are a number of grave monuments, gravestones and grave plates in the cathedral, including:
Reinbold Beyer of Boppard († 1364), brother of Bishop Dietrich Bayer of Boppard († 1384)
Dietrich of Bettendorf (1518–1580), Deacon and Bishop of Worms
Wilhelm of Efferen (1563–1616), Bishop of Worms
Eberhard of Heppenheim († 1559), Canon, nephew of Dom-deacon of Speyer
Johannes of Heppenheim († 1555)
Franz Rudolph of Hettersdorf (1675–1729), Canon and donor of the Nicholas altar
Johann Adam of Hoheneck († 1731), Deacon of Worms
Johann Franz Jakob Anton of Hoheneck (1686–1758), Canon of Worms, Deacon of Mainz
Landolf of Hoheneck († 1247), Bischop of Worms, posthumous epitaph from 1756
Franz Carl Friedrich of Hohenfeld (1696–1757), Deacon
Christoph Jodok of Ketteler (1661–1735), Canon
Philipp of Rodenstein (1564–1604), Bishop of Worms
Georg of Schönenberg (1530–1595), Bishop of Worms, donated the George altar for his tomb
(outside in the former cloisters)
Burchard II, also Bucco or Buggo († 1149), Bishop of Worms and builder of the Ostwerk of the Dom.
Chapel of St Nicholas
In the course of the third period of construction, an early romanesque chapel in honour of St Nicholas of Myra was built, which was consecrated in 1058. Its consecration inscription and the tympanon of the former entrance to the cathedral, with one of the oldest known depictions of St Nicholas, are preserved. It was apparently used to store a relic of the Saint, which had been brought by Empress Theophanu from Byzantium, at the time of her marriage to Otto II in 972.
The current chapel of St Nicholas was built on the same location between 1280 and 1315 in the Gothic style, with two aisles, immediately west of the man portal on the south side aisle of the cathedral. At this time, when St Nicholas was still buried in Myra, his cult spread through the west and he was revered as patron of various groups and helper in many matters. This could explain the unusual size and sumptuousness of the chapel. The Jesuit and Bollandist, Daniel Papebroch (1628–1714) saw the original Worms relic of St Nicholas in 1660. He described it as a "finger bone" of the saint, which at that time was stored in the cathedral sacristry, but had previously been displayed in his own chapel. He states also that the Worms relic was always immersed in oil, just as the relic of St Nicholas in Bari is to this day. Papebroch also mentions a still-extant sumptuous consecration offering from Queen Constance of Sicily († 1198) to Saint Nicholas. The old relic o Nicholas was lost in the destruction during the Nine Years War. At the end of the twentieth century, a new one was acquired, which is kept once more in the chapel of Nicholas, in a modern reliquary.
The chapel was originally part of the cloisters which were located immediately to the west and was hidden by them for half its length. When the remains of the cloisters were finally cleared away in 1830, the structure of the chapel fell out of balance so that they finally had to completely dismantle it in 1920/27, like the west choir a few years earlier, install new foundations and rebuild it anew. On this same occasion, they also attempted to correct the proportions of the chapel which had become ungainly after the removal of the cloisters, by extending it to the west by a half vault. The current (southern) entranceway to the chapel derives from modern times, but its tympanon comes from the portal which formerly led from the cloisters into the chapel.
The furnishings of the chapel of St Nicholas consist today of pieces which were all originally intended for other contexts. The gothic carved altar comes from Southern Germany and was only acquired a few decades ago. The late Gothic was originally located in the Johanneskirche, which was demolished in the 19th century, the almost life size Gothic depiction of three young women was in a nearby abbey. The intense blue-red windows immerse the chapel in an almost mystic twilight. In the highly elevated roof of the chapel, the collection of architectural decorations and casts of them are housed, while the cellar houses the central heating of the cathedral. The chapel now serves as the baptismal chapel of the cathedral and is used for weekday services. Thus it has appropriated the functions of the old Johanneskirche.
High altar
Franz Ludwig of Pfalz-Neuburg, Prince-elector of Mainz and Prince-Bishop of Worms, left enough money in his will to have a new high altar built. His successor, Prince-Bishop Franz Georg of Schönborn, asked his brother Friedrich, the Bishop of Würzburg to provide the builder Johann Balthasar Neumann for the project. The latter produced the new high altar made of gilt wood and multicoloured marble.
Organs
Main organ (Klais 1985)
Klais Orgelbau built a swallow's nest organ with three manuals and 34 registers in 1985, which was slightly reorganised and re-toned in 2007. The machine has a mechanical playing action, the tracker action is electronic.
Choir organ (Oberlinger 1996)
In addition, there is also a choir organ with mechanical playing and tracker action in the style of the choir organs of Aristide Cavaillé-Coll, which was built in 1996 by Oberlinger. The special feature of this organ's design is that it is extremely compact for its disposition and at the same time, as a result of a pipe construction specially developed by Oberlinger it can be moved about away from the wall. This compact structure was necessary so that view of the sumptuous high altar from the nave wouldn't be obscured by the organ. A special construction of the air intake was required to achieve this small size. The design was accomplished by organ master and architect Wolfgang Oberlinger in close partnership with the diocese's architects and conservators. The organ was arranged by Oberlinger's Windesheim workshop in collaboration with the organist Daniel Roth. The instrument was intoned by Jean-Pierre Swiderski, a noted expert on the designs of Aristide Cavaillé-Coll.
Bells
Before the destruction of Worms in 1689 during the Nine Years War, six bells hung in the four towers of the church. In 1728, the cathedral received a new six part ring. In the course of the Secularisation at the end of the 18th century, these bells were confiscated. When the cathedral became a parish church, four bells were hung in the southeast tower, with the notes B, E-flat, G-flat and A-flat. They were destroyed by aerial bombing at the end of the Second World War.
Three bells were cast in 1949 by Albert Junker of Brilon to replace the lost ring, with the notes C, E and G. They were made of a special metal called "Briloner Sonderbronze" (a tin-free copper-silicon alloy). These were named after Peter and Paul (the cathedral's patron saints), the Blessed Virgin Mary, and Saint Conrad of Parzham (known also as Brother Conrad). They were consecrated on Easter Sunday 1949 by the Bishop of Mainz, Albert Stohr, and were hung in the south-east tower.
To commemorate the 1000th anniversary of the cathedral's consecration in 2018, five new bells were added to the ring, and the old bells received new clappers. The additions consisted of three lighter bells (with the notes of D, A and B), one middle-weight bell (in the note of D) and a large bell in the note of B. The new bells were tuned to the notes of the other church bells in the city (including Holy Trinity Church and St. Magnus' Church) in order to create a larger 'City peal' when the bells of all three churches are rung together.
All bells were cast by the Rincker Bell Foundry, located in Sinn, Hesse. The names of the bells and their inscriptions were designed by local artist Klaus Krier, and the first official ringing of all eight bells, followed by ringing of the City peal, occurred on the Saturday before Pentecost, 19 May 2018.
Worms Cathedral in the Nibelungen Saga
An episode in the Nibelungenlied takes place at the portal of the cathedral. The rival queens Brünhilde and Kriemhild disputed over which of their husbands (Siegfried or Gunther) has the higher rank, and therefore, which of them should enter the cathedral first. This is a key episode which leads to Siegfried's death and the destruction of the Nibelungs.
The portal in question was on the north side of the cathedral and was considerably more elaborate before it was destroyed in 1689.
In connection with this episode, the Nibelungenfestspiele have taken place on an outdoor stage in front of the cathedral since 2002.
See also
The New Synagogue of Strasbourg, built by Ludwig Levy from 1895 to 1898 and destroyed in 1940–41, was modelled on Worms Cathedral.
Mainz Cathedral
History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes
References
External links
Dom St. Peter zu Worms
interactive virtual reality 360° tour around/inside/under Worms Cathedral
Buildings and structures completed in 1181
Romanesque architecture in Germany
Former cathedrals in Germany
Minor basilicas in Germany
Dom
Imperial cathedrals
Basilica churches in Germany
12th-century churches in Germany
Roman Catholic cathedrals in Rhineland-Palatinate
Burial sites of the Salian dynasty
Burial sites of the Conradines |
4331072 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal%20Lake%20Recreation%20Area | Crystal Lake Recreation Area | The Crystal Lake Recreation Area is located in the San Gabriel Mountains of Southern California, administered by the San Gabriel Mountains National Monument (formally the San Gabriel River Ranger District) of the United States Forest Service. The Recreation Area consists of a small lake, an open-air amphitheater, a large public campground containing approximately 120 camp sites grouped into "loops," and a group campground called Deer Flats which consists of approximately 25 camp sites. The Recreation Area contains a United States Forest Service visitor center and a cafe which is open to the public from dawn to dusk except for Tuesdays when the cafe is closed. Within the Recreation Area are 16 hiking and nature trails which are well-maintained by volunteers who work under the direction of the Forest Service. The Recreation Area is located approximately 26 miles (42 km) north on Hwy. 39 heading out of Azusa, California at the headwaters of the north fork of the San Gabriel River at an elevation approximately 5,539 feet (1,688 m) above sea level. Crystal Lake is the only naturally occurring lake in the San Gabriel Mountains.
History
The area around Crystal Lake, before there was a campground and resort, was referred to as Pine Flat. The lake was called Sycamore Lake by R. W. Dawson who lived at Sycamore Flats located down the hill from the lake. The lake has no sycamore trees, so the name was derived from Dawson's place. The area was a great draw for grizzly bears as they seemed to prefer the lake waters to the stream waters. It was a dangerous place for a human to be without a firearm of some sort. Frightful grizzly bear stories abound from the middle 1860s.
In 1887, Judge Benjamin Eaton, an early Pasadenan for whom Eaton Canyon is named, visited the pristine little lake and said, "The water is clear as crystal and the [visitors] found it good to drink." The lake soon became known as Crystal Lake.
Historic Photographs of Crystal Lake and the surrounding area from 1907 through the mid-1970s show that the campgrounds have been used by "Singing cowboys" during the era of black-and-white television, which used to feature cowboy shows. Because the campgrounds could be accessed from Angeles Crest Highway prior to the 1978 landslide, which demolished a half-mile section of California State Route 39 four miles (6 km) from Crystal Lake, Hollywood performers and other Los Angeles celebrities and politicians used to frequent the campgrounds because of the easy access across the San Gabriel Mountains.
Crystal Lake
Crystal Lake is a naturally formed lake, a rarity in Southern California. It is snow and spring fed and has no other artificial means of being replenished. Geographically it sits in a bed of decomposed granite. There is a fissure located at the bottom of the lake that depletes its water during and after the rain and snow season. Because of this, the lake's depths vary dramatically from a mean low of 35 feet (10.7 m) to a probable high of 150 feet (45.7 m), depending on seasonal precipitation.
The Lake is settled neatly in a bowl below the granite crags surrounding Mount Islip. In the past, the lake had amenities for picnickers, anglers, and swimmers. In 1969, a severe rainy season flooded the restrooms on the shoreline, and the water became contaminated to the point that the swimming facilities were closed. Subsequent rainy seasons flooded the small cabin that served as a summer residence for concessionaires who operated a snack stand from the lower level and patio, and by 1990 the facility was demolished.
Over the past four decades, budgeting has limited the Forest Service's ability to maintain the lake and its feeder pipeline. Then years of drought reduced the lake's water levels which continued microbiological contamination of the water, putting it off limits to any type of swimming at all.
Following a good rainy season, the lake may be stocked with fish, typically rainbow trout from the government hatcheries. Despite high or low water levels, flocks of people line the lake to fish each summer. In the past the concessionaires provided boat rentals from a small dock that was attached to cables that ran onto shore. The dock could be raised and lowered during the year with the varying levels of the water. It was removed after the 1969 rains.
As of July 2018 severe drought in California has nearly dried out Crystal Lake. It would take several years of El Nino type weather to add any significant amount of water to the lake. Swimming in the lake has been banned due to environmental and health issues involved with stagnant water.
Campground
Crystal Lake Campground goes back to the 1920s as a privately leased concession until 1946 when it was permanently taken over by the U.S. Forest Service. It served as the largest campground in the Angeles National Forest, and at its height had 232 campsites. The campground is upslope from the lake about and a one-way paved road provides easy automobile access to and from the lake. There is also a foot trail that provides a gentle walk through the forest to the lake site.
The campground was always run by some sort of leased or contracted concession. The main facilities consist of a general store which grew from a small tackle house in the 1950s, to a fast food snack stand by the 1970s, rental cabins from the olden days, a residence for the concessionaires, service sheds and garages, an ice cream stand which opened in the summer, and a ranger station, which by 1990 had become a visitors center managed by forestry volunteers. Camping is $12 for first car, $5 for second, paid in a fee envelope.
Away from the main campground are located the ruins of an old dance hall. In later years as the building deteriorated, the floor was left in open air, and a small shed was put up to house a juke box. By the 1960s this was all but abandoned. Just past the old dance floor is the amphitheater where campfire programs were used to gather the campers in the evening for group sing-alongs and maybe a nature film.
Due to budget constraints, the remoteness of the area and other maintenance and logistics problems, the campground has faced closures of several camp sites reducing the number by nearly 100. In some cases the campground was completely closed. This forced the concessionaires to vacate, leaving campers and anglers no place to shop or eat if they didn't pack it in themselves. Management contractors were brought in to help run the facility, but in 2002 the Curve Fire burned through the canyons and the basin which forms the Recreation Area, prompting the campgrounds to be closed altogether for health and safety reasons.
Due to extensive fire damage to the main highway (Highway 39) Caltrans has had the highway closed while repairs have been budgeted and scheduled and currently Caltrans has been completing the repairs needed on the last remaining bridge and will be installing new safety railing along a six-mile (10 km) section of the highway that was destroyed. Caltrans and the United States Forest Service are hoping to have the highway reopened late in 2009 and concessionaires are being solicited to bid on running and maintaining the campgrounds once the Recreation Area is reopened. In March 2011, it was reopened.
Amphitheater
One of the most interesting features of the Crystal Lake Recreation Areas is the amphitheater which was built by the Civilian Conservation Corps and other agencies and was fully restored after the damage to the facility caused by the Curve Fire of 2002 by contractors. This open facility is often used by U. S. Forest Service volunteers and employees to give lectures to individuals, Boy Scouts, hikers, campers, and picnickers during the day and often at night.
The amphitheater area is surrounded by electric lights and there are numerous electrical outlets along the walkway to the amphitheater itself. Drinking water is piped in to the facility through underground pipes fed from an underground water cistern which is in turn fed from Soldier Creek.
The theater can seat about 200 individuals and there is a central ring where large fires can be had. A drinking fountain located on the walkway to the facility provides water taken from an underground cistern fed by Soldier Creek.
Above the theater are the ruins of the large bandstand / dance floor that used to play host to Big Band Era music groups such as Benny Goodman and, on rare occasion, Elvis Presley—among many other groups. The dance floor ruins continue to crumble however there is some hope that volunteers will restore the facility so that music groups will once again play, allowing visitors to enjoy Summer music in the open air of the campgrounds.
USFS Visitor Center
The United States Forest Service maintains a Visitor Center at the campgrounds, offering printed maps of available hiking and nature trails in the area as well as offering information about any questions that visitors may have. The Visitor Center is located across the parking lot from the kitchen and general store (which is run by a private individual and not by the USFS.)
In many cases the Visitor Center will be staffed by highly knowledgeable individuals from the Angeles Volunteer Association or by other volunteers which can answer questions about the flora and fauna of the area as well as answer questions about the history of Crystal Lake.
The hours of operation are posted on the bulletin board located at the front of the Center and if the Forest Ranger or Forestry volunteer has stepped out of the Center for a period of time, a sign is provided to alert visitors of when the person is expected to return to re-open the Center. Summertime hours limited to Saturday and Sunday only.
There is no public telephone access available at the Recreation Area. The USFS employees and volunteers have radio communications capabilities with medical assistance, rescue, law enforcement, and other agencies in the event a visitor requires assistance, however the Visitor Center hours of operation are limited to weekends and some holidays, and emergency assistance may not always be available.
There is drinking water located at many of the camp sites within the campground system, however there is also water available at the Visitor Center and the Cafe.
The Visitor Center can be reached by telephone at (626) 910-1149 Saturdays and Sundays between the hours of 8:00 AM to 4:00 PM.
Cafe and store
There is a cafe that features a potbelly stove and an open patio with a number of tables next to an array of gas and charcoal grills for outdoor cooking. The cafe opens at dawn and closes after dark all days of the week except for Tuesdays when the cafe is closed.
There are menus posted inside the cafe with specials listed on post boards outside of the cafe. Drinking water is available at a faucet outside the cafe, and trash bags are handed out to people to collect trash. The cafe has an ongoing policy that if you fill a trash bag and bring it back to them, the cafe will give you a free brownie or cup of coffee to encourage people to collect, bag, and dispose of litter. The cafe also provides plastic buckets for visitors to use to extinguish their camp fires with.
The cafe's telephone number is (626) 910-1029. Cabin rentals can be acquired through using that telephone number.
Hiking and nature trails
As a recreation area the campground had many nature trails for visitors which provided scenic and educational walks through various parts of the canyon: Pinion Ridge, Soldier Creek, Knob Hill, Golden Cup, Tototgna to name a few. The Lake Trail provides a one-mile (1.6 km) walk to the lake. The Windy Gap Trail ascends the south slope of Mount Hawkins to the saddle between Hawkins and Mount Islip, known as "Windy Gap", where it connects to the Pacific Crest Trail.
Half Knob Trail : —This is a short hike trail which begins and ends at points along the main paved roadway leading to the Visitor Center. The trailhead is located at North 34 degrees, 19.444 by West 117 degrees, 50.210 at .
Lake Trail : —The trail cuts across the camp grounds and joins the main road that heads up to the Visit Center to Lake Road. The start of the trail head from the main road end is located at North 34 degrees, 19.410 by West 117 degrees, 50.261 at .
Golden Cup Nature Trail : —This is a short hike with four or five information boards placed along the trail. The trail itself forms a loop such that the start and end of the hike is near a main paved road. The trail head is located at North 34 degrees, 19.630 by West 117 degrees, 50.108 at .
Big Cieneca Trail : —This trail is long and has its start at a paved road.
Windy Gap : —This trail is long and has its start at a paved road. The trailhead is located at North 34 degrees, 19.890 by West 117 degrees, 50.021 at .
Access to Pacific Crest Trail : —This trail is long and has its start at a paved road.
Little Jimmy Trail Camp : —This trail is long and has its start at a paved road.
Mount Hawkins Trail : —This trail is long and has its start at a paved road. The trail actually swings around the camp grounds and passes through a heliport (above the destroyed fire watch tower) and then ends at South Mt. Hawkins lookout (which burned to the ground in the 2002 Curve Fire.)
Pinyon Ridge : —This is a moderately long trail which forms a loop that takes hikers up the side of the mountain ridge, along the ridge, and then back down again, curving around to form the loop. There is water present at three places along the trail all year, and the start of the trail requires about an hour's worth of effort to remove new growth. The trail head location is the same as the start of Soldier Creek: North 34 degrees, 19.354 by West 117 degrees, 49.976 at .
Soldier Creek Trail : —Fire damage and flooding has effectively destroyed this trail and it is currently extremely dangerous to hike along. This is a long hiking trail and without a doubt the best hiking trail in the Crystal Lake Recreation Area. It follows Soldier Creek which contains good, high-volume water, sporting rare vegetation such as Catalina Cherries. This trail may or may not be restored prior to the Crystal Lake Camp Grounds being opened. The trail head location is the same as the start of Pinyon Ridge trail: North 34 degrees, 19.354 by West 117 degrees, 49.976 at .
Lost Ridge Trail : (lower) : (upper)—This trail is a long one with one end of the trail head up near Deer Flats and the other end on Lake Road. To increase safety, the Trailbuilder crew installed steps in a number of places and the volunteers may decide to install more steps in moderately steep places in the future. The lake road trail head is located at North 34 degrees, 19.452 by West 117 degrees, 50.463 at . The other end of the trail is in the Deer Flats Campgrounds and it is located at North 34 degrees, 19.977 by West 117 degrees, 50.365 at .
Tototngna Nature Trail : —This trail was recently worked on (06/Jul/13) and is fully developed from end to end. This is a moderately long trail which forms a loop and can be accessed from a paved road. The trail head is located at North 34 degrees, 19.538 by West 117 degrees, 49.767 at . Tototngna is rather special in that the trail crosses moist meadow areas and in the Spring boasts flora that is not usually seen anywhere else within the Recreation Area.
Cedar Canyon Trail : —This trail has its start on the main road leading up to the Visitor Center. It's a moderately long trail that leads to a good volume of water. The trail actually meets up with Soldier Creek Trail which requires extensive repairs before the trail is safe and usable. The trail head for this end of the trail is located at North 34 degrees, 19.366 by West 117 degrees, 50.280 at .
Sunset Ridge Nature Trail : —This trail is located inside of the Deer Flats Campgrounds. It's a short trail which forms a loop that ends about from where it begins. The trail is currently being restored and about 20% of the trail has been completed. The location of this trail is at North 34 degrees, 20.002 by West 117 degrees, 50.249 at .
Islip Ridge Trail (a.k.a. Wawona Trail) : —This trail is located at the parking lot for the lake itself with a trailhead sign located approximately from the actual parking lot. The trail climbs an additional through approximately eventually reaching Angeles Crest Highway with access to Windy Gap, Little Jimmy, and other trails. Mile 1.65 is located approximately at North 34 degrees 19.292 by West 117 degrees, 51.066 at .
Mount Islip Trail : (Windy Gap Saddle) (Wawona Islip Junction) —This trail can be accessed either from Wawona Trail or from Windy Gap Saddle. The trail connects Mount Islip to the Recreation Area through Southbound hikes using wither Windy Gap Trail or Wawona / Islip Trail.
Hawkins Ridge Trail : (Pacific Crest Trail junction) (Mount Hawkins Road Junction) —This trail can be reached off of the Pacific Crest Trail East of Windy Gap Saddle, or it can be reached by taking Mount Hawkins Road (which is abandoned but usable on foot and mountain bike.) The trail was last maintained across its full length in May 2016. The trail signs at the Northern end along the Pacific Crest Trail is missing as of July 2018.
Trail from Windy Gap Saddle to Little Jimmy Trail Camp
Trail from Windy Gap Saddle to Baden-Powell summit
Trail maintenance
The hiking and nature trails located within the Crystal Lake Recreation Area as well as within the surrounding San Gabriel River Ranger District of the United States Forest Service are restored, repaired, and maintained by the San Gabriel Mountains Trailbuilders which brings in and coordinates other volunteers from Southern California and surrounding States.
The tax exempt volunteer Trailbuilders organization works closely with the USFS to perform maintenance on the trails in the region even when the region is periodically closed to the general public so that once the region is re-opened the trails are constantly in a reasonably safe condition for hikers to use.
Most of the hiking trails receive maintenance according to the availability of volunteers, weather, and other factors however some trails require a two-day restoration effort and as such require an overnight stay which makes maintenance performed on those trails less frequent.
The maintenance of trails within the Crystal Lake campgrounds consists mostly of repairing the tread upon which hikers walk, removing accumulated rocks, sand, and gravel, and reworking the tread to provide a gentle slope from which rain water can flow off the side of the trail (rather than down the trail which causes erosion and a difficult, uncomfortable hike).
For some of the nature trails—such as Golden Cup and Lake Trail—maintenance and repair has consisted of volunteers hauling in many thousands of pounds of rock, gravel, and sand using buckets to fill in sections of the trails which have been damaged by rainfall. When such efforts are performed, surveys of the lay of the trail and the surrounding land is performed to design rain water runoff schemes so that future rains won't damage the repair work which is being performed.
For most of the trails bark beetle infestation of pine trees has killed many trees, and the Curve Fire of 2002 also destroyed many trees along some of the most popular trails—such as Windy Gap, Soldier Creek, and Sunset Ridge. Trail restoration, repair, and maintenance for such areas consists of bucking up fallen trees with chainsaws or crosscut saws as needed and hauling the bucked up sections of the trees off of the trail.
In some instances where hanging safety hazards exists, proactive maintenance is performed by safely pulling dead and hanging trees and tree limbs down to the ground where the hazards can be bucked up and removed.
Less frequent repairs and maintenance involves the building of rock retaining walls to hold back rock and dirt slides which can flood sections of the campground's hiking trails. Additionally rock walkways across gullies are built to afford safer hiking across otherwise unsafe sections of trails.
The San Gabriel Mountains Trailbuilders provide the tools, equipment and planning required for maintenance of the trails, soliciting and coordinating additional volunteers from organizations such as Buddhist Youth Groups, Boy Scouts of America, church groups, hiking, biking, and climbing clubs, High School students, and court-ordered Community Service individuals.
Trail maintenance within the Crystal Lake Recreation Area never ends and because of the dedicated efforts of volunteers, the campgrounds boast of many enjoyable and reasonably safe hikes.
Reporting trail and other problems
As of July 2018, obstructions, erosion, and other problems with hiking trails and nature trails located within the Recreation Area may be reported to the San Gabriel Mountains Trailbuilders web page created specifically to inform work crews of the need for maintenance. GPS coordinates of problems as well as photographs are helpful in coordinating trail repairs within the Recreation Area, so the trail crews appreciate as much information as visitors can provide.
Other Recreation Area problems such as spray paint vandalism, leaking water outlets, overflowing camp sites or BBQ boxes may also be reported to the Trailbuilders as well as to the U. S. Forest Service Glendora, California offices at (626) 335-1251, Monday through Friday from 8:00am to 4:30pm.
Deer Flats
Deer Flats is a group campground about one mile (1600 m) up the South Hawkins Road from the main campground. It has nine sites for groups of eight to fourteen. It provides an even more remote location for Scouting, church groups, retreats, etc. It too has been affected by the closing.
The Group Campgrounds generally require a permit from the San Gabriel River Ranger District's offices before groups may utilize the group campgrounds. This is because individuals are encouraged to use the smaller camp sites located in the main grounds so that large groups may utilize the larger camp sites.
Deer Flats Group Campground contains 25 very large camp sites, most of them with four large fire rings, many of them with concrete-and-stone ovens, and most of them with at least two large concrete tables upon which campers may cook and have picnics. Because Deer Flats is intended for large groups, downed trees are situated around the larger fire rings in most of the camp sites for seating.
There is drinking water at Deer Flats, fed from water taken from a large water tank located at the Northern edge of the campgrounds. Water is distributed to the camp sites through a system of underground pipes, through a number of distribution valves and boxes, and then to individual drinking and outflow facilities located around the campgrounds.
There are several toilet buildings located toward the Southern end of Deer Flats Group Campgrounds which have been installed after the Curve Fire swept through the area. The existing older stone toilet facilities are currently closed and will likely remain closed in favor of the newer, more environmentally friendly toilet facilities.
Postal address and street address
Post Office Box: Crystal Lake Snack Bar And Store. Post Office Box 1335. Azusa, CA 91702
Street address: 9877 N Crystal Lake Rd, Azusa, CA 91702
References
External links
Crystal Lake Recreation Area web site - This web site provides the current status and condition of the Crystal Lake Recreation area, the surrounding area, and of highway 39 heading up to the campgrounds. The web site also covers all of the hiking and nature trails as well as running sources for water in the campgrounds.
Crystal Lake Rec Area Campground - U.S. Forest Service web site
www.sgmtrailbuilders.org - The San Gabriel Mountains Trailbuilders is the primary volunteer organization which builds, maintains, repairs, and restores the hiking and nature trails within the Crystal Lake Recreation Area of the Angeles National Forest.
Protected areas of Los Angeles County, California
San Gabriel Mountains
Angeles National Forest
Campgrounds in California |
4331224 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20Red%20Bulls | New York Red Bulls | The New York Red Bulls are an American professional soccer club based in the New York metropolitan area. The Red Bulls compete in Major League Soccer (MLS) as a member of the Eastern Conference. The club was established in October 1994 and began play in the league's inaugural season in 1996 as the New York/New Jersey MetroStars. In 2006, the team was sold to Red Bull GmbH and re-branded as part of the company's global network of soccer clubs.
The Red Bulls have played their home matches at Red Bull Arena in Harrison, New Jersey since 2010, having previously played at Giants Stadium. The club is one of two teams in MLS based in the New York metropolitan region along with New York City FC, which entered the league in 2015. The two teams compete against each other in the Hudson River Derby. Other rivals include the Philadelphia Union.
The Red Bulls have reached the MLS Cup final once in 2008 where they were defeated by the Columbus Crew. The club has won three regular season Supporters' Shield titles in 2013, 2015 and 2018, has also twice reached the final of the U.S. Open Cup in 2003 and 2017, losing on both occasions, and once have reached the semi finals of the CONCACAF Champions League in 2018 losing to Chivas De Guadalajara.
History
MetroStars era
The club's original name was Empire Soccer Club, which gave birth to the name of the team's largest supporters' group, Empire Supporters Club. The team's original owners were John Kluge and Stuart Subotnick. The name MetroStars was chosen in reference to Metromedia, the media company founded by Kluge, after Nike's original suggestion "MetroFlash" was rejected. The owners also considered but rejected buying the rights to the name "Cosmos".
Tab Ramos, the first player to sign with MLS, became the first MetroStars player, and was soon joined by 1994 FIFA World Cup teammate Tony Meola and A.C. Milan star midfielder Roberto Donadoni. 1990 World Cup player Peter Vermes was named the first team captain, but it was the previously unknown Venezuelan Giovanni Savarese who became the Metros' first breakthrough star. The team's first coach was Eddie Firmani of New York Cosmos fame.
In 1996, the MetroStars made news when they selected players named Juninho and Túlio in the 1996 MLS Supplemental Draft. This report set off an immediately positive reaction which was quickly crushed after the MetroStars revealed that they had not actually drafted well-known Brazilian players Juninho Paulista and Túlio Costa, as people had assumed. The MetroStars waived both draftees on March 25, 1996. While the identity of "Juninho" was later discovered, the true name and club history of "Tulio" remains unknown. This bizarre episode has entered MetroStars folk lore.
When the league began play in 1996, it was expected that the MetroStars would quickly become the league's dominant team. This expectation never materialized. Despite famous players and a high-profile coach, the team never seemed to click together. The team's first home game against the New England Revolution proved to be a harbinger of things to come. Former Juventus defender Nicola Caricola inadvertently flipped a cross into his own net in the dying minutes to hand New England a 1–0 win in front of 46,000 fans.
The resulting play would later be dubbed the "Curse of Caricola" by fans to explain the team's inability to come through with a domestic trophy in their history. Firmani left after eight games (3–5) and was replaced by former Portugal coach Carlos Queiróz, who did no better than even (12–12) the rest of the season. The team made it into the playoffs, only to lose to eventual champions D.C. United.
Starting in 1998, the team stopped referring to itself as New York/New Jersey, but it took a few years for the media and fans to catch up. The team went by just MetroStars, with no city, state or regional geographic name attached to it, a rarity in American sports.
The MetroStars bottomed out in 1999 with a record of 7–25 under former U.S. national team coach Bora Milutinović, the worst record in MLS history. Hoping to light a spark under the floundering club in 2000, the MetroStars dropped a bombshell by acquiring German international player Lothar Matthäus from Bayern Munich. Matthäus played in only 16 MLS games during the season and his tenure in the U.S. is considered a disappointment. The team did, however, leap from dead last to the conference title.
On August 26, 2000, the MetroStars' Clint Mathis set an MLS record by scoring five goals in a game against the Dallas Burn.
In 2003 the club hired new manager Bob Bradley, a New Jersey native known for winning multiple titles as an assistant with D.C. United and head coach with the Chicago Fire. Bradley led the team to the U.S. Open Cup final and a playoff berth in his first season. In 2004 the MetroStars became the first MLS team to win a trophy outside of North American soil with a victory in the La Manga Cup. The MetroStars defeated Ukraine's Dynamo Kyiv 3–2 in the semi-finals before edging Norway's Viking FK 1–0 in the final.
Bradley was fired during the 2005 season and assistant Mo Johnston was named interim head coach, guiding the team to seven points in its last three games; the MetroStars made it to the playoffs, but yet another season ended in disappointment when they were knocked out of the playoffs with a 3–2 loss to the New England Revolution.
Red Bull takeover (2006–2009)
On March 9, 2006, it was announced that Austrian energy drink conglomerate Red Bull GmbH had purchased the club, and as part of their sponsorship, they would also completely re-brand the franchise, changing the name, colors, and logo, a move which drew mixed reactions. The club name was changed to "Red Bull New York", with the team now referred to as the "New York Red Bulls" by the league and the media.
Red Bull had originally approached MLS about creating an expansion club in New York City proper, but concerns over the cost of buying out the MetroStars' territorial rights to the region, along with the expected difficulty in securing a stadium site in the city, led the company to purchase the MetroStars instead and take over their existing stadium project in Harrison, New Jersey. The territorial rights to a second New York area franchise reverted to MLS as part of the sale.
During the 2006 season, Red Bull fired Johnston and hired Bruce Arena, a Brooklyn native who had recently left the head coaching role with the United States national team. The team soon after signed national team captain Claudio Reyna as a designated player along with Colombian star Juan Pablo Angel, while teenage striker Jozy Altidore emerged as one of the league's brightest young talents. That summer the Red Bulls defeated German club Bayern Munich 4–2 in a friendly at Giants Stadium and lost a friendly against FC Barcelona 4–1 in front of a sold-out crowd in East Rutherford. On August 18, 2007, the Red Bulls hosted the Los Angeles Galaxy for the league debut of David Beckham, drawing 66,238 fans. Arena guided the Red Bulls to the 2007 MLS playoffs, but they were eliminated in the first round by the New England Revolution. Two days later, on November 5, 2007, Arena resigned as coach of the Red Bulls. Red Bull then acquired Colombian coach Juan Carlos Osorio from Chicago Fire during the off-season.
In 2008, Altidore was sold to Spanish club Villarreal CF for a U.S. record transfer fee while Reyna retired due to chronic injuries in July. Over 47,000 tickets were sold to July 19 game versus the Los Angeles Galaxy, which was the team's and league's season record attendance. The game ended in a 2–2 draw with goals from Dave van den Bergh and Juan Pablo Ángel.
The Red Bulls again played Spanish powerhouse FC Barcelona in a friendly match on August 6 before about 40,000 fans. They lost 6–2, with their goals scored by Jorge Rojas and Seth Stammler. On August 11, the Red Bulls defeated rival D.C. United in a 4–1 win, keeping the Red Bulls in the tight Eastern Conference playoff race, though United did maintain the Atlantic Cup for another year. Though they were the last team to qualify for the playoffs in the 2008 season, the Red Bulls made an impressive run, defeating two-time defending champions Houston Dynamo 4–1 on aggregate. The next week, they played Real Salt Lake in the Western Conference final at Rio Tinto Stadium in Utah. Dave van den Bergh put the Red Bulls ahead. This win put the Red Bulls into the 2008 MLS Cup final against MLS Supporters' Shield winners, the Columbus Crew. The Red Bulls lost 3–1, with their lone goal coming from John Wolyniec.
The New York Red Bulls started the 2009 season against Seattle Sounders FC at Qwest Field in Seattle. The hosts, playing in their first MLS match, won 3–0. As MLS Cup runners-up, the team also qualified for the 2009–10 CONCACAF Champions League. The New York Red Bulls took part in the tournament's second edition, starting in the qualifying round against Trinidad and Tobago side W Connection. The club drew 2–2 away to W Connection but lost 2–1 at home and were eliminated without reaching the group stage.
The club's 2009 season was highly disappointing. They went on a 16-game winless streak which lasted from May 8 to August 23. They also endured a 23-game winless streak on the road which dated back to May 10, 2008, in a 2–1 win over the Los Angeles Galaxy, in which they finish the season at 0–17–3 on the road. After the preliminary exit from the Champions League, many fans were disappointed by Osorio's rigid tactical style, while others wanted then-Sporting Director Jeff Agoos fired. On August 21, 2009, Osorio resigned from his position. Assistant Richie Williams again took over as the club's interim coach. In his second stint as interim coach, Williams led the Red Bulls to a 3–2–3 record despite finishing with a league-worst record of 5–6–19 (21 points).
The Backe era and new stadium (2010–2012)
The 2010 season brought about a new stadium, a new sporting director and coaching staff, and a new group of players to the Red Bulls, who hoped to dramatically improve from their disappointing 2009 season. On January 7, 2010, the Red Bulls confirmed the hiring of veteran Swedish manager Hans Backe as head coach. Not long after Backe was confirmed as coach, he started to release many players signed by Osorio including Jorge Rojas, Danny Cepero, Carlos Johnson, and Walter García, while midfielder Matthew Mbuta's contract was not picked up for the 2010 season. Under the direction of Backe and newly hired Norwegian sporting director Erik Solér, the club began a new approach of signing veteran European players (mainly from Scandinavia and Britain) instead of the South American and Central American players that are usually sought after in MLS. With Backe as head coach, the Red Bulls went undefeated in the 2010 preseason, including the first ever match at Red Bull Arena against Santos FC of Brazil, which the Red Bulls won 3–1. In this preseason game, newly signed Estonian international midfielder Joel Lindpere became the first player to score a goal in Red Bull Arena. The Red Bulls carried this form into the first MLS match at Red Bull Arena against the Chicago Fire by winning 1–0 with the lone goal coming from Joel Lindpere. A week later, the Red Bulls defeated the Seattle Sounders 1–0 at Qwest Field in Seattle, breaking a 27-game road winless streak.
The club signed legendary French forward Thierry Henry as a designated player in July 2010. A month later on August 2, the Red Bulls signed their third designated player, Mexican international defender Rafael Márquez. The signing of Márquez established the Red Bulls as the first MLS team to have three designated players. With these new additions, the Red Bulls improved further and clinched first place in the Eastern Conference for the first time since 2000. New York also set an MLS record for best one-season improvement, finishing with 51 points after having just 21 points the previous year. Despite the impressive turnaround, the season again ended in disappointment for the Red Bulls. The Eastern Conference semi-finals saw the Red Bulls fall to the San Jose Earthquakes. Joel Lindpere was named the season's Most Valuable Player.
Prior to the 2011 season Backe brought in a number of new European signings including Luke Rodgers, Jan Gunnar Solli, and Teemu Tainio, and announced that Thierry Henry would be the captain for the 2011 season. However the season also began with a cloud of controversy after the club fired longtime assistant coaches Richie Williams and Des McAleenan for undisclosed contract violations during training camp.
The Red Bulls opened the 2011 season sluggishly, with Henry's quiet goalscoring form and issues with set piece defending leading to a slew of winless streaks. In July the Red Bulls exited the U.S. Open Cup with a 4–0 quarterfinal loss to the Chicago Fire, drawing much negative attention from supporters due to Backe's decision to not attend the match in person and instead send a reserve squad to Chicago with assistant coach Mike Petke. Backe earned additional criticism during this period when he stated he had not been aware that he would lose so many players to summer international tournaments including the CONCACAF Gold Cup. In July the Red Bulls signed veteran German goalkeeper Frank Rost to a designated player contract to address the Red Bulls' goalkeeping woes after the struggles of Bouna Coundoul and Greg Sutton. The Red Bulls defeated Paris St. Germain on the way to winning the 2011 Emirates Cup friendly tournament hosted by Arsenal FC in London. The Red Bulls would eventually rally to qualify for the MLS Cup playoffs but lost on aggregate in the quarterfinals to eventual champions Los Angeles Galaxy to end the 2011 season.
Backe was retained for the 2012 season and Red Bull signed Australian World Cup and Premier League veteran Tim Cahill as a designated player in July. They qualified for the MLS Cup playoffs with a third-place finish in the Eastern Conference. However, after a 1–1 draw in the first leg in D.C., and having the second leg postponed twice due to Hurricane Sandy and a major snowstorm, the Red Bulls would go on to lose their home leg 1–0 to D.C. United and were eliminated from the Eastern Conference semi-finals for the second straight year. A few hours after the loss it was announced that Hans Backe's contract with the Red Bulls would not be renewed and he had been relieved of his duties. Mike Petke, the Red Bulls' most capped player and Backe's assistant, was placed in charge of soccer operations in the interim until a replacement for could be found.
The Petke era and first trophy (2013–2014)
In the 2012–2013 off-season, a large structural overhaul occurred within the organization. In addition to Backe they parted ways with sporting director Erik Soler and brought in two people to split his former responsibilities; Andy Roxburgh was named sporting director and given responsibility for all technical and soccer operations, while Jerome de Bontin was named general manager, with an emphasis placed on corporate operations.
With these changes at the top levels in place, several key players including designated player Rafael Márquez, Joel Lindpere, Kenny Cooper and Wilman Conde were either sold or traded. In an effort to revitalize the team, New York brought in players with a history of success, such as Brazilian World Cup veteran Juninho Pernambucano and former MLS Cup Champions such as Fabián Espíndola, Jámison Olave, and Kosuke Kimura.
On January 24, it was announced that Mike Petke remain in place as the permanent head coach, removing his interim status. This marked the first time in club history the team would be coached by a former MetroStars/Red Bulls player. Petke's first season in charge began with a 3–3 draw on March 3, 2013, away to the Portland Timbers.
Petke showed a knack for making adjustments when he countered a slow 0–2–2 start by switching the formation from a 4–2–3–1 formation to a 4–4–2 – placing more emphasis on playing a strong defensive game, and playing up through the midfield. The rookie manager sought to turn the club around, and gain his first win by the end of the month. On March 30, 2013, he did just that against the Philadelphia Union, by the score of 2–1.
Petke sought to instill a more aggressive mindset into the team to make up for the relative lack of time the team had spent playing together. Some have called the team "mentally weak" due to how the team has fluctuated between scrappy play and impressive displays of form and moments of "playing down to" inferior teams. However, after putting on impressive displays, the team went on a two-month undefeated streak and won the 2013 Supporters' Shield as the team with the best regular-season record.
This win also secured the top seed and home-field advantage in the MLS Cup post-season tournament.
In the 2014 season, the Red Bulls qualified for the 2014 MLS playoffs, and eliminated Sporting Kansas City in the knockout round of the playoffs, advancing to face D.C. United. The Red Bulls made it to the Eastern Conference final to face the New England Revolution, but were defeated. The club lost two of their designated players when it announced that Thierry Henry would retire following the season, while Tim Cahill was released during the offseason.
Jesse Marsch, Ali Curtis and "Energy Drink Soccer" (2015–2018)
On December 23, 2014, former MLS player and league office executive Ali Curtis replaced the retiring Andy Roxburgh as Sporting Director. In a surprise announcement two weeks later on January 7, 2015, Petke was released as head coach and replaced with former Montreal Impact coach Jesse Marsch. Tension between the fans and the front office came to a head at a hectic town hall featuring Curtis, Marsch, goalkeeper Luis Robles and emcee and sportswriter Frank Isola.
The target was to implement, on the pitch, a high pressing style used by the other Red Bull Global teams under Ralf Rangnick, all the way down to the academy. Marsch once said the team would play like "an energy drink," which was derided but "Energy Drink Soccer" became a way for the fanbase to describe the way in which they preferred the club play.
In his first season with Red Bulls, Marsch implemented a high-pressure tactical system built around the talents of recently signed players such as Sacha Kljestan, Mike Grella, Felipe Martins and a returning Wright-Phillips, while academy product Matt Miazga emerged as a key defender, eventually being signed by English club Chelsea following the season. The Red Bulls won their second Supporter's Shield, qualifying for the 2015 MLS playoffs and reaching the Eastern Conference Final where they were ultimately defeated by the Columbus Crew.
On May 21, 2016, the team tied an MLS record for largest victory margin, winning 7–0 at New York City FC. Marsch signed a multi-year extension in June 2016. At the end of July, Wright-Phillips became the club's all-time leading goal scorer, passing Henry on his way to a total he'd eventually double in New York. On September 27, 2016, the Red Bulls qualified for their first ever CONCACAF Champions League knockout stage with a 0–0 draw at Guatemalan club Antigua GFC. The playoffs were a disappointment, however, as the top-seeded Red Bulls fell in the conference semifinals to Montreal.
Prior to the 2017 season, Curtis left the club under confusing circumstances, with the club saying that he and the rest of management failed "to work through differing views" and was replaced by Denis Hamlett. Earlier in the transfer window, the team had sold captain and longest-tenured player Dax McCarty to the Chicago Fire for allocation money. with McCarty saying of Curtis that "it’s clear for everyone to see that he’s no longer a part of the decision-making process going on at the Red Bulls."
What followed was an up and down season for New York, highlighted by the emergence of homegrown talent Tyler Adams. The team defeated New York City, Philadelphia, New England and then-second tier Cincinnati before falling in the 2017 U.S. Open Cup Final to Sporting Kansas City, the second time the club had reached the final. The club opened the season with a poor showing in the 2016-17 CONCACAF Champions League knockout stage, losing at the round of 16 to Vancouver Whitecaps FC.
The league campaign was mixed, with a sixth-place conference finish and a resounding 4–0 win over former captain McCarty's Chicago Fire to start the postseason, but what followed was a quarterfinal exit to Toronto FC despite Wright-Phillips scoring his 100th goal for the club in all competitions in a victorious second leg.
New York made their best showing to date in continental competition the next year in the 2018 CONCACAF Champions League, which they had qualified for with their regular season efforts in 2016, with the group stage having been eliminated. In the quarterfinal against Club Tijuana, they became the first MLS club to win by multiple goals on Mexican soil, with a 2–0 defeat of Tijuana in the quarterfinals on a brace from Wright-Phillips and 13 saves by Robles.
In the return leg, new designated player and record signing Kaku scored on his debut off the bench as the Red Bulls won 3-1 for a 5–1 victory in the tie in Harrison. The two dates have since become known as "Tijuana Tuesdays" among the club's supporters.
In the semifinals, New York, despite outshooting Mexican giants Chivas 20–1 in the home second leg, were beaten by a goal in the first leg that resigned the Red Bulls to a 1–0 loss in the tie.
Days before the third Hudson River Derby of the 2018 MLS season, it was announced that Marsch would leave his role as coach effective immediately, joining Ralf Rangnick at the club's Bundesliga sister RB Leipzig, with assistant coach Chris Armas taking over. Marsch left the club as most successful in its history, winning the supporters Supporters' Shield, topping the Eastern Conference twice and a runner-up finish in the 2017 U.S. Open Cup. He remains New York's winningest coach.
The third Supporters Shield and the Armas era (2018–2020)
Initially, Armas continued to steer the ship well, as the Red Bulls won their third Supporters' Shield in the 2018 after winning their last five games to overtake Atlanta United in a tight race on the season's final day, while setting what was then a record for points in a season and securing qualification for the 2019 CONCACAF Champions League. Atlanta got revenge on New York in the Eastern Conference Finals, which they won 3–1 over two legs after a controversial offside call that denied Wright-Phillips an away goal in the first leg.
Wright-Phillips became the fastest player to 100 MLS goals in the history of the league after scoring against DC United on July 25, 2018, all 100 scored with New York. The Englishman finished the season with 20 goals in the league, becoming the first player in MLS history to achieve the feat three times.
Tyler Adams was sold to RB Leipzig in January 2019 for a sum of $3,000,000 and 33% of any future transfer earnings.
New York stumbled through a middling 2019 season, with Wright-Phillips spending most of it injured. In his place, 20 different Red Bulls registered at least a goal, a club record when counting Wright-Phillips as 21. After easing past Atlético Pantoja, their run in the 2019 CONCACAF Champions League was abruptly ended by Santos Laguna in the quarterfinals. New York finished 6th in the East and despite holding a 3–1 lead at halftime, fell in the first round of the 2019 MLS Cup Playoffs to Philadelphia Union in extra time 4–3.
Luis Robles, the player who'd played the most times for the club in their history and Bradley Wright-Phillips, the player who'd scored the most goals in their history, departed in the offseason.
Sean Davis became the club's first academy product to be named captain ahead of the 2020 season, the fifth native of New Jersey to wear the armband.
Armas, having had a rough start to the COVID-19-impacted 2020 campaign - including a crashing out at the group stage of the MLS is Back Tournament - was formally released from his contract, along with assistant CJ Brown on September 4, 2020, via statement released from Kevin Thelwell, RBNY's Head of Sport who had come over in early 2020 from Wolverhampton Wanderers. Bradley Carnell was named as interim manager the day after.
The second half of the 2020 season was notable for the emergence of teenage midfielder Caden Clark, who scored on his debut, second appearance and postseason debut. Clark was sold to RB Leipzig, though he was loaned back to New York in the two seasons to follow. New York recovered to an extent, qualifying for the playoffs under Carnell.
Gerhard Struber era (2020–2023)
Kevin Thelwell hired former Barnsley F.C. manager (and former Red Bull Salzburg player and youth coach) Gerhard Struber as the club's new manager on October 6, 2020. Due to delays driven largely by the COVID-19 pandemic, Struber was unable to make his debut until the Red Bulls, under Carnell's direction, made the 2020 MLS Cup Playoffs, where Struber oversaw a 3–2 away loss to Columbus. Carnell left the club altogether ahead of the 2022 season to become head coach of expansion St. Louis City SC.
Thelwell and Struber largely rebuilt the roster for the 2021 MLS season, signing 12 new players from a mix of European and South American clubs, as well as an academy product, Bento Estrela, who became the club's youngest-ever signing the day before his 15th birthday. New York also used two loan players from Red Bull Salzburg - including goalkeeper Carlos Miguel Coronel - and signed former Celtic F.C. forward Patryk Klimala as a designated player.
New York struggled for a good portion of the 2021 season with injuries including a ruptured achilles from US international Aaron Long, but put together a 7-1-4 finish to the season to qualify for their 12th consecutive playoffs. The Red Bulls were defeated in the opening round by the Philadelphia Union, 1–0 on a goal in the 123rd minute.
In the offseason, former Salzburg loanee Coronel, considered by most to be the team's best player in 2021, was brought back on a permanent contract. The club also bought Lewis Morgan from Inter Miami CF for $1.2 million in targeted allocation money. Davis departed on a free agent contract to Nashville SC.
On the day before the beginning of the 2022 season, Thelwell departed to take over as director of football at Everton. His final transfer window saw Brazilian Luquinhas brought in from Legia Warsaw and Englishman Ashley Fletcher on loan from Watford FC. Clark and defender Tom Edwards also returned on loan deals.
With Long returning from injury and made captain following Davis' departure, New York began the 2022 season tying an MLS record set by the 1998 Los Angeles Galaxy, winning their first five league games on the road. In addition, Red Bulls went six matches undefeated away in the league and eight in all competitions to start 2022. Conversely, the club was winless in their first six home matches in 2022, before an Open Cup victory over Charlotte FC on May 25.
The Charlotte win sparked a solid cup run that season, as New York reached the semifinals, defeating Charlotte, Hartford Athletic, DC United and New York City before crashing out with a 5–1 loss to Orlando City.
Former VFB Stuttgart, Schalke 04, and Red Bull Global director Jochen Schneider replaced Thelwell as Head of Sport on June 11. His first major hire was to bring over Sebastian Hausl from Salzburg as the club's Head of Scouting.
New York qualified for the MLS Cup Playoffs for a 13th-consecutive season, equalling a league record set by Seattle and, with Seattle missing the playoffs in 2022, giving the Red Bulls the active league record. New York lost to FC Cincinnati in the first round of the playoffs.
The club followed with a less active offseason, signing ex-Philadelphia Union striker Corey Burke in December 2022. They also announced the homegrown signings of defenders Curtis Ofori, Peter Stroud and Jayden Reid. The club also confirmed 2022 loan signing Elias Manoel on a permanent transfer.
Long's departure via free agency was announced on January 3, 2023. Long Island-born center back Sean Nealis was named captain, the first New York-born player to wear the armband.
The Red Bulls spent a reported $5.3 million to sign forward Dante Vanzeir from Belgian side Royale Union Saint-Gilloise as a designated player. The fee could potentially rise with add-ons to break the club record spend. To make room, the club offloaded Klimala to Hapoel Be'er Sheva F.C..
Vanzeir was suspended for six games for uttering a racial slur during open play against the San Jose Earthquakes on April 8. All three of the club's supporters groups voted for and staged a walkout of the match against Houston on April 15, deeming Vanzeir's suspension to be insufficient and demanding further consequences for both the player and Struber, who refused to substitute the player out of the game. Empire Supporters Club continued to protest inside the stadium at Struber's final match, a 1–0 loss to Philadelphia Union on May 6.
At that point, the club had won just one of its first 11 games in 2023. New York announced they were mutually parting ways with Struber on May 8, with Struber claiming he'd expressed a desire to leave by the end of the season. Despite New York saying it was a joint decision between the club and Struber, his sides had won just two of his final 15 matches at the helm. Schneider claimed that his handling of the Vanzeir incident had no effect on Struber's job status.
Troy Lesesne era (2023–present)
Assistant coach Troy Lesesne was named as Struber's replacement on a full-time basis the same day as Struber's firing. Schneider promised that he would remain head coach for at least the remainder of the 2023 season. The club plans to go through the league's diversity hiring process afterward but Lesesne would remain the incumbent.
Lesesne – who had previously coached and been a sporting director at USL Championship side New Mexico United but had never coached a game in the top flight – made his debut as head coach in a 2023 U.S. Open Cup Round of 32 match against DC United on May 10, with his league debut in the Hudson River Derby at home against New York City on May 13. Both were 1-0 victories on goals by homegrown midfielder Omir Fernandez, who during the season became the club's all-time leading scorer among academy products.
New York competed for the first time in the Leagues Cup in 2023. They advanced as far as the Round of 16, beating New England Revolution on penalties, as well as victories over Atletico San Luis and a knockout victory over New York City FC, before falling on penalties away to Philadelphia. The club's Open Cup run also ended on penalties in the Round of 16, with a loss at home to Cincinnati.
The club was able to rescue their season with a run of three consecutive wins to end the season. A stoppage time penalty by John Tolkin clinched New York's spot in the 2023 MLS Cup Playoffs, continuing an MLS record-setting run of 14 straight years making the postseason. Red Bulls beat Charlotte FC 5-2 in the Wild Card round, led by a free kick goal by Tolkin and a hat trick for Elias Manoel, the first in the club's postseason history.
Colors and badge
During the team's first seasons, the MetroStars had solid black or solid white jerseys, before switching to a home jerseys featuring red and black vertical stripes (similar to those worn by A.C. Milan). Since the Red Bull takeover, the team has almost invariably worn white shirts with red shorts at home while using a combination of navy blue and yellow for road kits, each with a prominent Red Bull logo across the chest. Prior to the 2018 season, the club unveiled a new entirely red shirt, replacing the traditional blue-yellow secondary kit.
Stadium
The team is headquartered and plays their home matches at Red Bull Arena in Harrison, New Jersey, which opened for the 2010 MLS season. The stadium has a seating capacity of 25,189. On March 20, 2010, the Red Bull team played an exhibition game against Santos FC in a 3–1 inaugural win. The first MLS league game took place in the new venue on March 27, 2010, with a 1–0 win over the Chicago Fire, the lone goal coming from Estonian international Joel Lindpere.
The club in 2019, 2022 and 2013 used MSU Soccer Park, home of the reserve team, for US Open Cup matches when Red Bull Arena was unavailable.
Previously the team played at Giants Stadium, where they had played their home matches from 1996 until the end of the 2009 season. The stadium was located in East Rutherford, New Jersey.
Training facility
The Red Bulls Training Facility is located in Hanover Township, New Jersey and opened in June 2013. The $6 million facility covers about 15 acres of the 73 acre property and includes four fields, three grass and one turf, each the size of the one at Red Bull Arena. The middle field, which has a grass surface, is heated, while one turf field has lights.
The complex opened with four buildings, with the main one housing separate locker rooms for the senior team, academy teams and coaching staff, film analysis room, offices, a therapy room, a gym, a fitness/wellness area, a hot/cold tub room and a players' lounge, which includes a cafeteria that serves breakfast and lunch. In April 2015, the team opened a new training building, which includes two team locker rooms, a multipurpose weight and cardio area, a treatment room, exam room, coach and staff lockers, lavatories for both men and women and other miscellaneous areas. In 2017, the team opened a extension of the 2015 training building for the academy team and the third grass field.
In 2021, the club announced plans to build a new, , privately funded training facility in nearby Morris Township. The facility is slated to open in time for the 2026 FIFA World Cup.
In the past, the Red Bulls led a nomadic existence, making use of several other training grounds before finishing construction of the Hanover facility:
Kean University East Campus (1996–2002)
Saint Benedict's Preparatory School (2002)
Giants Stadium (2003–2007)
Montclair State University (2007–2013)
Club culture
Supporters
A variety of supporters clubs and groups have grown around the team since its inaugural year. The first of these was formed in 1995, prior to the inception of the team itself, as the Empire Supporters Club. 2005 saw the creation of the New Jersey-based Garden State Supporters, eventually known as the Garden State Ultras (GSU). The 2010 season's influx of personnel with a Scandinavian background led to the creation of the Viking Army Supporters Club. In 2021, after GSU had received a stadium ban, a new supporters group named Torcida 96 was formed.
The Red Bulls have designated some sections of Red Bull Arena as supporter specific. These included sections 101 for the Empire Supporters Club, 102 for the Viking Army, and 133 for Torcida 96. Sections 133, 101, and 102 are collectively known as the "South Ward". In 2019, the club remodeled the South Ward as 'safe-standing' sections.
The groups organize away trips to every match, often chartering buses to games in New England, Philadelphia and Washington, as well as special subway trips to derbies at New York City. ESC also holds multiple watch parties for each away games at bars in Manhattan and New Jersey. Both ESC and Viking Army traditionally hold a tailgate in the parking lot outside Red Bull Arena before every home match.
Rivalries
The Red Bulls' oldest rival is D.C. United, against whom they compete for the Atlantic Cup. The New England Revolution and the Philadelphia Union are also rivals of the Red Bulls. The Red Bulls had not defeated the Revolution at the latter's home venue Gillette Stadium for 12 years, until a 2–0 win on June 8, 2014, intensifying the rivalry. These rivalries arise out of geographic proximity and as a reflection of longstanding rivalries between New York-area teams and other teams in Washington, D.C., Boston, and Philadelphia. During the late 2000s and early 2010s, battles between New York and the Los Angeles Galaxy were called the '1% Derby' given the teams' extravagant spending compared to the rest of the league.
In 2015 the Hudson River Derby was born when the Red Bulls faced off against another team from the New York metropolitan area in MLS league play for the first time, when New York City FC entered MLS. Although initially regarded as a manufactured rivalry with little of the traditional banter apparent between long-time local rivals, the first meetings between the teams displayed an increasing level of animosity between the two sides. The Red Bulls won the first ever encounter between the two, a league game on May 10, 2015, at Red Bull Arena. Matches between the two teams were marred by a series of brawls between their supporters.
Although the rivalry with NYCFC was built to be the major one for the Red Bulls, this was not the first time that they played against teams from the New York area, as they played matches in the U.S. Open Cup in both 2011 (against F.C. New York, who have since folded) and 2014 (against the New York Cosmos). The Red Bulls also played against the Cosmos in the 2015 U.S. Open Cup, to a 4–1 victory.
Supporters groups from both clubs created the Hudson River Derby Foundation in 2019. In 2023, a trophy, awarded to whomever came out on top during the league meetings between the two teams, was unveiled. The Red Bulls won the first edition of the trophy with a 1-0 win and 0-0 draw against NYC during league play.
Broadcasting
From its inception as the MetroStars in 1996, Red Bulls matches were televised by MSG and MSG Plus. Joe Tolleson (play-by-play) and Tommy Smyth (analyst) were the original announcers. Derek Rae and JP Dellacamera followed as play-by-play announcers. From 2012 to 2022, Steve Cangialosi (play-by-play) and Shep Messing (analyst) were the MSG/MSG Plus announcers.
In 2015, the Red Bulls launched streaming audio game broadcasts from the club's official site, with play-by-play man Matt Harmon and former MetroStar and Red Bull Steve Jolley on the English-language call, and Ernesto Motta in Spanish. Late in 2015, the club launched a streaming internet station with TuneIn, becoming the first MLS club to provide 24-hour streaming content to its fan base. Fusaro replaced Motta in 2021 but departed ahead of the 2023 season.
From 2023, every Red Bulls match is available via MLS Season Pass on the Apple TV app. The service features contributions from Cangialosi, Fusaro and Messing, as well as former New York players Sacha Kljestan, Bradley Wright-Phillips and Lloyd Sam. Harmon and Jolley can be listened to on the Apple TV broadcast for every home match.
Players and staff
Roster
Retired numbers
99 – Bradley Wright-Phillips (forward, 2013–2019)
Legends Row
Luis Robles
Technical staff
Administrative officials
Player development
New York Red Bulls II
New York Red Bulls II was established in 2015. It is a reserve team that competes in the USL Championship, the second tier of the American soccer pyramid. The team plays its home matches at MSU Soccer Park at Pittser Field in Montclair, New Jersey.
The fully professional team completed its inaugural USL season with a 12–10–6 record in fourth place of the Eastern Conference. The team won its first playoff game against Pittsburgh Riverhounds and advanced as far as the Eastern Conference semifinals in the 2015 USL Playoffs.
A New York Red Bulls team mostly composed of NYRB II players defeated Chelsea F.C. in a 2015 friendly.
In 2016, New York Red Bulls II defeated the Swope Park Rangers 5–1 in the 2016 United Soccer League Final winning their first United Soccer League Championship and became the first Major League Soccer-owned team to win the United Soccer League title.
The team was coached by former Red Bull and New York native John Wolyniec from its founding until the end of the 2021 season. He was replaced by former Seattle Sounders academy director Gary Lewis, with a plan to transition the reserve side into the newly created MLS Next Pro in 2023. Lewis failed to last half a season, with former Red Bulls player and long-time second-team assistant Ibrahim Sekagya taking over on an interim basis before being given the job permanently ahead of the 2023 season.
Academy
The New York Red Bulls Academy is the multi-layered youth system of the New York Red Bulls. It is the first cost-free program in MLS that provides a professional soccer training environment for youth players in the New York metropolitan area. The soccer programs are operated as part of a global approach to player development. The club has produced four players from its academy (Sean Davis, Connor Lade, Alex Muyl and Omir Fernandez) to play at least 100 matches in all competitions for the MLS side. In 2022, Tyler Adams became the club's first academy product to represent the United States at a World Cup.
Honors
International Tournaments
Competitive
2001 Copa Merconorte
Group stage v. Deportivo Italchacao: 2–0, 1–2
Group stage v. Millonarios: 0–1,1–2
Group stage v. Guadalajara: 2–0, 2–0
2009–10 CONCACAF Champions League
Preliminary Round v. W Connection: 2–2, 1–2
2014–15 CONCACAF Champions League
Group stage v. FAS: 2–0, 0–0
Group stage v. Montreal Impact: 1–1, 0–1
2016–17 CONCACAF Champions League
Group stage v. Alianza: 1–0, 1–1
Group stage v. Antigua: 3–0, 0–0
Quarter-finals v. Vancouver Whitecaps FC: 1–1, 0–2
2018 CONCACAF Champions League
Round of 16 v. Olimpia: 1–1, 0–2 (3–1 agg)
Quarter-finals v. Tijuana: 2–0, 3–1 (5–1 agg)
Semi-finals v. Guadalajara: 0–1, 0–0 (0–1 agg)
2018 Concacaf Champions League Fair Play Award
2019 CONCACAF Champions League
Round of 16 v. Atlético Pantoja: 2–0, 3–0 (5–0 agg)
Quarterfinals v. Santos Laguna: 0–2, 2–4 (2–6 agg)
Friendly
2004 La Manga Cup
Group stage v. Viking: 0–1
Group stage v. Bodø/Glimt: 3–1
Semi-finals v. Dynamo Kyiv: 3–2
Final v. Viking: 1–0
2010 Barclays New York Challenge
Group stage v. Tottenham Hotspur: 1–2
Group stage v. Manchester City: 2–1
2011 Emirates Cup
Group stage v. Paris Saint-Germain: 1–0
Group stage v. Arsenal: 1–1
Club records and statistics
Most wins in a regular season: 22 (2018)
Most points in a regular season: 71 (2018)
Most home wins in a regular season: 14 (2018)
Most home points in a regular season: 43 (2018)
Scored the fastest goal in Major League Soccer history (7 seconds into the game vs the Philadelphia Union on October 18, 2015, at Red Bull Arena)
Best home record in the MLS
Most away wins in a row at the start of a season.
Player records
MLS regular season only, through March 9, 2019
Career
Games: 206 Luis Robles
Minutes: 18,540 Luis Robles
Goals: 106 Bradley Wright-Phillips
Assists: 51 Sacha Kljestan
Shutouts: 63 Luis Robles
Single season
Goals: 27 Bradley Wright-Phillips, 2014
Assists: 20 Sacha Kljestan, 2016
Shutouts: 14 Luis Robles, 2018
Top career goalscorers
Bold signifies current Red Bulls player
Captains
Year-by-year
This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Red Bulls. For the full season-by-season history, see List of New York Red Bulls seasons.
1. Avg. attendance include statistics from league matches only.
2. Top goalscorer(s) includes all goals scored in League, MLS Cup Playoffs, U.S. Open Cup, MLS is Back Tournament, CONCACAF Champions League, FIFA Club World Cup, and other competitive continental matches.
Average attendance
Historical staff
Head coaches
General managers and sporting directors
Ownership
See also
Red Bull Bragantino
EC Red Bull Salzburg
EHC Red Bull München
New York Red Bulls U-23
Soccer in New York City
References
External links
Association football clubs established in 1994
Red Bull sports clubs and teams
Soccer clubs in New Jersey
1994 establishments in New Jersey
Soccer clubs in the New York metropolitan area
Sports in East Rutherford, New Jersey
Harrison, New Jersey
Sports in Hudson County, New Jersey
Major League Soccer teams |
4331268 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palletized%20Load%20System | Palletized Load System | The Palletized Load System (PLS) is a truck-based logistics system that entered service in the United States Army in 1993. It performs long and short distance freight transport, unit resupply, and other missions in the tactical environment to support modernized and highly mobile combat units. It provides rapid movement of combat configured loads of ammunition and all classes of supply, shelters and intermodal containers. It is similar to systems such as the British Demountable Rack Offload and Pickup System (DROPS).
History
In January 1989, the United States Army Tank Automotive Command awarded prototype PLS contracts to Oshkosh Truck Corporation, the PACCAR Government Group and General Motors, Military Vehicle Operations, with each contractor to deliver nine trucks, six trailers, and 30 flatracks for prototype hardware testing which began in September 1989. Oshkosh Truck Corporation was awarded a five-year contract for PLS in September 1990, with production commencing in 1992.
The original contract award was for 2626 PLS trucks, 1050 M1076 PLS trailers, and 11,030 M1077 PLS flat racks. Under the initial PLS contract, between 1992–1997 Oshkosh delivered 2905 PLS trucks and 1534 PLS trailers. Around half of the PLS trucks were fitted with a Grove material handling crane and were designated M1074. PLS without the crane are designated M1075. Under an additional add-on contract from 1997 to 2001, Oshkosh produced 595 PLS trucks and 800 trailers, bringing the PLS fleet to 3,500 trucks and 2,334 trailers.
In March 2001, Oshkosh Truck was awarded the Family of Heavy Tactical Vehicles (FHTV) contract. The FHTV award differed in that in addition to the provision for up to 740 PLS trucks and 1060 PLS trailers, the award covered deliveries of Oshkosh Heavy Expanded Mobility Tactical Truck (HEMTT) and Heavy Equipment Transporter (HET). The FHTV contract was extended twice, following which FHTV 2 was awarded to Oshkosh Truck. In October 2008 FHTV 3 was awarded to Oshkosh Defense. As part of the FHTV 3 contract, Oshkosh commenced deliveries of PLS in A1 configuration. In December 2009 the last of 6,288 production PLS A0 was delivered.
Oshkosh announced in January 2012 that it had been awarded a bridge contract by the U.S. Army to continue FHTV production. Under this extended contract, the government could place orders through October 2013 and Oshkosh Defense could deliver through September 2014.
In July 2013 the U.S. Army released a synopsis for a FHTV 4 award. This stated the government intended to award the FHTV 4 contract on a sole-source basis to Oshkosh Corporation, and it is understood that the aim was to ensure negotiations with Oshkosh for FHTV 4 were concluded in time to ensure there was no break in production between FHTV 3 and FHTV 4 production and deliveries. There would be a break of seven months. FHTV 4 was awarded to Oshkosh Defense in June 2015 as a five-year requirements contract worth a potential USD780 million. At this time the FHTV IV award covered an estimated 1,800 FHTVs and in addition to Recapitalized (Recap'd) PLS covered Recap'd HEMTT and also included the production of approximately 1,000 new production PLSTs. PLSs accounted for about 25% of the Recap potential.
In March 2020 the final FHTV 4 award was announced by Oshkosh, this calling for an undisclosed quantity of U.S. Army and U.S. Army Reserve FHTVs to be Recap’d. Quantities/breakdown were been revealed. Contract value was USD346.4 million, with deliveries scheduled to conclude in December 2021. As of the award date, Oshkosh disclosed that since 1995 the company had rebuilt over 3,400 PLS trucks. On 3 May 2021 the U.S. Army announced that it had awarded Oshkosh Defense a three-year extension to the FHTV 4 contract. Under the extension, Oshkosh will provide new and Recap'd PLS trucks and trailers, HEMTTs, and HETs. The initial delivery orders call for a total of 353 new and recapitalized vehicles.
Reset and Recapitalization: Reset and Recapitalization are formal U.S. Army programs that refurbish and return equipment to service in as new condition.
Since the award of two separate contracts in 2004, Oshkosh (in addition to HEMTTS and HETs) has rebuilt/overhauled service-worn PLS trucks to new build standard under the Reset and Recapitalization programs. The completed vehicles are stripped to the chassis frame rails from the process and are returned to service in zero miles/zero hours condition and with a new vehicle warranty. The Reset process returns trucks to original build standard (for example PLSA0 to PLSA0), with the exception of certain safety-related items. Recapitalized vehicles are completely rebuilt to meet the current build standard specifications and at a cost to the US DoD per vehicle of about 75% of new build (for example PLSA0 to PLSA1). The first A0 PLS were Recap’d to A1 standard in March 2012. In addition to Reset and Recap, Oshkosh has also refurbished PLS through the Theatre-Provided Equipment Refurbishment (TPER) programme.
Expedient Leader Follower (ExLF) programme
On 27 June 2018, Oshkosh announced that the US army's Tank Automotive Research, Development, and Engineering Center (TARDEC) had awarded the company a USD49 million contract to integrate existing PLS trucks with scalable autonomous technology as part of the army's Expedient Leader Follower (ExLF) programme. The ExLF programme addresses the needs of the Leader Follower Directed Requirement and Program of Record by removing soldiers from the vehicle while operating in highly-contested areas. Under the contract, Oshkosh will integrate an initial 70 autonomy kits for Program Development and Operational Technical Demonstrations (OTD). The contract holds an option to procure up to 150 autonomy kits.
Common Tactical Truck (CTT); previously Next Generation Future Truck (NGFT)
Parallel to the FHTV 4 extension effort, the US Army’s Heavy Tactical Vehicles (HTV) PEO CS&CSS issued on 20 July 2020 Notice ID W56HZV-20-R-0237, a Request for Information (RfI) for the Next Generation Future Truck (NGFT). Responses are due by 24 August 2020 for what was quickly renamed the Common Tactical Truck (CTT). It is the current intent that CTT will replace the PLSA1, plus the HEMTT and M915 Truck Tractor, Line Haul. The Army desires five variants of the NGFT/CTT, and all with the option to perform semi-autonomous or autonomous operations. The five variants currently muted are: a wrecker to recover Stryker, MRAPs, and other tactical wheeled vehicles up to 40 US tons; an LHS Heavy variant with crane to transport flatrack with up to 16 tons of cargo payload; a Tractor variant operable with the M870, M871, M172, M872, M967 tanker, M1062 tanker, future tanker (8,200 gallons), and commercial standard trailers; a Tanker variant with a 2,500 gallon threshold or objective fuel payload greater than 2,500 gallons; and a Cargo variant with crane capable of carrying a payload of up to 22 tons or greater.
Components
The Palletized Load System (PLS) is based around two variants of prime mover truck (M1074 and M1075) fitted with an integral self-loading and unloading capability, a trailer (M1076), and demountable cargo beds, referred to as flatracks. PLS trucks and trailers are air-transportable in C-5A and C-17 cargo aircraft.
Truck
The PLS prime mover truck carries its payloads on its demountable flatrack cargo beds, or inside 8×8×20 foot International Organization for Standardization (ISO) intermodal containers, or shelters. The M1074 is equipped with a variable reach material handling crane (MHC), the M1075 is not. A dp Manufacturing PLS-22K self-recovery winch with a capacity of 9,072 kg is an option on both the M1074 and M1075.
The Oshkosh PLS truck is based on a C-section chassis formed of 356 × 89 × 9.5 mm SAE 1027 modified heat-treated carbon manganese steel with a yield strength of 758 MPa. Bolted construction with Grade 8 bolts is used throughout. PLS is unusual in that it is a five-axle truck, with two front and three rear axles, and with steering on the rear (5th) and front axle pair. A five-axle (10 × 10) configuration was selected by Oshkosh as it provides optimum turning capability and good weight distribution between all axles providing mobility and capability above the desired level of the U.S. Army specification. Competing PLS designs were both four-axle (8x8s), the Paccar offering having a single front axle and rear tridem, the General Motors offering was an Americanised MAN KAT1 (8×8).
Current PLS A1 variants are powered by a Caterpillar C-15 four-stroke diesel developing 600 hp, this coupled to an Allison 4500SP six-speed automatic transmission, and Oshkosh 36000 Series two-speed transfer case. The original PLS was powered by a Detroit Diesel 8V92TA V-8 two-stroke diesel developing 500 hp, with later production examples having the electronically-controlled DDECIV version of this engine. Original PLS were fitted with an Allison CLT-755 ATEC 5F/1R automatic transmission and Oshkosh 55000 two-speed transfer box. After October 2005, an Allison HD-4500 Generation 4 six-speed automatic transmission was fitted.
All PLS variants have the same rear tridem unit which consists of a single Hendrickson-Turner air-sprung drive axle (3rd axle) and a Hendrickson RT-400 leaf-sprung AxleTech tandem (4th and 5th axles) on which the rearmost axle contra-steers. On PLS A1 variants the front AxleTech/Oshkosh axles are sprung using Oshkosh's TAK-4 fully independent coil spring suspension. The original PLS had a pair of rigid AxleTech front axles, these with leaf springs.
Tires are Michelin 1600R 20. Current fit is Michelin XZL, earlier PLS were fitted Michelin XL. A central tire inflation system (CTIS) is fitted, this having four settings - HWY (highway) • CC (cross-country) • MSS (mud sand snow) • EMERG (emergency). A spare wheel and tire is mounted behind the cab on A0 variants. On A1 variants the spare wheel and tire is located on the right-hand side of the vehicle, on the top of the engine/cooling compartments.
The two-seat forward control cab is a development of the original Oshkosh M977 HEMTT cab. The PLS A1 (and HEMTT A4)has a visually similar, but slightly larger, revised cab. An add-on armor kit has been developed for the M1074/M1075 by Armor Holdings Inc. PLS A1's cab is compliant with the U.S. Army's Long Term Armor Strategy (LTAS) requirements of an A- and B-kit armoring philosophy. Additionally, it comes as standard with integrated floor armor.
Trailer
The M1076 is a three-axle dolly-type trailer. It is capable of carrying the same 16.5 short ton payload as the prime mover. Flatracks can be on- and off-loaded from the trailer by the prime mover's load handling system. Without leaving the cab, the driver can load or unload the truck in less than one minute, and both truck and trailer in less than five minutes. The M1076 can be towed by M1074 and M1075 PLS trucks.
Flatrack
Three types of flatrack have been procured as part of the system, the M1077/M1077A1, the M3/M3A1 and the M1 ISO Compatible Flatrack. The M1077 and M1077A1 General Purpose A-frame flatracks are sideless flatracks used to transport pallets of ammunition and other classes of supplies. On the ISO-compatible Palletized Flatrack (IPF) Type M1 there are two end walls, one incorporating the A-frame. Both walls can fold down inwardly for stacking when empty. The M3/M3A1 Container Roll-in/Out Platform (CROP) is, a flatrack that fits inside a ISO container.
Container Handling Unit
The Container Handling Unit (CHU) is an add-on kit that allows for the loading/unloading and transport of standard ISO containers without the need for an intermediate flatrack. M1075 PLS trucks (with or without winch) can have an integral CHU stowage facility between the LHS hook arm and engine. CHUs were procured as part of the original FHTV contract. Weight of the complete CHU is 1746 kg. Installation time is 80 man hours.
Oshkosh produced the original CHU, the current E-CHU (E - Enhanced) is manufactured by GT Machining & Fabricating Ltd of Canada. By September 2010 over 1,000 E-CHUs had been produced. Current orders increase totals to 6300 units, with production running until September 2016.
Engineer Mission Modules
Engineer Mission Modules (EMM) components are flatrack-based and designed to be used on M1075 PLS trucks fitted with the Universal Power Interface Kit (UPIK). Three EMMs were procured under the initial FHTV contract, the M4 Bituminous Distributor (EMM-BD), the M5 Concrete Mobile Mixer (EMM-CMM), and the M6 Dump Body (EMM-DB). The M4 EMM-BD provides the capability to spread measured amounts of bituminous material for road preparation, repair, and other engineer applications. The M5 EMM CMM transports raw concrete materials, mixes concrete as needed, and emplaces the mixed concrete. The M6 EMM-DB transports and spreads engineering construction material such as rocks, gravel, sand, and soil. A water Distributor also now in service, this placed under contract in 2009.
Flat racks and CHU/E-CHU are interchangeable between PLS and the HEMTT-LHS. Also interchangeable between PLS and HEMTT LHS are Modular Fuel System (MFS) and Hippo (water) tankracks, and the Forward Repair System (FRS). a PLS version optimized for the transport and handling of WFEL Heavy Dry Support Bridge (HDSB) components is also in service. The DSB launch vehicle is a modified PLS truck.
PLS is a major enabler of the Army's drive to achieve a distribution-based logistics system. The PLS-Enhanced (PLS-E) program procures the Movement Tracking System, which provides a multitude of tactical wheeled vehicles with Global Positioning System capability and two-way digital messaging. The MTS enables the commander to track logistics assets over the range of the battle space. The two-way messaging allows redirection of logistics assets as needs develop.
Manufacturer
M1074A0/A1, M1075A0/A1 trucks, M1076 trailer and Container Handling Unit (CHU) - Oshkosh Corporation, Oshkosh, Wisconsin
Multilift Mk5/MPH165-LHS load handling system - Oshkosh Corporation, Oshkosh, Wisconsin (licensed from Hiab)
Enhanced Container Handling Unit (E-CHU) - GT Machining & Fabricating Ltd, Canada
M3/M3A1 CROP flat rack - AAR (previously Summa Technologies), Huntsville, Alabama; Hyundai Precision America, San Diego, California)
M4 Bituminous Distributor (EMM-BD) and Water Distributor - E.D. Etnyre, Oregon, Illinois
M5 Concrete Mobile Mixer (EMM CMM) - Cemen Tech Inc., Indianola, Indiana
M6 Dump Body (EMM-DB) - Crysteel Manufacturing, Lake Crystal, Minnesota
Operational use
The PLS was first used in Bosnia by logistical units of the 1st Infantry Division. Used for distributing supplies from central logistic point to outlying basecamps. The PLS has also been used extensively from the very start of Operation Iraqi Freedom to haul supply containers, loose cargo and damaged vehicles between camps in Iraq and from ports in Kuwait to camps in every corner of Iraq and back again, as well as Kosovo and Afghanistan.
From March 2017 to October 2019, the PLS was used to resupply 100-300 U.S. Army Rangers who were deployed near the city of Manbij in the north of Syria after counter-ISIL operations.
Operators
Gallery
See also
Demountable Rack Offload and Pickup System
Heavy Equipment Transport System
Heavy Expanded Mobility Tactical Truck
List of U.S. military vehicles by model number
List of United States Army tactical truck engines
Logistic Vehicle System Replacement
Logistics Vehicle System
References
Bibliography
Modern U.S. Military Vehicles by Fred Crismon
2013 US Army Weapon Systems Handbook (pages 266-267)
Brothers of HEMTT - PLS-LVS by Carl Schulze (published by Tankograd) Tankograd
Jane's Land Warfare Platforms 2014/2015: Logistics, Support & Unmanned Jane’s Land Warfare Platforms: Logistics, Support & Unmanned
Jane's Land Warfare Platforms 2015-2016: Logistics, Support & Unmanned
Jane's Military Vehicles & Logistics 2004-2005 Jane’s Land Warfare Platforms: Logistics, Support & Unmanned
Oshkosh Trucks: 75 Years of Specialty Truck Production Paperback – November 1992 ()
External links
PLS - Oshkosh Defense
Military transport
Military logistics
Shipping containers
Oshkosh vehicles
Military trucks of the United States
Military vehicles introduced in the 1990s
United States Army vehicles
Off-road vehicles
All-wheel-drive vehicles |
4331381 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam%20in%20Spain | Islam in Spain | Spain is a Christian majority country, with Islam being a minority religion, practised mostly by immigrants from Muslim majority countries, and their descendants. As of 2019, 4.45% of the Spanish population are Muslims.
Islam was a major religion on the Iberian Peninsula, beginning with the Umayyad conquest of Hispania and ending (at least overtly) with its prohibition by the modern Spanish state in the mid-16th century and the expulsion of the Moriscos in the early 17th century, an ethnic and religious minority of around 500,000 people. Although a significant proportion of the Moriscos returned to Spain, or avoided expulsion, the practice of Islam had faded into obscurity by the 19th century after many years of crypto-Muslims practicing their faith in secret.
While the 2022 official estimation of Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas (CIS) indicates that 2.8% of the population of Spain has a religion other than Catholicism, according to an unofficial estimation of 2020 by the Union of Islamic Communities of Spain (UCIDE) the Muslim population in Spain represents the 4.45% of the total Spanish population as of 2019, of whom 42% were Spanish citizens (most of them with foreign family origins), 38% Moroccans, and 20% of other nationalities.
History
Conquest
Hispania was the Latin name which was given to the whole Iberian Peninsula, and after the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476) the Germanic tribe of Visigoths, who adopted Christianity, ended up ruling the whole peninsula until the Islamic conquest (during that time they pushed another Germanic tribe out—the Vandals – and conquered another one—the Suevi). It is frequently stated in historical sources that Spain was one of the former Roman provinces where the Latin language and culture grew deep roots. After the fall of the Empire, the Visigoths continued the tradition by becoming what was probably the most Romanized Teutonic tribe. Under Visigothic rule Spain was filled with extreme instability due to lack of communication between the native Spaniards and the new rulers, who followed the Germanic notion of kingship. Visigothic kings were considered the first among equals (the nobility), and they could easily be overthrown if they did not keep the different factions happy.
News of the political unrest which existed from the late 6th century through the early 8th century was eventually received by the rulers of the growing Islamic empire which existed along the North African coast. Several historical sources state that the Islamic caliphate had not actually targeted the Visigothic Kingdom for conquest, but political divisions within it created an opportunity which was successfully exploited by an army which was led by the Muslim general Tariq ibn-Ziyad. The last Visigoth king, Roderick, was not considered a legitimate ruler by all of the inhabitants of the Spanish Kingdom, and some Visigothic nobles aided the Islamic conquest of Spain. One name frequently mentioned is Count Julian of Ceuta who invited Tariq ibn-Ziyad to invade southern Spain because his daughter had been raped by King Roderick.
On April 30, 711, Muslim General Tariq ibn-Ziyad landed at Gibraltar and by the end of the campaign most of the Iberian Peninsula (except for small areas in the north-west such as Asturias and the Basque territory) were brought under Islamic rule. This campaign's turning point was the battle of Guadalete, where the last Visigothic king, Roderick, was defeated by general Tariq ibn-Ziyad. Roderick ceases the throne in the year 711, and is later executed by Tariq ibn-Ziyad. After the defeat of Roderick, the Visigoth dominion over the Iberian peninsula folded and fell apart from the Northern coast of the Iberian Peninsula, and the province of Septimania (an area of France going from the Pyrenees to Provence), all areas previously under the rule of the Visigoths were now under Islamic rule. Muslim forces attempted to move north-east across the Pyrenees Mountains toward France, but were defeated by the Frankish Christian Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours in 732.
Islamic rule of the Iberian peninsula lasted for varying periods of time, which ranged from only 28 years in the extreme northwest (Galicia) to 781 years in the area which surrounded the city of Granada in the southeast. This Empire added contributions to society such as libraries, schools, public bathrooms, literature, poetry, and architecture. This work was mainly developed through the unification of people of all faiths. While the three major monotheistic religious traditions certainly did borrow from one another in Al-Andalus, benefiting especially by the blooming of philosophy and the medieval sciences in the Muslim Middle East, recent scholarship has brought into question the notion that the peaceful coexistence of Muslims, Jews, and Christians — known as the — could be defined as "pluralistic." People of other religions could contribute to society and the culture developed in this time.
One of the reasons for such great success under this empire was the legal terms offered to the public, which differed from the conditions which were implemented by the Visigoth kingdom which preceded it
Moreover, the appearance of Sufism on the Iberian peninsula is especially important because Sufism's "greatest shaykh," Ibn 'Arabi, was himself from Murcia. Nakshbandi Sufi order is the widely followed Sufi order in spain.
The topic of remains a very hotly debated topic among scholars, with some of them believing that Spain was pluralistic under Muslim rule while others believe it was a very difficult place for non Muslims to live in. Those who believe that Muslim ruled Spain was pluralistic point to the audio narration in the Museum of The Three Cultures in Cordoba, Spain, where the audio narration says that "when the East was not separated from the West, Muslims were not separated from Jews or Christians". Another scholar argues that “It became possible to be a pious Jew who could recite a pre-Islamic ode or a homoerotic poem or take the peripatetic tradition seriously, in great measure because pious Muslims did it”. The Muslim ruler Abd-al-Rahman III “worked directly with the Mozarabs, a controversial term which is generally used to refer to Christians who lived under Muslim rule, and placed them in positions of power. Furthermore, the Jews and Christians could practice their religions without fear of harassment or persecution.” The Muslim rulers of Spain "relied on the Jews for diplomacy and public administration who were inaugurated into posts of commerce and played important roles in cities such as Toledo and Cordoba”.
On the other side of the debate, many scholars believe that Muslim rule of Spain was far from a utopian society where all religions treated each other with respect. In fact, “Uprisings in Cordoba in 805 and 818 were answered with mass executions and the destruction of one of the city's suburbs”. In addition, in regard to Jews and Christians in Andalusia, “one 11th-century legal text called them members of “the devil's party” and they “were subject to special taxes and, often, dress codes”. Many scholars believe that this more benign view of “masks the very presence of institutional fundamentalism in medieval Spain – both its Jewish and Muslim manifestations in the nature of forced conversions, exile, lower standards of citizenship, higher taxation and violence”. It seems that class distinctions also played a role in . In fact, “many of the lower echelons of Jewish and Christian society remained segregated or in conflict with their Abrahamic counterparts”. Other Scholars believe that Christians and Jews were treated as second class citizens where “Under Muslim rule, especially following the arrival of the Almoravids and the Almohades, both Christianity and Judaism were scarcely tolerated and regarded as decidedly “inferior” religions”.
Rule
In time Islamic migrants from places as diverse as North Africa to Yemen and Syria and Iran invaded territories in the Iberian peninsula. The Islamic rulers called the Iberian peninsula "Al-Andalus".
For a time, Al-Andalus was one of the great Muslim civilizations, reaching its summit with the Umayyad Caliphate in the 10th century. Al-Andalus had the following chronological phases:
The Al-Andalus province of the Umayyad Caliphate in Damascus (711–756)
The Independent Umayyad Emirate of Cordoba (756–929)
The Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba (929–1031)
The first Taifas (1031–c. 1091)
The Almoravid rule (c. 1091–c. 1145)
The second Taifas (c. 1145–c. 1151)
The Almohad rule (c. 1151–1212)
The third Taifas (1212–1238)
The Kingdom of Granada (1238–1492)
The late Alpujarras revolt (1568–1571), with two monarchs appointed successively by the Morisco rebels
(Note: the dates when the different taifa kingdoms were annexed by Almoravids and Almohads vary)
The Madrasah of Granada was founded by the Nasrid dynasty monarch Yusuf I, Sultan of Granada in 1349 and housed many of the most greatest prominent scholars of the period.
Reconquista
After the disintegration of the Caliphate, Islamic control was gradually eroded by the Christian Reconquista. The Reconquista (Reconquest) was the process by which the Catholic Kingdoms of northern Spain eventually managed to succeed in defeating and conquering the Muslim states of the Iberian Peninsula. The first major city to fall to Catholic powers was Toledo in 1085, which prompted the intervention of Almoravids. After the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, most of Al-Andalus fell under control of the Catholic kingdoms, the only exception being the Nasrid dynasty Emirate of Granada. The Granada War (Guerra de Granada) of the Reconquista began in 1482 against the Emirate of Granada. It was not until 1492 that the Emirate of Granada with city of Granada and the Alhambra and Generalife Palaces, the last remaining Muslim territory in al-Andalus, fell in the Battle of Granada to forces of the Catholic Monarchs (los Reyes Catolicos), Queen Isabella I of Castile and her husband King Ferdinand II of Aragon.
After the Reconquista
The conquest was accompanied by the Treaty of Granada signed by Emir Muhammad XII of Granada, allowing the Spanish crown's new Muslim subjects a large measure of religious toleration. They were also allowed the continuing use of their own language, schools, laws and customs. But the interpretation of the royal edict was largely left to the local Catholic authorities. Hernando de Talavera, the first Archbishop of Granada after its Catholic conquest, took a fairly tolerant view.
However 1492 started the monarchy's reversal of freedoms beginning with the Alhambra Decree. This continued when Archbishop Talavera was replaced by the intolerant Cardinal Cisneros, who immediately organised a drive for mass forced conversions and burned publicly thousands of Arabic books (manuscripts). Outraged by this breach of faith, in 1499 the Mudéjars rose in the First Rebellion of the Alpujarras, which was unsuccessful and only had the effect of giving Ferdinand and Isabella a pretext to revoke the promise of toleration. That same year, the Muslim leaders of Granada were ordered to hand over almost all of the remaining books in Arabic, most of which were burned. (Only medical manuscripts were spared; those manuscripts are in the Escorial library.) Beginning in Valencia in 1502, Muslims were offered the choice of baptism or exile. The option of exile was often not feasible in practice because of the difficulty in uprooting one's family and making the journey to Muslim lands in North Africa, the inability to pay the fee required by the authorities for safe passage, and the general tendency by the authorities to discourage and hinder such exodus.
The majority therefore are forced to accept conversion, becoming known as "New Christians". Many of the New Christians (also called "Moriscos"), though outwardly Catholic, continued to adhere to their old beliefs in private as crypto-Muslims. Responding to a plea from his co-religionists in Spain, in 1504 Ahmad ibn Abi Jum'ah, an Islamic scholar in North Africa, issued a fatwa, commonly named the "Oran fatwa", saying that Muslims may outwardly practice Christianity, as well as drink wine, eat pork and other forbidden things, if they were under "compulsion" to conform or "persecution".
The clandestine practice of Islam continued well into the 16th century. In 1567, King Philip II finally made the use of the Arabic language illegal, and forbade the Islamic religion, dress, and customs, a step which led to the Second Rebellion of Alpujarras, involving acts of brutality from the Muslim rebels, against Christian locals. The Moriscos of Granada were as a result dispersed across Spain. 'Edicts of Expulsion' for the expulsion of the Moriscos were finally issued by Philip III in 1609 against the remaining Muslims in Spain. The expulsion was particularly efficient in the eastern region of Valencia where they made up 33% of the population and ethnic tensions between Muslim and non-Muslim populations were high, as locals came under harassment by Muslim brigands. The corresponding expulsion of Muslims from the Kingdom of Castille and Andalusia was officially completed in 1614. Unlike the Kingdom of Aragon and Valencia, Moriscos were highly integrated in the rest of Spain significant number of them avoided expulsion or returned en masse, with the protection of non-morisco neighbours and local authorities.
The last mass prosecution against Moriscos for crypto-Islamic practices occurred in Granada in 1727, with most of those convicted receiving relatively light sentences. Some of the Morisco community including these final convicts were said to have kept their identity alive at least through the late eighteenth century.
Nevertheless, communities of Moorish freed slaves known as "moros cortados" continued to be present throughout various parts of Spain, many of which had been freed as a result of a reciprocal deal with Morocco in 1767. Such former slaves, although baptised continued to discreetly practice their religion. As a result of a second Treaty with Morocco in 1799, the King of Spain formally guaranteed the right of Moroccans in Spain to practice their religion in exchange for Spanish Catholics being granted the same rights in Morocco.
Demography and ethnic background
The Spanish Constitution of 1978 declares in Art. 16 that “No one may be compelled to make statements regarding his religion, beliefs or ideologies” which means that all data on religious beliefs is approximated.
The evolution of the Muslim population has been linked to the increase of immigration in the last two decades, which began with the entry of Spain in the European Economic Community (1986), following the economic growth and the closure of European borders to third countries. Official estimations by the Centro de Investigaciones sociológicas (CIS) say there are 2.9 % believers in other religions, of whom around 2% would be Muslims.
The Autonomous Communities with the highest Muslim population, in absolute terms, are Catalonia, Andalusia, the Community of Madrid, and the Region of Murcia. However, in relation to the overall population within the Autonomous Communities, the cities of Ceuta and Melilla stand out with the highest percentages of Muslims, following the Region of Murcia, Catalonia, and La Rioja. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that the Muslim population in the cities of Ceuta and Melilla, which has close ties to the Moroccan population, has been active in the creation of associations and pioneer in the implementation of Islam related measures in different political fields. Unofficial sources for the subsequent tables and graphics:
The ethnic background of the Spanish Muslim population has two main nationalities: Spanish and Moroccan, followed by the Pakistani and Senegalese nationalities. Within the foreign-born Muslim population, four geographic zones can be highlighted: the Maghreb, Sahel, the Indian Subcontinent and the Middle East.
In “Others” we can find the following countries:
Mauritania (8,165), Syria (7,321), Cameroon (6,232), Iran (5,913), Turkey (5,000), Guinea-Bissau (4,413), Ivory Coast (4,249), Egypt (4,020), Albania (3,004), Kazakhstan (2,438), Tunisia (2,287), Lebanon (2,116), Indonesia (1,764), Iraq (1,554), Jordan (1,315), Burkina Faso (1,276), Saudi Arabia (745), Sierra Leone (685), Togo (451), Benin (338).
Islamic organisations
The creation of Islamic communities as legal entities has been an instrument for Muslims to organize themselves in order to communicate with public institutions and achieve the rights established in the legal arrangements. Since the signature of the Cooperation Agreement between the State and the Islamic Commission of Spain in 1992 and the increase of migratory flows, there has been a significant growth of organisations in form of religious communities, associations, and federations.
The local communities and associations can incorporate themselves directly within the Islamic Commission or through an already integrated federation. In 2019, there were 49 Islamic federations, 1,704 communities, and 21 associations registered in the Religious Entities Office of the Ministry of Justice (RER). A total of 365 religious entities remained outside the Islamic Commission.
Relations between Islam and the State
In Spain, Islam is considered a minority though “deep-rooted” religion together with Judaism, the Evangelic Church, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Jehovah's Witnesses, Buddhism and the Eastern Orthodox Church. In this sense, the Spanish state established a legal framework for the accommodation of those remarkable religions within the legal framework of cooperative church-state relations. Until now, just the Jewish, the Evangelic and the Muslim communities have signed a formal Agreement with the state.
Muslims and the state in the 20th century
The colonialist policy conducted by the Spanish state during the 19th and the 20th century mostly in North-Africa shaped also the politics toward the Islamic religion in the metropole. After the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) the dictator Francisco Franco rewarded the engagement of Moroccan troops in his army with the construction of the first modern mosque in the Iberian Peninsula since the Muslim presence in Al-Ándalus during the Middle Ages, namely the Al-Morabito Mosque in Córdoba. Furthermore, at the beginning of the civil war, it was assigned a place within the San Fernando Cemetery in Sevilla (Cementerio de San Fernando) to bury Muslim soldiers, which was closed after the conflict. However, the Spanish State during Franco's dictatorship was defined as a Catholic confessional state and did not recognise any public expression of other religions until the Law of Religious Liberty in 1967, which means that from 1939 to 1967 Muslims could only exercise their religion in the private sphere. From then on, the Muslim community began to organise itself in associations. In 1971, Riay Tatary Bakr, the later president of the Islamic Commission of Spain, helped to create the Association of Muslims in Spain (AME) based in Madrid, which constructed the Madrid Central Mosque or Abu Bakr Mosque with private funds mostly from Saudi Arabia.
The legal framework of religious diversity
In the Spanish case, the legal framework for the governance of religious diversity has its foundations in the historical church-state model. In political science, the theory explaining how historical patterns can influence new policy outcomes is called path dependency. Similarly, there have been many studies linking the governance of Islam in European countries to pre-existing church-state models. During Franco's dictatorship, the Spanish state signed the Concordat of 1953 with the Vatican, which granted the Catholic Church with some privileges such as state funding and the exemption from government taxation. In the Spanish transition to democracy, the government replicated the same model by signing new agreements in 1976 and 1979, which gave the concordat the status of an international treaty.
The Constitution of 1978 stipulated in Article 16 that all beliefs within the Spanish society will be taken into account and the state will maintain cooperative relations with the Catholic Church as well as with other religious denominations. Furthermore, The Organic Law of Religious Liberty (LOLR) of 1980 specified in Article 7 that the state should establish Cooperation Agreements with those “Churches, Confessions and Communities” that had achieved ‘deep-rootedness’ (Notorio arraigo) in Spanish society, due to their scope and the number of believers. The criteria were the following ones:
A sufficient number of members, referred to the federation or organism gathering the different churches or denominations of the requesting confession.
An appropriate and binding juridical organisation for all entities gathered within the organisation.
Historical roots in Spain, both legal and clandestinely, since a certain time that is deemed appropriate.
Importance of the social, care and cultural activities conducted by the requesting confession.
Confession's scope assessed by his territorial extension, the number of local churches, worship places, etc.
Institutionalisation of the ministers of religion, i.e., proportionality in relation to the members of the confession, study certificate, stability...
This law allowed the state to sign Cooperation Agreements with the Jewish, the Evangelic and the Muslim communities, which were previously recognised as “deep-rooted” religions. The definition of the requirements and procedure for obtaining “deep-rootedness” was reformulated in the Royal Decree 593/2015. In 1984, the Advisory Commission of Religious Liberty (CARL), an administrative organ within the Ministry of Justice, recognised both the Evangelic and the Jewish confessions, and in 1989 the Islamic religion achieved his recognition as well.
Cooperation Agreement between the Spanish State and the Islamic Commission of Spain
Following the church-state model, the agreement would be signed by two parties: on the one side, the Ministry of Justice representing the Spanish State, and on the other side, one representative body for each religious denomination. This obligated the different religious communities to organise themselves in a centralised and hierarchal way within a short period of time. Moreover, this model did not take into account the heterogeneous nature of the communities, especially for the Islamic religion.
In 1989, after the recognition of the Islam as “deep-rooted” religion, the Spanish Federation of Islamic Religious Entities (FEERI) was created with 15 federated associations in order to serve as the single interlocutor with the state. However, in 1991 a group of communities left the Federation to form a new one under the name Union of Islamic Communities of Spain (UCIDE). So far, there were two competing Islamic federations, which wanted to monopolise the communication with the state. The request for a Cooperation Agreement should be carried out by the religious confession and then reviewed by the public administration. Both federations started to draft an agreement in parallel. Finally, the solution was found in the creation of the Islamic Commission of Spain, founded by the FEERI and the UCIDE and established on 18 February 1992. Its raison d’être was the “negotiation, signature and follow- up on the Cooperation Agreement with the state” as it is written in the first article of his statutes.
1992 was chosen as the year for the signature of the Cooperation Agreements, due to the 500th anniversary regarding the conquest of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada and the Expulsion of Jews from Spain. Because of that, many scholars have seen the Agreements as a symbolic act rather than as an instrument for the management of religious diversity. Nevertheless, the agreements aimed to equate the one signed with the Catholic Church and so to accommodate the religions mentioned within public institutions and the school system, to guarantee the exemption from taxation and the involvement of the religious communities in the preservation of their related cultural heritage.
The Cooperation Agreement between the State and the Islamic Commission of Spain includes 14 articles and three additional provisions that can be summarised in 9 topics: legal affairs, worship places, imams, marriage and festivities, religious assistance, religious education, fiscal benefits, cultural heritage, and halal products. In the following sections, a summary with relevant facts is provided:
Legal affairs (arts. 1, 6): the Islamic Commission of Spain shall validate the incorporation of communities and federations within its body. The communities must be also registered in the Religious Entities Office of the Ministry of Justice. The certification of religious purposes for the creation of religious entities can be issued by their belonging federation in accordance with the Islamic Commission of Spain or directly by the commission.
Worship places (art. 2): mosques or places of worship will be certified by the respective community in conformity with the CIE. Those worship places enjoy inviolability according to the terms established by law. Moreover, this topic comprises the right of those Islamic communities, which are integrated within the CIE, to the granting of plots in public cemeteries or the ownership of private ones.
Imams (arts. 3, 4, 5): on the one side, the Islamic Commission of Spain is the organ that can certify imams and Islamic religious leaders. On the other side, the Ministry of Justice must first recognise those centres for religious instruction. Furthermore, those persons who meet the requirements will be covered by the General Social Security Plan.
Marriage and festivities (arts. 6, 12): the marriage celebrated under Islamic Law will be effective if the applicants meet the criteria demanded by the Civil Code. Moreover, the members of the Islamic communities belonging to the Islamic Commission of Spain can apply for the interruption of their work every Friday, the day of collective compulsory prayer, from 1:30 pm till 4 pm, and the cessation of the working day one hour before sunset during the month of Ramadan.
Religious assistance (arts. 8, 9): the religious assistance is recognised as a right for Muslims within the Armed Forces and in public centres such as hospitals, penitentiary centres and Alien Internment Centres (CIES). Those public centres are responsible for covering the costs of religious assistance.
Religious education (art. 10): the Spanish school system integrates already the possibility to course catholic religion as an optative subject. Article 10 opens thus the possibility for Muslims to request Islamic religious teaching in the levels of preschool, primary and secondary education. The communities belonging to the Islamic Commission of Spain will appoint the teachers in conformity with their own federation.
Fiscal benefits (art. 11): the Islamic Commission of Spain as well as the communities, among other fiscal benefits, will be exempt from property taxes and other special contributions, from corporate income taxes and taxes on asset transfers and legal documents.
Cultural heritage (art. 13): both the state and the Islamic Commission of Spain commit themselves to cooperate in order to conserve and promote the historical, cultural, artistic, Islamic heritage, which will continue to serve society for its contemplation and study.
Halal products (art. 14): the Islamic Commission of Spain will elaborate a specific label for halal products in order to guarantee that those have been produced in accordance with Islamic Law. Nevertheless, the animal sacrifice should meet the health regulations in force. On the matter of food supplies in public centres and military units, it will be sought to adapt food and schedule to Islamic precepts.
Implementation of the Cooperation Agreement
The implementation of the Cooperation Agreement has been a long process that has not been yet completed. When the Agreement was signed in 1992, no other regulations regarding the concrete implementation nor financial means were determined directly afterwards. Moreover, since Spain is a semi-federal state, the competencies over the agreed measures correspond to different administrative levels: the Central Government, the Autonomous Communities, and the Municipal councils. The Agreement did not include, however, any references regarding the jurisdiction of the measures.
Worship places
The Cooperation Agreement identifies mosques and cemeteries as Islamic worship places. In Spain, there are 13 big mosques in the cities of Madrid (2), Valencia (1), Córdoba (2), Granada (1), Ceuta (2), Melilla (2), Fuengirola (1), Marbella (1) and Málaga (1). [See: List of Mosques in Spain]. However, in practice, most common places of worship are small oratories established in commercial premises, garages, and private apartments. The religious communities are mostly renting these establishments, just a minority are private property. A study from 2009 about the religious situation in Castile-La Mancha identified 46 religious communities of which only 4 had a private property. At the autonomic level, the Community of Madrid signed an agreement with the UCIDE in 1998, which referred in the third clause to the promotion of transfer of land to construct mosques and worship places in Madrid. In Catalonia, on the other side, a law was adopted in 2009 to deal with the granting of licenses by municipal councils. Especially in Catalonia, there have been many cases of social opposition to mosques. In a study conducted by Avi Stor 41 cases were reported in Catalonia between 1990 and 2013, the total cases in Spain was 74 from 1985 to 2013.
Religious assistance
The competence over religious assistance varies across the institutions involved. For instance, the central government is responsible for the religious assistance in penitentiary centres except in Catalonia. For the religious assistance in Alien Internment Centres (CIES) has also the Spanish government, under the Directorate-General of the Police (DGP), the jurisdiction. On the other side, the Autonomous Communities have the competencies in the area of healthcare, thus they have to manage the religious assistance in hospitals and other healthcare centres. In 2006, a decree was adopted to regulate the religious assistance in penitentiary centres, and in 2007 an economic agreement was signed for its financing. Furthermore, the Generalitat de Catalunya signed in 2008 a collaboration agreement with the Islamic and Cultural Council of Catalonia (Consell Islàmic i Cultural de Catalunya) to guarantee the religious assistance in Catalan penitentiary centres through the Directorate General of Religious Affairs (DGAR). This collaboration agreement was updated in 2015 and in 2019, this time with the involvement of the Federation Islamic Council of Catalonia. Until 2019, there were 20 imams for the religious assistance in penitentiary centres in Spain, 8 of them engaged in Catalan prisons. Regarding the religious assistance in CIES, 7 imams were reported in 2019. Moreover, there is no available data for the employment of imams in health care centres. Finally, the religious assistance in the Armed forces, under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Defence, has not been implemented yet.
Religious education
Education is a complex matter since there is no exact distribution of competencies between the state and the Autonomous Communities. The state establishes some basic rules for applying Article 27 of the Constitution, while the communities have to develop the legislative framework and execute the educational programmes. While the education competencies have been transferred to most of the Autonomous Communities, the Education Ministry remains responsible for the competencies in Andalusia, Aragon, the Canary Islands, Cantabria, Ceuta, and Melilla.
Regarding the regulatory framework, the Spanish government signed an agreement about the designation and economic regime of the Islamic religion teachers that went into effect for the 1996–1997 school year. This agreement referred just to public schools in primary and secondary education, although the Cooperation Agreement explicitly mentioned the semi-private schools, which are co-funded by the Public Administration. In 2000, 20 teachers were designated for the cities of Ceuta and Melilla and in 2005 another 20 teachers would cover the Islamic religious teaching in the communities whose competencies remained by the Spanish State. Since then, the Islamic Commission of Spain has signed different agreements with the remaining Autonomous Communities for the implementation of Islamic religious teaching. However, there was not always the need for an agreement at the autonomic level, since some communities introduced Islamic religious teaching in their school systems on the basis of the Cooperation Agreement of 1992 as in the case of islamic religious teaching in the primary school for Andalusia. In 2019, a total of 80 Islamic religious teachers were reported. On the following table, the Autonomous Communities are listed with the respective year of implementation of the Islamic religion subject and the total number of teachers for each one in 2019. While Navarre, Galicia, and Asturias opened the opportunity to take the subject if the requirements are fulfilled, the Region of Murcia has not yet answered the petitions of the Islamic Commission of Spain. Catalonia began a pilot program for the school year 2020–2021.
Support for Integration Programmes
The Cooperation Agreement established fiscal benefits and tax exemptions for the Islamic religious communities but did not stipulate a financial mechanism similar to the one for the Catholic Church. However, in the aftermath of the Madrid bombings of 2004, the Spanish government saw the need for integrating Muslims in Spanish society besides of formulating policies to ensure national security. In December 2004, the Foundation for Pluralism and Coexistence (FPC) was created to support programmes related to cultural, educative, and social integration for those religions with “deep-rootedness”, i.e. the Evangelic Church, Judaism, and Islam. Catalonia's regional government had already in 2000 created the Directorate General of Religious Affairs (DGAR) and in 2004, this public agency launched a programme to provide access to public funding for activities regarding the integration of minority religions, which was developed before the creation of the FPC at the national level.
Halal products
The Agreement stipulated that the Islamic Commission of Spain would be the organization responsible for obtaining the Halal guarantee mark from the Industrial Property Registry. In practice, it was the Islamic Committee of Spain (Junta Islámica de España), one of the communities integrated within the FEERI, that created a Halal Institute in 2003 to regulate and certify food and products in line with the requirements of Islamic rituals under the trademark “Halal Guarantee Distinction of the Islamic Committee” (Marca de Garantía Halal de Junta Islámica). Their claim to be the only official Institution in Spain that guarantees the halal production, however, has not been accomplished since we can find so far 45 national trademarks in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office website which refer to the same product categories (Nice Classification: 1, 5, 29–33, 39, 43), without counting the European and international products commercialised in Spain. Furthermore, one of these trademarks was registered by the Islamic Commission of Spain in 2018, claiming its official mandate established in the Cooperation Agreement.
Radicalization and terrorism
Jihadists entered in Spain from 1994, when an al-Qaeda cell was established. In 1996, the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria (GIA), an organisation affiliated with al-Qaeda, founded a cell in the province of Valencia. In the 1995–2003 period, slightly over 100 people were arrested for offences related to militant salafism, an average of 12 per year.
In 2004, Madrid commuters suffered the 2004 Madrid train bombings, which were perpetrated by remnants of the first al-Qaeda cell, members of the Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group (GICM) plus a gang of criminals turned into jihadists.
In the period 2004–2012, there were 470 arrests, an average of 52 per year and four times the pre-Madrid bombings average which indicated that the jihadist threat persisted after the Madrid attack. In the years after the Madrid attack, 90% of all jihadists convicted in Spain were foreigners, mainly from Morocco, Pakistan and Algeria, while 7 out of 10 resided in the metropolitan areas of Madrid or Barcelona. The vast majority were involved in cells linked to organisations such as al-Qaeda, the GICM, the Algerian Salafist group Group for Preaching and Combat which had replaced the GIA, and Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan.
In the period 2013, jihadism in Spain transformed to be less overwhelmingly associated with foreigners. Arrests 2013–2017 show that 4 out of 10 arrested were Spanish nationals and 3 out of 10 were born in Spain. Most others had Morocco as a country of nationality or birth with its main focus among Moroccan descendants residing in the North African cities of Ceuta and Melilla. The most prominent jihadist presence was the province of Barcelona. In 2013 and 2014 there were cells associated with Al-Nusra Front, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.
Attitudes towards Muslims
Survey published in 2019 by the Pew Research Center found that 54% of Spaniards had a favourable view of Muslims, whereas 42% had an unfavourable view.
See also
Islam in Europe
Turks in Spain
List of mosques in Spain
Islamic Federation of the Canary Islands
Ahmadiyya in Spain
List of former mosques in Spain
References
Further reading
W. Montgomery Watt and Pierre Cachia, A History of Islamic Spain. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2007.
Brian A. Catlos, Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain Hurst/Basic Books, 2018. Review: Nicola Clarke: "Abraham's Descendants in Love, Life and War". History Today Vol. 68/10, October 2018, pp. 98–99.
López García, Bernabé and Planet Contreras, Ana I.: Islam in Spain Hunter, Shireen T. (ed.), Islam, Europe's Second Religion. The new social, cultural and political landscape. Connecticut London: Praeger, 2002. |
4331467 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los%20Angeles%20Chinese%20massacre%20of%201871 | Los Angeles Chinese massacre of 1871 | The Los Angeles Chinese massacre of 1871 was a racial massacre targeting Chinese immigrants in Los Angeles, California, United States that occurred on October 24, 1871. Approximately 500 white and Latino Americans attacked, harassed, robbed, and murdered the ethnic Chinese residents in what is today referred to as the old Chinatown neighborhood. The massacre took place on Calle de los Negros, also referred to as "Negro Alley". The mob gathered after hearing that a policeman and a rancher had been killed as a result of a conflict between rival tongs, the Nin Yung, and Hong Chow. As news of their death spread across the city, fueling rumors that the Chinese community "were killing whites wholesale", more men gathered around the boundaries of Negro Alley. A few 21st-century sources have described this as the largest mass lynching in American history.
Nineteen Chinese immigrants were killed, fifteen of whom were hanged by the mob in the course of the riot. At least one was mutilated when a member of the mob cut off a finger to obtain the victim's diamond ring. Those killed represented over 10% of the small Chinese population of Los Angeles at the time, which numbered 172 prior to the massacre. Ten men of the mob were prosecuted and eight were convicted of manslaughter in these deaths. The convictions were overturned on appeal due to technicalities.
Summary
The Los Angeles Chinese Massacre of 1871 was an act of mob brutality that resulted in the murder of eighteen Chinese residents. The Massacre's immediate cause emanates from a conflict between rival huiguan, the Nin Yung, and Hong Chow.
The day before the massacre, Won Choy attempted to kill Yo Hing for the abduction of his sister, Yut Ho. The following day, another skirmish occurred, this time, Won Choy received a fatal gunshot wound to the neck. Officer Jesus Bilderain responded to the scene and was shot inside the Coronel building while attempting to arrest one of the gunmen. Several civilians assisted the police, including a farmer named Robert Thompson who was shot in the chest. Soon after, the Sheriff arrived and deputized a group of men with instructions to guard the Coronel building and prevent any occupants from escaping. Thompson was taken to an apothecary on Main street where he died two hours later. Following the news of Thompson's death, residents of Los Angeles started to congregate around the Coronel Adobe. Members of the crowd shot at the doors and windows of the building. At nine o'clock p.m., a door was battered-down and the occupants dragged outside and towards makeshift gallows. According to reports, some in the crowd tried to calm the group and preclude the slayings including Robert M. Widney who would go on to become the district judge presiding over the subsequent trials. The massacre ended around 9:30 pm, when the Sheriff "called for twenty-five armed volunteers on the side of law and order to preserve the peace and guard the building until this morning."
The Coroner's inquest resulted in forty-nine indictments, containing the names of one hundred and fifty individuals. Seven men were convicted of manslaughter and sentenced to imprisonment in the State penitentiary. However, an appeal to the California Supreme Court reversed the convictions and remitted the cases back to Widney's court. District Attorney Cameron E. Thom decided against retrying the cases and freed the accused in the spring of 1873.
Background
Discrimination had been rising against the increasing number of Chinese immigrants living in California. It has been described as a root cause of the massacre. White residents of Los Angeles resented the expansion of the Chinese population, considering them an alien group. In 1863 the state legislature had passed a law that Asians (defined as Chinese, Mongolian, Indian, etc.) could not testify in court against whites, making them vulnerable to abuse and injustice, and putting them beyond reach of the law. In 1868 the United States had signed the Burlingame Treaty with the Chinese Empire, setting conditions for immigration. In this period, most Chinese workers who immigrated to the United States were men, intending to stay only temporarily. The small Chinese community in Los Angeles numbered fewer than 200, and 80% were men.
Another factor was the rough frontier nature of Los Angeles, which in the 1850s had a disproportionately high number of lynchings for its size, and an attachment to "popular justice" (this was also a period of violence across the country). It attracted transients from across the country, and alcohol use was high among the predominately male population.
In Los Angeles in the few days preceding the riot, two Chinese Tong factions, known as the Hong Chow and Nin Yung companies, had started a confrontation from a feud over the alleged abduction of a Chinese woman named Yut Ho (also documented as Ya Hit), who was announced in the paper as having married. Due to a lack of women in the Chinese community, most women in the community served as prostitutes and had essentially been sold into sexual slavery. Previously the police department had assisted the Tongs in keeping their confrontations over the women internal to the community, and sometimes capturing and returning women who had escaped, in exchange for payment by the Tongs, but in this case, things got out of hand. Two Chinese men were arrested for shooting at each other, and were released on bail, but the police kept watch on the Old Chinatown neighborhood. It had developed along Calle de los Negros, which was named in the colonial period.
Calle de los Negros
Calle de los Negros was situated immediately northeast of Los Angeles's principal business district, running from the intersection of Arcadia Street to the plaza. The unpaved street was named by Spanish colonists for Californios (pre-annexation, Spanish-speaking Californians) of darker complexion (most likely of multiracial ancestry: Spanish, Native American, and African) who had originally lived there. The neighborhood had deteriorated into a slum by the time the first Chinatown of Los Angeles developed there in the 1860s.
Early 20th-century Los Angeles merchant Harris Newmark recalled in his memoir that Calle de los Negros was "as tough a neighborhood, in fact, as could be found anywhere." Los Angeles historian Morrow Mayo described it in 1933 as:
a dreadful thoroughfare, forty feet wide, running one whole block, filled entirely with saloons, gambling-houses, dance-halls, and cribs. It was crowded night and day with people of many races, male and female, all rushing and crowding along from one joint to another, from bar to bar, from table to table. There was a band in every joint, with harps, guitars, and other stringed instruments predominating.
Sing Yu's abduction, torture, and legal battles
On October 14, 1870, a Chinese prostitute named Sing Yu was abducted from Los Angeles. Her owner, Sing Lee, of the See Yup company, posted a reward of $100 for her return. (This was the second time Sing Lee offered a reward for Sing Yu. She had been abducted previously on August 25, and recovered the same day.) Both the City Marshal, William C. Warren, and Constable Joseph G. Dye ascertained Sing Yu had been taken to San Buenaventura. Marshal Warren pursued Sing Yu to San Buenaventura. However, before Warren arrived, the Marshal of San Buenaventura arrested Sing Yu on information telegraphed by Officer Dye. Marshal Warren took possession of Sing Yu in Ventura, and returned her to Los Angeles on the morning of October 31. Warren and Dye both claimed to be entitled to the reward for Sing Yu. That afternoon, both Warren and Dye attended a hearing in Justice Trafford's Court. Following the hearing, Dye confronted Warren in the street and accused him of stealing the reward. Warren, anticipating a conflict, had a Derringer concealed behind his back, in his left hand. While arguing with Dye, Warren threw forward his left hand and fired his pistol at Dye's head. Warren's shot was ineffective, and both men then drew revolvers and started firing at one another. Warren was shot in the groin, and died the following day.
During this period, the See Yup Company divided into three; Hong Chow Company, headed by Yo Hing, the Nin Yung Company, headed by Sam Yuen, and the Hop Wo Company.
Sing Yu was released from jail on November 5. Three days later, Sing Yu was rescued from a group of five Chinese men who were discovered torturing her on the outskirts of San Bernardino. Sing Yu had been suspended over a fire and her legs & abdomen burnt, and her back cut lengthwise in several places. The five men, members of Yo Hing's company, were arrested and indicted for attempted murder. The following day, Yo Hing swore out a warrant against a resident of San Bernardino named Que Ma. Yo Hing accused Que Ma of stealing a horse two years prior. Que Ma was arrested in San Bernardino by Officer Dye, and brought to Los Angeles on November 12. While Que Ma was being held in custody in Los Angeles, the five men involved in the torture of Sing Yu were tried, and four were found guilty of an assault to do great bodily injury. Ah Chu, Ah Yok, Lee Jung, and Wang Hing were each sentenced to pay a fine of $500 each, or in default, to spend two years in the State Penitentiary. On November 29, the case against Que Ma was dropped since no witnesses appeared against him in court. On his person was found a summons from the County Court of San Bernardino requiring his presence at the torture trial that had already concluded. Yo Hing was required to pay the cost of the Que Ma's trial.
On December 8, Sing Yu filed a complaint against Lee Woo, of Anaheim, for Grand Larceny; it's possible the complaint is related to the abduction that occurred on October 14. Lee Woo was arrested on December 17, and a trial was scheduled for December 23 in Justice Gray's Court. However, the evening before the trial, the Deputy Sheriff of Santa Barbara county arrived in Los Angeles and arrested Sing Yu on a charge of grand larceny. The Deputy Sheriff, along with Deputy U. S. Marshal Dunlap, arrested Sing Yu in Negro Alley and placed her in a carriage belonging to city councilman George Fall. A group of men, belonging Yo Hing's company chased the carriage and caught up to it at Commercial street. Yo Hing's men fired four shots into the carriage, hitting a Chinese man named Wan, and killing one of the horses. The carriage escaped, and four of Yo Hing's men were arrested. The following day, the Los Angeles Daily Star reported the men convicted of torturing Sing Yu in San Bernardino were discharged from San Quentin, their charges having been overturned by the State Supreme Court.
In January 1871, Wong Heng, a wash house owner from San Bernardino, and his wife were passing through Los Angeles, on their way to China via San Francisco. Upon their arrival in Los Angeles, Yo Hing accused Wong Heng of having informed on the four Chinese men that roasted Sing Yu, and demanded Wong Heng compensate him. Wong Heng refused. The following day, Wong Heng and his wife got on the cars to leave for San Francisco. But before the cars departed, Wong Heng and his wife were arrested on a complaint made by one of Yo Hing's agents. Additionally, another of Yo Hing's agents, Lee Yee, filed a suit against Wing Heng, using a forged contract that purported to show Wong Heng borrowed $600, and agreed to repay the amount before returning to China. All of Wong Heng's money was confiscated by the Jailer, Frank Carpenter, until the cases could be settled.
In early March, Chow Chee, a friend of Wong Heng, came to Los Angeles from San Francisco. Yo Hing suspected Chow Chee came to defend Wong Heng. So to dispose of Chow Chee, two of Yo Hing's Agents, Lee Yee and Quang You, filed a complaint at Justice Gray's Court that Chow Chee tried to employ a man for four hundred dollars to kill Lee Yee and Quang You. A trial was held on March 4, and concluded on March 7. Justice Gray dismissed the complaint, and required the complainants to pay the costs for their malicious prosecution. Yo Hing, then "filled with baffled rage against Wong Heng, Chow Chee and their friends and company”, sent Lee Leeung to steal the wife of Heng Shun. Lee Leeung, accompanied by three others, went to Heng Shun's house, and took away his wife, Yut Ho. She was dragged up to Judge Trafford's office, and there, against her will and without knowing what was going on, was put through the forms of a marriage ceremony, and afterwards carried away by Lee Leeung in a carriage. Heng Shun then had her brought before Judge Ygnacio Sepulveda, on a writ of habeas corpus, and the Judge made an order that she should be returned to Heng Shun. As soon as the Judge made the order, Yo Hing's friends rushed at Yut Ho and forcibly carried her off. Police officers brought her back and restored her to her husband, Later that night, another writ of habeas corpus was issued, and Yut Ho was brought before Judge Murray Morrison and was given over to Lee Leeung, and carried away.
The death of Thompson
On the afternoon of October 24, hearings were held in Justice Gray's Court concerning a shooting that occurred the day before in Negro Alley. Ah Choy (Won Choy), the brother of Yut Ho, and Won Yu Tak were accused of attempting to murder Yo Hing. And Yo Hing was accused to attempting to murder Ah Choy. Following the hearing, the parties returned to Negro Alley.
About one hour after the hearings, Constable Jesus Bilderrain went to the corner of the Coronel building and remained there for five minutes. Negro Alley was quiet, so he proceeded to Caswell & Ellis, on the opposite side of Arcadia Street. There he was told that Caswell had sold a large number of pistols during the last few days. Bilderrain left Caswell's and patrolled the area, going around the Pico House and stopping at Higby's Saloon, at the corner of Main and Arcadia.
According to an article published by Sam Yuen, Ah Choy was "eating his evening meal at a back part of a house on the east side of Negro Alley and heard a fuss, went out to the front door; Yo Hing and three others were around with pistols, and one of them shot Ah Choy in the neck. Yo Hing and the others then ran down the stairs at the corner" of Aliso and Los Angeles street.
Bilderrain was on horseback at the corner Main and Arcadia, speaking with Constable Estevan Sanchez, when he heard shots. He rode off in the direction of Negro Alley and instructed Sanchez to follow. He saw a group of Chinese men in the corridor of the Beaudry building shooting at one another. He started to follow one group of men that ran into the Beaudry Building and noticed a Chinese man laying wounded in the doorway. He proceeded to arrest a Chinese man with a gun, with the assistance of Ventura Lopez and Juan Espinosa. Another group of men had retreated to the Coronel Adobe and were shooting at Adolf Celis and Constable Hester. While escorting the arrested man to jail, Bilderrain passed in front of Sam Yuen's store, the third door from the corner in the Coronel Building, and saw a Chinese man with a pistol in his hand. He left Lopez and Espinosa intending to arrest the man at Sam Yuen's store. Bilderrain instructed Sanchez to arrest another man, but did not specify which one. The man at Sam Yuen's store fired at Bilderrain and immediately closed and locked the door. Bilderrain and Sanchez each went through different doors, through the house, and into a corral in the back of the Coronel Adobe. There they encountered a group of armed men. Bilderrain attempted to arrest the man he was following, was shot in the shoulder and dropped his pistol. Sanchez was fired upon, and shot three times in response. Both men then retreated. A group of men pursued Bilderrain through Gene Tong's store, and out of the building. Once outside, Bilderrain supported himself on a post at the corner of the corridor and blew his police whistle. Three men came out of the adobe and shot at Bilderrain before retreating back into the house. One of the shots hit Jose Mendibles in the leg. Sanchez came running down the corridor and was approaching the door of Sam Yuen's store. A crowd standing by Caswell & Ellis' warned him not to go near the door because they were firing from inside. Sanchez approached the door from the right, and looking inside saw Sam Yuen who raised his pistol; both men fired simultaneously. Other men inside fired also. At this time Robert Thompson appeared and approached the door from the left. Both Sanchez and Celis warned Thompson to stay back. Sanchez retreated to the corner to reload his gun, and was given another gun. While Sanchez was away from the door, Thompson fired two shots into Sam Yuen's store. One shot was fired from inside and hit Thompson in the breast. Thompson said "I'm killed." Celis helped take Thompson to Wollweber's Drug store where he later died. Sam Yuen and his brother escaped, disguised like cooks, with aprons. And Yo Hing hid in Alec's barber shop.
After the shooting had subsided, and the doors to the Coronel Adobe closed, Frank Baker, City Marshal, assigned men to guard the house with instructions to allow no Chinese men to leave. Men were placed on Sanchez street, Negro Alley, and at the Plaza. Lawmen came and went as a larger crowd gathered along the edges of Chinatown, acting as a guard to prevent any Chinese person from escaping. Informed of the growing crowd, three-term Mayor Cristobal Aguilar, a longtime politician in the city, also surveyed the situation and then left. When news of Thompson's death passed through the city, along with the rumor that the Chinese community in Negro Alley "were killing whites wholesale", more men gathered around the boundaries of Negro Alley.
The riot
The first victim of the mob was Ah Wing. The crowd captured Ah Wing, who appeared to have come from Beaudry's building. Marshal Baker searched him and found a "four barreled sharp-shooter, with one load out". Baker confiscated the gun and released him.
Ah Wing was captured again a short while later, this time armed with a hatchet. Constable Emil Harris took charge of Ah Wing. Harris and Charles Avery escorted Ah Wing towards the jail. A crowd of approximately 100 men followed them up Arcadia and Main street. Then, at the intersection of Main and Spring, Avery was hit from behind, the crowd took Ah Wing and held Harris. Ah Wing was led up to Tomlinson's Corral and there hanged from the cross beam of the gate. This was the same gate where Michel Lachenais was hanged less than a year before. Harris then returned to the Coronel Building.
Agustus Cates was standing guard on Arcadia street in front of the Coronel Adobe. The door started to open. Cates told the occupants to close the door, but they did not. So a police man ordered one of the guards to fire his Derringer at it. The door was closed and Cates and the others moved away from it. Later, when they had their back to the door, watching the other side of the street, the door opened and three shots were fired. Cates turned around just in time to see the door close again.
Later, another door opened, this time facing on Negro Alley. A Chinese man came rushing out, thirty or forty shots were fired. He made it less than ten feet before he fell. C. Dennuke stated during the Coroner's inquest that this man was Ah Cut. Another man inside the house, standing at a large window, drew a curtain aside, and several parties came up and fired into the window with shotguns and pistols.
According to Henry Hazard, there was considerable shooting at the building. Shortly afterward men started to scale the building with a ladder. He recognized Charles Austin as being the first to mount the building. At one point, Sheriff Burns counted 11 men on the roof. Various witnesses also identified Rufugio Botello, Jesus Martinez, J. C. Cox, Sam Carson, and "Curly" Crenshaw being on the roof. Men on the roof shot at the Chinese in the backyard of the building. Then someone passed up axes and the men started cutting holes in the roof. It was reported that ten holes had been cut. Men started firing through the ceiling into one of the rooms, causing the occupants to run out of the house.
J. C. Cox testified, one man ran out of the house, the mob on the street started firing. Cox saw him crawl back, and volunteered to go in and get the man out. He obtained a ball dipped in alcohol, lit it, and threw it into the room. He then went in, found the wounded man and carried him out and across the street. The crowd then mustered the courage to enter the building, found two Chinese men in that room and pulled them out. Hazard testified that at this point the crowd started breaking in the doors and removing the occupants; working their way towards the corner. The Daily Star reported the first door was battered down at approximately 8:45 pm.
Groups of men started leading the Chinese away from Negro Alley. Marshal Baker, Sheriff Burns, officers Hester and Harris individually gave parties instructions to take the Chinese to jail for safety. Harris' impression was that the groups proceeded to the jail, even though he was likely aware Ah Wing had been hanged. Some of the groups did in fact lead their captives safely to the county jail. But other groups led men to either Tomlinson's corral or John Goller's wagon shop to be hanged. Henry Hazard and General John Baldwin remonstrated with the lynching parties to no avail; Hazard at Goller's shop, and Baldwin at Tomlinson's corral. One group of men, consisting of Walter White, John Lazzarovich, and brothers Robert and Walter Widney, managed to rescue four Chinese from the mob near Tomlinson's. Constable Billy Sands managed to rescue four; one from Antione Silva near Goller's shop. At about 9:20 pm, Sheriff Burns addressed the crowd, and requested 25 volunteers to help preserve the peace and guard the building until the morning.
Events
Rioters climbed to the rooftops of buildings where Chinese immigrants resided, used pickaxes to puncture holes in the roofs, and shot at the people inside. Those who fled outside were shot at by gunmen on the roofs. Many were also beaten and tortured.
By the end of the riot:
The dead Chinese people in Los Angeles were hanging at three places near the heart of the downtown business section of the city; from the wooden awning over the sidewalk in front of a carriage shop; from the sides of two "prairie schooners" parked on the street around the corner from the carriage shop; and from the cross-beam of a wide gate leading into a lumberyard a few blocks away from the other two locations. One of the victims was hanged without his trousers and minus a finger on his left hand.
Historian Paul de Falla wrote that the trousers were taken to get to his money, and his finger was cut to take a diamond ring.
The mob ransacked practically every Chinese-occupied building on the block and attacked or robbed nearly every resident. A total of 19 Chinese immigrant men were killed by the mob.
Victims
The following people were lynched:
Ah Wing
Dr. Chee Long "Gene" Tong, physician
Chang Wan
Leong Quai, laundryman
Ah Long, cigar maker
Wan Foo, cook
Tong Won, cook and musician
Ah Loo
Day Kee, cook
Ah Waa, cook
Ho Hing, cook
Lo Hey, cook
Ah Won, cook
Wing Chee, cook
Wong Chin, storekeeper
The following people were shot and killed at the Coronel Adobe building:
Johnny Burrow
Ah Cut, liquor maker
Wa Sin Quai
The Associated Press sent a report that night at 9 pm to the San Francisco Daily Examiner, detailing an on-the-spot account. It estimated the mob was about 500 people, which would have constituted eight percent of the city's population of nearly 6,000 people, including all men, women and children. The victims were buried in the City Cemetery, which was eventually taken over by the city. The northern portion of the cemetery is occupied by the Ramón C. Cortines School of Visual and Performing Arts.
Coroner's inquest
The inquest covered an entire four days and encompassed interviewing of various range of eyewitnesses. Disappointedly, no data from the inquest was ascertained, known hitherto, and newspaper feedbacks serving as the sole source of information. Firstly, the two interviews involving Robert Thompson, which took two hours, emerged to be broad and elaborate. Still, only a single observer, Constable Bilderrain, was examined. His description of the event was reliant on facts and was apprehensive that Thompson got shot in the process of assisting him.
In the process of pursuing justice for the murdered Chinese victims, utterly innocent of the Massacre, seven men were sentenced in the law court, whether unquestionably guilt-ridden or not. The Supreme Court omitted the prosecution on Gene killings. Further, it is crystal clear that there was no basis in the High court verdict that compelled them to trust the sentenced demonstrators were blameless. The District Attorney and Judge felt in 1873 that it was becoming unrealistic and illogical to pursue new trials; the issue was called off. Since then, the Chinese community performs an exceptional prayer at the city in honor of the carnage and misfortune.
Grand jury and indictments
Following the coroner's inquest, Tong Yu, widow to Dr. Gene Tong, filed a complaint in the Justice Court, accusing Yo Hing, one of the tong leaders, of "inciting and participating" the Massacre that led to her husband's death. While Yo was initially held following the November 4 complaint, the Grand Jury could not link him directly with the events, and he was later released.
Four days after this complaint, "County Court Judge Ygnacio Sepulveda convened a special Grand Jury to investigate the events around to the Massacre." A jury composed of individuals of diverse backgrounds, Juan Jose (long-time resident), William Perry (building contractor), Kaspare Cohn (building contractor), William Henry (saddle maker and councilman), and Martin Sanchez (farmer), was constituted. Judge Sepulveda condemned the violence pattern in the strongest terms possible and challenged the jury to stand up to the occasion. The jury's report noted forty-nine indictments for felonies and murders (almost split halfway). The report highlighted full statements of the events leading to the Massacre. Immediately after the report's publication, A.R. Thompson, Charles Austin, and Charles Crawford (official records Edmund Crawford) were held. Another set of five individuals, Louis Mendel, Jesus Martinez, Andreas Soeur, Patrick McDonald, and D.W. Moody, were arrested and held. Three Chinese people and two whites were held, but for lesser charges, an additional five unnamed individuals were held.
Trials
The most famous case was People v. Kerren, in which the defendant was accused of shooting at two Chinese women, Cha Cha and Fan Cho, with a deadly assault weapon. Kerren was released on a $1,000 bail. Several other witness statements were full of objections by District Attorney Thom and defense counsels based on irrelevant leading questions. In People v. Quong Wan and Ah Yeng, Wan and Yeng were accused of being the originators of the riots and subsequently charged with the murder of Ah Coy. Coupled with these charges were rumors that the Chinese community had been on a gun-buying spree days before the Massacre and that some Chinese people were also expected in from San Francisco in readiness for a fight. In People v. Crenshaw, the case pursued the murder of Gene Tong. Later, all the cases were combined into one and attracted interest from both the public and the press.
While the convicted rioters were sentenced and taken to the San Quentin, a few other cases remained. Such cases included Fong Yen Ling, Sam Yuen, Yin Tuck, and Ah Ying v. The Mayor and Common Council of the City of Los Angeles, in which the merchants sued for damages to their stores during the Massacre. The Judge held that the city was not liable for the destruction of businesses and noted that such liability would only hold if the business owner had notified the city before the collapse. Several other cases were declined on the ground of lacking evidence. Thus, a review of the legal provisions was imperative to understand the court's decision despite the destruction of property and deaths.
In People v. Sam Yuen, Yuen was charged for shooting Jesus Bilderrain before Justice Trafford. The constable charged Yuen with “willfully, deliberately, feloniously and of malice aforethought, aiding, abetting, assisting, counseling and encouraging a Chinaman, identified as John Doe, to kill and murder". While an arrest warrant was issued for Bilderrain, Yuen could not be traced. When he returned in 1872, no warrant was served.
Complications further arose when a second warrant was issued. However, reports indicated that a post-Massacre addition to the force, Constable Frank Hurtley, arrested Yuen. Adolfo Celis testified that he had seen Yuen running behind another Chinese man as both entered the Coronel Block at the time of the violence. He narrated details that placed Yuen at the scene of the Massacre and confirmed his playing an active role. The Massacre brought to fore the protection of the minority through the laws of Los Angeles. At the same time, there was open prejudice against minorities. The judicial process, such as in the case of Sam Yuen, went on smoothly. A jury that determined its case based on race would have found Yuen liable. However, the court followed all the due process of the law, relied on witness testimonies, including the reversal of misleading accounts by Jesus Bilderrain. It can thus be concluded that due process of the law was followed.
There is, however, no clarity on whether the Massacre led to any positive advancements towards the fight against crime. Anti-Chinese hate flared in the weeks that followed. Overt anti-Chinese violence died naturally after the proceedings. This notwithstanding, however, anti-Chinese feelings persisted and were expressed more subtly.
Freeing of the rioters
Following the verdicts in the case of People v. Mendel et al, Refugio Botello was released on bail of $5,000. Botello would remain free, pending the outcome of his appeal to the California Supreme Court. On May 21, 1873, the California Supreme Court overturned the convictions in People v. Mendel and People v. Crenshaw. The decision said that "the indictment on which Lewis Mendel, A. R. Johnson, Charles Austin, P. M. McDonald, Jesus Martinez, and Estevan A. Alvarado, were tried and convicted was fatally defective in that it failed to allege that Chee Long Tong was murdered." This flaw in the indictment had been debated during a pre-trial demurrer, where Judge Robert Widney concluded "... the words used, construed in the usual acceptance in common language, sufficiently state that Gene Tong is dead. In addition to the above, and under the same rule, the word murder, in its legal definition, shows the death of Gene Tong." The Los Angeles Daily News wrote, "The convicted parties escape full punishment for their crimes by a quibble, justice is complacent, and the eagle roosts high. Thus it goes."
Aftermath
Authorities arrested and prosecuted ten rioters. Eight were convicted of manslaughter at trial and sentenced to prison terms at San Quentin. Their convictions were overturned on appeal due to a legal technicality. The eight men convicted were:
Alvarado, Esteban
Austin, Charles
Botello, Refugio
Crenshaw, L. F.
Johnson, A. R.
Martinez, Jesus
McDonald, Patrick M.
Mendel, Louis
The event was well-reported on the East Coast, and newspapers there described Los Angeles as a "blood stained Eden" after the riots. A growing movement of anti-Chinese discrimination in California climaxed in the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882.
Calle de los Negros was renamed as part of Los Angeles Street in 1877 and obliterated in its previous form in 1888 as Los Angeles Street was widened and extended to the Plaza. The Coronel Adobe where the Chinese massacre occurred was torn down in the late 1880s. As of 2021, the former site of the Coronel Adobe is approximately in the middle of North Los Angeles street, immediately east of the Garnier Building located at 419 North Los Angeles Street.
In popular culture
L. P. Leung wrote about a main character involved with the 1871 massacre in The Jade Pendant (2013). This has been adapted as a Chinese-produced film by the same name, which was released in 2017 in North America.
See also
References
External links
"How Los Angeles Covered Up the Massacre of 17 Chinese", LA Weekly, 10 March 2011
Lesson plan and readings for Chinese Massacre of 1871, University of Southern California
Newmark, Harris "First Person Narrative of Massacre", Library of Congress
Statement of Remembrance, Chinese American Museum
Heritage Parkscape
PBS History of the West
"The Chinese in California 1850–1925", Library of Congress
"Chinese Massacre of 1871", USC Los Angeles History Project
Lou, Raymond. The Chinese American Community in Los Angeles: A Case of Resistance, Organization, and Participation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Irvine, 1982.
East West Discovery
"Buried History: Retracing the Chinese Massacre of 1871", A documentary film, Chinese American Museum
"The Chinese Los Angeles Massacre of 1871", KPFA, 27 October 2021
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Massacres in 1871
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4331913 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Gujarat | History of Gujarat | The history of Gujarat began with Stone Age settlements followed by Chalcolithic and Bronze Age settlements like Indus Valley civilisation. Gujarat's coastal cities, chiefly Bharuch, served as ports and trading centers in the Nanda, Maurya, Satavahana and Gupta empires as well as during the Western Kshatrapas period. After the fall of the Gupta empire in the 6th century, Gujarat flourished as an independent Hindu-Buddhist state. The Maitraka dynasty, descended from a Gupta general, ruled from the 6th to the 8th centuries from their capital at Vallabhi, although they were ruled briefly by Harsha during the 7th century. The Arab rulers of Sindh sacked Vallabhi in 770, bringing the Maitraka dynasty to an end. The Gurjara-Pratihara Empire ruled Gujarat after from the 8th to 10th centuries. While the region also came under the control of the Rashtrakuta Empire. In 775 the first Parsi (Zoroastrian) refugees arrived in Gujarat from Greater Iran.
During the 10th century, the native Chaulukya dynasty came to power. From 1297 to 1300, Alauddin Khalji, the Turkic Sultan of Delhi, destroyed Anhilwara and incorporated Gujarat into the Delhi Sultanate. After Timur's sacking of Delhi at the end of the 14th century weakened the Sultanate, Gujarat's governor Zafar Khan Muzaffar asserted his independence and established the Gujarat Sultanate; his son, Sultan Ahmad Shah I (ruled 1411 to 1442), restructured Ahmedabad as the capital. In the early 16th century the Rana Sanga invasion of Gujarat weakened the Sultanate's power as he annexed northern Gujarat and appointed his vassal to rule there, however after his death, the Sultan of Gujarat recovered the kingdom and even sacked Chittor Fort in 1535. The Sultanate of Gujarat remained independent until 1576, when the Mughal emperor Akbar conquered and annexed it to the Mughal Empire as a province. Surat had become the prominent and main port of India during Mughal rule.
Later in the 18th century, Gujarat came under control of the Maratha Empire who dominated the politics of India. The British East India Company wrested control of much of Gujarat from the Marathas during the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Many local rulers, notably the Gaekwads of Baroda, made a separate peace with the British and acknowledged British sovereignty in return for retaining local self-rule. Gujarat was placed under the political authority of the Bombay Presidency, with the exception of Baroda state, which had a direct relationship with the Governor-General of India. From 1818 to 1947, most of present-day Gujarat, including Kathiawar, Kutch, and northern and eastern Gujarat were divided into hundreds of princely states, but several districts in central and southern Gujarat were ruled directly by British officials. Mahatma Gandhi, considered India's "father of the nation", was a Gujarati who led the Indian Independence Movement against British colonial rule.
Gujarat was formed by splitting Bombay state in 1960 on linguistic lines. From 1960 to 1995, the Indian National Congress retained power in the Gujarat Legislative Assembly while other political parties ruled for incomplete terms in the 1970s and 1990. The Bharatiya Janata Party has been in power since 1998.
Early history (before 4000 BCE)
The cultural history of Gujarat begins from the Middle Pleistocene. The lands of Gujarat has been continuously inhabited from the Lower Paleolithic (c. 200,000 BP) period. Several sites of Stone Age are discovered in riverbeds of Sabarmati, Mahi river and lower Narmada rivers of Gujarat.
The Middle Paleolithic sites are found from Kutch, Jamnagar, Panchmahals, Hiran valley in Saurashtra and Vapi and Lavacha of Valsad district. The Upper Paleolithic period sites from Visadi, Panchmahals, Bhamaria, Kantali, Palanpur and Vavri are also explored. The Middle (c.45,000–25,000 BP) and Late Palaeolithic artifacts include hand-axes, cleavers, chopping tools, borers, points, and scrapers. The sites in Kutch and Bhadar riverbeds in Saurashtra has also yielded Stone Age tools. Bhandarpur near Orsang valley is rich in Palaeolithic tools. Some of other such sites are Hirpura, Derol, Kapadvanj, Langhnaj and Shamlaji.
More than 700 sites are located in Gujarat which indicate Mesolithic/Microlithic using communities dated to 7000 BC to 2000 BCE divided in Pre-Chalcolithic and Chalcolithic period. Some Mesolithic sites include Langhnaj, Kanewal, Tarsang, Dhansura, Loteshwar, Santhli, Datrana, Moti Pipli and Ambakut. The people of the Mesolithic period were nomadic hunter-gathers with some managing the herds of sheep-goat and cattle. Neolithic tools are found at Langhnaj in north Gujarat.
Chalcolithic to Bronze Age (4000–1300 BCE)
Total 755 chalcolithic settlements are discovered in Gujarat belonging to various traditions and cultures which ranged from 3700 BCE to 900 BCE. Total 59 of these sites are excavated while others are studied from artifacts. These traditions are closely associated with Harappan civilization and difference between them is identified by difference in ceramics and findings of microliths. These traditions and cultures include Anarta Tradition (c. 3950–1900 BCE), Padri Ware (3600–2000 BCE), Pre-Prabhas Assemblage (3200–2600 BCE), Pre Urban Harappan Sindh Type Pottery (Burial Pottery) (3000–2600 BCE), Black and Red Ware (3950–900 BCE), Reserved Slip Ware (3950–1900 BCE), Micaceous Red Ware (2600–1600 BCE). Prabhas Assemblage (2200–1700 BCE) and Lustrous Red Ware (1900–1300 BCE) are some late material cultures. The few sites associated with Malwa Ware and Jorwe Ware are also found.
Gujarat has a large number of archaeological sites associated with the Indus Valley civilization. A total of 561 Classical Harappan (2600–1900 BCE) and Sorath Harappan (2600–1700 BCE) sites are reported in Gujarat. The sites in Kutch, namely, Surkotada, Desalpur, Pabumath and Dholavira are some major sites of Urban period. The sites of the post-Urban period include Lothal B, Rangpur IIC and III, Rojdi C, Kuntasi, Vagad I B, Surkotada 1C, Dholavira VI &VII. It has been noted that in Gujarat, urban cities quickly expanded rather than the slow evolution of urbanism in the northwest.
During the end of the Indus Valley Civilisation, there was a migration of people from Sindh to Gujarat forming the Rangpur culture.
Iron Age (1500–200 BCE)
The post-Harappan culture continued at several sites. Pastoralism was also widespread and served as trade-links between the sites. There is no mention of Gujarat in Vedic literature. Bharuch was the major port town of Iron Age.
Early Historic
The Early Historic material culture of Gujarat include the presence of Northern Black Polished Ware, continued dominance of Black-and-Red Ware, slow introduction and later domination of Red Polished Ware, occurrence of Roman Amphorae, Rang Mahal Ware (100–300), introduction of glass and lead, followed by gradual conquest of iron, an agriculture-based economy, shell industry, development of script, rise of the urban settlements, brick structural remains, monumental buildings, international trade and development of Jainism, Buddhism, and Vaishnavism.
The excavated sites of the Early Historic period include Dhatva, Jokha, Kamrej, Karvan, Bharuch, Nagal, Timbarva, Akota from South Gujarat; Nagara from central Gujarat; Vadnagar, Shamlaji, Devnimori from north Gujarat and Amreli, Vallabhi, Prabhas Patan, Padri and Dwarka from Saurashtra.Bharuch was the major port town of Iron Age.
Mauryas
Candragupta Maurya's rule over present-day Gujarat is attested to by the Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman. Under his rule, the provincial governor Puṣyagupta, a Vaiśya, started the construction of the Sudarśana lake by damming the Suvarṇasikatā and Palāśinī rivers which flowed from Mount Ūrjayat (modern Mount Girnār). The dam was completed under the reign of Aśoka by the Yavana king Tuṣāspha. What is now Gujarat comprised two provinces, Ānarta (northern mainland Gujarat and northern Kathiawar), and Surāṣṭra (southern Kathiawar).
According to the Pettavattu and Paramatthadīpanī, a ruler of Suraṭṭha, Piṅgala became a king in 283 BCE. He was converted to "Natthika diṭṭhi" (a nihilistic doctrine) by his general, Nandaka, and attempted to convert the emperor Aśoka, but was himself converted to Buddhism.
According to Kauṭilya, the Kṣatriyas and Vaiśyas of Surāṣṭra belong to various Śreṇīs "corporations or guilds". The Śreṇīs were devoted to the "possession of arms" or "agriculture, cattle-rearing, and trade" respectively.
Indo-Greeks
There was a Greek trading presence at the port of Barugaza (Bharuch), but historians are uncertain whether the Indo-Greek Kingdom ruled over Gujarat.
Indo-scythians
For nearly 300 years from the start of the 1st century CE, Saka rulers played a prominent part in Gujarat's history. Weather-beaten rock at Junagadh gives a glimpse of the Ruler Rudradaman I (100 CE) of the Saka satraps known as Western Satraps, or Kshatraps. Mahakshatrap Rudradaman I founded the Kardamaka dynasty which ruled from Anupa on the banks of the Narmada up to Aparanta region which bordered Punjab. In Gujarat several battles were fought between the south Indian Satavahana dynasty and the Western Satraps. The greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni who defeated the Western Satraps and conquered some parts of Gujarat in the 2nd century CE.
Middle Kingdoms (230 BCE – 1297 CE)
Guptas and Maitrakas
The Gupta Emperor Samudragupta defeated the Indo-Scythian rulers in battle and had then admit their submission to him. Samudragupta's successor, Chandragupta II, finally conquered the Western Satraps and occupied Gujarat. Chandragupta II assumed the title of "Vikramaditya", in celebration of his victory over the Western Satraps. During the Gupta reign, villagers and peasants were put into forced labour by the Gupta army and officials. During the reign of Skandagupta, Cakrapālita was the governor of Surāṣṭra.
Towards the middle of the 5th century the Gupta empire started to decline. Senapati Bhatarka, the Maitraka general of the Guptas, took advantage of the situation and in 470 CE he set up what came to be known as the Maitraka state. He shifted his capital from Girinagar to Valabhipur, near Bhavnagar, on Saurashtra's east coast. Maitrakas of Vallabhi became very powerful and their rule prevailed over large parts of Gujarat and even over adjoining Malwa. Maitrakas set up a university which came to be known far and wide for its scholastic pursuits and was compared with the famous Nalanda university. It was during the rule of Dhruvasena Maitrak that Chinese philosopher-traveler Xuanzang visited in 640 CE.
Gurjara-Pratihara Empire
In the early 8th century some parts of Gujarat was ruled by the south Indian Chalukya dynasty. In the early 8th century the Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate established an Empire which stretched from Spain in the west to Afghanistan and Pakistan in the east. The Arab rulers tried to expand their Empire in the 8th century and invaded Gujarat but the Arab invaders were defeated by the Chalukya general Pulakeshin. After this victory the Arab invaders were driven out of Gujarat. Pulakeshin received the title Avanijanashraya (refuge of the people of the earth) by Vikramaditya II for the protection of Gujarat. In the late 8th century the Kannauj Triangle period started. The 3 major Indian dynasties the northwest Indian Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, the south Indian Rashtrakuta Dynasty and the east Indian Pala Empire dominated India from the 8th to 10th century. During this period the northern part of Gujarat was ruled by the north Indian Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty and the southern part of Gujarat was ruled by the south Indian Rashtrakuta Dynasty. Southern Gujarat was ruled by the south Indian Rashtrakuta dynasty until it was captured by the south Indian ruler Tailapa II of the Western Chalukya Empire.
Chaulukya Kingdom
The Chaulukya dynasty ruled Gujarat from c. 960 to 1243. Gujarat was a major center of Indian Ocean trade, and their capital at Anhilwara (Patan) was one of the largest cities in India, with population estimated at 100,000 in the year 1000. In 1026, the famous Somnath temple in Gujarat was destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni. After 1243, the Chaulukyas lost control of Gujarat to their feudatories, of whom the Vaghela chiefs of Dholka came to dominate Gujarat. In 1292 the Vaghelas became tributaries of the Yadava dynasty of Devagiri in the Deccan. Karna of the Vaghela dynasty was the last Hindu ruler of Gujarat. He was defeated and overthrown by the superior forces of Alauddin Khalji from Delhi in 1297. With his defeat Gujarat not only became part of the Delhi Sultanate but the Rajput hold over Gujarat lost forever.
Delhi Sultanate (1297–1407)
Before 1300, Muslims had little presence in Gujarat. The occasional was mainly either as sea-farers or traders coming from Arabian Sea. They were allowed to establish two small settlements in Cambay (now Khambhat) and Bharuch. Gujarat finally fell under Delhi Sultanate following repeated expeditions under Alauddin Khalji around the end of the 13th century. He ended the rule of Vaghela dynasty under Karna II and established Muslim rule in Gujarat. Soon the Tughluq dynasty came to power in Delhi whose emperor carried out expeditions to quell rebellion in Gujarat and established their firm control over the region by the end of the 14th century.
Gujarat Sultanate (1407–1535)
Following Timur's invasion of Delhi, the Delhi Sultanate weakened considerably so the last Tughluq governor Zafar Khan declared himself independent in 1407 and formally established Gujarat Sultanate. The next sultan, his grandson Ahmad Shah I founded the new capital Ahmedabad in 1411. The prosperity of the sultanate reached its zenith during the rule of Mahmud Begada. He subdued most of the Rajput chieftains and built navy off the coast of Diu. In 1509, the Portuguese wrested Diu from Gujarat sultanate following the Battle of Diu (1509).
In 1520 Rana Sanga of Mewar invaded Gujarat with his powerful Rajput confederacy of 52,000 Rajputs supported by his three vassals. Rao Ganga Rathore of Marwar too joined him with Garrison of 8,000 Rajputs, other allies of Rana were Rawal Udai Singh of Vagad and Rao Viram deva of Merta. He defeated the Muslim army of Nizam khan and chased them as far as Ahmedabad. Sanga call off his invasion 20 miles before reaching the capital city of Ahmedabad. He plundered the royal treasuries of Gujarat. Sanga successfully annexed Northern Gujarat and appointed one of his vassals to rule there.
Mughal emperor Humayun attacked Gujarat in 1535 and thereafter Bahadur Shah was killed by the Portuguese while making a deal in 1537. The decline of the Sultanate started with the assassination of Sikandar Shah in 1526. The end of the sultanate came in 1573, when Akbar annexed Gujarat in his empire. The last ruler Muzaffar Shah III was taken prisoner to Agra. In 1583, he escaped from the prison and with the help of the nobles succeeded to regain the throne for a short period before being defeated by Akbar's general Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana.
Mughal Era (1535–1756)
Akbar (1542–1605) set out on his first campaign of Gujarat from Fatehpur Sikri on 2 July 1572 arriving in Ahmedabad on 20 November 1572. He then reorganized the government of Ahmedabad under the charge of his foster brother Mirza Aziz Koka, the Khan-i-Azam and quelled the rebellion led by the Mirzas by laying siege to the castle of Surat. Akbar then embarked on a second campaign of Gujarat on 23 August 1573 to assist Mirza Aziz Koka against a rebellion from the combined forces of Muhammad Husain Mirza and Ikhtiyar-ul-Mulk. Following Akbar's second campaign, Gujarat was organized into a province (subah) of the Mughal Empire governed by viceroys (subahdars or nazims) responsible for the executive and military branches as well as treasurers (diwans) responsible for the financial branch.
Gujarati ports with significant trade and financial importance now came into the possession of the Mughal Empire and were organized as special districts directly under the authority of the Delhi government. Under Jahangir (1605–1627) and following the advent of the British East India Company, Surat gained importance as a center of oceanic trade between India and Europe; a factory was established there in 1612. The nobles of the former Sultanate and the Hindu chiefs that rebelled and protested were subdued by the viceroys and officers of the Mughal Empire. Under Shah Jahan (1627–1658), Ahmedabad saw an exodus resulting from officials extracting money from citizens—both the rich and the poor—without the royal permission. Viceroys under Shah Jahan saw to expansion efforts south, taking up of arms against the incursions from the Koli and Kathi tribes, and the implementation of a hardline stance on collection of tribute from the Rajput chiefs of Saurashtra.
The reign of Aurangzeb (1658–1707) was characterized by incidents of drawn-out conflict and religious disputes. As a viceroy, he had previously converted the Chintamani Jain temple at Saraspur into a mosque. His rule included enforcement of Islamic laws, discriminatory laws and taxes against Hindu merchants, and a capitation tax on all non-Muslims. Aurangzeb's viceroys retaliated against the Khachars and other Kathi tribes, destroyed the Temple of the Sun while attacking and storming the fort of Than, razed the Temple at Vadnagar, and engaged in a drawn out conflict with the Rathores of Marwar.
During the next three emperors (1707–1719) who had brief reigns, the nobles became more powerful due to instability in the Delhi. The royals of Marwar were appointed viceroys frequently. During the reign of the emperor Muhammad Shah, the struggle between the Mughal and Maratha nobles were heightened with frequent battles and incursions.
Maratha Era (1718–1819)
When the cracks had started to develop in the edifice of the Mughal empire in the mid-17th century, the Marathas were consolidating their power in the west, Chhatrapati Shivaji, the great Maratha ruler, attacked Surat twice first in 1664 and again in 1672. These attacks marked the entry of the Marathas into Gujarat.
Later, in the 17th century and early 18th century, Gujarat came under control of the Maratha Empire. Most notably, from 1705 to 1716, Senapati Khanderao Dabhade led the Maratha Empire forces in Baroda. Pilaji Gaekwad, first ruler of Gaekwad dynasty, established the control over Baroda and other parts of Gujarat.
Starting with Bajirao I in the 1720s, the Peshwas based in Pune established their sovereignty over Gujarat including Saurashtra. After the death of Bajirao I, Peshwa Balaji Bajirao removed the control the Dabhades and Kadam Bande from Gujarat. Balaji Bajirao collected taxes through Damaji Gaekwad. Damaji established the sway of Gaekwad over Gujarat and made Vadodara his capital.
The Marathas continued to grow their hold and the frequent change of viceroys did not reverse the trend. The competing houses of Marathas, Gaikwars and Peshwas engaged between themselves which slow down their progress for a while. They later made peace between themselves. During the reign of the next emperor Ahmad Shah Bahadur (1748–1754), there was nominal control over the nobles who acted on their own. There were frequent fights between themselves and with Marathas. Ahmedabad, the capital of province, fell to the Marathas in 1752. It was regained by noble Momin Khan for a short time but again lost to the Marathas in 1756 after a long siege. Finding opportunity, the British captured Surat in 1759. After a setback at Panipat in 1761, the Marathas strengthened their hold on Gujarat, especially during the reign of Madhavrao.
Maratha control of Gujarat slowly waned in the 1780s and 1790s due to rivalries between different ruling Maratha houses as well within the Peshwa family. The British East India Company fully exploited this situation to expand its control of Gujarat and other Maratha territories. The company also embarked upon its policy of Subsidiary Alliance. With this policy they established their paramountcy over one indigenous state after another. Anandrao Gaekwad joined the Alliance in 1802 and surrendered Surat and adjoining territories to the company. In the garb of helping the Marathas, the British helped themselves, and gradually the Marathas' power came to an end, in 1819 in Gujarat. Gaekwad and other big and small rulers accepted the British Paramountcy.
Early trade with Europeans
In the 1600s, the Dutch, French, English and Portuguese all established bases along the western coast of the region. Portugal was the first European power to arrive in Gujarat, and after the Battle of Diu and Treaty of Bassein, acquired several enclaves along the Gujarati coast, including Daman and Diu as well as Dadra and Nagar Haveli. These enclaves were administered by Portuguese India under a single union territory for over 450 years, only to be later incorporated into the Republic of India on 19 December 1961 by military conquest.
The English East India Company established a factory in Surat in 1614, following the commercial treaty made with Mughal Emperor Nuruddin Salim Jahangir, which formed their first base in India, but it was eclipsed by Bombay after the English received it from Portugal in 1668 as part of the marriage treaty of Charles II of England and Catherine of Braganza, daughter of King John IV of Portugal. The state was an early point of contact with the west, and the first English commercial outpost in India was in Gujarat.17th-century French explorer François Pyrard de Laval, who is remembered for his 10-year sojourn in South Asia, bears witness accounts that the Gujaratis were always prepared to learn workmanship from the Portuguese, also in turn imparting skills to the Portuguese:
British Era (1819–1947 CE)
The East India Company wrested control of much of Gujarat from the Marathas during the Second Anglo-Maratha War in 1802–1803. Many local rulers, notably the Maratha Gaekwad Maharajas of Vadodara, made a separate peace with the British and acknowledged British sovereignty in return for retaining local self-rule.
Gujarat was placed under the political authority of the Bombay Presidency, with the exception of Baroda state, which had a direct relationship with the Governor-General of India. From 1818 to 1947, most of present-day Gujarat, including Kathiawar, Kutch and northern and eastern Gujarat were divided into hundreds of princely states, but several districts in central and southern Gujarat, namely Ahmedabad, Broach (Bharuch), Kaira (Kheda), Panchmahal and Surat, were governed directly by British officials.
In 1812, an epidemic outbreak killed and wiped out half the population of Gujarat.
Indian Independence Movement
See Also: Freedom fighters from Gujarat
The people of Gujarat were the most enthusiastic participants in India's struggle for freedom. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Morarji Desai, K.M. Munshi, Narhari Parikh, Mahadev Desai, Mohanlal Pandya and Ravi Shankar Vyas all hailed from Gujarat. It was also the site of the most popular revolts, including the Satyagrahas in Kheda, Bardoli, Borsad and the Salt Satyagraha.
Post-Independence (1947 CE – present)
1947–1960
After Indian independence and the Partition of India in 1947, the new Indian government grouped the former princely states of Gujarat into three larger units; Saurashtra, which included the former princely states on the Kathiawar peninsula, Kutch, and Bombay state, which included the former British districts of Bombay Presidency together with most of Baroda state and the other former princely states of eastern Gujarat. In 1956, Bombay state was enlarged to include Kutch, Saurashtra, and parts of Hyderabad state and Madhya Pradesh in central India. The new state had a mostly Gujarati-speaking north and a Marathi-speaking south. Mahagujarat Movement led by Indulal Yagnik demanded splitting of Bombay state on linguistic lines. On 1 May 1960, Bombay state bifurcated into Gujarat and Maharashtra. The capital of Gujarat was Ahmedabad.
Kutch was hit by the earthquake in 1956 which destroyed major parts of Anjar town. Gandhidham, Sardarnagar and Kubernagar were refugee settlements established for the resettlement of Sindhi Hindu refugees arriving from Pakistan after partition.
1960–1973
Members of legislative assembly were elected from 132 constituencies of newly formed Gujarat state. Indian National Congress (INC) won the majority and Jivraj Narayan Mehta became the first chief minister of Gujarat. He served until 1963. Balwantrai Mehta succeed him. During Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, Mehta flew on aircraft to inspect Kutch border between India and Pakistan. The aircraft was shot down by Pakistan Air Force. Mehta was killed in the crash. Hitendra Kanaiyalal Desai succeeded him and won assembly elections. In 1969, Indian National Congress split into Congress (O) headed by Morarji Desai and Congress (I) headed by Indira Gandhi. At the same time, the Hindu nationalist organization Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) had established itself deeply in Gujarat around this period. The riots broke out across Gujarat in September to October 1969, resulting in large number of casualties and damage to properties. Desai resigned in 1971 due to split of INC and President's rule was imposed in Gujarat. Later Ghanshyam Oza became chief minister when Indira Gandhi led Congress (I) won majority in parliament after 1971 Indo-Pakistani war. Chimanbhai Patel opposed Oza and became chief minister in 1972. The capital of Gujarat moved from Ahmedabad to Gandhinagar in 1971 but legislative assembly building was completed in 1982.
1974–2000
Navnirman Andolan, the "Navnirman movement" started in December 1973 due to price rise and corruption in public life. People demanded resignation of Chief Minister Patel. Due to pressure of protests, Indira Gandhi asked Patel to step down. He resigned on 9 February 1974 and President's rule imposed. The governor suspended the state assembly and President's rule was imposed. Opposition parties led stepped in with demand for dissolution of state assembly. Congress had 140 out of 167 MLAs in state assembly. 15 Congress (O) and three Jan Sangh MLAs also resigned. By March, protesters had got 95 of 167 to resign. Morarji Desai, leader of Congress (O), went on an indefinite fast in March and the assembly was dissolved bringing end to agitation. No fresh election held until Morarji Desai went on indefinite hunger strike in April 1975. The fresh elections were held in June 1975. Chimanbhai Patel formed new party named Kisan Mazdoor Lok Paksh and contested on his own. Congress lost elections which won only 75 seats. Coalition of Congress (O), Jan Sangh, PSP and Lok Dal known as Janata Morcha won 88 seats and Babubhai J. Patel became Chief Minister. Indira Gandhi imposed the emergency in 1975. Janata Morcha government lasted nine months and president's rule imposed in March 1976 following failure of passage of budget in assembly to opposition of coalition partners. Later Congress won elections in December 1976 and Madhav Singh Solanki became Chief Minister. A year later Madhav Singh Solanki resigned and again Babubhai Patel led Janata Party formed the government. He shifted his cabinet to Morbi for six months during 1979 Machchhu dam failure disaster which resulted in large casualties.
Janata Morcha government was dismissed and president's rule was imposed in 1980 even though it had majority. Later Madhav Singh Solanki led INC won the election in 1980 and formed the government which completed five years in office. Amarsinh Chaudhary succeeded him in 1985 and headed government till 1989. Solanki again became chief minister until INC lost in 1990 election following Mandal commission protests. Chimanbhai Patel came back to power in March 1990 as the head of a Janata Dal -Bharatiya Janata Party coalition government. Coalition broke just few months after in October 1990 but Chimanbhai Patel managed to retain majority with support of 34 INC legislatures. Later Patel joined the INC and continued till his death in February 1994. Chhabildas Mehta succeeded him and continued till March 1995. In 1994 plague endemic broke out in Surat resulting in 52 deaths.
Following the rise of Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) at centre, Keshubhai Patel led BJP won in 1995 assembly election. Keshubhai Patel became the chief minister of Gujarat in March but resigned eight months later as his colleague Shankersinh Vaghela revolted against him. BJP was split as Rashtriya Janata Party was formed by Vaghela who became the Chief Minister by support of INC. Assembly was dissolved in 1998 as INC withdrew its support. BJP returned to power led by Patel in 1998 assembly elections and he became the chief minister again. In 1998, a severe tropical cyclone hit Kandla port and Saurashtra and Kutch regions.
2000–present
Gujarat was hit with a devastating earthquake on 26 January 2001 which claimed a staggering 20,000 lives, injured another 200,000 people and severely affected the lives of 40 million of the population. Patel resigned as chief minister in October 2001 due to his failing health. Allegations of abuse of power, corruption and poor administration; as well as a loss of BJP seats in by-elections and mismanagement of relief works during the aftermath of the 2001 Bhuj earthquake; prompted the BJP's national leadership to seek a new candidate for the office of chief minister. He was replaced by Narendra Modi.
The Gujarat Riots of 2002, was a three-day period of inter-communal violence in Gujarat between the Hindus and Muslims, characterized by mass murder, loot, rape, and destruction of property, affecting thousands of people, mostly Muslims. Though officially classified as a communalist riot, the events of 2002 have been described as a pogrom by many scholars. Scholars studying the 2002 riots state that they were premeditated and constituted a form of ethnic cleansing, and that the state government and law enforcement were complicit in the violence that occurred. However, Special Investigation Team (SIT) appointed by the Supreme Court of India, rejected claims that the state government had not done enough to prevent the riots.
In September 2002, there was a terrorist attack on Akshardham temple complex at Gandhinagar. Modi led BJP won December 2002 election with majority. In 2005 and 2006, Gujarat was affected by floods. In July 2008, a series of 21 bomb blasts hit Ahmedabad, within a span of 70 minutes. 56 people were killed and over 200 people were injured in the attack. 2009 Gujarat hepatitis outbreak resulted in 49 deaths. In July 2009, more than 130 people died in hooch tragedy.
In 2006, Gujarat became the first state in India to electrify all villages of the state.
Narendra Modi led BJP retained power in 2007 and 2012 assembly elections. Anandiben Patel became the first women Chief Minister of Gujarat on 22 May 2014 as Modi left the position following win in 2014 Indian general election. He was sworn in as the second Prime Minister of Gujarati origin after Morarji Desai in May 2014. Heavy rain in June and July 2015 resulted in widespread flooding in Saurashtra and north Gujarat resulting in more than 150 deaths. The wild life of Gir Forest National Park and adjoining area was also affected. Starting July 2015, the people of Patidar community carried out demonstrations across the state seeking Other Backward Class status which turned violent on 25 August and 19 September 2015 for brief period. The agitation continued and again turned violent in April 2016. In late 2016, Dalits protested across Gujarat in response to an assault on Dalit men in Una. Following heavy rain in July 2017, the state, especially north Gujarat, was affected by the severe flood resulting in more than 200 deaths. In October 2018, a rape incident had triggered the attacks on the Hindi-speaking migrants in Gujarat leading to exodus. In 2019, Vadodara was flooded while there was a fire in a commercial complex at Surat causing death of 22 children. During COVID-19 pandemic, more than 1,00,000 cases and 3100 deaths were reported in Gujarat between March and September 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gujarats coronavirus caseload crosses one lakh mark|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/gujarats-coronavirus-caseload-crosses-one-lakh-mark/1928877|access-date=2020-09-04|website=outlookindia.com}}</ref> In 2020, the industrial explosions at Dahej and Ahmedabad resulted in five and twelve deaths respectively.
The Narendra Modi Stadium of Motera became the world's largest stadium following the renovation in 2021.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Edalji Dosabhai. A History of Gujarat (1986) 379 pp. full text online free
Padmanābha, ., & Bhatnagar, V. S. (1991). Kanhadade Prabandha: India's greatest patriotic saga of medieval times : Padmanābha's epic account of Kānhaḍade. New Delhi: Voice of India.
Yazdani, Kaveh. India, Modernity and the Great Divergence: Mysore and Gujarat (17th to 19th C.'' (Leiden: Brill, 2017. 669 pp. online review |
4332104 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia%20campaign | Philadelphia campaign | The Philadelphia campaign (1777–1778) was a British effort in the American Revolutionary War to gain control of Philadelphia, the Revolutionary-era capital where the Second Continental Congress convened and signed the Declaration of Independence, which formalized and escalated the war.
As part of the Philadelphia campaign, British General William Howe, after failing to draw the Continental Army under General George Washington into a battle in North Jersey, embarked his army on transports, and landed them at the northern end of the Chesapeake Bay. From there, he advanced northward toward Philadelphia. Washington prepared defenses against Howe's movements at Brandywine Creek, but was flanked and beaten back in the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777. After further skirmishes and maneuvers, Howe entered and occupied Philadelphia. Washington then unsuccessfully attacked one of Howe's garrisons at Germantown before retreating to Valley Forge for the winter.
Howe's campaign was controversial because, while he succeeded in capturing the American capital of Philadelphia, he proceeded slowly and did not aid the concurrent campaign of John Burgoyne further north, which ended in disaster for the British in the Battles of Saratoga and brought France into the war. Howe resigned during the occupation of Philadelphia and was replaced by his second-in-command, General Sir Henry Clinton. Clinton evacuated Philadelphia and moved his troops back to New York City in 1778, in order to stiffen that city's defenses against a possible combined Franco-American attack. Washington then harried the British Army all the way across New Jersey, and forced a battle at Monmouth Court House that was one of the war's largest battles.
At the end of the Philadelphia campaign in 1778, the two armies found themselves in roughly the same strategic positions that they had been in before Howe launched the attack on Philadelphia.
History
British plan to capture Philadelphia
Following Howe's capture of New York City and Washington's success in the Battles of Trenton and Princeton, the two armies settled into an uneasy stalemate in the winter months of early 1777. While punctuated by numerous skirmishes, the British Army continued to occupy outposts at New Brunswick and Perth Amboy in New Jersey.
In 1777, Howe proposed to George Germain, the British civilian official responsible for war's conduct, that British expedition be launched with the goal of capturing Philadelphia, the seat of the rebellious Second Continental Congress. Germain approved Howe's plan, although with fewer troops than Howe requested. He also approved plans by John Burgoyne for an expedition to "force his way to Albany" from Montreal. Germain's approval of Howe's expedition included the expectation that Howe would be able to assist Burgoyne, effecting a junction at Albany between the forces of Burgoyne and troops that Howe would send north from New York City.
Howe decided in early April 1777 against taking the British Army over land to Philadelphia through New Jersey since this route would entail having to cross of the broad Delaware River under hostile conditions and likely require the transportation or construction of necessary watercraft. Howe's plan, sent to Germain on April 2, isolated Burgoyne from any possibility of significant support, since Howe instead would take the British Army to Philadelphia by sea, and the New York garrison would be too small for any significant offensive operations up the Hudson River to assist Burgoyne.
Washington realized that Howe "certainly ought in good policy to endeavor to Cooperate with Genl. Burgoyne" and was baffled why he did not do so. Washington at the time and historians ever since have wondered why Howe was not in place to come to the relief of Burgoyne, whose invasion army from Canada was surrounded and captured by the Americans in October. Historians agree that Lord Germain did a poor job in coordinating the two campaigns. Following Howe's capture of New York City and Washington's retreat across the Delaware River, Howe wrote to Germain on December 20, 1776, proposing an elaborate set of campaigns for 1777. These included operations to gain control of the Hudson River, expand operations from the base at Newport, Rhode Island, and take Philadelphia, the seat of the rebel Continental Congress. The latter Howe saw as attractive, since Washington was then just north of the city: Howe wrote that he was "persuaded the Principal Army should act offensively [against Philadelphia], where the enemy's chief strength lies." Germain acknowledged that this plan was particularly "well digested", but it called for more men than Germain was prepared to provide. After the setbacks in New Jersey, Howe in mid-January 1777 proposed operations against Philadelphia that included an overland expedition and a sea-based attack, thinking this might lead to a decisive victory over the Continental Army. This plan was developed to the extent that in April Howe's army was seen constructing pontoon bridges; Washington, lodged in his winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey, thought they were for eventual use on the Delaware River. However, by mid-May Howe had apparently abandoned the idea of an overland expedition: "I propose to invade Pennsylvania by sea ... we must probably abandon the Jersies."
Howe's decision to not assist Burgoyne may have been rooted in his perception that Burgoyne would receive credit for a successful campaign, even if it required Howe's help. This would not help Howe's reputation as much as if the Philadelphia campaign succeeded. Historian John Alden notes the jealousies among various British leaders, saying, "It is likely that [Howe] was as jealous of Burgoyne as Burgoyne was of him and that he was not eager to do anything which might assist his junior up the ladder of military renown." Along the same lines Don Higginbotham concludes that in Howe's view, "[The Hudson River campaign] was Burgoyne's whole show, and consequently he [Howe] wanted little to do with it. With regard to Burgoyne's army, he would do only what was required of him (virtually nothing)." Howe himself wrote to Burgoyne on July 17: "My intention is for Pennsylvania, where I expect to meet Washington, but if he goes to the northward contrary to my expectations, and you can keep him at bay, be assured I shall soon be after him to relieve you." He sailed from New York not long after.
Washington's Continental Army had been encamped primarily at Morristown, New Jersey, although there was a forward base at Bound Brook, only a few miles from the nearest British outposts. In part as a retaliatory measure against the ongoing skirmishes, General Charles Cornwallis executed a raid against that position in April 1777, in which he very nearly captured the outpost's commander, Benjamin Lincoln. In response to this raid, Washington moved his army forward to a strongly fortified position at Middlebrook in the Watchung Mountains that commanded likely British land routes toward Philadelphia.
For reasons that are not entirely clear, Howe moved a sizable army to Somerset Court House, south of New Brunswick, New Jersey. He performed this move as a feint to draw Washington out from his strong position, but it failed since Washington refused to move his army out in force. Washington had intelligence that Howe had not brought watercraft or the necessary equipment for constructing them, so this move seemed unlikely to him to be a move toward the Delaware River. When Howe eventually withdrew his army back toward Perth Amboy, Washington did follow. Launching a lightning strike, Howe sent forces under Cornwallis in an attempt to cut Washington off from the high ground; this attempt was foiled in the Battle of Short Hills. Howe then withdrew his troops to Perth Amboy, embarked them on transports, and sailed out of New York harbor, destined for Philadelphia.
Washington did not know where Howe was going. Considering the possibility that Howe was again feinting, and would actually sail his army up the Hudson to join with Burgoyne, he remained near New York. Only when he received word that Howe's fleet had reached the mouth of the Delaware, did he need to consider the defense of Philadelphia. However, the fleet did not enter the Delaware, instead continuing south. Uncertain of Howe's goal, which could be Charleston, South Carolina, he considered moving north to assist in the defense of the Hudson, when he learned that the fleet had entered the Chesapeake Bay. In August, he began moving his troops south to prepare the city's defenses. General John Sullivan, who commanded the Continental Army's troops facing Staten Island, had, in order to capitalize on perceived weaknesses of the British position there following Howe's departure, attempted a raid on August 22, that failed with the Battle of Staten Island.
Capture of Philadelphia
General Howe landed 15,000 troops in late August at the northern end of the Chesapeake Bay, about 55 miles (90 km) southwest of Philadelphia. General Washington positioned 11,000 men between Howe and Philadelphia but was outflanked and driven back at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777, and suffered over 1,000 casualties, and the British lost about half that number.
The Continental Congress once again abandoned the city, relocating first to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and later York, Pennsylvania. British and Revolutionary forces maneuvered around each other west of Philadelphia for the next several days, clashing in minor encounters such as the abortive Battle of the Clouds and the so-called "Paoli Massacre." On September 26, Howe finally outmaneuvered Washington and marched into Philadelphia unopposed. Capture of the rebel capital did not bring the end to the rebellion as the British thought it would. In 18th-century warfare, it was normal that the side who captured the opposing force's capital city won the war, but the Revolutionary War would continue for six more years until 1783 because of the rebels' unconventional warfare tactics.
After capturing Philadelphia, the British garrisoned about 9,000 troops in Germantown, 5 miles (8 km) north of Philadelphia. On October 2 the British captured Fort Billingsport, on the Delaware in New Jersey, to clear a line of chevaux de frise obstacles in the river. The idea of placing those obstacles is attributed to Benjamin Franklin, and they were designed by Robert Smith. An undefended line had already been taken at Marcus Hook, and a third line was nearer Philadelphia, guarded by Fort Mifflin and Fort Mercer. Washington unsuccessfully attacked Germantown on October 4, and then retreated to watch and wait for the British to counterattack. Meanwhile, the British needed to open a supply route along the Delaware River to support their occupation of Philadelphia. After a prolonged defense of the river by Commodore John Hazelwood and the Continental and Pennsylvania Navies, the British finally secured the river by taking forts Mifflin and Mercer in mid-November (although the latter was not taken until after a humiliating repulse). In early December, Washington successfully repelled a series of probes by General Howe in the Battle of White Marsh.
Washington's problems at this time were not just with the British. In the Conway Cabal, some politicians and officers were unhappy with Washington's performance in the campaign and began secretively discussing Washington's removal. Offended by the behind-the-scenes maneuvering, Washington laid the whole matter openly before Continental Congress. In response, his supporters rallied behind him, and Washington's leadership was reassured.
Valley Forge and Monmouth
Washington and his army encamped at Valley Forge in December 1777, about 20 miles (32 km) from Philadelphia, where they stayed for the next six months. Over the winter, 2,500 men (out of 10,000) died from disease and exposure. However, the army eventually emerged from Valley Forge in good order, thanks in part to a training program supervised by Baron von Steuben.
Meanwhile, there was a shakeup in the British command. General Howe resigned his command, and was replaced by Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton as commander-in-chief. France's entry into the war forced a change in British war strategy, and Clinton was ordered by the government to abandon Philadelphia and defend New York City, now vulnerable to French naval power. As the British were preparing their withdrawal, Washington sent out Lafayette on a reconnaissance mission. Lafayette narrowly escaped a British ambush at the Battle of Barren Hill. The British sent out a peace commission headed by the Earl of Carlisle, whose offers, which were made in June 1778 as Clinton was preparing to abandon Philadelphia, were rejected by the Second Continental Congress.
Clinton shipped many Loyalists and most of his heavy equipment by sea to New York, and evacuated Philadelphia on June 18, after 266 days of British occupation. Washington's army shadowed Clinton's, and Washington successfully forced a battle at Monmouth Courthouse on June 28, the last major battle in the North. Washington's second-in-command, General Charles Lee, who led the advance force of the army, ordered a controversial retreat early in the battle, allowing Clinton's army to regroup. By July, Clinton was in New York City, and Washington was again at White Plains, New York. Both armies were back where they had been two years earlier.
Aftermath
Shortly after the British arrived in New York City, a French fleet arrived outside its harbor, leading to a flurry of action by both sides. The French and Americans decided to make an attempt on the British garrison at Newport, Rhode Island; this first attempt at coordination was a notable failure.
Under orders from London, Clinton reallocated some of his troops to the West Indies, and began a program of coastal raiding from Chesapeake Bay to Massachusetts. In and around New York City, Clinton and Washington's respective armies watched each other and skirmished, including in two major battles, the 1779 Battle of Stony Point and the 1780 Battle of Connecticut Farms. Clinton considered again attacking the colonial capital of Philadelphia, but these attacks never came to fruition.
The British also began a wider frontier war organized from Quebec City, using Loyalist and Native American allies. British and French forces engaged each other in the West Indies and in India beginning in 1778, and the 1779 entry of Spain into the war widened the global aspects of the war even further.
In 1780, the British began a "southern strategy" to regain control of the rebelling colonies, with the capture of Charleston, South Carolina. This effort would ultimately fail at Yorktown.
See also
List of American Revolutionary War battles
American Revolutionary War § British northern strategy fails. Places 'Philadelphia campaign' in overall sequence and strategic context.
Notes
References
Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. New York: McKay, 1966; revised 1974. .
Ferling, John E. The First of Men: A Life of George Washington (2010)
Freeman, Douglas Southall. Washington (1968) ch 12–14
Higginbotham, Don. The War of American Independence (1971)
Martin, David G. The Philadelphia Campaign: June 1777–July 1778. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Books, 1993. . 2003 Da Capo reprint, .
Further reading
Anderson, Troyer Steele. The Command of the Howe Brothers During the American Revolution. New York and London, 1936.
Buchanan, John. The Road to Valley Forge: How Washington Built the Army That Won the Revolution. Wiley, 2004. .
Harris, Michael C. The Philadelphia Campaign, 1777. Havertown, PA: Casemate Publishers, 2023. .
Jackson, John W. With the British Army in Philadelphia, 1777–1778. California: Presidio Press, 1979. .
McGuire, Thomas J. Battle of Paoli. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2000.
McGuire, Thomas J. The Philadelphia Campaign, Vol. I: Brandywine and the Fall of Philadelphia. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2006. .
McGuire, Thomas J., The Philadelphia Campaign, Vol. II: Germantown and the Roads to Valley Forge. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2007. .
Sullivan, Aaron. The Disaffected: Britain's Occupation of Philadelphia During the Revolutionary War. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019.
Taaffe, Stephen R. The Philadelphia Campaign, 1777–1778. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2003. .
External links
Animated Maps
9/11/1777 – Battle of Brandywine
9/16/1777 – Battle of the Clouds
9/20/1777 – Battle of Paoli
10/4/1777 – Battle of Germantown
Philadelphia Campaign – Overall
Interactive Maps
Troop Movements in Delaware Valley
Valley Forge / Tredyffrin Encampments | September & December 1777
Bibliography of the Continental Army Operations in the Pennsylvania Theater compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History
1770s in Pennsylvania
1770s in the United States
1777 in Pennsylvania
1778 in Pennsylvania
American Revolution
Campaigns of the American Revolutionary War
Conflicts in 1777
Conflicts in 1778
Delaware in the American Revolution
History of Philadelphia
Maryland in the American Revolution
New Jersey in the American Revolution
Pennsylvania in the American Revolution |
4332186 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martine%20Rothblatt | Martine Rothblatt | Martine Aliana Rothblatt is an American lawyer, author, entrepreneur, and transgender rights advocate. Rothblatt graduated from University of California, Los Angeles with J.D. and M.B.A. degrees in 1981, then began to work in Washington, D.C., first in the field of communications satellite law, and eventually in life sciences projects like the Human Genome Project. She is also influential in the field of aviation, particularly electric aviation, as well as with sustainable building.
She is the founder and chairwoman of the board of United Therapeutics. She was also the CEO of GeoStar and the creator of SiriusXM Satellite Radio. She was the top earning CEO in the biopharmaceutical industry in 2018.
Early life and education
Rothblatt was born 1954 into a Jewish family in Chicago, Illinois, to Rosa Lee and Hal Rothblatt, a dentist. She was raised in a suburb of San Diego, California.
Rothblatt left college after two years and traveled throughout Europe, Turkey, Iran, Kenya, and the Seychelles. It was at the NASA tracking station in the Seychelles, during the summer of 1974, that she had her epiphany to unite the world via satellite communications. She then returned to University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), graduating summa cum laude in communication studies in 1977, with a thesis on international direct-broadcast satellites.
As an undergraduate, she became a convert to Gerard K. O'Neill's "High Frontier" plan for space colonization after analyzing his 1974 Physics Today cover story on the concept as a project for Professor Harland Epps' Topics in Modern Astronomy seminar. Rothblatt subsequently became an active member of the L5 Society and its Southern California affiliate, the Organization for the Advancement of Space Industrialization and Settlement (OASIS).
During her four-year J.D./M.B.A. program, also at UCLA, she published five articles on the law of satellite communications and prepared a business plan for the Hughes Space and Communications Group titled PanAmSat about how satellite spot beam technology could be used to provide communication service to multiple Latin American countries. She also became a regular contributor on legal aspects of space colonization to the OASIS newsletter.
Career
Satellite communications
Upon graduating from UCLA in 1981 with a joint J.D./M.B.A. degree, Rothblatt was hired by the Washington, D.C., law firm of Covington & Burling to represent the television broadcasting industry before the Federal Communications Commission in the areas of direct broadcast satellites and spread spectrum communication. In 1982, she left to study astronomy at the University of Maryland, College Park, but was soon retained by NASA to obtain FCC approval for the IEEE C band system on its tracking and data relay satellites and by the National Academy of Sciences' Committee on Radio Frequencies to safeguard before the FCC radio astronomy quiet bands used for deep space research. Later that year she was also retained as vice president by Gerard K. O'Neill to handle business and regulatory matters for her newly invented satellite navigation technology, known as the Geostar System.
Rothblatt is a regulatory attorney. She also served as a member of the Space Studies Institute (SSI) board of trustees.
In 1984, she was retained by Rene Anselmo, founder of Spanish International Network, to implement her PanAmSat MBA thesis as a new company that would compete with the global telecommunications satellite monopoly, Intelsat. In 1986, she discontinued her astronomy studies and consulting work to become the full-time CEO of Geostar Corporation, under William E. Simon as chairman. She left Geostar in 1990 to create both WorldSpace and Sirius Satellite Radio. She left Sirius in 1992 and WorldSpace in 1997 to become the full-time chairman and CEO of American medical biotechnology company United Therapeutics.
Rothblatt was responsible for launching several communications satellite companies, including the first private international spacecom project (PanAmSat, 1984), the first global satellite radio network (WorldSpace, 1990), and the first non-geostationary satellite-to-car broadcasting system (Sirius Satellite Radio, 1990).
Rothblatt helped pioneer airship internet services with her Sky Station project in 1997, together with Alexander Haig.
She then successfully led the effort to get the US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to allocate frequencies for airship-based internet services.
As an attorney-entrepreneur, Rothblatt was also responsible for leading the efforts to obtain worldwide approval, via new international treaties, of satellite orbit/spectrum allocations for space-based navigation services (1987) and for direct-to-person satellite radio transmissions (1992). She also led the International Bar Association's biopolitical project to develop a draft Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights for the United Nations (whose final version was adopted by the UNESCO on November 11, 1997, and endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly on December 9, 1998).
Medical and pharmaceutical
Rothblatt is a well-known voice for medical and pharmaceutical innovation. In 1994, motivated by her daughter being diagnosed with life-threatening pulmonary hypertension, Rothblatt created the PPH Cure Foundation and in 1996 founded United Therapeutics. That same year, she says, she had sex reassignment surgery. At that time she also began studying for a Ph.D. in medical ethics at the Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London. The degree was granted in June 2001 based upon her dissertation on the conflict between private and public interests in xenotransplantation. This thesis, defended before England's leading bioethicist John Harris, was later published by Ashgate House under the title Your Life or Mine.
In 2013, Rothblatt was the highest-paid woman CEO in America, earning $38 million.
As of April 2018, Rothblatt earned a compensation package worth $37.1 million from United Therapeutics. The majority of the compensation package is for stock options.
In January 2022, Rothblatt's company Lung Biotechnology made an attempt at effectuating her Ph.D. dissertation by transplanting the first genetically-modified porcine heart in hopes that it would successfully save the life of a patient. The recipient subsequently died on Tuesday, March 8, 2022.
In June 2022, Rothblatt unveiled the world's most complex 3D printed object, a human lung scaffold, based on 44 trillion [voxel]s of data and comprising four thousand kilometers of capillaries and 200 million alveoli.
Aviation
Rothblatt is an airplane and helicopter pilot with night-vision goggle (NVG) certification. She generally pilots a Pilatus PC-12NG and a Bell 429WLG. Her other achievements in aviation include providing current weather information to all XM radio-equipped North American aircraft via her SiriusXM satellite system, and pioneering Aircraft Geolocation Tracking via her Geostar Satellite System. In 2018, Rothblatt received the American Helicopter Museum and Education Center Annual Achievement Award for innovation in rotary-wing flight.
Electric aviation
Rothblatt's company United Therapeutics formed a subsidiary, Lung Biotechnology, to preserve and restore selected donor lungs, making them viable for transplantation. Rothblatt began looking at electric helicopters as a way of reducing energy consumption and noise while reducing transportation time for the sensitive organs.
In September 2016, Rothblatt teamed with Glen Dromgoole of Tier 1 Engineering and pilot Ric Webb of OC Helicopters to conduct the world's first electric-powered full-size helicopter flight at Los Alamitos Army Airfield. The helicopter, a modified Robinson R44 weighed 2,500 pounds with Webb as its test pilot, flew for five minutes, attained 400 feet and exceeded 80 knots airspeed, all completely powered by rechargeable batteries.
On February 16, 2017, Rothblatt's electric helicopter established new world records of a 30-minute duration flight and an 800-foot altitude at Los Alamitos Army Airfield. At the end of the flight, the 2,500 pound helicopter still had 8% state of charge remaining in its Brammo batteries. On March 4, 2017, Rothblatt and Ric Webb set a world speed record for electric helicopters of 100 knots at Los Alamitos Army Airfield under an FAA Experimental permit for tail number N3115T. This was also the first-ever flight of two people in a battery-powered helicopter. On December 7, 2018, Rothblatt earned certification in the Guinness Book of World Records for the farthest distance traveled (56.82 kilometers) by an electric helicopter.
In 2019, she received the inaugural UP Leadership Award for her advances in eVTOL technology.
In September 2021, Dr. Rothblatt's project to deliver transplantable organs by electric drones was successfully achieved at Toronto General Hospital (TGH), resulting in the world's first delivery of transplanted lungs by drone.
In October 2022, Rothblatt piloted the historic first-ever electric helicopter flight between two airports, flying from Jacqueline Cochran Regional Airport in Thermal, California, to Palm Springs International Airport.
Rothblatt's United Therapeutics has placed orders for with both EHang and BETA Technologies for electric vertical take-off and landing eVTOL aircraft. In June 2021, she was the first flight engineer to fly BETA's ALIA eVTOL aircraft, and as of November 2021 sat on the company’s board of directors.
Sustainable building
In September 2018 Rothblatt inaugurated the world's largest net zero office building site, called the Unisphere, containing 210,000 square feet of space in Silver Spring, Maryland, powered, heated and cooled completely from on-site sustainable energy technologies. This office building uses 1 MW of solar panels, fifty-two geothermal wells, a quarter mile long earth labyrinth and electrochromic glass to operate with a zero carbon footprint while graphically communicating its net energy status in real time to the building occupants.
Personal life
In 1982, Rothblatt married Bina Aspen, a realtor from Compton, California. Rothblatt and Aspen each had a child from a previous relationship and legally adopted each other's children; they went on to have two more children together.
In 1994, at age 40, she came out as transgender and changed her name to Martine Aliana Rothblatt. She has since become a vocal advocate for transgender rights.
Social activism
In 2004, Rothblatt launched the Terasem Movement, a transhumanist school of thought focused on promoting joy, diversity, and the prospect of technological immortality via mind uploading and geoethical nanotechnology. Through a charitable foundation, leaders of this school convene publicly accessible symposia, publish explanatory analyses, conduct demonstration projects, issue grants, and encourage public awareness and adherence to Terasem values and goals. The movement maintains a "Terasem Island" on the Internet-based virtual world Second Life, which is currently composed of two sims, which was constructed by the E-Spaces company.
Rothblatt is an advocate for LGBTQ rights and an outspoken opponent of North Carolina's controversial Public Facilities Privacy & Security Act or HB-2 law.
Through her blog Mindfiles, Mindware and Mindclones, she writes about "the coming age of our own cyberconsciousness and techno-immortality" and started a vlog together with Ulrike Reinhard on the same topic. She also created Lifenaut.com as a place where thousands of people could go to backup their minds.
Rothblatt contributed $258,000 to SpacePAC, a super PAC that supported her son, Gabriel, who was running as a Democrat in Florida's 8th congressional district but lost. Gabriel is a pastor for the Terasem Movement.
Reception
Lawyer and bioethicist Wesley J. Smith ridiculed the feasibility of the Terasem Movement Foundation's claims to offer a free service that can "preserve one's individual consciousness so that it remains viable for possible uploading with consciousness software into a cellular regenerated or bionanotechnological body by future medicine and technology". Smith facetiously questioned whether this offer would be followed by the sale of "longevity products".
Rhetorician and technocritic Dale Carrico harshly criticized Rothblatt's writings for promoting what he argues to be the pseudoscience of mind uploading and the techno-utopianism of the Californian Ideology. Carrico later criticized Rothblatt's claims about digital technology and "mindclones" as being nothing more than wishful thinking. Carrico went on to criticize Rothblatt for caring more about rights of "virtual, uploaded persons"—who he argues are neither real nor possible—more than the rights of actual human persons and some animals, such as great apes and dolphins.
Describing a conversation with BINA48, one of "humanity's first cybernetic companions," created by Rothblatt and Hanson Robotics, journalist Amy Harmon concluded it was "not that different from interviewing certain flesh and blood subjects."
Awards and honors
Rothblatt has received many awards, including several honorary doctorate degrees.
In April 2008, Rothblatt was elected a Member of the American Philosophical Society.
On May 11, 2010, she was awarded an honorary doctorate by Ben Gurion University of the Negev in recognition of her accomplishments in satellite communications and biotechnology.
In September 2017 Forbes magazine named Rothblatt one of the 100 Greatest Living Business Minds of the past century, with special reference to her roles as a "perpetual reinventor, founder of Sirius and United Therapeutics, and creator of PanAmSat." On December 5, 2017, North Carolina State University conferred her an honorary Doctor of Sciences degree.
In January 2018 Rothblatt was presented the UCLA Medal, the university's highest award, in recognition of her creation of Sirius XM satellite radio, advancing organ transplant technology, and having "expanded the way we understand fundamental concepts ranging from communication to gender to the nature of consciousness and mortality." On May 16, 2018, Rothblatt and Didi Chuxing President Jean Liu were awarded Doctors of Commercial Science degrees, honoris causa, at NYU's 186th Commencement at Yankee Stadium. In 2018, the University of Victoria's Chair in Transgender Studies, Founder and Academic Director of the Transgender Archives, nominated Martine for an Honorary Doctor of Laws (LLD). She was officially awarded this on November 13, 2019, at the 10:00 am graduation ceremony.
In 2019 Rothblatt was recognized as one of Business Insider's most powerful LGBTQ+ people in tech. Also in 2019, Rothblatt received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council member Sir Peter Jackson during the International Achievement Summit in New York City.
In October 2021, the National Business Aviation Association (NBAA) selected Dr. Rothblatt for its highest honor, the Meritorious Service to Aviation Award, for her fostering of aviation weather information on the flight deck and of advanced air mobility such as electric helicopters.
In April 2023, Rothblatt received the Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences in recognition of her many transformative, diverse, singular scientific and public service contributions.
Bibliography
Radiodetermination Satellite Services and Standards, Artech House, 1987, (communications satellite technology)
Apartheid of Sex: a Manifesto on the Freedom of Gender, Crown, 1995 (transgenderism)
From Transgender to Transhuman: a Manifesto on the Freedom of Form, Martine Rothblatt, 2011,
Unzipped Genes, Temple University Press, 1997 (bioethics and biopolitics)
Your Life or Mine, Ashgate, 2003 (xenotransplantation)
Two Stars for Peace, iUniverse, 2003 (Middle East peace process)
Virtually Human, St. Martin's Press, 2014 (artificial intelligence)
Filmography
Rothblatt is the executive producer of the following films:
2B, Transformer Films, 2009. The film is a techno-thriller set in the near-future that deals with the moral questions confronting society following the creation of the world's first posthuman.
The Singularity Is Near, Exponential Films, 2010. The documentary, based upon Ray Kurzweil's book The Singularity Is Near, is directed by Anthony Waller and stars Pauley Perrette.
References
Further reading
External links
Lifeboat Foundation Bios: Martine Rothblatt
United Therapeutics
"My daughter, my wife, our robot, and the quest for immortality" (TED2015)
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4332319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get%20Together%20%28Madonna%20song%29 | Get Together (Madonna song) | "Get Together" is a song by American singer Madonna from her tenth studio album, Confessions on a Dance Floor (2005). The song was written and produced by both Madonna and Stuart Price, with additional writing by Anders Bagge and Peer Åström. It was released in the United States as the third single from the album on May 30, 2006, by Warner Bros. Records. The decision was spurred by the fact that the song was the third most downloaded song from the album, following its previous singles. The song was also released to coincide with the start of Madonna's Confessions Tour. It is a disco-influenced electropop, trance and techno song which lyrically talks about the possibility of finding love on the dancefloor.
Upon release, "Get Together" received generally positive reviews by music critics, with some appreciating its production, while others were underwhelmed. The song reached the top 10 in countries like Canada, the United Kingdom, and Italy, while topping the charts in Hungary and Spain. However, in the US, the song failed to match the same success as it did not enter the official Billboard Hot 100 chart, only peaking at six on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart due to low radio airplay.
Two music videos were created for the song, featuring Madonna's performance of the song at London's Koko Club, but they were animated to make it different visually. The videos showed Madonna singing the song amongst graphical visuals portraying volcanoes erupting and a cityscape. The singer performed the song during a promotional tour for Confessions on a Dance Floor and on her 2006 Confessions Tour, where she was accompanied by two dancers wearing horse reins around their heads. In 2007, "Get Together" was nominated in the category of Best Dance/Electronic Recording at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards.
Background and composition
Initially, "Jump" was set to be released as the third single from Confessions on a Dance Floor, following "Hung Up" and "Sorry"; however, it was decided that "Get Together" would be released instead, spurred by the fact that it was the third bestselling digital single from the record. The song's digital sales stood at 20,000 at that time, whereas digital sales for "Jump" were around 9,000. Additionally, "Get Together" was also chosen as the third single to coincide with the start of Madonna's 2006 Confessions Tour. Several remixes of the song, done by DJs such as Tiefschwarz, Danny Howells, and James Holden, were included on versions of the single around the world, released by Warner Bros. Records on May 30, 2006, in the United States and on July 24 in the United Kingdom. Keith Caulfield of Billboard was particularly fond of Danny Howells & Dick Trevor KinkyFunk remix, which "makes over the tune as a snappy, strutting, disco-funk number". The cover artwork for the single features Madonna and her Confessions Tour crew members, including the song's producer Stuart Price. The photo alternatively can also be found on the inlay cover of the I'm Going to Tell You a Secret live album (2006).
"Get Together" was written and produced by both Madonna and Price, with additional writing by Anders Bagge and Peer Åström. It is a disco-influenced electropop, trance, and techno song. The track starts with the ringing of an alarm clock, before turning into "an irresistible wave of filtered synths and thumping house beats". The song is set in common time with moderately fast dance groove tempo and a metronome of 126 beats per minute. It is set in the key of C major with Madonna's vocals spanning from A3 to A4. The track follows in the chord progression of Em–F–G–Am throughout. Some reviewers noted similarities to Stardust's song "Music Sounds Better with You", which also contains samples of Chaka Khan's song "Fate". One songwriter of the former song, Dominic King, alleged Madonna used the disco riff from the track without permission. King commented he was surprised him and co-writer Frank Musker "didn't get a call", as "it would have been nice to have been asked"; the songwriter said he was "almost certain a discussion about money will happen with her people".
Lyrically, "Get Together" is about the possibility of finding love on the dance floor, with Madonna asking several questions, such as "Do you believe in love at first sight?" and "Do you believe we can change the future?", before asking on its hook, "Can we get together? I really, I really wanna be with you"; she realizes that whether it exists or not, she does not care: "It's an illusion." At the end of the song, she concludes that "If it's bitter at the start then it's sweeter at the end". According to Jason Shawham from About.com, the lyrics comes off as representing a "conversation or an internal dialogue", while for VH1's Christopher Rosa, Madonna "beckons for closer contact with a nighttime lover". Some reviewers also noted an allusion to the S.O.S. Band's 1980 single "Take Your Time (Do It Right)" in the line "Baby we can do it, we can do it all right", whereas Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine also observed "subtle nods" to Madonna's own songs like "Holiday" (1983) and "Secret" (1994) in the lyrics. For his part, Nick Levine, in an article for NME, opined that the lyrical content of "Get Together" captures the "thrill of going out dancing and maybe hooking with someone just as effortlessly as 'Into The Groove' did two decades earlier."
Critical response
Upon release, "Get Together" was met with generally positive responses from music critics. Keith Caulfield from Billboard complimented the song's "enlightment" theme, while calling it a "hypnotic space-age thumper" in a separate review for the single. David Browne from Entertainment Weekly said that it was fluid in nature and called Madonna a "restless soul aching to connect" in the song. Cinquemani commented that the song as an "evidence of Madonna's previous talent of turning clichés into pop slogans". Peter S. Scholtes from City Pages shared a similar sentiment, writing those lyrics will "carve its slow-burn mark on your mind's dance floor whether 'Get Together' gets you out there or not, and no matter how clichéd those phrases read in print". Stephen M. Deusner of Pitchfork wrote: "On 'Get Together', as Price's synths ebb and flow moodily, Madonna asks the eternal question, 'Do you believe in love at first sight?', over a tripping vocal melody." From The Times, Mike Pattenden called it "ebullient", while The Guardians Alexis Petridis labeled the song's chorus "triumphant". Shawhan also complimented the song by describing it as a "weird and wonderful number".
Stephen Sears from Idolator described the song as "mammoth", as well as calling it a "meta-pop moment". Joan Morgan of The Village Voice wrote that the momentum of the album "builds rapidly with a seamless transition into the wicked alchemy of 'Get Together', where Madge and Price offer up an irresistible manipulation of rather sweet vocals laced over thumping percussion, seductive synthesizers, and a few subtle soul-claps thrown in for good measure". According to Iain Moffat from Playlouder, "Get Together" is "preposterously anthemic, charging away recklessly with all sort of beat buzzes going on before entering a skippy 'Blinded by the Lights'-like patch and waiting a good four minutes before letting the 303 loose in its entirety". Connor Morris of Cokemachineglow website wrote that it was "the only track worth noting that Price didn't have his hands in, turns throbbing kicks and fizzling synths into what's easily the massive (albeit early) high point of the twelve songs that comprise Confessions". According to the staff of Herald Sun, on paper, Madonna's collaboration with Bagge and Peer "seem[ed] dodgy", as she was "slumming it with people who write hits for all the C-list popstars Madge herself inspired"; however, he found the song "amazing", noting a "huge housey club explosion mixing strings ans swampy beats", and concluding that it had to be a single.
Offering a more negative review, Camille Paglia, writing for Salon, thought that "Madonna is generating many interesting melodic ideas that stay in the mind, as on 'Get Together' or 'Forbidden Love,' but they haven't really been thought through or lived with, and they are often suffocated or undermined by Price's tacky, penny-arcade embellishments". According to Matt Cappiello of the Daily Nexus, the first 30 seconds of "Get Together" sound like "a Real McCoy B-side, or the unreleased demon spawn of La Bouche", with Madonna "ask[ing] her market demographic, 'Do you believe we can change the future?' This is a possibility. But we need to forget about the past first. And we definitely need to forget about those disco synthesizers in the background." For Mark Coppens from Het Nieuwsblad, the track resembles "heavy trance, but doesn't quite make it because Madonna strolls a bit too flat through the song". In 2007, the song was nominated in the category of Best Dance Recording at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards, but lost to Justin Timberlake's 2006 single "SexyBack".
Commercial performance
In the US, "Get Together" failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100; however, it was able to reach number six on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles, which acts as an extension of the former chart. The song also reached a peak of number 84 on the Pop 100 chart. Its low chart performance in the region was attributed to limited radio airplay, as according to Billboards Michael Paoletta, "Get Together" had been "all but ignored by pop stations". It was reported that for the week ending July 15, 2006, the single had a radio audience of fewer than 1 million listeners in the US, based on market size and station share. A petition titled "End the Madonna U.S. Radio Boycott" was signed by about 3,300 fans at petitiononline.com, and was addressed to Clear Channel Communications CEO Mark P. Mays; additionally, fans posted messages supporting Madonna on websites such as Entertainment Weekly and VH1, as well as conspiracy theories about why she was not played on radio. On the other hand, the song was a success on Billboards dance charts, topping the Dance Club Songs and Dance/Mix Show Airplay charts.
In the UK, "Get Together" debuted at seven on the UK Singles Chart in the issue dated July 23, 2006. It also reached the top of the dance chart. According to Music Week magazine, 67,163 copies of the single have been sold in the region as of August 2008, thus becoming Madonna's 59th best selling single in the UK. In mainland Europe, "Get Together" reached the summit in Hungary and Spain. The song also reached the top ten of the charts in Croatia, Finland, Italy, and Scotland. It peaked within the top 40 in countries like Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, and Sweden, where it was certified gold by Grammofonleverantörernas förening (GLF) for shipments of 10,000 copies. Across the pan-Eurochart Hot 100 Singles, it reached a peak of number 18. In Australia, "Get Together" entered the charts at its peak of number 13, on the issue dated June 26, 2006.
Music videos
Two music videos were conceptualized for "Get Together". One was directed by Logan Studios and its production team, with animations and designs being done by artist Nathaniel Howe, while the other one was directed by Eugene Riecansky, a rework for the US market into more of a performance animation targeted at clubs. Both videos used Madonna's live performance at the Koko Club in London during her promotional tour for the album. For the former, Howe was contacted by Logan Studios executive producer Kevin Shapiro, and booked as a 3D and 2D animator. The conceptualization and work on the video began on May 1, 2006. It was inspired by the work of Italian comic-book artist Milo Manara and retro science fiction. Different software like Maya, After Effects, and RealFlow were used to bring out the different environments in the video.
While detailing the creative process of the project, Howe explained that during the initial phases of the video, the team was focused on testing different looks in 3D to see how the color, environment, and cinematography complemented the song. While this was happening, the edit of the raw footage was being assembled. As the edit evolved, they narrowed down the techniques and look of the worlds. He commented, "Before we even had picture lock we were dropping in rendered 3D shots; this really allowed us to fine tune both the edit and the effects to work together with the song. As this progressed we regularly sent tests to Warner Bros. and the Madonna camp." Madonna was involved with watching the previews of the work done and passed her comments through Shapiro to the development team. After the fluid effects in the video were completed, Logan and Howe fine-tuned and revisited the shots, and eliminated any discrepancies while incorporating Madonna's comments.
The video, directed by Logan Studios, premiered through VH1's website. It starts showing the world evolving from its genesis with images of volcanoes erupting, dinosaurs, and tidal waves flashing by, until Madonna appears singing the song while standing on a hill accompanied by her two backup dancers. This fluid motion continues up to the intermediate verse when Madonna is shown crawling under the waves and spirals. As the song moves towards the bridge again, the scene changes from the mountains to a cityscape. The singer and her dancers are shown dancing and singing the song on a skyscraper. The video ends with Madonna standing on the building and the camera autofocusing out of the panel. In 2009, the version of the video directed by Riecansky was included on Madonna's compilation, Celebration: The Video Collection.
Live performances
As part of a promotional tour for Confessions on a Dance Floor, Madonna performed "Get Together" on television shows such as Parkinson, Star Academy, and the Children in Need 2005 telethon. Other performances of the song came during concerts at Koko and G-A-Y nightclubs in London, respectively on November 15 and 18, and Studio Coast in Tokyo, Japan on December 7. On April 30, 2006, she also performed "Get Together" as part of her six-song set at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival. The song was also part of the setlist of the 2006 Confessions Tour. Madonna wore a skin-tight, full body black leotard. She performed the song as a red, geometric patterned kaleidoscope shot by Steven Klein appeared on the screens. Madonna was accompanied by two male backup dancers, who posed as if they were horses. During the intermediate musical interlude, the singer moved to the front of the stage and lay down on the screen attached to it. As she continued singing, the music increased and she started to twirl in the center of the stage. The performance ended with Madonna and her dancers moving to the back of the stage singing the words "get together" repeatedly.
According to WalesOnline, Madonna "instantly silenced critics who carp that she can't sing live with pitch-perfect versions of I Feel Love and Get Together". For Rick Massimo of The Providence Journal, the singer punctuated the first songs on the show, including "Get Together", with "dancing that looked, and felt, more like we were watching her work out". Ed Gonzalez of Slant Magazine commented that "a great song like 'Get Together' is splendidly sung" on the concert, saying "whoever tweaks the levels on her mic is a genius"; however, he felt its "celebratory, keep-it-together message is compromised by the contradictory feelings of bondage (oppression) conveyed by having two backup dancers equipped with reins around their heads". For his part, Corey Moss from MTV News considered the performance "offered more of the same". The August 15–16, 2006 performances of "Get Together" at London's Wembley Arena were recorded and included in Madonna's sixth live album, The Confessions Tour (2007).
Track listings and formats
European and Australian CD single
"Get Together" (Radio Edit) – 3:54
"Get Together" (Jacques Lu Cont Mix) – 6:18
"Get Together" (Tiefschwarz Remix) – 7:34
UK 12-inch promo vinyl
"Get Together" (Tiefschwarz Remix) – 7:34
"Get Together" (James Holden Remix) – 8:00
UK 12-inch vinyl
"Get Together" (Radio Edit) – 3:54
"Get Together" (Jacques Lu Cont Mix) – 6:18
European, Canadian and US maxi-CD single
"Get Together" (LP Version) – 5:15
"Get Together" (Jacques Lu Cont Mix) – 6:18
"Get Together" (Danny Howells & Dick Trevor KinkyFunk Mix) – 9:13
"Get Together" (Tiefschwarz Remix) – 7:34
"Get Together" (James Holden Remix) – 8:00
"I Love New York" (Thin White Duke Mix) – 7:43
UK promo CD single
"Get Together" (Radio Edit) – 3:54
"Get Together" (Jacques Lu Cont Vocal Edit) – 4:22
"Get Together" (Danny Howells & Dick Trevor KinkyFunk Mix) – 9:13
UK CD 1
"Get Together" (Radio Edit) – 3:54
"Get Together" (Jacques Lu Cont Vocal Edit) – 4:22
UK CD 2
"Get Together" (LP Version) – 5:15
"Get Together" (Jacques Lu Cont Mix) – 6:18
"Get Together" (Danny Howells & Dick Trevor KinkyFunk Mix) – 9:13
"Get Together" (Tiefschwarz Remix) – 7:34
"Get Together" (James Holden Remix) – 8:00
US 2× 12-inch vinyl
"Get Together" (LP Version) – 5:15
"Get Together" (Jacques Lu Cont Mix) – 6:18
"Get Together" (Tiefschwarz Remix) – 7:34
"I Love New York" (Thin White Duke Mix) – 7:43
"Get Together" (James Holden Remix) – 8:00
"Get Together" (Danny Howells & Dick Trevor KinkyFunk Mix) – 9:13
Digital single
"Get Together" (Album Version) – 5:15
"Get Together" (Jacques Lu Cont Mix) – 6:18
"Get Together" (Danny Howells & Dick Trevor KinkyFunk Mix) – 9:10
"Get Together" (Tiefschwarz Remix) – 7:34
"Get Together" (James Holden Remix) – 8:01
"I Love New York" (Thin White Duke Mix) – 7:43
Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the album's liner notes.
Madonnasongwriter, lead vocals, producer
Stuart Pricesongwriter, producer, recording at Shirland Road
Anders Baggesongwriter
Peer Åströmsongwriter
Mark "Spike" Stentaudio mixing
Alex Droomgoleassistant engineer
David Emerysecond assistant engineer
Brian "Big Bass" Gardnermastering
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certification and sales
Release history
See also
List of number-one singles of 2006 (Spain)
List of number-one dance singles of 2006 (U.S.)
List of number-one dance airplay hits of 2006 (U.S.)
References
External links
2005 songs
2006 singles
Madonna songs
Number-one singles in Spain
Songs written by Madonna
Songs written by Anders Bagge
Songs written by Peer Åström
Songs written by Stuart Price
Song recordings produced by Madonna
Song recordings produced by Stuart Price
Techno songs
Trance songs
Warner Records singles |
4332628 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baby%20hatch | Baby hatch | A baby hatch or baby box is a place where people (typically mothers) can bring babies, usually newborn, and abandon them anonymously in a safe place to be found and cared for. This kind of arrangement was common in the Middle Ages and in the 18th and 19th centuries, when the device was known as a foundling wheel. Foundling wheels were taken out of use in the late 19th century, but a modern form, the baby hatch, began to be introduced again from 1952 and since 2000 has come into use in many countries, most notably in Pakistan where there are more than 300. They can also be found in Germany, where there are around 100, Czech Republic (76) and Poland (67).
The hatches are usually in hospitals, social centres, or churches, and consist of a door or flap in an outside wall which opens onto a soft bed, heated or at least insulated. Sensors in modern beds issue an alert when a baby has been placed in it. In Germany, babies are first looked after for eight weeks during which the mother can return and claim her child without any legal repercussions. If this does not happen, after eight weeks the child is put up for adoption.
History
Baby hatches have existed in one form or another for centuries. The system was quite common in medieval times. From 1198 the first foundling wheels () were used in Italy; Pope Innocent III decreed that these should be installed in homes for foundlings so that women could leave their child in secret instead of killing them, a practice clearly evident from the numerous drowned infants found in the Tiber River. A foundling wheel was a cylinder set upright in the outside wall of the building, rather like a revolving door. Mothers placed the child in the cylinder, turned it around so that the baby was inside the church, and then rang a bell to alert caretakers. One example of this type which can still be seen today is in the Santo Spirito hospital at the Vatican City; this wheel was installed in medieval times and used until the 19th century. Another foundling wheel dating to at least 1601 is on display for visitors to Naples' Church of the Annunciata.
In Hamburg, Germany, a Dutch merchant set up a wheel () in an orphanage in 1709. It closed after only five years in 1714 as the number of babies left there was too high for the orphanage to cope with financially. Other wheels are known to have existed in Kassel (1764) and Mainz (1811).
In France, foundling wheels (, abandonment wheel) were introduced by Saint Vincent de Paul who built the first foundling home in 1638 in Paris. Foundling wheels were legalised in an imperial decree of January 19, 1811, and at their height, there were 251 in France, according to author Anne Martin-Fugier. They were in hospitals such as the Hôpital des Enfants-Trouvés (Hospital for Foundling Children) in Paris. However, the number of children left there rose into the tens of thousands per year, as a result of the desperate economic situation at the time, and in 1863 they were closed down and replaced by "admissions offices" where mothers could give up their child anonymously but could also receive advice. The were officially abolished in law of June 27, 1904. Today in France, women are allowed to give birth anonymously in hospitals () and leave their baby there.
In Brazil and Portugal, foundling wheels (, literally 'wheel for exposed/rejected ones') were also used after Queen Maria I proclaimed on May 24, 1783, that all towns should have a foundling hospital. One example was the wheel installed at the Santa Casa de Misericordia hospital in São Paulo on July 2, 1825. This was taken out of use on June 5, 1949, declared incompatible with the modern social system after five years' debate.
In Britain and Ireland, foundlings were brought up in orphanages financed by the Poor Tax. The home for foundlings in London was established in 1741; in Dublin the Foundling Hospital and Workhouse installed a foundling wheel in 1730, as this excerpt from the Minute Book of the Court of Governors of that year shows:
The foundling wheel in Dublin was taken out of use in 1826 when the Dublin hospital was closed because of the high death rate of children there.
Modern examples
A baby hatch was installed by Door of Hope Children's Mission (Hole in the Wall) in Johannesburg, South Africa in 1999 after the pastor, Cheryl Allen, learned that a high number of newly born infants were abandoned. Pastor Allen realised that many of those desperate women and girls may well have acted differently if there had been an alternative. The church made a hole in their wall and a "baby bin" was installed allowing for mothers to leave their babies any time, day or night. The moment a baby is placed in the "baby bin" care workers on duty receive an electronic signal alerting them. The baby is taken in and the anonymity of the "donor" ensured. Baby M was the first baby that came through the "baby bin", arriving on 3 October 1999. To date (2013), Door of Hope has received over 1300 babies. 148 have come through the "baby bin" but most come from hospitals, police or community members and some babies have even been brought personally by the mothers.
Another modern baby hatch was installed in the Altona district of Hamburg, Germany on 11 April 2000, after a series of cases in 1999 where children were abandoned and found dead from exposure. It consisted of a warm bed in which the child could be placed from outside the building. After a short delay to allow the person who left the child to leave anonymously, a silent alarm was set off which alerted staff. By 2010, 38 babies had been left in the baby hatch in Hamburg, 14 of whom were later reclaimed by their mothers.
The Edhi Foundation in Pakistan offers a similar system.
Baby boxes are becoming more widespread in the United States after the 2022 Supreme Court decision Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization allowed states to prohibit abortion.
Reasons for using baby hatches
One reason many babies have been abandoned, especially in the past, was that they were born out of wedlock. Today, baby hatches are more often intended to be used by mothers who are unable to cope with looking after their own child and do not wish to divulge their identity. In some countries, it is not legal for mothers to give birth anonymously in a hospital, and the baby hatch is the only way they can safely and secretly leave their child to be cared for by others. In India and Pakistan, the purpose of baby hatches is mainly to provide an alternative to female infanticide, which occurs due to socio-economic factors including the high cost of dowries.
Opposition and legal issues
Some issues with baby hatches are connected to children's right to know their own identity, as guaranteed by the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child's Article 8. Another problem is that the anonymous person who drops off the infant may not have the legal right to do so, perhaps without the permission of the mother. Also, in some places baby hatches may be overwhelmed by the abandonment of sick and disabled children.
Not all countries have safe-haven laws such as in the US which decriminalize leaving a child with an authority, and so it can be legally risky for a mother to abandon her baby in a baby hatch.
Those opposed to baby hatches argue that hatches do not save babies lives, that it encourages further abandonment by mothers rather than finding other solutions, and represents a state's dereliction of duty to create social programs which might reduce child abandonment. Several European countries have passed laws allowing for anonymous birth in hospitals, sometimes free of charge, to prevent the risks associated with an unassisted delivery and to provide medical care during the birth.
Countries
Austria
In Austria, the law treats babies found in baby hatches as foundlings. The local social services office for children and young people () takes care of the child for the first six months and then it is given up for adoption. The first hatch was introduced in Vienna in 2000. , there were 15 hatches in seven of the nine Austrian states, and hatches were used 30 times between 2008 and 2016. Since women have had the right to give birth anonymously in hospitals since 2001, those anonymous births have greatly outnumbered the use of baby hatches.
Belgium
In Belgium, the legal framework is absent, and abandoning babies is illegal, but in practice the babies are placed in foster care and become available for adoption after a few months. In 2000, the association ('Mothers for mothers') set up the first in Antwerp. , 18 babies have been found in the Antwerp hatch, the only one in Belgium.
In 2017, another hatch was installed in Evere, Brussels, by the organization Corvia, but was banned by the mayor. Despite the Council of State overturning the ban in 2020, a new mayor of Evere again prohibited its operation in 2021.
Canada
Canada prohibits abandoning a child "so that its life is or is likely to be endangered." , three babies have been left in hatches installed in Canada. One hatch is in Vancouver and two in Edmonton.
China
In 2011, China opened at least 25 baby hatches, "baby safety island" in Mandarin. A medical team was supposed to pick up the infant within 10 minutes. By 2015 there were 32 across the country. The first was opened in Shijiazhuang in 2011. It has by 2014 received 181 children. The estimated number of children, was officially some 1,400 a year in total, in the whole country.
The government-run orphanage in eastern China opened its first baby hatch on 1 June 2014, International Children’s Day, as a symbolic step to show the country’s commitment to improving child welfare. However, it since proved so popular that authorities have had to introduce new rules to limit the number of babies and children being abandoned. In just 11 days, 106 children, all with disabilities or medical conditions, were dropped off at the Jinan facility. That is more than the 85 orphans the city accepted in 2013.
Since the opening of a baby hatch in Guangzhou, it received almost 80 infants in a month. Child Welfare Centre in Guangzhou, said it had taken in 262 children in less than two months since it opened the baby hatch. All the babies – 67% of whom were less than a year old – had varying degrees of illness. More than 90% survived, 22 babies died. Baby hatch in Nanjing was “crowded with visitors.” Parents were seen to drop babies off at the facility every day.
The number of babies with congenital defects has soared over the past decade, with upwards of 900,000 such cases reported each year. In addition, at least 100,000 children are abandoned each year. Most are either disabled and many are girls.
Czech Republic
In the Czech Republic, the Ministry of Social Affairs confirmed in 2006 that baby hatches are legal under Czech law. In contradiction to this, in March 2006, Colonel Anna Piskova, a police officer, said on Czech television that the police would look for the mothers of abandoned children. The head of the Czech baby hatch organization Statim, Ludvik Hess, complained about this statement and was officially supported by the Save the Children Foundation. , there are 85 baby hatches in the country, mostly in major cities and district capitals. So far, they have helped to save 253 children. The one in University Hospital Královské Vinohrady in Prague has received 30 babies and the one at Brothers of Charity Hospital in Brno 22 babies since 2005.
The United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child has questioned the legality of baby boxes, criticizing the high number of children's group homes and claiming the boxes violate children's rights in 2011. Czech internet news server novinky.cz has reported that United Nations wants to ban baby hatches in the Czech Republic.
The first baby hatch was set up in July 2005 in Prague by Babybox – Statim. In March 2006, three children had been left there. In December 2007, there were five "Babyboxes" in the republic: Prague-Hloubětín, Brno, Olomouc, Kadaň and Zlín, and the next were planned in Pelhřimov, Ústí nad Orlicí, Mladá Boleslav and Sokolov in 2008. Between 2005 and 2007, ten infants were given in baby-boxes, seven of them in Prague. Some of them returned to their mothers or were inserted with full documentation. there were 47, and 62 children had already been left there; one of the baby boxes was used 13 times. 75 % of the boxes have been used.
France
In France, the Vichy government adopted the Legislative Decree of 2 September 1941 on the Protection of Births allowing children to be born anonymously. This law, somewhat modified, became the modern right to anonymous birth () set down in the French Social Action and Families Code (Art. 222–6). It covers children up to one year of age. In 2003, the European Court of Human Rights upheld this law, ruling that it did not violate the European Convention on Human Rights.
Germany
Baby hatches have been used again since 2000. , there were more than 90 baby hatches in the country.
There is no clear legal basis for the operation of baby hatches in Germany, known as .
Normally a mother who abandons her child is committing a criminal act. However, according to the German social laws, parents are allowed to leave their child in the charge of a third party for up to eight weeks, for example if the parents need to go into hospital. After eight weeks, however, the youth welfare office must be called in.
German law considers babies left in the baby hatch as if they have been left in the charge of a third party. This loophole is extremely controversial as there have been some cases in Germany where the baby hatches have been used to abandon disabled children or babies already three months old. Several attempts have been made to clear up the legal basis for baby hatches and how to treat the children left in them, but as yet the situation is still not clearly regulated.
Hungary
In 2005, Hungary passed a law decriminalizing abandoning a baby in an incubator. The act is considered a declaration of abandonment and consent to adoption if the family does not return within six weeks to claim the child. Dumping a child elsewhere remains a crime.
Hungary had 32 baby hatches as of 2015, all run by hospitals. The first opened in 1996 in the in Budapest and rescued 23 newborns until February 2007.
India
In Tamil Nadu state, a baby hatch was set up in 1994 by the then Chief Minister, J. Jayalalithaa, to prevent female infanticide. This kind of baby is called (cradle baby), raised by the state and entitled to free education. In 2002 an "e-cradle" scheme was also introduced in southern India after an abandoned newborn baby was torn apart by dogs in the street near Trivandrum Medical College.
Italy
There are about 50 hatches, set up by „La culla per la vita“ (the Movement for Life). In December 2006 a modern hatch was installed at the Policlinico Casilino in Rome and in February 2007 it received its first abandoned child. There are also plans to install one at the Santo Spirito hospital at the Vatican City, the home of one of the original foundling wheels.
Japan
In Japan, abandoning a baby is normally punished with up to five years in prison. In 2006 Hasuda Taiji and other officials of Jikei Hospital applied to Kumamoto Prefecture government, Kumamoto city and other offices before opening a baby hatch. They were told that it would not count as abandonment, as the baby is under the hospital's protection. However, the Japanese ministry of health, labour and welfare would not comment on the issue, apart from saying that there was no precedent. In Japan, February 2007, the state indicated its position is that baby hatches "are not outright illegal." On the same year of April 5, Kumamoto City determined that "there are no reasonable grounds for not allowing modifications in the medical law," and approved changes that allowed establishment of the "Storks' Cradle".
In 2006 the Jikei Hospital in Kumamoto Prefecture announced it was setting up a "storks' cradle" to try to reduce the number of abandoned babies and abortions. , a total of 51 babies had been accepted, and this system has been under the strict guidance of a special committee which pointed out that the acceptance of anonymous babies might reduce the moral philosophy of people. 125 babies had been left at the baby hatch .
Latvia
The first ('saviour manger') was set up in 2009 in Riga within the Children's Clinical University Hospital's territory. Since then, seven more hatches have been set up in Latvia's biggest towns. As of August 2019, 47 children have been left in a baby hatch, of whom five have later been reclaimed by their birth parents.
In Latvia, unless the baby has been reported as missing, the law treats the babies as foundlings.
All baby hatches are located within hospital premises. After a baby is left in a baby hatch, the police and custody court are informed about the case and the baby is given a health evaluation and is inspected for signs of abuse. The police during a two day long process find out if the child has been reported as missing, after that the baby is given the status of a foundling and can be put up for adoption.
If the birth parents want to recover a child, they have the option to do so until the child has been officially adopted. The birth parents must prove their parentage by taking a DNA test, which they must pay for themselves. After that a custody court reviews the parent's reasons for abandonment and decide whether to allow the parents guardianship of the child.
Malaysia
The first baby hatch was launched by a non-profit NGO, OrphanCare Foundation, in 2010. By end of 2016 OrphanCare had saved over 200 babies and has two more baby hatches in the states of Kedah and Johor. In 2015 OrphanCare signed a memorandum of cooperation with KPJ Healthcare to manage the adoption of babies placed in baby hatches in eight KPJ hospitals in major cities in Peninsular Malaysia. KPJ also has a baby hatch each in Sabah and Sarawak.
Almost 100 babies have been saved due to baby hatches nationwide. The seventh baby hatch was opened at the An-Nur Specialist Hospital in Bangi, Selangor in 2022.
Netherlands
In 2003 plans to open a in Amsterdam did not go ahead after heavy protest. State Secretary for Health Clémence Ross suggested that baby hatches were illegal. In years since, the Beschermde Wieg Foundation has opened abandoned children rooms in the cities of Groningen, Middelburg, Oudenbosch, Papendrecht, Rotterdam and Zwolle. Women in need can leave their babies anonymously. In 2017 a room in Amsterdam is planned.
Pakistan
The Edhi Foundation has around 300 centres which offer a service which is said to have saved over 16,000 lives; the is a white metal hanging cradle with a mattress, where the baby can be left anonymously outside the centre. A bell can be rung, and staff also check the cradle once an hour.
Philippines
The Hospicio de San Jose in Manila, founded in 1810 and run by the Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul, has a "turning cradle" marked "Abandoned Babies Received Here".
Poland
In 2022, sixty-nine towns had them.
Russia
Since 2011, ten baby hatches have come into use in Russia. In less than one year of activity, the boxes helped to save three children. The charity fund The Cradle of Hope () established in Perm is the main project organizer. Along with installing and setting up baby hatches, the organization works to prevent infanticide, and helps families cope with crisis situations. The baby hatches are installed in hospitals and run by the wardship and guardianship authority.
The law treats babies found in baby boxes as foundlings, who are raised by the state while going through the legal process of adoption. Senator Elena Mizulina proposed a law to ban baby boxes. In September 2016 the ban was approved by the Russian government, stating that special places for anonymous abandonment of newborns violate the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
South Africa
The non-profit organisation Door Of Hope Children's Mission set up a "hole in the wall" in July 1999 at the Mission Church in Johannesburg. By March 2013 around 148 babies came through the hole in the wall but over 1 300 babies have come through their doors.
South Korea
Pastor Lee Jong-rak operates a "baby box" in his church in southwest Seoul. Before the Special Adoption Law was passed in August 2012, Lee said that the baby box received an average of about two newborns per month, but that number has risen to about 19.
Switzerland
There are eight baby hatches in Switzerland, almost all privately operated, at hospitals in Davos, Einsiedeln, Bellinzona, Olten, Bern, Zollikerberg ZH, Basel and Sion. From 2001 to 2021, 25 children were left there.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom there are no baby hatches, as, under Section 27 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861, abandoning a child below the age of two years is a criminal offence punishable by up to five years in prison. In practice, such prosecutions are extremely rare and would only occur if the circumstances of child abandonment showed actual malice, i.e. appeared deliberately intended to result in the death of the child. A mother who wishes to have her newborn baby adopted can do so. Counseling is designed to ensure that giving up the baby is her genuine, irrevocable wish.
United States
Baby hatches in the United States are generally called "newborn safety devices" or "newborn safety incubators." The first known installation of baby hatches in the United States was in Arizona in approximately 2001. Known as "drawers," the devices were installed primarily in Maricopa County, where six drawers exist at local hospitals as of May 2023. Beginning in 2016, the Indiana-based nonprofit corporation Safe Haven Baby Boxes began installing its own branded "Safe Haven Baby Boxes" in locations throughout Indiana, the first in 2016. , there were 153 baby hatches installed and in use in eleven states, primarily Indiana, which has nearly 100 hatches in operation. Other states with baby hatches include Ohio, Arkansas, New Mexico, Kentucky, and Florida. , eight additional states have enacted laws authorizing installation of baby hatches, though none have been installed.
Cultural references
In the novel Anthony Adverse by Hervey Allen, the main character is left in the foundling wheel of a convent in northern Italy.
This type of abandonment is the main theme of a historical novella set in nineteenth-century Sicily, The Lady of the Wheel, by Angelo F. Coniglio.
In the M*A*S*H episode "Yessir, That's Our Baby", the doctors eventually leave an abandoned, mixed race infant in the foundling wheel of a Catholic monastery after unsuccessfully attempting to get her taken care of by American agencies, due to the cruelty such children often face in Korea.
"The Gap of Time", by Jeanette Winterson is a modern interpretation of The Winter's Tale in which her equivalent of Shakespeare's Perdita, instead of being abandoned on an island, is placed in a baby hatch in the fictional American city of New Bohemia.
In Broker, the main characters operate an illegal business where they steal babies left at baby hatches and sell them on the black market.
See also
Child abandonment
Harm reduction
Maternity package, a cardboard box full of all the items needed for a baby's first year, also known as a baby box
References
Meyers Konversations-Lexikon 1888
External links
Germany Still Divided over the Idea of Baby Hatches – Article from Deutsche Welle website (English)
Hospital to bring back abandoned baby wheel – Article from The Times newspaper, UK (Article behind a pay-wall)
www.babyklappe.info German language website of baby hatch producer
List of all baby hatches in Germany (in German)
Retour vers le XIXe siècle Article in French from le Courrier, Switzerland
L'évolution des modes d'abandon from the Histoire et Patrimoine des hôpitaux de l'Assistance Publique – Hôpitaux de Paris
Door Of Hope, South Africa
Japanese newspaper articles, at Japanese Children's Rights Network
Netherlands Institute for the Documentation of Anonymous Abandonance – Dutch website on foundlings and neonaticide
Infancy
Child abandonment
Adoption, fostering, orphan care and displacement |
4333171 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological%20looting%20in%20Iraq | Archaeological looting in Iraq | Archaeological looting in Iraq took place since at least the late 19th century. The chaos following war provided the opportunity to pillage everything that was not nailed down. There were also attempts to protect the sites such as the period between April 8, 2003, when the staff vacated the Iraq Museum and April 16, 2003, when US forces arrived in sufficient numbers to "restore some semblance of order." Some 15,000 cultural artifacts disappeared in that time. Over the years approximately 14,800 were recovered from within and outside Iraq and taken under the protection of the Iraqi government.
Early history
Looting of ancient artifacts has a long tradition. As early as 1884, laws passed in Mesopotamia about moving and destroying antiquities. By the end of World War I, British-administrated Mesopotamia created protections for archaeological sites where looting was beginning to become a problem. They established an absolute prohibition on exporting antiquities. The British Museum was responsible for the sites and museums across Iraq during this time period. Gertrude Bell, well known for drawing the Iraq borders, excavated many sites around Iraq and created what is now the National Museum of Iraq.
By the mid-1920s the black market for antiquities was growing and looting began in all sites where antiquities could be found. After Iraq gaining independence from Britain, the absolute ban on antiquity exports was lifted. Until the mid-1970s Iraq was one of very few countries to not prohibit external trade in antiquities. This made Iraq attractive to looters and black market collectors from around the globe. The result of the Gulf War was that at least 4000 artifacts were looted from Iraq sites. Uprisings that followed the war also resulted in 9 of 13 regional museums being looted and burned.
Protection of museums under Ba'athist Iraq
Upon becoming president in 1979, Saddam Hussein treasured his national heritage immensely and acted to defend these sites and the artifacts within them. He believed that the past of Iraq was important to his national campaign and his regime actually doubled the national budget for archaeology and heritage creating museums and protecting sites all over Iraq. It was not until his Ba'ath Party was under pressure in the 1990s that looting become a large problem once again for Iraq. By 2000 looting had become so rampant that the workers of the sites were even looting their own workplaces. With the fall of Saddam's government in 2003, archaeological sites were left completely open and looting became an even greater problem. Some sites, such as Ur and Nippur, were officially protected by US and Coalition forces.
Before the start of the Iraq War, the US government created a post-war plan for Iraq. According to Lawrence Rothfield, former director of the Cultural Policy Center at the University of Chicago and associate professor of English and comparative literature, this looting of the National Museum of Iraq and of hundreds of archaeological sites around the country was not prevented. At the time of war planning it was Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld who decided on a fast invasion with fewer troops, resulting in inadequate protection of buildings and cultural sites.
American troops and commanders did not prioritize security for cultural sites around Iraq. Peacekeeping was seen as a lesser job than physically fighting in combat and President Bush's suspension of former president Clinton's policies for peacekeeping not only backed up this thought but also made the US's duties to restore public order unclear. American troops in Iraq did not trust Iraqi power of any kind meaning that instead of using and training Iraqi police, the US military took matters of security and policing into their own hands. Essentially the US would act as peacekeepers to train a national army and police force. Special Forces teams would work with regional warlords to keep control of their territories. Allowing warlords to police their own areas has been credited with being a disastrous plan for the archaeological sites in particular.
Arthur Houghton had an interest and some expertise in cultural heritage and was one of the first to wonder what the pre-war plan was for Iraqi culture. He had worked in the State Department as a Foreign Service officer, as an international policy analyst for the White house and also served at an acting curator for the Getty Museum. In late spring 2002, Houghton was approached by Ashton Hawkins, former Executive Vice President and Counsel to the Trustees of the Metropolitan Museum, and was asked to find out what was being done by officials to secure heritage sites in the upcoming war in Iraq. Houghton could find no one designated with the task of protection and preservation of culture in Iraq.
There had been a secret Future of Iraq Project since October 2001, with clearance from the Pentagon. However, even under this Project no specific person had taken up responsibility of culture. Even archaeological organizations in the US had not noticed the issue until late 2002. Likewise when the US Agency for Cultural Development (USAID) met with estimated 150 NGOs not one brought up protection of cultural heritage. UNESCO had in fact, after the Gulf War in 1991, attempted to go into Iraq and assess the damage to cultural sites but they were not allowed to enter the country. UNESCO then focused, for the next decade, on reconstruction after the fact rather than prevention measures.
Within the US military, Civil Affairs (CA) forces were important to the protection of culture and, as they were mostly reservists, included experts in a variety of areas including archaeology. The plan was to spread the expertise among fighting forces in order to warn them of cultural sites in the area. However, CA was left out of pre-war planning until January 2003, when it was too late to be of any real significant help. The CA had to prioritize the small amount of CA troops to what they thought was necessary, which inevitably was – culture. The CA did, however, pull the only two archaeologists in Civil Affairs to be on a culture team, Maj. Chris Varhola and Capt. William Sumner. These two men, however, in the end were sent to other places when the conflict began. Varhola was needed to prepare for the refugee crises that never arrived and Sumner was reassigned to guard a zoo after pushing his advisor too hard on antiquities issues. Any protection of culture, sites or buildings was stopped due to the priorities of other matters. Essentially no one who had archaeological expertise was senior enough to get anything done.
Another branch of the US government that had interest in culture was the Foreign Area Offices (FAO). Unfortunately though, they were focused on customs and attitudes rather than archaeological sites. Something that was accomplished was the creation of a no-strike list created by Maj. Varhola just like two archaeologists before him had done during the 1991 Gulf War which had a great outcome of saving antiquities from bombing.
One piece of international law that is important for this conflict is the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, this Convention states that parties in conflict must "under take to prohibit, prevent and, if necessary, put a stop to any form of theft, pillage or misappropriation of, and any act of vandalism directed against, cultural property." This provision was constructed for the parties actually in combat within the war and not civilians within their own state. As the upcoming years would prove, there are exceptions to this convention and they would result in Americans firing on the Iraq National Museum.
By fall 2002, post-war planning was sporadic and improvised. The cultural planning aspect needed to have leadership that it never got. Deputy Assistant under the Security of Defense, Joseph Collins, recalls some forces spent more time working on projects that ended up not being needed like a refugee crises plan. He says he cannot remember if there was even an organizational plans to solve specific issues.
The first known effort by cultural interests to contact US officials was October 2002. After a meeting of powerful players in culture, Houghton sent a letter asking for departments to tell forces to avoid damaging monuments, soldiers were to respect the integrity of sites, and lastly to work quickly to get the antiquities services in Iraq up and running again. Following this, the Archaeological Institute of America (AIA) also sent a similar letter to the Pentagon in December 2002 asking for governments to take action to prevent looting in the aftermath of the war. As 2002 came to an end the media and government were only broadcasting the good done by the troops in not destroying cultural heritage themselves but not on the looting done by people in Iraq and the Americans duty to protect the antiquities.
Large scale looting
When the looting of the National Iraq Museum became known, experts from around the globe started planning to remedy the situation. McGuire Gibson, one of the leading archaeologists and experts on Mesopotamia explained to the Office of Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance (ORHA) that the looted museum artifacts were only a small part of what archaeological digs around the country held. Perhaps 25 thousand of an estimated half million sites were registered. ORHA had no resources to address this problem. Gibson had suggested helicopter surveys to determine the scale of looted sites. By April 24, 2003, looting had taken place in Umma, Umm al-Hafriyat, Umm al-Aqarib, Bismaya, Larsa, and Bad-tibira, most of were unguarded. Most looting was by workers once employed by the now disbanded State Board of Antiquities and Heritage. A local tribe was guarding the World Heritage Site of Hatra although others were unsupervised.
By May 2003, international work began on the already looted museum but not on other sites. The US military conducted a raid in May on Umma where they found hundreds of trenches with many looters all over the site. On May 7, the Bush Administration replaced Gen. Jay Garner with L. Paul Bremer who was given more power and banned high-ranking Ba'ath Party members from government jobs and disbanded the remains of the Iraqi army. Any guards at archeological sites were unpaid for months and they were not allowed to carry guns. Now, instead of dealing with civilian looters, these unarmed guards were dealing with large mobs of armed people.
At the end of May 2003, it finally became clear how badly the sites were looted when a trip sponsored by National Geographic went out to assess the damage. There was a northern and southern team to assess the post-conflict damage by land. They found the famous sites such as Babylon, Hatra, Nimrud and Ur were under US military control. Lesser known sites were completely unguarded and the responsible Civil Affairs teams did not even know where they were. Every place the National Geographic team saw, except one that was guarded by barbed wire, had been damaged.
Gibson was part of the northern National Geographic team and he sent a report to the White House science advisor John Marburger. Other archeological experts in both the US and Britain were waiting for invitations to go to Iraq and help. After Gibson's report they were given invitations to create a team in Iraq.
Early July 2003, UNESCO revealed that looting was still happening at sites across the country. Other military services such as Japanese and Dutch troops offered assistance but were ignored. On July 8, a new security guard force known as the Iraqi Facility Protection Service (FPS) was established to protect sites all around the country in co-operation with the US military. A week later, the State Department announced it was forming a group to assist in the rebuilding of Iraq's cultural heritage.
These announcements had no effect on the looting and illegal export of artifacts. McGuire Gibson on September 11, 2003, wrote to a military geographer, "The continuing destruction of sites all over southern Iraq and the theft of thousands of artifacts every week, with no visible effort on part of the US authorities, makes the question of ethical behaviour by museums pointless. Your unit of the Pentagon is capable of demonstrating the location and expansion of illegal digging. Are you at least doing that much?"
The looting of artefacts in Iraq had been on the rise during the COVID-19 pandemic. Due to the pandemic, few tourists or foreign archaeologists visited historical sites. As a result, many of these areas were left unguarded.
Following the United States’ invasion of Iraq in 2003, large numbers of antiquities including the Gilgamesh Dream Tablet were stolen, both from museums, such as the Iraq National Museum, but also because of illegal excavations at archeological sites throughout the country. Many of them were smuggled into the United States through the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Israel, contrary to federal law. Donald Rumsfeld rejected the claim that they were removed by US military personnel. Some sites and objects were also destroyed or defaced later during the occupation, when U.S. and allies were unable to control ISIL and ISIS in the region. In the 2020s, about 17,000 artifacts were returned to Iraq from the U.S. and Middle Eastern countries. But according to an Iraqi archeology professor at the University of Baghdad, the repatriation of these items was only a partial success; the Baghdad office of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) continues to search for the loot worldwide. Many Iraqis blame the United States for the loss of so many pieces of their country's history.
Known recoveries
It is impossible to discover exactly how much destruction to archeological sites has happened since 2003. Archeologist Elizabeth Stone purchased satellite images of the seven thousand square kilometers in Iraq that contain many known sites. She counted 1,837 new holes by comparing 2001–2002 with 2003 images. Looters concentrated on sites that had the most marketable artifacts. Estimates of the number of looted artifacts from 2003 to 2005 are from 400,000 to 600,000 items. This number is 30–40 times greater than the number of artifacts stolen from the museum. Britain alone between 2004 and 2006 seized 3–4 tons of plundered artifacts.
Some artifacts have been recovered by accident. An archeologist was watching a home decorating show when he saw a 2nd-century stone head from Hatra sitting on the decorator's mantle. The illegal black market for goods became so saturated that prices in the market were going down after 2003 according to an antiquities researcher specializing in illicit dealings.
Revenue from looted antiquities is estimated by the Archaeological Institute of America to amount to between $10 and $20 million annually. Terrorist and rebel groups have a long history of using stolen artifacts to finance their operations.
By the end of 2003, 1,900 Iraqi antiquities had been confiscated from bordering countries: 1,450 in Jordan, 36 in Syria, 38 in Kuwait and 18 in Saudi Arabia.
U.S. Marine Corps reservist Matthew Boulay witnessed illicit trading even on military bases Flea markets authorized by the camp commanders included a booth with antiquities for $20, $40 or $100 each. Boulay asked Gibson and was told that these artifacts were real. Gibson asked Boulay to ask the base commander to stop these sales. When Boulay informed his platoon commander he got a "cease and desist" order forbidding any more emails about the issue to anyone.
Other institutes from America and around the world have contributed to protect sites in Iraq. The US started teaching military personnel headed for Iraq the importance of cultural heritage and site preservation. Donny George who was an employee at the Iraq National Museum was appointed to Director of Museums in 2004, and by summer 2006, a force of 1,400 guards were situated at sites around the country.
In 2016, the U.S. Government Accountability Office issued a report describing some of the United States’ cultural property protection efforts in Iraq and Syria.
Sites affected
Adab – an ancient city plagued by hundreds of looters.
Babylon – saw the construction of "a 150-hectare camp for 2,000 troops. In the process the 2,500-year-old brick pavement to the Ishtar Gate was smashed by tanks and the gate itself damaged. The archaeology-rich subsoil was bulldozed to fill sandbags, and large areas covered in compacted gravel for helipads and car parks. Babylon is being rendered archaeologically barren".
Hatra – looters with stonecutters have stolen elements of friezes and reliefs straight off the ancient architecture here.
Isin – over two hundred looters' pits are organized around the former site of the Temple of Gula; countless artifacts have been removed from the site here, including innumerable cuneiform tablets, cylinder seals, and votive tablets, some of which could sell for as much as $30,000.
Nimrud – home of the palace of Assurnasirpal II and described by the Old Testament as the "principal city" of Assyria, Nimrud is one of the few sites that is militarily protected. However, weeks before the arrival of the site's US guards, looters attacked the friezes and statues with stonecutting tools, stealing images distinctly belonging to Nimrud, and thus unmistakenly known to any potential buyers to be stolen; the items have been sold, presumably, nevertheless. Those few looters that managed to break into this site despite its protection have given every indication that they know precisely what they are looking for, where to find it, and how to get at it. Like many looters throughout Iraq and across the world, they have presumably been hired to obtain specific images; this separates them from the looters who dig up and sell whatever they can find.
Nineveh – one of the more thoroughly researched sites, experts have little difficulty identifying objects stolen from Nineveh. The site was severely looted and damaged nevertheless after the first Gulf War, and chunks of its unique and ancient friezes have appeared on the European and American art markets.
Nippur – the great ziggurat here has only three major looters' pits cut into it, which are the first in over forty years of valuable research and excavation.
Umma – looters descended upon the site as soon as Coalition bombing began; the site is now pockmarked with hundreds of ditches and pits. When archaeologists "tried to remove vulnerable carvings from the ancient city of Umma to Baghdad, they found gangs of looters already in place with bulldozers, dump trucks and AK47s".
Ur – one of the few sites protected by a US military presence. According to Simon Jenkins, "its walls are pockmarked with wartime shrapnel and a blockhouse is being built over an adjacent archaeological site".
See also
Art theft
Blood antiquities
Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL or ISIS in 2014–2015
Hobby Lobby smuggling scandal
Illicit antiquities
Iraq Museum
Looted art
Mosul Museum
Notes
Sources
Further reading
Atwood, Roger (2004). Stealing History: Tomb Raiders, Smugglers, and the Looting of the Ancient World. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Bogdanos, Matthew. Thieves of Baghdad: One Marine's Passion to Recover the World's Greatest Stolen Treasures. Bloomsbury USA (October 26, 2005)
Global Heritage Fund,
Looting of ancient sites threatens Iraqi heritage 6/29/2006
U.S.-Led Troops Have Damaged Babylon, British Museum Says, New York Times article
Zainab Bahrani. 2004. Lawless in Mesopotamia. Natural History 113(2):44–49
Farchakh, Joanne The massacre of Mesopotamian archaeology: Looting in Iraq is out of control, Tuesday, September 21, 2004
The massacre of Mesopotamian archaeology
Rothfield, Lawrence. The Rape of Mesopotamia behind the Looting of the Iraq Museum. Chicago: U of Chicago, 2009. Print.
External links
2003 UN Resolutions – Resolution 1483 concerns Iraq
"The Archaeological Map of Iraq" is a map from 1967 that shows all of the archaeological sites in Iraq
19th-century establishments in Asia
Archaeological theft
Art and cultural repatriation
Archaeology of Iraq
Looting |
4333229 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.%20P.%20Lovecraft%20%28band%29 | H. P. Lovecraft (band) | H. P. Lovecraft was an American psychedelic rock band, formed in Chicago, Illinois, in 1967 and named after the horror writer H. P. Lovecraft. Much of the band's music was possessed of a haunting, eerie ambience, and consisted of material that was inspired by the macabre writings of the author whose name they had adopted. Combining elements of psychedelia and folk rock, the band's sound was marked by the striking vocal harmonies of ex-folk singer George Edwards and the classically trained Dave Michaels. In addition, Michaels' multi-instrumentalist abilities on organ, piano, harpsichord, clarinet and recorder provided the band with a richer sonic palette than many of their contemporaries.
The band was signed to Philips Records in 1967 and released its first single, "Anyway That You Want Me", in the early part of that year. Their first album, H. P. Lovecraft, followed in late 1967 and included what is arguably the band's best-known song, "The White Ship". The band then relocated to San Francisco, California, where they became a frequent attraction at various San Francisco Bay Area venues, including The Fillmore and the Winterland Ballroom. In 1968, a second album, H. P. Lovecraft II, appeared, but the group disbanded in early 1969.
Edwards and fellow original member Michael Tegza subsequently formed a new line-up of the band with the shortened name of Lovecraft, although Edwards left this new group before the first album was recorded. This second incarnation of the band released the Valley of the Moon album in 1970 and, after a further name change to Love Craft, the We Love You Whoever You Are album in 1975.
History
Formation and first album
The first line-up of H. P. Lovecraft was formed when the ex-folk singer George Edwards, who was working as an in-house session vocalist for Dunwich Records at the time, entered the studio to record a cover version of Chip Taylor's "Anyway That You Want Me" (a song that had recently been a UK hit for the Troggs). Edwards had previously been a folk troubadour in Chicago, California, and Florida, and had released a commercially unsuccessful cover of the Beatles' "Norwegian Wood" on Dunwich in 1966. He had also recorded a cover version of Bob Dylan's "Quit Your Low Down Ways" for the label, but this remained unreleased until the early 1970s. For the "Anyway That You Want Me" session, Edwards was backed by members of the Chicago band the Rovin' Kind and was also joined by Dave Michaels, a classically trained singer and multi-instrumentalist with a four-octave voice, who Edwards had met while playing in a lounge jazz trio at a local Holiday Inn.
"Anyway That You Want Me" was coupled with "It's All Over for You", a George Edwards solo outtake from the previous year, and released as a single under the moniker of H. P. Lovecraft in early 1967 by the Mercury Records' subsidiary Philips. The decision to release the single as H. P. Lovecraft, rather than as a George Edwards solo release, was made by Dunwich founders Bill Traut and George Badonsky, who were both fans of the literary works of horror writer H. P. Lovecraft and had, in fact, named Dunwich Records after Lovecraft's short story "The Dunwich Horror". Edwards and Michaels were both enthusiastic about the band name, and after permission from Lovecraft's estate was secured, the duo set about recruiting other musicians to form a permanent line-up of the band.
Auditions were held in March 1967, which resulted in the recruitment of Tony Cavallari (lead guitar), Mike Tegza (drums), and Tom Skidmore (bass). Skidmore soon departed the band, however, and was replaced by Jerry McGeorge, who had previously been a guitarist for Chicago band the Shadows of Knight. McGeorge had seen H. P. Lovecraft perform a number of times at a Chicago dance club called The Cellar, and although he considered himself primarily a guitarist, he accepted Edwards' offer to join the group as their new bassist.
With Michaels and Edwards as the creative driving forces behind the group, H. P. Lovecraft began to develop a blend of folk rock and psychedelia, with a repertoire that encompassed contemporary and traditional folk songs and some self-penned material. The band's sound was highlighted by the oddly striking harmony work that resulted from the juxtaposition of Edwards' folk-influenced singing and Michaels' operatic vocal phrasing, a blend that was influenced by folk singer Fred Neil's work with Vince Martin. The band's music was made all the more unique by Michaels' virtuosity on organ, piano, harpsichord, clarinet, and recorder, which gave H. P. Lovecraft a much wider range of sounds and timbres than many of their contemporaries.
In late 1967, the band recorded and released their debut album for Philips, H. P. Lovecraft. A cover of the traditional song "Wayfaring Stranger" was issued just ahead of the album as a single in September 1967, but it failed to chart. The album itself was released some weeks later and although it also failed to reach the U.S. charts, it sold reasonably well over time.
Featuring a nine-piece orchestra and songs that exhibited a wide-ranging stylistic variety, H. P. Lovecraft was possessed of a haunting, eerie ambiance that lived up to the band's intention of making music inspired by H. P. Lovecraft's "macabre tales and poems of Earth populated by another race" (to quote the LP's back cover). While the album did include a smattering of self-penned material, including the jazzy "That's How Much I Love You, Baby (More or Less)" and the vaudeville psychedelia of "The Time Machine", the majority of H. P. Lovecraft consisted of cover versions. Among these covers were Dino Valente's hippie anthem "Get Together", Randy Newman's "I've Been Wrong Before", Travis Edmonson's "The Drifter", and the Fred Neil compositions "That's The Bag I'm In" and "Country Boy & Bleeker Street". The centerpiece of the album, however, was the Edwards—Michaels—Cavallari composition "The White Ship", which was based on author H. P. Lovecraft's short story "The White Ship". The six-and-a-half-minute opus, which featured baroque harpsichord passages, droning feedback, somber harmonies, and the chiming of a genuine 1811 ship's bell, has been described by music historian Richie Unterberger as having a "wavering, foggy beauty, with some of Michaels' eeriest keyboards." The song became something of an underground FM radio favorite and was also issued in an edited form as a single, although it failed to reach the Billboard Hot 100.
Relocation and second album
H. P. Lovecraft embarked on their first tour of the West Coast in late 1967, establishing themselves as a live favorite with the hippies of San Francisco and Los Angeles. In November 1967, Billboard magazine reported that the H. P. Lovecraft album had become something of an underground hit in San Francisco and had already sold 1,100 copies there. In San Francisco the band were championed by concert promoter Bill Graham and this led to appearances at such high-profile venues as The Fillmore and the Winterland Ballroom.
After returning to Chicago briefly, the group embarked on an early 1968 East Coast tour, appearing at the Boston Tea Party, Philadelphia's Electric Factory, and concluding with an aborted engagement at New York's Cafe Au Go Go alongside Al Kooper's Blood, Sweat & Tears. These obligations fulfilled, the group relocated to Marin County, California permanently in mid-February 1968 in an attempt to advance their careers. Notable post-relocation performances were at the Fillmore and Winterland with Traffic, Salt Lake City's Utah State Fairgrounds Coliseum with Buffalo Springfield and the Youngbloods, Los Angeles' Whisky a Go Go with Colors, and in Palm Springs, appearing with the James Cotton Blues Band.
Eight weeks after the group's relocation, bassist Jerry McGeorge made his final appearance with H. P. Lovecraft at the Los Angeles Kaleidoscope on April 12–14, 1968. He was replaced by Jeffrey Boyan, who had previously been a member of the Chicago band Saturday's Children. Critic Jeff Jarema has noted that Boyan was an accomplished bass player with a strong singing voice and that his addition to the band improved their abilities as a live act considerably. The band subsequently played West Coast concerts with the Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane, and Moby Grape, as well as with touring British bands such as Pink Floyd and The Who. The band's prowess and imagination as a live act during this period can be heard on the Live May 11, 1968 album. The live album, which, according to critic Ned Raggett, boasts "one of the best live recording qualities" for the period, was released in 1991 by Sundazed Records (Edsel Records in the UK) and was reissued in 2000.
In June 1968, H. P. Lovecraft decamped to I.D. Sound Studios in Los Angeles with engineer Chris Huston to record their second album. Due to the intensive touring that the band had undertaken during the first half of 1968, there was a lack of properly arranged new material and consequently much of the album was improvised in the studio. Huston was pivotal in enabling the underprepared band to complete the recording sessions and also created many of the album's psychedelic sound effects.
The album was released as H. P. Lovecraft II in September 1968, and, although it was less focused than its predecessor, it successfully expanded on the musical approach of the band's first album. Among its nine tracks, the album included "At the Mountains of Madness", another song based on the works of the author H. P. Lovecraft (this time his 1931 novella At the Mountains of Madness). The album also included a cover of Brewer & Shipley's "Keeper of the Keys", the Edwards-penned tracks "Electrollentando" and "Mobius Trip", a contribution from voice artist Ken Nordine, on the track "Nothing's Boy", and two songs written by Edwards' friend Terry Callier: "Spin, Spin, Spin" and "It's About Time". Like the band's first album, H. P. Lovecraft II failed to sell in sufficient quantities to reach the U.S. charts.
Michaels left the band in late 1968, to return to university, and as a result, H. P. Lovecraft effectively collapsed in early 1969, with Tegza joining the band Bangor Flying Circus. A successor group, Lovecraft, was formed in 1969 and included Edwards and Tegza from the original line-up, although Edwards departed from the group soon after its formation. Edwards has subsequently undertaken production work and played in folk clubs under his real name, Ethan Kenning, occasionally reuniting with Michaels, who records and performs under his real name, David Miotke.
Lovecraft and Love Craft
After the breakup of H. P. Lovecraft, a spin-off band with the shortened name of Lovecraft was formed in late 1969 by George Edwards and Michael Tegza. The new band's line-up included two recruits from the Chicago band Aorta: guitarist Jim Donlinger and bassist Michael Been. Initially, it was hoped that Dave Michaels would also join the new incarnation of the band, but he withdrew and the group instead recruited keyboard player and singer Marty Grebb, previously of the Buckinghams. After securing a recording contract with Reprise Records, Edwards pulled out of the project and returned to performing as a solo folk singer.
The remaining band members completed recording sessions for an album titled Valley of the Moon, and promptly headed out on tour, supporting the Boz Scaggs Band and later Leon Russell. The Valley of the Moon album saw the group abandoning the eerie psychedelic ambiance that had characterized H. P. Lovecraft's music and instead featured a more laid-back, mainstream rock sound, somewhat reminiscent of Crosby, Stills & Nash or Uriah Heep. By the time that Valley of the Moon was released, Lovecraft had split up and the album, along with its attendant single "We Can Have It Altogether", failed commercially and did not chart.
Following the demise of the band, Tegza rejoined Edwards in the band Elixir, playing a handful of shows in 1971, but never releasing any recordings. Of the other ex-members of Lovecraft, Grebb went on to form the Fabulous Rhinestones and eventually developed a career as a solo artist and session musician; Been joined Jerry Miller and Bob Mosley (both ex-members of Moby Grape) in Fine Wine and recorded the self-titled Fine Wine album in 1976, as well as playing Bay Area clubs with Miller in a band called The Original Haze in the late 1970s, before going on to front the new wave band the Call during the 1980s and 1990s; and Donlinger recorded a number of solo albums and published an autobiography titled Space Traveller: A Musician's Odyssey.
In 1975, Tegza put together yet another variation of the group, this time a funk band with the name Love Craft, featuring vocalist Lalomie Washburn. Love Craft released the We Love You Whoever You Are album on Mercury Records in 1975, but the record sold poorly and, as a result, the band were dropped by their label and disbanded shortly thereafter. In 1980, Tegza and Love Craft guitarist Frankie Capek reunited to form a second version of the band, recruiting vocalist Marc Scherer and bassist Mark Gardner to complete the line-up. With a repertoire consisting of contemporary pop music and older psychedelic material, the band garnered some label interest, but broke up before they had secured a recording contract, due to Scherer leaving the band.
Since then, Tegza has become a pastor and lives in Eureka Springs, Arkansas. Scherer is currently signed to Frontiers, Italy and records with Grammy winner Jim Peterik of "Eye of the Tiger" fame. The Peterik/Scherer (PS) album Risk Everything was set for release in spring of 2015.
Despite the involvement of Tegza and Edwards in Lovecraft and Love Craft, neither band is regarded as being fundamentally connected to H. P. Lovecraft or its history, beyond the obvious similarities in names and shared members.
Literary references to the band
Science fiction writer Harry Turtledove makes frequent references to the band H.P. Lovecraft (sometimes only as "HPL") in numerous stories. In one short story, "The Fillmore Shoggoth," five historical members of HPL (including George Edwards as the viewpoint character) appear in a horror-adventure plot where Lovecraftian monsters attack the theater where they are performing.
Members
H. P. Lovecraft
George Edwards – vocals, acoustic guitar, electric guitar, guitarrón, bass (1967–1969)
Dave Michaels – vocals, organ, piano, harpsichord, clarinet, recorder (1967–1968)
Tony Cavallari – lead guitar, vocals (1967–1969)
Michael Tegza – drums, percussion, timpani, vocals (1967–1969)
Tom Skidmore – bass (1967)
Jerry McGeorge – bass, vocals (1967–1968)
Jeff Boyan – bass, vocals (1968–1969)
Lovecraft
Michael Tegza – drums (1969–1971)
Jim Donlinger – guitar (1969–1971)
Michael Been – bass (1969–1971)
Marty Grebb – keyboards, vocals (1969–1971)
George Edwards – vocals, guitar (1969–1970)
Love Craft
Michael Tegza – drums (1975–1976)
Lalomie Washburn – vocals, percussion (1975)
George Agosto – percussion (1975)
Craig Gigstad – bass (1975)
Mark Justin – synthesizer, keyboards (1975)
Jorge Juan Rodriguez – guitar (1975)
Frank Capek – guitar (1975–1976)
Shawn Christopher – vocals (1976)
Jeff Steele – bass (1976)
Theodis Rodgers – keyboards (1976)
Discography
Albums
H. P. Lovecraft (1967)
H. P. Lovecraft II (1968)
Valley of the Moon [as Lovecraft] (1970)
We Love You Whoever You Are [as Love Craft] (1975)
Live May 11, 1968 [live recordings] (1991)
Compilations
At the Mountains of Madness (1988)
H. P. Lovecraft/H. P. Lovecraft II (1997)
Two Classic Albums from H. P. Lovecraft: H. P. Lovecraft/H. P. Lovecraft II (2000)
Dreams in the Witch House: The Complete Philips Recordings (2005)
Singles
"Anyway That You Want Me"/"It's All Over for You" (Philips 40464) (1967)
"Wayfaring Stranger"/"The Time Machine" (Philips 40491) (1967)
"The White Ship" (Part 1)/"The White Ship" (Part 2) (Philips 40506) (1967)
"The White Ship"/"I've Been Wrong Before" (Philips BF 1639) [UK release] (1968)
"Keeper of the Keys"/"Blue Jack of Diamonds" (Philips 40578) (1968)
"We Can Have It Altogether"/"Will I Know When My Time Comes?" (Reprise 0996) [as Lovecraft] (1971)
"I Feel Better"/"Flight" (Mercury 73698) [as Love Craft] (1975)
"Ain't Gettin' None"/"We Love You" (Mercury 73707) [as Love Craft] (1975)
References
External links
The White Ship: The Psychedelic Voyage of H.P. Lovecraft - fan site with an in-depth biography of the group.
H. P. Lovecraft: An interview with George Edwards, Ptolemaic Terrascope, 1991
H.P. Lovecraft: in-depth article at Vinyl Pandemic
H. P. Lovecraft performing their song "The White Ship" on U.S. television in the late 1960s.
American psychedelic rock music groups
Musical groups from San Francisco
Musical groups from Chicago
Musical groups established in 1967
Musical groups disestablished in 1969
1967 establishments in Illinois
American folk rock groups
Rock music groups from Illinois |
4333243 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabrielle%20Solis | Gabrielle Solis | Gabrielle "Gaby" Solis () is a fictional character portrayed by Eva Longoria on the ABC television series Desperate Housewives. Longoria was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy for her performance.
Storylines
Backstory
Gabrielle Márquez was born in Las Colinas, Texas. Her family is from Guadalajara, Mexico. Born on December 8, 1976, she has a brother and a sister. Her father died of cancer when she was five years old. From that point on, her mother, Lucía Márquez (María Conchita Alonso), married Alejandro Perez (Tony Plana) who sexually abused Gabrielle throughout her teenage years. According to Gabrielle, her mother overlooked the matter, and a nun at her school refused to believe her claims of having been raped. When she was fifteen, Gabrielle ran away to New York City to pursue a career in modeling. Gabrielle achieved significant success but earned a reputation for being difficult. As her career began to fade, she married wealthy businessman Carlos Solis (Ricardo Antonio Chavira), who proposed after only three dates. They then relocated to Wisteria Lane in the fictional suburb of Fairview, Eagle State, where Gabrielle befriended Susan Mayer (Teri Hatcher), Lynette Scavo (Felicity Huffman), Bree Van de Kamp (Marcia Cross), and Mary Alice Young (Brenda Strong).
Season 1
In the pilot episode, Gabrielle is unhappy with her marriage to Carlos, whose priority is work. She is shown to be extremely lonely while Carlos is money-minded and oblivious to her unhappiness. To keep herself entertained, she has an affair with John Rowland (Jesse Metcalfe), her teenage gardener. Carlos suspects that Gabrielle is being unfaithful and he enlists the help of his mother, Juanita "Mama" Solis (Lupe Ontiveros). Mama Solis catches Gabrielle and John having sex and takes a photograph to document Gabrielle's betrayal. However, while fleeing the house, she is hit by a car driven by Andrew Van de Kamp, and Gabrielle is able to dispose of the evidence against her. Mama Solis falls into a coma and dies a few months later without having the opportunity to tell Carlos about Gabrielle's affair. Gabrielle and John end the affair after Susan and Helen (Kathryn Harrold), John's mother, find out about it. Soon after, Carlos is indicted for importing goods made by slave labor. The government freezes the Solis' bank accounts, forcing Gabrielle to perform low-wage modeling jobs to pay bills. Carlos is eventually released under house arrest while awaiting trial, during which time the couple faces several financial crises.
Carlos continually asks Gabrielle for a child, as well as a post-nuptial agreement that she will not divorce him while he is in jail. After Carlos physically forces Gabrielle to sign the documents, she reignites her affair with John. Later, Gabrielle discovers that she is pregnant and is unsure of who the father is. John hopes to help take care of the baby, but Gabrielle tells him she will only acknowledge Carlos as the father. Later, Gabrielle finds out that Carlos had tampered with her birth control in order to orchestrate her pregnancy. While Carlos is facing a separate trial for assaulting two different gay men he mistook for being Gabrielle's lovers (the first being a cable repairman who slipped in their bathroom after interrupting a tryst between Gabrielle and John, the second being John's roommate Justin), John admits to his affair with Gabrielle. Carlos attempts to attack John in court, and is subsequently convicted for hate crimes.
Season 2
With Carlos now in jail and a child on the way, Gabrielle alienates John and attempts to salvage her marriage. Gabrielle and Carlos continue sparring until she apologizes for the affair wholeheartedly for the first time. Hoping to be granted a conjugal visit and eventually get Carlos released on parole, Gabrielle hires David Bradley (Adrian Pasdar), a womanizing lawyer who later professes his love to Gabrielle, to get Carlos' hate crime conviction overturned. Later, Caleb Applewhite (Page Kennedy), Betty Applewhite's (Alfre Woodard) allegedly violent and mentally ill son, breaks into Gabrielle's home and chases her. She falls down the stairs, resulting in a miscarriage. Afterwards, Carlos is paroled thanks to the influence of a nun named Sister Mary Bernard (Melinda Page Hamilton). Gabrielle objects to Carlos' attempts to become a better and more spiritual man, as it threatens her lavish lifestyle, thus prompting Sister Mary to suggest Carlos annul his marriage to Gabrielle. Gabrielle intervenes when Carlos attempts to accompany Sister Mary on a charity trip to Botswana. To rid herself of Sister Mary permanently, Gabrielle tells a priest at the church that Sister Mary and Carlos had an affair. Consequently, Sister Mary is transferred to Alaska.
Gabrielle agrees to have a child with Carlos, but her miscarriage leads to complications, forcing them to consider adoption. They prepare to adopt the unborn baby of pole dancer Libby Collins (Nichole Hiltz). However, Libby's boyfriend, Frank Helm (Eddie McClintock), and his teenaged brother and the baby's father, Dale (Sam Horrigan), try to intervene. When the baby, Lily, is born, a judge grants Carlos and Gabrielle temporary custody; however, Libby ultimately decides to take Lily back and raise her with Frank. Meanwhile, Gabrielle learns that her maid, Xiao-Mei (Gwendoline Yeo), is in danger of being deported to China. Xiao-Mei agrees to be Gabrielle and Carlos' surrogate in order to stay in the country. As the pregnancy progresses, Gabrielle suspects that Carlos and Xiao-Mei are having an affair. When she catches them having sex, she kicks Carlos out of the house and informs Xiao-Mei that she is not allowed to leave until the baby is born.
Season 3
The third season opens six months later, near the end of Xiao-Mei's pregnancy and in the midst of Gabrielle and Carlos' divorce proceedings. When Xiao-Mei gives birth, doctors discover that they had accidentally switched the Solis' embryo with another couple's and the Solis' embryo was not successfully inseminated. Xiao-Mei moves out and Gabrielle and Carlos are left without a child. Despite this, their divorce proceedings become complicated and vindictive. Following Gabrielle's divorce, she teams up with her personal shopper Vern (Alec Mapa) to coach a group of young misfit girls for the Little Miss Snowflake Beauty Pageant. She briefly dates Bill Pearce (Mark Deklin) the widowed father of a girl in the pageant, before realizing that she is not yet ready to date again. Soon after, Zach Young (Cody Kasch) the recently wealthy son of Gabrielle's deceased friend, Mary Alice, begins pursuing Gabrielle. Though Gabrielle refuses to date him, she agrees to befriend the irresponsible and disturbed Zach. When Zach proposes to Gabrielle at the grand opening of the Scavos' new pizzeria, she rejects him and terminates their friendship.
Later, Victor Lang (John Slattery), a candidate for the mayor of Fairview, takes notice of Gabrielle, and arranges an encounter with her by having his chauffeur intentionally rear-end her car with his limo. They date casually, but Gabrielle insists that she is not interested. Nevertheless, they have mutual feelings of love. When Gabrielle learns that Carlos has started dating her neighbor, the promiscuous Edie Britt (Nicollette Sheridan), she accepts Victor's marriage proposal. As the wedding draws near, Gabrielle begins to have second thoughts about marrying Victor, especially after he wins the election and neglects her for his political career. Despite this, she marries Victor. However, after the wedding, Gabrielle overhears a conversation Victor has with his father Milton (Mike Farrell), where he admits to only having married her for his political gain, thus; prompting her to reignite her relationship with Carlos.
Season 4
The season premiere, "Now You Know", opens with Gaby and Carlos' plan to run away together on Gaby's wedding night; however, after Edie stages a suicide attempt, Carlos calls off the plan. One month later, Gaby and Carlos reignite their affair despite their commitments to Victor and Edie, respectively. Edie soon becomes suspicious of Carlos, and eventually pieces together that he is cheating on her with Gabrielle when she, Carlos, and Victor all come down with crabs. She hires a private investigator, who photographs the couple sharing a final kiss after having just decided to end their affair. Edie shows the photographs to Victor. Victor takes Gabrielle on his boat, where she learns that he has found about the affair. Fearing that he might try to kill her, she knocks him overboard twice (first by herself and then with Carlos' help) and leaves him at sea. Victor survives the ordeal and vows to get revenge on Gabrielle and Carlos. He attempts to kill Carlos during a tornado, only to be killed when he is impaled from behind by a fencepost. In the same storm, Carlos is blinded while the only documents giving him access to an offshore bank account are destroyed. The couple remarries soon after.
While Gabrielle learns to cope with Carlos' blindness, the Solises rent out a room in their house to Ellie Leonard (Justine Bateman) to improve their financial circumstances. Gabrielle later discovers that Ellie is a drug dealer and alerts the authorities; however, after she and Ellie bond, Gabrielle helps her escape before the police arrest her. Gabrielle later discovers several thousand dollars in Ellie's abandoned belongings. Ellie comes back to retrieve it, but Gabrielle tries to keep it from her. When police arrive to the Solis home, Ellie escapes and seeks refuge in Katherine Mayfair's house, where she is shot and killed by Wayne Davis (Gary Cole).
Season 5
Five years after the events in season four, Gabrielle is not as beautiful, Carlos is still blind, and they are now raising two disobedient daughters, Juanita (Madison De La Garza) and Celia (Daniella Baltodano). The family struggles financially, forcing Carlos to take a job as a masseur at a local country club, which further alienates them from high society. One of Carlos' elderly and wealthy clients, Virginia Hildebrand (Frances Conroy), offers him a job as her personal masseur. Virginia becomes close with the Solises. Initially, Gabrielle does not mind, as she enjoys the luxuries Virginia provides for them; however, she starts to feel uncomfortable. Virginia revises her will to make the Solises the sole heirs to her estate, but Gabrielle eventually rejects the offer when Virginia tries to make important decisions in Juanita and Celia's lives. Later, Carlos regains his sight after having surgery.
Carlos plans to take a job at the community center to help blind people. Tired of struggling, Gabrielle forces Carlos to take a high-salary office job. Meanwhile, Gabrielle works to lose weight and return to her model figure. When Gabrielle discovers that Carlos' new boss, Bradley Scott (David Starzyk), is cheating on his wife, she promises to remain silent so long as Carlos receives a generous salary bonus. Eventually, Bradley's wife, Maria Scott (Ion Overman), finds out about his affair and kills him. As a result of Bradley's death, Carlos is promoted. Later, Gabrielle hesitantly agrees to take in Carlos' teenage niece, Ana (Maiara Walsh), when her grandmother can no longer care for her. Gabrielle attempts to foster a positive relationship with Ana; however, she soon sees how entitled and manipulative Ana is.
Season 6
Gabrielle's relationship with Ana becomes more problematic, as Ana shows no regard for the household rules. Ana begins pursuing Danny Bolen (Beau Mirchoff), the teenage son of their new neighbors, Angie (Drea de Matteo) and Nick Bolen (Jeffrey Nordling). When Danny is accused of strangling Susan's daughter, Julie Mayer (Andrea Bowen), Ana attempts to provide him a false alibi until Gabrielle forces her to tell the truth. Later, Ana gets a job at John Rowland's restaurant. John attempts to win Gabrielle back, forcing her to question whether or not she still has feelings for him. She ultimately decides that she is happy with her life, and Ana quits her job after Gabrielle confesses to her affair with John in the first season. Gabrielle also begins experiencing difficulties in her relationship with Juanita: her poor parenting skills make other parents reluctant to let their children play with Juanita; Gabrielle's hot temper gets Juanita expelled from school; and her attempts to home school Juanita only strain their relationship further. Gabrielle and Carlos then enroll Juanita in private school. Later, Gabrielle discovers that Lynette has been hiding her pregnancy in order to secure a promotion at Carlos' company. Feeling betrayed, Gabrielle ends their friendship and Carlos tries to drive Lynette to quit her job. However, when a small plane hired by Karl Mayer makes a crash landing on Wisteria Lane, Lynette saves Celia from its path, thus restoring her friendship with Gabrielle.
Gabrielle's friendship with Angie is complicated when Ana and Danny begin dating, especially when Gabrielle and Carlos discover that the Bolens are keeping a dangerous secret. To break up Ana and Danny, Gabrielle and Carlos send her to a modeling academy in New York; unbeknownst to them or the Bolens, however, Danny follows her there. Gabrielle accompanies Angie to New York to retrieve Danny, during which time she learns about Angie's mysterious past, which involves Danny's biological father. Patrick Logan (John Barrowman), an environmental terrorist and Danny's real father, tracks them down to Wisteria Lane. He runs over Nick, placing him in the hospital, and holds Angie and Danny hostage. Gabrielle helps rescue the Bolens and send them to Atlanta, as the government is still searching for them due to their involvement in Patrick's terrorism.
Season 7
Gabrielle is told the truth of Andrew killing Carlos' mother but decides to keep it quiet, fearing Carlos' reaction and not wanting to hurt him. She is sent to the hospital after Bree accidentally hits Juanita with her car. She finds out later that Juanita is not her real daughter due to a hospital mix-up. Gabrielle soon realizes she wants to meet her true daughter and convinces a lawyer to find the other family. Carlos is angered when he finds out, telling her that the family could take Juanita away and if that happens, he'll never forgive Gabrielle. When they meet the family, they automatically know that Grace is Gaby's daughter as she is throwing a fit over a jumper. Gabrielle grows closer to Grace, causing jealousy in Juanita, who doesn't know the truth. When Grace's legal parents are discovered to be illegal immigrants, her legal father Hector is arrested and her legal mother Carmen is forced to go on the run. Since Grace was born in the United States, she is a citizen and Gabrielle and Carlos agree to take her in to raise her.
To make sure they can get Grace to live with them, Gabrielle turns Grace's legal mother into U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) but then has second thoughts when ICE shows up, posing as Carmen and letting Carmen get away. But when Gabrielle and Carlos go to pick up Grace, Carmen insists on taking Grace. Distraught over losing Grace, Gabrielle confides in Lynette, the only person she knows who has lost a child. Lynette tells Gabrielle that she wrote a letter to the child she lost, and that this might help Gabrielle, who wouldn't have to actually send it. Gabrielle writes the letter; Juanita finds it and runs away, hiding in the back of Bob and Lee's car, where Gabrielle sees her just in time for her to be rescued during a riot. A therapist suggests that Carlos and Gabrielle cut off all ties and reminders of Grace in order to let the tension with Juanita heal. Gabrielle is reluctant, keeping photos of Grace but Carlos demands she do this for Juanita.
Gabrielle seems to agree, but goes to a boutique and buys a doll that resembles Grace and keeps it hidden from her family. After Juanita and Celia find it and play with it, ultimately breaking its arm, Gabrielle goes back to the boutique and has the owner repair "Princess Valerie". The owner promises to repair it, and Gabrielle, feeling she is too attached to the doll, asks the owner if she thinks Gabrielle is strange. The owner disagrees, and shows Gabrielle her own doll, Mrs. Humphreys. The owner tells Gabrielle that she fell in love with the doll and bought it, ultimately learning the doll's "story". The owner says that Mrs. Humphreys is a music teacher whose sister died around the same time the owner's did (hinting that the owner bought the doll as a replacement for her passed on sister, much as Gabrielle did). Gabrielle sees the owner's pain, and the owner asks Gabrielle about Princess Valerie's story. Although reluctant, Gabrielle emotionally tells her that the doll was a princess who was accidentally given to the wrong family, but she found her way back eventually, and her mother, the Queen, had her hid so that no one could take her away again. When she gets home, Gabrielle puts Princess Valerie in a box behind her closet. Carlos finds out about Gabrielle's obsession with the doll so they go out to get rid of it and get carjacked by an unknown gunman. Gabrielle tries to take Princess Valerie out of the car but she had to let her go because the gunman threatened to kill her.
Carlos insists she go to therapy but she ignores it, going to spa treatments instead. Eventually, Carlos goes with her as she confesses to the therapist how she was molested as a child. At the therapist's suggestion, Gabrielle and Carlos go to her hometown where Gaby is surprised to learn she is a celebrity. She enjoys being admired by the townspeople until she meets the nun she had once confided in about her abuse as a child. The nun had then refused to believe Gabrielle's story and remains stubborn as Gabrielle lets out the shame she has long since been forced to feel by the cold nun's words; passing it back onto this woman who was in a position to prevent a childhood of torment and failed to do anything, gives Gaby the sense of closure she has been seeking. Finally Gabrielle tells Carlos she is ready to go home and leave the past behind. Making amends for his past while in AA, Andrew decides to tell Carlos about running over his mother. While Carlos does forgive Andrew, he is furious with Gabrielle over keeping the secret from him. He tells Bree that he won't forgive her for hiding the truth and bans Gabrielle from seeing Bree again. Gabrielle takes her girls and temporarily moves in with Bree. She shortly returns to Carlos.
Gabrielle shows a horror movie to Juanita, which gives her nightmares. She claims that a man is standing on the family's front lawn every night. Gabrielle is doubtful of this until she too notices the mysterious stranger. She sees him while shopping one day and asks a security officer to see a security camera. She realizes that her stalker is the stepfather who raped her as a child. This horrifies Gabrielle, especially because she thought that he was dead. Gabrielle learns her stepfather has been following her everywhere she goes. She drives to a deserted area when she knows he is following her, and walks into a clearing, armed with a gun that she acquired for her protection. She confronts him about raping her as a young girl. He admits to the terrible deed. During Susan's coming home dinner, Gabrielle runs home to begin preparations for dessert course. Once she enters her house, her stepfather confronts her again, pretending to have her gun. He begins to attack her and attempts to rape her. However, Carlos comes home and intervenes, accidentally killing him with a blow to the head from a candlestick. Bree, Susan, and Lynette come into the house and discover the body. With help from Bree, they are able to clean up before the rest of the guests arrive. The group agrees to keep the situation secret.
Season 8
Gabrielle and Carlos deal with keeping the murder of her stepfather quiet, Carlos unable to be intimate due to his guilt. Gabrielle challenges the antagonistic PTA head at Juanita's school after a parking dispute only to accidentally hit the woman with her car. The woman gets revenge by making Gabrielle her replacement, warning her that being PTA head will drive Gabrielle crazy. The first meeting does not go well as Gabrielle is late due to a spa appointment and the other members berate her over putting her high-living lifestyle over her responsibilities. Assuming they're jealous, Gabrielle gives them massages and makeovers but they still refuse to help. They snap that Gabrielle has no idea how people like them live and her life is so perfect. However, when a drunken Carlos comes in, the PTA members realize that Gabrielle faces many struggles as well and she really isn't that different from them after all. They take over the luncheon project and allow Gabrielle to help her husband. When Carlos gets drunk before work, Gabrielle attempts to cover for him but his boss figures it out. Rather than be upset, the man tells Carlos he understands, being a recovering alcoholic himself, and urges Carlos to get help. Carlos checks himself into a rehab center but vanishes the same night detective Chuck Vance is killed, making Gabrielle worry Carlos might have done it while drunk. When a guilty Susan checks in on Alejandro's family, his suspicious widow, Claudia, follows her, believing Susan is having an affair with her husband. Gabrielle is upset with Susan until she hears Susan's suspicion that Claudia's daughter, Marisa, was also molested. Gabrielle invites Claudia over, telling her the truth about Alejandro. Claudia refuses to believe it until Marisa finally confesses what the man did to her, Claudia distraught to have had her daughter hurt like that. She later comes to Gabrielle, thanking her for letting her see the truth. She spots the rug stained with Alejandro's blood that Gabrielle was having replaced and tells Gabrielle to get rid of it, clearly knowing what happened to Alejandro and willing to keep it quiet.
When Carlos gets out of rehab, he surprises Gabrielle by having a new attitude of giving away money, not wanting to be so greedy anymore. Gabrielle is upset at first but at Mike's funeral, realizes it's better to let Carlos do what makes him happy. She tries to calm her nerves by shopping and ends up being offered a job as a "personal shopper." At first, Gabrielle is good with it but also has to pretend to be single to win over male shoppers. Carlos is upset with this and Gabrielle tells him she is doing what she wants and is enjoying it. When Bree is put on trial for killing Alejandro, both Carlos and Gabrielle want to tell the truth but Karen McCluskey (overhearing them talking about it) confesses on the stand to killing Alejandro herself. Gabrielle is eventually offered a promotion at her job with Carlos upset at first but coming to accept it. In the final moments of the series, it's stated that Carlos helps Gabrielle start her own online shopper company, which earns her a show on the Home Shopping Network. They eventually move to a mansion in Los Angeles where "they argued happily ever after."
Trivia
Roselyn Sánchez auditioned for the role also but the producers thought she wasn't right for the role because of her heavy Puerto Rican accent. Sánchez did make a cameo in the series finale as the new gardener Carlos hires for their house and became a main character in the spin-off series Devious Maids as Carmen Luna.
Laura Harring also auditioned for the role of Gabrielle.
When Marc Cherry was casting, he asked Eva, "Do you like the script?" She said, "not meaning to be conceited, but I only read my part," then he thought "she's Gaby."
Gabrielle is one of two housewives to cheat on their husbands with the other being Bree.
Gabrielle is the youngest of the housewives from the main four.
Gabrielle is allergic to lilies and likes to dance salsa and drink merlot.
Gabrielle and Carlos belong to the O+ blood group.
Gabrielle is the only main housewife to not have a stepchild:
Zach Young is Susan's stepson;
Kayla Huntington Scavo is Lynette's stepdaughter;
and Sam Allen is Bree's stepson.
Gabrielle has experienced the loss of a child four times:
her first pregnancy ended in miscarriage when she fell down a flight of stairs;
Libby Collins, the biological mother of her adopted daughter Lily, decided to take her back;
Carlos's and Gaby's surrogacy ended in failure;
and she let go of her biological daughter Grace Sánchez.
She is also the only main housewife who is not a grandmother by the series finale.
Gabrielle is the housewife with the most times changed hair color, as her hair first starts out dark brown (season 1, first half of season 2, season 3; episodes 10–23) then lightens to medium brown with copper highlights (second half of season 2, seasons 6, 7 and 8). After season 2, Gabrielle seems to dye her hair light brown with blonde streaks for the first nine episodes of season 3, with the exception of the episode, Bang (honey blonde with blonde highlights). In season 4, after changing back to dark brown in season 3, Gabrielle lightens her hair yet again to medium brown with blonde highlights. At some point during the time jump between seasons 4 and 5, Gabrielle replaces her blonde highlights with caramel. Despite wearing her hair straight most of the time during the first five seasons, she completely stops wearing it straight for seasons 6 and 7 and starts again during the end of season 8.
Reception
Gabrielle has been generally well received by fans. Aya Tsintziras from Screen Rant called Gabrielle as the best character in the series, praising her character arc as the "biggest" and her change from "a spoiled brat who only cares about hair, makeup, and clothing to a caring mother and friend". She also called Gaby's struggle on whether to have children "interesting" and stated that her children change her outlook on life. Tsintziras also said that Gaby's affair with John "makes sense" due to her feeling "trapped" in her marriage and Carlos not understanding her.
Gabrielle Rockson from The Things called Gabrielle a household name and a "favourite", stating that people loved her "charm, diva attitude, and witty humor". Longoria has received several awards for her role as Gaby.
References
Television characters introduced in 2004
Desperate Housewives characters
Fictional models
Fictional characters from New York City
Fictional housewives
Fictional characters from Texas |
4333462 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional%20Irish%20Republican%20Army%20campaign | Provisional Irish Republican Army campaign | From 1969 until 1997, the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) conducted an armed paramilitary campaign primarily in Northern Ireland and England, aimed at ending British rule in Northern Ireland in order to create a united Ireland.
The Provisional IRA emerged from a split in the Irish Republican Army in 1969, partly as a result of that organisation's perceived failure to defend Catholic neighbourhoods from attack in the 1969 Northern Ireland riots. The Provisionals gained credibility from their efforts to physically defend such areas in 1970 and 1971. From 1971–72, the IRA took to the offensive and conducted a relatively high-intensity campaign against the British and Northern Ireland security forces and the infrastructure of the state. The British Army characterised this period as the "insurgency phase" of the IRA's campaign.
The IRA declared a brief ceasefire in 1972 and a more protracted one in 1975, when there was an internal debate over the feasibility of future operations. The armed group reorganised itself in the late 1970s into a smaller, cell-based structure, which was designed to be harder to penetrate. The IRA then carried out a smaller scale but more sustained campaign, which they characterised as the 'Long War', with the eventual aim of weakening the British government's resolve to remain in Ireland. The British Army called this the "terrorist phase" of the IRA's campaign.
The IRA made attempts in the 1980s to escalate the conflict with the aid of weapons donated by Libya. In the 1990s they also resumed a campaign of bombing economic targets in London and other cities in England.
On 31 August 1994, the IRA called a unilateral ceasefire with the aim of having their associated political party, Sinn Féin, admitted into the Northern Ireland peace process. The organisation ended its ceasefire in February 1996 but declared another in July 1997. The IRA accepted the terms of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 as a negotiated end to the Northern Ireland conflict. In 2005 the organisation declared a formal end to its campaign and had its weaponry decommissioned under international supervision.
Other aspects of the Provisional IRA's campaign are covered in the following articles:
For a chronology, see Chronology of Provisional IRA actions
For the Provisional IRA's armament, see Provisional IRA arms importation
Beginnings
In the early days of the Troubles (1969–72), the Provisional IRA was poorly armed, with only a handful of old weapons left over from the IRA's Border campaign of 1956–1962. The IRA had split in December 1969 into the Provisional IRA and Official IRA factions. In the first two years of the conflict, the Provisionals' main activities were defending Irish nationalist areas from attacks.
In contrast to the IRA's relative inaction during the 1969 Northern Ireland riots, in the summer of 1970, the Provisional IRA mounted determined armed defences of the nationalist areas of Belfast against loyalist attackers, killing a number of Protestant civilians and loyalists in the process. On 27 June 1970, the IRA killed five Protestant civilians during street disturbances in Belfast. Three more were shot in Ardoyne in north Belfast after gun battles broke out during an Orange Order parade. When loyalists retaliated by attacking the nationalist enclave of Short Strand in east Belfast, Billy McKee, the Provisionals' commander in Belfast, occupied St Matthew's Church and defended it in a five-hour gun battle with the loyalists, in what became known as the Battle of St Matthew's. One of his men was killed, he was badly wounded, and three loyalists were also killed. The Provisional IRA gained much of its support from these activities, as they were widely perceived among nationalists as being defenders of nationalist and Irish Catholic people against aggression.
Initially, the British Army, deployed into Northern Ireland in August 1969 to reinforce the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) and restore government control, was welcomed in Catholic nationalist areas as a neutral force compared to the Protestant- and unionist-dominated RUC and Ulster Special Constabulary. However, this good relationship with nationalists did not last long. The Army was soon discredited in the eyes of many nationalists by incidents such as the Falls Curfew of July 1970, when 3,000 British troops imposed martial law conditions on the nationalist lower Falls area of west Belfast. After a gun and grenade attack on troops by Provisional IRA members, the British fired over 1,500 rounds of ammunition in gun battles with both the Official IRA and Provisional IRA in the area, killing six civilians. Thereafter, the Provisionals continued targeting British soldiers. The first soldier to die was gunner Robert Curtis, killed by Billy Reid in a gun battle in February 1971.
1970 and 1971 also saw feuding between the Provisional and Official IRAs in Belfast, as both organisations vied for supremacy in nationalist areas. Charlie Hughes, commander of the Provisionals' D Company in the Lower Falls, was killed before a truce was brokered between the two factions.
Early campaign 1970–72
In the early 1970s, the IRA imported large quantities of modern weapons and explosives, primarily from supporters in the Republic of Ireland and Irish diaspora communities within the Anglosphere as well as the government of Libya.
Leader of the Opposition Harold Wilson in 1971 secretly met with IRA leaders with the help of John O'Connell, angering the Irish government; Garret FitzGerald wrote 30 years later that "the strength of the feelings of our democratic leaders ... was not, however, publicly ventilated at the time" because Wilson was a former and possible future British prime minister.
As the conflict escalated in the early 1970s, the numbers recruited by the IRA mushroomed, in response to the nationalist community's anger at events such as the introduction of internment without trial and Bloody Sunday, when the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment of the British Army shot dead 14 unarmed civil rights marchers in Derry.
The early 1970s were the most intense period of the Provisional IRA campaign. About half the total of 650 British soldiers to die in the conflict were killed in the years 1971–73. In 1972 alone, the IRA killed 100 British soldiers and wounded 500 more. In the same year, they carried out 1,300 bomb attacks and 90 IRA members were killed.
Up to 1972, the IRA controlled large urban areas in Belfast and Derry, but these were eventually re-taken by a major British operation known as Operation Motorman. Thereafter, fortified police and military posts were built in republican areas throughout Northern Ireland. During the early 1970s, a typical IRA operation involved sniping at British patrols and engaging them in fire-fights in urban areas of Belfast and Derry. They also killed RUC and Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR) soldiers, both on and off-duty, and a number of retired policemen and UDR soldiers. These tactics produced casualties for both sides and for many civilian bystanders. The British Army study of the conflict later described this period (1970–72), as the 'insurgency phase' of the IRA's campaign.
Another element of their campaign was the bombing of commercial targets such as shops and businesses. The most effective tactic the IRA developed for its bombing campaign was the car bomb, where large amounts of explosives were packed into a car, which was driven to its target and then detonated. Seán Mac Stíofáin, the first Chief of Staff of the Provisional IRA, described the car bomb both as a tactical and strategic weapon. From the tactical point of view, it tied down a great number of British troops in Belfast and other cities and major towns across Northern Ireland. Strategically, it hampered the British administration and government of the country, striking simultaneously at its economic structure. While most of the IRA's attacks on commercial targets were not intended to cause casualties, on many occasions they killed civilians. Examples include the bombing of the Abercorn restaurant in Belfast in March 1972, in which two young Catholic women were killed and 130 people injured, attributed to the IRA, which never acknowledged responsibility, as well as the bombing of the La Mon restaurant in County Down in February 1978, which resulted in the deaths of twelve Protestant civilian customers, and others maimed and injured.
In rural areas such as South Armagh (which is a majority Catholic area near the Irish border), the IRA unit's most effective weapon was the "culvert bomb", where bombs were planted under drains in country roads. This proved so dangerous for British Army patrols that virtually all troops in the area had to be transported by helicopter, a policy which continued until 2007, when the last British Army base was closed in South Armagh.
Ceasefires – 1972 and 1975
The Provisional IRA declared two ceasefires in the 1970s, temporarily suspending its armed operations. In 1972, the IRA leadership believed that Britain was on the verge of leaving Northern Ireland. The British government held secret talks with the Provisional IRA leadership in 1972 to try to secure a ceasefire based on a compromise settlement within Northern Ireland. The Provisional IRA agreed to a temporary ceasefire from 26 June to 9 July. In July 1972, Provisional leaders Seán Mac Stíofáin, Dáithí Ó Conaill, Ivor Bell, Seamus Twomey, Gerry Adams and Martin McGuinness met a British delegation led by William Whitelaw. The IRA leaders refused to consider a peace settlement that did not include a commitment to British withdrawal to be completed by 1975, a retreat of the British Army to barracks and a release of republican prisoners. The British refused and the talks ended. On Bloody Friday in July 1972 in Belfast 22 bombs exploded, killing nine people and injuring 130. Bloody Friday was intended to be a demonstration of IRA strength following the ceasefire, but was a disaster for the IRA due to the authorities being unable to deal with so many simultaneous bomb alerts in a small area.
By the mid-1970s, it was clear that the hopes of the Provisional IRA leadership for a quick military victory were receding. Secret meetings between IRA leaders Ruairí Ó Brádaigh and Billy McKee with British Secretary of State for Northern Ireland Merlyn Rees secured an IRA ceasefire from February 1975 until January of the next year. The republicans believed initially that this was the start of a long-term process of British withdrawal. However, after several months, many in the IRA came to believe that the British were trying to bring the Provisional movement into peaceful politics without giving them any guarantees.
Critics of the IRA leadership, most notably Gerry Adams, felt that the ceasefire was disastrous for the IRA, leading to infiltration by British informers, the arrest of many activists and a breakdown in IRA discipline, which in turn led to tit-for-tat killings with loyalist groups fearful of a British sell-out and a feud with fellow republicans in the Official IRA. By early 1976, the IRA leadership, short of money, weapons and members, was on the brink of calling off the campaign. Instead, the ceasefire broke down in January 1976.
Late 1970s and the "Long War"
The years 1976 to 1979 under Roy Mason, Merlyn Rees' replacement as the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, were characterised by a falling death rate for many reasons, including a drop in loyalist violence (attributed to the absence of political initiatives under Mason), and a change in IRA tactics after its weakening during the previous year's ceasefire. Mason developed a policy that rejected a political or military solution in favour of treating paramilitary violence "as a security problem". In addition, RUC Chief Constable Kenneth Newman took advantage of Emergency Powers legislation to subject suspected IRA members to "intensive and frequently rough" seven-day interrogations. British concentration on intelligence-gathering and recruiting of informers, accelerated during the 1975 ceasefire and continued under Mason, meant that arrests of IRA members rose steeply in this period. Between 1976 and 1979, 3,000 people were charged with "terrorist offences". There were 800 republican prisoners in Long Kesh alone by 1980.
In 1972, there were over 12,000 shooting and bombing attacks in Northern Ireland; by 1977, this was down to 2,800. In 1976, there were 297 deaths in Northern Ireland; in the next three years the figures were 112, 81, and 113. An IRA man contended that "we were almost beaten by Mason", and Martin McGuinness commented: "Mason beat the shit out of us". Mason's policy of 'criminalisation' led to the blanket protest in the prisons. When Mason left office in 1979, he predicted the IRA were "weeks away from defeat".
After the early years of the conflict, it became less common for the IRA to use large numbers of men in its armed actions. Instead, smaller but more specialised groups carried out sustained attritional attacks. In response to the 1975 ceasefire and the arrest of many IRA volunteers in its aftermath, the IRA re-organised their structures in 1977 into small cell-based units. While these were harder to infiltrate, the greater secrecy also caused a distance to develop between the IRA and sympathetic civilians. They also embarked on a strategy known as the "Long War" – a process of attrition based on the indefinite continuation of an armed campaign until the British government grew tired of the political, military and financial costs involved in staying in Northern Ireland. The British Army characterised this change in the IRA campaign as a move from "insurgency" to a "terrorist phase".
The highest military death toll from an IRA attack came on 27 August 1979, with the Warrenpoint ambush in County Down, when 18 British soldiers from the Parachute Regiment were killed by two culvert bombs placed by the South Armagh Brigade, a unit that didn't feel the need to adopt the cell structure because of its history of successfully avoiding intelligence failures. On the same day, the IRA killed one of their most famous victims, The Earl Mountbatten of Burma, assassinated along with two teenagers (aged 14 and 15) and The Dowager Lady Brabourne in County Sligo, by a bomb placed in his boat. Another effective IRA tactic devised in the late 1970s was the use of home-made mortars mounted on the back of trucks which were fired at police and army bases. These mortars were first tested in 1974 but did not kill anyone until 1979.
Sectarian attacks
The IRA argued that its campaign was aimed not at Protestant and unionist people, but at the British presence in Northern Ireland, manifested in the state security forces. However, many unionists argue that the IRA's campaign was sectarian and there are many incidents where the organisation targeted Protestant civilians. The 1970s were the most violent years of the Troubles. As well as its campaign against the security forces, the IRA became involved, in the middle of the decade, in a "tit for tat" cycle of sectarian killings with loyalist paramilitaries. The worst examples of this occurred in 1975 and 1976. In September 1975, for example, IRA members machine-gunned an Orange Hall in Newtownhamilton, killing five Protestants. On 5 January 1976, in Armagh, IRA members operating under the proxy name South Armagh Republican Action Force shot dead ten Protestant building workers in the Kingsmill massacre.
In similar incidents, the IRA deliberately killed 91 Protestant civilians in 1974–76. The IRA did not officially claim the killings, but justified them in a statement on 17 January 1976, "The Irish Republican Army has never initiated sectarian killings ...[but] if loyalist elements responsible for over 300 sectarian assassinations in the past four years stop such killing now, then the question of retaliation from whatever source does not arise". In late 1976, the IRA leadership met with representatives of the loyalist paramilitary groups and agreed to halt random sectarian killings and car bombings of civilian targets. The loyalists revoked the agreement in 1979, after the IRA killing of Lord Mountbatten, but the pact nevertheless halted the cycle of sectarian revenge killings until the late 1980s, when the loyalist groups began killing Catholics again in large numbers.
After the British introduced their policy of "Ulsterisation" from the mid-1970s, IRA victims came increasingly from the ranks of the RUC and Ulster Defence Regiment, including off-duty and retired personnel. Most of these were Protestant and unionist, thus the killings were portrayed and perceived by many as a campaign of sectarian assassination. Historian Henry Patterson said about Fermanagh "that the killings struck at the Protestant community’s morale, sense of security and belonging in the area was undeniable." while Democratic Unionist Party leader Ian Paisley claimed that the IRA campaign in Fermanagh was "genocidal".
Rachel Kowalsaki argues that the IRA did not generally engage in sectarian activities but instead targeted those they deemed responsible for British rule in Northern Ireland and that they generally only targeted members of the military and police and made efforts to avoid civilian deaths. However, Kowalsaki notes that the IRA did not recognise that while they may have thought of themselves as fighting for a united Ireland, their actions were often perceived by the Northern Irish Unionists as sectarian attacks against Protestants. A similar argument was made by Lewis et al, who argue that the IRA's ideology – which held that Irish Protestants and Unionists were part of the imagined community of the Irish nation and were simply deluded into thinking themselves British by colonial oppression – meant that the organisation had an ideological restraint against mass sectarianism. However, the authors note that this same belief could also blind them to the actual effects of their campaign, as they did not acknowledge that Northern Irish Unionists regarded themselves as a distinct community and thus would perceive the IRA's activities as sectarian.
Timothy Shanahan argues that while the IRA did launch attacks against legitimate targets (defined as members of the security services), many members of the security services, such as the RUC and UDR, would themselves be Protestant, and would be presumed to be Protestant by the IRA. Thus any attacks on these legitimate targets would suffice in killing members of the Protestant community, negating any need for sectarian attacks on Protestant civilians. Shanahan thus argues that while the IRA may not have been sectarian as some loyalist paramilitaries, it may not have been as anti-sectarian as popularly claimed. Similar arguments were made by Steve Bruce, who also argued that Catholic RUC members were disproportionately targeted, which Bruce argues is because they were viewed as betraying their community, which only makes sense in the nature of a sectarian conflict. James Dingley argues that the IRA's focus on the idea of a united and independent Ireland made it de facto sectarian, as it did not recognise Ulster Unionists as a legitimate group and wanted to use violence to pursue goals that were opposed by the majority of the Northern Irish population.
Protestants in the rural border areas of counties Fermanagh and Tyrone, where the number of members of the security forces killed was high, viewed the IRA's campaign as ethnic cleansing. These views have been challenged. Boyle and Hadden argue that the allegations do not stand up to serious scrutiny, while nationalists object to the term on the grounds that it is not used by unionists to describe similar killings or expulsions of Catholics in areas where they form a minority. Henry Patterson, professor of politics at the University of Ulster, concludes that while the IRA's campaign was unavoidably sectarian, it did not amount to ethnic cleansing. Although the IRA did not specifically target these people because of their religious affiliation, more Protestants joined the security forces so many people from that community believed the attacks were sectarian. IRA volunteer Tommy McKearney argues that due to the British government's Ulsterisation policy increasing the role of the locally recruited RUC and UDR, the IRA had no choice but to target them because of their local knowledge, but acknowledges that Protestants viewed this as a sectarian attack on their community. Gerry Adams, in a 1988 interview, claimed it was, "vastly preferable" to target the regular British Army as it "removes the worst of the agony from Ireland" and "diffuses the sectarian aspects of the conflict because loyalists do not see it as an attack on their community".
Towards the end of the Troubles, the IRA widened their campaign even further, to include the killing of people who worked in a civilian capacity with the RUC and British Army. These workers were mostly, but not exclusively, Protestant, although Catholic judges, magistrates, and contractors were also assassinated by the IRA. In 1992, in Teebane, near Cookstown, an IRA bomb killed eight Protestant building workers who were working on a British Army base at Omagh.
Attacks outside Northern Ireland
England
1970s
The Provisional IRA was chiefly active in Northern Ireland, but from the early 1970s, it also took its bombing campaign to England. At a meeting of the Provisional IRA Army Council in June 1972, Seán Mac Stíofáin proposed bombing targets in England to "take the heat off Belfast and Derry". However, the Army Council did not consent to a bombing campaign in England until early 1973, after talks with the British government the previous year had broken down. They believed that such bombing would help create a demand among the British public for their government to withdraw from Northern Ireland.
The first IRA team sent to England included eleven members of the Belfast Brigade, who hijacked four cars in Belfast, fitted them with explosives and drove them to London via Dublin and Liverpool. The team were reported to the London Metropolitan Police and all but one of them were arrested. Nevertheless, two of the bombs exploded, killing one man and injuring 180 people.
Thereafter, control over IRA bombings in England was given to Brian Keenan from Belfast. Keenan directed Peter McMullen, a former member of the British Parachute Regiment, to carry out a series of bombings in 1973. A bomb planted by McMullen exploded at a barracks in Yorkshire, injuring a female canteen worker. On 23 September 1973, a British soldier died of wounds six days after being injured while attempting to defuse an IRA bomb outside an office block in Birmingham.
Some of the most indiscriminate bombing attacks and killings of the IRA's bombing campaign were carried out by a unit of eight IRA members, which included the Balcombe Street Gang, who were sent to London in early 1974. They avoided contact with the Irish community there in order to remain inconspicuous and aimed to carry out one attack a week. In addition to bombings, they carried out several assassination attempts. Ross McWhirter, a right wing politician who had offered a £50,000 reward for information leading to the arrest of the bombers, was shot dead at his home. The group later made an assassination attempt on Edward Heath. They were eventually arrested after a machine-gun attack on an exclusive restaurant on Mayfair. Pursued by police, they took two hostages (a married couple) and barricaded themselves for six days in a flat on Balcombe Street before they surrendered, an incident known as the Balcombe Street Siege. They were sentenced to thirty years each for a total of six murders. At their trial, the group admitted responsibility for the Guildford pub bombings of 5 October 1974, which killed five people (four of whom were off-duty soldiers) and injured 54, as well as the bombing of a pub in Woolwich, which killed another two people and injured 28.
On 21 November 1974, two pubs were bombed in the Birmingham pub bombings (an act widely attributed to the IRA, but not claimed by them), which killed 21 civilians and injured 162. An inadequate warning was given for one bomb and no warning for the other. There were no military targets associated with either of the pubs. The Guildford Four and Maguire Seven, and the Birmingham Six, were imprisoned for the Guildford and Birmingham bombings, respectively, but each group protested their innocence. They were eventually exonerated and released after serving lengthy prison sentences, even though the Balcombe Street group had admitted responsibility long before.
1980s
After the campaign of the mid-1970s, the IRA did not undertake a major bombing campaign again in England until the late 1980s and early 1990s. However, throughout the intervening period, they did carry out a number of high-profile bombing attacks in England.
In October 1981 the IRA carried out the Chelsea Barracks bombing, the nail bomb was aimed at soldiers returning to Chelsea Barracks, but the blast killed two civilians passing by, 40 people were injured in the attack including 23 British soldiers.
The same month a British bomb disposal expert Kenneth Robert Howorth, was killed trying to defuse an IRA bomb on Oxford Street, London.
In 1982 the Hyde Park and Regent's Park bombings killed 11 soldiers and wounded some 50 soldiers and civilians at a British Army ceremonial parade at Hyde Park, and a British Army band performance in Regent's Park in London.
In 1984, in the Brighton hotel bombing, the IRA tried to assassinate British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and her cabinet. She survived, but five people including Sir Anthony Berry, a Conservative Party Member of Parliament, Eric Taylor, the northwest party chairman, and three wives (Muriel Maclean, Jeanne Shattock, and Roberta Wakeham) of party officials were killed. Margaret Tebbit, wife of Norman Tebbit, was left permanently disabled.
In 1985 the IRA planned a sustained bombing campaign in London and English seaside resorts including Bournemouth, Southend and Great Yarmouth. The IRA planned for bombs to explode on sixteen consecutive days beginning in July, excluding Sundays. As well as damaging the tourist industry, the IRA hope to take advantage of police resources being stretched and launch an assassination campaign against political and military targets including General Frank Kitson. Patrick Magee, who was wanted in connection with the Brighton hotel bombing after his palm print was found on the hotel register, was under police surveillance, with police hoping he would lead them to other IRA members. He met with an IRA member at Carlisle railway station, and they were followed to Glasgow, where they were arrested on 24 June 1985 at a safe house along with three other people, including Martina Anderson and Gerry McDonnell, who had escaped from the Maze Prison in 1983. On 11 June 1986 they were sentenced for conspiring to cause explosions and received life sentences, Magee was also convicted of the Brighton hotel bombing and received a life sentence with a minimum recommended sentence of 35 years.
On several more occasions, the Provisional IRA attacked British troops stationed in England, the most lethal of which was the Deal barracks bombing, in which 11 Royal Marines Band Service bandsmen were killed in 1989.
Republicans argued that these bombings "concentrated minds" in the British government far more than the violence in Northern Ireland. The IRA made a point of only striking at targets in England (not Scotland or Wales), although they once planted a small bomb on an oil terminal in the Shetland Isles in May 1981 on the same day that Queen Elizabeth II was attending a nearby function to mark the opening of the terminal. The bomb detonated, damaging a boiler but no one was injured and the ceremony continued. During the IRA's 25-year campaign in England, 115 deaths and 2,134 injuries were reported, from a total of almost 500 incidents.
Early 1990s
In the early 1990s the IRA intensified the bombing campaign in England, planting 15 bombs in 1990, 36 in 1991, and 57 in 1992. In February 1991 three mortar rounds were fired at the British Prime minister's office in Downing Street in London during a Cabinet meeting, which was a propaganda boost for the IRA.
During this period, the IRA also launched a highly damaging economic bombing campaign in English cities, particularly London, which caused a huge amount of physical and economic damage to property. Among their targets were the City of London, Bishopsgate and Baltic Exchange in London, with the Bishopsgate bombing causing damage initially estimated at £1 billion and the Baltic Exchange bombing £800 million of damage. A particularly notorious bombing was the Warrington bomb attack in 1993, which killed two young children, Tim Parry and Johnathan Ball. In early March 1994, there were three mortar attacks on Heathrow Airport in London, which forced the authorities to shut it down.
It has been argued that this bombing campaign convinced the British government (who had hoped to contain the conflict to Northern Ireland with its Ulsterisation policy) to negotiate with Sinn Féin after the IRA ceasefires of August 1994 and July 1997.
Elsewhere
The Provisional IRA also carried out attacks in other countries such as West Germany, Belgium, and the Netherlands, where British soldiers were based. Between 1979 and 1990, eight soldiers and six civilians died in these attacks, including the British Ambassador to the Netherlands Sir Richard Sykes and his valet, Karel Straub. In May 1988 the IRA killed three RAF men & injured three others in two separate attacks in the Netherlands. On one occasion, the IRA shot dead two Australian tourists in the Netherlands, claiming its members mistook them for off-duty British soldiers. On another occasion an IRA gunman shot dead Heidi Hazell, a German woman, as she sat alone in her car. She was parked near a British Army married quarter in Unna. They claimed she had been shot "in the belief that she was a member of the British Army garrison at Dortmund". Her husband was a British Army staff sergeant. Hans Engelhard, West Germany's justice minister called it "the insane act of a blind fanatic."
The IRA also sent members on arms importation, logistical support and intelligence operations at different times to continental Europe, Canada, the United States, Australia, Africa, Western Asia and Latin America. On at least one occasion IRA members traveled to Colombia.
Irish arms
In the early 1970s, the IRA gained control of a majority of the stockpiled weaponry still held from previous IRA campaigns. The stockpiles consisted mostly of pre-World War II small firearms from British and Irish armories ranging from Lee–Enfield, plus Bren light machine guns (LMG), a Thompson submachine gun (SMG), and Webley revolvers from British and Irish armories. In May 1970, Irish politicians Charles Haughey, Neil Blaney, and John Kelly, Irish Army Captain James Kelly, and Belgian businessman Albert Luykx were acquitted during the Arms Crisis of smuggling weapons to the IRA during the beginning of the conflict.
The primary and prominent source of arms in the Republic of Ireland for the IRA was explosives. Mines, quarries, farms, and construction sites were where the explosive, gelignite, as well as detonators and safe fuses located. Stratton Mills, MP for Belfast North, said that "there is virtually a gelignite trail across the [Irish] border", comparing it with the famous Ho Chi Minh trail during the Vietnam War. Mills stated that:
[S]ome 60 percent of the gelignite used in Northern Ireland has come from Southern Ireland, and the security authorities believe that the figure might well be higher than that because of the difficulty of definite identification in all cases. In Northern Ireland steps are taken to control the use and distribution of gelignite. Certain steps have been taken recently in the South, but there is a great need for much tighter measures.
After the Irish government began cracking down on commercial explosives, IRA engineers began moving "to develop alternative supplies of explosives" in the Republic of what the media termed "bomb factories", the source for the vast majority of the explosions in the north and against England for the remainder of the conflict. By spring 1972, they successfully manufactured quantities of two types of homemade explosives (HMEs), using mostly commercially available fertilizers and ANFO (a mixture of ammonium nitrate and fuel oil). The British Army estimated by the summer of that year, 90% of the bombings involving HMEs originated from the South. These earliest crude devices were unreliable and many IRA volunteers were killed due to premature explosions. As a result, the IRA centralised manufacture of the chief components, and IRA engineers were required to have the training necessary to complete the devices properly. The Hibernia Magazine reported that over 48,000 lbs of explosives had been detonated in Northern Ireland in the first six months of 1973, most of them IRA bombs.
In the 1980s, HMEs of Southern Irish origin continued to flow into Northern Ireland and England. In 1981, a British Home Office report said that 88.7% of explosives used in Northern Ireland originated from the Republic of Ireland: 88% from fertilizers and 0.7% from commercial explosives. As with the previous decade, the IRA relied mostly on fertilizer bombs for the vast majority of its bombing campaign throughout the conflict.
Libyan arms
In the 1980s, the Provisional IRA received large quantities of modern weaponry, including heavy weaponry such as heavy machine guns, over 1,000 rifles, several hundred handguns, rocket-propelled grenades, flamethrowers, surface-to-air missiles and the plastic explosive Semtex, from the Libyan regime of Muammar Gaddafi. There were four successful shipments between 1985 and 1986; three of these trips were carried out by the trawler Casamara and a fourth by the oil-rig replenisher Villa. All told, they brought in 110 tons of weaponry. A fifth arms cargo on board the coaster Eksund was intercepted by the French Navy in 1987. This brought the Provisional IRA's new capability to the attention of the authorities on either side of the Irish border. Five men were captured with the boat; three IRA members, including Gabriel Cleary, received jail sentences. Reportedly, Gaddafi donated enough weapons to arm the equivalent of two infantry battalions.
The IRA therefore came to be very well armed in the latter part of the Troubles. Most of the losses it inflicted on the British Army, however, occurred in the early 1970s, although they continued to cause substantial casualties to the British military, the RUC and UDR throughout the conflict. According to author Ed Moloney, the IRA Army Council had plans for a dramatic escalation of the conflict in the late 1980s, which they likened to the Tet Offensive of the Vietnam War, with the aid of the arms obtained from Libya.
The plan had been to take and hold several areas along the border, forcing the British Army to either withdraw from border areas or use maximum force to re-take them – thus escalating the conflict beyond the point which the Provisional IRA thought that British public opinion would accept. However, this offensive failed to materialise. IRA sources quoted in the Secret History of the IRA by Ed Moloney say that the interception of the Eksund shipment eliminated the element of surprise which they had hoped to have for this offensive. The role of informers within the IRA seems to have also played a role in the failure of the "Tet Offensive" to get off the ground. Nevertheless, the shipments which got through enabled the IRA to begin a vigorous campaign in the 1980s. The success of the arms smuggling was a defeat for British intelligence and marked a turning point in the conflict in Northern Ireland. The Libyan weaponry allowed the IRA to wage war indefinitely.
In the event, much of the IRA's new heavy weaponry, for instance the surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) and flamethrowers, were never, or very rarely, used. The only recorded use of flamethrowers took place in the attack in Derryard, County Fermanagh, when two soldiers were killed when a permanent checkpoint manned by the King's Own Scottish Borderers was the target of a multiple weapons attack on 13 December 1989. The SAMs turned out to be out of date models, unable to shoot down British helicopters equipped with anti-missile technology. The missiles were eventually rendered useless when their batteries wore out. The Semtex plastic explosive proved the most valuable addition to the IRA's armoury.
As it was, the numbers of members of the British and Northern Ireland military personnel killed by the IRA increased in the years 1988–1990, from 12 in 1986 to 39 in 1988, but dropped to 27 in 1989 and decreased again to 18 in 1990. The death toll by 1991 was similar to that of the mid-1980s, with 14 fatalities. 32 members of the RUC were killed in the same period.
By the late 1980s, the Provisional IRA, in the judgement of journalist and author Brendan O'Brien, "could not be beaten, it could be contained". Politically and militarily, that was the most significant factor. By the late 1980s and early 1990s, roughly nine out of every ten IRA attacks were aborted or failed to cause casualties. Republican sources such as Mitchel McLaughlin and Danny Morrison argued that by the early 1990s, the Provisional IRA could not attain their objectives by purely military means.
A campaign to pressure Libya to pay compensation to IRA victims was derailed by the Libyan Crisis.
Incidents with British special forces
The IRA suffered some heavy losses at the hands of British special forces like the Special Air Service (SAS), the heaviest being the killing of eight IRA members in the Loughgall Ambush in 1987, as they attempted to destroy the Loughgall RUC station. The East Tyrone Brigade was hit particularly hard by British killings of their members in this period, losing 28 members killed by British forces in the period 1987–1992, out of 53 dead in the whole conflict. In many of these cases, Provisional IRA members were killed after being ambushed by British special forces. Some authors alleged that this amounted to a campaign of assassination on the part of state forces (see shoot-to-kill policy in Northern Ireland).
Another high-profile incident took place in Gibraltar in March 1988, when three unarmed IRA members were shot dead by an SAS unit while scouting out a bombing target (see Operation Flavius). The subsequent funerals of these IRA members in Belfast were attacked by loyalist gunman Michael Stone. At a funeral of one of Stone's victims, two plainsclothes British Army corporals were abducted, beaten and shot dead by the IRA after driving into the funeral procession (see Corporals killings).
There were, however, a number of incidents in which undercover operations ended in failure, such as a shoot-out at the village of Cappagh on 24 March 1990, where plain-clothes members of the security forces were ambushed by an IRA unit, and, just two month later, Operation Conservation, which was thwarted by the IRA's South Armagh Brigade, A British soldier in an undercover position was shot dead in a counter-ambush. On 2 May 1980, Joe Doherty, Angelo Fusco, Paul Magee and another IRA member were arrested after being cornered by the SAS in a house in Belfast. SAS commander Captain Herbert Westmacott was hit by fire from an M60 machine gun and killed instantly.
Loyalists and the IRA – killing and reprisals
The IRA and Sinn Féin suffered from a campaign of assassination launched against their members by loyalist paramilitaries from the late 1980s. These attacks killed about 12 IRA and 15 Sinn Féin members between 1987 and 1994. This tactic was unusual as the vast majority of loyalist victims were Catholic civilians. In addition, loyalists killed family members of known republicans; John (or Jack) McKearney and his nephew, Kevin McKearney, and Kevin's parents-in-law, Charles and Teresa Fox (whose son, Peter, was an IRA volunteer) were all targeted by the UVF. Two of Kevin's brothers, Pádraig and Sean, were IRA volunteers killed during the Troubles. According to recently released documents, British military intelligence stated in a secret 1973 draft report that within the Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR) it was likely there were soldiers who were also loyalist paramilitaries. Despite knowing this, the British Government stepped up the role of the UDR in "maintaining order" within Northern Ireland. British Government documents released on 3 May 2006 show that overlapping membership between British Army units like the UDR and loyalist paramilitary groups was a wider problem than a "few bad apples" as was often claimed.
The documents include a draft report titled "Subversion in the UDR" which detailed the problem. In 1973; an estimated 5–15% of UDR soldiers were directly linked to loyalist paramilitary groups, it was believed that the "best single source of weapons, and the only significant source of modern weapons, for Protestant extremist groups was the UDR", it was feared UDR troops were loyal to "Ulster" alone rather than to "Her Majesty's Government", the British Government knew that UDR weapons were being used in the assassination and attempted assassination of Roman Catholic civilians by loyalist paramilitaries.
Loyalists were aided in this campaign by elements of the security forces, including the British Army and RUC Special Branch (see Stevens Report). Loyalist sources have since confirmed that they received intelligence files on republicans from members of British Army and police intelligence in this period. A British Army agent within the Ulster Defence Association (UDA), Brian Nelson, was convicted in 1992 of the killings of Catholic civilians. It was later revealed that Nelson, while working as a British Army agent, was also involved in the importation of arms for loyalists from South Africa in 1988.
In 1993, for the first time since the 1960s, loyalist paramilitaries killed two more people than republican paramilitaries. In 1994, loyalists killed eleven more people than republicans, and in 1995, they killed twelve more. In the latter case (1995 period), the Provisional IRA 1994's cease-fire was still in place.
In response to these attacks, the IRA began a reactive assassination campaign against leading members of the UDA and UVF. By the late 1980s, the IRA Army Council would not sanction attacks on Protestant areas with a high likelihood of civilian casualties, but only on named, identified loyalist targets. The main reason for this was the negative impact of attacks on civilians on the republican movement's electoral appeal. The IRA issued a statement in 1986 saying: "At no time will we involve ourselves in the execution of ordinary Protestants, but at all times we reserve the right to take armed action against those who attempt to terrorise or intimidate our people into accepting British/unionist rule". Gerry Adams stressed his party's point of view in 1989; "Sinn Féin does not condone the deaths of people who are non-combatants".
To maximise the impact of the tactic, the IRA targeted senior loyalist paramilitary figures. Among the leading loyalists killed were John McMichael, Joe Bratty, Raymond Elder and Ray Smallwoods of the UDA and John Bingham and Robert Seymour of the UVF. Mechanic Leslie Dallas, shot dead by the IRA along with two elderly Protestants in 1989, was also claimed by the IRA to be a member of the UVF but his family and the UVF denied this. He is listed in the Sutton Index as a civilian.
One IRA bomb on 23 October 1993 caused civilian casualties, when a bomb was planted at a Shankill Road fish shop. The bomb was intended to kill the entire senior leadership of the UDA, including Johnny Adair, who sometimes met in a room above the shop. Instead, the bomb killed eight Protestant civilians, a low-level UDA member and also one of the bombers, Thomas Begley, when the device exploded prematurely. In addition, 58 more people were injured. This provoked a series of retaliatory killings by the UVF and UDA of Catholic civilians with no political or paramilitary connections.
According to the Conflict Archive on the Internet (CAIN), University of Ulster statistics, the Provisional IRA killed 30 loyalist paramilitaries in total. Lost Lives gives a figure of 28 out of a total number of loyalists killed in the Troubles of 126.
According to The Irish War by Tony Geraghty, the IRA killed 45 loyalists. These killings intensified just before the IRA ceasefire of 1994, with UDA members Ray Smallwoods being killed on 11 July, Joe Bratty & Raymond Elder on 31 July & a UVF commander Billy Wright had been seriously injured by the IRA in June. As well as these IRA killings the other Republican paramilitary the Irish National Liberation Army killed three UVF men during the same period including UVF Belfast commander Trevor King. The loyalist groups called their ceasefire six weeks after the IRA ceasefire of that year and they argued that it was the killing of Catholic civilians and republicans that had forced the IRA ceasefire by placing intolerable pressure on nationalists, a view echoed by former deputy leader of the Ulster Unionist Party, John Taylor, Baron Kilclooney.
Campaign up to and after the 1994 ceasefire
Early 1990s
By the early 1990s, although the death toll had dropped significantly from the worst years of the 1970s, the IRA campaign continued to severely disrupt normal life in Northern Ireland.
In 1987, the IRA carried out almost 300 shooting and bombing attacks, killing 31 RUC, UDR and British Army personnel and 20 civilians, while injuring 100 security forces and 150 civilians.
In 1990, IRA attacks killed 30 soldiers and RUC members and injured 340.
In 1992, the figure for IRA attacks was 426.
The IRA was capable of carrying on with a significant level of violence for the foreseeable future. On the other hand, the goal of the British government in the 1980s was to destroy the IRA, rather than find a political solution. Moreover, in addition to those killed and injured, the conflict had a substantial economic cost. The UK had to devote an enormous budget to keep their security system in Northern Ireland running indefinitely.
From 1985 onward, the IRA carried out a five-year campaign against RUC and Army bases that resulted in 33 British security facilities destroyed and nearly a hundred seriously damaged. The attacks and bombings in the early 1990s forced the UK government to dismantle several bases and security posts, whose maintenance or reconstruction was not affordable. The presence of the British Army in the region increased from its lowest ebb of 9,000 men in 1985 to 10,500 by 1992 after an escalation of the IRA's mortar attacks.
In South Armagh, in contrast to other brigade areas, IRA activity increased in the early 1990s. Travelling by road in South Armagh became so dangerous for the British Army that by 1975 they began using helicopters to transport troops and supply its bases, a practice continued until the late 1990s. The IRA there shot down five helicopters (one in 1978, another one in 1988 and 1991 and two in 1994), and damaged at least another three in this period, using DShK heavy machine guns and improvised mortars. Another one was brought down in early 1990 in County Tyrone by the IRA's East Tyrone Brigade, wounding three crew members.
One of several methods the IRA used to counter British body armour was the use of high velocity Barrett Light 50 and Belgian FN sniper rifles, several of which the IRA imported from the USA. Two snipers teams of the South Armagh Brigade killed nine members of the security forces in this way. To avoid the jamming of wireless-triggered detonators, the organisation began to employ radar beacons to prime their explosive devices, improving dramatically the effectiveness of the attacks. By 1992, the use of long-range weapons like mortars and heavy machine guns by the IRA had forced the British Army to build its checkpoints one to five miles from the border in order to avoid attacks launched from the Republic.
Another IRA technique used on several occasions between October 1990 and late 1991 was the "proxy bomb", where a victim was kidnapped and forced to drive a car bomb to its target. In the first series of attacks in October 1990, all three victims were Catholic men employed by the security forces. Their families were held hostage to ensure the proxies did as they were directed. The first proxy, at Coshquin (near Derry), died, along with six soldiers. The second proxy, at Cloghoge (or Cloghogue; near Newry), escaped but a soldier was killed. The third incident, at Omagh, produced no casualties due to a faulty detonator. Proxy bomb attacks continued for months afterwards; very large bombs () were used in two attacks in November 1990 and September 1991. The proxy-bomb tactic was dropped, reportedly due to the revulsion it caused among nationalists.
In the early 1990s the IRA intensified its campaign against commercial and economic targets in Northern Ireland. For example, in May 1993 over four days the IRA detonated car bombs in Belfast, Portadown, and Magherafelt, County Londonderry, causing millions of pounds worth of damage. On 1 January 1994, the IRA planted eleven incendiary devices in shops and other premises in the Greater Belfast area in a "firebomb blitz" that caused millions of pounds worth of damage. In 1991, the IRA used a total of 142 cassette-type incendiary devices against shops and warehouses in Northern Ireland.
The ceasefires
In August 1994, the Provisional IRA announced a "complete cessation of military operations". This was the culmination of several years of negotiations between the Republican leadership, led by Gerry Adams and Martin McGuinness, various figures in the local political parties, the Irish government and British government. It was informed by the view that neither the UK forces, nor the IRA could win the conflict and that greater progress towards Republican objectives might be achieved by negotiation.
While many Provisional IRA volunteers were reportedly unhappy with the end of armed struggle short of the achievement of a united Ireland, the peace strategy has since resulted in substantial electoral and political gains for Sinn Féin, the movement's political wing. It may now be argued that the Sinn Féin political party has eclipsed the Provisional IRA as the most important part of the republican movement. The ceasefire of 1994 therefore, while not a definitive end to Provisional IRA operations, marked the effective end of its full scale armed campaign.
The Provisional IRA called off its 1994 ceasefire on 9 February 1996 because of its dissatisfaction with the state of negotiations. They signaled the end of the ceasefire by detonating a truck bomb at Canary Wharf in London, which caused the deaths of two civilians and massive damage to property. In the summer of 1996, another truck bomb devastated Manchester city centre. However, the Provisional IRA campaign after the ceasefire was suspended during this period and never reached the intensity of previous years. In total, the IRA killed 2 British soldiers, 2 RUC officers, 2 British civilians, and 1 Garda in 1996–1997 according to the CAIN project. They resumed their ceasefire on 19 July 1997.
These Provisional IRA military activities of 1996–97 were widely believed to have been used to gain leverage in negotiations with the British government during the period. Whereas in 1994–95, the British Conservative Party government had refused to enter public talks with Sinn Féin until the IRA had given up its weapons, the Labour Party government in power by 1997 was prepared to include Sinn Féin in peace talks before IRA decommissioning. This precondition was officially dropped in June 1997.
Another widespread interpretation of the temporary breakdown in the first IRA ceasefire is that the leadership of Gerry Adams and Martin McGuinness tolerated a limited return to violence in order to avoid a split between hardliners and moderates in the IRA Army Council. Nevertheless, they emphasized in every public statement since the fall of 1996 the need for a second truce. Once they had won over or removed the militarists from the council, they re-instated the ceasefire.
Casualties
According to the Conflict Archive on the Internet (CAIN), a research project at the University of Ulster, the IRA was responsible for 1,705 deaths, about 48% of the total conflict deaths. Of that figure:
1,009 (59.2%) were members or former members of the British security forces, including:
697 British military personnel: 644 from the British Army (including the Ulster Defence Regiment/Royal Irish Regiment), 4 from the Royal Air Force, 1 from the Royal Navy, and 43 former British military personnel.
312 British law enforcement personnel: 270 Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) officers, 14 former RUC officers, 20 Northern Ireland Prison Service (NIPS) officers, 2 former NIPS officers, and 6 English police officers.
508 (29%) were classed as civilians, including 17 political activists.
133 (7.8%) were members of the IRA, killed as informers or in premature explosions of bombs.
39 (2.2%) were loyalist paramilitary members: 26 Ulster Defence Association (UDA) members, 12 Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) members and 1 Red Hand Commando member.
8 (0.4%) were members of the Irish security forces, including 6 Gardaí, 1 Irish Prison Service officer, and 1 Irish Army soldier.
5 (0.2%) were members of other republican paramilitary groups: 4 Official IRA members and 1 IPLO member.
Another detailed study, Lost Lives, states the Provisional IRA was responsible for the deaths of 1,781 people up to 2004. It says that, of this figure:
944 (53%) were members of the British security forces, including: 638 British military (including the UDR), 273 Royal Ulster Constabulary (including RUC reserve), 23 Northern Ireland Prison Service officers, five British police officers and five former British soldiers.
644 (36%) were civilians.
163 (9%) were Republican paramilitary members (including IRA members, most caused their own deaths when bombs they were transporting exploded prematurely).
28 (1.5%) were loyalist paramilitary members.
7 (0.3%) were members of the Irish security forces (6 Gardaí and one Irish Army).
Lost Lives states that 294 Provisional IRA members died in the Troubles. The IRA lost 276 members during the Troubles according to the CAIN figures. In addition, a number of Sinn Féin activists or councillors were killed, some of whom were also IRA members. An Phoblacht gives a figure of 341 IRA and Sinn Féin members killed in the Troubles, indicating between 50–60 Sinn Féin deaths if the IRA deaths are subtracted.
About 120 Provisional IRA members caused their own deaths, almost all when they were killed by their own explosives in premature bombing accidents – 103 deaths according to CAIN, 105 according to an RUC report of 1993. Nine IRA members died on hunger strike. Lost Lives gives a figure of 163 killings of republican paramilitary members (this includes bombing accidents and feuds with republicans from other organisations). Of the remaining 200 or so IRA dead, around 150 were killed by the British Army, with the remainder killed by loyalist paramilitaries, the RUC and the UDR.
Far more common than the killing of IRA volunteers however, was their imprisonment. Journalists Eamonn Mallie and Patrick Bishop estimate in The Provisional IRA (1988), that between 8–10,000 Provisional IRA members were, up until that point, imprisoned during the course of the conflict, a number they also give as the total number of IRA members during the Troubles. The total number of Provisional IRA members imprisoned must be higher, once the figures from 1988 onwards are included.
Assessments
British Army official report
An internal British Army document released under the Freedom of Information Act 2000 in 2007 stated an expert opinion that the British Army had failed to defeat the IRA by force of arms but also claims to have "shown the IRA that it could not achieve its ends through violence". The report examined 37 years of British troop deployment and was compiled following a six-month study by a team of three officers carried out in early 2006 for General Sir Mike Jackson, the British Army's Chief of the General Staff. The military assessment describes the IRA as "professional, dedicated, highly skilled and resilient".
The paper divides the IRA activity and tactics in two main periods: The "insurgency" phase (1971–1972), and the "terrorist" phase (1972–1997). The British Army claims to have curbed the IRA insurgency by 1972, after Operation Motorman, but IRA members fled to the nearby Republic of Ireland safe from British capture where they continued to carry out cross-border attacks into Northern Ireland with weapons made in the South or sourced overseas. As a result, the IRA remerged as a cell-structured group. The report also asserts that the government efforts by the 1980s were aimed to destroy the IRA, rather than negotiate a political solution, and that the British campaign produced no final victory "in any recognisable way". One of the conclusions from the paper reveals the failure of the British Army to engage the IRA at strategic level and the lack of a single campaign authority and plan.
Other analyses
Some authors, including Brendan O'Brien, Patrick McCarthy, Peter Taylor, Tom Hayden, Fergus Finlay and Timothy J. White, also concluded that, unlike previous IRA campaigns, the Provisionals had not been defeated but had arrived at the conclusion of a bloody stalemate in which neither side could destroy the other. According to O'Brien, the IRA "could end its armed campaign from a avowed position of strength, discipline and military capacity. They had not been defeated." Political analysts Brian Barton and Patrick Roche maintain that while the IRA, although undefeated, fell short of their ultimate goal of a united Ireland, the IRA campaign was eventually legitimised by the peace process and the Good Friday Agreement.
Other activities
Apart from its armed campaign, the Provisional IRA was also involved in many other activities, including "policing" of nationalist communities, robberies and kidnapping for the purposes of raising funds, fund raising in other countries, involvement in community events and parades, and intelligence gathering. The Independent Monitoring Commission (IMC), a body supervising the ceasefire and activities of paramilitary groups in Northern Ireland has judged the Provisional IRA to have ceased all of the above activities. The IMC issues a bi-yearly public report on the activities of all paramilitary groups operating and known of in Northern Ireland.
Paramilitary policing
Activities deemed punishable by the Provisional IRA (often described as "anti-social activities"), included collaboration with the RUC and/or British Army i.e. informing, drug dealing, criminal activity outside of the Provisional IRA, joy riding, spreading of dissent, and any other activities which might either damage the Provisional IRA or interests of the community as defined by the Provisional IRA. For the most part, the list of activities deemed punishable by the Provisional IRA coincided with those deemed punishable by the community at large. Punishments ranged in severity from verbal warnings to physical attacks, through to wounding by gunshot, progressing to forcing the suspect to flee Ireland for their lives and death. This process was often described as "summary justice" by the political establishment and media. In the majority of cases the Provisional IRA claimed that there had been a full investigation and that guilt had been established before their sentence was carried out. The process, which was widely known of in nationalist communities, worked on a sliding scale of severity – in the case of a petty thief a warning to stop may initially be issued, escalating to a physical attack known as a "punishment beating" usually with baseball bats or similar tools. If the behaviour continued then a more serious physical assault known as a "knee-capping" (gunshot wounds to limbs, hands, joints) would occur. The final level would be a threat of death against the suspect if they did not leave the island of Ireland, and if this order was not adhered to, death. The IMC has noted that the Provisional IRA has repeatedly come under pressure from nationalist community members since its cessation of violence to resume such policing but has resisted such requests.
Suspected informers and those who cooperated with the RUC and British Army (sometimes referred to as collaborators) were generally dealt with by a counter-intelligence unit titled the Internal Security Unit (ISU), sometimes referred to as the "nutting squad". Typically, the ISU would abduct and interrogate suspects frequently using torture to extract confessions. The interrogations would often be recorded and played back to senior Provisional IRA members at a secretly held board of inquiry. This board would then pronounce judgement, usually a fatal gunshot to the head. A judgement as severe as death was frequently made public in the form of a communique released to the media but in some cases, for reasons of political expediency, the Provisional IRA did not announce responsibility. The bodies of killed informers were usually found shot dead by roadsides in isolated areas. On occasion recordings of their confessions were released to the media.
This style of summary justice, often meted out based on evidence of dubious quality, by untrained investigators and self-appointed judges frequently led to what the Provisional IRA has acknowledged as horrific mistakes. As of February 2007, the IMC has stated that the Provisional IRA has issued "instructions to members not to use physical force" and noted what it describes as "the leadership’s maintenance of a firm stance against the involvement of members in criminality." Where criminality has been engaged in by Provisional IRA, members of the IMC note that "we were satisfied these individual activities were contrary to the express injunctions of the leadership".
Internal republican feuds
The Provisional IRA has also targeted other republican paramilitary groups and dissenting members of the Provisional IRA who refuse or disregard orders. In 1972, 1975 and 1977, the Official IRA and Provisional IRA engaged in attacks on the opposing organisation leaving several dead on either side. In 1992, The Provisional IRA attacked and eliminated the Irish People's Liberation Organisation (IPLO), which was widely perceived as being involved in drug dealing and other criminality in West Belfast. One IPLO member was killed, several knee-capped and more ordered to disband. The last known example of this practise as of February 2007 took place in 2000 and involved the shooting dead of a Real Irish Republican Army member for his opposition to the Provisionals' ceasefire.
Activities in Republic of Ireland
Although the Provisional IRA's General Order No.8 forbids military action "against 26 County forces under any circumstances whatsoever", members of the Garda Síochána (the Republic of Ireland's police force) have also been killed, including Detective Garda Jerry McCabe. McCabe was killed by machine-gun fire as he sat in his patrol car in Adare County Limerick during the escort of a post office delivery in 1996. Sinn Féin has called for the release of his killers under the terms of the Good Friday Agreement. In total, the Provisional IRA killed six Gardaí and one Irish Army soldier, mostly during robberies.
Robberies and criminal enterprise
The Provisional IRA has carried out numerous bank and post office robberies across Ireland throughout its existence. An RUC estimate from 1982–83, puts the amount stolen in such raids by the Provisional IRA at around £700,000 (sterling). Also in the 1980s, the Provisional IRA were involved in the kidnapping and ransom of businessmen Gaelen Weston, Ben Dunne and Don Tidey. Activities such as these were linked to the IRA's fund-raising. Gardaí estimate that the Provisional IRA got up to £1.5 million from these activities. Activities include smuggling, sale of stolen items and contraband including cigarettes, red diesel, extortion, protection rackets, and money laundering. Most recently, the Provisional IRA have been blamed for carrying out the Northern Bank Robbery in December 2004, although no proof was ever forwarded and this crime remains unsolved. The IMC note that in their view the Provisional IRA has not had any "organisational involvement in robbery or other such organised crime".
Thomas Murphy, a prominent Provisional IRA leader from South Armagh, has been the subject of repeated rumours of organised crime including diesel smuggling and tax evasion. In 2006 both Irish and British security forces mounted a major joint raid on his farm, and in December 2015 he was arrested and put on trial in Dublin's Special Criminal Court charged with tax evasion. He was found guilty of tax evasion on 17 December 2015.
See also
Chronologies of Provisional Irish Republican Army actions
Improvised tactical vehicles of the Provisional IRA
List of attacks on British aircraft during The Troubles
References
Sources
J. Bowyer Bell, The Secret Army: the IRA.
Martin Dillon, 25 Years of Terror – the IRA's War against the British.
Richard English, Armed Struggle – the History of the IRA.
Peter Taylor, Behind the Mask – the IRA and Sinn Féin.
Ed Moloney, The Secret History of the IRA.
Eamonn Mallie and Patrick Bishop, The Provisional IRA.
Toby Harnden, Bandit Country – The IRA and South Armagh.
Brendan O'Brien, The Long War – The IRA and Sinn Féin.
Tim Pat Coogan, The Troubles.
Tony Geraghty, The Irish War.
Kevin Toolis, Rebel Hearts.
David McKitrick, Seamus Kelters, Brian Feeney, Chris Thornton, David McVea, Lost Lives.
Irish Republican Army campaigns
Guerrilla wars
History of Northern Ireland
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4333532 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Che%20Guevara%20in%20popular%20culture | Che Guevara in popular culture | Appearances of Argentine Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara (1928–1967) in popular culture are common throughout the world. Although during his lifetime he was a highly politicized and controversial figure, in death his stylized image has been transformed into a worldwide emblem for an array of causes, representing a complex mesh of sometimes conflicting narratives. Che Guevara's image is viewed as everything from an inspirational icon of revolution, to a retro and vintage logo. Most commonly he is represented by a facial caricature originally by Irish artist Jim Fitzpatrick and based on Alberto Korda's famous 1960 photograph titled Guerrillero Heroico. The evocative simulacra abbreviation of the photographic portrait allowed for easy reproduction and instant recognizability across various uses. For many around the world, Che has become a generic symbol of the underdog, the idealist, the iconoclast, or the martyr. He has become, as author Michael Casey notes in Che's Afterlife: The Legacy of an Image, "the quintessential postmodern icon signifying anything to anyone and everything to everyone."
Che Guevara's likeness has undergone continual apotheosis while being weaved throughout the public consciousness in a variety of ways. From being viewed as a "Saintly Christ-like" figure by the rural poor in Bolivia where he was executed, to being viewed as an idealistic insignia for youth, longing for a vague sense of rebellion. His likeness can also be seen on millions of posters, hats, key chains, mouse pads, hoodies, beanies, flags, berets, backpacks, bandannas, belt buckles, wallets, watches, wall clocks, Zippo lighters, pocket flasks, bikinis, personal tattoos, and most commonly T-shirts. Meanwhile, his life story can be found in an array of films, documentaries, plays, and songs of tribute. Throughout television, music, books, magazines, and even corporate advertisements, Che's visage is an ever-present political and apolitical emblem that has been endlessly mutated, transformed, and morphed over the last fifty years of visual popular culture. This allows Che to operate as "both a fashionable de-politicized logo, as well as a potent anti-establishment symbol used by a wide spectrum of human rights movements and individuals affirming their own liberation."
Additionally, his face has evolved into many manifestations and represents a Rashomon effect to those who observe its use. To some it is merely a generic high street visual emblem of global marketing, while to others it represents the notion of dissent, civil disobedience, or political awareness. Conversely, to those ideologically opposed to Che Guevara's belief in World revolution, or to those that resent his veneration because of his violent actions, his propagation represents shallow ignorant kitsch, idolatry worthy of spoof makeovers, parody, or even ridicule. Despite the competing narratives, Che has become a widely disseminated counter-cultural symbol that sometimes even operates entirely independent of the man himself. Hannah Charlton of The Sunday Times made note of the varying uses by postulating that "T-shirt wearers might wear Che's face as an easy replacement for real activism, or as a surrogate for it."
Genesis
Walk through any major metropolis around the globe and it is likely that you will come across an image of Che Guevara, most commonly a stylized version of Korda's iconic Guerrillero Heroico. An archetype, capable of endless visual regeneration which, depending on your opinion, either helps tell the story of 20th century visual literacy or kitsch banality. According to Hannah Charlton, editor of Che Guevara: Revolutionary and Icon, "By the 1990s the global market saw the emergence of what Naomi Klein has called a "market marsala"—a bilingual mix of North and South, some Latin, some R&B, all couched in global party politics." By embodying corporate identities that appear radically individualistic and perpetually new, the brands attempt to inoculate themselves against accusations that they are selling sameness. The next stage is to present consumption as a code, where mega brands, supposedly reflecting the "indie" values of their purchasing audience, can do so with a knowing irony that of course the buyer can remain seemingly untouched by the corporate values underpinning the transaction.
Enter Che: the 1960s symbol of student revolution, the all-pervasive ascetic gaze used to add allure and mystique to a product, because either a sophisticated audience is savvy enough to distinguish between revolution and commerce while enjoying the irony, or oblivious of who he is or what he represents. This began the metamorphosis from Che the martyred resistance fighter beloved by many, and Che the violent Marxist revolutionary despised by others, to his dual paradoxical position in the global corporate capitalist culture. The commodification of the image has been ongoing since his death, and since the late 1990s has seen a resurgence. UCLA art historian David Kunzle, has described the phenomenon by noting "if you go to Havana today, you will not see Che with a gun, you will see him with a rose or a dove. He's become the Gandhi of Cuba."
This abiding 'renaissance' of Che's visage, is chronicled by filmmaker and Guggenheim scholar Trisha Ziff, who explores the genesis, continuing adaptation, and history of Che Guevara's famous image in the 2008 documentary "Chevolution". In another documentary titled Personal Che (2007), filmmakers Adriana Marino and Douglas Duarte document the numerous ways that people around the world re-create Che in their own image.
Hannah Charlton hypothesizes that "appropriating the aura of Che for brand building, has now given rise to a new resurgence of "Che-ness" that transcends branding in its global appeal. In the shifting complexities of intercultural values, in the search for universal images that can speak across borders and boundaries, today's global image of Che is the most successful." The Che face, more than any other icon according to Charlton, can keep accruing new application without relinquishing its essence – a generic and positive version of anti-status quo and liberation from any oppressive force, and a general, romantic, non-specific fantasy about change and revolution.
In advertising
A French businessman has Che Perfume by Chevignon, "Dedicated to those who want to feel and smell like revolutionaries."
Converse uses the image of Che Guevara in one of their shoe ad campaigns.
In 2008, Romanian auto maker Dacia (a subsidiary of Renault) produced a new commercial advertising their new Logan MCV station wagon titled "revolution". The ad, utilizing actors, begins with Fidel Castro's arriving at a remote villa, where he finds a host of other modern era revolutionaries, and ends with his standing on the back patio, where Che Guevara tells Karl Marx that "it is time for another revolution". Marx responds, "Che, it's about what people need."
In Peru and in Strängnäs station, one can purchase packs of El Che cigarettes (ultra lights).
"El Ché-Cola" donates 50% of their net profits to NGOs, and has the slogan: "Change your habits to change the world."
In 1970, the Italian company Olivetti utilized Che's image for an ad celebrating its creative sales force. It read, "We would have hired him".
Smirnoff vodka attempted to use the image of Che Guevara in an advertising campaign in 2000, but was stopped in court by photographer Alberto Korda, who took the original iconic image.
For an advertising campaign, Taco Bell dressed up a chihuahua like Che Guevara and had him state: "Yo quiero Taco Bell!", Spanish for: "I want Taco Bell!" When asked about the allusion to Che, Taco Bell's advertising director, Chuck Bennett, stated: "We wanted a heroic leader to make it a massive taco revolution."
The New York-based distributing company Raichle Molitor utilized a "Che look-alike contest" in order to create marketing buzz for their line of Fischer's Revolution skis. In defending their reasoning, product manager Jim Fleischer stated that "the Che image, just the icon and not the man's doings, represented what we wanted: revolution and extreme change."
In an advertisement for Jean Paul Gaultier sunglasses circulated in Europe in 1999, Che is painted as a Frida Kahlo-type landscape, in front of a blazing desert sun.
Leica (which was the camera used by Alberto Korda to capture Guerrillero Heroico) has used an image of their camera with Che's red star to advertise their "revolutionary camera."
The offices of the Financial Times in London, features a large poster of a Che-esque Richard Branson greeting visitors in a beret, while pronouncing "We live in financial times".
In November 2008, The Bobblehead LLC company released a limited edition of 100 Che Guevara bobbleheads. Creator and owner Rick Lynn announced that it had been a "long time dream" to create the hand painted and custom designed pieces, which will be hand signed and numbered as a collectors item.
In December 2008, the Tartan Army began selling t-shirts with "Scotland's favorite son" Robert Burns in the mould of the iconic image of Che Guevara. The proceeds will go to organizations that assist disadvantaged and chronically ill children in countries the Tartan Army visit.
Businesses / restaurants
The Russian capital, Moscow, features a Club Che, which is a vibrant Latin American-themed club staffed by Cuban waiters.
The Russian city of St. Petersburg features a Cafe Club Che (lounge, bar, & jazz club) where patrons can get their hands on a shot of Cuban rum and a fine Cuban cigar at the drop of a military beret.
Cairo, Egypt features a Che Guevara-themed nightclub, where the waiters dress in uniformed black berets.
The Slovenian capital Ljubljana contains a Che Bar, where images of the man decorate every wall and surface.
Zagreb, Croatia contained a restaurant named Che Wap, specializing mostly in ćevapi, but has since then closed.
San Diego features Che Cafe on the UCSD campus.
Colombo, Sri Lanka, features a Café CHé, whose walls "take you through the life of the iconic revolutionary leader."
Lipscani, a district of downtown Bucharest, Romania, features the popular bar, El Grande Comandante, which is made to look like a "basement shrine to Che Guevara."
Lagos Island, Nigeria features a Che Lounge & Steakhouse, where Che's face appears on every square inch of glass available, on the menus, the waiters' t-shirts and lapel pins.
The city of London Ontario features a decidedly marxist decor and is named after Che Guevara.
The capital city of North Macedonia, Skopje features a restaurant called Casa Cubana that has Latin American-theme with food and cocktail drinks (mojito, Cuba libre etc.)The walls are decorated with the Cuban flag and photos of Che Guevara, Fidel Castro and Camilo Cienfuegos and also there are hosted parties with Latin music.
In art
British pop artist Sir Peter Blake has referred to Guerrillero Heroico as "one of the great icons of the 20th century."
Irish artist Jim Fitzpatrick converted Korda's picture into a high contrast stylized drawing, which since has become iconic and is frequently seen in silkscreen or stencil art.
The Cuban Ministry for the Interior building features a large, stylised outline of Che's face above the phrase "Hasta la Victoria Siempre" (Direct translation to English: "Until victory, always").
In 1996, Argentine/American artist Leandro Katz displayed his "Project For The Day You'll Love Me" exhibit in Harlem, New York. The accumulative series of installations dealt with Freddy Aborta's 1967 mortuary photograph of Guevara and included a timeline of the revolutionary's life. Furthermore, Katz interprets Alborta's photo in a series of photomontages, which also include paintings of a dead Jesus Christ.
In 2005 an exhibition examining the Korda portrait titled Revolution & Commerce: The Legacy of Korda's Portrait of Che Guevara, was organized by Jonathan Green and Trisha Ziff for UCR/California Museum of Photography. This exhibition has traveled to International Center of Photography, New York; Centro de la Imagen, Mexico City; and the Victoria & Albert Museum, London.
Cuban artist José Toirac has exhibited a piece titled Requiem, which contains a video of the dead bullet-riddled body of Guevara, which Toirac tortuously pans, inch by inch. The video, which serves as a quasi religious meditation, is shown inside a mausoleum-type enclosure.
The cover of the January 1972 edition of National Lampoon magazine features a parody of the Alberto Korda's iconic photo in which Che is hit in the face with a cream pie.
A parody of the famous Che Guevara poster was used on the cover of the March 2008 edition of Mad magazine, with Alfred E. Neuman's head replacing Guevara's.
American artist Trek Thunder Kelly has a 2005 painting titled Che Guevara: The Instigator, which features the famous guerrilla in a spoof Dolce & Gabbana ad.
French assemblage artist Bernard Pras created a 2007 composite work modeled after Guerrillero Heroico.
The 2009 Contact Photography Festival at Toronto's Museum of Contemporary Canadian Art featured a piece titled "Dancing with Che" by artist Barbara Astman. The work comprised a series of 50 photographs wherein Astman dances in a Che Guevara t-shirt, for the benefit of her Polaroid's timed shutter.
Manhattan's International Center of Photography held a 2006 exhibit titled "Che ! Revolution and Commerce."
The Montreal Museum of Fine Art used Guevara's image to advertise their 2004 expose titled Global Village: The 1960s.
The Italian artist Luca Del Baldo has six paintings featuring the post-mortem face of Che Guevara.
In October 2007, the Frieze Art Fair unveiled a life size bronze statue by Christian Jankowski in London's Regent's Park. The piece, which in 2008 was also displayed in New York City's Central Park, portrays a well known Barcelona street performer dressed as Che Guevara.
In January 2009, artist Juan Vazquez Martin, who fought alongside Che Guevara during the Cuban Revolution, held an exhibition with 13 of his paintings in Derry, Northern Ireland. The Guevara inspired works were shown as part of the Bloody Sunday commemoration weekend. Martin stated that he was "emotional" and "inspired" during his visit, upon seeing a mural celebrating Che Guevara's Irish connection to the Bogside.
A picture of Che Guevara hung in John Lennon and Yoko Ono's kitchen
Body art
Argentine football legend Diego Maradona had a tattoo portrait of Che Guevara on his right arm.
Former heavyweight boxing champion Mike Tyson has a tattoo of Che Guevara, derived from Guerrillero Heroico, on the left side of his abdomen. In 1999, Tyson described Guevara as "An incredible individual. He had so much, but sacrificed it all for the benefit of other people."
Former English professional footballer Darren Currie has a large tattoo on the left side of his stomach of Che Guevara. When asked about the motivation for the piece, Currie stated that he had been reading Che's book since he was 14, and that he "admired the way he went out of his way about things."
Argentine Juan Sebastián Verón, the 2008 South American Footballer of the Year, has a tattoo of Che's face on his shoulder. When his S.S. Lazio won the 1999 Serie A championship, some of the team's Italian fans who initially didn't like the tattoo, came into the dressing room and kissed it.
Former Italian footballer Fabrizio Miccoli has a large Che Guevara tattoo on his left calf. As a result, when he played for Ternana Calcio from 1998 to 2002, the team's fans would unveil a large stadium sized banner bearing the image of Che along with Moccoli's club shirt and the hammer and sickle.
Swedish Olympic boxer Kwamena Turkson has the image of Che Guevara tattooed on his arm.
Former South African footballer, Mark Fish, who helped his country to its African Cup of Nations victory in 1996, has a tattoo of Che Guevara.
In entertainment and media
In comedy
American comedian Margaret Cho, on the cover of her stand-up act Revolution (2003) combines her face into an obvious appropriation of Che Guevara's famous graphic-portrait.
In films
Actors who have portrayed Che Guevara:
Francisco Rabal in El Che Guevara (1968)
Omar Sharif in Che! (1969)
Terry Gilliam in the World Forum/Communist Quiz sketch in the Monty Python's Flying Circus episode "Spam" (1970).
Michael Palin in the World Forum/Communist Quiz sketch during the concert film Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl (1982)
Antonio Banderas in Evita (1996)
Miguel Ruiz Días in El Che (1997)
Alfredo Vasco in Hasta la Victoria Siempre (1999)
Gael García Bernal in Fidel (2002)
Karl Sheils in Meeting Che Guevara & the Man from Maybury Hill (2003)
Gael García Bernal in The Motorcycle Diaries (2004)
Jsu Garcia in The Lost City (2005)
Martin Hyder in The Mark Steel Lectures: Che Guevara (2006)
Sam G. Preston in The True Story of Che Guevara (2007)
Eduardo Noriega in Che (2007)
Benicio del Toro in Che (2008)
Other
In the 1972 peruvian film Cholo, the character of Hugo Sotil confronts a guy throwing stones with a sling wearing a Che Guevara t-shirt, states that Che "was a man, a symbol" and, unlike him, a rebel.
In John Carpenter's Escape From L.A. (1996), Cuervo Jones, a fictional character played by the Greek-French actor Georges Corraface, was clearly based on Ernesto "Che" Guevara.
In the 1998 film Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, Johnny Depp depicting Hunter S. Thompson awakens from an adrenochrome overdose and stands in front of a picture of Che Guevara stuck to a Mexican flag. Benicio del Toro who co starred in the film (and would later play Che Guevara in Che), has stated that Thompson kept a "big" picture of Che in his kitchen.
In the 2003 documentary Breakfast with Hunter, acclaimed author Hunter S. Thompson can be seen in several scenes wearing different Che Guevara t-shirts.
Actress Lindsay Lohan dons a Che Guevara t-shirt in one scene of the 2004 film Confessions of a Teenage Drama Queen.
Indian actor Rajat Kapoor was made up to resemble Guevara in the 2009 Bollywood thriller Siddharth-The Prisoner. In describing the reasoning, director Pryas Gupta stated that the central concept of the film is "freedom from the complexities of life" while remarking "who better than Che Guevara, to represent that spirit."
James Benning utilizes Richard Dindo's documentary Ernesto Che Guevara: The Bolivian Diaries to form his own 1997 avant-garde film titled Utopia. The film juxtaposes Che's vehement opposition to imperialism, with the importing of low-wage Mexican laborers in the California desert to farm the Imperial Valley.
The 1983 Yugoslavian film Kako sam Sistematski Uništen od Idiota (How I Was Systematically Destroyed by an Idiot), directed and co-written by Slobodan Šijan, prominently revolves around the ideas of Che Guevara. In the film, the character Babi Papuška, played by Danilo "Bata" Stojković, is searching for a real revolutionary society and a real revolution. The film opens and closes with Babi reciting a poem at rallies in Che's honor.
Leandro Katz's 1997 film essay El Día Que Me Quieras (The Day You'll Love Me) is a meditation on Freddy Alborta's famous post-mortem photo of Che Guevara. Katz deconstructs and re-photographs the famous picture while drawing comparisons to the classic paintings of Mantegna's "Dead Christ" and Rembrandt's "The Anatomy Lesson".
The 2008 Telugu film, Jalsa, starring Pawan Kalyan and directed by Trivikram Srinivas borrowed Guevara's look from his famous photograph to model Kalyan's look in the 2nd half of the film as a Naxalite. Kalyan himself is a follower of Che and suggest Srinivas to use Guevara's ideologies in the movie
In games
The design of Zeus Bertrand, Kantaris' right-hand man in Time Crisis: Project Titan, features more or less identical resemblances with Che Guevara.
His exploits during the Cuban Revolution were very loosely dramatized in the 1987 video game Guevara, released by SNK in Japan and "converted" into Guerrilla War for Western audiences, removing all references to Guevara but keeping all the visuals and a game map that clearly resembles Cuba. As a result of its rarity, original copies of the "Guevara" edition of the Japanese Famicom edition go for high amounts on the collectors' market.
The 2001 construction and management simulation computer game Tropico allows players to govern a tropical island while amidst a theme similar to that of Cuba after the Cuban revolution. Players may either design their own "El Presidente" character or select one from a list of pre-made historical figures, one of which is Che Guevara.
The box art for Just Cause, (the 2006 videogame for PC, Xbox, Xbox 360, and PlayStation 2) imitates the famous photograph of Che Guevara taken by Alberto Korda. The main character in the game of Rico Rodriguez is also based on CIA agent Félix Rodríguez, who was present for Che Guevara's capture and eventual execution in Bolivia.
On November 16, 2008, a new world record for the number of dominoes toppled in one turn was set in the Netherlands. The 4,345,027 falling dominoes tumbled for two hours and along with other images, revealed a portrait of Che Guevara.
On April 29, 2004, one of the largest simultaneous chess games in history was played with 13,000 boards set up in front of the Che Guevara Mausoleum in Santa Clara, Cuba. The games of chess, which was Guevara's personal favorite, included the participation of President Fidel Castro. A similar event took place again in 2007 to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Che's death in Bolivia, when 1,500 chess boards were played at once. Villa Clara Grandmaster Jesús Nogueiras dedicated the chess extravaganza to Che, remarking that "there will always be Grandmasters thanks to the revolution that Che helped make a reality."
In 2009, it was announced that GlobalFun would be releasing a mobile phone game titled El Che. Described as a "great looking, action packed, freedom fighting excursion into the historical battles of Sierra Maestra, Bueycito and Santa Clara", El Che allows cell phone users to choose from an arsenal of assault rifles, shotguns, grenades and rocket launchers, while you attempt "to bring peace to impoverished Cuba."
In Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker, Che is referenced several times in the audio briefings, and several aspects of his persona are discussed. Additionally, the main character, Big Boss, resembles Che in both appearance and ideology, leading other characters in-game to point out the resemblance.
In the 2010 first person shooter, Call of Duty: Black Ops one of the multi-player maps available for the player to play is named "Havana" and shows many different pieces of art painted on walls including at least one of Jim Fitzpatrick's version of Guerrillero Heroico.
A 2013 Cuban-made PC video game titled Gesta Final: Camino a la Victoria (Final Fight: Road to Victory) is based on Che Guevara and Fidel Castro's exploits during the Cuban Revolution.
In literature and publications
Books
To coincide with the 40th anniversary of his execution, Che in Verse reproduced 134 poems and songs from 53 countries about the enigmatic revolutionary. The book examines how Che was celebrated or remembered from before his death to the present day, and also explores Guevara's own interest in poetry. It reveals among other things considerable interest in the Argentine revolutionary among radical writers in the US, and contains 19 poems by North American poets, including Allen Ginsberg, Robert Lowell, John Haines, Greg Hewett, Michael McClure and Thomas Merton.
In the novel I, Che Guevara by John Blackthorn (a pen name of former Senator Gary Hart), Guevara returns to Cuba under an alias during its first ever democratic election. Espousing an ideology of direct democracy and a government run exclusively via New England–style town meetings, he sponsors a professor's grassroots third party run for President of Cuba, opposing both the Communist Party and a Cuban American/White House-backed right-wing party.
Guevara's image is on the cover of the book The Rebel Sell.
Robert Arellano's 2009 novel Havana Lunar is set during the 1992 Special Period in Cuba, and tells the story of Manolo Rodríguez, a doctor who in spite of being estranged from the Communist party, idealizes their revolutionary principles and talks to a Che Guevara portrait in his home.
In Lavie Tidhar's short story, "The Lives and Deaths of Che Guevara", published in the anthology Solaris Rising, ed. Ian Whates, 2011, Che is cloned multiple times, allowing him to fight (and die) in numerous 20th century revolutions, from Apartheid South Africa to the Lebanese Civil War and beyond.
Comics
Vida del Che ("Life of Che", 1968), written by Héctor Germán Oesterheld and illustrated by Enrique and Alberto Breccia. A biographical Historieta (comic book) published as a graphic novel only three months after Che Guevara's assassination; it was subsequently banned by the military dictatorship self-styled as "Argentine Revolution" (1966–1973) and the whole edition was kidnapped. The original drawings were saved by Enrique Breccia, and it was finally republished in 2008.
Pastores ("Shepherds", 1985), written and illustrated by Horacio Altuna.
Che: una biografía gráfica ("Che: a graphic biography" 2010), written by Sid Jacobson and illustrated by Ernie Colón.
The Last Days of Che Guevara (2014). Red Quill Books published this radical graphic novel of Che's life written by Italian journalist Marco Rizzo and illustrated by Lelio Bonaccorso.
In the memoir Persepolis by Marjane Satrapi, the main character dressed up as Che as a child and played with her friends, who portrayed other revolutionaries.
In the manga, Baki Hanma, there's a character inspired and named after Che. Considered 'The Second' and given immense freedom in prison, this Japanese, ninjitsu-practicing island leader named Jun "Che" Guevaru sought to prove his island's independence from the United States, even going as far as to threaten President Bush. He's eventually sent to the Black Pentagon, where he fights, and loses, to Biscuit Oliva, before escaping to his homeland.
Magazines
Che was featured on the cover of the edition of August 8, 1960, of Time, which declared Guevara "Castro's Brain".
Time magazine named Che Guevara one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century, while listing him in the "heroes and icons" section.
The May/June 2006 cover of Communication Arts magazine features yellow and black stencil outline of Che, but his beret star is replaced with a Nike swoosh logo, and he is wearing the iconic white headset of an iPod. Release of the cover overloaded the magazine with both positive and negative responses, while generating more newsstand sales than any issue in the magazine's 50-year history.
The December 2008 issue of Rolling Stone Argentina features Che's well known Guerrillero Heroico image on the cover.
The cover of Issue 8 of AkzoNobel's A Magazine features a variant of Jim Fitzpatrick's famous portrait of Guevara.
In music
Jazz bassist Charlie Haden composed a piece titled "Song for Che" after Guevara was killed. While performing with Ornette Coleman in Portugal in 1971, Haden dedicated "Song for Che" to the Black Peoples Liberation Movements of Mozambique, Angola, and Guinea-Bissau in protest against the Estado Novo (Portugal) authoritarian regime. The next day, Haden was arrested by the PIDE and imprisoned and interrogated for possibly a day or two, before being rescued by the Cultural Attaché from the American Embassy.
Punk band The (International) Noise Conspiracy's musical inspiration was stated to be the above Ochs quote.
Upon hearing the news of Guevara's leaving Cuba to start new revolutions in other countries, Cuban musician Carlos Puebla composed "Hasta Siempre, Comandante." Since then it has been covered by numerous artists including the Buena Vista Social Club. French singer Nathalie Cardone produced a modern rendition of the song titled "Hasta Siempre" as an ode to honor Guevara. Cardone's single sold over 800,000 copies in France alone.
Folk singer Judy Collins composed a ballad titled "Che" as an ode to Che Guevara after his death. The song was then remixed into an "intense rhythmic interpretation" for a 2009 tribute album titled Born to the Breed by artist James Mudriczki. Collins singled out this song as one of her favorite tracks, while describing Mudriczki's rendition as "marvelous".
The German composer Hans Werner Henze dedicated his 1968 oratorio Das Floß der Medusa as a requiem for Guevera.
In 1968, Scottish songwriter Ewan MacColl composed the song "The Compañeros" in honor of Che Guevara and the Cuban Revolution. His wife Peggy Seeger also wrote "A Song for Che Guevara."
The Spanish punk rock group Boikot, released a 1997 CD titled La Ruta del Che. Upon release of the album, a band member told the newspaper El País that "Guevara represents a universal concept of revolution, I believe we all carry a Che inside us, a way of making our own revolution."
In 1987, the French rock band Indochine mentions Che Guevara in the song "Les Tzars".
Grammy Award-winning Carlos Santana wore a Che Guevara shirt to the 2005 Oscar awards.
The cover of Madonna's 2003 album American Life emulates Guerrillero Heroico, as she revealed to the Italian version of Top of the Pops. Madonna cited Che as a "revolutionary spirit" while adding that although she does not "necessarily agree with The Communist Manifesto, she believes that "there are aspects of socialism which are good", and that she "likes what (Che) stood for".
In rapper Jay-Z's Black Album, the track "Public Service Announcement" contains the line "I'm like Che Guevara with bling on / I'm complex."
"Indian Girl" by The Rolling Stones has a lyric referring to Che. "Mr. Gringo, my father he ain't no Che Guevara, And he's fighting the war on the streets of Masaya"
The Nightwatchman aka (Tom Morello) references a quote from Che Guevara – "Liberators do not exist, the people liberate themselves" – in the music video for the song 'Road I Must Travel.'
In rapper Nas's album, Stillmatic there is a controversial track named "My Country" that pays tribute to Che Guevara and others who were murdered by the United States.
The Allstonians, a third wave ska/reggae band, released a 1997 album with a song called "Doctor Che Guevara."
David Bowie's album, Lodger featured an inside sleeve containing one of the famous photographs of Guevara's corpse surrounded by his executioners.
In Richard Shindell's 2004 album Vuelta the track "Che Guevara t-Shirt" tells the story of an illegal immigrant imprisoned after 9/11 who may be kept in jail forever because he carries a photo of his girlfriend wearing a Che Guevara t-shirt.
On the track "It's Your World" from the rapper Common's 2005 album Be, the artist states "Wish I was free as Che was."
In Pet Shop Boys' song "Left to My Own Devices" they mention with irony "Che Guevara and Debussy to a disco beat".
The artist Immortal Technique has made several references to Guevara in his songs (No Me Importa, Internally Bleeding) and has performed many times while wearing a shirt bearing his image.
In the Manic Street Preachers song, "Revol", there is the lyric "Che Guevara, you're all target now".
The song "Hammerblow", off the Cherry Poppin' Daddies album Susquehanna, is a story-song about an underground Marxist uprising; a character in the song tells the narrator ""We haven't gone extinct/Unlike Che Guevara, Marx and Pravda"", assuring that though said revolutionaries may be gone, the movement continues.
American rock band Chagall Guevara, took their name from artist Marc Chagall and Che Guevara, to imply the concept of "revolutionary art."
The Australian punk band the Clap has a song called "Che Guevara T-Shirt Wearer" featuring the chorus lines of "you're a Che Guevara T-shirt wearer, and you have no idea who he is."
American folk singer-songwriter Richard Shindell often introduces performances of his song "Che Guevara T-Shirt" with a story of the irony of the t-shirts. The song features Shindell lamenting on how "Che the great anti-capitalist revolutionary" has had his name and image thoroughly co-opted by the shirt makers not for revolutionary purposes but to make money for the company owners i.e. the capitalists.
The band Rage Against the Machine has assorted band apparel with Che's image on it and recommends Guevara's manual "Guerrilla Warfare" in their liner notes. They also released a single called "Bombtrack" bearing Che's image and tour with a Guevara banner draped behind them while onstage.
On October 12, 2007, musicians from the Chilean community and Grupo Amistad, performed songs dedicated to Che at a memorial celebration in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
The Brazilian rock band Sepultura performed at Havana's "José Martí Anti-Imperialist Tribune" in July 2008, while also visiting the memorial to Che Guevara.
American punk rock band Against Me! have a song called "Cliché Guevara" on their album As the Eternal Cowboy.
Muslim-American rapper Rhymefest (whose birth name is 'Che' in honor of Guevara) titled his 2009 album "El Che", describing the overall theme as a "journey with a revolutionary."
Artist Dana Lyons mentions Che Guevara in his song Cows with Guns.
American noise rock band Che Guevara T-shirt named themselves after the phenomena outlined in this article, specifically the irony that a Marxist-inspired guerrilla is now used to sell capitalist products.
In July 2009, Cuba's best known folk musician Silvio Rodríguez announced that had written a new song titled "Tonada del albedrio" (Tune to Free Will) intended to "rehabilitate" the image of revolutionary Che Guevara from being an "international super-brand". According to Rodriguez the new song on his upcoming album "Segunda Cita" (Second Date) returns the emphasis and meaning of Guevara's life to "his struggle against imperialism, his love of being a revolutionary and his concept of socialism."
In October 2009, French alternative rock artist Manu Chao played two tribute concerts in Cuba (at Havana University and Sandino Stadium in the city of Santa Clara) to mark the 42nd anniversary Guevara's assassination. Chao was accompanied in Havana by Polish designer Jacek Wozniak, who joined several Cuban artists to paint a large mural dedicated to Che's memory.
Song "List do Che" (literally "Letter to Che") by Polish alternative rock band Strachy na Lachy mocks the fact that capitalists make great profit from communism-oriented revolutionst's image
Che appeared in an episode of Epic Rap Battles of History and battled Guy Fawkes. He was portrayed by Robert Rico.
Songs in tribute
Afro Cubanos All Stars ~ "Hasta Siempre Comandante" mp3
Ahmet Koç ~ "Hasta Siempre" (instrumental) official video
Ali Primera ~ "Comandante Amigo" listen
Angelo Branduardi ~ "1° aprile 1965"
Biermann & Black ~ "Hasta Siempre Comandante Che Guevara" mp3
Bill Laswell ~ "Commander Guevara" mp3
Carlos Puebla ~ "Hasta Siempre Comandante Che Guevara" video
Chicos Nuevos ~ "Che Guevara Rap Cubano" official video
Elena Burke ~ "Cancion del Guerrillero Heroico" mp3
Francesco Guccini ~ "Stagioni"
Francesco Guccini ~ "Canzone per il Che"
Happoradio ~ "Che Guevara"
Jorge Drexler ~ "Al otro lado del río" = "On the other side of the river" (received the Academy Award for Best Original Song of 2004) Video --- Performed by Antonio Banderas & Carlos Santana @ 2005 Oscars Video
Juan Carlos Biondini ~ "Poema al Che" listen
La Mona Jiménez ~ "El pueblo te ama Che Guevara" listen
Levellers ~ "Happy birthday revolution"
Nathalie Cardone ~ "Hasta Siempre" official video -&- performed live
Oktober Klub international ~ "Comandante Che Guevara" mp3
Quilapayún ~ "Cancion funebre para el Che Guevara" listen
Roberto Vecchioni ~ "Celia de la Serna"
Shaikh Emam ~ "Guevara Mat (Guevara has died)"
Silvio Rodríguez ~ "Fusil contra fusil" mp3 --- live in Chile
"Tonada del albedrio" (Tune to Free Will)
Soledad Bravo ~ "Hasta Siempre Comandante Che Guevara" mp3
United States of America – "Love Song for the Dead Che"
Víctor Jara ~ "Zamba del Che" listen
Wolf Biermann ~ "Comandante Che Guevara" listen
In television
Che Guevara himself was a guest on Face the Nation with Tad Szulc in 1964.
In the now canceled Fox television series Dark Angel, the main character's (Jessica Alba) assumed name is Max Guevara, a reference to Che in her quest to liberate her own race of people, as well.
In an episode of the animated sitcom King of the Hill, Bobby's activist friend wears a Che Guevara T-shirt.
In an episode of American Dad!, Stan's son is brainwashed by a communist to follow communism, after his dad ignores him. When his dad enters his room and sees communist apparel everywhere, he begins to rip them down. When he gets to a picture of Che he says "This we can agree on. Planet of the Apes was a fine picture".
Kyle wears a Che Guevara T-shirt in the South Park episode "Die Hippie, Die".
In the 2011 South Park episode "The Last of the Meheecans", a street vendor in Mexico is selling a stylized version of the Che t-shirt bearing the image of "Mantequilla".
In the first season, the opening sequence of The Boondocks featured main character Huey Freeman stylized in the likeness of Che Guevara. A poster of Che Guevara was also seen in his room in the episode "The Passion of the Ruckus".
In the anime Eureka Seven, the character Stoner resembles Che.
In the anime Zoku Sayonara Zetsubō Sensei, Nami finds a shirt with Che Guevara's face on it and Chiri tries to give history lessons from Che in episode 12.
In the anime series Heat Guy J, a poster of Che Guevara hangs on a wall in Daisuke's room.
In the anime 009-1, the Plaza de la Revolución with Che Guevara's face on it appears in a background shot in episode 12.
In That '70s Show, the character Steven Hyde often wears a Che Guevara t-shirt.
Eric Burdon wears a Che Guevara shirt as host of the PBS special The '60s Experience.
PBS held a forum titled 'the Legacy of Che' where they proclaimed that: "Che Guevara was a pop icon of mythic proportions."
In The Simpsons episode "Who Shot Mr. Burns? (Part Two)", the Tito Puente's mambo club is called "Chez Guevara", a reference to Che.
In The Simpsons episode "The Trouble With Trillions", when Homer goes to Cuba there is a wall with a mural that reads "El Duffo o Muerte" (Duffo or death), which is a parody of Cuban Motto "Patria o Muerte" (Homeland or Death) and shows a picture of Che Guevara holding a can of beer.
In The Simpsons episode "Havana Wild Weekend", the ferry they ride to Cuba is named the "Che Gue-ferry", accompanied by the famous Guerrillero Heroico portrait.
In the Family Guy episode "Tales of Former Sports Glory", Che Guevara appears on a flashback where Cleveland and his father LeVar they had met him in person at a baseball game.
In the Serbian television series Vratiće se rode, Švaba has a poster of Che Guevara in his bedroom.
The Latin American Xchange, a Total Nonstop Action Wrestling tag team, show clips of Che Guevara in their entrance video.
In the pilot episode of Mission Hill, there is a picture of Che in the background of a classroom.
In the movie Lost and Delirious, the character Paulie has a Che Guevara poster over her bed.
In an episode of The Venture Bros., "Dia de Los Dangerous!" Dr. Venture's "colleague" is named Ernesto Guevara.
When British comedy and TV star Ricky Gervais (of The Office) brought out a DVD of his politics live stand-up show in 2004, he chose to represent himself on the cover as Che Guevara.
In episode 6 of the British teen drama Skins, the character James Cook (played by Jack O'Connell) runs for class president by presenting himself mocked up as Che Guevara.
Stephen Colbert gifted Benicio del Toro a modified Che T-shirt bearing his own image when del Toro appeared on a January 2009 broadcast of The Colbert Report, to promote the film Che.
The 2009 ABC animated comedy The Goode Family parodies a liberal family whose dog is named "Che". Abhorring meat consumption, the Goode Family (whose car bumper also features the face of Che Guevara) force their dog Che to follow a vegan diet, which forces him to supplement his appetite by eating small creatures and neighborhood cats.
A character on the German soap opera Lindenstraße, "Dr. Ernesto Stadler", was named (by his leftist father) after Ernesto "Che" Guevara. Both Ernesto and his brother Jimi (named after Jimi Hendrix) are quite conservative.
While describing character Hideo Kuze in Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C. 2nd GIG, Motoko Kusanagi compares him to Che, as well as to Martin Luther King Jr., and Mohandas Gandhi.
An episode of "Criminal Minds: Beyond Borders" aired in May 2016 and was heavily influenced by Guevara's anti-American rhetoric. Several quotes from Guevara were left at the murder scenes by the episode's spree killers.
In theatre
Musicals/plays
In the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical, Evita, the narrator and main protagonist is a revolutionary based on Che Guevara. Though never referred to by his name "Che" in the musical itself, the character is identified as "Che" in the libretto, and in the title of one song "The Waltz for Eva and Che", wherein he cynically tells the story of Eva Perón, and the two finally confront one another during the Waltz. David Essex originated the role in London and Mandy Patinkin on Broadway (and Ricky Martin in the 2012 Broadway revival), and Antonio Banderas played it in the 1996 film version.
Hispanic-American Marcelino Quiñonez wrote and performed a 2007 play titled El Che, about the revolutionary. The Spanish language drama portrays the human side of Guevara as a father and friend, and debuted in 2009 as part of Phoenix, Arizona's Teatro Bravo series.
José Rivera wrote and performed a play titled School of the Americas which focuses on Che's last few hours alive. The play starring John Ortiz as Che, imagines Che's final conversations, mainly with a young and fairly naive female schoolteacher, in the one-room village schoolhouse where he is imprisoned before his execution. The play was featured in New York City 2006–2007 and later San Francisco 2008.
Other plays featuring a Che Guevara character include:
Guerrillas, by Rolf Hochhuth, production: 1970
Che Guevara, written by Zhang Guangtian, productions: 2007 Beijing China, 2008 China Art Institute.
Opera
In 1969 a Dutch opera premièred at the Theater Carré titled Reconstructie. Een moraliteit. The project was the collective work of the well known Dutch and Belgian composers and writers Reinbert de Leeuw, Harry Mulisch, Peter Schat, Hugo Claus, Louis Andriessen, and Misha Mengelberg. Inspired by Mozart's Don Giovanni, the opera mostly deals with Che's Bolivian period and then shortly after Guevara's portrayed assassination, workers slowly re-construct a huge statue of Guevara on stage.
Oratorio
The German avant-garde composer Hans Werner Henze created a requiem about Guevara, Das Floß der Medusa (The Raft of Medusa). It was produced in Hamburg, 1968. Notwithstanding the participation of famous singers like Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau and Edda Moser it caused a scandal, complete with scuffles and police repression. Since, it has been repeatedly staged (and recorded) successfully, i.a. by the conductor Simon Rattle.
In fashion
In celebrity fashion
Jay Z Rapper, songwriter and Black Lives Matter activist, wore t-shirt
Madonna Singer songwriter, dressed in costume
Cristina Fernández de Kirchner Argentinian leader, wore t-shirt
Carlos Santana Songwriter, most memorable hit Black Magic Woman by Fleetwood Mac
Ricky Gervais British comedian, wore t-shirt. Gervais says: "I wasn't political six months ago, and now there's nothing else in the world but politics," the Brit, 55, admitted. "I honestly haven't felt this way since I was 16 and wearing Che Guevara T-shirts, and protesting against nuclear weapons."
Behati Prinsloo Victoria's Secret model, wore t-shirt
Gisele Bündchen Married to Tom Brady, modeled Che Guevara bikini
Supermodel Gisele Bündchen donned a bikini adorned with Che Guevara's image for the São Paulo fashion week in July 2002.
During the October 7, 2002, Vanity Fair photo shoot of the Osbourne family by Annie Leibovitz, son Jack Osbourne is wearing a Che Guevara t-shirt.
Model/actress Elizabeth Hurley was spotted in 2004 clubbing in London with a $4,500 Che-embroidered Louis Vuitton handbag.
In 2004, the New York Public Library's gift shop featured a Che Guevara watch. The ad for the watch stated: "Revolution is a permanent state with this clever watch, featuring the classic romantic image of Che Guevara, around which the word 'revolution'-revolves."
Actor Johnny Depp wears a pendant of Che Guevara around his neck, as can be seen on the February 2005 cover of Rolling Stone. he has also been seen wearing his t-shirt
Prince Harry was spotted in July 2006 adorning a Che Guevara t-shirt, leading London tabloids to proclaim him "Havana Henry".
Rapper Jay-Z, who raps in one of his songs "I'm like Che Guevara with bling on", commonly is seen wearing a Che Guevara T-shirt.
In June 2010, Che's daughter Aleida Guevara, opined at a two-day Che related conference in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, that the "ubiquitous exploitation" of Che Guevara's image on t-shirts and paraphernalia would have made her revolutionary father laugh, while joking that "He probably would have been delighted to see his face on the breasts of so many beautiful women."
A store called La La Ling in Los Angeles sells a Che Guevara onesie for babies and love-sleeve tee for kids.
The Onion offers a satirical shirt with Che Guevara himself wearing a Che Guevara shirt. The accompanying sardonic advertisement refers to the "iconic" image as "scarcely seen" since the days when Guevara "freed thousands from the restrictive yoke of T-shirt selection."
The international retail store Urban Outfitters offers a "Che Cigar" graphic t-shirt, featuring a famous photo of the guerrilla smoking. The item is marketed with the accompanying tag line "kick back with a smoke with Che Guevara."
The Italian company Belstaff offers a "Trialmaster Che Guevara replica jacket", a wax cotton, 4 pocket, belted, classic motorcycle jacket – offered as "a perfect replica" of the one worn by a youthful Ernesto Guevara during his famous motorcycle journey across Latin America.
In politics
Political imagery
In February 2008, a minor internet-based "controversy" emerged when a local news report in Houston, Texas, featured the independently funded office of Cuban-American Maria Isabel, a volunteer staffer for the then Barack Obama presidential campaign. Some conservatives and Obama political opponents were angered when the clip portrayed that Isabel had used a large Cuban flag superimposed with the image of Che Guevara to decorate her office. For his part, Obama addressed the issue and called the flag's presence "inappropriate".
In July 2008, Colombian secret agents posing as leftist rebels were able to rescue Ingrid Betancourt and 15 other hostages held by FARC guerrillas. Part of the ruse involved the agents posing as fellow rebels by wearing Che Guevara t-shirts (considered a heroic figure by the Marxist inspired insurgents).
During a November 2008 interview with Congolese rebel leader Laurent Nkunda, he disclosed that a band of his rebels refer to themselves as the "Group of Che" and insist on wearing Che Guevara t-shirts as their uniform.
Hong Kong legislator and activist Leung Kwok-hung aka "Long Hair", exclusively wears his trademark Che Guevara t-shirts during his numerous protests.
Street artist Shepard Fairey, has stated that when he designed the two-tone red and blue stylized portrait of then presidential candidate Barack Obama, his "inspiration" was Alberto Korda's portrait of Che Guevara.
In April 2009, Poland's equality minister, Elzbieta Radziszewska, proposed an amendment to the present Polish law prohibiting the production of "fascist" and "totalitarian propaganda". Critics of the addition worry that it could extend to punish those wearing the popular Che Guevara t-shirts or CCCP (USSR) jackets. If passed, many of Communism's leading figures (and thus presumably Che) would have their images outlawed for public use, with those guilty facing a two-year prison sentence.
The May 2009 issue of Paper magazine featured a portfolio of ideas on how to rebrand the USA. One campaign by Alex Bogusky of Crispin Porter & Bogusky showed President Barack Obama wearing a T-shirt on which there is the familiar image of Che Guevara – altered to show Guevara wearing a T-shirt bearing the famous Shepard Fairey portrait of Mr. Obama and the word "Hope."
Political praise
Cuban school children begin every day of class with a salute and pledge of: "We will be like Che!"
Former South African President Nelson Mandela in 1991 on a visit to Havana declared that: "Che's life is an inspiration for every human being who loves freedom. We will always honor his memory."
American civil rights activist Jesse Jackson, in a 1984 visit to the University of Havana declared: "Long live our cry of freedom. Long Live Che!"
One week before his own assassination on October 15, 1987, in a speech marking the 20th anniversary of Guevara's execution, Burkina Faso's revolutionary leader Thomas Sankara (himself coined "Africa's Che") declared: "ideas cannot be killed, ideas never die."
Former Cuban leader Fidel Castro (who fought alongside Che during the Cuban revolution) proclaimed that Guevara was "a flower prematurely cut from its stem" who "sowed the seeds of social conscience in Latin America and the world." He also remarked that Che's "luminous gaze of a prophet has become a symbol for all the poor" and that "today he is in every place, wherever there is a just cause to defend."
Former Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez performed several symbolic acts of solidarity with Guevara, which included laying a wreath in remembrance of the 40th anniversary of his death at his Mausoleum, naming a state-funded adult education programme "Misión Che Guevara", and granting doctors of the Venezuelan public health system a 60 percent pay raise in "honor of Che", who was a physician.
After winning President of Bolivia in 2006, Evo Morales installed a portrait of Che Guevara made from coca leaves in the presidential palace. At a ceremony the following year marking the 40th anniversary of his execution, Morales declared "the ideals and actions of Commander Ernesto Guevara are examples for those who defend equality and justice. We are humanists and followers of the example of Guevara."
In October 2007, Irish Republicans in Derry, Northern Ireland and Sinn Féin organized a weekend celebration on the "life and legacy" of Irish-Argentine Che Guevara. The weekend featured numerous events including a meeting on freeing the "Cuban Five" and a youth discussion in Pilots Row, while concluding with the unveiling of a new Che Guevara mural in the Bogside.
On November 9, 2007, the British House of Commons held an early day motion proposed by John McDonnell and signed by 27 other members of parliament which read: "This House notes that 9 October marks the 40th anniversary of the murder of Ernesto Che Guevara in Bolivia; further notes the inspiration that Che Guevara has brought to national liberation movements and millions of socialists around the world; and believes that the sustained social gains of the Cuban revolution and the government of Evo Morales in Bolivia are fitting tributes to his legacy."
After attending a private screening of Steven Soderbergh's 2008 biographical film Che, British politician George Galloway professed that "no one could be more alive – his image, his example, his spirit, is abroad in every struggle throughout the world." Galloway ended his praise by stating that "Guevara radiates out from the photos a goodness, with the power to move millions forever."
In September 2009, Croatian President Stjepan Mesić visited and placed a wreath at Che's grave site in Santa Clara, Cuba. Afterwards during his remarks President Mesic referred to Guevara as "a symbol of struggle and an example for young people who wanted a better and more just society", before noting that "Che Guevara's ideals have transcended Latin America's borders, he has become an example for all who are dreaming about a better world."
In religion
"Saint Ernesto" in Bolivia
Che Guevara's unlikely transformation into a "sanctified" figure began immediately after his execution. Susana Osinaga, the nurse who cleaned Guevara's corpse after his execution reminisced that locals saw an uncanny physical resemblance to the popularized artistic portrayals of Jesus. According to Osinaga, "he was just like a Christ, with his strong eyes, his beard, his long hair", adding that in her view he was "very miraculous." Jon Lee Anderson, author of Che Guevara: A Revolutionary Life, notes how among the hospital's nuns, and a number of Vallegrande women, the impression that Guevara bore an extraordinary resemblance to Jesus Christ quickly spread; leading them to surreptitiously clip off clumps of his long hair and keep them for good luck. Jorge G. Castañeda, author of Compañero: The Life and Death of Che Guevara, discerns that "the Christ-like image prevailed" stating "it's as if the dead Guevara looks on his killers and forgives them, and upon the world, proclaiming that he who dies for an idea is beyond suffering."
Eleven days after Guevara's execution, journalist I. F. Stone (who himself had interviewed Guevara), drew the comparison by noting that "with his curly reddish beard, he looked like a cross between a faun and a Sunday-school print of Jesus." That observation was followed by German artist and playwright Peter Weiss' remark that the post-mortem images of Guevara resembled a "Christ taken down from the cross." Che's last moments and the connection to Christian iconography was also noted by David Kunzle, author of the book Che Guevara: Icon, Myth, and Message, who analogized the last photo of Guevara alive, with his hands bound, to an "Ecce Homo."
In August 1968, French intellectual Régis Debray, who was captured in Bolivia while living with Che Guevara, gave a jailhouse interview where he also drew the comparison. According to Debray, Che (an atheist) "was a mystic without a transcendent belief, a saint without a God." Debray went on to tell interviewer Marlene Nadle of Ramparts magazine that "Che was a modern Christ, but I think he suffered a much harder passion. The Christ of 2,000 years ago died face-to-face with his God. But Che knew there was no God and that after his death nothing remains."
Beginning with the 30th anniversary of Che's death, as Western reporters returned to Bolivia to report on commemorations, they began to notice that Che Guevara had been transfigured and "canonized" by the local Bolivian campesinos. No longer was he Che Guevara the guerrilla insurgent, but he was now viewed as a "Saint" by locals who had come to refer to him as "San Ernesto de La Higuera" (Saint Ernesto of La Higuera). Accompanying his "Sainthood" came prayers for favors and legends of his ghost still walking the area. This prompted the development of the 2006 film San Ernesto de la Higuera produced by Isabel Santos, which won best short documentary at the 5th International Film Festival of Human Rights.
As the 40th anniversary of Che's execution approached in 2007, journalists returned to discover that in Bolivia, images of Che now hung next to images of Jesus, the Virgin Mary, and Pope John Paul II. Additionally, columnist Christopher Roper observed that "in Bolivia, Che's murdered body was now compared to John the Baptist, while Reuters reported that in many homes, Che's face competed for wall space with a host of saints of the Catholic Church. A new legend also became known, when the Los Angeles Times reported that some rural campesinos now believed that if you whisper Che Guevara's name to the sky or light a candle to his memory, you will find your lost goat or cow.
A host of local campesinos went on record to journalists from The Guardian about this phenomenon as well. Melanio Moscoso, of La Higuera stated "we pray to him, we are so proud he had died here, in La Higuera, fighting for us. We feel him so close", while Freddy Vallejos, of Vallegrande, proclaimed "we have a faith, a confidence in Che. When I go to bed and when I wake up, I first pray to God and then I pray to Che – and then, everything is all right. Che's presence here is a positive force. I feel it in my skin, I have faith that always, at all times, he has an eye on us." Remi Calzadilla, a resident of Pucara, claimed that praying to Che had helped him regain the ability to walk, adding that "now every time I speak to Che I feel a strong force inside of me."
The laundry where Guevara's corpse was displayed to the world's press in Vallegrande is now a place of pilgrimage as well, with hundreds of personal messages transcribed and carved into the surrounding walls from admiring visitors. In large letters above the table where Che's dead body once lay, an engraving now reads "None dies as long as he is remembered."
Outside Bolivia
The Church of England caused some controversy in 1999, when they drew comparisons of Jesus to Che Guevara on a red and black poster titled "Che Jesus", which bore the slogan: "Meek. Mild. As if. Discover the real Jesus." In response to the controversy Reverend Peter Owens-Jones of the Church Advertising Network (CAN) who designed the ad stated "We are not saying that Jesus was communist, but that he was revolutionary. We are exploiting the image of revolution, not the image of Che Guevara."
Che Guevara appears as the Christ figure in a mural called "The Last Supper of Chicano Heroes" in Stanford University's Latino Dorm (Casa Zapata).
Actor Benicio del Toro who played Guevara in the 2008 biographical film Che, compared the guerrilla leader to Jesus Christ, stating "I think Che had perseverance and morality ... being the underdog and fighting against injustice and standing up for the forgotten moved him so hard. Kind of like Jesus, in a way – only Jesus would turn the other cheek. Che wouldn't."
"Curse of Che"
Many of the rural campesinos in the small Bolivian town of Vallegrande, where anthropologists retrieved Che's remains in 1997, firmly believe that there exists a "curse of Che". This belief exists because six of the Bolivian politicians and military officers who share responsibility for Guevara's death have since died a violent death. They were murdered, died in accidents, or in the case of Bolivian President René Barrientos were killed in a helicopter crash. In addition, General Gary Prado, who arrested Guevara, became paralyzed after a shot went off from a gun he was handling and hit his spine.
In sport
During a match, footballer Cristiano Lucarelli scored a goal for the Italy national football team and stripped off his Azzurri shirt to reveal a t-shirt bearing the image of Che Guevara. The move identified him strongly with his then favorite and now current team Livorno, whose supporters brandish left-wing paraphernalia at matches to celebrate the city's long tradition of socialism.
Boxing champion Floyd Mayweather Jr. wore a Che t-shirt during one installment of his 2009 HBO series Mayweather–Marquez 24/7".
The Hapoel Tel Aviv Football Club, considered the "standard bearer of the Israeli left", utilizes the image of Che Guevara in an array of ways. At home matches, fans unroll banners emblazoned with the face of Che Guevara.
Fans of Celtic F.C. in Glasgow, a team heavily associated with Irish Republicanism, use Che Guevara's image in a number of ways, especially on flags. Often reference is made to Che Guevara's Irish ancestry. In 2008, the Black County Celtic Supporters Club became known as the Black Country Che Guevara Celtic Supporters Club.
In tourism
Bolivia features a 'Che Guevara Trail' which is overseen by Care Bolivia and the Bolivian Ministry of Tourism. The trail leads by road from the Bolivian city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, via the Inca site of Samaipata, onto the villages of Vallegrande and La Higuera (the 'holy grail' for Che pilgrims). The tour allows visitors to travel just as Che and his comrades did – by mule or on foot through rocky forested terrain – or in four-wheel-drive vehicles along unpaved roads. The trail visits places of historical interest including the site of Che's guerrilla camp, the school where after 11 months as a guerrilla he was captured and killed, and his former grave. Visitors also are able to meet local people who met or traveled with Guevara.
Cuba also offers a '14-day "Che Guevara Tour", (organized in collaboration with the Ernesto Che Guevara center in Havana) – which allows travelers to follow the historical footsteps of Che Guevara in his guerrilla struggle to oust Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista.
Journey Latin America, offers a three-week escorted Motorcycle Diaries tour from Buenos Aires to Lima. The company also offers tailor-made trips to any of the locations along the Guevara-Granado route.
The Cuevas de los Portales (Portales Caverns) Caves, located within Guira National Park in Cuba's westernmost province of Pinar del Río, features Guevara's headquarters during the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. His original table, chairs, and iron bed still remain in the cave, which is open to visitors.
Monuments and memorials
An average of about 800 international visitors each day make the trek to Che Guevara Mausoleum in Santa Clara, Cuba. The site, which contains a bronze statue of Guevara, also includes his remains, a museum of his exploits, and an eternal flame in honor of his memory.
In Venezuela, along the Andean mountain highway near the city of Mérida, an 8-foot glass plate bearing Guevara's image is erected near the top of El Aguila Peak. Guevara visited the spot in 1952 during his travels through South America, which he recorded in his diary.
Rosario, Argentina, the city of Che's birth, features an Ernesto "Che" Guevara plaza. The centerpiece is a 13-foot bronze "Monument to Che" statue of Guevara, cast from thousands of donated and melted-down keys.
In Alta Gracia, Argentina, the home where Guevara lived part of his childhood and teenage years, was turned into a museum in 1997. Titled "Villa Nidia", the museum features a sculpture depicting a young Ernesto at the age of 12, along with a tree in the backyard brought in from Cuba in October 2002 on 35th anniversary of Che's death.
The Bolivian town of La Higuera (where Che was executed) hosts a statue of Guevara as does the bus terminal in El Alto, Bolivia, which features a 23-foot scrap metal sculpture of his likeness.
The Jintai Museum park in Beijing, China (where Guevara visited chairman Mao Zedong in 1960), is home to a sculpted bust of Che, designed by Chinese artist Yuan Xikun.
A park along the Danube river in Vienna, Austria, features a 28-inch bronze bust of a bearded Che in his "trademark" beret. At the 2008 unveiling, the city's Social Democratic mayor Michael Haeupl proclaimed the statue "a symbol of Vienna's intention to eradicate poverty."
In the autonomous community of Oleiros, Galicia, a ten-meter high outline of Guevara's face was constructed by Cuban artist Juan Quintani. The mayor of Oleiros, Angel García Seoane, promoted the 2008 project to "honor Che and all the revolutionaries of the world."
When Che Guevara visited the Yahala Kele rubber estate in Horana, Sri Lanka, on August 7, 1959, as part of a Cuban state visit to study rubber planting methods, he planted a mahogany tree. Fifty years later in 2009, the now large tree still stands, along with a small memorial at an adjacent bungalow showcasing Guevara's visit. Caretaker Dingiri Mahattaya, who met Che upon the visit as a young teen, remarked in 2009 that "this is the only surviving tree in the world that has been planted by Che Guevara."
In 2009, the South African city of Durban, renamed Moore Road (in honor of colonial era British General Sir John Moore) to Che Guevara Road, in the revolutionary's honor. This was followed by a statue of Guevara being added to the gallery of "liberation struggle heroes" at Pretoria's Freedom Park.
In Algiers, Algeria the main avenue along the seaside bears the name Che Guevara. Che visited the capital several times in the 1960s when Algeria was a symbol to African liberation movements after its war of independence from France, and according to the Latin American Herald Tribune, the guerrilla leader "is much loved by and well-known to Algerians."
In Mexico City, Mexico, statues of Che Guevara and Fidel Castro were placed in 2018 to commemorate the first time both met after the start of the Cuban Revolution.
In other uses
On May 15, 1960, Che Guevara competed against acclaimed author Ernest Hemingway at the "Hemingway Fishing Contest" in Havana, Cuba. The winner of the competition was fellow boat mate Fidel Castro.
In October 2007, former Central Intelligence Agency operative Gustavo Villoldo, auctioned off a lock of Che Guevara's hair for $119,500 to Bill Butler. The purchaser describes Guevara as "one of the greatest revolutionaries of the 20th century", and thus intends to display the 3-inch tress in his Butler & Sons books store in Rosenberg, Texas.
On December 14, 2008, Iraqi journalist Muntadhar al-Zeidi threw both of his shoes at President George W. Bush, as an "act of defiance" during a Baghdad press conference. When reporters visited his one-bedroom apartment in west Baghdad, they found the home decorated with a poster Che Guevara, who according to The Associated Press "is widely lionized in the Middle East."
Former Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf owns a German Shepherd dog named "Che", in honor of the revolutionary.
At the 2009 Groundhog Day celebrations, the groundhog "Staten Island Chuck" bit the finger of New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg. As a result, Brooklyn entrepreneur Devery Doleman began selling shirts showing Chuck "revolting against the plutocrat mayor", while donning a Che Guevara beret. Creator Doleman, proclaimed the bite an obvious metaphor, while decreeing "Bloomberg cares only about rich people. He's the Marie Antoinette of mayors."
In protest of losing Shea Stadium for the newly built Citi Field, two New York Mets fans Dave Croatto and Ryan Flanders, created "Viva Shea" t-shirts. The phonetic word play inspired shirt features Che Guevara in blue over an orange background (Met's colors) and perched atop Guevara's head is a NY Mets baseball hat.
In April 2009, Raymond Scott a 52-year-old British book dealer accused of stealing the 1623 first edition of William Shakespeare's works from Durham University in 1998, arrived in the Consett Magistrates' Court dressed as Che Guevara.
A documentary about Chilean LGBT activist Victor Hugo Robles was screened at the 2009 Sundance film festival titled El Che De Los Gays (The Che of the Gays). Robles, nicknamed the "Che of the Gays", adopted the nom-de-guerre while a university student during the oppression of homosexuals under Augusto Pinochet. As part of his attire he paints his lips "fiery red", while donning a black beret with a Che-like star on the beret in homage (replaced by a starfish to symbolise his self described "effeminacy"). In describing the reasoning, Robles remarked that "I chose Che because he is the ultimate metaphor of a contemporary revolutionary."
The University of Texas offers a course titled "Che Guevara's Latin America", in which students read two of Guevara's travel diaries and his memoir of the Cuban revolutionary war. The aim of the course is to have students analyze the "sudden revival of Che's image in pop culture throughout the world", study Che's own personal observations, and survey class relations in those countries mentioned in Che's memoirs (Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Guatemala, and Mexico).
As an act of international solidarity, Cuba dispersed a group of medical doctors to the nation of Nicaragua in 2007. By the start of 2009, the unit titled the "Ernesto Che Guevara Brigade", were credited with treating 1,764,000 people, saving 363 lives, and operating on 3,893 patients. There is also a Cuban supplied and staffed "Che Guevara Medical Brigade" serving in Haiti, composed of 575 doctors and health professionals.
Criticism
There are those, both supporters and detractors that object to the mass dissemination of Che's image in popular and counter-culture. His detractors dislike the widespread pictorial dissemination of someone they deem to be a "murderer" but also delight in the contradiction and/or irony of a Marxist being utilized as a Capitalist commodity. Conversely, some Che supporters object to the commodification or diminishing of his image by its use in popular culture, and resent those entrepreneurial companies who profit from and/or exploit his legacy; viewing such marketing as an obvious conflict to Guevara's personal ideology.
Regardless of the varying sentiments, Jonathan Green director of the UCR/Museum of Photography believes that there is no escaping the influence of Che's symbolism, remarking that "we cannot get away from the context of Che Guevara, whether we like him or hate him, whether we called him a revolutionary or a butcher. The fact that he lived and died for the ideas in which he believed, penetrates constantly in the image."
From an anti-Che perspective
Mexican author Rogelio Villareal has noted how "the famous image is not venerated by all ... it has also been aged, laughed about, parodied, insulted, and distorted around the world." Conservative Mark Falcoff has remarked that Guevara is "a cultural icon" not because of "his example for poor countries" but as a result of "his capacity to provoke empathy among the spoiled youth of the affluent West." Historian Robert Conquest, of the Hoover Institution, has referred to such "empathy" and adulation among the young, as the "unfortunate affliction" of "adolescent revolutionary romanticism." Sean O'Hagan of The Observer contends that the appeal to such empathy is one of superficiality, remarking that "if Che hadn't been born so good-looking, he wouldn't be a mythical revolutionary." In the view of Ana Menéndez, author of the novel Loving Che, the fascination with Che is not with the man, but the photograph. While herself acknowledging him as a "great idealist", Menéndez believes there is a "fallibility of memory", which leads many to "gloss over the fact that he was also a brutal man, the head of a firing squad in the opening days of the revolution." Menéndez theorizes that such unsavory aspects are glossed over in the way one glosses over someone's flaws when in love. Jazz musician Paquito D'Rivera, himself a Cuban exile who fled the island after a run-in with Guevara, has criticized the positive portrayal of Che by musicians such as Santana, by noting the strict censorship of music at the time deemed "immoral" and "imperialist" by the Cuban government. In deference to such contradictions, Patrick Symmes, author of Chasing Che: A Motorcycle Journey in Search of the Guevara Legend, has hypothesized that "the more time goes by, the chicer and chicer Che gets because the less he stands for anything." Barcelona museum director Ivan de la Nuez, in the 2008 documentary "Chevolution" describes the overall phenomena by observing that "Capitalism devours everything – even its worst enemies."
From a pro-Che perspective
Duke Latin American studies professor Ariel Dorfman hypothesizes that Che's been "comfortably transmogrified into a symbol of rebellion" precisely because those in power no longer believe him to be dangerous. Dorfman suspects the attempt to subvert Che could backfire, positing that 3 billion people now live on less than $2 a day and thus "the powerful of the earth should take heed: deep inside that T shirt where we have tried to trap him, the eyes of Che Guevara are still burning with impatience." Expressing a similar sentiment, director Jonathan Green acknowledges that "Che is turning over in his grave" because of the commercialization; in Green's view, Che's visage also has the potential to be a "Trojan horse" of capitalist marketing, by embedding itself into pop iconography. In his example, corporations in their desperate drive to sell goods, create the opportunity for observers to see the "logo" and ask "who was that guy?" Trisha Ziff, curator of Che! Revolution and Commerce believes that regardless of the "postmodern" diffusion, you can't disassociate Che from "radical ideas and change", nor can one control it. In Ziff's view, despite the endless array of merchandising, the symbol of Che will continue to be worn and have resonance. Critical pedagogical theorist Peter McLaren theorizes that American capitalism is responsible for the Che phenomenon, stating that "the United States has a seductive way of incorporating anything that it can't defeat and transforming that 'thing' into a weaker version of itself, much like the process of diluting the strength and efficacy of a virus through the creation of a vaccine." Neo-Marxist and critical theorist Herbert Marcuse argued that in the contemporary capitalist world there is no escaping such co-optation, theorizing that we are made "one-dimensional" by capitalism's single-minded orientation toward greed and growth. Author Susan Sontag spoke of the potential positive ramifications of utilizing Che as a symbol, positing:
References
External links
Che-Lives.com
Che Spotting – "spot Che, take a pic, send it in"
The Many Faces of Che – a slideshow by PBS
BBC News Video: Che Honored in Argentina June 15, 2008
NPR Audio Report: "In Latin America, Che's Legend on the Rise"
The New York Times: "A Revolutionary Icon, and Now, a Bikini"
Washington Post: "The Che Cachet" by David Segal, February 7, 2006
Che from Rebel to Icon by Christophe Chataign, Socialist Review, July 2004
Why is Che Guevara such a Pop Culture Icon? a photo essay by Designboom
Advertising World's Obsession with Che Guevara by Adoholic, February 21, 2009
The Last Revolutionary of the XXth Century – slideshow by The Voice of Russia
Popular culture
Cultural depictions of Che Guevara
Celebrities in popular culture
Celebrity fandom |
4333783 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema%20of%20Thailand | Cinema of Thailand | The cinema of Thailand dates back to the early days of filmmaking, when King Chulalongkorn's 1897 visit to Bern, Switzerland was recorded by François-Henri Lavancy-Clarke. The film was then brought to Bangkok, where it was exhibited. This sparked more interest in film by the Thai Royal Family and local businessmen, who brought in filmmaking equipment and started to exhibit foreign films. By the 1920s, a local film industry was started and in the 1930s, the Thai film industry had its first "golden age", with a number of studios producing films.
The years after the Second World War saw a resurgence of the industry, which used 16 mm film to produce hundreds of films, many of them hard-driving action films. The most notable action filmmaker in the 1970s was Chalong Pakdivijit. Known internationally as P. Chalong or Philip Chalong, Chalong became the first Thai director who could successfully break into the international market and made a profit with his 1973 action-packed film called 'GOLD'(S.T.A.B.).
Competition from Hollywood brought the Thai industry to a low point in the 1980s and 1990s, but by the end of the 1990s, Thailand had its "new wave", with such directors as Nonzee Nimibutr, Pen-Ek Ratanaruang and Apichatpong Weerasethakul, as well as action hero Tony Jaa, being celebrated at film festivals around the world.
History
The first Thai films
Auguste and Louis Lumière had a film exhibition that toured in Southeast Asia in 1894, and on 9 June 1897, "the wonderful Parisian cinematograph" was screened in Bangkok, and is the first known film screening in Thailand.
That same year, the film of the visit to Europe by King Chulalongkorn was brought back to Thailand, along with camera equipment acquired by the king's brother, Prince Thongthaem Sambassatra. () The prince, considered "the father of Thai cinema", made many films and his work was shown commercially.
Japanese businessmen opened the first permanent cinema, the Japanese Cinematograph, in 1905. Japanese films were so popular that nang yipun became the generic term for all moving pictures. European and American films were called nang farang (after the nang drama (shadow puppet plays) that were a Thai traditional art).
Under another member of the royal family, Prince Kamphangphet, the Topical Film Service of the State Railway of Thailand was set up. The service produced many promotional documentaries for the railroad and other government agencies and became an important training ground for many filmmakers. One of the early works produced was
Sam Poi Luang: Great Celebration in the North (Thai: สามปอยหลวง), a docudrama that became a hit when it was released in 1940.
Another of the first Thai films was Nang Sao Suwan, or Miss Suwanna of Siam, a Hollywood co-production with the Topical Film Service that was directed and scripted by Henry MacRae. It premiered on 22 June 1923, in Bangkok at the Phathanakorn Cinematograph. Miss Suwanna has been lost over the years, with only a few still photos from it remaining.
The first all-Thai feature was Chok Sorng Chan (Double Luck), produced by the Wasuwat brothers' Bangkok Film Company in 1927 and directed by Manit Wasuwat (Thai: มานิต วสุวัต). That same year, a film company, Tai Phapphayon Thai Company, produced Mai Khit Loei (Unexpected).
Seventeen films were made between 1927 and 1932, but only fragments have survived, such as a one-minute car chase from Chok Song Chan or a two- to three-minute boxing match from Khrai Di Khrai Dai (None But the Brave).
Hollywood would also make movies in Siam during this time, including the documentary, Chang, by Merian C. Cooper and Ernest B. Schoedsack, about a poor farmer struggling to carve out a living in the jungle. In making the film, they were assisted by Prince Yugala Dighambara, grandfather of modern-day filmmaker Prince Chatrichalerm Yukol.
Robert Kerr, who served as assistant director to Henry MacRae on Miss Suwanna returned to Siam in 1928 to direct his own film, The White Rose. It was shown in Bangkok in September 1928.
The Golden Age
By 1928, the first "talkies" were being imported, providing some heavy competition for the silent Thai films. In the tradition of the benshi in Japan, local cinemas had entertaining narrators to introduce the films as well as traditional Thai orchestras that were often as big an audience pleaser as the films themselves, and but within two or three years, silent movies had given way to the talkies.
The first Thai sound film was Long Thang (Gone Astray), produced by the Wasuwat brothers, and premiered on 1 April 1932. Considered an ideological film in the period of political reform, the film proved a big success and led to the building of the Sri Krung Talkie Film Company in Bang Kapi. It produced three to four films a year.
In 1933, Sri Krung made the first colour Thai film, Grandpa Som's Treasure (Pu Som Fao Sap).
This period up until 1942 is regarded by scholars as the "Golden Age" for Thai film.
Among the hit films of this period was the 1938 musical, Klua Mia (Wife-phobia) by the Srikrung studio. It was shot on 35-mm colour stock. The stars were Chamras Suwakhon and Manee Sumonnat, the first Thai actors to be recognized as movie stars by having their names painted on their chairs while filming at the studio.
As the Second World War loomed, and the country being led by a dictatorship under Field Marshal Plaek Pibulsonggram film companies were pressed into service to make propaganda films to whip up nationalism.
Opposition politics found their way into film, too, with statesman Pridi Phanomyong producing King of the White Elephant, in 1940. With all the dialogue in English, Pridi hoped to send a message to the outside world that he was unhappy with the militaristic direction his country was taking. The film depicts the story of an ancient Siamese king who only goes to war after he's been attacked.
Film dubbing
The advent of sound raised another problem for cinemas in Thailand: the language of the talkies. Soon a dubbing method developed in which a dubber would provide a simultaneous translation of the dialogue by speaking Thai into a microphone at the back of the theater. The first Thai dubber was Sin Sibunruang, or "Tit Khiaw", who had worked for Siam Film Company and was the editor of the company's film magazine. Tit Khiaw and other talented dubbers became stars in their own right. They would perform all the roles in the films, both male and female, as well as such sound effects as animal noises, cars and gunfire.
Also, there were film companies that could not afford to make sound films, and would make films with the intention that they would be dubbed at screenings by live performers reading from a script. These dubbed films proved as popular as the talkies, especially if the dubber was well known.
Due to the extensive use of 16 mm film in the 1970s, the technique has lasted up until recent years, especially for outdoor screenings of films at temple fairs in rural areas. Examples of a dubber at work can be seen in contemporary Thai films, Monrak Transistor (2000) and Bangkok Loco (2004).
Post-war years: The 16-mm era
After the end of the Second World War, filmmaking got under way again in Thailand using surplus 16 mm black-and-white stock from wartime newsreel production.
At least two Thai films were produced in 1946. One was an action film, Chai Chatree (Brave Men), directed by journalist-turned-filmmaker Chalerm Sawetanant. The screenplay was by writer Malai Chupinij, who would go on to script other films of the era, including Chao Fah Din Salai (Till Death Do Us Part). The other film noted by the National Film Archive for 1946 was an adaptation of a Thai folktale, Chon Kawao (The Village of Chon Kawao).
The post-war boom in filmmaking really took off, however, with the use of 16-mm colour-reversal film, which was easy to obtain and make films with. The vividly coloured films were popular with audiences as well, prompting dozens of new filmmakers to enter the business.
Similar to the dubbing of films during the pre-war years, some of these films used dubbers to provide dialogue and sound effects as the film was running, further adding to the entertainment value of the movies. From 1947 until 1972, 16 mm was the industry standard for Thai film production.
The first hit of the era was 1949's Suparb Burut Sua Thai (Thai Gentlemen Fighters), which outgrossed Hollywood films at the local box office. That success prompted more enthusiasm for filmmaking, giving rise to the second "golden age" of Thai cinema.
Move toward 35 mm
At the height of the 16-mm era, cinematographer and director Rattana Pestonji sought to use 35 mm film and generally improve the artistic quality of Thai films. Most of his films are regarded today as masterpieces, including Santi-Weena, which was the first Thai film to be entered into international competition, at the 1954 Asia Pacific Film Festival in Tokyo, and 1961's Black Silk, the first Thai film in competition at the Berlin International Film Festival.
Though Rattana made relatively few films, he worked tirelessly to promote the industry, and died in 1970 as he was to make a speech to government officials about setting up a national film agency.
The 1970s and '80s
Thailand saw an explosion of locally produced films during the 1970s after the Thai government imposed a heavy tax on imported films in 1977, which led to a boycott of Thailand by Hollywood studios. To pick up the slack, 150 Thai films were made in 1978 alone. Many of these films were low-grade action films and were derided by critics and scholars as "nam nao" or "stinking water".
But socially conscious films were being made as well, especially by Prince Chatrichalerm Yukol, a US-educated filmmaker and member of the Thai Royal Family, whose own family had been involved with filmmaking since the industry started in Thailand. Among Chatrichalerm's films during the 1970s was Khao Chue Karn (Dr. Karn), which addressed corruption in the Thai civil service and was nearly banned by the military-dominated regime of Thanom Kittikachorn. Chatrichalerm also made Hotel Angel (Thep Thida Rong Raem), about a young woman trapped into a life of prostitution. He made dozens of films along these socially conscious lines through the 1990s, working up to his lavish historical epic, The Legend of Suriyothai in 2001.
Another filmmaker active during this time was Vichit Kounavudhi, who made his share of action films as well as more socially conscious works like First Wife, about the custom of men taking "second wives" or "mia noi" – a euphemism for mistress. Vichit also made Her Name is Boonrawd (1985), about prostitution around an American military airbase during the Vietnam War. Vichit's best known works are two semi-documentary films, Mountain People (Khon Phukao), an adventure tale about a young hill-tribe couple, and Look Isan (Son of the Northeast), about a family of subsistence farmers in 1930s Isan.
Also in 1985, director Euthana Mukdasanit made Pee Seua lae Dawkmai (Butterfly and Flowers), highlighting hardships along the Southern Thailand border. Not only did the film help expose urban Thais to regional poverty, the film broke new ground in its portrayal of a Buddhist-Muslim relationship. It won the Best Film award at the Hawaii International Film Festival.
The Thai New Wave
By 1981, Hollywood studios were once again sending films to Thailand. Also, television (see also Media in Thailand) was a growing part of Thai culture. This was a low period for the Thai film industry, and by the mid-1990s, studio output was averaging about 10 films per year.
In the wake of the Asian financial crisis in 1997, three directors of television commercials – Nonzee Nimibutr, Pen-Ek Ratanaruang and Wisit Sasanatieng – were thinking that films needed to be more artistic to attract investors and audiences.
The first breakthrough was in 1997, with Nonzee's crime drama, Dang Bireley's and Young Gangsters (2499 Antapan Krong Muang), which earned a record box office take of more than 75 million baht. Also in 1997, Pen-Ek's crime comedy, Fun Bar Karaoke, was selected to play at the Berlin Film Festival – the first time in twenty years that Thai cinema had had any kind of an international presence.
Nonzee's next film, the ghost story Nang Nak, was an even bigger success, earning 149.6 million baht – the highest-grossing film at the time.
Wisit, who wrote screenplays for Dang Bireley's and Nang Nak, broke out with Tears of the Black Tiger, a super-stylised western homage to the Thai action films of the 1960s and '70s. It was the first film to be included on the programme at the Cannes Film Festival.
There were also the Pang Brothers from Hong Kong, who came to Thailand to make stylish movies, starting with Bangkok Dangerous and the nod to J-Horror, The Eye.
Thai independent film
With the New Wave directors achieving commercial and artistic success, a new crop of filmmakers has grown up outside the traditional and often restrictive Thai studio system to create experimental short films and features.
The leader of this indie movement is Apichatpong Weerasethakul, whose 2002 feature Blissfully Yours won the Un Certain Regard Prize at the Cannes Film Festival. Featuring a risqué sex scene involving a Burmese man and a Thai woman in the jungle, the movie received only limited screenings in Thailand and a Thai-released DVD of the film was censored. Apichatpong's next film, Tropical Malady, featuring a gay romance between an army soldier and a country guy, was a jury-prize winner at Cannes. It, too, only received limited screenings in Thailand.
Other indie directors include Aditya Assarat (Wonderful Town), Anocha Suwichakornpong (Mundane History), Pimpaka Towira (One Night Husband), Thunska Pansittivorakul (Voodoo Girls), Sivaroj Kongsakul (Eternity), Wichanon Somumjarn (In April the Following Year, There Was a Fire) and Nawapol Thamrongrattanarit (36).
Mainstream Thai cinema
With the emergence of GMM Grammy's own film studio, GTH and now GDH 559, Thailand's current mainstream film industry had made a slate of numerous commercially & critically successful films such as Fan Chan, Shutter, Kung Fu Tootsie, Bangkok Traffic Love Story and Thailand's most successful and its highest-grossing film, Pee Mak, which earned has earned more than 1 billion baht ($33 million) in revenue worldwide (mostly in Asia), and is currently the highest-grossing Thai film.
Under GDH, formed after a internal company dispute it continued to produce a slate of successful films such as One Day, The Promise and Nattawut Poonpiriya's school heist thriller, Bad Genius starring Chutimon Chuengcharoensukying, which grossed around 112.15 million baht ($3.3 million). Bad Genius is currently registered as a national heritage film by the Thai Film Archive in its eighth annual listing, given its significance to the modern Thai film industry and contemporary Thai culture.
Censorship
All films, VCDs and DVDs are placed under scrutiny of a censorship board. Until 2009, films were regulated by the Film Act of 1930.
The first board of censors included both men and women and was drawn from the ranks of aristocracy, the civil service and the police. Each film passed by the censors had to include a stamp on each reel, and each item of printed advertising had to contain the stamp, too. The National Police was responsible for screening films and videos until September 2005, when the government's Ministry of Culture took over the function. Every VCD and DVD sold for home viewing must bear a stamp that it has passed the Censorship Board.
On some VCDs and DVDs produced in Thailand, the censors sometimes take a hard line against depictions of nudity, sex, smoking, the presence of alcohol and guns being pointed at people, images that are forbidden on broadcast television. In other instances, violent acts might pass through uncut, but sex and nudity will be edited out.
Before the digital age, scissors and petroleum jelly were the tools of the trade for censors. Today the offending images are blurred out electronically. The effect of pixelization is so pervasive that the practice has been satirised in films, including 2004's action comedy, Jaew or M.A.I.D., as well as the zombie comedy, SARS Wars.
Imported DVDs are generally not altered by the Thai authorities, though the Ministry of Culture's watchdogs do ban items, or at least strongly encourage retailers to not carry them. From the time the Ministry of Culture took over the censorship board until March 2006, about 40 VCD or DVD titles were banned, though a list of the banned items was not made available.
In 2007, the independent film, Syndromes and a Century was to undergo cuts before public release in Thailand. The censors objected to depictions of a Buddhist monk playing guitar, a physician kissing his girlfriend, some doctors drinking whisky in a hospital conference room and some monks playing with a remote-control flying saucer. Director Apichatpong Weerasethakul would not make the cuts and withdrew his film from release in Thailand. It had previously screened in other countries uncut.
After the controversy over Syndromes and a Century, the Free Thai Cinema Movement started to gain momentum in late April 2007. A petition signed by artists and scholars was submitted to the National Legislative Assembly, which was considering a new motion picture ratings system. The proposed system, passed by the military-appointed National Legislative Assembly proved controversial as well, as it would not imposes ratings structure but also keeps censorship in place.
The 1930 Film Act was replaced in 2009 by a film-ratings system. The ratings system has six classifications – G for general audiences, P for "promote" as educational, 13+, 15+ and 18+ suggested viewing ages and the restricted 20- rating, which requires ID checks at the cinemas. A hidden seventh tier of the system is an outright ban by the Film and Video sub-committee.
Genres
Action
Action films are a predominant genre of Thai film. During the 1960s and '70s, when Mitr Chaibancha and Sombat Metanee were the leading action heroes, hundreds of hard-hitting, explosive features were made.
In recent years, the martial arts films starring Tony Jaa, Ong-Bak: Muay Thai Warrior and Tom-Yum-Goong, have put Thai action films on the international map. Kerd ma lui (Born to Fight) is in the same vein, and gives more exposure to action choreographer Panna Rittikrai, who toiled for decades making low-budget, direct-to-video action films featuring dangerous stunt choreography.
The culture of Thailand's B-movie stuntmen is further examined in the 2005 documentary, Crying Tigers, by Santi Taepanich.
Action comedies have also proven to be popular, including 2001's Killer Tattoo by Yuthlert Sippapak, who cast well-known Thai comedians, including Petchtai Wongkamlao and Suthep Po-ngam, in roles as bumbling hitmen.
Animation
Thai animation got underway after the Second World War, when artist Sanae Klaikluen was asked by the Thai government to make a short animated cartoon that instructed Thai citizens to wear hats and farmers to wear boots.
Sanae in turn influenced Payut Ngaokrachang, who made a 1955 short about a traffic cop called Haed Mahasajan. Payut went on to make Thailand's first and only cel-animated feature film, The Adventure of Sudsakorn, in 1979.
Because of the labour-intensive work involved with animation, it was cheaper for studios to make live-action films, so animation was eschewed. But in recent years, Thailand's technology community has sought to make the country a hub for computer animation, with many animated television shows, commercials and video games being created in Thailand.
In 2006, Thailand's first computer-animated feature film was released, Khan Khluay, about King Naresuan the Great's war elephant. It is directed by Kompin Kemgunerd, on such Disney features as Atlantis: The Lost Empire and Tarzan and Blue Sky Studios' Ice Age. Although the work is being done on computers, Kompin has faced many of the same difficulties in funding and human resources that Payut faced.
Comedies
No matter what the genre of Thai film, most films – be they action, horror or romantic dramas – have some element of comedy.
One of the classic comedies from the 1960s is called Ngern Ngern Ngern (Money, Money, Money). It starred Mitr Chaibancha and Petchara Chaowarat in a story about the nephew of an unscrupulous moneylender who takes sides with a group of debtors against his uncle. The remake of the film was done in the 1980s.
In 2005, the comedy Luang phii theng (The Holy Man) starring comedian Pongsak Pongsuwan as a street hood who becomes a Buddhist monk, was one of the top films at the domestic box office.
Crime
Most of the films by Pen-Ek Ratanaruang have been crime films, from his debut feature 1997's Fun Bar Karaoke to 2006's Invisible Waves.
A true-crime film, 2003's Macabre Case of Prom Pirom (Keunbab prompiram) by veteran director Manop Udomdej, about a 1977 murder-rape of a young woman in a rural village was controversial because the village where the case took place did not want the incident revisited. The film played at many overseas festivals, including the New York Asian Film Festival.
Another true-crime case about a cannibalistic serial killer in 1946 Bangkok was depicted in the 2004 film Zee-Oui.
Gay films
Kathoey (transgender people) or gay people are often featured as comic relief or villains in mainstream Thai films, but there have been a number of films that make gay people and kathoey the main characters. Transgender people and gay people are also known as "tdoot", originated from the title of the 1982 American film Tootsie.
One of the first was Youngyooth Thongkonthun's Iron Ladies, or Satree lek, based on a true story about a transgender gay men's volleyball team that won a national championship in 1996. It was a huge hit on the international festival circuit. The 2000 comedy spawned a sequel in 2003, The Iron Ladies 2 (Satree lek 2).
More loosely based on a true incident was the 2002 film Saving Private Tootsie, which tells the story of a group of gay and kathoey entertainers who are lost in rebel-held jungle territory after their plane crashes. A squad from the Thai army, led by a gruff, homophobic sergeant played by veteran actor Sorapong Chatree, goes to the rescue.
And the life of transgender Muay Thai champion Parinya Kiatbusaba (or Nong Tum) is related in 2003's Beautiful Boxer, directed by Ekachai Uekorngtham. Unlike The Iron Ladies, Beautiful Boxer was less comedic in tone.
The 2003 film Tropical Malady, directed by Apichatpong Weerasethakul, depicts a romance between a Thai army soldier and a local small-town boy. The narrative of the film then abruptly shifts in the middle to relate a folk tale about a tiger shaman, with the soldier alone in the jungle, haunted by the tiger-shaman's spirit. The film won a jury prize at the Cannes Film Festival.
Apichatpong also co-directed the low-budget digital movie, The Adventure of Iron Pussy, with artist Michael Shaowanasai, who portrays a transgender secret agent. A musical, the movie also was an homage and a parody of the Thai films of the 1960s and '70s, with Shaowansai basing his character on the actress Petchara Chaowarat.
In 2005, Thai film Rainbow Boys, depicting a contemporary gay relationship, produced by Vitaya Saeng-aroon, saw a limited-release screening. Vitaya also produced the comedy-drama Club M2, set in a gay sauna. And in 2006 there was The Last Song, a remake of a 1985 Thai film about a transsexual cabaret dancer and her struggle to find acceptance and true love.
Me ... Myself ( or Kaw hai rak jong jaroen) is a 2007 Thai romantic drama film written and directed by actor-singer Pongpat Wachirabunjong. In the film, Ananda Everingham stars as a male dancer in a drag cabaret who must re-find himself after being struck by a car and suffering from amnesia.
Another 2007 film, Bangkok Love Story, directed by Poj Arnon, was critically hailed as a departure from the stereotyped view of homosexuals as transvestites.
Gay Thai independent film producer similarly praised the film, saying director Poj Arnon was "brave enough to shake society up".
In 2011, Thanwarin Sukhaphisit's Insects in the Backyard, a movie depicting the struggles of a family in which a transgender teenage son and daughter's lives are tormented by a lack of communication and an inability to communicate with their biological father to the point that they end up selling their bodies looking, very much in vain, for a way out of their own lives, became the first film to receive the Haw Heep rating, which banned the distribution and showing of the film. There is one scene which the national board of film reviewers deemed to be pornographic in nature and therefore determined in an impediment to national order.
In 2012, Thanwarin's It Gets Better is marketed to a more mainstream audience, and was admitted by the film committee. The film portrays the story of a young boy whose father forces him to become a monk after he catches him wearing his mother's clothes and dancing around effeminately in his room. At first the boy resists, but is then captivated by the beauty of the monk who comes out of the temple, and so immediately changes his mind. The story runs alongside two other narratives, one of a man returned to Thailand to sell his father's business and the other of a woman whose purpose seems unclear throughout the story until the very end. We find out that the monk is the woman, who has come back to see her father but is killed by a thief before she can make amends with him. It turns out the bar/dance club was hers and her death is the reason for her son's return to Thailand; his father's identity was kept from him his whole life, but after he learns everything from his biological father's office, he goes to see his grandfather and the story ends.
Historical epics
Another staple of the Thai film industry, among the biggest was 2003's The Legend of Suriyothai by Chatrichalerm Yukol, who had done research for many years to write the screenplay. With a huge budget, support from the royal family and the cooperation across the nation's film industry, this film is considered a true "national film". A follow-up epic is 2007's King Naresuan, about 16th century ruler King Naresuan the Great, which topped the budget for Suriyothai, and was shown in two parts.
Other epics include Bang Rajan by Thanit Jitnukul, who has made several other historical battle epics, including Sema: Warrior of Ayutthaya and Kun Pan: Legend of the Warlord.
More recent history is depicted in The Overture, covering the life of a palace musician from the late 19th century to the 1940s, and The Tin Mine, set at a mine in southern Thailand in the 1950s.
Horror
Many of the Thai early horror movies such as 1958 Mae Nak Phra Khanong and 1973 movie Krasue Sao (Ghosts of Guts Eater), , featured Mae Nak and Krasue, ancient village ghosts of Thai folklore that became very popular.
Nonzee Nimibutr's Nang Nak in 1999 was a ghost story based on the same folkloric theme that had been depicted dozens of times throughout the history of Thai cinema and television. But it gave rise to a new crop of Thai horror and suspense films, including the Pang Brothers' The Eye, Nonzee's pan-Asian compilation Three, Bangkok Haunted, directed by Pisuth Praesaeng-Iam and Oxide Pang and the 2004 box-office smash Shutter by Banjong Pisonthanakun and Parkpoom Wongpoom.
In 2013, Pee Mak Phra Khanong, another spin-off from Mae Nak folklore, became an instant hit throughout Southeast Asia, earning more than ฿1 billion. Pee Mak is currently the highest grossing Thai film in the history of Thai cinema.
Examples of slasher movies include Art of the Devil and a 2005 sequel (Long khong), as well as Scared and Narok (Hell), also in 2005.
The horror genre also has spawned a number of genre-blending horror comedies, most notably the films of Yuthlert Sippapak, Buppah Rahtree (featured at the Toronto International Film Festival) and a sequel, and Krasue Valentine. There has even been a zombie movie, 2004's SARS Wars.
Musicals
The biggest hit musical was 1970's Monrak luk thung (Magical Love in the Countryside), starring Mitr Chaibancha and Petchara Chaowarat. It was hugely popular, playing in cinemas for six months.
As a result, a whole genre of luk thung musicals, rhapsodizing Thailand's rural life in Isan was created. Another example was Dokdin Kanyamarn's 1971 musical comedy, Ai Tui (Mr. Tui), which starred Sombat Metanee and Petchara.
In 2001 there were two movies that celebrated luk thung, the singing-contest comedy Monpleng Luk Thung FM (Hoedown Showdown) and Pen-Ek Ratanaruang's, Monrak Transistor, which paid tribute to the music of Suraphol Sombatcharoen. And in 2005, comedian-actor-director Petchtai Wongkamlao wrote, directed and starred in Yam Yasothon, a colourful homage to the 1970s musicals. It was one of top films at the Thai box office.
Romance
Weepy, sentimental romance stories are audience favorites. Historically, Cherd Songsri's 1970s film Plae Chow (The Old Scar) is a classic tale of star-crossed lovers, and was one of the first Thai films to be a success internationally.
During the 1980s, Baan Sai Thong based on the novel Kor Surangkanang was a popular hit. More recent examples include The Letter, in which tissues were actually handed out at the cinemas.
Childhood romance was a hit with 2003's Fan Chan, which was made by six directors. One of the six, Komgrit Treewimol, went on to make the college-age romance, Dear Dakanda, a hit in 2005, but took three years to completely write, cast, film, and tweak.
Today, the romcom genre dominates the Thai cinema industry with the majority of the films are produced and distributed by GMM Grammy's GTH and GDH 559 with films like Hormones, Hello Stranger, I Fine..Thank You..Love You, Heart Attack and under GDH One Day by Banjong Pisanthanakun.
Teen
As a genre, teen films arose in the 1970s, with director Piak Poster's Wai Ounlawon, about a young man whose courtship of a teenage girl puts him at odds with the girl's irascible father. That young couple, portrayed by the original actors, were revisited 30 years later as embattled parents in the 2005 sequel, Wai Ounlawon 4 (Oops ... There's Dad).
Music was an important component of the teen films, with a musical interlude featured prominently in the film and a soundtrack album that would be a popular hit. This was the case with both Wai Ounlawon and its recent sequel.
Another noteworthy film of this genre is Fake, which was the debut film by Thanakorn Pongsuwan. The film's modern, visual style offers a sharp-focus snapshot of the city of Bangkok and a plausible account of the mating game in its current forms.
Short films
In the burgeoning independent film movement, many short films are being produced and featured in festivals. Graceland, a film by Anocha Suwichakornpong, about an Elvis impersonator, was featured in the Cinéfondation competition at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival. It was the first Thai short film selected at Cannes. Short-film festivals in Thailand include the Thai Short Film and Video Festival by the Thai Film Foundation and the Fat Film Festival by Fat Radio. Thai short-film programs are also put together for the Bangkok International Film Festival and the World Film Festival of Bangkok. for the past two years CNXWOOD Studios has co-sponsor a Film Festival, in the northern city of Chiang Mai in conjunction with Creative Kingdom Animation Studios Film.
Pen-ek Ratanaruang's Twelve Twenty (30 min) was made as part of the Digital Short Films by Three Filmmakers project for the 2006 Jeonju International Film Festival. The film stars Ananda Everingham, has an appearance by American bilingual actor Erich Fleshman, and was shot by Christopher Doyle. The short film is shot in a minimalist style and slowly moves along the encounters of a man and a woman on a long-haul flight, where they spend the next 12 hours and 20 minutes reading, drinking, eating and watching movies and sleeping by each other's side without talking.
In 2007, Digital Forum by Thai Film Foundation, Festival for a digital long-film
Foreign co-productions
While Thailand has a relatively vibrant filmmaking scene, Thai production companies rarely does co-productions in the country though there has been an increase in the number of Thai-foreign co-productions since the 21st century. Notable films include the Hong Kong-co production The Pang Brothers' Bangkok Dangerous, Suddenly It's Magic, although a Filipino production, had starred popular Thai actors Mario Maurer and Pimchanok Luevisadpaibul, the internationally co-produced film by Apichatpong Weerasethakul, Memoria, and Banjong Pisanthanakun's The Medium, co-produced by South Korea's Na Hong-jin.
Festivals and awards
Film festivals
The Thai Short Film and Video Festival was first held in 1997. The Bangkok Film Festival was started in 1998, and was eventually supplanted by the Bangkok International Film Festival, which started in 2002 and is organized by the Tourism Authority of Thailand. The World Film Festival of Bangkok, sponsored by the Nation Multimedia Group, began in 2003, and it is held annually in October.
In 2007, Digital Forum was begun in Bangkok as an outgrowth of the Thai Short Film and Video Festival, to showcase feature-length independent digital-video productions. Also in 2007, the inaugural Phuket Film Festival was held. In 2008, the annual Phangan Film Festival (PFF) was established on Koh Phangan, with a focus on spiritual and environmental indie films from around the world. In 2009, PFF's sister event, the annual Samui Film Festival (SFF) took place for the first time on Koh Samui.
Film awards
The first film awards in Thailand were the "Golden Doll" awards given by Tukata Tong magazine. The awards were first given in 1957. The statuette at first was a Thai classical dancer and later it was modelled after Phra Suratsawadi, the Thai-Hindu god of art. King Bhumibol Adulyadej handed out the awards in 1965 and '66. The Tukata Tong awards were discontinued after eight years due to organizational problems, but were revived in 1974 by the Association of Entertainment News Journalists of Thailand.
The Thailand National Film Association Awards are organised by the National Federation of Motion Pictures and Contents Associations. The name of the award is the Subhanahongsa Award.
There is also the Bangkok Critics Assembly, which gives awards chosen by a panel of around 20 members, the Starpics Awards, given by Starpics magazine and the Kom Chad Luek Awards, given by Kom Chad Luek newspaper.
Key figures
Actors
Mitr Chaibancha – legendary Thai leading man of the 1960s and '70s, died while filming a stunt
Sombat Metanee – record-breaking Thai leading man from the 1960s and '70s
Tony Jaa – contemporary Thai action star, known for his hard-hitting stuntwork in Ong-Bak: Muay Thai Warrior and Tom-Yum-Goong
Mario Maurer – young actor of Chinese and German lineage, widely known in Asia for his performance in The Love of Siam
Sunny Suwanmethanont – contemporary Thai actor of French and Singaporean descent, widely known for his roles in I Fine..Thank You..Love You, Heart Attack and Happy Old Year
Actresses
Petchara Chaowarat – iconic leading lady of Thai films in the 1960s and '70s
Chutimon Chuengcharoensukying – contemporary young Thai actress, widely known for her roles in Bad Genius and Happy Old Year
Cinematographers
Ampornpol Yukol
Charnkit Chamnivikaipong
Phuttiphong Aroonpheng
Sayombhu Mukdeeprom – internationally known Thai cinematographer who worked with Apichatpong Weerasethakul and Italian filmmaker Luca Guadagnino.
Directors
Aditya Assarat – director of Wonderful Town and Hiso, won a Tiger Award at the 37th International Film Festival Rotterdam
Anocha Suwichakornpong – director of Mundane History'', won a Tiger Award at the 39th International Film Festival Rotterdam
Apichatpong Weerasethakul – avant-garde director, won three prizes at Cannes Film Festival, including Palme d'Or in 2010
Chatrichalerm Yukol – veteran director, maker of The Legend of Suriyothai and socially conscious films from the 1970s to the '90s
Cherd Songsri – one of the first Thai directors to make films with international audiences in mind
Nontawat Numbenchapol – director of By the River, won a Cineasti del Presente - Special Mention Award at the 67th Locarno International Film Festival
Nawapol Thamrongrattanarit – director of 36, won a New Currents Award and FIPRESCI (International Federation of Film Critics) Award at the 18th Busan International Film Festival
Nonzee Nimibutr – among the first directors in the late 1990s to re-energize the Thai film industry
Pen-Ek Ratanaruang – his films are frequently shown at major international film festivals
Rattana Pestonji – pioneering director; first Thai director to have a film in an international competition
Sivaroj Kongsakul – director of Eternity (ที่รัก), won a Tiger Award at the 40th International Film Festival Rotterdam
Thunska Pansittivorakul – director of Voodoo GirlsWichanon Somunjarn – director of In April the Following Year, There Was a Fire, nominated for the Tiger Award at the 2011 International Film Festival Rotterdam
Wisit Sasanatieng – director of Tears of the Black Tiger and Citizen Dog; also a noted screenwriter
Film editors
Patamanadda Yukol – eldest daughter of Chatrichalerm Yukol; worked with her father on The Legend of Suriyothai but is more noted for her work with Pen-Ek Ratanaruang on Fun Bar Karaoke, Monrak Transistor, Last Life in the Universe and Invisible WavesLee Chatametikool – worked with Apichatpong Weerasethakul on Blissfully Yours and Tropical MaladyProducers
Adirek Wattaleela – often credited simply as "Uncle", headed the now-shuttered Film Bangkok production house, which was behind such hits as Bangkok Dangerous and Tears of the Black Tiger; also a director, screenwriter, editors, and comic actor
Duangkamol Limcharoen – with Nonzee Nimibutr and Pen-Ek Ratanaruang, she founded the Cinemasia production marque and helped foster a trend of pan-Asian film production in Thailand; died in 2003
Mingmongkol Sonakul – independent director and producer; has handled Pen-Ek Ratanaruang's works including Invisible Waves and Twenty Twenty; worked closely with GTH on such projects as AlonePrachya Pinkaew – also the director of Ong-Bak and Tom-Yum-Goong; his Baa Ram Ewe production marque is seen on many Thai films
Somsak Techaratanaprasert – chief executive of Sahamongkol Film International; behind many hit films, including Ong-Bak: Muay Thai WarriorSoros Sukhum (known as Thongdee) – independent producer; partner of Song Sound Production and Mosquito Films; regarded as one of the most versatile and important independent producers working in Thailand; supports the new generation of Thai filmmakers including Aditya Assarat, Sivaroj Kongsakul, Anocha Suwichakornpong Nawapol Thamrongrattanarit, and Lee Chatametikool
Screenwriters
Kongdej Jaturanrasamee – writer on such films as Tom-Yum-Goong and Noo Hin: The MoviePrabda Yoon – worked with Pen-Ek Ratanaruang on Last Life in the Universe and Invisible WavesNotable Thai films
1923 - Miss Suwanna of Siam, though a Hollywood co-production, it's generally regarded as the first Thai film.
1927 - Chok Sorng Chan (Double Luck), the first all-Thai production.
1940 - King of the White Elephant, an English-language historical epic with an anti-war message, produced by Pridi Phanomyong.
1954 - Santi-Weena, the first Thai film to be entered in overseas competition (1954 Asia Pacific Film Festival in Tokyo).
1961 - Black Silk, the first Thai film in competition at the Berlin International Film Festival.
1970 - Monrak luk thung, starring Mitr Chaibancha and Petchara Chaowarat, was a hugely popular luk thung musical. It played in cinemas for six months.
1973 - Khao Chue Karn (Dr. Karn), directed by Chatrichalerm Yukol, it was nearly banned because of its controversial look at corruption in the Thai civil service.
1977 - Plae Kao (The Scar), directed by Cherd Songsri, it was the most successful Thai film at the box office of its day; also a prize-winner at the Three Continents Festival in Nantes, France.
1979 - The Adventure of Sudsakorn, the first full-length Thai animated cartoon feature, directed by Payut Ngaokrachang.
1985 - Butterfly and Flowers, an award-winning depiction of poverty along the Southern Thailand border, directed by Euthana Mukdasanit.
2000 - Tears of the Black Tiger (Fah Talai Jone), directed by Wisit Sasanatieng, it was the first Thai film to be included in the Cannes Film Festival programme.
2001 - The Legend of Suriyothai, Chatrichalerm's epic was the biggest film ever made in the Thai film industry.
2002 - Blissfully Yours, directed by Apichatpong Weerasethakul, won the Un Certain Regard Prize at the Cannes Film Festival.
2002 - Butterfly Man, directed by Kaprice Kea, won two awards, Best Actress Napakpapha Nakprasitte, Best Cinematography Mark Duffield at the Slamdunk Film Festival in 2003.
2003 - Tropical Malady, by Apichatpong Weerasethakul, was awarded a jury prize in the main competition at the Cannes Film Festival.
2004 - The Overture, by Ittisoontorn Vichailak, was awarded several awards in Thailand and was the country's official selection for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.
2006 - Dek hor, by Songyos Sugmakanan, was awarded Crystal Bear Award at the Berlin Film Festival.
2007 - Wonderful Town, by Aditya Assarat, was awarded a Special Jury Award at the Las Palmas Film Festival and won Tiger Award at Rotterdam International Film Festival.
2008 - Ploy, by Pen-Ek Ratanaruang, was premiered during the Directors' Fortnight at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival.
2010 - Uncle Boonmee Who Can Recall His Past Lives, by Apichatpong Weerasethakul is the first Thai film to be awarded Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival, the first Asian film since 1997.
2013 - Pee Mak Phra Khanong, by Banjong Pisanthanakun. Pee Mak has earned more than 1 billion baht ($33 million) in revenue worldwide (mostly in Asia), and is currently the highest-grossing Thai film of all time.
2017 - Bad Genius, by Nattawut Poonpiriya. Bad Genius has made 112.15 million baht ($3.3 million), making it the highest-grossing Thai film of 2017.
See also
Lakorn
Further reading
Richardson, Thomas (1994). A conversation with Khun Dome Sukwong (archivist at Thai Film Foundation), Cornell University (retrieved via Internet Archive).
Stephens, Chuck (May 30, 2003). "Songs and snake oil". The Guardian.
Chaiworaporn, Anchalee (April 11, 2006)."New Thai Cinema". "Fipresci".
Williamson, Robert (March 11, 2005). "Thai cinema: Sustainable development or imminent decline?". Thai Film Foundation.
Pansittivorakul, Thunska (April 29, 2006). "A Conversation with the editors of Bioscope Magazine" . Criticine.
Pansittivorakul, Thunska (April 29, 2006). "A Conversation with Kong Rithdee" . Criticine.
Hunt, Matthew (October 2012) "Thai Movie Censorship. "Encounter Thailand".
Introduction: Considering Thai National Cinema, a 351-page article from Murdoch University
References
Boonyaketmala, Boonrak (January 23, 2006) "The rippling waves of new cinema", International Herald Tribune/ThaiDay. Retrieved March 17, 2006.
Chaiworaporn, Anchalee. "A Brief History of Cinema in Thailand", FIPRESCI, updated April 11, 2006.
Fleshman, Erich (2005) A Brief History of Thai Cinema, Notes from Hollywood. Retrieved December 23, 2005.
Richardson, Thomas (1993), Thai Film Timeline (retrieved March 19, 2007).
Rithdee, Kong (2005) Fallen idols, Bangkok Post. Retrieved December 23, 2005.
Sukwong, Dome and Suwannapak, Sawasdi. A Century of Thai Cinema'', Thames and Hudson, 2001.
Notes
External links
Top 10 Thai Movie List reviews and previews of the top 10 Thai movies recommended for foreigners
Thailisting List of movie showtime listing in Siam area.
Thai films at the Internet Movie Database – Links to index of the Thai-language titles
Thai Film Database
Thailand box office results at Box Office Mojo
MovieSeer – English and Thai movie listings and synopses
Thai Film Foundation – National Film Archive companion website
ThaiCinema.org – Thai and English news and reviews
2007 movie release schedule – At the Pantip.com portal; to navigate to different years, change the date in the URL.
Chalermthai archives – Pantip.com's Thai movie synopses and photos
Deknang – News, forum and galleries
CinemaThai – English-language reviews and photo galleries
Thai Cinema at Thai World View – Images and English-language content
Thai film reviews at Hong Kong Cinema – View from the Brooklyn Bridge
Criticine Thailand – Thailand page of Southeast Asian Cinema journal Criticine |
4333796 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307%20in%20Scottish%20football | 2006–07 in Scottish football | The 2006–07 season was the 110th season of competitive football in Scotland.
Notable events
2006
9 July: Rangers defender Fernando Ricksen is banned for the club's pre-season trip to South Africa, following an incident on the outbound flight. Manager Paul Le Guen cited "wholly inappropriate and unacceptable" behaviour as the reason for Ricksen's omission. Ricksen later admitted that he fears for his future at Rangers claiming that the club have other motives for wanting him out. He was later loaned to Russian Premier League club Zenit Saint Petersburg.
29 July: Scotland under-19s lose 2–1 to Spain in the final of the European Under-19 Football Championship.
23 October: In the wake of their 2–0 home defeat to Kilmarnock, Hearts head coach Valdas Ivanauskas is given a two-week leave of absence after discussions with majority shareholder Vladimir Romanov. Ivanauskas cited ill-health as the reason for his temporary departure. Sporting Director, and former coach of Belarus, Eduard Malofeev is appointed for the interim.
27 October: Hearts' majority shareholder Vladimir Romanov states that he will sell players if the club fail to beat Dunfermline Athletic in their forthcoming fixture. Club captain Steven Pressley released a statement shortly after expressing the players' discontent at the current situation at the club.
14 November: After their 1–1 draw away at Falkirk, Hearts announce that interim head coach Eduard Malofeev is to be replaced by FBK Kaunas manager Eugenijus Riabovas, this is to allow Malofeev to pursue his Uefa coaching Pro-licence.
24 November: Valdas Ivanauskas returns as Hearts head-coach.
9 December: Hearts part company with captain Steven Pressley.
20 December: Dundee part company with striker Andy McLaren after he was given three red cards in a 2–1 defeat to Clyde.
2007
1 January: It is reported that Barry Ferguson has been stripped of the captaincy of Rangers and will not play for the club again under Paul Le Guen. Gavin Rae is appointed as the new captain.
2 January: Paul Le Guen confirms that Gavin Rae will be the new Rangers captain. With regard to Barry Ferguson he stated "When you have someone you feel undermines you, it becomes harder and harder". Asked whether Ferguson had been placed on the transfer list, Le Guen said "It remains to be seen. My own position, which is precarious, may have an influence on that."
4 January: Paul Le Guen leaves Rangers by mutual consent after meeting with Rangers chairman Sir David Murray.
8 January: The Scottish Football Association reject an approach from Rangers for manager Walter Smith. A statement from the SFA revealed that Smith had requested to be relieved of his contract, however this was refused following a meeting.
10 January: Walter Smith is confirmed as Rangers manager, having resigned from his position as Scotland manager. The SFA release a statement stating that "No agreement has been reached with Mr Smith or Rangers Football Club on any compensation payment" and "In the absence of agreement, proceedings will require to be raised against Mr Smith for breach of contract and Rangers Football Club for inducement to breach the contract."
11 January: The SFA agree a compensation package with Rangers over manager Walter Smith's switch to Ibrox.
2 March: For the second time of the season, Hearts manager Valdas Ivanauskas is given leave of absence by the club. Sporting Director, and former CSKA Moscow player Anatoly Korobochka is appointed on a temporary basis.
18 March: Hibernian win the Scottish League Cup, defeating Kilmarnock 5–1 in the final.
7 April: Second Division team Forfar Athletic become the first team in Scotland to confirm their relegation following a 9–1 defeat by Greenock Morton.
14 April: Greenock Morton are promoted as champions of the Second Division, despite losing 2–0 to Raith Rovers.
21 April: Berwick Rangers are promoted as champions of the Third Division after a 1–0 win over Arbroath.
22 April: Celtic are crowned Scottish Premier League champions for the second successive season after defeating Kilmarnock 2–1.
28 April: Gretna win promotion to the Premier League as First Division champions after beating Ross County 3–2 at Victoria Park, a result that relegated County to the Second Division.
3 May: East Stirlingshire, having finished bottom of the Third Division for the fifth consecutive season, are told they will lose full member status if the club finish bottom again next season.
5 May: Rangers ensure second place in the SPL and entry to the UEFA Champions League Second qualifying round after defeating Celtic 2–0 at Ibrox.
12 May: Queen's Park gain promotion to the Second Division after defeating East Fife 7–2 on aggregate in the promotion play-off. The Glasgow club swap places with Stranraer who lost to East Fife in the semi-final stage.
12 May: Stirling Albion gain promotion to the First Division, and swap places with Airdrie United, after defeating the North Lanarkshire club 5–4 on aggregate in the promotion/relegation play-off match
12 May: Dunfermline Athletic are relegated to the First Division. A 2–1 defeat at Inverness, coupled with St Mirren's 3–2 win at Motherwell, meant the Fife club exit the SPL after seven seasons in the top flight.
16 May: Sevilla win the UEFA Cup after defeating Espanyol 3–1 on penalties at Hampden Park. The match had finished 2–2 after 90 minutes.
20 May: Aberdeen seal a UEFA Cup place for next season after defeating Rangers 2–0 at Pittodrie in the final game of the season.
26 May: SPL champions Celtic complete the double after defeating Dunfermline Athletic 1–0 to win the Scottish Cup for the 34th time.
Major transfer deals
2006
Celtic made preparations for the Champions League with the high-profile signings of Jan Vennegoor of Hesselink from PSV Eindhoven, Jiri Jarosik from Chelsea and Thomas Gravesen from Real Madrid while Stilyan Petrov left to join former boss Martin O'Neill at Aston Villa. Celtic also signed former Rangers striker Kenny Miller on a free transfer from Wolverhampton Wanderers. Rangers, under new manager Paul Le Guen, brought in several players including Jérémy Clément from Paris Saint Germain and Filip Sebo from Austria Vienna while Peter Løvenkrands departed for Schalke 04. Hearts paid £200,000 for PAOK Salonika defender Hristos Karipidis and sold Rudi Skácel to Southampton after a dispute between the player and the club. Hibs brought in English League Two defenders Rob Jones and Shelton Martis but lost last season's top scorer Derek Riordan who joined Celtic.
Domestic
20 June 2006 – Noel Hunt from Dunfermline Athletic to Dundee United, £50,000
23 June 2006 – Derek Riordan from Hibernian to Celtic, Undisclosed (reportedly £150,000)
1 July 2006 – Gary Caldwell from Hibernian to Celtic, Bosman
11 July 2006 – Ross McCormack from Rangers to Motherwell, Undisclosed
13 July 2006 – John Rankin from Ross County to Inverness CT, Undisclosed (reportedly £65,000)
11 August 2006 – David Proctor from Inverness CT to Dundee United, £35,000
19 August 2006 – David Fernández from Dundee United to Kilmarnock, Free
29 August 2006 – Jim Hamilton from Motherwell to Dunfermline Athletic, Undisclosed
31 August 2006 – Stephen Crawford from Aberdeen to Dunfermline Athletic, Free
31 August 2006 – John Stewart from Aberdeen to Falkirk, £50,000
31 August 2006 – Lee Miller from Dundee United to Aberdeen, Free
In
16 May 2006 – Libor Sionko from Austria Vienna to Rangers, Bosman
26 May 2006 – Karl Svensson from IFK Göteborg to Rangers, Undisclosed (reportedly £600,000)
8 June 2006 – Rob Jones from Grimsby Town to Hibernian, £100,000
16 June 2006 – Lionel Letizi from Paris Saint-Germain to Rangers, Free
19 June 2006 – Jiri Jarosik from Chelsea to Celtic, Undisclosed (reportedly £2m)
1 July 2006 – Kenny Miller from Wolverhampton Wanderers to Celtic, Bosman
7 July 2006 – Jérémy Clément from Olympique Lyonnais to Rangers, £1.1m
15 July 2006 – Makhtar N'Diaye from Unattached to Rangers, Free
28 July 2006 – Mauricio Pinilla from Sporting Lisbon to Heart of Midlothian, Season loan
1 August 2006 – Graham Barrett from Unattached to Falkirk, Free
1 August 2006 – Colin McMenamin from Shrewsbury Town to Gretna, Free
2 August 2006 – Christian Kalvenes from SK Brann to Dundee United, Free
2 August 2006 – Joe Hamill from Leicester City to Livingston, Free
3 August 2006 – Hristos Karipidis from PAOK Salonika to Heart of Midlothian, £200,000
3 August 2006 – Filip Sebo from Austria Wien to Rangers, £1.8m
4 August 2006 – Tiago Costa from Benfica to Heart of Midlothian, Free
11 August 2006 – Lee Martin from Manchester United to Rangers, Loan
11 August 2006 – Merouane Zemmama from Raja Casablanca to Hibernian, Free
14 August 2006 – Shelton Martis from Darlington to Hibernian, Free
15 August 2006 – Marius Zaliukas from FBK Kaunas to Heart of Midlothian, Loan
16 August 2006 – Phil Bardsley from Manchester United to Rangers, Loan
24 August 2006 – Lee Naylor from Wolverhampton Wanderers to Celtic, £600,000 (including Charles Mulgrew in exchange)
24 August 2006 – Jan Vennegoor of Hesselink from PSV Eindhoven to Celtic, £3.4m
29 August 2006 – Kęstutis Ivaškevičius from FBK Kaunas to Heart of Midlothian, Season loan
29 August 2006 – Andrius Velicka from FBK Kaunas to Heart of Midlothian, Season loan
29 August 2006 – Anthony Stokes from Arsenal to Falkirk, Loan
30 August 2006 – Thomas Gravesen from Real Madrid to Celtic, £2m
31 August 2006 – Saša Papac from Austria Wien to Rangers, £450,000
10 October 2006 – Lee Wilkie from Unattached to Dundee United, Free
Out
23 May 2006 – Peter Løvenkrands from Rangers to Schalke 04, Bosman
2 June 2006 – David McNamee from Livingston to Coventry City, £100,000
26 June 2006 – John Hartson from Celtic to West Bromwich Albion, Undisclosed
30 June 2006 – Steven Hammell from Motherwell to Southend United, Bosman
1 July 2006 – Kevin McNaughton from Aberdeen to Cardiff City, Bosman
29 July 2006 – Rudolf Skácel from Heart of Midlothian to Southampton, £1.6m
2 August 2006 – Jamie McAllister from Heart of Midlothian to Bristol City, Free
2 August 2006 – Chris Hackett from Heart of Midlothian to Millwall, Free
7 August 2006 – Adam Virgo from Celtic to Coventry City, Season loan
9 August 2006 – Lee Johnson from Heart of Midlothian to Bristol City, Free
11 August 2006 – Mohammed Camara from Celtic to Derby County, Free
14 August 2006 – Fernando Ricksen from Rangers to Zenit Saint Petersburg, Season loan
26 August 2006 – Hamed Namouchi from Rangers to FC Lorient, £500,000
30 August 2006 – Stilian Petrov from Celtic to Aston Villa, £6.5m
31 August 2006 – Stanislav Varga from Celtic to Sunderland, Undisclosed
31 August 2006 – Ross Wallace from Celtic to Sunderland, Undisclosed
28 November 2006 – Fernando Ricksen from Rangers to Zenit Saint Petersburg, £1m
2007
Celtic further strengthened their squad with the signings of Paul Hartley from Hearts and Mark Brown from Inverness, while Steven Pressley was also signed after being released by Hearts. Shaun Maloney joined Aston Villa after contract negotiations broke down. New Rangers manager Walter Smith brought in defenders David Weir, Andy Webster and Ugo Ehiogu and spent £2m on Hibs' highly rated midfielder Kevin Thomson. Hearts looked to boost their European qualification hopes with the signing of a further four players on loan from FBK Kaunas as well as Laryea Kingston from Terek Grozny. New Dunfermline boss Stephen Kenny brought in loan signings James O'Brien from Celtic, Adam Hammill from Liverpool and Stephen Glass from Hibs with the club bottom of the SPL.
Domestic
1 January 2007 – Morgaro Gomis from Cowdenbeath to Dundee United, Nominal fee
2 January 2007 – Ryan Stevenson from St Johnstone to Ayr United, Undisclosed
5 January 2007 – James O'Brien from Celtic to Dunfermline Athletic, Loan
6 January 2007 – Stephen Dobbie from St Johnstone to Queen of the South, Undisclosed
8 January 2007 – David Templeton from Stenhousemuir to Heart of Midlothian, £30,000
11 January 2007 – Markus Paatelainen from Cowdenbeath to Inverness Caledonian Thistle, Undisclosed
11 January 2007 – Paul McHale from Clyde to Dundee, Free
18 January 2007 – Mark Brown from Inverness Caledonian Thistle to Celtic, Undisclosed
19 January 2007 – Derek Carcary from Rangers to Raith Rovers, Free
25 January 2007 – Stephen Glass from Hibernian to Dunfermline Athletic, Loan
26 January 2007 – Stuart Golabek from Inverness Caledonian Thistle to Livingston, Loan
26 January 2007 – Derek Lilley from Morton to St Johnstone, Free
26 January 2007 – Jamie Mole from Heart of Midlothian to Livingston, Loan
26 January 2007 – Matthew Doherty from Heart of Midlothian to Cowdenbeath, Loan
26 January 2007 – Jamie MacDonald from Heart of Midlothian to Queen of the South, Loan
27 January 2007 – Willie Gibson from Queen of the South to Kilmarnock, Undisclosed
27 January 2007 – Willie Gibson from Kilmarnock to Queen of the South, Loan
27 January 2007 – Stevie Murray from Kilmarnock to Queen of the South, Loan
27 January 2007 – Jamie Adams from Kilmarnock to Queen of the South, Loan
30 January 2007 – Kevin Thomson from Hibernian to Rangers, £2m
31 January 2007 – Stephen O'Donnell from Clyde to St Mirren, Undisclosed
31 January 2007 – Eddie Malone from Clyde to St Mirren, Undisclosed
31 January 2007 – Kyle Macaulay from Aberdeen to Peterhead, Undisclosed
31 January 2007 – Paul Hartley from Heart of Midlothian to Celtic, Undisclosed
31 January 2007 – Alan Archibald from Dundee United to Partick Thistle, Free
31 January 2007 – Robert Snodgrass from Livingston to Stirling Albion, Loan
31 January 2007 – Steve Tosh from Gretna to Queen of the South, Free
6 March 2007 – Zbigniew Malkowski from Hibernian to Gretna, Loan
In
1 January 2007 – Steven Pressley from Unattached to Celtic, Free
1 January 2007 – Craig Brewster from Unattached to Aberdeen, Free
1 January 2007 – Dean Holden from Peterborough United to Falkirk, Undisclosed
1 January 2007 – Danny Murphy from Cork City to Motherwell, Undisclosed
1 January 2007 – Trevor Molloy from St Patrick's Athletic to Motherwell, Undisclosed
1 January 2007 – Paul Keegan from St Patrick's Athletic to Motherwell, Undisclosed
1 January 2007 – Mark McChrystal from Derry City to Partick Thistle, Undisclosed
1 January 2007 – Derek McInnes from Millwall to St Johnstone, Free
3 January 2007 – Dumitru Copil from Atletico Arad to Heart of Midlothian, Free
5 January 2007 – Andrew Webster from Wigan Athletic to Rangers, Loan
5 January 2007 – Jon Daly from Hartlepool United to Dundee United, Undisclosed
6 January 2007 – Eduardas Kurskis from FBK Kaunas to Heart of Midlothian, Undisclosed
6 January 2007 – Arkadiusz Klimek from FBK Kaunas to Heart of Midlothian, Undisclosed
9 January 2007 – Steven Hogg from Shrewsbury Town to Gretna, Loan
11 January 2007 – Sean Dillon from Shelbourne to Dundee United, Undisclosed
11 January 2007 – Momo Sylla from Leicester City to Kilmarnock, Free
11 January 2007 – Kasper Schmeichel from Manchester City to Falkirk, Loan
11 January 2007 – Kevin Smith from Sunderland to Dundee, Free
13 January 2007 – Bobby Ryan from Shelbourne to Dunfermline Athletic, Undisclosed
16 January 2007 – David Weir from Everton to Rangers, Free
18 January 2007 – Adam Hammill from Liverpool to Dunfermline Athletic, Loan
19 January 2007 – Filipe Morais from Millwall to St Johnstone, Loan
25 January 2007 – Ugo Ehiogu from Middlesbrough to Rangers, Free
25 January 2007 – Jean-Joël Perrier-Doumbé from Stade Rennais to Celtic, Loan
27 January 2007 – Jamie Harris from Shelbourne to Dunfermline Athletic, Free
30 January 2007 – Kevin Thomson from Hibernian to Rangers, £2m
31 January 2007 – Krisztian Vadocz from Auxerre to Motherwell, Loan
31 January 2007 – Linas Pilibaitis from FBK Kaunas to Heart of Midlothian, Loan
31 January 2007 – Tomas Kancelskis from FBK Kaunas to Heart of Midlothian, Loan
31 January 2007 – Laryea Kingston from Terek Grozny to Heart of Midlothian, Loan
6 February 2007 – Thomas Sowunmi from Unattached to Hibernian, Free
14 March 2007 – Shana Haji from Real Zaragoza to Hibernian, Free
Out
1 January 2007 – Moses Ashikodi from Rangers to Watford, Nominal fee
11 January 2007 – Stephen Pearson from Celtic to Derby County, £750,000
11 January 2007 – Julien Rodriguez from Rangers to Olympique de Marseille, Free
12 January 2007 – Alan Thompson from Celtic to Leeds United, Loan
17 January 2007 – David Marshall from Celtic to Norwich City, Loan
22 January 2007 – Oumar Konde from Hibernian to Panionios, Undisclosed
23 January 2007 – Dany N'Guessan from Rangers to Lincoln City, Free
25 January 2007 – Jérémy Clément from Rangers to Paris Saint-Germain, £1.8m
30 January 2007 – Lionel Letizi from Rangers to OGC Nice, Free
31 January 2007 – Richie Foran from Motherwell to Southend United, £200,000
31 January 2007 – Simon Lappin from St Mirren to Norwich City, £100,000
31 January 2007 – Kenny Deuchar from Gretna to Northampton Town, Loan
31 January 2007 – Shaun Maloney from Celtic to Aston Villa, £1m
Managerial changes
League competitions
Scottish Premier League
Scottish First Division
Scottish Second Division
Scottish Third Division
Cup honours
Non-league honours
Senior honours
Junior honours
West Region
East Region
North Region
Individual honours
SPFA awards
SWFA awards
Scottish clubs in Europe
Summary
Average coefficient – 6.750
Celtic
Heart of Midlothian
Rangers
Gretna
Hibernian
Scotland national team
Key
(H) = Home match
(A) = Away match
ECQ(B) = European Championship qualifying (Group B)
Deaths
18 July: Jimmy Leadbetter, 78, Ipswich Town winger.
21 July: Bert Slater, 70, Falkirk and Dundee goalkeeper.
5 November: Bobby Shearer, 74, Rangers, Hamilton and Scotland defender; Queen of the South manager.
13 May: Kai Johansen, 66, Morton and Rangers defender.
References
External links
Scottish Premier League official website
Scottish Football League official website
BBC Scottish Premier League portal
BBC Scottish Football League portal
Seasons in Scottish football |
4333827 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liturgical%20books%20of%20the%20Presbyterian%20Church%20%28USA%29 | Liturgical books of the Presbyterian Church (USA) | There have been several liturgical books used in the Presbyterian Church (USA). Presently, the primary liturgical book of the Presbyterian Church (USA) is The Book of Common Worship of 1993, published in cooperation with the Cumberland Presbyterian Church.
These books are not commonly used in the pews, but are resources for pastors in the preparation for Sunday worship, as well as for devotional use by church members and seminarians. Portions of these books are frequently found in the church bulletins, functioning as liturgical booklets in many Presbyterian churches.
The Presbyterian Service Book and The Directory For Worship
American Presbyterians have both a directory for worship and a service book. There is often a confusion over the distinction between the two, and over the role of each. A "Directory for Worship" is a part of the constitution of the church and thus has the authority of church law. It provides the theology that undergirds worship, and includes appropriate directions for worship. It sets forth the standards and the norms for the ordering of worship. It does have fixed orders of worship or liturgical texts.
The church's service book, on the other hand, provides orders and texts for worship. It is in harmony with the directory and is approved for voluntary use. Where both a directory and a service book coexist, as in those churches served by the Book of Common Worship (1993), the service book sets forth, in orders of services and in liturgical texts, the theology and norms described in the directory. Service books have a longer history in the Reformed tradition than directories, and most churches in the Reformed community do not have directories but do have service books.
Service books of the 16th and 17th centuries
Reformed churches in the sixteenth century used service books. Ulrich Zwingli, Martin Bucer, and John Calvin all prepared worship forms for use in the congregations. John Knox, following Calvin, prepared The Forme of Prayers and subsequently a service book, the Book of Common Order, for use in Scotland. Liturgical forms were in general use in Switzerland, Germany, France, Italy, Holland, England, and Scotland.
However, the Reformation in England and Scotland after the death of Thomas Cranmer was formed in a very different context from that on the continent, where entire political entities were Reformed. The Reformed were thus able to prepare their own service books without interference. In England and Scotland those seeking to carry the reform from the continent had the difficult task of reforming within a state church hostile to Genevan-inspired reform. Even after the Scottish kirk was reformed under John Knox, it continued to endure English political and religious pressures, resulting in bitter conflict with the English crown.
As the contending party in a state church, the Puritans were vulnerable. The liberty of the church to order its life and worship in harmony with the Word of God was threatened. The Puritans felt under attack by both church and nation. It was in worship that the conflict raged. The Puritans’ struggle for liberty put them in direct conflict with those who had power to legislate the content of the service book and to require its use. Initially, the Puritan conflict was not about opposition to the propriety and use of a service book.
The Puritans proposed their own service books. Rather, the conflict was about a service book that was being imposed upon the Puritans that did not reflect their concerns. The struggle ultimately drove the Puritans to join forces with the separatists. As a result, both the English Puritans and the Scots were forced into a more radical liturgical position than that of the reform on the continent, which did not have to face such issues. Whereas the Reformers were in a position to reform the forms of worship, the political and ecclesiastical situation compelled the Puritans, for the sake of liberty, to reject the forms thrust upon them.
It was in this context that the Westminster Directory for the Publique Worship of God, devoid of liturgical text, was created in 1644, under the influence of Puritans and separatists. This directory was destined to play the dominant role in shaping the worship of American Presbyterians. It was at this moment in history that Puritans and Scots settled in the New World. They were the nucleus that initially shaped American Presbyterianism. Puritan views thus dominated the way the church took root in American soil. Opposition to service books continued even though the Puritans were no longer engaged in a struggle for liberty. The agenda remained, even though the context had changed. American Presbyterians soon forgot why they opposed service books. What began as a struggle for liberty turned into a new legalism.
In keeping with their Puritan legacy, Presbyterians who settled in the New World chose to be served by a directory for worship rather than a service book. Colonial Presbyterians had the 1644 Westminster Directory available to them until, in 1788, the Westminster Directory was revised for use in the United States and subsequently adopted by the first General Assembly. Two generations after the first General Assembly, things began to change.
Service books in the 19th century
In the middle of the nineteenth century a movement emerged among American Presbyterians and other Reformed churches that sought to restore a liturgical tradition that was both Reformed and catholic, and thus to recover the values associated with use of a service book.
Individuals began to write service books for use by Presbyterians. Toward the end of the century, demand for such resources prompted the publishing house of the northern Presbyterians to produce collections of liturgical forms.
But it was the southern General Assembly that first extended official sanction to liturgical forms. In 1894 a directory for worship was adopted for use in the southern church that contained liturgical formulas, and liturgies for marriages and funerals were appended to it. Nine years later, the northern General Assembly was ready to respond positively to overtures calling for a book of services.
Book of Common Worship (1906)
In 1903, in response to the growing expression of a need for worship forms, the northern General Assembly approved overtures calling for the preparation of a book of services. The Book of Common Worship of 1906 became the first liturgical book of the Presbyterian Church in the United States. It was the result of overtures from the Synod of New York and the Presbytery of Denver. Henry Van Dyke was the chairperson of the committee charged with the publication of the book. Although American Presbyterians had a directory for worship to guide them in liturgical matters, the approval of a service book gave official recognition to the value of liturgical orders and texts in shaping worship.
The book relied heavily on the liturgical reforms of the Church of Scotland and incorporated much of the liturgical tradition from the Episcopal Book of Common Prayer.
It provided for celebrating Holy Communion and included liturgies for morning and evening worship services as well as ancient forms of Eucharistic prayers based on Eastern Orthodox liturgies. Prayers and texts were written for festivals and seasons of the liturgical year, which at the time of publication was not universally accepted in the Presbytery. Various orders were written for Baptism, Confirmation, Ordination, and other ordinances. For the first time, A Treasury of Prayers, a collection of ancient and contemporary prayers, was included. The prayers were drawn from within the Reformed tradition and from within the Church catholic. One such example was the use of the Prayer of St. John Chrysostom, a departure from the Reformed principles and a look into the pre-denominational period. Congregational participation was encouraged with the provision of responses and unison prayers. Finally, the book included an extensive selection from Psalms and Canticles; the latter's titles were given in Latin (Magnificat; Nunc Dimittis, Te Deum laudamus etc.), also a significant departure from the Reformed tradition.
Many Presbyterians were angered by what they felt was a loss of liberty in worship and criticized "canned prayers." In the General Assembly meeting to approve the book, one commissioner threw the book across the room and said, "Faugh! It smells of priestcraft." Another speaker responded, "This is not van Dyke's prayer book. It belongs to every member of the committee you appointed. It is not a liturgy. It's not a ritual. It does not contain 'canned' prayers. It contains great live prayers of our fathers. Are you going to tell the man who wants to use this book that he can't have it?"
Although not fully embraced, the 1906 edition paved the way for a continuing tradition of liberty in Presbyterian worship in America, balanced with written resources for worship.
Book of Common Worship (1932 and 1946)
By 1928, the 1906 edition began to appear dated. Responding to popular demand, the General Assembly appointed a 1929 committee chaired by Van Dyke to revise the Book of Common Worship. The revised edition was published in 1932 as the second liturgical book of the church and an expanded version of the 1906 publication.
During the course of the committee's work, Van Dyke addressed the critics of the 1906 edition: "We can see no force in the thoughtless opposition of such a book which is represented by the rather irreverent phrase, 'canned prayers.' The Bible and the service books of Calvin, Knox and the other reformers, all contain written forms of prayer. All our hymns are written. Yet no one is foolish and crude enough to protest against 'canned praise.' The effectual fervent prayer of a righteous man is acceptable though it be written."
Texts for additional festivals and seasons were added and rudimentary lectionary was included.
It is significant that the southern General Assembly approved it for use by its congregations, and when presented to the 1931 General Assembly, there were no speeches against 'canned prayers', and the book was unanimously approved. Van Dyke called The Book of Common Worship of 1932 "his last labor" of life before he died in 1933.
Several years later, the northern General Assembly established a permanent committee to monitor the liturgical needs of the church and to periodically propose revisions of the Book of Common Worship. This underscores the importance that the Office of the General Assembly gave to the service book at that time.
A thoroughgoing revision of the Book of Common Worship resulted in a third edition published in 1946. Those who prepared this book had the advantage of increasing ecumenical liturgical scholarship and of more knowledge about the worship of the Reformers. This edition of the service book provided for still greater congregational participation. It contained expanded resources for Sunday morning and Sunday evening worship and for the celebration of the Lord's Supper. The reading of scripture in worship was given emphasis by the addition of a complete two-year lectionary from the Church of Scotland's Book of Common Order, published in 1940. The liturgical year also received increased emphasis, with prayers included from the service books of other churches.
The Worshipbook (1970)
In 1955 the northern General Assembly called for another revision. As the committee appointed to revise the Book of Common Worship began its work, it was confronted with the great disparity between the Directory for Worship and the Book of Common Worship. The committee reported back to the assembly that it could not proceed until a new directory was adopted to replace the existing one, which for the northern church had remained virtually unchanged since its adoption nearly one hundred and seventy years earlier.
The southern Presbyterians joined with the northern church to produce the new service book but decided to prepare their own directory. Also joining the project was the United Presbyterian Church of North America, which in 1947 had published a book entitled The Manual for Worship, which included general guidelines for worship with some orders and liturgical texts. Before the new service book was completed, the United Presbyterian Church of North America had merged with the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. to form the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. The Cumberland Presbyterian Church also joined in the project to produce the new service book. The Cumberland Presbyterians later engaged in preparing a new Directory for Worship, which was approved by their General Assembly in 1984. Other Reformed churches participated in early phases of the development of a new Book of Common Worship.
Work resumed on a revised Book of Common Worship when in 1961 the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A., and in 1963 the Presbyterian Church in the U.S., adopted new directories. The committee distributed two trial use pieces prior to publication: one in 1964, another in 1966. In 1970 the service book was published with the title The Worshipbook—Services. Two years later it was published as part of The Worshipbook—Services and Hymns.
The contributions of The Worshipbook are noteworthy. As the first of a wave of new service books among American denominations, it broke new ground. It departed from Elizabethan English and began the search for a suitable contemporary style of language appropriate for the worship of God. It set forth with clarity that the norm of Christian worship on the Lord's Day is a service of the Word and Sacrament. Although six years earlier the committee had proposed a new lectionary, it recognized that the lectionary then being completed by the Roman Catholic Church was superior to the lectionary it had prepared. The committee therefore modified the Roman lectionary for use by Presbyterians and included it in the final publication of The Worshipbook. Other denominations also made revisions of the Roman lectionary.
But with all of its contributions, The Worshipbook was vulnerable. Following Vatican Council II there was a great resurgence of liturgical reform that continues unabated in virtually every branch of the church. Service book revision was begun by every church that had a service book. Presbyterians began to recognize the need to go beyond The Worshipbook. It was therefore no surprise that a new service book was soon called for.
Book of Common Worship (1993)
In 1980 the General Assembly of the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. approved an overture from the Presbytery of the Cascades calling for “a new book of services for corporate worship.” In adopting the overture, the General Assembly expressed the fervent hope that the new book would be “an instrument for the renewal of the church at its life-giving center.” Immediately the Presbyterian Church in the United States and the Cumberland Presbyterian Church approved participation in the project.
The process leading to a new service book called for the publication of trial-use resources prior to the finalization of the service book itself. Between 1984 and 1992 seven trial-use resources were published, each including proposed text for a portion of the service book:
The Service for the Lord's Day published in 1984.
Holy Baptism and Services for Renewal of Baptism published in 1985.
Christian Marriage published in 1982.
The Funeral: A Service of Witness to the Resurrection (published in 1986).
Daily Prayer published in 1987.
Services for Occasions of Pastoral Care published in 1990.
The Liturgical Year published in 1992.
The trial-use volumes were published under the series title: Supplemental Liturgical Resources. Each volume was prepared by a task force chosen for the task. From fifty to one hundred congregations were invited to review testing drafts of each of these resources prior to its approval for publication. Suggestions received from these evaluations greatly contributed to the preparation of the final drafts, and thus to their usefulness in the church. Following the publication of each volume, evaluations and suggestions were received. These responses, based on their use, were carefully considered and were a valuable aid in revising the liturgical texts for inclusion in this book. In revised form the liturgical texts of the seven trial-use resources are included in this book.
During the course of the development of this service book, the reunion in 1983 of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S. and the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. to form the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) occurred. This resulted in the preparation of a new Directory for Worship. In the years that followed reunion, until the adoption of the new Directory for Worship in 1989, the preparation of the directory and the development of the service book followed parallel tracks. Because the work was concurrent, there was a creative exchange between the two tasks. Each influenced the other. Appearing four years after the adoption of the revised Directory, the final Book of Common Worship is consistent with the provisions of the Directory.
This book does not include some liturgical resources that ordinarily are included in the previous service books, namely, ordinations, installations, and occasional services such as dedications. At the time of its publication, a major study on ordination is before the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.). This had precluded the finalization of an ordination rite. The decision was made to do as other churches have done and produce a book of occasional services separate from the Book of Common Worship, which would include additional liturgical resources needed by the church, such as ordinations, installations, dedications, and other occasional services, and liturgies needed by presbyteries to fulfill their responsibilities.
Book of Occasional Services
In 1999, the Geneva Press published for the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) a liturgical resource supplementing the 1993 Book of Common Worship, containing multiple services for ordination and installation, commissioning, dedications, marking transitions in congregations and governing bodies, together with additional prayers for various occasions.
Publications of books in the 20th century
Henry van Dyke and others were influential in the first publication of a liturgical book for American Presbyterians. It was published in 1906, followed by a revision in 1932. Other books have followed every few decades:
The Book of Common Worship of 1906
The Book of Common Worship of 1932
The Book of Common Worship of 1946
The Worshipbook of 1970
The Book of Common Worship of 1993
The Book of Common Worship of 2018
References
External links
Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) Office of Theology and Worship
The Book of Common Worship of 1906 on Open Library
Presbyterian Church (USA)
Presbyterianism in the United States
1906 non-fiction books
1906 in Christianity
1932 non-fiction books
1932 in Christianity |
4334292 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beavis%20and%20Butt-Head%3A%20The%20Mike%20Judge%20Collection | Beavis and Butt-Head: The Mike Judge Collection | Beavis and Butt-Head: The Mike Judge Collection is a series of three DVD box sets from MTV and Paramount Home Entertainment, each containing 40 Beavis and Butt-Head episodes chosen by series creator Mike Judge and special features such as interviews and music videos. The first entry in the series was released on November 8, 2005, while the final two volumes were released in 2006.
In 2007, a complete set of all three DVDs was released, which included the content from all three volumes as well as the film Beavis and Butt-Head Do America. In 2012, the set was reissued as a single DVD.
The Mike Judge Collection was also released in three volumes in UMD format for the PlayStation Portable. Due to the limited space of UMDs, the special features were removed and the number of episodes in each volume was reduced.
On February 14, 2017, MTV and Paramount released Beavis and Butt-Head: The Complete Collection, a 12-disc set containing all three previously released volumes of The Mike Judge Collection, along with a special collector's edition of Beavis and Butt-Head Do America.
Beavis and Butt-Heads return to DVD
In July 2005, reports began circulating on various websites that a banner found at that year's Comic-Con proclaimed that a new Beavis and Butt-Head DVD was coming. The news was promptly divulged by TVShowsOnDVD.com: a new Beavis and Butt-Head DVD would be released on November 8, 2005. The set was revealed to contain 40 episodes, including the director's cuts of certain episodes and some of the music video segments. Subsequent new reports revealed that 23 of the episodes would be director's cuts, 11 music videos would be on the set, and the set would contain promos, interviews, and the first part of a new interview entitled "Taint of Greatness: The Journey of Beavis and Butt-Head".
Music videos
Beavis and Butt-Head: The Mike Judge Collection is notable in that it is one of the few times that a home video release of the show has retained music video segments. All prior VHS and DVD releases have lacked these segments except for the VHS releases of Beavis and Butt-Head Do Christmas, Hard Cash, and Too Dumb for T.V., and the last disc of the second and last Time-Life set, presumably due to the difficulty involved in acquiring music rights for the videos. This last disc, entitled Hard Cash, appeared to have made room for four music videos since it contained half the episodes (one VHS worth) of most of the other volumes (typically the combination of content formerly occupying two VHS tapes).
Director's Cut
Some of the episodes on The Mike Judge Collection were changed and edited from the original. Those changes include both "Scene Cuts" and "Line Edits."
Volume 1
"No Laughing": Some of the duo's singing after they're told that they're suspended has been cut. The scene where the duo contemplates their punishment in the bathroom has been cut. The "Insect Court" (carbon copy from "Lawn and Garden") has been cut. Some of the dialogue being yelled at to Butt-Head at the end by the teacher of sex education has been cut.
"Home Improvement": The scene with Beavis and Butt-Head watching TV at the beginning has been cut. The line "Check it out Butt-Head, paint thinner" (along with its disclaimer) has been edited to "Check it out, Butt-Head". The ending scene with them stuck in traffic on the lawnmower was cut. Though the paint thinner and the painting of the cat were added back in.
"Lawn and Garden": Butt-Head's line "Welcome to the jungle baby, you're going to die" has been cut.
"The Crush": The first line from the reporter was cut out which was "And it now appears that the explosion not only killed everyone inside the building." And a few other lines from the other reporters at the beginning. When they are eating nachos the scene where you see a cockroach go into Beavis nachos and he eats the cockroach was cut. Also when they are rocking out at the end is cut.
"Plate Frisbee": They cut out some of the scenes where the construction worker is hammering. As they show both of the 18-wheelers they cut out where they show the two guys driving them. Also, they cut out the 18-wheeler driver who's driving the Strike Anywhere Matches line "Huh, Looks like I'm going to crash... Yep."
"Patients Patients": In the last scene the line "What, Try talking out of your mouth instead of your butt" was edited to "What."
"Blackout": The first lines from the firefighter women on TV were cut "Tell the commissioner we need that helicopter. I don't care what it costs. No, I'm not chipping in!" And then right after Beavis's line "This sucks" is also cut.
"Rabies Scare": When they go to the hospital the front desk lady's line, "Can I help you" is cut out.
"1-900-BEAVIS": The lines, "She said something", "Hey Beavis, I think I just inoculated", "Hey, maybe we'll hear some butt wind" and "That would be cool" have been cut.
"Madame Blavatsky": Beavis and Butt-Head's fighting scene at the end is cut short, also Madam Blavatsky's line, when she says "The end of the world" has been edited.
"Late Night With Butt-Head": First minute and a half of this episode have been removed, instead it starts with Beavis and Butt-Head pitching the idea for their talk show. Letterman's cameo voice appearance has been removed. Also, Beavis and Butt-Head celebrating with an air guitar chant after successfully pitching their show have been removed. These scenes are still intact on the out-of-print Time-Life DVDs, and on the Paramount+ version of the episode.
"Pool Toys": When they are on the tractor they cut out them doing their air guitar chant.
"Right On": A scene where Beavis and Butt-Head are doing their air guitar chant after they found out they will be on the Gus Baker show has been removed. Also, at the very end, Butt-Head's line "It wouldn't hurt to wipe once in while" has been cut.
"Date Bait": The scene where Beavis and Butt-Head are on the couch with a cold and Butt-Head doing the "Handbanging-Sneeze" (also showing the Metal sign) has been removed.
"Butt Is It Art?": As they finished putting bigger boobs on Dolly they cut out the guard next to the painting picking his nose and wiping his finger on the painting. Also when they are trying to steal the painting they cut out the guard in the background until he comes up and stops Beavis.
"Figure Drawing": Teachers' comment about teaching a class on Aroma Therapy is removed. Three or four lines have also then been cut after Beavis and Butt-Head rearrange the letters on the sign. Several other dialogue cuts were made throughout. These edits are corrected on the out-of-print Time-Life DVDs.
"Mr. Anderson's Balls": When they are selling the golf balls, Beavis' line "And they fit right in the hole" is cut out.
"Teen Talk": The scene where Beavis and Butt-Head do their air guitar chant after Lolita and Tanqueray ask if they want to make out behind the risers has been removed.
"Manners Suck": The ending where Beavis and Butt-Head are in the stalls politely pooping is removed, although it can be found as an Easter egg on the first DVD.
"The Pipe of Doom": The police officer's line "Freeze, you punk guys!" has been shortened to "Freeze, you punks!" They also cut when Butt-Head tells Beavis "Figure out how to get me out of this pipe." Beavis picks his nose while he's thinking, but they change it where he is just standing there.
"Beavis and Butt-Head vs. The Vending Machine": One of the commercials near the end when Butt-Head is eating the nachos is cut out "I couldn't understand it Chuck he said he would be right back, but he just left me standing by the vending machine."
"Held Back": In the scene where Beavis and Butt-Head are in 3rd grade and won't fit in the chairs, the lines "This desk is giving me a stiffy" and "I don't even have room for a stiffy" have been removed.
"Choke": When Beavis is speaking to the 911 operator the line "Ummm is this like one of those 976 numbers? Ummm what are you wearing?" is cut.
"Safe House": A scene with Beavis, Butt-Head, and Todd watching a funny "World of Bikini Sports" segment has been removed, when the bikini girl tells the sports anchor to take his hands off her ass.
"Tainted Meat": Middle section of the news broadcast talking about "a fierce new parasite" has been removed, although it can be found as an Easter egg on the 2nd DVD.
"Dream On": The duo sings and makes up their own Brady Bunch theme song lyrics.
"Beverly Buttbillies": Once they dig up the oil there are a few lines that have been removed.
Volume 2
"Bungholio: Lord of the Harvest": The scene where Beavis shows Butt-Head his "Wussy" (Stewart) costume and sings a line of Winger's "Seventeen" before being slapped by Butt-Head was removed. However, this was due to a threat of a lawsuit, instead of the director removing it at his will.
Volume 3
"Head Lice": When Butt-Head is thinking of a way to get rid of the lice they cut out Butt-Head's thinking bubble that has a bug zapper in it and then a fly going into it and getting zapped. Then his bubble disappears and where the bug zapper was in his bubble is there now.
"Ding-Dong-Ditch": When they are hiding behind the tree in the second house they cut out "Two Hours Later", but leave "One Hour Later".
"Huh-Huh-Humbug": The song Beavis sings when he arrives home has been changed from "Jingle Bells" to "Winter Wonderland".
"Wood Shop": The scene where Beavis and Butt-Head cut the teacher's chair into pieces on the saw, then Beavis and Butt-Head are trying to lift the table and the teacher yells "Hey what the hell are you doing?!, I'm going to kill you two idiots!" were removed and edited to only show Butt-Head trying to lift the table and the teacher yelling "Hey, what the hell are you doing?!"
"Impotence": The line "Help me, I have impotence" has been removed.
DVDs
Volume 1
Volume 1 of Beavis and Butt-Head: The Mike Judge Collection was released on November 8, 2005, and contains the following 40 episodes (Director's Cuts are noted with an "*" asterisk):
Volume 1, Disc 1
"No Laughing" *
"Home Improvement" *
"Lawn and Garden" *
"Washing the Dog"
"The Crush" *
"Plate Frisbee" *
"Most Wanted"
"They're Coming to Take Me Away, Huh Huh"
"Patients Patients" *
"Blackout!" *
"Rabies Scare" *
"1-900-BEAVIS" *
"Madame Blavatsky" *
"Late Night with Butt-Head" *
"Pool Toys" *
"The Final Judgment of Beavis"
"Right On" *
"Date Bait" *
"Butt Is It Art?" *
"Figure Drawing" *
Volume 1, Disc 2
"Mr. Anderson's Balls" *edited
"Teen Talk" *edited
"Manners Suck" *edited
"The Pipe of Doom" *edited
"Safe Driving"
"Liar! Liar!"
"Generation in Crisis"
"Beavis and Butt-Head vs. the Vending Machine" *edited
"Radio Sweethearts"
"The Great Cornholio"
"Held Back" *edited
"Choke" *edited
"Killing Time"
"Safe House" *edited
"Dude, a Reward"
"Walkathon"
"Temporary Insanity"
"Tainted Meat" *edited
"Dream On" *edited
"Beaverly Buttbillies" *edited
Volume 1, Disc 3
Music videos:
Matthew Sweet: "Superdeformed"
Pantera: "This Love"
Moist: "Push"
Deus: "Suds & Soda"
Grim Reaper: "Fear No Evil"
Monster Magnet: "Negasonic Teenage Warhead"
Korn: "Blind"
Catherine Wheel: "Way Down"
Beastie Boys: "Pass the Mic"
Wilco: "Box Full of Letters"
Hum: "Stars"
Taint of Greatness: The Journey of Beavis and Butt-Head Part 1
Special appearances:
1994 Video Music Awards
1994 Video Music Awards with David Letterman
1996 Video Music Awards
Beavis and Butt-Head Thanksgiving Special with Kurt Loder
Promos
Clinton Promo
Waco Promo
Dumb Fun in the Sun Promo
Montages
Greatest Hits
Terms of Endearment
Volume 2
Volume 2 of Beavis and Butt-Head: The Mike Judge Collection was released on June 13, 2006 (moved up from the original June 6, 2006 date). The set contains 40 episodes (including 17 new-to-DVD), 13 music videos, Part II of "Taint of Greatness: The Journey of Beavis and Butt-Head", previously unaired segments, and other features.
Volume 2, Disc 1
"Plastic Surgin'"
"Stewart Moves Away"
"Top o' the Mountain"
"Bad Dog"
"Lightning Strikes"
"Party"
"What's the Deal?"
"Wet Behind the Rears"
"Animation Sucks"
"Candy Sale"
"Here Comes the Bride's Butt"
"Pregnant Pause"
"Oil Change"
"The History of Women"
"Beavis, Can You Spare a Dime?"
"Premature Evacuation"
"Bang the Drum Slowly Dumbass"
"Close Encounters"
"Vidiots"
"Tired"
Volume 2, Disc 2
"Whiplash"
"Spare Me"
"Womyn"
"Murder Site"
"Another Friday Night"
"Patsies"
"Spanish Fly"
"Sexual Harassment"
"Green Thumbs"
"Bus Trip"
"Blood Pressure"
"Feel a Cop"
"U.S. History"
"Date Watchers"
"Gang of Two"
"Stewart Is Missing"
"Prank Call"
"Babysitting"
"Buttniks"
"Bungholio: Lord of the Harvest" *edited
Volume 2, Disc 3
Music videos:
Beastie Boys: "Sabotage"
Seaweed: "Kid Candy"
Pantera: "I'm Broken"
Mercyful Fate: "The Bellwitch"
Compulsion: "Delivery"
Madonna: "Secret"
Six Finger Satellite: "Parlor Games"
Pizzicato 5: "Twiggy, Twiggy"
Rush: "Stick It Out"
Radiohead: "Fake Plastic Trees"
Extreme: "Hole Hearted"
Helium: "Pat's Trick"
MC 900 Ft. Jesus: "If I Only Had a Brain"
Taint of Greatness: The Journey of Beavis and Butt-Head Part 2
Special appearances:
Butt-Bowl '94
Butt-Bowl '95
Butt-Bowl '96
MTV's 20th Anniversary Special
Calvin Klein Ad Parodies
Moron-a-Thon Clips featuring Snoop Dogg
Unaired I Love the '90s Segment
Promos:
Premiere Promo
Moron-a-Thon Promo
New Episodes Promo
Montages
Memories of Love
Friends and Neighbors
Volume 3
Volume 3 of Beavis and Butt-Head: The Mike Judge Collection was released on August 1, 2006. This collection includes 42 episodes, the uncut "Frog Baseball" Beavis and Butt-Head short, 15 music videos (including Soundgarden, Alice Cooper, and Sonic Youth), rare special appearances and promos, and Part III of "Taint of Greatness: The Journey of Beavis and Butt-Head".
Volume 3, Disc 1
"No Service"
"Sprout"
"Yard Sale"
"P.T.A."
"Substitute"
"Shopping List"
"Buy Beer"
"A Very Special Episode"
"Just for Girls"
"Head Lice" *
"Vaya Con Cornholio"
"Nose Bleed"
"Underwear"
"Follow Me"
"On Strike"
"Take a Lap"
"Pierced"
"Ding-Dong-Ditch" *Edited
"Huh-Huh-Humbug" *Edited
"It's a Miserable Life"
Volume 3, Disc 2
"Citizens' Arrest"
"A Great Day"
"Dumbasses Anonymous"
"Wood Shop" *
"Shopping Cart"
"Bride of Butt-Head"
"Special Delivery"
"T.V. Violence"
"The Miracle That is Beavis"
"Impotence" *
"Inventors"
"Canned"
"Drinking Butt-ies"
"Garage Band"
"Die Fly, Die!"
"Breakdown"
"Speech Therapy"
"Work Is Death"
"Graduation Day"
"Butt Flambé"
"Leave it to Beavis"
"Beavis and Butt-Head Are Dead"
Volume 3, Disc 3
Music videos:
Stakka Bo: "Here We Go"
Crowbar: "Existence is Punishment"
Salt-N-Pepa (featuring En Vogue): "Whatta Man"
Poison: "I Want Action"
2 Unlimited: "Get Ready for This"
Tripping Daisy: "I Got a Girl"
The Jesus Lizard: "Glamorous"
Sonic Youth: "Dirty Boots"
Soundgarden: "Spoonman"
Jon Spencer Blues Explosion: "Dang"
PJ Harvey: "Down By the Water"
Alice Cooper: "Teenage Frankenstein"
Toadies: "Possum Kingdom"
Rollins Band: "Liar"
Paul Broucek: "Hollywood Halloween"
The uncut pilot episode, "Frog Baseball"
Taint of Greatness: The Journey of Beavis and Butt-Head, Part 3
Special appearances:
Beavis and Butt-Head Yule Log Clips
Letters to Santa Butt-Head
'97 Press Conference Shorts
Interview with Chris Connelly
2005 VMAs
Promos:
Beavis and Butt-Head Movie Shorts and Promos
Sunday Stew Promos
Holiday Gifts Promo
Mike Judge's Most Wanted
A very simple DVD was released on October 4, 2011. It only includes 20 chapters taken from the volumes, this DVD compared to the volumes does not contain the music videos, includes the 3 parts of "The Taint of Greatness", the original pilot "Frog Baseball" and preview clips from the season 8. Released as a single-disc:
Disc
"Lightning Strikes"
"A Very Special Episode"
"Die Fly, Die!"
"Stewart is Missing"
"Close Encounters"
"Nose Bleed"
"Plastic Surgin'"
"Tired"
"Candy Sale"
"Date Bait"
"Animation Sucks"
"Impotence"
"Beaverly Buttbillies"
"Sexual Harassment"
"Prank Call"
"Substitute"
"Follow Me"
"Bus Trip"
"Safe House"
"The Grat Cornholio"
Special Features:
The uncut pilot episode, "Frog Baseball"
Taint of Greatness: The Journey of Beavis and Butt-Head
Preview clips from Season 8
Volume 4
Although not labeled as a Mike Judge Collection, Mike Judge's Beavis and Butt-Head Volume 4 was released on February 14, 2012, containing all 12 episodes from the show's 8th season completely uncut with all music videos and reality show clips left intact, the 2011 San Diego Comic-Con Panel with Mike Judge and Johnny Knoxville, Beavis & Butt-Head Interruptions, and more. Released as a 2-disc DVD and a single-disc Blu-ray.
DVD, Disc 1
"Werewolves of Highland" / "Crying"
"Daughter's Hand" / "Tech Support"
"Holy Cornholio"
"Drones"
"Supersize Me" / "Bathroom Break"
"The Rat" / "Spill"
DVD, Disc 2
"Doomsday" / "Dumb Design"
"Copy Machine" / "Holding"
"Used Car" / "Bounty Hunters"
"Time Machine" / "Massage"
"School Test" / "Snitchers"
"Whorehouse" / "Going Down"
Special Features:
2011 San Diego Comic-Con Panel
Beavis & Butt-Head Interruptions
Silence Your Cell Phone
Blu-ray
"Werewolves of Highland" / "Crying"
"Daughter's Hand" / "Tech Support"
"Holy Cornholio"
"Drones"
"Supersize Me" / "Bathroom Break"
"The Rat" / "Spill"
"Doomsday" / "Dumb Design"
"Copy Machine" / "Holding"
"Used Car" / "Bounty Hunters"
"Time Machine" / "Massage"
"School Test" / "Snitchers"
"Whorehouse" / "Going Down"
Special Features:
2011 San Diego Comic-Con Panel
Beavis & Butt-Head Interruptions
Silence Your Cell Phone
External links
Beavis and Butt-Head releases on TVShowsOnDVD.com (includes all three volumes of The Mike Judge Collection)
Mike Judge Collection at MTV.com
Mike Judge Collection
Television videos and DVDs |
4334380 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinal%20de%20Amoles | Pinal de Amoles | Pinal de Amoles is a town located in Pinal de Amoles Municipality in the state of Querétaro in central Mexico. It is part of the Sierra Gorda region which stretches over northern Querétaro into Guanajuato, Hidalgo and San Luis Potosí, with 88% of the municipality's land comprising the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve. The municipality contains large areas of forests and the highest peaks in the region, which separate the wetter areas of both the north and east from the drier areas of the south and west. The town began as a mining camp in the 17th century. However, most mining in the area has disappeared and the municipality is one of the poorest in Mexico, despite recent efforts to promote ecotourism and restart mining. This has led a large number of residents to migrate to larger cities in Mexico and to the United States to work, sending remittances back home. These remittances now overshadow the locally generated economy.
The town
The town of Pinal de Amoles, was founded as Real de San José de Amoles, in the early 17th century as a mining camp. Today, much of that mining has disappeared, but the town remains. It is located 153 km north of the state capital, straddling Federal Highway 120, which connects it to San Juan del Río in the south and the state of San Luis Potosí in the north. The town located at an altitude of 2,320 meters above sea level, on small flat spaces on a mountain with a population of 1,582 (2005). For this reason, it has narrow winding streets and many inclines. Most of the streets are of cobblestone and many houses are painted red, ochre or yellow, with colorful balconies. There is no municipal market but the traditional tianguis is held on Sundays. This features basic products, especially locally produced fruits and vegetables in season. It also features locally produced coffee and breads such as pan de pulque (pulque bread).
The town center consists of a very small plaza which fronts the local parish church of San José, dedicated to Saint Joseph. The San José Church was begun in 1770 and inaugurated in 1771. It has a simple design with a traditional pediment on its facade. On the right hand side, there is a bell tower with three levels.
The town and the immediate surroundings have six main hotels, several of which also operate cabins in the nearby mountain areas. These include Hotel Restaurante "El Molcajete,” Hotel Restaurante “Mesón del Barretero,” Hotel Restaurante “Los Pinos,” Cabañas “Cinco Pinos,” “Hotel Plaza” and “Posada Real de San José.” Restaurants include Restaurante “La Cueva”, Restaurante “El Chino”, Restaurante “Chayito”, Restaurante “El Nopal”, Lonchería “Vanesa”, Tacos “El Mexicano”, Fonda “Pera”, “Fonda Chepita”, “Fonda Lucerito”, “Fonda La Güera”, Antojitos Mexicanos “Vicky” and “Restaurante Bar Mineros”. Local food specialties include cecina, pacholes (toasted sweets made from corn), tamales with cheese, gorditas, pan de pulque, barbacoa, wines and liquors made from various fruits, pulque and aguamiel.
Because of its altitude and fairly abundant rainfall, the climate is primarily cold, with fog not being uncommon. It is surrounded by forests, canyons, arroyos, waterfalls and green fields.
History
The word “pinal” is Spanish and means “pine forest.” “Amoles” is from the Nahuatl “amolli” – a name of a root often used as a detergent. The municipality's seal contains an “amilli”, along with an eagle with its wings extended to signify hospitality. There are branches and four pine cones to represent the various conifers that grow abundantly in the area, the Cerro de Media Luna mountain and a pick and shovel to represent the area's past of mining silver, mercury, gold, antimony and other metals. A cross and sword represents the Spanish conquest and evangelization. The date of 1932 signifies the establishment of the municipality. The date of 19 March 1606 represents the founding of the Spanish town.
The first inhabitants of the region were hunter-gatherers as early as 6000 BC. Starting from the 13th century groups of Pames and Chichimeca Jonaz came to the area. Communities of these groups were still found in areas such as El Cuervo, Puerto de Vigas, El Rodezno, Tonatico, Escanela and others when the Spanish arrived in the 16th century. Starting from 1534, the Spanish established the province of Xilotepec, which encompassed much of the land around what is now the Sierra Gorda in Querétaro, but it did not manage to dominate this area for centuries because of the fierce resistance of the native peoples, especially the Chichimeca Jonaz. However, the Spanish penetrated the area for evangelization, military purposes and prospecting. The first mine was in Escanelas in 1599. Pinal de Amoles, initially called Real de San José de Amoles, was established in 1606. It was named an Alcaldía Mayor Real with official jurisdiction over what is now the municipalities of Arroyo Seco, Jalpan de Serra, Landa de Matamoros, Pinal de Amoles, San Joaquín, Peñamiller and Cadereyta de Montes. However, this seat of government would be transferred to Cadereyta as the silver from the mines dwindled by 1675. However, this Alcaldía Mayor would form over half of the future state of Querétaro.
Another tactic the Spanish used to try and dominate the region was the establishment of missions to convert the indigenous peoples to Catholicism. The mission at Ahuacatlán was founded in 1693 by the Dominicans.
Complete Spanish domination would come in the mid 18th century, with the defeat of the Chichimeca Jonaz at the Battle of Media Luna, which took place in the municipality. To consolidate this hold, Spanish missionaries under Junípero Serra established five Franciscan missions in the heart of the Chichimeca Sierra Gorda just to the north of Pinal de Amoles, in Jalpan de Serra and other municipalities. As municipality's settlements grew, new churches were established. The church of San Jose was constructed in 1770. The Bucarieli Mission was founded by Guadalupe Soriano in 1775. He also built the church at San Antonio Escanelilla.
After Mexico's independence, most of the area's mines gave out, eliminating the base of most of the area's economy. Since then, Pinal de Amoles and the rest of the Sierra Gorda in Querétaro would remain underdeveloped compared to the rest of the state. The district of Jalpan was founded in 1825 which included Arroyo Seco, Landa de Matamoros, Jalpan and Pinal de Amoles. During the second half of the 19th century, this district began to subdivide. First the municipality of Ahuacatlán de Guadalupe separated from Jalpan de Serra in 1866, and included Pinal de Amoles, San Pedro Escanela and Bucareli. It would then become a sub prefecture of Jalpan, with government offices moved to Pinal de Amoles in 1894. Other government reorganization included the naming of Pinal de Amoles as a “municipal presidencia” in 1914, Pinal de Amoles was officially declared a town and San Antonio Escanellilla becoming a sub delegation in 1924. The municipality's current status as a free municipality came in 1932, with Ahuacatlán, San Antonio Escanelilla, San Pedro Escanela and Bucareli as delegations. In 1944, the delegation of Santa Águeda de Pusunguía was added.
While mining declined after Independence, it never ceased completely and there were various operations in the 19th and 20th centuries. En English company installed itself to mine silver in Pinal de Amoles in 1865. A Mexican company was founded in 1887 for the same purpose. A US company called El Soyatal began mining antimony in 1944. Mercury mining began again in 1960, which caused an economic boom, but by 1970, prices for this element fell and ended most of the mining here.
In 2001, the state taxation authority identified major irregularities with the public records of Pinal de Amoles with up to eight million pesos missing.
Ecological projects such as those to clean the waters in local canyons were begun between 2001 and 2003. In 2007, a sewerage treatment plant was inaugurated in Ahuacatlán, mostly paid for by the state and federal governments. The goal of the plant is to prevent contamination of waters in the Escanela, Chuveje and Ahuacatlán Rivers, which lead to the Jalpan Dam.
Environment
Like the rest of the Sierra Gorda region, Pinal de Amoles is marked by very rugged terrain, which includes canyons and steep mountains. The area is located in an area with extremely high peaks with small flat areas and mesas. The altitude varies between 839masl at the community of Huajales to 3350masl at the Cerro de la Calentura, which is also the highest point in the state. Eighty eight percent of the municipality's territory belongs to the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve of Querétaro, a region which is protected because of its extreme diversity of landscapes, climates, vegetation and wildlife. Pinal de Amoles represents the highest peaks of this region, which essentially separate the wetter lands to the north and east from the semi arid areas of the south and west as the mountains block moisture coming in from the Gulf of Mexico. Most of the rock is sedimentary, with about 45% limestone. About 15% is intrusive volcanic rock. This due to the fact that much of the Sierra Gorda was sea bed millions of years ago, with volcanic activity later in its geological history. The volcanic rock accounts for most of the municipality's minable deposits.
Rivers are fast flowing due to the geography. The two most important rivers are the Extoraz in the south flowing east and El Rodezno or Río Escanela, which flows past Escanela, Escanelila and Ahuacatlán, emptying into the Jalpan Dam. There are also 169 bodies of surface water which include 143 fresh water springs, six small dams and 20 streams.
In the entire region, the coldest temperatures occur between December and January, with high temperatures in April and May. Temperatures vary widely depending on altitude with an annual average of 13C in the higher elevations such as Pinal de Amoles to 24C in lower areas such as Jalpan. In the highest elevations, frosts and freezes are not uncommon.
The north of the municipality is dominated by deciduous rainforest, which loses much of its leaves in the dry season. The center and northwest are dominated by pine and oak forests. Pine and holm oak forests are found mostly above 2,000 masl. The forests of the municipality are its most important natural resource. The types of wildlife is very varied and includes white-tailed deer, pumas, tigrillos (Leopardus tigrinus or Leopardus wiedii), bobcats, coyotes, raccoons, opossums, armadillos, foxes, skunks, hares and rabbits. Birds are especially varied and include woodpeckers, American goldfinches, sparrows, parrots, macaws and ravens. Reptiles include rattlesnakes and coral snakes as well as “river shrimp” or acamaya. A group of researchers from the Natural Sciences Faculty of the Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro have discovered a new species of crustacean similar to a very large shrimp or small lobster in the municipality. The crustacean is found in fresh water mostly in the Platanos Arroyo and can grow to a size of up to eight centimeters. Locally, the creature is called an “acocil” or freshwater lobster, like other creatures found in other parts of Mexico. However, studies have shown that this crustacean show enough peculiarities to warrant it as a separate species. The formal name for it is Procambarus Yacoy.
There three main types of climate. The first is temperate and humid, with rains in the summer and an average annual temperature of between 12 and 18C. There is little rain in the winter but the annual average is about 850mm. This climate prevails at altitudes over 2,000 masl. There is a semi hot and dry climate in areas with average annual temperatures between 18 and 22C with rains in the summer and little rain in winter. Average annual precipitation is about 500mm. Areas with a semi hot and humid climates have similar rainfall patterns but with an average rainfall of just under 1000mm. Summers here are hot and humid. Like in the rest of the Sierra Gorda, the coldest temperatures occur between December and January, with high temperatures in April and May. In the highest elevations, many of which are in Pinal de Amoles, frosts, freezes and even snow are not uncommon. Recent significant freezes, frosts and snows have occurred in 2007 and 2010 with very high altitude communities such as San Gaspar most affected. The ice and snow make driving dangerous on Highway 120, as it has an abundance of curves. This can form “black ice” which is an invisible layer of ice over the earth, which can lower air temperatures further. The government works to help poorer communities deal with the cold conditions year with advisories. In 2010, the Sierra Gorda had it first significant snowfall in eighteen years in the municipality, with temperatures of -4C. In some places, the cover was 15 cm deep.
Most of the municipality is covered in forest of one type or another, and these forests are its main natural resource. These forests have been having problems in recent years between insect and parasitic plant infestations and logging. The infestations have been more severe than usual because of drought conditions weakening trees. While there are strict environmental laws for the area as part of the biosphere reserve, enforcement is spotty. The forests of this and neighboring municipalities have attracting illegal logging from those outside the area. Pinal de Amoles is one of the Sierra Gorda municipalities where this problem is the most serious.
In 2005, a road was built between El Llano de Huaxquilico to San Pedro Escanela, but it is controversial because of environmental concerns. Its building caused severe ecological damage in an area considered to be one of the most sensitive in the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve, as it is where most of the local aquifers recharge. The area receives a large amount of rain, which has led to damage and mudslides affecting the road, making it almost impossible for more than one car to pass at a time.
The rugged terrain of the area gives rise to a number of waterfalls, forests, canyons, springs and other natural attractions. El Chuveje is one of the largest waterfalls in the state, measuring about thirty meters high and with a strong steady fall of water surrounded by mountains and vegetation. Activities include hiking, camping and bird watching with macaws and white tailed deer still to be seen although there are fewer than in the past. The waterfall is located a couple of kilometers from the park entrance and can only be reached by foot. The El Salto waterfall is located in San Pedro Escanela, with a height of 35 meters. The water falls into a clear pond at the foot of the elevation then forms a small river. It is not easy to reach and recommended only for experienced hikers. The Puente de Dios (Bridge of God) is a natural bridge located on the side of a small mountain near the Peña de la Gloria. The site of the bridge is a deep crevasse with thick vegetation and under the bridge a river with two small waterfalls flows. The La Angostura Canyon is about fifty meters long and contains part of the Escanela River, the same that passes through the Puente de Dios and then empties into the Ayutla River. The canyon contains several places where the water pools and are suitable for swimming in the summer. The Infiernillo Arroyo is found within a kilometer long canyon. In the lower part, there are various pools of blue water along with small waterfalls. Around these is thick vegetation.
The Barranca Arroyo is a small canyon structure about an hour and a half from the municipal seat. The water flows year round with several areas where it pools, but the water is cold. The area is surrounded by large mountains with abundant vegetation. There is camping, hiking and picnicking. The Peña de la Viuda is a natural monolith which falls directly into an arroyo. The area has abundant vegetation, and activities such as skiing, camping and hiking. La Escondida is an area in mountainous forest with a permanent fresh water spring. It permits camping and hiking. El Cidral is an area with cedar trees surrounding a clearing for camping and hiking. The Peña de la Glora waterfall is surrounded by thick vegetation. The lowest part has a natural spring and the upper part has a deep, unexplored cave. The Cueva de los Riscos (Cave of the Crags) is named after the crags which appear in various of its chambers. The entrance begins with a rocky descent then levels out to an area with sand. The center has a hillock with looks like a monolith rock. This can be climbed to observe the various crags with contain ice. One of these in the shape of a pulpit and another is called the “bell tower” because if it is struck it sounds like a bell.
Culture
Each of the major communities of the municipalities have their annual festival, set on the day of their patron saint. These include Pinal de Amoles (March 16–19), San Pedro Escanela, (May 1–5 and June 27–29), Ahuacatlán de Guadalupe (December 12), Santa Águeda (February 5), Bucareli (October 4 and December 8) and Escaelilla (June 13). Municipality wide there is the annual “La Molienda” from the beginning of February to the middle of March. This is related to the harvest of sugar cane although nowadays, there are fewer fields that grow this crop. The tradition includes cutting a cane to extract its juice in a press or mill. With the juice boiled down and the remaining dry cane used as fuel or animal feed. The boiled sugar cane juice is made into a syrup, which is then molded into small pillars called piloncillos.
Pinal de Amoles, like the rest of the Sierra Gorda, has been classified as the far west of the La Huasteca region. Huapango is a tradition in the Sierra Gorda and the people here identify themselves as part of the La Huasteca region, according to Jorge Enrique Resendíz Martínez, municipal president of Pinal de Amoles. This Huasteca influence is best seen in the tradition of Huapango music and dance, which is strongest here and in other Sierra Gorda communities such as Xichú and San Joaquín, where there are festivals dedicated to it. Huapango musicians from Pinal de Amoles are noted for their ability to improvise melodies and lyrics, but the main event for the year is the Concurso Nacional de Bailes de Huapango held each year in the municipal seat in March.
2011 marked the twenty second annual event, which originally was called the Concuso Nacional de Baile de Huapango y Reunión de las Huastecas. In this year, there were more than 400 couples registered in the competition with about 10,000 spectators in attendance, as the event grows each year. The event is held at the Casa de la Cultura (House of Culture), with three categories: children's (under 12), youth (13 to 17) and adult (over 18). Entrance fee is 100 pesos per couple. Various styles of Huapango dance is presented including hidalguense, poblano, potosino, queretano, tamaulipeco and veracruzano, named after the states of Hidalgo, Puebla, San Luis Potosí, Querétaro, Tamaulipas and Veracruz respectively. It begins on Friday night and concludes on Sunday night. The children's category is exposition only, with the other two having eliminations. The judging panels are made up of representatives of these states, who qualify technique, dress, projection, coordination and precision. The winners of various categories received between four and six thousand pesos, with the overall winner for each age group receiving between 14,000 and 20,000 pesos. Those couples who have won the grand prize in previous years are not allowed to participate again together. For 2011, the groups presenting live music for the event included Los Hidalguenses, Reales de Colima and Huapangueros Differentes. The event is concurrent with the Fiestas Patronales or feast day of the patron saint of the municipality. This event in 2011 featured popular rock groups such as Pambo Pop-rock and Pega Pega de Emilio Reyna.
Economy
Only just over eighteen percent of the total population is economically active. Just over 50% of these are dedicated to agriculture, livestock, forestry, fishing and hunting. Of a total of 60,970 hectares in the municipality, 32,901 are forest, 23,176 are used for livestock and 4,893 are cultivated. The only irrigated land is located in Misión de Bucareli with 71 hectares and Medias Coloradas with 32 hectares. Most crops are for auto consumption and include corn, beans, chickpeas, chili peppers, potatoes and tomatoes. The area has climates suited for the cultivation of apples, but pears, peaches, quince and figs are also grown. In the small subtropical area there is the production of limes, lemons, papaya, mangos, guavas, peaches, coffee, avocados, sugar cane, blackberries, pineapples and ornamental plants. Livestock is mostly cattle with some sheep, goats and pigs. Local livestock farmers have a cooperative to help with the acquisition of supplies.
In the early 2000s, apple growers in the region found that they could not sell their fruit, not because of taste but because it is smaller and has a less shiny appearance than fruit from the north of Mexico, the US and Chile. In 2003, apple growers from Pinal de Amoles and other nearby municipalities came together to find ways of marketing their product. The result is the production of apple juice, produced by a cooperative. Initial taste tests were positive but marketing was a challenge. Business students helped out and eventually the product began to appear on store shelves in various parts of Mexico and even in the US. In 2005, the cooperative signed a deal with bottlers to sell 60 tons of Querétaro Golden apples as 550,000 250-ml boxes of juice.
Just under seventeen percent of the population is dedicated to mining, infrastructure and construction. Only three percent are dedicated to manufacturing, mostly handcrafts. Handcrafts in the area include objects made from leather, palm fronds, silver, gold, wire, wool, wood and stone. Municipal president has announced plans to reactivate mining in the municipality to create jobs. He stated that it needs to be done because it is a part of the area's history. There are mines in San Gaspar, Río Escanela and Bucareli among others which generate three hundred jobs, extracting mercury, silver and antimony.
About twenty one percent are dedicated to services, tourism and general commerce. For the Sierra Gorda area, tourism, especially ecotourism is a new and important source of income for the region. As the municipality contains many of the highest peaks of the Sierra Gorda, much of the area is covered by fog and clouds for at least part of the day. Natural areas for visitors include El Camposanto Viejo and El Cruz de Palo with camping, hiking and rustic playgrounds for children. Campamento Río Escanela Enclavado is located along the Escanela River with a path that leads to the Angostura Canyon and the Puente de Dios. The nearby town of Río Escanela is an old mining community surrounded by forest. The facility has cabins, camping area, showers, picnic tables, grills and food services. Campamento Las Trancas in Potrerillos is a camping location just outside the municipal seat. In November 2010, it installed the first extreme sporting facility in the Sierra Gorda, a zip-line which measures about one hundred meters and crosses a deep narrow canyon. One ecotourism site is in Cuatro Palos, a village of thirty homes just outside the municipal seat. It is a campground which is one of twelve founded by the Sierra Gorda Ecological Group, a civil society organization dedicated to promoting alternative economies based on ecologically sensitive technologies. About thirty women from the village work at the campground as a cooperative. The campground has dry toilets in which lime, sawdust and solar energy are used to produce compost. There have also been some solar panels installed.
There are also a number of small archeological sites and historic monuments. Pinal de Amoles has had problems with the sacking of these sites, but now programs have been started to halt this activity and create tourist routes based on the sites.
Pinal de Amoles has been ranked as one of the poorest in the country of Mexico, with the lowest levels of income by the United Nations Development Programme. and one of the highest levels of economic marginalization. Only about 18% of the residents are economically active, 45% of which are homemakers, with the rest students and retirees. About half of the population is considered to be very poor, with ten percent considered to be living in deplorable conditions with no public services at all.
For this reason, many from this municipality and others from the Sierra Gorda, have migrated out to cities in Mexico and to the United States in order to work. The municipality estimates that about 35% of its population has migrated abroad, equaling about 8 thousand people. Others suggest the numbers are even higher, with an estimate of four people in the United States for each family here. No one knows exactly how many from the state of Querétaro have gone to the U.S. to work or the amount which is sent back in remittances each year. However, it is estimated that the Sierra Gorda region receives between 50,000 and US$100,000 per day or 18.2 million dollars each year. This is larger than the municipal budget of Pinal de Amoles. These remittances have come to overshadow earnings made locally from small shops, livestock and agriculture. In Pinal de Amoles and other areas of the Sierra Gorda, the dollar has become part of the economy, especially around Christmas when many come back to visit families for the holiday season. This has led to many businesses accepting the dollar as a medium of exchange in many businesses including restaurants and bars. Many families now use it as a regional currency. However, remittance money sent back can vary depending on economic and political factors. As of January 2011, the amount sent back to the Sierra Gorda fell about forty percent. Officials blame the security situation on the US-Mexican border, with many younger people in the US not visiting during the Christmas season.
The money sent back by those in the United States is so important that Pinal de Amoles is one of the sponsors of the annual “Día del Paisano” (Day of the Countryman) event which honors migrant workers visiting at Christmas time. The event is held in Jalpan de Serra and includes contests, raffles and more. This money is not only sent back directly to families but is also the basis for a number of public works projects. In the early 2000s, migrants from Querétaro formed a Federación de Clubes de Migrantes de la Sierra Gorda, in order to donate to public works projects in their hometowns. It consists of twenty seven smaller groups, eight of which are from Pina de Amoles, to spur economic development. Under a program "Queretaro Unidos Tres por Uno" each dollar sent by residents abroad is matched by the federal and state governments to three dollars as part of a nationwide program sponsored by the Secretaria de Desarrollo Sustentable. Most of the projects have been related to paving, running water and sewerage, but have also included electrical networks, schools, health centers and computer equipment. The death of sixteen residents in 2006 and 2007 and the lack of employment pushed the municipality in 2007 to start promoting legal emigration to the United States. For this purpose, municipal resources have been budgeted, and a liaison with the U.S. embassy established to help residents get visas. In 2007, forty residents succeeded in getting legal work visas through the program, who mostly went to Escondido, California. Each of these applications cost the municipality 5,000 pesos, which includes transportation north.
Transportation and communications
The municipality has 399.4 km of roadway, which includes 56 km of federal highway. However, about 40% is dirt road linking about 70% of the communities. There is bus service that passes through the municipality on its way to Jalpan from both the city of Querétaro and Mexico City. Regional newspapers include : Voz de la Sierra, Mensajero de la Sierra, La Versión, El Observador and Sierra Gorda. State papers include La Sombra de Arteaga, Noticias and Diario de Querétaro.
Archeology
Fossils of ammonites, trilobites, snails and oysters have been found which date back to between 250 and 125 million years.
El Quirambal is located between the municipal seat and Escanela. It is an archeological zone similar to the larger sites of Las Ranas and Toluquilla further south in the Sierra Gorda. It was inhabited by the Serrana Culture between 200 and 1200 CE with mining as its main economic activity. Among its main structures there is the Mesoamerican ball court which measures forty by twenty meters, which is flanked by a temple with a pyramid base seven meters high and fourteen meters on each side. There are various other pyramid and residential structures along with large terraces which were dug into the hillside to create more flat space. The construction from 800 to 1200 CE was similar to other areas of the La Huasteca.
References
Populated places in Querétaro |
4334404 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arroyo%20Seco%2C%20Quer%C3%A9taro | Arroyo Seco, Querétaro | Arroyo Seco is a town in Arroyo Seco Municipality located in the far north of the Mexican state of Querétaro. Its territory is part of the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve of Querétaro. The municipality is centered on the small town of Arroyo Seco, which was established as a military outpost then given town status in 1833 under the name of Villa de Guadalupe before changing to its current name. The town gained municipal status in 1931. The area is very rural with most people living in communities of under 100 people, with significant Pame communities. It has a traditional economy based on agriculture, livestock and forestry but it is also one of the poorest in Mexico, with high rates of emigration, especially sending migrant workers to the United States. It is estimated that one in four households in the municipality receives money from family members in this country. The municipality is also home to one of five Franciscan mission complexes built under the tenure of Junípero Serra, located in the community of Concá.
The town
Arroyo Seco is a small town of about three hundred homes centered on a plaza named after Mariano Escobedo. The town originated as a military outpost called the Presido de Arroyo Seco. It became the seat of the municipality of the same name in 1931.
The houses are painted in various colors and its streets are quiet. The town is home to all municipal services and has the most developed infrastructure and social services in the area. This includes the Casa de Cultura cultural center, an auditorium and a library. The Mariano Escobedo plaza has an “oriental” style kiosk surrounded by large trees. On one side the main parish church called the Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe dominates. This church was begun in 1904 and was supposed to be much larger than it is, but construction was suspended due to the Mexican Revolution. It has an austere facade and the interior has black pews. The most important yearly event in the municipal seat is the feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe on 12 December.
Handcrafts such as saddles, leather goods and wooden barrels for water storage can be found in the town.
Geography
The municipality is part of the Sierra Gorda region, which is centered on northern Querétaro state. This region is a branch of the Sierra Madre Oriental, consisting of mountain chains that parallel the Gulf of Mexico. This land was sea bed 100 million years ago, which formed ancient sedimentary rock, mostly limestone, which easily erodes. This makes the area part of the Huasteca Karst Arroyo Seco is completely within the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve of Querétaro, which was established in 1997.
Most of the territory is mountainous, with gradients of over 25%. Altitudes in the territory range from 560 to 1340 masl with an average of 980masl. The mountain formations are subdivided into two parts. The first is a corridor along the border with Jalpan which is over forty km long and five km wide. This area has some very low valleys of only 700 masl. The second area is more rugged with canyons of up to 600 meters deep and peaks which reach over 2000 masl. There are a number of flat areas and valleys which are mostly along the Ayutla and Concá rivers. The principal elevations are Santo Domingo, Cantera, Cofradía, Soledad and Pitorreal.
The terrain is composed of sedimentary rock, mostly layers of limestone, which present on the surface with medium or fine grain and sometimes as clay. It, like most of the Sierra Gorda, is on former sea bed from 150 million years ago. Recently, Arroyo Seco and other municipalities of the Sierra Gorda have reported numerous small earthquakes. According to seismologists, these are caused by the movement of water through sedimentary rock. Erosion causes gaps and then the gaps settle onto themselves, causing the small quakes. One thing scientists are checking for is to see if any areas stand over underground cavities which may give way.
The area's location over the Huasteca Karst and the erosion of limestone has given rise to numerous pit caves. The largest of these in the Sierra Gorda is located in Arroyo Seco, called the Sótano de Barro, located in the Santa María de los Cocos community. The Sótano del Barro is one of the largest cavities of the world by volume, measuring 15 million cubic metres, surpassed only the Sima Mayor de Sarisariñama in Venezuela. In comparison, the Sótano de Las Golondrinas has a volume of only five million meters cubed. Its widest diameter measures 420 meters and its average width is 200 meters. It has a total depth of 455 meters with a direct drop of 410 meters. Its perimeter is surrounded by dense vegetation, which is a sanctuary for green macaws. It requires a walk or mule ride of about two hours through dense forest to reach. The walls of the pit cave are mostly vertical and partially covered by vegetation. At the bottom of the cave there is a small forest on a floor which was sea bed 100 million years ago, which measures 220 meters long and 100 meters wide. Despite its depth, the bottom of the pit cave receives an abundance of sunlight allowing for the growth of trees and other vegetation, making it an isolated mini forest. The bottom also has a number of small caves, with the largest fifty meters long. This pit cave has been classified as the deepest in the world although this has recently been challenged by those who wish to include those pit caves which are not continuous such as the Stary Swistak in Austria, which has a total depth of 480 meters.
Hydrography
Principal river systems include the Santa María, the Ayutla River and the Jalpan River with their tributaries such as the Concá River in the south of the municipality. The Santa María enters the municipality from San Luis Potosí and flows along a 400 meter deep canyon until it merges with the Ayutla River. This river flows northeast, forming another canyon then merges with the Jalpan River. There are about 100 accessible sources of water in the municipality with most located in the communities of Salitrillo, Concá and Ayutla. The municipality is home to the junction of two of the major rivers of the Sierra Gorda, the Santa María and the Ayutla River at a location called Las Adjuntas. The Santa María River here flows warm to hot in the summer and the Ayutla River remains cold. Although the two rivers have different water colors and temperatures, both are regulated by the surrounding environment. The Santa María River has a number of beaches which are open to camping. There is also sports fishing of native catfish. The northern border of the municipality is partially formed by the Verde River. The Concá Waterfall is located just south of the town of the same name. This waterfall is fed by a fresh water spring and falls into the Santa María River. Despite the name (which means dry stream or dry arroyo), most of the arroyos in the area have water in them most of the year. The municipality has ten easily accessible sources of surface water. However, the over extraction of water has led to dropping water tables and many of the area's fresh water springs are flowing at slower rates or have dried up.
Climate
The municipality divides into two climate regions. The north is semi arid with an average temperature of 22C and an annual rainfall of between five and 10.5mm per falling mostly in the summer. The other is semi hot with average temperatures varying from 18 to 22C with rains in the summer. In the winter, the area is vulnerable to cold spells, brought in by cold fronts that arrive from the north and west. The cold spells do not usually reach freezing as the municipality does not have the high peaks that neighbors such as Pinal de Amoles does, but snow mixed with rain fell in 2006 and in 2010, freezing temperatures did reach communities such as La Florida and San Juan Buenaventura. Very cold temperatures can prompt emergency services such as the provision of blankets by the municipality's civil protection service or evacuation to shelters. Communities which are most vulnerable to severe cold include La Sanguijuela, La Escondida de Guadalupe, La Cantera, Río del Carrizal and El Durazno. The area has had problems with droughts over the past decade, especially in 2009, which have been draining reserves and aquifers. The lack of water has caused the deaths of livestock and forced more people to emigrate from the municipality. Many communities now must rely on water trucked in from outside.
Flora and fauna
Vegetation on the limestone and other sedimentary soils ranges from lowland rainforest to grasslands to scrub brush in more arid areas. In forested areas, the trees include oaks, pines, white cedar, strawberry trees and oyamels. In the drier areas, there are also mesquite trees with some other desert plants including cactus. In the lowest elevations there are tropical hardwoods such as red cedar, Montezuma cypress and a tree called the “parota.” Wildlife mostly consists of birds and mammals such as doves, quails, chachalacas, eagles, roadrunners, and some waterfowl. Mammals include squirrels, rabbits, armadillos, white-tailed deer, foxes, coyotes, wild boar, pumas, raccoons, skunks, and opossums. There are some reptiles such as rattlesnakes and coral snakes.
Culture
The most popular traditional music is Huapango, especially Huapango arribeño. It is most often played in “topadas” a type of musical duel between two musicians competing on improvisation of lyrics and melodies. Many of the songs are about history, arte and current events. In 2006, Guadalupe Reyes Reyes from El Refugio won the Premio Nacional de Ciencias y Artes in the Popular Arts category. He won the award for his contributions to Huapango arribeño. Reyes formed the band, Los Reyes de El Refugio and their work mostly focuses on rural life in the Sierra Gorda. He was born 1931, but had to work at farming early, learning to read and write mostly on his own. He was taught guitar and found he had musical ability, becoming a cantor at the local church when he was 14.
Typical dishes include jerky, cecina, “Serrano” style enchiladas and pit cooked barbacoa. Sweets include “chancaquillas” which is made with piloncillo and squash seeds. Beverages include aguamiel and pulque along with atole with sunflower seeds.
The various communities have festivals in honor of local patron saints, but the most important festival in the municipality is that honoring the Archangel Michael on 29 September. It is celebrated with street fairs and crafts exhibitions.
The mission church of Concá
The mission complex at Concá is one of five Franciscan missions which were built under the direction of Junípero Serra in the mid-to-late 18th century. The missions were the last in a long line of evangelization efforts in the Sierra Gorda, which were resisted by the indigenous peoples, especially the Chichimeca Jonaz for about two centuries. This resistance was militarily broken at the Battle of Media Luna in 1748. To consolidate Spanish dominance, the Franciscans under Serra had these churches with elaborate Baroque facades built in the heart of the Sierra Gorda. In addition to Concá, churches were built in Jalpan, Tancoyol, Landa and Tilaco. The facades are notable not only for their profuse decoration, but also for the appearance of a number of indigenous elements.
The Concá mission is the smallest of the five, but between 1754 and 1758 by José Antonio de Murguía and Joaquin Fernández Osorio. It is dedicated to the Archangel Michael, with the theme of the facade being “The Victory of the Faith.” It is considered to have the most indigenous elements, with many of its elements showing the more brusque work characteristic of indigenous decoration. More obvious is an image of the Holy Trinity at the crest, which is accompanied by a rabbit and a two-headed eagle, which are Pame symbols. Also prominent are the coat of arms of the Franciscan order, grapevines, two headed eagles, with the Virgin of Guadalupe and Our Lady of the Pillar, the patronesses of Mexico and Spain respectively.
After the missions were turned over to secular clergy, many indigenous abandoned them, a process that would continue with the Mexican War of Independence and Mexican Revolution, when the churches all suffered deterioration and sacking. Restoration of the churches began starting in 1979 until the 2000s. The five where inscribed together as a World Heritage Site in 2003.
History
The town was originally known as the Presidio de Arroyo Seco, a military outpost. In 1833, missionary Francisco Cano Santander gave it the ecclesiastical name of Villa de Guadalupe which was the town's formal name until 1840, which it was changed to the current one. Its coat of arms has three parts. The first represents the Cross of the Holy Trinity with hands representing the indigenous peoples and the evangelizers. The second is the rabbit which appears on the facade of the mission church of Concá. This rabbit is the only one to appear on the five mission churches. The third is an arroyo from which the name comes.
Arroyo Seco is part of the heart of the Sierra Gorda. This region has been occupied for about 6000 years. In the Pre Classic and Classic periods, the Sierra Gorda had a number of small cities as the climate at that time was wetter than it is now. Most of the larger cities were south of the current municipalities due to mining activities and major trade routes, but there were cities and trade routes through here as well, connecting the area mostly with Huasteca areas to the east and other areas to the north. As the climate of the Sierra Gorda dried out in the early Post Classic period, cities were abandoned for simpler hunter gatherer communities and there were migrations of Chichimecas, mostly Pames and Chichimeca Jonaz from the north. Arroyo Seco would become Pame territory. In the late pre Hispanic period, the Sierra Gorda had incursions from both the Purépecha and Aztecs from as early as 1400, attracted by the area's mineral deposits, but neither had true dominance as the Chichimecas fiercely opposed them. In the 15th century, the area was marginally dominated by the Oxitipa dominion, which was conquered by Moctezuma Ilhuicama and the Pames. This officially converted the area into an Aztec tributary state, but the Aztecs never truly had control.
The Spanish made incursions into the Sierra Gorda early in the colonial period, but the Chichimeca, especially the Jonaz just to the south, put up fierce resistance to their intrusions. This would keep the Spanish from fully dominating the area for two hundred years.
In 1532, Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán entered the Sierra Gorda and conquered it but did not hold it. From that time until the 18th century, there had been a number of missions established by the Franciscans and the Augustinians, but these missions were either destroyed by the Chichimecas or the population would flee from them and move into more inaccessible mountains and canyons. The first Spanish population in the Arroyo Seco area was in San Nicolás Concá, established as an encomienda under Pedro Guzmán between 1533 and 1538. This territory extended over much of the Sierra Gorda and into what is now San Luis Potosí. In 1587, Concá and Jalpan had missions established in them by the Augustinians from Xilitla. In 1601, friar Lucas de los Ángeles from the Xichú monastery preached in the area with limited success. In 1609, viceroy Luis de Velasco ordered that the Franciscans leave missionary work to the Augustinians, including the Arroyo Seco area. However, Franciscans from Michoacán stayed and worked with the Augustinians. Those who lasted longest in the area were those who learned the Pame language and learned to live with Pame customs.
The Spanish would break Chichimeca resistance in the Sierra Gorda in the 1740s, with the expeditions of José de Escandón, culminating in the Battle of Media Luna. To solidify these military gains, Franciscans founded new missions in this and other areas of northern Querétaro, the heart of the Sierra Gorda. These missions were taken over by Junípero Serra starting in 1750, who decided to have elaborate mission complexes built in five locations, one of which is in the municipality at Concá. In addition to evangelization, the missions worked to group the semi nomadic Pames into permanent communities centered on churches.
There was one battle here during the Mexican Revolution when forces under General Saturnino Cedillo and Coronel Marcial Cevallos took over the Concá Hacienda in 1918. The town of Arroyo Seco itself was also attacked by General Cedillo, who killed many non-combatants, sacked and burned the town. In retaliation, forces loyal to Venustiano Carranza recruited soldiers from Arroyo Seco and defeated Cedillo at the Laguna de Concá.
The town gained municipal status in 1933. At first the new municipality was governed by a committee headed by Antonio Rubio Chávez but the first municipal president, C. Angel Torres Montes, was elected in 1935.
In 1994, the municipality decided to build a garbage dump near the archeological zone of San Rafael without informing the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH). Since 2006, it has been known that the dump sits on the southern part of the site proper and that the digging of the dump site is estimated to have destroyed between eight and ten pyramids. More vestiges of the site lie 300 meters below the dump. The municipality promised for years to move the facility and from 2006, state and federal authorities have promised to replace it with a new one farther away. However, as of 2009, the dump is still operating taking on as much as forty tons of trash per week, as the new facility was not yet finished. In 2007, a smaller, above ground dump appeared in the same area, within sight of visible ruins. During this time, acids and other substances produced by the pit have probably caused damage to the limestone of the site, eating away at structures made of the substance. The site belongs to the Río Verde Culture and its estimated to extend over 10km2. Its importance has been compared to that of Tamtoc in San Luis Potosí .
In 1998, forests in the municipality were among those in five states destroyed by wildfires. In total, were burned. The fires were due to freezing conditions in the prior winter which dried out grasslands.
In the latter 2000s, the municipality has been struggling with water shortages due to drought conditions. The lack of water has caused the deaths of livestock and forced more people to emigrate from the municipality. Many communities now must rely on water trucked in from outside. As of 2007, sixteen out of forty six communities in the municipality have significant problems with water shortages. The government states that this is because a number of wells are drying up and there is insufficient distribution. In the second largest community of Purísima de Arista, about half of the residents experience water shortages. In 2009, the municipality had number of cases of cattle dying due to bites from “vampire” bats which were transmitting a type of paralytic rabies. The bats were coming from caves located in neighboring Guanajuato.
From the latter 2000s to the present, Arroyo Seco and the rest of the Sierra Gorda in Querétaro have been experiencing numerous small earthquakes, with most registering from 2.5 to 3.5 on the Richter scale, generally imperceptible to humans. Seismologists say that while the number has been unusual, such activity is not and is due to the settling of the sedimentary rock which is below most of the Sierra Gorda region. However, Arroyo Seco and other municipalities have seismographs installed to monitor the situation.
The municipality's recent history also includes the mass migration out by many of its working aged people due to lack of economic opportunity. Most have gone to the United States with as much as forty percent of the municipality's population living in the country alone. The money that these workers send back home have significantly changed the local economy, as it is larger than the locally generated economy and larger than annual municipal budget. The migration has caused municipality schools, especially primary schools to lose students as they leave for the United States with their parents.
In 2006, the municipality elected its first non-PRI municipal president since the Mexican Revolution, a former migrant worker by the name of Mariano Palacios Trejo, from the PRD .
Construction of a military base was begun in early 2011 at a site. The base is one of three being built to work against drug trafficking and other crimes along the Querétaro/San Luis Potosí border. This base is part of the 17th Military Zone to patrol the Querétaro-San Luis Potosí border. The military is there to countering drug trafficking in the area as the region does not have the resources for local police forces.
Economy and tourism
The municipality is one of the most economically marginalized in the state, with the Secretaría de Desarrollo Social (SEDESOL) cataloging it as one of the 200 most socioeconomically marginalized in the country. This is the main reason why Arroyo Seco and other municipalities in the Sierra Gorda of Querétaro have high rates of emigration. It is not known exactly how many have left or how many come back at the end of the year to visit family, but Arroyo Seco estimates that about forty percent of its population is living somewhere in the United States. The amount sent back in remittances is also not known, but it has been estimated at between 50,000 and US$100,000 per day or about US$18 million per year to the Sierra Gorda alone, based on money exchanges made in the main city of Jalpan de Serra. This amount supersedes the annual municipal budget of Arroyo Seco and other area municipalities and generally superseded money generated by municipal economies. In Arroyo Seco, one in four homes is supported by dollars sent home by family in the United States. These migrants not only provide remittances directly to their families, they have also formed clubs with the purpose of promoting infrastructure projects in their home communities. The Club de Migrantes de la Sierra Gorda is an association of twenty seven of these clubs from various municipalities, with three from Arroyo Seco. Most of the projects are related paving, water distribution and sewerage/drainage. These dollars are often matched through a program sponsored by the Mexican federal government. Many businesses in the municipality and the rest of the Sierra Gorda take the dollar as currency, especially at the end of the year when many come to the area to visit family. Arroyo Seco has one of the highest rates of emigration in Querétaro. Arroyo Seco is one of the sponsors of the Día del Paisano to honor returning migrant workers in Jalpan de Serra. This events includes parades and raffles.
Because of this emigration, only 23.36% of the total population is economically active, mostly employed in traditional economic activities, such as agriculture, livestock, forestry and general commerce. About twenty percent of the total population works at home for no pay. Women make up only 22% of the paid workforce. Most of those who are not economically active are students and housewives.
Most of the territory is used for pasture and forestry, with total about ninety percent. The rest is used for agriculture, most of which is done only during the rainy season. Just over 43% of the economically active are working agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishing. Thirty of the municipality's communities engage in agriculture to some degree with most of the production for self consumption. The soil is fertile although it is sometimes hard with some drainage problems. These problems are greatest where the topsoil is less than ten centimeters. One problem with agriculture here is that the soil erodes easily. Fruit trees include mango, oranges, limes, bananas, guavas, avocados and papaya. Other crops such as sugar cane, corn, beans, green chili peppers, cascabel chili peppers, tomatoes, watermelon, squash, chickpeas, sorghum, barley and pitahaya. Most livestock is raised in the communities of El Refugio, San Juan Buenaventura, La Florida, San José de la Flores, Río de Carrizal, Ayutla, Salitrillo and Tepame. Most livestock is cattle with some sheep and goats.
The forests of the municipality make up about sixteen percent of the state's forest resources and cover 54% of the municipality. Over eighty percent of the forest is made up solely of broad-leafed trees with most of the rest a mix of broad-leafed and conifers. Logging is limited because of the tropical hardwoods here and conservation efforts related to the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve, but it still makes up over 15% of the state's total. About 19% of the forested lands are used for grazing. Fish farming is a growing segment of the economy, especially in communities near rivers such as Río del Carrizal, Concá, Vegas Cuatas and Ayutla.
About 25% are working in mining, construction, utilities and manufacturing.
Commerce, transportation and services employ about eighteen percent. There are about 140 people dedicated to commerce, most of which is small grocery stores. Supermarkets and other similar stores are located in neighboring San Luis Potosí in Río Verde and San Ciro. Tourism is a small percentage of the economy, mostly based on the mission church at Concá and some resort hotels opened in recent years. People also visit to see the 1000-year-old Montezuma Bald Cypress (Taxodium mucronatum), called the Árbol Milenario or Millennium Tree. Its trunk has the second largest diameter in Mexico after the Tule tree in Oaxaca, requiring twenty two children linking hands to surround it. From its roots flows one of the fresh water springs of the community. During the colonial period, there were several haciendas in the municipality. One of these was San Nicolás de Concá, which still has abundant vegetation, a large fresh water spring and hiking trails. The main house has been converted into a hotel, conserving part of the original structure made of adobe, with rustic stairs, wooden roof beams and gardens. The San Nicolas Conca hotel has fifty rooms and is owned by an American by the name of Sharpton. The hacienda was originally dedicated to sugar cane and dates from the 18th century.
The El Abanico water park has two swimming pools, a wading pool, restaurant and gardens and areas for camping. It is located next to the Concá Hacienda.
The Hotel Ayutla water park has two swimming pools, three wading pools, sports fields, picnic areas, restaurant, gardens and areas to camp.
Archeology
The San Rafael site was first documented in 1939 by the Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia. Some work was done on the site by archeologists such as Dominique Michelet for about a decade. This work determined that the site was occupied from 200 to 900 CE as a Mesoamerican city with temples, plazas, patios and residences located around four Mesoamerican ball courts. The city was a regional seat of government with strong Huasteca influence. It had a total of 250 buildings even larger than the better known sites of Las Ranas and Toluquilla .
Eight to ten structures are considered destroyed and more may have suffered irreversible damage by acids eating way the limestone blocks. As of 2006, the limits of the sites have still not been defined. The vestiges of the site lie about three hundred meters below the dump. The site belongs to the Río Verde Culture and its estimated to extend over 10km2. Its importance has been compared to that of Tamtoc in San Luis Potosí.
References
Populated places in Querétaro |
4334441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Lewis%20%28martial%20artist%29 | Joe Lewis (martial artist) | Joseph Henry Lewis (March 7, 1944 – August 31, 2012) was an American martial artist, professional kickboxer and actor. Originally a practitioner of Shōrin-ryū karate and champion in point sparring competitions, he became one of the fathers of full contact karate and kickboxing in the United States, and is credited with popularizing the combat sport in North America.
As a fighter, Lewis gained fame for his matches in the 1960s and 1970s, and was nicknamed "the Muhammad Ali of karate." He has twice been voted the greatest fighter in karate history, having won innumerable karate tournaments, and has attained the titles of "United States Heavyweight Kickboxing Champion," "World Heavyweight Full Contact Karate Champion," and "United States National Black Belt Kata Champion." Though initially trained and primarily known as a karateka, Lewis cross-trained in several other martial arts, including Ryukyu Kenpo, boxing, judo, jeet kune do, tai chi, and folkstyle wrestling.
His friend and training partner Bruce Lee coined him "The Greatest Karate Fighter of All Time." He was also named by the STAR System World Kickboxing Ratings as the "STAR Historic Undisputed Heavyweight World Champion" and is credited on their site as the "Father of Modern Kickboxing". He competed professionally from 1965 to 1983, with a 16-1-4 record and 14 wins by knockout.
Early life and training
Joseph Henry Lewis was born on March 7, 1944, in Knightdale, North Carolina. In 1962, Lewis enlisted in the US Marine Corps. He was stationed at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point in Havelock, North Carolina from July 20, 1962, to April 12, 1964. He studied Shōrin-ryū Karate with , John Korab, Chinsaku Kinjo, and Seiyu Oyata while stationed in Okinawa between May 21, 1964, and November 29, 1965, earning his black belt in a mere seven months. He was one of the first Marines stationed in Vietnam, there meeting Rocky Graziano.
From February 7 to July 14, 1966, he was stationed at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, at which time he was released from active duty. Upon returning to the US, he began a winning tournament career. From 1967 to 1968, he studied privately with the influential Wing-Chun kung fu teacher, Jeet Kune Do founder, and Chinese/Hollywood movie legend Bruce Lee.
Hong Kong cinema historian Bey Logan says Lewis was the original pick of Bruce Lee for the villain Colt in Way of the Dragon, but that Lee and Lewis either had a falling out or Lewis had a scheduling conflict, and thus Chuck Norris was tapped instead.
Karate career
In 1966, with only 22 months of training, Lewis won the grand championship of the 1st tournament he entered, The U.S. Nationals promoted by Jhoon Rhee. Lewis defeated 7 opponents before defeating Thomas Carroll by a 2–0 decision. Lewis reigned as the U.S. Nationals grand champion from 1966 to 1969. At the 1967 Nationals in Washington, Lewis won the championship by defeating Mitchell Bobrow in the semi-final and beating Frank Hargrove 3–2 in the finals. Previously, Lewis defeated Hargrove in New York City at 'Henry Cho's Karate Tournament'. During that time, he also defeated Chuck Norris .
In 1966, at the Long Beach Internationals, Lewis lost an upset decision to Allen Steen. In 1967, Lewis defeated Wieland Norris (brother of Chuck Norris), Steve LaBounty, Frank Knoll, and Frank Hargrove (for the third time).
In February, 1968, Lewis and five other top-rated fighters (Bob Wall, Skipper Mullins, J. Pat Burleson, David Moon, and Fred Wren) fought in the first World Professional Karate Championships (WPKC) promoted by Jim Harrison. This was the first "professional" tournament in karate history and took place in Harrison's dojo in Kansas City. The rules allowed "heavy contact." Lewis won the tournament and was paid one dollar, thus officially making him the first professional champion in karate history.
At the 1968 'Orient vs. U.S. Tournament', promoted by Aaron Banks, Lewis lost a decision to Japanese-American N. Tanaka. At the 'First Professional Karate Tournament' in Dallas, Texas, Lewis won the championship trophy by decisioning Larry Whitner, Phil Ola, and Skipper Mullins.
In August, 1968, Lewis was defeated by Victor Moore at the second professional karate tournament in history. The event was called the World's Hemisphere Karate Championships and it took place in San Antonio, Texas; promoted by Robert Trias and Atlee Chittim. Moore and Lewis split the championship purse of $1,000. That same year, Lewis defeated Louis Delgado (who had beaten Chuck Norris the year before).
On November 24, 1968, at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in New York City, Lewis won Aaron Banks', World Professional Karate Championships by defeating Victor Moore to win the World Heavyweight Title. Lewis was paid $600 for his title winning effort.
In 1970, Lewis lost in yet another upset to John Natividad at the All-Star Team Championships in Long Beach, California. However, at the 'Battle of Atlanta' promoted by Joe Corley, Joe Lewis defeated Mitchell Bobrow in a closely contested come-from-behind victory for the Heavyweight Championship, and Joe Hayes for the Grand Championship.
At Ed Parker's 1972 'International Karate Championships', Darnell Garcia scored an upset victory over Lewis.
At the 1972 Grande Nationals in Memphis Tennessee, Joe Lewis beat Jerry Piddington winning his grande title match in a 1–0 victory.
Joe Lewis was voted by the top fighters and promoters as the greatest karate fighter of all time in 1983. Chuck Norris and Bill Wallace tied for second place. Gene Lebell has credited Joe as the person who "brought us full-contact karate."
1974 was to be a busy year for Joe Lewis and it would mark his final year in tournament karate competition. In May, Lewis lost to Charles Curry in New York at the Hidy Ochiai National Karate Tournament. That same month, Lewis won the PAWAK tournament which lasted from May 11 – May 12. Lewis scored victories over Frank Harvey, Smiley Urquidez, Benny Urquidez, and Cecil Peoples in the elimination matches. Joe won the championship with a 4–3 points decision over Steve Sanders. Finally, at Mike Anderson's, 'Top 10 National Professional Karate Tournament', Lewis lost to Everett "Monster Man" Eddy in the finals.
Joe Lewis was a veteran of the Vietnam War where he served in the communications field. His military decorations include: Marine Corps Good Conduct Medal, National Defense Service Medal, Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal, and "Expert" Rifle Badge. He acted in films and on TV, and was briefly married to actress Barbara Leigh. Throughout his life, he continued to give seminars and work in the entertainment industry.
Kickboxing and full-contact Karate career
Starting in 1967, Lewis began training privately with Bruce Lee. Lewis also began training with former heavyweight boxing contender Joe Orbillo, enhancing his skills.
In late 1969 promoter Lee Faulkner contacted Joe Lewis to fight in his upcoming United States Karate Championships. Lewis had retired from point fighting at the time but agreed to fight if Faulkner would promote a full-contact karate bout with Lewis and an opponent who would fight to the knockout. Faulkner agreed. As Lewis and Greg Baines entered the ring wearing boxing gloves the announcer identified the fighters as "kickboxers". That night Joe Lewis won the first-ever kickboxing bout in North America on January 17, 1970, with a second-round knockout over Greg Baines.
Previous to this bout, Lewis defeated Chuck Lemmons in point karate at the US Pro Team Karate finals that were held prior to the kickboxing main event.
On June 20, 1970, in Dallas, Texas, Lewis defended his United States Kickboxing Association heavyweight title against "Big" Ed Daniel at the U.S.A. Professional Open Karate Championships promoted by Lee Faulkner and Allen Steen. Daniels had a background in professional wrestling, and amateur boxing, as well as having received his black belt from Lewis' original teacher and being a police officer at the time. He also enjoyed a vast weight and size advantage over Lewis. In a veritable David vs Goliath bout, Lewis knocked out Daniel in 2 rounds. In a later rematch, Lewis KO'd Daniel in 3 rounds.
On January 24, 1971, at the 2nd Annual United Nations Open Karate Championships promoted by Aaron Banks, Lewis knocked out Ronnie Barkoot at 1:25 of the first round. At another Banks promotion; United States Championship Kickboxing Bouts, Lewis scored a 3rd-round knockout over "Atlas" Jesse King.
In total, Lewis defended his United States Heavyweight Kickboxing title with 8 straight knockouts between 1970/71. The 1970–71 rules for US kickboxing included striking, kicking, knees, elbows and footsweeps. Only crescent kicks and round kicks were permitted to the head.
Lewis is the first kickboxer to be featured in both The Ring boxing magazine and Sports Illustrated. Although promoter Lee Faulkner attempted to organize a legitimate "world" title fight between US champ Joe Lewis and a Thai kickboxing champion, a fight never materialized.
By the end of 1971, interest in kickboxing had hit an all-time low, with promoters unable to attract a crowd to a kickboxing event. Lewis retired as undefeated United States Heavyweight Kickboxing champion in 1971. His record as the undisputed United States heavyweight kickboxing champion was a perfect 10–0 with 10 KO's.
September 14, 1974, on ABC's Wide World of Entertainment promoter Mike Anderson introduced PKA 'full-contact' karate. In the bouts, competitors wore foam hand and foot protection and fought to the knockout (Kickboxing rules allowed for leg kicks: full-contact karate rules did not permit kicks to the legs). Lewis, the retired US Heavyweight Kickboxing champion was accustomed to full contact fighting. In 1974 he beat his only opponent in the new sport of full contact karate with a 2nd round ridge hand knockout over Yugoslavia's Frank Brodar in Los Angeles, California to win the Professional Karate Association (PKA) Heavyweight full-contact karate title.
The original 1974 PKA world champions, including Joe Lewis (heavyweight), Jeff Smith (light heavyweight) and Bill 'Superfoot' Wallace (middleweight) received so much fanfare from the PKA title wins and resultant publicity in popular martial arts magazines that their status as "legends of the karate world" was guaranteed. Lewis advanced his public persona the next year by appearing on the cover of Playgirl magazine. In 1975 Joe Lewis was inducted into the Black Belt magazine Hall of Fame as the 1974 full contact karate "fighter of the year".
In a 1975 comeback fight in Hawaii Lewis lost a 3-round decision (non title) to Teddy Limoz in Hawaii, and in September, he lost a 7-round decision to Ross Scott after suffering a dislocated shoulder. Lewis was stripped of the PKA World Heavyweight championship title after contract disputes. In 1977, Lewis was the martial arts coordinator of the movie Circle of Iron, and continued his acting career by starring in Jaguar Lives in 1978 and Force: Five in 1981.
At the age of 39, in 1983, Joe Lewis launched a comeback which saw him earn a top-10 PKA world ranking. Neglecting an extended training time to begin his comeback for a title Lewis defeated T. Morrison by KO, decisioned Charleton Young and Curtis Crandall and knocked out Melvin Cole. On April 16, Lewis lost a decision to Tom Hall in an upset, in a fight in which Lewis focused on getting a body punch KO and suffered a serious cut. On August 10, Lewis suffered a disappointing 4th round stoppage due to yet another cut to US heavyweight champion Kerry Roop for the PKA US heavyweight title. Lewis retired after the defeat. Joe Lewis's competitive career in kickboxing and PKA full-contact karate ended with a combined record of 17 wins and 4 losses with 15 wins obtained by knockout, a K.O ratio of 71.4% (The PKA World title record was 5 wins 4 losses). In 1990 Lewis (198 lbs) fought one last exhibition kickboxing/karate match with friend Bill Wallace (166 lbs) on pay per view. Both Lewis and Wallace were refused a boxing license because of their age. Though it was only an exhibition, many people believed it was the main event of the night due to the publicity it attracted. The fight was billed "Speed vs Power". The exhibition ended with two judges scoring a tie and one judge giving the fight to Wallace in the exhibition event, however Lewis later recounted that he was warned not to cross the line with Wallace, as Lewis enjoyed a 30-pound advantage on Wallace.
Fighting style
Joe Lewis' seemingly dominating characteristic as a fighter was his phenomenal strength. Thanks to a youth of weight lifting and collegiate wrestling, Lewis was an intimidating adversary and would use his relentless power to see him through. He was considered a very intimidating presence in the Karate tournament scene. However, he was also very fast, which allowed him to score his thunderous signature side kick on his opponents. In later years, Joe would be able to replicate some of Bruce Lee's legendary speed feats, such as asking a volunteer to block his punches, which would prove too fast to be blocked. As a Karate point fighter, Lewis was famous for his lead side kick, particularly his left. At one point he was asked by on-lookers why he only used that technique. He replied: "Why not? They can't block it." He also developed a fast back fist punch, and failing that, he would grab his opponent's dogi and use the reverse punch until the fight was stopped.
After cross-training in Boxing with Sugar Ray Robinson and Joe Orbillio, and then training Jeet Kune Do with Bruce Lee, Lewis would gain a unique view on how to handle distance and closing the gap. His preferred techniques as a full contact Karate and Kickboxing fighter were his trademark side kick, and the hook punch, particularly the left, typically delivered in combinations, he also claimed that it was typical of his style to use low kicks as early as his first kickboxing bout against Greg Baines, and once referred to them as his "main weapon". Thanks to his background as a wrestler, and his studying of Shōrin-ryū Karate (both Shobayashi and Matsubayashi), Okinawan Kenpo, Judo, Jeet Kune Do, Boxing and Tai Chi, Joe Lewis was a very well-rounded fighter.
Joe Lewis as a teacher devoted to instructing martial artists in the Five Angles of Attack and other principles which he learned from Bruce Lee's Kung Fu and then modified through his full contact experience.
Health issues and death
Early in July 2011, Lewis was diagnosed with a malignant brain tumor, and was told he would have six to eight weeks to live without surgery. He underwent surgery on July 18 and the tumor was removed.
Lewis died one year and forty-five days later, on the morning of August 31, 2012, at Coatesville Veterans Affairs Medical Center in Coatesville, Pennsylvania. He was 68 years old. The battle with cancer lasted 13 months, and the cancer spread to his left shoulder and hip before he passed away. He was buried at Knightdale Baptist Church Cemetery, Knightdale, Wake County, North Carolina.
Legacy
Lewis left behind his own system of martial arts teaching, called the Joe Lewis American Karate Systems which focuses on full-contact fighting. Due to his role in developing and promoting the sport's first event in the American continent, Joe Lewis is considered to be the "Father of Kickboxing" in the western world, and he's also been called "the man who brought us Full Contact Karate." Black Belt Magazine describes his process of solo training in boxing and combining those techniques with his Karate techniques as "the result is the martial sport now known as Kickboxing." His efforts in these fields eventually resulted in the Mixed martial arts competition of today.
In the cover story February 1993 issue of Black Belt magazine, Joe Lewis states that his proteges' John and Jim Graden are his choice to carry the torch of his system after his death. ("The Passing of the Torch Legendary Fighter Joe Lewis Grooms His Successors")
In popular culture
The character from the Street Fighter series of fighting video games, Ken Masters, was based upon Joe Lewis' likeness and trajectory, both being Americans having learned a traditional karate style in Japan, then returning home to become the United States Champion, to worldwide acclaim. Masters' characteristic red uniform and blond hair were patterned after a popular cover in which Joe Lewis appeared, sporting that same look. Lewis, with his personal mixture of Karate, Boxing and Jeet Kune Do, represents the eclectic approach that some of the American martial artists took towards more traditional martial arts. In the same vein, Ken Masters sports a flashier fighting style than his best friend Ryu. The American kickboxer, Joe, from the first Street Fighter's game, also seems to have been based in Joe Lewis.
Lewis is indirectly referenced in a scene from the 2019 Quentin Tarantino film Once Upon a Time in Hollywood when Bruce Lee (played by Mike Moh) refers to him as "[T]hat white kickboxing a--hole." to differentiate him from the black boxer Joe Louis.
Kickboxing record
|-
|
|Loss
| style="text-align:left" | Kerry Roop
|
|Akron, Ohio, USA
|TKO (cut)
| 4
|
|16–4
|For PKA US Heavyweight title.
|-
|
|Win
| style="text-align:left" | Melvin Cole
|
|Atlanta, Georgia, USA
|TKO (referee stoppage)
| 4
| 1:57
|16–3
|
|-
|
|Loss
| style="text-align:left" | Tom Hall
|
|Atlantic City, New Jersey, USA
|Decision (unanimous)
|
|
|15–3
|
|-
|
|Win
| style="text-align:left" | Charlton Young
|Battle of Atlanta Karate Championships
|Atlanta, Georgia, USA
|Decision
| 7
| 3:00
|15–2
|
|-
|
|Win
| style="text-align:left" | Curtis Crandall
|
|Charlotte, North Carolina, USA
|Decision
| 6
| 3:00
|14–2
|
|-
|
|Win
| style="text-align:left" | Bill Morrison
|
|Greenville, North Carolina, USA
|KO
| 3
|
|13–2
|
|-
|
|Loss
| style="text-align:left" | Ross Scott
|
|Atlantic City, New Jersey, USA
|Decision
| 7
| 3:00
|12–2
|
|-
|
|Loss
| style="text-align:left" | Teddy Limoz
|World Series of Martial Arts Championships
|Honolulu, Hawaii, USA
|Decision
| 3
| 3:00
|12–1
|For WSMAC Openweight World title. Loses PKA Heavyweight World title.
|-
|
|Win
| style="text-align:left" | Ron Clay
|World Series of Martial Arts Championships
|Honolulu, Hawaii, USA
|KO (punches)
| 1
| 1:55
|12–0
|
|-
|
|Win
| style="text-align:left" | Franc Brodar
|
|Los Angeles, California, USA
|KO (ridge hand)
| 2
|
|11–0
|Wins PKA Heavyweight World title.
|-
|
|Win
| style="text-align:left" | Herbie Thompson
|Florida State Karate Championships
|Florida, USA
|TKO (retirement)
| 2
|
|10–0
|
|-
|
|Win
| style="text-align:left" | Victor Moore
|
|Kansas City, Kansas, USA
|KO
|
|
|9–0
|
|-
|
|Win
| style="text-align:left" | Bob Smith
|
|St. Louis, Missouri, USA
|KO
| 2
|
|8–0
|Defends USKA Heavyweight title.
|-
|
|Win
| style="text-align:left" | Ed Daniel
|
|Houston, Texas, USA
|KO (body kick)
| 3
|
|7–0
|Defends USKA Heavyweight title.
|-
|
|Win
| style="text-align:left" | Jesse King
|US Championship Kickboxing
|New York City, New York, USA
|KO
| 2
| 2:30
|6–0
|Rematch on same night. Defends USKA Heavyweight title.
|-
|
|Win
| style="text-align:left" | Jesse King
|US Championship Kickboxing
|New York City, New York, USA
|KO
| 1
|
|5–0
|Defends USKA Heavyweight title.
|-
|
|Win
| style="text-align:left" | Norman Barkoot
|2nd United Nations Open Karate Championships
|New York City, New York, USA
|KO
| 1
| 1:25
|4–0
|Defends USKA Heavyweight title.
|-
|
|Win
| style="text-align:left" | Wally Slocki
|Toronto Karate Championships
|Toronto, Ontario, Canada
|KO (knee)
| 3
| 0:25
|3–0
|
|-
|
|Win
| style="text-align:left" | Ed Daniel
|US Pro Open Karate Championships
|Dallas, Texas, USA
|KO
| 2
| 1:00
|2–0
|Defends USKA Heavyweight title.
|-
|
|Win
| style="text-align:left" | Greg Baines
|US Pro Team Karate Championships
|Long Beach, California, USA
|KO (punches)
| 2
| 0:59
|1–0
|Wins USKA Heavyweight title.
|-
| colspan=10 | Legend:
See also
List of male kickboxers
United States Kickboxing Association
Professional Karate Association
Joe Lewis Memorial Page
References
External links
1944 births
2012 deaths
American male kickboxers
Kickboxers from North Carolina
Heavyweight kickboxers
American male karateka
United States Marines
United States Marine Corps personnel of the Vietnam War
Martial arts school founders
American Jeet Kune Do practitioners
People from Knightdale, North Carolina
Deaths from cancer in Pennsylvania
Deaths from brain cancer in the United States
Shōrin-ryū practitioners |
4334585 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water%20polo%20at%20the%20Summer%20Olympics | Water polo at the Summer Olympics | Water polo has been part of the Summer Olympics program since the second games, in 1900. A women's water polo tournament was introduced for the 2000 Summer Olympics. Hungary has been the most successful country in men's tournament, while the United States is the only team to win multiple times at the women's tournament since its introduction. Italy is the first and only country to win both the men's and women's water polo tournaments.
History
The history of water polo as a team sport began in mid-19th century England and Scotland, where water sports were a feature of county fairs and festivals. Water polo has been included in every Summer Olympic Games as a men's competition sport, except 1896. Women's water polo made its debut in the Summer Olympics in 2000.
Beginnings
Men's water polo was among the first team sports introduced at the modern Olympic Games in 1900. Seven European teams from four countries, including four from the host nation France, took part in the competition. The British team was the inaugural champion.
At the 1904 Summer Olympics, a water polo tournament was contested, three club teams of seven players each entered. A German team tried to enter, but its entry was refused because the players did not play for the same club. The event took place in a pond in Forest Park, the location of both the Olympics and the World's Fair. Previously, the International Olympic Committee and International Swimming Federation (FINA) considered the water polo event at the 1904 Olympics as a demonstration sport. However, in July 2021, after accepting the recommendation of Olympic historian Bill Mallon, the IOC recognized water polo along with several others as an official sport of the 1904 Olympic program. Water polo was not played at the 1906 Olympics.
From 1908 to 1920, the Great Britain men's national water polo team won three consecutive gold medals at the Olympics, becoming the first water polo team to have an Olympic winning streak (winning three or more Olympic titles in a row).
Hungarian dominance
Hungary men's national water polo team has participated in 22 of 27 Olympic tournaments, with fifteen Olympic medals (nine gold, three silver and three bronze). From 1928 to 1980, the Hungarians won twelve consecutive medals in water polo. Twenty years later, the team won three golds in a row between 2000 and 2008, becoming the second team to have an Olympic winning streak in water polo.
Blood in the Water match
The most famous water polo match in Olympic history often referred to as the Blood in the Water match, was a 1956 Summer Olympics semi-final match between Hungary and the Soviet Union, played in Melbourne on 6 December 1956. As the athletes left for the games, the Hungarian revolution began, and the Soviet army crushed the uprising. The match was bloody and violent. The Hungarians defeated the Soviets 4–0 before the game was called off in the final minute to prevent angry Hungarians in the crowd reacting to Soviet player Valentin Prokopov punching Hungarian player Ervin Zádor. Pictures of Zádor's injuries were published around the world, leading to the "Blood in the Water" moniker.
The Hungarians went on to win the Olympic gold medal by defeating Yugoslavia 2–1 in the final.
Addition of women's program
Women's water polo became an Olympic sport at the 2000 Sydney Olympics. Six nations competed in the women's tournament with home team Australia winning the gold medal over the United States.
From 2012 to 2021, the United States women's team won three consecutive gold medals at the Summer Olympics, becoming the first women's water polo team to have an Olympic winning streak.
Geography
Water polo is now popular in many countries around the world, notably Europe (particularly in Croatia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Malta, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Spain), Australia, Brazil, Canada and the United States.
As of the 2020 Summer Olympics, 51 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) from six continents have sent their water polo teams to the Olympic Games. Men's water polo teams of European NOCs won all 27 official tournaments, while women's teams from Europe, North America and Oceania won all six gold medals. Water polo teams from Africa, Asia and South America have not won an Olympic medal yet.
Venues
For the Summer Olympics, there are 34 venues that have been or will be used for water polo.
The Seine in Paris hosted the first water polo competitions at the 1900 Olympics. The Forest Park in St. Louis hosted the water polo events for the 1904 Summer Olympics.
The first water polo venue not located on a river or a lake took place at the 1908 London Olympics. It was not until the 1920 Olympics that a separate venue was created for the aquatic venues. The 1948 Games were the first Olympics in which water polo took place both indoors and in more than one venue. The first separate water polo venue that was not connected to other aquatic venues was at the 1964 Tokyo Olympics.
The Water Polo Arena of the 2012 London Olympics was the first dedicated water polo venue to be built for an Olympics, the structure was taken down after the games.
Paris 1900: Seine, Paris
St. Louis 1904: Forest Park, St. Louis
London 1908: White City Stadium, White City
Stockholm 1912: Djurgårdsbrunnsviken, Stockholm
Antwerp 1920: Stade Nautique d'Antwerp, Antwerp
Paris 1924: Piscine des Tourelles, Paris
Amsterdam 1928: Olympic Sports Park Swim Stadium, Amsterdam
Los Angeles 1932: Swimming Stadium, Los Angeles
Berlin 1936: Olympic Swimming Stadium, Berlin
London 1948: Empire Pool (final), Wembley; and Finchley Lido, North Finchley
Helsinki 1952: Swimming Stadium, Helsinki
Melbourne 1956: Swimming/Diving Stadium, Melbourne
Rome 1960: Piscina delle Rose and Stadio Olimpico del Nuoto (final), both in Rome
Tokyo 1964: Tokyo Metropolitan Indoor Swimming Pool, Tokyo
Mexico City 1968: Francisco Márquez Olympic Pool (final) and University City Swimming Pool, both in Mexico City
Munich 1972: Dantebad and Schwimmhalle (final), both in Munich
Montreal 1976: Complexe sportif Claude-Robillard and Olympic Pool (final), both in Montreal
Moscow 1980: Swimming Pool - Moscow and Swimming Pool - Olimpiysky (final), both in Moscow
Los Angeles 1984: Raleigh Runnels Memorial Pool, Malibu, California
Seoul 1988: Jamsil Indoor Swimming Pool, Seoul
Barcelona 1992: Piscina Municipal de Montjuïc and Piscines Bernat Picornell (finals), both in Barcelona
Atlanta 1996: Georgia Tech Aquatic Center, Atlanta
Sydney 2000: Ryde Aquatic Leisure Centre, Ryde; and Sydney International Aquatic Centre, Sydney
Athens 2004: Athens Olympic Aquatic Centre, Athens
Beijing 2008: Ying Tung Natatorium, Beijing
London 2012: Water Polo Arena, London
Rio de Janeiro 2016: Maria Lenk Aquatics Centre and Olympic Aquatics Stadium (finals), Rio de Janeiro
Tokyo 2020: Tokyo Tatsumi International Swimming Center, Tokyo
Paris 2024: Paris Aquatics Centre (prelims phase) and Paris La Défense Arena (final phase)
Los Angeles 2028: Long Beach Waterfront
Brisbane 2032: Sleeman Centre
Sources:
Official Reports (PDF): 1900–1996;
Official Results Books (PDF): 2000–2016;
Olympedia: Water polo venues.
Events
Notes
The X indicates that the tournament was held as a full Olympic medal sport.
The bullet () denotes that it was contested as an unofficial sport.
Rules
Qualification Summary
Qualification
Since 2012, the qualifying process consists of five stages:
The team of the host nation qualifies automatically.
No more than one team qualifies as the top team in the FINA World League.
No more than three teams qualify as the top teams in the World Aquatics Championships.
No more than five teams qualify as the continental Olympic qualification tournament champions.
No more than four teams qualify through a world qualifying tournament, in which the best teams which did not qualify directly from each continent compete for the remaining berths.
Players
Eligibility
According to the FINA General Rules, the list below shows the requirements for a player to be eligible to play in international tournaments:
"GR 1.1: All competitors shall be registered with their National Federation to be eligible to compete."
"GR 2.5: When a competitor or competition official represents his/her country in a competition, he/she shall be a citizen, whether by birth or naturalisation, of the nation he/she represents, provided that a naturalised citizen shall have lived in that country for at least one year prior to that competition. Competitors, who have more than one nationality according to the laws of the respective nations must choose one 'Sport Nationality'. This choice shall be exercised by the first representation of the competitor for one of the countries."
"GR 2.6: Any competitor or competition official changing his sport nationality from one national governing body to another must have resided in the territory of and been under the jurisdiction of the latter for at least twelve months prior to his first representation for the country."
Competition format
For both the men's and women's tournaments at the 2020 Olympics (which was postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic), the competition consists of a round-robin group stage followed by a knockout stage. Teams are placed into two groups, with each team playing each other team in its group once. Teams earn 2 points for a win, 1 point for a draw, and 0 points for a loss. The top four teams in each group advance to the knockout rounds. The knockout rounds are a single-elimination tournament consisting of quarterfinals, semifinals, and the gold and bronze medal matches.
Matches consist of four quarters of eight minutes each. During the knockout rounds, if the score is tied after four quarters (32 minutes), penalty shootouts, which is 5 rounds, plus extra rounds if tied, are used to determine the winner.
Sources:
Official Reports (PDF): 1900–1996;
Official Results Books (PDF): 2000–2016;
Olympedia: 1900–2016;
Sports Reference: 1900–2016.
Game rules
Maximum number of players per team
Sources:
Official Reports (PDF): 1900–1996;
Official Results Books (PDF): 2000–2016.
Anti-doping
The FINA follows the World Anti-Doping Agency's (WADA) regulations on performance-enhancing drugs. According to the WADA, a positive in-competition test results in disqualification of the player and a suspension that varies based on the number of offences. When a player tests positive, the rest of their team is subjected to testing; another positive test can result in a disqualification of the entire team.
Men's tournament
Results summary
Sources:
Official Reports (PDF): 1900–1996 (men's tournaments);
Official Results Books (PDF): 2000–2020 (men's tournaments);
Olympedia: 1900–2020 (men's tournaments);
Sports Reference: 1900–2016 (men's tournaments).
Confederation statistics
Best performances by tournament
Team statistics
Comprehensive team results by tournament
Finishes in the top four
Medal table
Champions (results, squads)
Champions (results)
Champions (squads)
Team records
Player statistics
Multiple appearances (five-time Olympians)
Multiple medalists
Multiple gold medalists
Top goalscorers (one match, one tournament, all-time)
Top goalscorers (one match)
Top goalscorers (one tournament)
Top goalscorers (all-time)
Top goalkeepers (one match, one tournament, all-time)
Top goalkeepers (one match)
Top goalkeepers (one tournament)
Top goalkeepers (all-time)
Coach statistics
Most successful coaches
Medals as coach and player
Women's tournament
Results summary
Sources:
Official Results Books (PDF): 2000–2016 (women's tournaments);
Olympedia: 2000–2016 (women's tournaments);
Sports Reference: 2000–2016 (women's tournaments).
Confederation statistics
Best performances by tournament
Team statistics
Comprehensive team results by tournament
Finishes in the top four
Medal table
Champions (results, squads)
Champions (results)
Champions (squads)
Team records
Player statistics
Multiple appearances (four-time Olympians)
Multiple medalists
Multiple gold medalists
Top goalscorers (one match, one tournament, all-time)
Top goalscorers (one match)
Top goalscorers (one tournament)
Top goalscorers (all-time)
Top goalkeepers (one match, one tournament, all-time)
Top goalkeepers (one match)
Top goalkeepers (one tournament)
Top goalkeepers (all-time)
Coach statistics
Most successful coaches
Medals as coach and player
Overall medal table
The following table is pre-sorted by number of Olympic gold medals (in descending order), number of Olympic silver medals (in descending order), number of Olympic bronze medals (in descending order), name of the NOC (in ascending order), respectively. Last updated: 31 December 2021.
Italy is the only country to win both the men's and women's water polo tournaments at the Summer Olympics. Italy men's national team won gold medals at the 1948, 1960 and 1992 Olympics, while the women's team was Olympic champions in 2004.
Legend
NOC◊ – NOC that won medals in both the men's and women's tournaments
NOC† – Defunct NOC
Winning two medals in one edition of the Games
As of the 2020 Summer Olympics, four NOCs won two medals in one edition of the Games.
Legend
– Hosts
Water polo people at the opening and closing ceremonies
Flag bearers
Some sportspeople were chosen to carry the national flag of their country at the opening and closing ceremonies of the Olympic Games. As of the 2020 Summer Olympics, thirty water polo people from six continents were given the honour. Among them, three flag bearers won the tournament with his/her team.
Charles Smith, representing Great Britain, was the first water polo player to be a flag bearer at the opening and closing ceremonies of the Olympics.
Six-time Olympian Manuel Estiarte of Spain was the flag bearer during the opening ceremony at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney.
After winning gold in the women's tournament, Carmela Allucci, the captain of the Italian women's water polo team, carried the national flag of Italy at the closing ceremony of the 2004 Summer Olympics, becoming the first female water polo player to be given the honour.
Legend
– Opening ceremony of the 2008 Summer Olympics
– Closing ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics
– Hosts
– Female flag bearer
Flag bearer‡ – Flag bearer who won the tournament with his/her team
Oath takers
Some sportspeople from the host nations were chosen to take the Olympic Oath at the opening ceremonies of the Olympic Games. As of the 2020 Summer Olympics, four water polo people were given the honour.
As an athlete, Victor Boin of Belgium took the first ever Olympic Oath at the 1920 Games in Antwerp.
Eugeni Asensio, a Spanish water polo referee, took the Officials' Oath at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona.
As a water polo referee, Australian Peter Kerr took the Officials' Oath at the 2000 Sydney Olympics.
Asumi Tsuzaki of Japan took the Officials' Oath at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, becoming the first female water polo referee to be given the honour.
Legend
– Hosts
– Female oath taker
Oath taker‡ – Oath taker who won the tournament with his/her team
See also
Lists of Olympic water polo records and statistics
List of men's Olympic water polo tournament records and statistics
List of women's Olympic water polo tournament records and statistics
List of Olympic champions in men's water polo
List of Olympic champions in women's water polo
National team appearances in the men's Olympic water polo tournament
National team appearances in the women's Olympic water polo tournament
List of players who have appeared in multiple men's Olympic water polo tournaments
List of players who have appeared in multiple women's Olympic water polo tournaments
List of Olympic medalists in water polo (men)
List of Olympic medalists in water polo (women)
List of men's Olympic water polo tournament top goalscorers
List of women's Olympic water polo tournament top goalscorers
List of men's Olympic water polo tournament goalkeepers
List of women's Olympic water polo tournament goalkeepers
List of Olympic venues in water polo
Water polo at the World Aquatics Championships
FINA Water Polo World Rankings
List of water polo world medalists
Major achievements in water polo by nation
Notes
References
Sources
Official Reports (IOC)
PDF documents in the LA84 Foundation Digital Library:
Official Report of the 1896 Olympic Games (download, archive)
Official Report of the 1900 Olympic Games (download, archive)
Official Report of the 1904 Olympic Games (download, archive)
Official Report of the 1908 Olympic Games (download, archive) (pp. 359–361)
Official Report of the 1912 Olympic Games (download, archive) (pp. 1021–1024, 1031–1037)
Official Report of the 1920 Olympic Games (download, archive) (p. 130)
Official Report of the 1924 Olympic Games (download, archive) (pp. 439–440, 486–494)
Official Report of the 1928 Olympic Games (download, archive) (pp. 746–757, 797–807)
Official Report of the 1932 Olympic Games (download, archive) (pp. 619–623, 646–652)
Official Report of the 1936 Olympic Games, v.2 (download, archive) (pp. 345–356)
Official Report of the 1948 Olympic Games (download, archive) (pp. 537–540, 640–647)
Official Report of the 1952 Olympic Games (download, archive) (pp. 600–608)
Official Report of the 1956 Olympic Games (download, archive) (pp. 592–594, 624–627)
Official Report of the 1960 Olympic Games (download, archive) (pp. 552–555, 617–634)
Official Report of the 1964 Olympic Games, v.2 (download, archive) (pp. 682–698)
Official Report of the 1968 Olympic Games, v.3 (download, archive) (pp. 449–466, 811–826)
Official Report of the 1972 Olympic Games, v.3 (download, archive) (pp. 331, 353–365)
Official Report of the 1976 Olympic Games, v.3 (download, archive) (pp. 446–447, 484–497)
Official Report of the 1980 Olympic Games, v.3 (download, archive) (pp. 458, 495–510)
Official Report of the 1984 Olympic Games, v.2 (download, archive) (pp. 528–534)
Official Report of the 1988 Olympic Games, v.2 (download, archive) (pp. 590–598)
Official Report of the 1992 Olympic Games, v.5 (download, archive) (pp. 354, 386–400)
Official Report of the 1996 Olympic Games, v.3 (download, archive) (pp. 56–73)
Official Results Books (IOC)
PDF documents in the LA84 Foundation Digital Library:
Official Results Book – 2000 Olympic Games – Water Polo (download, archive)
Official Results Book – 2004 Olympic Games – Water Polo (download, archive)
Official Results Book – 2008 Olympic Games – Water Polo (download, archive)
PDF documents on the FINA website:
Official Results Book – 2012 Olympic Games – Diving, Swimming, Synchronised Swimming, Water Polo (archive) (pp. 284–507)
PDF documents in the Olympic World Library:
Official Results Book – 2016 Olympic Games – Water Polo (archive)
PDF documents on the International Olympic Committee website:
Official Results Book – 2020 Olympic Games – Water Polo (archive)
Official Reports (FINA)
PDF documents on the FINA website:
HistoFINA – Water polo medalists and statistics (as of September 2019) (archive) (pp. 4–13, 56)
1870–2020 | 150 years of Water Polo – Evolution of its rules (archive)
Official website (IOC)
Water polo on the International Olympic Committee website:
Water polo
Men's water polo
Women's water polo
Olympedia
Water polo on the Olympedia website:
Water polo
Men's water polo
Women's water polo
Athlete count for water polo
Water polo venues
Water polo at the 1900 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1904 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1908 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1912 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1920 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1924 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1928 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1932 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1936 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1948 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1952 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1956 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1960 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1964 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1968 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1972 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1976 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1980 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1984 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1988 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1992 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1996 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 2000 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, women's tournament)
Water polo at the 2004 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, women's tournament)
Water polo at the 2008 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, women's tournament)
Water polo at the 2012 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, women's tournament)
Water polo at the 2016 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, women's tournament)
Water polo at the 2020 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, women's tournament)
Sports Reference
Water polo on the Sports Reference website:
Country Medal Leaders & Athlete Medal Leaders (1900–2016) (archived)
Men's water polo (1900–2016) (archived)
Women's water polo (2000–2016) (archived)
Water polo at the 1900 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1904 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1908 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1912 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1920 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1924 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1928 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1932 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1936 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1948 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1952 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1956 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1960 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1964 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1968 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1972 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1976 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1980 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1984 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1988 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1992 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 1996 Summer Games (men's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 2000 Summer Games (men's tournament, women's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 2004 Summer Games (men's tournament, women's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 2008 Summer Games (men's tournament, women's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 2012 Summer Games (men's tournament, women's tournament) (archived)
Water polo at the 2016 Summer Games (men's tournament, women's tournament) (archived)
Todor66
Water polo on the Todor66 website:
Water polo at the Summer Games
Water polo at the 1900 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1904 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1908 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1912 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1920 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1924 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1928 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1932 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1936 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1948 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1952 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1956 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1960 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1964 Summer Olympics (men's tournament)
Water polo at the 1968 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, men's qualification)
Water polo at the 1972 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, men's qualification)
Water polo at the 1976 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, men's European qualification)
Water polo at the 1980 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, men's European qualification, men's world qualification)
Water polo at the 1984 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, men's qualification)
Water polo at the 1988 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, men's qualification)
Water polo at the 1992 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, men's qualification)
Water polo at the 1996 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, men's qualification)
Water polo at the 2000 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, men's qualification, women's tournament, women's qualification)
Water polo at the 2004 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, men's qualification, women's tournament, women's qualification)
Water polo at the 2008 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, men's qualification, women's tournament, women's qualification)
Water polo at the 2012 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, men's qualification, women's tournament, women's qualification)
Water polo at the 2016 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, men's qualification, women's tournament, women's qualification)
Water polo at the 2020 Summer Olympics (men's tournament, men's qualification, women's tournament, women's qualification)
External links
Official website
Olympics
Sports at the Summer Olympics
Olympics |
4334604 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund%20Blampied | Edmund Blampied | Edmund Blampied (30 March 1886 – 26 August 1966) was one of the most eminent artists to come from the Channel Islands, yet he received no formal training in art until he was 15 years old. He was noted mostly for his etchings and drypoints published at the height of the print boom in the 1920s during the etching revival, but was also a lithographer, caricaturist, cartoonist, book illustrator and artist in oils, watercolours, silhouettes and bronze.
Early years
Edmund Blampied (in Jèrriais Edmond Bliampid) was born on a farm in the Parish of Saint Martin, Jersey in the Channel Islands on 30 March 1886, five days after the death of his father, John Blampied. He was the last of four boys and was brought up by his mother, Elizabeth, a dressmaker and shopkeeper mostly in the Parish of Trinity, Jersey. His first language was Jèrriais. He finished parochial school at the age of 14 and went to work in the office of the town architect in Saint Helier, the capital of the island. Some of his pen and ink sketches of an agricultural show in 1901 were noticed by Mlle Marie Josephine Klintz, a woman who ran a local private art school. She gave the young Blampied his first formal lessons in art and introduced him to watercolours. His caricatures of politicians such as the Constable of St. Helier, Philippe Baudains, during a local election brought Blampied to the attention of a businessman named Saumerez James Nicolle who offered to sponsor him at art school in London, provided he tried to get a scholarship.
Art school
In January 1903, aged 16 years old and barely able to speak English, Blampied left Jersey to study at the Lambeth School of Art, where he was taught by Philip Connard R.A. and Thomas McKeggie. After taking a test and submitting some drawings, in May 1904 Blampied won a £20 London County Council (LCC) Scholarship for two years to continue his studies at any LCC art school. Later that year he was selected by the head of the Art School to work part-time on the staff of a national newspaper, The Daily Chronicle, which enabled him to earn some extra money. His first published illustrations appeared in The Daily Chronicle on 13 January 1905.
In September 1905 Blampied transferred from the Lambeth School of Art to the London County Council School of Photo-engraving and Lithography at Bolt Court for the final year of his scholarship. There he became friends with the artists and illustrators Salomon van Abbe, John Nicolson and Robert Charles Peter. It is believed that, after finishing full-time studies at Bolt Court in the summer of 1906, he continued to work at The Daily Chronicle and then perhaps at other newspapers while studying in the evenings at Bolt Court, though very little is known about this period in his life.
Etching
Blampied’s earliest etchings are dated December 1909, suggesting that he did not begin to learn this technique until the academic year 1909–1910; his teacher at Bolt Court was Walter Seymour. Blampied’s prints were first shown at an exhibition of students' work in March 1914, where his etching of an ox cart was noted by the correspondent of The Times. The first print believed to have been published was an etching entitled At the wings (illustration removed) which was reproduced in the Annual Report of Bolt Court in 1914. Blampied later recorded his method of working on zinc for etching and copper for drypoint in Ernest Stephen Lumsden's treatise The Art of Etching, published in 1925. Blampied wrote: "I generally chose from amongst my various drawings one which would tend to produce a successful plate. I do not trace on to the copper, but copy a few important lines on to the bare metal with litho-chalk. I then sketch over this with an ordinary sewing needle and rub in a little black oil-colour. . . From the first my efforts are to improve on the sketch until I consider the plate finished. . . In very few cases do I touch a plate after the first proof, so the majority have but one state. If I am dissatisfied with either the composition or details, I prefer to start afresh upon another plate rather than make radical alterations."
Independent artist
At the end of 1911, while he was developing his skills as an etcher, Blampied decided to try his luck as an independent artist with his own studio. The rapid developments in colour printing and the advertisers of the time were creating a great deal of work for commercial artists for book and magazine publishers in London. The first recorded illustration was for a piece of sheet music entitled Glamour Valse, published in 1911 by Ascherberg, Hopwood and Crew. Blampied quickly gained commissions to provide drawings for Pearson's Magazine, The Sketch, The Sphere, The Ladies Field, The Queen and The Graphic, many of which were signed "Blam", a diminutive first recorded in The Tatler in January 1916. He used this diminutive for much of his commercial work for books and magazines, including three children's books for the Edinburgh publisher Thomas Nelson and Sons, Blam's Book of Fun, The Jolly ABC, and The Breezy Farm ABC, all published in 1921, and for much of his work for Pearson's Magazine, Hutchinson's Magazine, The Bystander, and The Sketch between 1916 and 1939.
Blampied’s etchings were brought to the attention of the art dealers and publishers Ernest Brown and Phillips of the Leicester Galleries in London through an introduction from H. Granville Fell, an artist and art editor. The Leicester Galleries offered Blampied a contract and three prints were shown to the general public in February 1915 in the first of a series of exhibitions of prints called Modern Masters of Etching. Blampied's most famous print, called Driving home in the rain, which had been designed in 1913 and transferred to a zinc plate in 1914, was not shown at the Leicester Galleries until November 1916 where, according to a Jersey newspaper of that time, it received a great deal of attention and admiration.
On 5 August 1914 Edmund Blampied married Marianne van Abbe (b Amsterdam 27 August 1887, d Jersey 11 May 1986) who was the sister of Dutch-born artists Joseph and Salomon van Abbe. They had no children. Marianne had acted as his agent for several years before they married, and continued to do so until Edmund's brother John began working as an artist's agent in the 1920s. She was a great support to Blampied in his work and prompted him to travel and see the world.
Military service
When conscription was introduced in Britain in 1916, Blampied returned to Jersey in the autumn of that year to be prepared to be called up for military service. In June 1917 he was classified as not fully fit for active service and was put on guard duties in the Royal Jersey Militia. Although there was a gap in commissions for illustrations while he settled into military life, by early 1918 he had re-established his connections with the Scottish book publishers Thomas Nelson and Sons of Edinburgh, for whom he illustrated many children’s books and annuals during and immediately after the war.
Blampied quickly re-established himself in London in September 1919 after his return from Jersey and his etchings were acknowledged by the Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers who elected him an Associate in March 1920 at the same time as the wood engraver Gwen Raverat. He was elevated to the full fellowship a year later. Blampied was elected at the end of what has been called the "etching revival", but there was still a strong market for prints, mainly as an inexpensive investment in art.
In October 1920 Blampied held his first solo exhibition of 28 etchings and drypoints at the Leicester Galleries, many of which were prints that had been held back because of the war. Driving home in the rain was shown but the copy had been lent, suggesting that all proofs had been sold. His first exhibition of drawings and etchings in the US was held at Kennedy and Company in New York in early 1922.
Gold medal at 1925 Paris exposition
Blampied had started to experiment with lithography in 1920, as two lithographs were shown at his first solo exhibition, but they had been transferred to a lithographers' stone from paper, and he wanted to learn how to draw directly onto the stone. Blampied turned to Archibald Hartrick, a founder member of the Senefelder Club of lithographers, who was teaching at the Central School of Arts and Crafts, and started evening classes there. His early efforts, as with etching, proved to be very successful, especially a print named Splash, splash which caught the eye of the art critic Malcolm Salaman. Salaman included it in 1923 in the first of a long-running series of annual volumes called Fine Prints of the Year, which included examples of Blampied’s work each year between 1923 and 1937.
In 1925 the Central School of Arts and Crafts submitted two of Blampied’s lithographs with the work of other students to the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes in Paris, the exhibition that gave rise to the term “Art Deco”. The School won a Grand Prix for its works on paper and Blampied was one of 12 students who were awarded a Gold Medal as a collaborateur.
In 1924, having been inspired by an exhibition at the Leicester Galleries of models in wax by Degas, Blampied produced his only bronzes: Kicking horse, in an edition of 15, and Homewards evening (edition unknown). Blampied held another major exhibition of his work, also at the Leicester Galleries, in March 1925 where he showed eight etchings, 25 paintings and 18 drawings, but his bronzes do not seem to have been shown at an exhibition until 1929.
Illustrations for books and magazines
While developing his skills as an etcher and lithographer in the early 1920s Blampied continued to work extensively for magazines and contributed hundreds of political cartoons and decorative drawings to The Bystander magazine between 1922 and 1926; he illustrated short stories by E.F. Benson and other authors in Hutchinson’s Magazine, and continued to design book jackets for publishers including Hodder & Stoughton, Herbert Jenkins, T. Fisher Unwin, Eveleigh Nash, William Collins and Constable. The books for T. Fisher Unwin included dust jackets for new impressions in 1923 of eleven of E. Nesbit's famous children’s novels and James Hilton's rare second novel called Storm Passage. Blampied also illustrated a film edition of Black Beauty by Anna Sewell and a new edition of The Roadmender by Michael Fairless.
Blampied held his first exhibition of paintings and drawings, rather than prints, at the Leicester Galleries in February 1923 while continuing regularly to exhibit his prints at the annual shows of the Royal Society of Painter Etchers and Engravers and the Senefelder Club of British lithographers, named after Alois Senefelder, the inventor of the method. Blampied was a member of the Council of both societies for periods between 1924 and 1938.
Travel in Tunisia
At the end of 1926 Blampied gave up his work for books and magazines, sold his house and studio in south London, and travelled in southern France and north Africa for about 5 months. Some of his drawings from this period were bought by Martin Hardie for the Victoria and Albert Museum and for Eton College, a private school. For the next three years after his return to London in April 1927, Blampied designed many prints, mostly using drypoint, dabbled in abstract art during an illness to produce what he called his "Colour symphonies", and produced watercolours and oils for a major exhibition held in May 1929 at the galleries of Alex. Reid and Lefevre.
Blampied as humorist
When the market for etchings collapsed during the great depression in the early 1930s, Blampied reinvented himself as a cartoonist and caricaturist at an exhibition in 1931 called "Blampied’s Nonsense Show". This brought out his love of the absurd and led to his only book, obscurely entitled Bottled Trout and Polo. In this period Blampied also published more than 30 humorous lithographs, many of dogs, that are not recorded in either of the catalogues raisonné (see Bibliography).
After illustrating a new edition of Travels with a Donkey in the Cévennes by Robert Louis Stevenson, Blampied returned to work for magazines in 1933 with a weekly series of illustrations of British life in ink and sepia wash for The Illustrated London News. Blampied’s few published portraits are known from this time, although he did not particularly enjoy doing them. From photographs he drew small pencil portraits of authors and actors for a magazine called The Queen and an oil of Queen Mary (Mary of Teck) for the Christmas issue in 1934; he collaborated with his great friend and benefactor John St Helier Lander, a noted portrait artist and fellow-Jerseyman, on a picture of King George V; and he did an etching of the Jersey-born politician, Lord Portsea (Bertram Falle), which was shown at the Royal Academy in 1934. After finishing his work for the Illustrated London News in 1935 he continue to work for magazines until 1939, mainly doing occasional cartoons for The Sketch, often featuring two tramps called Horace and George.
Peter and Wendy
In May 1938 Blampied was elected to the Royal Society of British Artists. Later that year he was asked to prepare some new illustrations for a lavish edition of Peter Pan, the rights to which had been bequeathed by J. M. Barrie to Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children. The Blampied Edition of Peter and Wendy was published in 1939 by Hodder & Stoughton in the UK and by Scribners in the US, and is one of the finest illustrated editions of this book.
German occupation of Jersey
By the time Peter and Wendy was published Blampied had moved from London to Jersey with the intention of settling there. Even though by June 1940 it was clear that the Channel Islands would not be defended from the Germans, Blampied and his Jewish wife had decided to remain on the island. Jersey was occupied on 1 July 1940 and Blampied was trapped there for almost five years by the German Occupation of the island until its liberation on 9 May 1945. During this period he was unable to remain in contact with publishers and art dealers, and had great trouble obtaining artists' materials. But there were two notable commissions.
The lack of currency in Jersey led to a request to design bank notes for the States of Jersey in denominations of 6 pence, 1 shilling, 2 shillings, 10 shillings and 1 pound, which were issued in April 1942. The 6d note was designed by Blampied in such a way that the word six on the reverse incorporated an outsized "X" so that when the note was folded, the result was the resistance symbol "V" for victory. A year later he was asked to design six new postage stamps for the island of ½ d to 3 d, and as a sign of resistance he cleverly incorporated the initials GR in the three penny stamp to display loyalty to King George VI. The only exhibition of his work during the war years was held at the Cleveland Museum of Art from February 1941 which showed 187 works mostly from the collection of Harold J Baily, an American lawyer who had been a notable patron of Blampied since 1927. The etching A Jersey vraic cart, which Blampied had just managed to have printed and signed before the island was invaded, was issued by the Print Club of Cleveland to coincide with the exhibition.
Blampied did not return to London after the war but remained in Jersey, mostly working in oils and watercolours, except for a series of 12 silhouettes he published in 1950 and a few etchings in 1958, one of which he exhibited at the Royal Academy. In 1948 he designed a postage stamp to celebrate the third anniversary of the liberation of Jersey, and he designed the first Jersey regional stamp, issued in 1964. He continued to sell his watercolours and oil paintings in the UK and US, mostly at the annual exhibitions of the Royal Society of British Artists and through the dealers Annans in Glasgow and Guy Mayer in New York. A large exhibition of his work was held at the John Nelson Bergstrom Art Center and Museum, Neenah, Wisconsin in July 1954. His last exhibition was held at the Barreau Art Gallery of Jersey Museum in October 1964.
Blampied died in Jersey on 26 August 1966, aged 80 years. His ashes were scattered in St Aubin's Bay, Jersey.
Body of work
Blampied was a prolific illustrator and over 600 issues of magazines and newspapers have been recorded containing his work between 1905 and 1939. His illustrations appear in around 50 books, and he designed the dust jacket for some 150 other books, mostly novels. He also designed menu cards, loyal addresses, sheet music, Christmas cards, commercial advertising material and bookplates.
During his career Edmund Blampied produced some 200 etchings and drypoints, and more than 80 lithographs and lithographic prints, many of which depicted rural life in his beloved island of Jersey. His scenes of collecting seaweed, called vraic, from the beaches of the island using a horse and cart were, he said, his signature tune.
Besides his work in the visual arts, he also amused himself and his friends by writing poetry in Jèrriais, signing himself as Un Tout-à-travèrs. In 1933, La Chronique de Jersey, a French language newspaper, considered publishing a booklet of Blampied poems illustrated by the artist himself, but the plans came to nothing. In 1938 two of his poems were set pieces at the Jersey Eisteddfod. In 1944 he wrote words for an insulting anti-Hitler song entitled La chanson Hitleur and provided illustrations for two poems written by Winter Le Brocq.
Blampied’s prints, drawings and pictures are in the collections of: Jersey Heritage, Jersey, Channel Islands; Ashmolean Museum, Oxford; British Council, London; British Museum, London; Courtauld Gallery, London; Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, UK; Leeds Art Gallery, UK; Victoria and Albert Museum, London; Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool, UK; McLean Museum and Art Gallery, Greenock, Scotland; Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, Edinburgh, Scotland; Boston Museum of Fine Arts, Massachusetts, USA; Boston Public Library, Massachusetts, USA; Bowdoin College Museum of Art, Brunswick, Maine, USA; Brooklyn Museum, New York, USA; Cincinnati Art Museum, Ohio, USA; Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio, USA; Dallas Museum of Art, Texas, USA; Delaware Art Museum, Wilmington, Delaware, USA; Detroit Institute of Arts, USA; Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco, California, USA; Heckscher Museum of Art, New York, USA; Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art at Cornell University, New York, USA; Indianapolis Museum of Art, Indiana, US; Lehigh University Art Gallery, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, USA; Mead Art Museum, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, USA; Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri, USA; Saint Louis Art Museum, Missouri, USA; Saint Joseph College (Connecticut) Art Gallery, USA; Santa Barbara Museum of Art, California, USA; Yale Center for British Art, New Haven, Connecticut, USA; Art Gallery of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia; the Museum of New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand; the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, Netherlands; Israel Museum, Jerusalem; and in the collections of several other British and American museums and American universities.
Illustrations and photograph reproduced by kind permission of the Estate of Edmund Blampied.
Notable books illustrated by Edmund Blampied
All published in the UK unless otherwise noted.
1912 Me as a Model by W. R. Titterton: Frank and Cecil Palmer and Mitchell Kennerley, US
1914 The Money Moon by Jeffery Farnol: Sampson Low, Marston.
1915 The Chronicles of the Imp by Jeffery Farnol: Sampson Low, Marston.
1919 Two little scamps and a puppy by Angela Brazil: Thomas Nelson and Sons.
1919 Terry and Starshine by Amy Whipple: Thomas Nelson and Sons.
1920 John’s visit to the Farm by Evelyn Sharp: Thomas Nelson and Sons.
1920 At the Farm by Evelyn Hardy: Thomas Nelson and Sons.
1921 The Jolly ABC by Blam: Thomas Nelson and Sons.
1921 The Breezy Farm ABC by Blam: Thomas Nelson and Sons.
1921 Blam’s Book of Fun: Thomas Nelson and Sons.
1922 Black Beauty by Anna Sewell: Jarrolds.
1923 Untamed. The Horses of the Wild by David Grew: T. Fisher Unwin (3rd imp).
1923 Trapping Wild Animals in Malay Jungles, by Charles Mayer: T. Fisher Unwin (4th imp).
1924 The Zoo Book: Thomas Nelson and Sons.
1924 The Roadmender by Michael Fairless: Duckworth and Co.
1931 Travels with a Donkey in the Cévennes by Robert Louis Stevenson: John Lane, The Bodley Head, UK and Dodd, Mead and Company, US.
1934 Albert goes through by J. B. Priestley: William Heinemann.
1936 Bottled Trout and Polo, by Blampied: George Newnes.
1937 Hand-picked Howlers by Cecil Hunt: Methuen.
1937 Cours de Francais I. En route by E. Saxelby: Ginn and Co.
1938 More Hand-picked Howlers by Cecil Hunt: Methuen.
1938 Cours de Francais II. En march by E. Saxelby: Ginn and Co.
1939 Ripe Howlers by Cecil Hunt: Methuen.
1939 Cours de Francais III. En France by E. Saxelby: Ginn and Co.
1939 The Blampied edition of Peter and Wendy by J.M. Barrie: Hodder & Stoughton.
1940 Hand-Picked Proverbs by Cecil Hunt: Methuen.
1945 Jersey in Jail 1940 - 45 by Horace Wyatt. Jersey: Ernest Huelin.
Selected bibliography
Campbell Dodgson (1926). A Complete Catalogue of the Etchings and Drypoints of Edmund Blampied. London: Halton and Truscott Smith.
Malcolm Salaman (1926). Modern Masters of Etching No. 10 Edmund Blampied. London: The Studio.
E.L. Allhusen (1926) The etchings of Edmund Blampied. Print Collector’s Quarterly 13 (1): 69 - 96.
Malcolm Salaman (1932). The lithographs of Edmund Blampied. Print Collector’s Quarterly 19 (4): 298 -319.
Harold J. Baily (1937). Blampied: artist and philosopher. Print Collector’s Quarterly 24 (4): 363 - 393.
Marguerite Syvret (1986). Edmund Blampied. London: Robin Garton.
Jean Arnold & John Appleby (1996). A Catalogue Raisonné of Etchings, Drypoints and Lithographs of Edmund Blampied. Jersey: JAB Publishing.
Andrew Hall (2010). Edmund Blampied. An Illustrated Life. Jersey: Jersey Heritage Trust.
References
External links
The Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, Imagebase
The Central St Martins School of Art Museum
Jersey Heritage Trust
Bibliography of Edmund Blampied
Jersey in Jail - Video
Modernes artistas ingléses: Edmund Blampied (from "La Pluma : Revista Mensual de ciencias, artes y letras 12 (1929), june, pp. 52-64, in Spanish, with numerous reproductions)
1886 births
1966 deaths
British illustrators
20th-century British painters
British male painters
British etchers
British stamp designers
British currency designers
Jersey artists
People from Saint Martin, Jersey
Norman-language poets
Alumni of the Lambeth School of Art
Alumni of the Central School of Art and Design
20th-century British poets
Alumni of the City and Guilds of London Art School
20th-century British printmakers
Members of the Royal Society of British Artists
20th-century British male artists |
4334618 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%AA%20Th%C3%A1nh%20T%C3%B4ng | Lê Thánh Tông | Lê Thánh Tông (黎聖宗; 25 August 1442 – 3 March 1497), personal name Lê Hạo, temple name Thánh Tông, courtesy name Tư Thành, was an emperor of Đại Việt, reigning from 1460 to 1497, the fifth and the longest-reigning emperor of the Later Lê dynasty, and is widely praised as one of the greatest emperors in Vietnamese history. He came to power through a coup d'état against his second brother Lê Nghi Dân in 1460.
His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, military, education, and fiscal reforms he instituted, conquests of Champa states and expansion of Đại Việt territory in the south, and a cultural revolution that replaced the old aristocracy with a generation of literati scholars. His reign was eulogized as the Prospered reign of Hồng Đức (Hồng Đức Thịnh trị; 洪德盛治).
Name
Lê Thánh Tông is known by several names, including his birth name Lê Hạo (黎灝), his courtesy name Tư Thành (思誠), pseudonym Đạo Am chủ nhân (道庵主人), rhymed name Tao Đàn nguyên súy (騷壇元帥), formal title Thiên Nam động chủ (天南洞主).
Early life
Lê Tư Thành was born on the 20th of the 7th lunar month (August 25th in Gregorian calendar) in the third year of Đại Bảo (1442). A legend surrounding his birth is that, his mother Ngô Thị Ngọc Dao, was bestowed a Tiên đồng (仙童) by the Jade Emperor in her dream, and started to become pregnant with Tư Thành the following day. He was the fourth son of emperor Lê Thái Tông and his consort Ngô Thị Ngọc Dao. He was the fourth grandson of Lê Lợi, the half-brother of Lê Nhân Tông and it is likely that his mother and consort Nguyễn Thị Anh (the mother of Lê Nhân Tông) were related (cousins or perhaps sisters). Young Tư Thành was described in the national chronicle, the Complete Annals of the Great Viet as "Magnificiently gifted, his mind and body are marvelous, his looks elegantly strong; kind-hearted and generous, bright, earnest, truly the brilliant kind who deserves the title of Emperor, whose ingenuity and bravery will preserve the nation".
When Tư Thành was three years old, he was brought to the royal palace and was educated just like his half-brother, the ruling emperor Lê Nhân Tông, and other brothers, Lê Khắc Xương and Lê Nghi Dân in Đông Kinh (東京). In 1445, Le Nhan Tong issued a decree and conferred Le Tu Thanh as Prince of Binh Nguyen (Bình Nguyên Vương), and sent to kinh sư, to study with other kings in Kinh Dien. Officials in Kinh Dien such as Tran Phong noticed that Binh Nguyen Vuong had a dignified appearance and was more intelligent than other people, so they considered him an extraordinary person.
Ascension to the throne
On the 3rd of the 10th lunar month, 1459, 6th year of Diên Ninh, Lê Thái Tông's firstborn son, Lạng Lê Nghi Dân staged a coup in the middle of the night, assassinating reigning emperor Lê Nhân Tông. Nghi Dân then proclaimed himself Emperor. Nine months later, a second counter-coup against Lê Nghi Dân led by two military leaders Nguyễn Xí and Đinh Liệt was successfully carried out, and Nghi Dân was killed in the royal palace. The plotters asked Prince Tư Thành to become the new emperor and he accepted. Two days after Lê Nghi Dân's death, Lê Hạo was proclaimed Emperor.
The leaders of the counter-coup which removed and killed Nghi Dân were two of the last surviving friends and aides of Lê Lợi - Nguyễn Xí and Đinh Liệt. The pair had been out of power since the 1440s, but they still commanded respect due to their association with the dynasty's founder, Lê Lợi. The new king appointed these men to the highest positions in his new government: Nguyễn Xí became one of the king's councilors, and Đinh Liệt was gifted command over the royal army of Đại Việt.
Reign
Bureaucratic reforms
Lê Thánh Tông introduced reforms designing to replace the Thanh Hoá oligarchy of Dai Viet's southern region with a corps of bureaucrats selected through the Confucian civil service examinations. Following the Chinese model, he divided the government into six ministries: Finance, Rites, Justice, Personnel, Army, and Public Works. Nine grades of rank were set up for both the civil administration and the military. A Board of Censors was set up with royal authority to monitor governmental officials and report exclusively to the king. However, governmental authority did not extend all the way to the village level. The villages were ruled by their own councils.
In 1469, all of Dai Viet was mapped and a full census, listing all the villages in the kingdom, was taken. Around this time, the country was divided into 13 dao (provinces). Each was administrated by a Governor, a Judge, and the local army commander. Thánh Tông also ordered that a new census should be taken every six years. Other public works that were undertaken including building and repair of granaries, using the army to rebuild and repair irrigation systems after floods, and sending out doctors to areas afflicted by outbreaks of disease. Even though the emperor, at 25, was relatively young, he had already restored Dai Viet's stability, which was a marked contrast from the turbulent times marking the reigns of the two emperors before him. By 1471, the kingdom employed more than 5,300 officials (0.1 percent of the population) into the bureaucrat army, equally divided between the court and the provinces, with at least one supervising officer every three villages.
A national-wide census was conducted in 1490, reported approximately 8,000 village-level jurisdictions throughout the country including the thirty-six urban wards that lay between the royal compound and the Red River at Dong Kinh, the only city in the country; with the total population was approximately 3.7 million people, the Red River delta had been the most densely inhabited region of Southeast Asia in the early-modern era.
The new government proved to be effective and represented a successful adaptation of the Chinese Confucian system of government outside of China. However, following the deaths of Thánh Tông and of his son and successor, Lê Hiến Tông (r. 1498–1504), this new model of government crashed not once but twice in the next three following centuries.
Legal reforms and a new national law
In 1483 Lê Thánh Tông created a new code for Đại Việt, called the Hồng Đức Code, which is Vietnam's National Treasures and is kept in the National Library in form of woodblocks No A.314.
The new laws were "based on Chinese law but included distinctly Vietnamese features, such as recognition of the higher position of women in Vietnamese society than in Chinese society. Under the new code, parental consent was not required for marriage, and daughters were granted equal inheritance rights with sons."
Economic policy
During the reign of Thánh Tông, Vietnamese export porcelains from Hải Dương kilns were found as far as West Asia. Trowulan, capital of Majapahit, has yielded numerous Vietnamese ceramic products of the fifteenth century. However, he took an unfavorable view toward international trade, and emphasized for a national self-sustaining economy based on agriculture.
In 1461 he warned the provincial officials not to pursue the insignificant trade/commerce to ensure internal welfare and prohibit foreigners from entering the kingdom. He also introduced a marketplaces code to standardize weights and measures. In 1469 he nationalized gunpowder and weapons. After the defeat of Champa in 1471, he sent large groups of ethnic Vietnamese, including prisoners and criminals, to settle in the new conquered territories. Lands were distributed fair equally, bureaucrats and military garrisons were set up to help people in the new provinces. The fall of Champa enabled the Vietnamese to monopolize Central Highlands' products which most desired in oversea markets. At the end of 15th century, according to Hall, "Vietnamese civilization had reached its zenith in prosperity."
Education policy
Thánh Tông encouraged the spread of Confucian values throughout the kingdom by having temples of literature built in all the provinces. There, Confucius was venerated and classic works on Confucianism could be found. He also halted the building of any new Buddhist or Taoist temples and ordered that monks were not to be allowed to purchase any new land.
During his reign, Vietnamese Confucian scholarship had reached its golden era, with over 501 tiến sĩ (royal scholars) graduated, out of the total 2,896 tiến sĩ graduated from 1076 to 1911. In 1460, he ordered Confucian scholar Ngô Sĩ Liên (1401–1489) to compile an official national history book, and in 1479 the chronicle Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư was finished, and was presented to the emperor.
Foreign relations
Ming China
During the reign of Thánh Tông, two related events put the Ming tributary system to the test. The first was the final destruction of Champa in 1471, and the other, the invasion of Laos between 1479 and 1481. After destroying Champa in 1471, the Vietnamese informed the Ming court that the fall of Champa's ruling house had come about as "a result of civil war." In 1472, as Vietnamese pirates attacked Chinese and merchant ships in Hainan and the coast of Guangzhou, the Ming emperor called on Thánh Tông to end such activities. The court of Đại Việt denied its people would do such things.
Article 344 of the Nguyen dynasty code and Article 305 of the Le dynasty code both forbade self-castration and castration of Vietnamese men. Self-castration of Vietnamese men was banned by Lê Thánh Tông, the emperor, in 1464.
The Vietnamese under Emperor Le Thanh Tong cracked down on foreign contacts and enforced an isolationist policy. A large amount of trade between Guangdong (Leizhou Peninsula and Hainan) and Vietnam happened during this time. Early accounts recorded that the Vietnamese captured Chinese whose ships had blown off course and detained them. Young Chinese men were selected by the Vietnamese for castration to become eunuch slaves to the Vietnamese. It has been speculated by modern historians that Chinese who were captured and castrated by the Vietnamese were involved in regular trade between China and Vietnam instead of being blown off course, and that they were punished after a Vietnamese crackdown on trade with foreign countries.
A 1499 entry in the Ming Shilu recorded that thirteen Chinese men from Wenchang including a young man named Wu Rui were captured by the Vietnamese after their ship was blown off course while traveling from Hainan to Guangdong's Qin subprefecture (Qinzhou), after which they ended up near the coast of Vietnam, in the 1460s, during the Chenghua Emperor's rule (1464–1487). Twelve of them were enslaved to work as agricultural laborers, while the youngest Chinese man, Wu Rui (吳瑞) was selected by the Vietnamese court for castration since he was the only young man in among the thirteen and he became a eunuch at the Vietnamese imperial palace in Thang Long for nearly one fourth of a century. After years of serving the Vietnamese as a eunuch slave in the palace, he was promoted to a position with real power after the death of the Vietnamese ruler in 1497 to a military position in northern Vietnam as military superintendent since his service in the palace was apparently valued by the Vietnamese. However, the Lạng Sơn guard soldier Dương Tam tri (Yang Sanzhi; 楊三知) told him of an escape route back to China and Wu Rui escaped to Longzhou after walking for 9 days through the mountains. The local ethnic minority Tusi chief Wei Chen took him into custody, overruling objections from his family who wanted to send him back to Vietnam. Vietnam found out about his escape and sent an agent to buy Wu Rui back from Wei Chen with 100 Jin in payment since they were scared that Wu Rui would reveal Vietnamese state secrets to China. Wei Chen planned to sell him back to the Vietnamese but told them the amount they were offering was too little and demanded more however before they could agree on a price, Wu was rescued by the Pingxiang magistrate Li Guangning and then was sent to Beijing to work as a eunuch in the Ming palace at the Directorate of Ceremonial (silijian taijian 司禮監太監). The Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư records that in 1467 in An Bang province of Dai Viet (now Quảng Ninh Province) a Chinese ship blew off course onto the shore. The Chinese were detained and not allowed to return to China as ordered by Le Thanh Tong. This incident may be the same one where Wu Rui was captured.
Several Malay envoys from the Malacca sultanate were attacked and captured in 1469 by Vietnamese navy as they were returning to Malacca from China. The Vietnamese enslaved and castrated the young from among the captured.
A 1472 entry in the Ming Shilu reported that some Chinese from Nanhai escaped back to China after their ship had been blown off course into Vietnam, where they had been forced to serve as soldiers in Vietnam's military. The escapees also reported that they found out that more than 100 Chinese men remained captives in Vietnam after they were caught and castrated by the Vietnamese after their ships were blown off course into Vietnam in other incidents. The Chinese Ministry of Revenue responded by ordering Chinese civilians and soldiers to stop going abroad to foreign countries. These 100 men were taken prisoner around the same time as Wu Rui and the historian Leo K. Shin believes all of them may have been involved in illegal trade instead of being blown off course by wind. The over 100 Chinese men who were castrated and made into eunuchs by the Vietnamese remained captives in Vietnam when the incident was reported. Both the incidents of the young Chinese man Wu Rui and the more than 100 Chinese men being castrated and used as eunuchs point to possible involvement in trade according to historians John K. Whitmore and Tana Li which was then suppressed by the Vietnamese government instead of them really being blown off course by the wind. China's relations with Vietnam during this period were marked by the punishment of prisoners by castration.
Champa
In 1470, a Cham army numbered 100,000 under king Maha Sajan arrived and besieged the Vietnamese garrison at Huế. The local commander sent appeals to Hanoi for help. Champa was defeated and the balance of power between the Cham and the Vietnamese for more than 500 years came to an end. The Ming annals recorded that in 1485 that "Champa is a distant and dangerous place, and Annam is still employing troops there."
Laos and Burma
Back in 1448, the Vietnamese had annexed the land of Muang Phuan in what is today the Plain of Jars in northeastern Laos, and Thánh Tông made that territory a prefecture of Đại Việt in 1471. Began in 1478, Thánh Tông felt it was the time to take his revenge on King Chakkaphat of Laos, preparing his army along the Annamite border in preparation for an invasion. Around the same time a white elephant had been captured and brought to King Chakkaphat. The elephant being a potent symbol of kingship was common throughout Southeast Asia, and Thánh Tông requested the animal's hair to be brought as a gift to the Đại Việt court. The request was seen as an affront, and according to legend a box filled with dung was sent instead. Thánh Tông also realized that Laos was expanding its authority over Tai peoples who had previously acknowledged Vietnamese suzerainty and had regularly paid tribute to Đại Việt. Thus, the campaigns to reassert Dai Viet's authority over the Tai tribes led to the invasion of Laos.
In fall 1479, Thánh Tông led an army of 180,000 men marched westward, attacked Muang Phuan, Lan Xang and Nan. Luang Phabang was captured and the Laotian ruler Chakkaphat was killed. His forces pushed further to the upper Irrawaddy River, around Kengtung in modern-day Myanmar. In 1482 Momeik borrowed troops of Dai Viet to invade Hsenwi and Lan Na. The Dai Viet forces suffered a defeat after facing Lan Xang-Lanna allied forces, which resulted in their troops diminishing. By November 1484, Thanh Tong and his forces had withdrawn back to Dai Viet. According to the Ming Shilu, in 1488 Burmese Ava embassy in China complained about Dai Viet's incursion into its territory. In the next year (1489) the Ming court sent envoys to admonish Dai Viet to stop.
Other regional powers and pirates
According to the Ming Shilu, Thánh Tông led ninety thousand troops to invade Lan Xang but was chased by the troops of the Malacca Sultanate, who killed thirty thousand Vietnamese soldiers. In 1485, envoys of Champa, Lan Xang, Melaka, Ayutthaya, and Java arrived Dai Viet. In 1470 he sent an anti-pirate expedition in the Gulf of Tonkin, secured the maritime transit. Also in 1475, pirates from Ryukyu Islands and Champa raided the port of Qui Nhơn. In 1480 a battle occurred on the Vietnamese coast between Vietnamese and a shipwrecked Ryukyuan ship. The Ming received a message requesting aid by Lan Song in 1481 against the Vietnamese invasion. Lê Thánh Tông claimed as tributaries the countries of Melaka, Java, Siam, Laos and Champa in "The Regulations concerning Tribute Missions from Vassals to the Imperial Capital" (Chư phiên sứ thần triều cống kinh quốc lệ) in 1485. The Tusi system was used to rule "barbarian" ethnic minorities in peripheral and mountain border areas.
As a poet
A group of 28 poets were formally recognized by the court (the Tao Dan). Lê Thánh Tông himself was a poet and some of his poems have survived. He wrote the following at the start of his campaign against the Champa:
One hundred thousand officers and men,
Start out on a distant journey.
Falling on the sails, the rain
Softens the sounds of the army.
Family
Father: Lê Thái Tông
Mother: Empress Quang Thuc Ngo Thi Ngoc Dao (光淑文皇后吳氏; 1421 - 1496)
Consort(s) and their Respective Issue(s):
Empress Huy Gia (Empress Truong Lac) Nguyễn Thị Hằng of Nguyen Clan (徽嘉皇后阮氏; 1441 - 1505)
Crown Prince Le Tranh, so Emperor Lê Hiến Tông
Empress Nhu Huy of Phung clan (柔徽皇后馮氏; 1444 - 1489)
Prince Le Tan, father of Emperor Lê Tương Dực
Imperial Consort Minh of Pham clan (明妃范氏; 1448 - 1498)
Prince Le Tung
Princess Loi Y Lê Oánh Ngọc (雷懿公主黎莹玉)
Princess Lan Minh Lê Lan Khuê (兰明公主黎兰圭; 1470 - 14??)
Imperial Consort Kinh of Nguyen clan (敬妃阮氏; 1444 - 1485)
Princess Minh Kinh Lê Thụy Hoa (明敬公主黎瑞华)
Consort Nguyen thi (貴妃阮氏)
Prince Le Thoan
Lady Nguyen (修容阮氏)
Lady Nguyen (才人阮氏; 1444 - 1479)
Lê Thánh Tông may have had Cham women as concubines, dancers and singers in his court.
Ancestry
See also
List of Vietnamese monarchs
Lê dynasty
References
Citations
Sources
The first part of this history is based on the doctoral thesis of John K. Whitmore "The Development of the Le Government in Fifteenth Century Vietnam" (Cornell University, 1968). The thesis is mostly concerned with the structure and make-up of the Le government from 1427 to 1471.
The second part is based in part on the Library of Congress Country studies for Vietnam
Further reading
External links
1442 births
1497 deaths
T
Vietnamese reformers
Vietnamese male poets
15th-century Vietnamese poets
15th-century Vietnamese monarchs
Lê dynasty poets
Vietnamese monarchs |
4334877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga%20software | Amiga software | Amiga software is computer software engineered to run on the Amiga personal computer. Amiga software covers many applications, including productivity, digital art, games, commercial, freeware and hobbyist products. The market was active in the late 1980s and early 1990s but then dwindled. Most Amiga products were originally created directly for the Amiga computer (most taking advantage of the platform's unique attributes and capabilities), and were not ported from other platforms.
During its lifetime, thousands of applications were produced with over 10,000 utilities (collected into the Aminet repository). However, it was perceived as a games machine from outside its community of experienced and professional users. More than 12,000 games were available. New applications for the three existing Amiga-like operating systems are generally ported from the open source (mainly from Linux) software base.
Many Amiga software products or noteworthy programs during the timeline were ported to other platforms or inspired new programs, such as those aimed at 3D rendering or audio creations, e.g. LightWave 3D, Cinema 4D, and Blender (whose development started for the Amiga platform only). The first multimedia word processors for Amiga, such as TextCraft, Scribble!, Rashumon, and Wordworth, were the first on the market to implement full color WYSIWYG (with other platforms then only implementing black-and-white previews) and allowing the embedding of audio files.
History and characteristics
From the origins to 1988
1985
Amiga software started its history with the 1985 Amiga 1000. Commodore International released the programming specifications and development computers to various software houses, prominently Electronic Arts, a software house that then offered Deluxe Paint, Deluxe Music and others. Electronic Arts also developed the Interchange File Format (IFF) file container, to store project files realized by Deluxe Paint and Deluxe Music. IFF became the de facto standard in AmigaOS. The first to be shown were digitizer software ProPaint (in early beta). Both were used by Andy Warhol to produce a black-and-white photo of Debbie Harry at the Launch Gala at Lincoln Center, New York City in July 1985. In 1985 Commodore licensed the software called Transformer from Simile Research and put it on the market in January 1986, bundled with an external A1020 5.25-inch floppy drive. It emulated 8086 Intel-based PC-XT hardware. It could run MS-DOS and MS-DOS software such as Lotus 123 or WordStar. This provided early access to many applications, while waiting for native Amiga software to be developed. In 1985, Deluxe Paint emerged with graphic features that had been available only on dedicated graphic computers. It was dubbed the first Amiga "Killer application".
1986
In 1986 (the year of the launch of Amiga 2000) Amiga software products contributed to the Amiga's success as a game and multimedia machine. AmigaBasic from Microsoft, VizaWrite, TextCraft (word processors), Pagesetter (Desktop Publishing), Analyze! (Spreadsheet), Superbase Personal (Database), MovieCraft (animation), Deluxe paint II, Deluxe Music, Instant Music (a composition music program for non musicians) from Electronic Arts, and GraphiCraft again from Commodore were released. GraphiCraft was used by computer artist Jim Sachs to produce Amiga software such as Defender of the Crown and Centurion: Defender of Rome from Cinemaware and the Amiga porting of Saucer Attack. Graphicraft was a predecessor of Aegis Images and AEGIS Animator, one of the first programs worldwide capable of creating animation videos and cartoons complete with audio stereo, featuring a cel animation working paradigm interface and outputting files based on delta-frame difference compression method which then were the lead for creating the ANIM file type standard. Byte-by-Byte Software Inc. released Sculpt-3D. It was the first rendering tool available for the first time to a vast audience of public, and in October of the same year, Impulse released TurboSilver.
1987
In 1987 the Amiga 500 (A500) was released. The Amiga software market moved in favor of entertainment over professional software.
ProWrite (word processor), Maxiplan 500 (spreadsheet), and Aegis Sonix, a music program similar to Instant Music, were produced. .
In July, Wordperfect created an "Amiga/Atari Division" and started selling a version of its word processor for the Commodore platform for US$400. It could load and save Wordperfect files created on any platform, such as IBM, Macintosh and Apple II. Wordperfect 4.1 for the Amiga was the first word processor in the world capable of opening an unlimited number of documents (limited by RAM), each in a separate window.
In 1987, Andrew Tanenbaum released Minix, a free version of Unix with complete source code.
At COMDEX NewTek showed for the first time a prototype of Video Toaster and Impulse released TurboSilver 2.0.
1988
In 1988, Photon Paint was released. It allowed digital painting using HAM graphics mode and the full 4096-color palette of Amiga on a single screen. Maxiplan 500 become Maxiplan 1.x, Electronic Arts showed DeLuxe Photo Lab (photo editing software), Newtek demonstrated DigiView 3.0 hardware and software image digitizing suite, and WordPerfect released the WordPerfect Library for the Amiga. At the summer Consumer Electronics Show (CES), the Pro Draw graphic tablet with mouse emulation software was also announced, as well as Flash-Back and Quarterback hard drive backup software. Superbase Personal became Superbase Professional, Micro Illusions started shipping Music-X audio software for the Amiga, and Lattice released its C++ preprocessor for the Amiga. Cygnus Editor ubiquitous text editor, one of the most versatile text editors and best seller on Amiga since then, was also released this year. It was one of the first Amiga programs featuring an AREXX port. Gold Disk released ComicSetter (comic creation) and MovieSetter (32-color cartoons with stereo sound animation software). In November, at the World of Commodore Show, ReadySoft demonstrated its Amax Macintosh emulator for the Amiga.
1989–1994
In 1989, Rashumon was first launched. In 1990, AmigaDOS 2.0 was released. The interface of the Workbench GUI was changed to a fake 3D aspect using gray shades. For the first time, Commodore introduced a style guide for developers on AmigaOS; because of this, the majority of Amiga software developed for AmigaDOS 2.0 had a standardized GUI that improved usability. Programs such as Imagine 3D, Lightwave, ImageFX, and Scala continued using non-standard GUIs. AmigaVision was released and bundled free with any model of Amiga 3000. Directory Master, Directory Opus, TurboCalc, Photogenics, ImageFX, PC Task, Photogenics, Caligari, Final Calc, and Cinema 4D all belong to this period.
1994 to today
After 1994, Commodore's demise left Amiga to an uncertain future. Windows-based PCs became the standard in the home and the office. Many software houses either left the Amiga market or ran into financial troubles. In 1996, Aminet was created. Aminet was the first centralized Internet repository of all Amiga public domain software and documents. It was the first Internet experiment of a centralized software repository created and maintained by one community for the community itself. Amiga's browsers like AWeb, IBrowse and Voyager were enhanced. Voyager was the first browser to adopt tabbed browsing. Mailers like YAM are still used. In productivity software, programs like Candy Factory for image processing were still being developed, for VFX and animation programs like Wildfire by Andreas Maschke (ported by the author to Java later). other prominent graphic software include fxPAINT by IOSpirit, fxSCAN for OCR and scanning by IOSpirit, and SketchBlock painting program by Andy Broad for AmigaOS 4.x. Last but not least Tornado3D raytracing program by the Italian company Eyelight.
Usability
Amiga software presents a complete graphical interface, following Amiga WYSIWYG "desktop paradigm" and native AmigaOS interface guidelines; that is to say, the software is mouse-driven and presents also pull-down "menus" and "dialogue windows". AmigaOS maintained a text-based shell allowing software to present a text-based GUI, or a "command line".
Cataloging
The main software categories are
Productivity software (also called application software);
Support and maintenance utilities for formatting hard disks, recover or backup data, etc.;
Multimedia software (graphic, video, music);
Communication software (including the software for dealing with Internet and any other net);
Programming tools for developing products and applications;
other utilities that enhance the ease of use in any Operating System (for example Application Launching Docks); Accessibility; Games; Emulation software that allows a computer to run software written for another architecture.
Productivity software
Amiga created productivity software which covers graphics, video, design and CAD software; graphic utilities; vector graphics programs and converters; word processors; programmable text editors; database and spreadsheets; science, entertainment and special use programs: entertainment; fractals, virtual reality, artificial intelligence; route planning; personal Organizer, notebook, diary software; personal budgeting, home banking and accounting.
Support and maintenance utilities
Amiga created utilities for hard disk partitioning; diagnostic tools; VGA promoting tools for ancient Amiga software with TV resolution graphic screens; game loaders for storing and auto-loading from hard disks, auto-starting non-standard floppy disks; disk copiers; backup and recovery tools, archive and compression utilities; command line interfaces and text-based shells; graphical GUI interfaces with WIMP paradigm; advanced graphics systems; PostScript; fonts; font design; audio system; native, external, widely common used, and third-party filesystems; MultiView; MIME types; USB stacks; Firewire stacks (IEEE 1394); printer drivers; video digitizers; graphic tablets; scanner drivers; genlocks, chroma-key, signal video inverters; infrared devices and remote controls; WiFi and Bluetooth devices; and special devices.
Music
Music software includes sound design; audio synthesis; music; audio digitizing and sampling; hard disk recording; speech synthesis; audio trackers; MOD music module filetype.
Communications software
Solutions include modem software, Direct Connect, BBS managing, Fidonet, Packet Radio; Prestel, Videotel, Videotex, Minitel; Teletext, Televideo, Viewdata; FAX, answering machine and voice mail; ISDN; networking and Ethernet protocols; World Wide Web (TCP/IP stacks, browsers, E-mail programs, newsreaders, Internet Radio, proxy server support programs, PPP, Telnet, podcasting, RSS feed, Distributed Net, Google Services, Instant Messaging and chat, FTP and FTP server, weather casting news, Webcam supporting, clock synchronization, SMS Short Messages, Web development and HTTP server, Peer2Peer, VCast (online VCR), YouTube, Flash player, monitoring webpages, Remote Desktop, SSL, SSH, et cetera); communication protocols.
Modem, Direct Connect, BBS managing, Fidonet, packet radio
Termite, X-Term, A-Term, Baud Bandit I and II, OnLine!
Direct parallel and serial cable connect: ParNET, SerNET
Fidonet Mail: Amiga version of GNU AWK, AmyBW, Q-Blue QWK and Blue Wave mail readers
BBS management: C-NET II, Zeus BBS, Hydra BBS, DLG Pro, Amiexpress, Infinity, Tempest (software)
Packet Radio: AmiCom, AmigaTNC, and Amipac
Amateur radio: Amiga Amateur Radio Group, AMIGA-FAX/SSTV, METEO/FAX/SSTV, PakRatt, Multicom, AmTOR, AmigaCALL.
BTX, Prestel, Videotel, Videotex and Minitel
In some European countries, and especially in France, Minitel data transmitting services were popular before the Internet. Minitel had many consumer-level communication services, including chatting, email, railway and broadcast timetables and travel and hotel booking. Minitel used little terminals rented from telephone companies or computers with modems that accept Minitel transmission protocol speed. Amiga Minitel communication programs were written in France, Germany and Italy (Amiga Videotel).
AmigaTel (CEPT2 standard, for Minitel)
BTX (CEPT1 standard, for the German BTX service)
MtA (CEPT2 and CEPT3 standards, for Italian Videotex which supported both)
Ruby View (CEPT3, for UK's Prestel)
Teletext, Televideo, and Viewdata
Teletext is an information retrieval service system based on transmitting data with normal TV broadcast signals without interfering with TV programs. Standalone programs for teletext included Amiga Teletext and the Videotex datatype.
FAX, answering machine and voice mail
AFax, Amiga-FAX, GPFax, FaxQuik, STFax, TrapFax, AVM (software), MultiAnswer, Zyxel Voice Mail.
ISDN
ISDN digital telephone and circuit-switched telephone network system were supported via the expansion cards ISDN Master and ISDN Master II, their drivers and related software.
Networking and Ethernet protocols
Amiga supported SANA-II and MNI drivers, Envoy protocols from IAM, AS225, AS225r2 TCP-IP from Commodore, DECnet, Novell NetWare through Amiga Client for Novell NetWare, Quicknet fast proprietary peer to peer protocol, AppleTalk through emulators. Other network protocols available were AmigaUUCP, DNET, Link-It and Enlan-DFS. Amiga also supports Samba and SMBFS.
SANA-II drivers
MNI drivers
Internet
Programs to access the Web are mostly available for newer Amiga platforms.
Amiga TCP/IP: AmiTCP, EasyNet, Genesis, Miami and Miami Deluxe, Roadshow for AmigaOS, MosNet and NetStack for MorphOS (both based on AmiTCP).
Amiga AMP: Apache, MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python (scripting languages) solution stack AAMP.
Browsers:
Old browsers or "text only" based ones:
Amiga Mosaic, Amiga Lynx, Emacs/W3 WWW client in GNU Emacs
Modern browsers up to HTML 3.2 without CSS:
IBrowse, Voyager, AWeb, and also Amaya through the X11 Amiga compatibility graphic engine library Cygnix
Browsers with HTML 5 and CSS:
OWB (Origyn Web Browser, sometimes also referred as Odyssey Web Browser) for AmigaOS and MorphOS
NetSurf for AmigaOS and MorphOS
Timberwolf web browser for AmigaOS 4 based on Mozilla Firefox 4
E-mail: Thor (software) YAM, Simplemail, Anubis (software)
Newsreaders: NewsRog, MicroDot II, NewsCoaster
Internet Radio: AmigaAMP (Amiga look-alike version of Winamp),
Gopher: Gopherexx
Proxy server PProxy, Privoxy
PPP: AmiPPP, Multilink PPP
Telnet: AmTelnet
Podcasting: AmiPodder
Amiga RSS feed: AmRSS
Distributed net: DNetC
GPS (Global Positioning System): WxWatch
Google services:
GoogleMaps: Supported through OWB Browser
Google Earth: Supported through OWB Browser
GoogleMail: Supported only in 'basic HTML' mode.
Google Picasa: Supported through OWB Browser on all Amiga systems or directly through WAManager (MOS) dedicated software.
GoogleBar Toolbar: not supported by Amiga browsers
Amiga Instant Messaging and chat: AmTalk, ACUSeeMe, AmIRC, Amiga multi-standard Instant Messaging based on Jabber Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol, Epistula Instant Messaging, SabreMSN, MomosIRC, AmiGG, GadAmi based on popular Gadu gadu and Tlen Polish instant messaging services, WookieChat, climm, BitlBee
Twitter: AmiTwitter for AmigaOS Classic, AmigaOS 4 and MorphOS.
Telephony
Messenger voice chat: not supported
Skype VoIP: not supported
H.323 VoIP protocol: not supported
Amiga voice calls: It has been reported that AmTalk supports voice calls between two Amigas running that program, but this feature is unconfirmed.
FTP: ATC (Amiga Trading Centre), Amiga wget, AmFTP, AmiFTP, GUI-FTP, HTTPResume, Charon, CManager, FTPMount (mounts remote FTP as standard Amiga devices), Pete's FTP (PFTP).
FTP server: Amiga RC-FTPd, AmiFTPd
Weather casting net Amiga WET, Weather Experience, Wetter.
Live webcam supporting: AmiWebView, WebVision, WebCam
Amiga USB webcam driver: Personal Webcam, Amiga Sonix webcam driver for various models of USB webcams
Clock synchronization: FACTS
SMS Short Messages: TaskiSMS
Web development and HTTP Server: Apache for Amiga, Apache PHP, Thttpd, Thttpd PHP, WebMaker HTML editor, Ami.HTML Webscape.
Peer2Peer: Amiga Mule (peer-to-peer), Transmission, enqueueTorrent, BitTorrent, Bourriquet, BeeHive, CTorrent, AmiGift, EDonkey, mlDonkey
VCast, Online VCR: otrMUI for MorphOS by Thomas Igracki
YouTube: On AmigaOS and MorphOS there are various clients or downloaders for YouTube all based upon scripts made by the ARexx language. These scripts spare some functions from existing Amiga programs like wget and MPlayer and join them in a big meta-application utility able to handle YouTube animations: YouTube downloader.rexx, ib youtube.rexx loading YouTube movies into Amiga browser IBrowse, getvideo.rexx, and YouTube client TubeXX, Flayer ARexx script.
Flash player: Amiga SWFPlayer
Monitoring webpages: Seventhsense
Remote desktop: TwinVNC, VNCServer, MorphVNC
Pretty Good Privacy: 2.6.3i.
SSL, SSH: AmiSSL, Amiga OpenSSL, Amiga OpenSSH, SSHCON
Web album photo sharing services: WAManager (for MorphOS) handles Google Picasa web album service.
Other: Sniffy, Net Tools (net ping, resolve, traceroute, etc.), Gallerius (generator of HTML galleries)
Communication protocols
Skypix is an Amiga communication protocol. It was one of the first interactive online graphics-and-sound protocols. It was introduced in 1987 as part of the Skyline (Atredes) bulletin board system (BBS), running on the Skyline BBS and Skyterm terminal. Years before the World Wide Web, Skypix allowed rich interactive graphics and sound, as well as mouse control, to be a part of the online experience, which was until then limited to text and ANSI graphics. Skypix allowed users to write and integrate graphical programs, and included the first "authoring program", Skypaint. Skypix created enthusiastic game and online application writers years before the World Wide Web made such features a common part of the online experience. It was quickly abandoned as more advanced markup languages for BBS became available and due to the emerging of Internet phenomenon that marginalized the BBS system of communication.
Programming
Despite the variety of programming languages and compilers, most development was done using C and C++, 680x0 assembler and various Basic dialects.
Multimedia
Drivers for multimedia devices and special input functions
Multimedia keyboards: MMKeyboard
Hand-writing recognition: Meridian is a program that performs handwriting recognition input functions using a stylus like those equipping any tablet PC, emulating the stylus by mouse.
Graphics tablets: FormAldiHyd, GTDriver, and SlateCtrl are shareware/freeware drivers for several serial-port graphics tablets. "mousev1b" is a driver to use an Apple Newton as a graphics tablet.
Accessibility software
Jakeboard input software and hardware emulation keyboard and mouse was used by persons with physical limitations and/or problems of movements. Software and hardware schemes are downloadable at BlackBeltSystems Amiga Software page.
Talkboard similar to jakeboard, is a downloadable speech-generation system for persons.
Optical media
Alternative filesystems included AsimCDFS, AmiCDROM, CDVDFS, Allegro CDFS and CacheCDFS.
BurnIt!, Frying Pan, MakeCD, AmiDVD, DVDRecord, DVDAuthor could burn CDs, DVDs and/or Blu-ray media.
MakeCD was the first Amiga program to support Disk At Once (DAO). Frying Pan was the first Amiga program capable to create DVDs. Frying Pan and BurnIt! are capable to handle DVD.
BlueHD from German programmer Carsten Siegner is a MorphOS program capable of authoring and burning HD-DVDs in these formats:
Normal Video-DVD (European PAL)
HD-Video-DVD HDTV (mkv-h264/AAC) (that are recognized by some Blu-ray players)
HD-Video-DVD HDTV (MP4-h264/AVC)
Disk images and ISO files management
ISO-o-Matic software is a CD image converting software and supports b5i, bin, CD-i, img (normal/CloneCD), mdf (Alcohol 120%), nrg (Nero Burning ROM), pdi and uif.
ISOMount mounts CD ISOs, PC floppy disk images and Amiga disk images. It supports: Amiga (ADF) 880 KB either OFS and FFS, MS-DOS (IMG) from 360 KB up to 2.88 MB (Fat12), Atari ST 800 KB (Fat12), MAC GS (file image of Mac has no extensions) 800 KB (MFM encoded), CD (ISO) – every size, including floppy-specific.
MountVirtual and DiskImage programs for AmigaOS and MorphOS that mount CD ISO images as standard Amiga devices. Supports CD ISO images and disk images such as ADF, DMS, IFS. MountVirtual requires DiskImage.
VirtualCD uses ISOs and CD images as virtual drives.
mkisofs and Amkisofs are ports of MaKeISOFileSystem.
(A complete list of ISO managements and converters is available on Aminet.)
Utilities
AmiDock creates application launching docks on the desktop. It became popular in 1989–1990, due to the NeXT computer, that used the same 68030 processor as Amiga 3000) and that it also had the Acorn Archimedes RISC OS docking station utility. In Great Britain, Archimedes computers were adopted in schools. Young Amiga users (there were 1,500,000 Amigas sold in the United Kingdom) spotted docks on Archimedes at school and asked for it on Amiga also. Various launch bars or docking utilities were born as third-party hobby utilities (many examples of early docking software for Amiga like the ToolManager are still hosted in the Aminet repository of all Amiga free software, in the "Utility" directory) and then Amidock was officially integrated in AmigaOS with version 3.9.
Directory Opus was a file utility program. When this software was released, Amiga magazines proclaimed that it was the most important software ever released for the Amiga and "should be built into the operating system". Directory Opus went on to create a "replacement OS" for Workbench which overlaid itself upon the system. It started as a file manager, and then became a complete desktop replacement and an alternative to the official Workbench. The utility was later ported to Windows and remains widely used.
HyperCache (written by Dave Plummer) was the first commercial disk caching software. Significant in that the base operating system lacked this ability, the addition of caching significantly improved the performance of both floppy and hard discs.
SysSpeed was a shareware benchmarking program for Amigas equipped with Motorola 68k and PowerPC CPUs.
Much shareware and free software was written for the Amiga and could be obtained via the Fred Fish disk series or from the Aminet software archive.
Because the custom chipset shares RAM (and therefore the memory bus) with the CPU, throughput increases measurably if the display is disabled. Some processor-intensive software, such as 3D renderers, disable the display during calculation to gain speed.
Emulation
Commercial
Medusa (Atari ST emulator), Fusion (Macintosh Emulator), AMax and AMax II, (Macintosh), GO64 (first Commodore C64 emulator), Transformer and PCTask (it was an Intel 8088 emulator, all software based, capable to emulate Intel PC based platforms ranging from PC XT 4,7 and 7 MHz on Amiga 500, up to 80486 running at 12 MHz on Amiga 4000 and other accelerated Amigas), A64 Package (C64), Amiga BBC Emulator (Acorn BBC emulator)
Freeware
Atari ST Emulator (AtariST), Hatari (Atari ST and STE), Basilisk II (Macintosh) classic, Frodo (C64), PSXE (Sony PlayStation), Hu-Go! (PC Engine, TurboGrafx-16), FunnyMu (Creativision, Funvision, Wizzard), AmiArcadia (Arcadia 2001 and VC 4000, TVGC).
VICE emulator is modular and emulates all 8-bit machines made by Commodore: C64 (a patch of VICE supports C64dtv), C128, PET including CBM II version (but excluding "non-standard" features of SuperPET 9000), Plus4 and VIC-20.
Games
Thousands of games were produced. At the time it was common for games to be produced for multiple formats. Since the Amiga hardware was the most advanced, games were usually developed on an Amiga, and the Amiga version would be the "gold standard" of the bunch.
Demos
The Amiga was a focal point for the "demo scene". The Amiga thrived on public domain, freeware and other not-for-profit development. The demo scene spearheaded development in multimedia programming techniques for the Amiga, such that it was de rigueur for the latest visual tricks, soundtrackers and 3D algorithms from the demo scene to end up being used in computer game development.
Piracy
Because Amiga was one of the first game-oriented computers to feature a built-in floppy disk drive, it simplified software piracy. Many of the arguments pertaining to software copying, intellectual property rights in software, the open-source movement by the early 1990s. It was not unusual for demo groups to be openly involved in software piracy.
Anti-piracy measures included the practice of distributing software on disks that contained secret "keys" on high-numbered tracks that were officially unused. The Amiga disk drive officially supported tracks 0–79 from a double-density disk, but could actually read tracks 80 through 82. Standard disk-imaging software ignored these tracks, so that a duplicate of a boxed disk would not contain the key and the software would not work. A similar technique involved writing to normally-unused sectors of the disk. Copy software called "nibble" copiers appeared that could exactly reproduce such disks.
Publishers turned to other methods. Hardware dongles were occasionally used for high-end software. AmigaHASP protected Rashumon and was sold by HarmonySoft to Aladdin Systems. Some software manufacturers asked users to type a word from a particular page number and line number of the manual, meaning that successfully copying software included photocopying a large quantity of text. Sometimes the text was designed so that photocopiers would produce illegible copies, meaning that pirates had to manually add the text.
Pirates responded with "cracking" software that altered the code to bypass copy protection completely. Every protection scheme was eventually broken. One near exception was the scheme on Dragon's Lair, which became the "holy grail" of crackers worldwide, but it was also broken.
"Decrunching"
The Amiga's floppy disk drive allowed 880 kilobytes on a single disk, comparable to the RAM of most Amigas (512 kilobytes to 1 megabyte). To increase capacity, Amiga used data compression. The disk drive had a slow transfer rate, such that using processor-based decompression could actually reduce loading times versus loading uncompressed data. Early implementations wrote to a video display register, causing it to break into multiple segments of colorful noise, which would become finer as the decrunching continued. This effect was psychedelic and very easy to implement, so it stuck; it was pioneered on the Commodore 64.
TransADF
TransADF is a program that transfers the contents of a floppy disk or a similar block device to a file. This program can compress the disk image using the popular deflate algorithm, as utilized by PKZip and gzip, amongst others.
References
Notes
Aminet tree, Aminet Statistics
WHDload site download section reports that this program supports actually 1991 games (and it is far from creating a complete list of all Amiga games).
Lemon Amiga (a program that adds MAMElike interface to WinUAE Amiga emulator) reports in its statistics window section 3453 known Amiga games.
Obligement France reported in January 2009 a list of 13,528 known Amiga games, as divided in 12,416 original games, 953 games extensions or data disks for original games, 125 level editors or game editors for existing games, 34 loaders to let Amiga run some games created on other platforms.
Ars Technica: A history of the Amiga, part 4: Enter Commodore, By Jeremy Reimer. October 21, 2007
Existing Amiga-like operating system are AmigaOS, AROS, and MorphOS
Transformer Emulation Software article page at Brantford Personal Computer Museum online site
Interview by Jim Sachs in March 2009, from Amiga Polish Portal (Polskim Portalu Amigowym)
Jim Sachs presents himself on site of SereneScreen Aquarium screensaver program
Review of ProWrite on Compute! Magazine, issue 88, September 1987
Chronology of Amiga Computers at pctimeline.info
Advertising from Wordperfect on InfoWorld Magazine, issue 30, January 21, 1987, page 34 (retrieved from Brief history of Wordperfect at Cunningham & Cunningham Inc., object-oriented programming consultancy firm based in Portland, Oregon, USA, members of Wordperfect Universe User Group)
External links
Aminet, the biggest repository of all public domain software for the Amiga platform
THE Amiga Software Database – ASD, lists almost all of the known commercial Amiga software, books and CD-ROMs, most of them with cover scans
TransADF on Aminet
Amiga
Lists of software |
4335043 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Tractable | Operation Tractable | Operation Tractable was the final attack conducted by Canadian and Polish troops, supported by a British tank brigade, during the Battle of Normandy during World War II. The operation was to capture the tactically important French town of Falaise and then the smaller towns of Trun and Chambois. This operation was undertaken by the First Canadian Army with the 1st Polish Armoured Division (Generał brygady Stanisław Maczek) and a British armoured brigade against Army Group B of the Westheer in what became the largest encirclement on the Western Front during the Second World War. Despite a slow start and limited gains north of Falaise, novel tactics by the 1st Polish Armoured Division during the drive for Chambois enabled the Falaise Gap to be partially closed by 19 August 1944, trapping about 150,000 German soldiers in the Falaise Pocket.
Although the Falaise Gap was narrowed to a distance of several hundred metres, by attacks and counter-attacks between battle groups of the 1st Polish Armoured Division and the II SS Panzer Corps on Hill 262 (Mont Ormel) the gap was not closed quickly and thousands of German troops escaped on foot. During two days of nearly continuous fighting, the Polish forces assisted by artillery-fire, managed to hold off counter-attacks by parts of seven German divisions in hand-to-hand fighting. On 21 August, elements of the First Canadian Army relieved the Polish survivors and sealed the Falaise Pocket by linking up with the Third US Army. This led to the surrender and capture of the remaining units of the German 7th Army in the pocket.
Background
Following break-out by the US 1st and 3rd Armies from the beachhead during the Battle of Normandy after Operation Cobra on 25 July 1944, Adolf Hitler ordered a counter-offensive against Allied forces in the form of Operation Lüttich. Lieutenant General Omar Bradley, commander of the US 12th Army Group, was notified of the counter-offensive by signals deciphered via Ultra radio intercepts and prepared to defeat the counter-offensive and to encircle as much of the Heer force as possible. By the afternoon of 7 August, Operation Lüttich had been defeated. Parts of the German 7th Army became further enveloped by the Allied advance out of Normandy.
Following the failure of Lüttich, the town of Falaise became an objective of the Commonwealth forces, since its capture would cut off virtually all of Army Group B (Generalfeldmarschall Günther von Kluge). To achieve this, General Harry Crerar, commanding the new Canadian 1st Army and Lieutenant-General Guy Simonds (II Canadian Corps), planned an Anglo-Canadian offensive, Operation Totalize. The attack was to break through the defences in the Anglo-Canadian sector of the Normandy front. Totalize would rely on an unusual night attack using the new Kangaroo armoured personnel carriers to achieve a breakthrough of German defences supported by US heavy bombers the next day. Despite initial gains on Verrières Ridge and near Cintheaux, the Canadian offensive stalled on 9 August, with powerful German counterattacks resulting in many casualties for the Canadian and Polish armoured and infantry divisions. By 10 August, Canadian troops had reached Hill 195, north of Falaise but needed another set-piece attack to overcome the German defences.
Prelude
Tactics
Operation Tractable incorporated lessons learned from Operation Totalize, notably the effectiveness of mechanized infantry units and tactical bombing raids by heavy bombers. Tractable was launched a daylight attack. An initial bombing raid was to weaken German defences and was to be followed by an advance by the 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division on the western flank of Hill 195, while the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division attacked on the eastern flank with the 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade in support. Their advance would be protected by a large smokescreen laid down by Canadian artillery. Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery hoped that Canadian forces would achieve control of Falaise by midnight on August 14. From there, all three formations would advance towards Trun, east of Falaise, with the additional assistance of the 1st Polish Armoured Division, numbering approximately 10,000 men. Once in Trun, a linkup with the Third US Army at Chambois could be quickly accomplished.
The main defence of the road to Falaise was the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend, which included the remnants of two infantry divisions. German forces within the Falaise Pocket approached 350,000 men. Had surprise been achieved, the Canadians would likely have succeeded in a rapid break-through. On the night of 13/14 August, a Canadian officer lost his way while moving between divisional headquarters. He drove into German lines and was promptly killed. The Germans discovered a copy of Simonds' orders on his body. As a result, the 12th SS Panzer Division placed the bulk of its remaining strength—500 grenadiers and 15 tanks, along with twelve 8.8 cm PaK 43 anti-tank guns— along the Allies' expected line of approach.
Battle
Initial drive for Falaise
Operation Tractable began at 12:00 on 14 August, when 800 Avro Lancaster and Handley Page Halifax heavy bombers of RAF Bomber Command struck German positions along the front. As with Totalize, many of the bombers mistakenly dropped their bombs short of their targets, causing 400 Polish and Canadian casualties. Covered by a smoke screen laid down by their artillery, two Canadian divisions moved forwards. Although their line of sight was reduced, German units still managed to inflict severe casualties on the Canadian 4th Armoured Division, which included its Armoured Brigade commander Brigadier Leslie Booth, as the division moved south toward Falaise. Throughout the day, continual attacks by the Canadian 4th and Polish 1st Armoured Divisions managed to force a crossing of the Laison River. Limited access to the crossing points over the Dives River allowed counterattacks by the German 102nd SS Heavy Panzer Battalion. The town of Potigny fell to Polish forces in the late afternoon. By the end of the first day, elements of the Canadian 3rd and 4th Divisions had reached Point 159, directly north of Falaise, although they had been unable to break into the town. To bolster his offensive, Simonds ordered the Canadian 2nd Infantry Division to move toward the front, with the hope that this reinforcement would be sufficient to enable his divisions to capture the town.
Although the first day's progress was slower than expected, Operation Tractable resumed on 15 August; both armoured divisions pushed southeast toward Falaise. The Canadian 2nd and 3rd Infantry Divisions—with the support of the Canadian 2nd Armoured Brigade—continued their drive south towards the town. After harsh fighting, the 4th Armoured Division captured Soulangy but the gains made were minimal as strong German resistance prevented a breakthrough to Trun. On 16 August, the Canadian 2nd Infantry Division broke into Falaise, encountering minor opposition from Waffen-SS units and scattered pockets of German infantry. Although it would take two more days to clear all resistance in the town, the first major objective of Operation Tractable had been achieved. Simonds began to reorganize the bulk of his armoured forces for a renewed push towards Trun to close the Falaise Pocket.
16–19 August
Drives for Trun and Chambois
The drive for Trun by Polish and Canadian Armoured Divisions began on 16 August, with preliminary attacks in preparation for an assault against Trun and Chambois. On 17 August, both armoured divisions of the Canadian 1st Army advanced. By early afternoon, the Polish 1st Armoured Division had outflanked the 12th SS Panzer Division, enabling several Polish formations to both reach the 4th Armoured Division's objectives and significantly expand the bridgehead northwest of Trun. Stanisław Maczek—the Polish divisional commander—split his forces into three battlegroups each of an armoured regiment and an infantry battalion. One of these struck southwest, cutting off Trun and establishing itself on the high ground dominating the town and the Dives river valley, allowing for a powerful assault by the Canadian 4th Armoured Division on Trun. The town was liberated on the morning of 18 August.
As Canadian and Polish forces liberated Trun, Maczek's second armoured battlegroup manoeuvred southeast, capturing Champeaux and anchoring future attacks against Chambois across a front. At its closest, the front was from forces of the US V Corps in the town. By the evening of 18 August, all of Maczek's battlegroups had established themselves directly north of Chambois (one outside of the town, one near Vimoutiers and one at the foot of Hill 262). With reinforcements quickly arriving from the 4th Canadian 4th Armoured Division, Maczek was in an ideal position to close the gap the following day. The presence of the Polish Armoured Division also alerted Generalfeldmarshall Walther Model of the need to keep the pocket open.
Closing the Gap
Early on 19 August, LGen Simonds met with his divisional commanders to finalize plans for closing the gap. The 4th Armoured Division would attack toward Chambois, on the western flank of two battlegroups of the Polish 1st Armoured Division. Two additional Polish battlegroups would strike eastward, securing Hill 262 to cover the eastern flanks of the assault. The 2nd and 3rd Infantry Divisions would continue their grinding offensives against the northern extremities of the Falaise Pocket, inflicting heavy casualties on the exhausted remains of the 12th SS Panzer Division. The assault began almost immediately after the meeting, with one battlegroup of the Polish 1st advancing toward Chambois and "Currie Task Force" of the 4th Armoured Division covering their advance. Simultaneously, two Polish battlegroups moved for Hill 262. Despite heavy German resistance, Battlegroup Zgorzelski was able to secure Point 137, directly west of Hill 262. By early afternoon, Battlegroup Stefanowicz had captured the hill, annihilating a German infantry company in the process. As a result of the fighting, Polish casualties accounted for nearly 50% of those sustained by the Canadian 1st Army.
By late afternoon of 19 August, Canadian and Polish forces had linked with the US 80th Division and 90th Division already stationed in the town. The Falaise Gap had been closed, trapping Model's forces. As the linkup occurred, the II SS Panzer Corps had begun its counterattack against Polish forces on Hill 262, to reopen the pocket. With American and Canadian forces facing German counterattacks in their sectors, the Polish forces would have to defend against two veteran Panzer divisions to keep the gap closed.
20 August
St. Lambert-sur-Dives and Hill 117
On the morning of 20 August, two German formations—the 2nd and 9th SS Panzer Divisions, attacked Polish positions on Hill 262. At the same time, the 16th Infantry and 12th SS Panzer Divisions attacked American and Canadian forces from within the pocket, opening small channels through Allied positions. By mid-morning, 2,000 survivors of the German 2nd Parachute Division had managed to breach Canadian positions along the Dives River, as well as at Point 117. At approximately noon, several units of the 10th SS, 12th SS and 116th Panzer Divisions managed to break through these weakened positions.
By mid afternoon, reinforcements from an armoured battlegroup formed from the South Alberta Regiment and the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada under Major David Vivian Currie managed to reach St. Lambert-sur-Dives, denying two German armies evacuation of the pocket. Over the next 36 hours, the battlegroup repulsed almost continual attacks by German forces, destroying seven German tanks, twelve anti-tank guns and 40 vehicles. In the brutal fighting around Lambert-sur-Dives, Currie's battlegroup was able to inflict nearly 2,000 casualties on attacking German forces, including 300 killed and 1,100 captured. By the evening of 20 August, the Germans had exhausted their attack against St. Lambert-sur-Dives; the surviving members of the 84th Corps—commanded by General Elfeld—surrendered to Canadian and American forces near Chambois. For his actions at St. Lambert-sur-Dives, Currie was awarded the Victoria Cross, the only Canadian so honoured for service in the Normandy Campaign.
Hill 262 (Mont Ormel)
While Currie's force stalled German forces outside of St. Lambert, two battlegroups of Maczek's Polish 1st Armoured Division were engaged in a protracted battle with two well-trained SS Panzer divisions. Throughout the night of the 19th, Polish forces had entrenched themselves along the south, southwest and northeastern lines of approach to Hill 262. Directly southwest of Mont Ormel, German units moved along what would later become known as "The Corridor of Death", as the Polish inflicted heavy casualties on German forces moving towards Mont Ormel with a well-coordinated artillery barrage. The Polish infantry and armour were supported by the guns of the 58th Battery, 4th Medium Regiment, 2nd Canadian Army Group Royal Artillery (AGRA) and assisted by the artillery observer, Pierre Sévigny. Captain Pierre Sévigny's assistance was crucial in defending Hill 262 and he later received the Virtuti Militari (Poland's highest military decoration) for his exertions during the battle.
From the northeast, the 2nd SS Panzer Division planned an assault in force against the four infantry battalions and two armoured regiments of the Polish 1st Armoured Division dug in on Hill 262. The 9th SS Panzer Division would attack from the north, while simultaneously preventing Canadian units from reinforcing the Polish armoured division. Having managed to break out of the Falaise Pocket, the 10th SS, 12th SS and 116th Panzer Divisions would then attack Hill 262 from the southwest. If this major obstacle could be cleared, German units could initiate a full withdrawal from the Falaise Pocket.
The first attack against Polish positions was by the "Der Führer" Regiment of the 2nd SS Panzer Division. Although the Podhale Rifles battalion was able to repel the attack, it expended a substantial amount of its ammunition in doing so. The second attack was devastating to the dwindling armoured forces of the Polish battlegroups. A single German tank, positioned on Point 239 (northeast of Mont Ormel), was able to destroy five Sherman medium tanks within two minutes. At this time, the 3rd Parachute Division—along with an armoured regiment of the 1st SS Panzer Division—attacked Mont Ormel from inside the Falaise Pocket. This attack was repulsed by the artillery, which "massacred" German infantry and armour closing in on their positions.
As the assault from the southwest ran out of steam, the 2nd SS Panzer Division resumed its attack on the northeast of the ridge. Since Polish units were now concentrated on the southern edges of the position, the 2nd SS was able to force a path through to the 3rd Parachute Division by noon, opening a corridor out of the pocket. By mid-afternoon, close to 10,000 German troops had escaped through the corridor. Despite being overwhelmed by strong counterattacks, Polish forces continued to hold the high ground on Mont Ormel, which they referred to as "The Mace" (Maczuga), inflicting many casualties on the German forces escaping through the gap by artillery fire. Irritated by the presence of these units, which were exacting a heavy toll on his men, Generaloberst Paul Hausser, commander of the 7th Army, ordered the positions to be "eliminated". Although substantial forces, including the 352nd Infantry Division and several battlegroups from the 2nd SS Panzer Division inflicted heavy casualties on the 8th and 9th Battalions of the 1st Polish Armoured Division, the counterattack was defeated. The battle had cost the Poles almost all of their ammunition, leaving them in a precarious position.
At 19:00 on 20 August, a 20-minute ceasefire was arranged to allow German forces to evacuate a large convoy of medical vehicles. Immediately following the passage of these vehicles, the fighting resumed and intensified. Although the Germans were incapable of dislodging the Polish forces, the defenders had reached the point of exhaustion. With little ammunition left, the Poles were forced to watch as the remnants of the XLVII Panzer Corps escaped from the pocket. Despite this, Polish artillery continued to bombard every German unit that entered the evacuation corridor. Stefanowicz—commander of the Polish battlegroups on Hill 262—was sceptical of his force's chance of survival:
Gentlemen. Everything is lost. I do not believe [the] Canadians will manage to help us. We have only 110 men left, with 50 rounds per gun and 5 rounds per tank ... Fight to the end! To surrender to the SS is senseless, you know it well. Gentlemen! Good luck—tonight, we will die for Poland and civilization. We will fight to the last platoon, to the last tank, then to the last man.
21 August
Night was welcomed by the German and Polish forces surrounding Mont Ormel. Fighting was sporadic, as both sides avoided contact with one another. Frequent Polish artillery barrages interrupted German attempts to retreat from the sector. In the morning, German attacks on the position resumed. Although not as coordinated as on the day before, the attack still managed to reach the last of the Polish defenders on Mont Ormel. As the remaining Polish forces repelled the assault, their tanks were forced to use the last of their ammunition.
At approximately 12:00, the last SS remnants launched a final assault on the positions of the 9th Battalion. Polish forces defeated them at point-blank range. There would be no further attacks; the two battlegroups of the Polish 1st Armoured Division had survived the onslaught, despite being surrounded by German forces for three days. Both Reynolds and McGilvray place the Polish losses on the Maczuga at 351 killed and wounded and 11 tanks lost, although Jarymowycz gives higher figures of 325 killed, 1,002 wounded, and 114 missing—approximately 20% of the division's combat strength. Within an hour, The Canadian Grenadier Guards managed to link up with what remained of Stefanowicz's men. By late afternoon, the remainder of the 2nd and 9th SS Panzer Divisions had begun their retreat to the Seine River. The Falaise Gap had been permanently closed, with a large number of German forces still trapped in the pocket.
Aftermath
Analysis
By the evening of 21 August 1944, most of the German forces in the Falaise Pocket had surrendered. Nearly all of the German formations that had caused significant damage to the Canadians throughout the Normandy campaign had been destroyed. The Panzer Lehr and 9th SS Panzer divisions existed in name only. The 12th SS Panzer Division had lost 94% of its armour, nearly all of its field-guns and 70% of its vehicles. Several German units, notably the 2nd and the 12th SS Panzer Divisions had managed to escape east toward the Seine River, albeit without most of their motorized equipment. Conservative estimates for the number of German soldiers captured in the Falaise Pocket approach 50,000, although some estimates put total German losses in the pocket as high as 200,000. By 23 August, the remainder of the 7th Army had entrenched itself along the Seine River to defend Paris. Simultaneously, elements of Army Group G including the 15th Army and the 5th Panzer Army moved to engage American forces in the south. In the following week, elements of the 1st Canadian Army attacked the Germans on the Seine to break through to the Channel Ports. On the evening of 23 August, French and American troops entered Paris.
Casualties
Due to the successive offensives of early August, exact Canadian casualties for Operation Tractable are not known. Losses during Totalize and Tractable are put at 5,500 men. German casualties during Operation Tractable are also uncertain; approximate figures can be found for casualties within the Falaise Pocket but not for the Canadian operations during Tractable. After the Falaise Pocket, the German 7th Army was severely depleted, having lost from 50,000 to 200,000 men, over 200 tanks, 1,000 guns and 5,000 other vehicles. In the fighting around the Germans lost 2,000 men killed, 5,000 taken prisoner, 55 tanks, 152 other armoured vehicles and 44 guns. Polish casualties for Operation Tractable (until 22 August) are 1,441 men, of whom 325 were killed (including 21 officers), 1,002 were wounded (35 officers) and 114 missing, which includes 263 men lost before the Chambois and Ormel actions from 14 to 18 August.
Battle honours
In the British and Commonwealth system of battle honours, participation in Operation Tractable (included as part of the honour Falaise for service from 7 to 22 August) was recognized in 1957, 1958, and 1959 by the award of the battle honours Laison (or "The Laison" for Canadian units), for service from 14 to 17 August, Chambois from 18 to 22 August and St Lambert-sur-Dives from 19 to 22 August.
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
Books
Bercuson, David (1995) Maple leaf Against the Axis. Ottawa: Red Deer Press.
Bercuson, David (2004). M Waffen-SS. Stackpole Books. Mechanicsburg PA.
D'Este, Carlo (1983). Decision in Normandy. New York: Konecky & Konecky.
Fey, William [1990] (2003). Armor battles of the Waffen-SS, 1943–45. Stackpole Books. Mechanicsburg PA. .
Jarymowycz, Roman (2001). Tank Tactics; from Normandy to Lorraine. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner.
Keegan, John (1989). The Second World War. Penguin Books. .
Journals
External links
Analysis of Operation Cobra and the Falaise Gap Manoeuvres in WWII, Granier, T. R. (1985)
AAF Counter-Air Operations April 1943 – June 1944
Situation Maps Western Europe Day-by-Day
Conflicts in 1944
1944 in France
Operation Overlord
Battles and operations of World War II involving Poland
Military operations of World War II involving Germany
Battles of World War II involving Canada
Military history of Canada during World War II
Tractable
August 1944 events
Tank battles involving Germany
Tank battles involving Poland |
4335184 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Vito%20dei%20Normanni | San Vito dei Normanni | San Vito dei Normanni (Sanvitese: ) is an Italian town of 19,947 inhabitants of the province of Brindisi in Apulia. The inhabitants are called Sanvitesi (or Santuvitisi in dialect) and the town is sometimes referred to as San Vito.
Physical geography
The town is located in the northeast of the Salento plains, not far from the Itria Valley. The geomorphology of the land is flat, slightly undulating on the border with the municipalities of Carovigno and Ostuni.
It is located from the Adriatic coast, the port nearest beach Specchiolla, a historic marine residence of San Vito. San Vito also is from the Torre Guaceto, located in Serranova, a nature reserve, accessible by foot or bicycle (Pennagrossa Point), and from the tower which gives its name to the protected area. The Ionian Sea is about away. Its altitude is around above sea level precisely between . The highest point of the city center is located in Contrada Castello d'Alceste, .
Territory
The nature of the San Vito soil is limestone. The landscape is characterized by cultivated fields with oak and olive trees and divided by stone walls used to separate farms.
The distances from major cities of Puglia are:
from Brindisi
from Lecce
from Taranto
from Bari
152.7 kn from Trani
from Andria
from Barletta
from Foggia
Climate
Based on averages of thirty years reference (1961–1990), the average temperature of the most cold month January, stands around , while that of hot month, August, is around . Precipitation averages, less than per year.
Climate classification of San Vito:
Climate zone C;
Etymology
The name of the city once included the words "degli Schiavoni", meaning "of the Slavs". To escape the persecutions of the Saracens, they migrated from Dalmatia to the opposite coast of the Adriatic, settling in late 963 in the fertile regions of Apulia. After that the town was called simply St Vitus, or St Vitus of the Slavs, or else San Vito in Terra d'Otranto. In 1863, after being returned to the Kingdom of Italy, which had been formed in 1861, the name of San Vito degli Schiavoni was changed and it assumed its current name of "San Vito dei Normanni" in honor of the man who is considered the founder of the medieval village, Bohemond of Hauteville (1050–1111), son of Robert Guiscard.
History
Archaeological remains of a tomb in the Mondescine area contain the remains of thirty burials and various ceramics dating to 1800 BC - 1700 BC, show that the area was inhabited during the Bronze Age. Also prehistoric settlements (18 - 9th century BC) have been found belonging to Messapi quarters in the Castle and Paretone area.
The village dates back to the Middle Ages (late 10th century), presumably by a colony of Slavs (emigrated from Slavonia) escaping the persecutions of the Saracens, and decided to settle in the fertile areas of San Vito founding "Castro Sancti Viti".
Some scholars believe that the city was founded by the Norman Bohemond of Hauteville ( 1050 - 1111 AD), son of Robert Guiscard, who, to satisfy his love of hunting, ordered the construction of a square tower, which still exists today.
The small village originally grew in the late Middle Ages when the Normans ensured security from the constant attacks of the Saracens. This relative calm gave the opportunity to develop Sanvitesi trade, and to dominate the surrounding territory. It was in the 15th century that the town was organized as a commune, though feudal servitude continued. The commune belonged to the Altavilla, then to the Sambiase, then Raymond Orsini of the Balzo and then the Dentice Frasso.
From the 15th century onwards, the city began to widen, extending north and east. In 1484 it was sacked by the Venetians. In 1571, during the Crusades, a handful of Sanvitesi took part in the Battle of Lepanto against the Ottoman Empire. In honor of the victory won, they built the Basilca Santa Maria della Vittoria and then dedicated it to the Madonna della Vittoria. In 1799 it joined the Neapolitan Republic; the population during the 19th century the city was the seat of various participating circles to the Carbonari.
During the Fascist period it experienced remarkable urban development. There were many important buildings built such as The Circle Elementary School, the seat of the Municipality, and the post office. In 1927, the province of Brindisi was established which includes San VitoI. In 1943, it hosted King Victor Emmanuel III which was trying to escape to liberation, with Marshal Pietro Badoglio’s government. In the early 1960s, the petrochemical industry in addition to engineering companies and Aeronavali of Brindisi San Vito have moved many workers from working the fields to the assembly line.
The opening of the San Vito dei Normanni Air Station into a strategic focal point during the Cold War, simultaneously created the work between the locals and received thousands of American workers. It closed after the fall of the Berlin Wall. Today San Vito is marketing to develop tourism.
Main sights
Religious architecture
Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria
Santa Maria della Vittoria, simply called the "Mother Church", is the most important religious building in the city. The largest church in the city shows evidence of previous wars from the fist-sized holes that can be seen in and around the exterior. Built in the shape of a Latin cross with three naves, a transept and a deep chancel. Inside valuable paintings such as the icon of Nicopeia, depicting the Virgin Mary, announcing to Pope Pius V the victory over the Turks, and a silver statue representing St. Vitus.
On the right side of the basilica there is the Holy Door, opened in October 1995 during celebrations for the fourth centenary of the church, beginning at the Holy Year Jubilee of the Church. Also the occasion was marked by the presentation of a new wooden altar, together all the furnishings of the sanctuary, of Flavio Pancheri.
On October 26, 1996, Pope John Paul II, during a special audience called on the Archdiocese of Brindisi-Ostuni, and solemnly crowned the icon of Our Lady Nicopeia. The pope proclaimed the church a papal Basilica on December 30, 1998.
Church of San Giovanni Evangelista
St. John the Evangelist is a church in Baroque style. The façade, with four pilasters with Corinthian capitals are in Lecce stone, which is very soft, allowing for striking decorations. In the church there are six paintings, two of which placed in a wooden structure which includes frame and canopy, the other four are on the sidewalls. The church, was "sold" by the Dentice Frasso family of the symbolic sum of 10,000 lira to the City of San Vito.
Chiesa Santa Maria degli Angeli
The "Old Church" was built around the 15th century. Subsequent modifications took place in 1696 and 1763. It has a simple façade, marked by six pilasters with an elegant portal and an oval window with projecting cornices. In its interior are side altars of stone, an altar in polychrome marble, a wood crucifix from the 16th century and an 1809 painting made by Domenico Carella.
Church of Santa Maria della Mercede
"The church of St. Francis" dates back to 1735 and was commissioned by Prince Fabio Marchese Belprato. At the end of the 19th century, with the arrival of Mercedarian Order, there was installed a significantly larger cupola, sanctuary and adjoining convent. The façade has four pilasters with Ionic capitals, two niches in which there are statues of Our Lady of Mercy and St. Francis of Paola. Inside are chandeliers in wrought iron and the statue, in wood, of St. Francis.
Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie
The "Monastery" is so named because until 1868, it was next to the convent of the Franciscan Friars Minor. It was built in 1586, at the behest of Prince Palagano Lucius II, with a single aisle. Then, with a subsequent action in 1700, it was added a second, and in 1898 a third. The façade is very simple, and has only two windows in the portal and central. In the interior, there are nine altars in the side stones and paintings depicting the Crucifixion. Moreover, in the aisles, there is the Pietà by an unknown author, the Providence and San Salvador from Orte by local artist Giacomo da San Vito.
Church of the Annunciation
Also called the Church of San Domenico, due to the presence of the nearby convent of the Dominicans until 1809. The church was built around 1584 on land donated by a devotee. It has a cusp façade with two side pilasters, window and central portal by a local sculptor. In 1984 the collapse of two aisles caused the closure for restoration work that lasted a decade. Today, reconstructed, it has reopened for worship and there restored the six side stone altars of the 18th century and a tapestry from 1769 depicting the Annunciation by artist Domenico Carella.
Church of San Michele Arcangelo
Built in 1928 by Concetta Carlucci, who in a vision was invited to awaken the worship of the saint in the city. The structure is very simple, has been enriched by a bronze portal surmounted by a lunette with a bas-relief depicting St. Michael the Archangel, by the sculptor Cosimo Giuliano Latiano and a statue depicting Concetta Carlucci.
Other churches
Church of Santa Maria della Pietà, also called "Church of the Hospital"
Church of Santa Rita
Church of Santa Teresa
Rock settlements
There are many rock art sites within San Vito made by Byzantine monks that fled from eastern Europe as they were persecuted because of their faith. Such sites include:
San Biagio, which is located near the Jannuzzo farm, is a monastic Byzantine sanctuary placed in real rock. The Eastern Orthodox rite is drawn inside a cave. It also presents the cells intended for monks, but over time has undergone significant transformations. Like all churches carved out along the last stretch of the Via Francigena, the sanctuary of San Biagio presents votive frescoes dedicated to Saint Blaise, St. Nicholas, St. Andrew, St. George, St. James and St. John. The inscriptions on the iconography, are all in Greek except one, that of St. Nicholas, which sets in Latin as a sign of religious unity between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Latin Church.
St. Nicholas in the San Nicola-Malpasso is located halfway between San Vito and Serranova. The crypt and the four adjoining caves are located in a small valley, partly carved in rock, partly built in tuff. Inside is the image of St. Nicholas and traces of frescoes can be seen in the walls of tufa.
Crypt of San Giovanni is a settlement with several rock caves, some partially collapsed, in which two small cells were found with traces of graffiti. Another, almost completely underground, is divided into seven side branches that converge into a central corridor. The crypt presents a pillar around which rests three arcs. Parts of frescoes, dating back presumably to the 13th century, are in the central apse.
Crypt of St Mary the hamlet of St. James is situated in an old farmhouse, which was abandoned in the 15th century. Inside the church has a fresco of the Virgin with Child.
Civil architecture
The Rezze
Rezza (from Retia in Latin, meaning network), is a type of shade used to protect houses' front doors mostly from direct sunlight but also from rain and wind. Rezze are made by thin plates of wood placed horizontally and parallel to each other, with few millimeters between one another. These shades are usually either purple, green, yellow, brown or beige. A traditional expression from San Vito is "vecchia cretu la rezza", literally meaning "older woman behind the shade" but indeed referring to someone who likes to spy on others without being seen.
Archaeological sites
In the 1990s, just outside the town, specifically in Contrada Castello d'Alceste, traces of buildings dating back to Iron Age and, following excavations, a large Messapii settlement presumably dating from the period between the 7th and 4th centuries BC were found. That site could become the first Archeodromo of Italy. The archaeological site was the subject of several excavations made by the City Council of San Vito dei Normanni, the Archaeological Superintendence of Taranto and the University of Salento's Department of Cultural Heritage.
Military architecture
Castle of Dentice Frasso
The medieval castle of Dentice Frasso, opposite the Town Hall with its ancient square tower, overlooks the main town’s piazza.
The original access was via a drawbridge which was from the box located on the door of the Chapel The first building was undoubtedly the tower, believed to be Norman and dating from the 12th century. Built by Bohemond of Hauteville in the 11th century, in a strategic position on the road that passed through the hamlet of San Vito and came to the old road for Oria. It is perfectly intact, still dominates the area of San Vito. The tower has Guelphs and Ghibellines-like battlements and narrow openings that allows indoor lighting.
There is a large courtyard that overlooks the cinquecento residence, characterized by a series of elegant rectangular boxes around the tower. The castle was probably built originally as the residence of hunters, as once the territory of San Vito completely covered by forests. The entrance to the building consists of a pointed arch, on top is placed a crest of the Dentice family. The stairway leads to a stone porch column, on which rest three round arches.
Inside retains decorated suites, paintings, hunting trophies and the town archive. The castle is privately owned and inhabited by descendants of the Dentice Frasso family.
Natural areas
Villa Comunale
The only green space of the city is the Villa Comunale, called the Pinewood due to the presence of large marine pines, and also many palm trees. The park is at the center of the city and surrounds the primary school.
Countryside
A few kilometers from the city is Torre Guaceto (Guaceto Tower), a World Wildlife Fund nature reserve of the State whose extension is approximately and a sea front which stretches for about 8,000 mt. The marine area is represented by a perfect rectangle, with an average depth of 3,000 meters, crossed and divided by State Road 379. The reserve can be visited only on foot or by bicycle.
Society
Demographic evolution
The demographic balance the municipality as of March 31, 2008 has 19,915 inhabitants, is as follows: 10,365 females and 9452 males. 7274 families the average family component is 2.7 (higher than the national average of 2.5, but less to the corresponding value of the region that instead of 2.8).
The town, like many towns of Apulia experienced a slight decrease in population due to the decrease in part by birth rate which is matched by the fact that many young people decide to complete their university studies in a city in central-north especially Milan, Bologna and Rome.
Migrations
San Vito was the subject of extensive emigration during the 20th century, first to the Americas, later towards northern Europe (especially Germany) and to northwestern Italy, but today the town has become a destination for immigrants from outside the European Union.
A phenomenon that, at least for a decade now, seems to settle into the territory is that of immigration by families from northern Europe, especially English and Irish people. These new arrivals usually consist of pensioners, not coming to work, who buy villas in the countryside of San Vito and enjoy the pleasant temperatures all year. This phenomenon, relatively recent in Apulia, is known as "Salentoshire", a playful neologism along the lines of "Chiantishire", which refers to the consolidated British tourism in Tuscany.
Dialect
The Sanvitese is a Brindisi dialect belonging to the southern extreme Salento family. Some Sanvitese idioms include:
Figghiu mutu la mamma lu ntendi. (The mother understands her mute child)
Ccugghimu li fierri.. (Take up the tools of the trade - taking what belongs to us and we go on)
Ci eti veru ca lu munnu gira, casa mea prima o ppoi avà passai ti quai (if it is true that the world turns, my house sooner or later, must pass by here)
Ci unu nasci cu la capu tunna, no ppo murì cu la capu quatrata (literally: if a person is born with a round head, it certainly will not die with a square head, figuratively speaking, if a person is made in a certain way, they will remain so until his death)
The 'nciuria
The 'nciuria is the nickname that has a valence of mockery and is given to the inhabitants of any Salento town by the inhabitants of nearby towns. The nickname of San Vito is "mulacchiuni" that is "big mules". The reason for the 'nciuria is due to Sanvitesi attitude to differences, news and ideas. They tend to remain stubborn on their ideas, even denying the evidence. Like mules, the Sanvitese would have the blinders that are looking only forward, without further nuances or points of view.
Culture
Education
Libraries
John XXIII Biblioteca Comunale is the city’s first public library, founded by Dominican friars. They possessed thousands of leather-bound books and sorted into nine large closets. Since 1809 the monks left the monastery and many works were lost. In 1946, Mayor Vincenzo Trizza appointed a committee to create a new library. They donated 750 volumes and ordered 450 books of classics, two encyclopedias, and books by fellow authors. In 1962, the present library was founded through the efforts of Professor Angelo Pagliara, who sent letters to the highest offices of State and the Catholic Church to request materials. Pope John XXIII was the first to respond and gave three volumes of his speeches with handwritten signatures and, therefore, the library took name.
St. Benedict Public Library, founded in 1940, is located in the convent of Benedictine Oblates of St. Scholastica but is open to the public. It features about 26,000 volumes and pamphlets and specializes in Biblical, Theology, Patristics, and Ecumenism in the history of the Church.
Schools
The city has various schools: two kindergartens - "San Domenico" and "Palatucci-Don Bosco"- two primary schools - "Lanza del Vasto", "Monsignor Francesco Passante"- a lower secondary school-"Don Vincenzo Meo". These schools belong to Primo Istituto Comprensivo San Vito dei Normanni. The schools belonging to Secondo Istituto Comprensivo San Vito dei Normanni are: three kindergartens- "Andersen", "Collodi" and "Rodari"-"two primary schools "Don Lorenzo Milani", "Madre Teresa di Calcutta" ; a lower secondary school- "Buonsanto; and two second level secondary schools: Liceo Scientifico Leonardo Leo and Professional Institute for Social Services "Peppino Impastato".
Rural Museum
The Rural Museum implemented by local action group Altosalento, was inaugurated on July 21, 2001 and is currently managed by the Cultural Association AXAS Onlus. The museum, like the town library, is located within the cloister of the Dominicans. The museum houses a remarkable collection of objects and tools that bear witness to everyday rural life between the 18th century and the early 1950s. The tools cover artisans, blacksmiths, carpenters, saddlers, knife grinders, shoemakers and of course farmers.
Castello d'Alceste Museum
In the Contrada Castello d'Alceste were found traces of a village huts in the second half of the 8th century BC. It overlaps the 6th century BC buildings, reflecting the surge of new construction techniques and a new way to conceive of living space. The houses of this period are divided into multiple environments and have complex roof systems that make use of tiles.
Media
Web TV: Web TV Puntonet
Radio: Teleradio San Vito.
Press:
Il Punto (eng: The Point): monthly
L'Arcobaleno (eng: The Rainbow): bimonthly
Occhio Magazine (eng: Eye Magazine) (monthly).
Music
Tarantism in San Vito
Tarantism (a type of Tarantella) blends pagan and Christian tradition. In the past it was believed, that women who showed forms of hysteria, were infected by the bite of the tarantula. The only known remedy was to dance continuously for days, so that the poison did not take effect.
Through music and dance to give healing to taranta (the tarantula bitten), creating a real exorcism of musical character. Each time a tarantata exhibiting symptoms associated with Taranto, the drummers, fiddlers, mandolin, guitarists and accordionists went in the house of taranta and stakeholders to play the music from at a frantic pace. Now the Tarantismo dance and sing for hours until they are exhausted. The belief, that while their energies were consumed in the dance, even the tarantula is consumed and destroyed.
San Vito retains a remarkable tradition of pizzica that, unlike that of Lecce, appears free as a therapeutic repertoire and musical found only in this town. In the 1950s at least thirty players could be involved in the care of the tarantati.
Cuisine
The sanvitese cucina is characterized by local traditional agricultural products. Local cuisine includes stuffed aubergines (maranciani chini), and traditional specialities made with mashed broad beans mixed with and vegetables (favi e fogghi). Other traditional dishes include "frise", round shaped hard bread soaked in water and topped with salt, with cherry tomatoes, olive oil and oregano and "gnummarieddi" or "turcinieddi", meat skewers made with lamb's innards. Sweets include the mustazzueli, chocolate dolcetti, sweet Carteddàte, Christmas cakes in the shape of thin pastry rosettes fried in hot oil, the cupeta cake with almonds, and very soft pettole balls of dough fried in hot oil. The municipality is a member of the olive oil coalition Collina di Brindisi and the wine coalition called Appia wines, which also includes the municipalities of Brindisi, Ostuni, Latiano and Mesagne.
Almond milk is achieved by creating in an infusion of water with finely chopped almonds, and then squeezing them to bring out all the juice. Puglia Region has entered the almond milk in the list of traditional Italian food products. Limoncello is a liquor made from the peel of fresh lemon and enriched with water, sugar and alcohol to be enjoyed both as an apéritif and as a digestive after meals.
Wine
The territory of San Vito produces wines such as the Aleatico di Puglia Doc, Doc Ostuni, Puglia IGT. Along the road of the municipality, there are indigenous varieties of grapes, the Negroamaro, Primitivo, and Malvasia, which have been joined over the years by crops of white grape vines.
Malvasia Nera di Brindisi is a grape of Greek origin and now widespread in most Mediterranean countries. Its wine, called Malmsey in English, is sweet with a golden hue. In Italy its cultivation has spread from Piedmont to Puglia. Vinified properly, it can also make a dry white wine. Sangiovese is a red grape variety, among the most widespread in Italy. Negroamaro Novoli vine that is also called "tears", has a special ability to produce rose to its chemical characteristics. Ottavianello leaves are pentagonal green, smooth, opaque and the lower surface light green.
Notable Sanvitese
Giacomo da San Vito (San Vito dei Normanni? - Naples, 1667): Friar, Franciscan Order of Reformed Minor, was a prolific artist and his works can be seen in many towns of Puglia and Basilicata.
Leonardo Leo (San Vito dei Normanni, August 5, 1694 - Naples, October 31, 1744): Baroque composer and founder of Neapolitan Musical School of the 18th century;
Vito Buonsanti (San Vito dei Normanni, June 22, 1762 - Naples, May 22, 1850): Supporters of the Republican movement, he became monk 's Dominican Order. He was a master in theology and writer was praised for his innovative ideas about teaching methods.
Vito Donato Epifani (San Vito dei Normanni, June 23, 1848 - San Vito dei Normanni, August 15, 1922): jurist, professor of economics at the University of Naples, defense lawyer of poor and dispossessed, the author of numerous essays of political economy, and other literary works. He was elected mayor of San Vito for two terms and in 1886 during an outbreak of cholera worked to use influential friends and by using personal resources to coordinate help to the sick, thus meriting the official government recognition by Crispi.
Lanza del Vasto (San Vito dei Normanni, September 29, 1901 - Murcia, January 5, 1981): poet, writer, philosopher, religious thinker with a strong mystical vein, but also founding patriarch of rural communities modeled on Gandhian non-violent activist against the Algerian war or nuclear weapons.
Realino Marra (San Vito dei Normanni, October 8, 1956), full professor of philosophy of law, dean of the School of Social Sciences at University of Genoa.
Events
During the year, the municipality organizes major cultural events:
Focara of the Epiphany: January 6 in the square outside the Basilica, organized live concerts.
Farfugghji Carnival: parade of floats leaves from the sports field and after covering the main streets to reach Piazza Leonardo Leo. Farfugghji is an eccentric and flirty name, untranslatable and derives from a dialectic expression.
Holy Week: the rites are celebrated at the Basilica of Santa Maria della Vittoria.
Friday: "desolation", at the end of the procession is the rite of burial.
Saturday: Easter Vigil waiting for the parade of beautiful statues of many saints, which are taken from different churches in the city and come to the basilica.
Easter: Procession of Christ and the resurrected saints.
Patronal festival: June 15, the Feast of San Vito Martire, solemn procession with the silver statue of the saint.
Il palio (prize): the beginning of the summer kicks off the competition between teams of different neighborhoods with challenge matches of soccer, volleyball, tug of war and also a road race.
The Salento Finibus Terrae festival: Film festival of short films organized during the summer.
Feast of Assumption: tasting and exhibition of local products and concert and dancing in the square with Pinches
The Baroque Festival concerts and events related to Baroque music in honor of the composer Leonardo Leo with the objective of recovering the memory of the master composer.
Sanvitesi Summer: organized by the city with cultural associations and individuals, provides for numerous concerts, exhibitions, screenings of films, musical performances, shows, cabaret, and theater.
The "St. Vitus Dance" musical event traces the tradition of San Vito Tarantella.
Christmas: a live nativity scene in the caves of San Biagio staged in the setting of the Byzantine sanctuary.
A variety of other cultural and educational events take place throughout the year, organised by or in conjunction with ExFadda L’officina del Sapere, a community based social enterprise at the heart of San Vito, including Coreutica a celebration of Mediterranean dance and music held in early August. Coreutica is hosted by World Music Academy and la Scuola di Pizzica di San Vito, with dance and music workshops and live events taking place in and around San Vito over the 5-6 day festival.
Geography anthropogenic
The city originally developed around the Dentice Frasso castle; the old town that still retains the old urban structure of low buildings and small streets. During the 1970s, San Vito experienced a second major urban development with the creation of the “zone 167” north of the city. This neighborhood is home to many condominiums, but also has residences and villas. Neighborhoods include Li stratoddi / Center, Chianti, Gallo / Iaddu, San Franciscu / San Francis, Santa Rita, Area 167, and Zona PIP.
Economy
San Vito dei Norman is primarily a center of agriculture and trade. The level of employment is above the provincial average.
Agriculture
As for the primary sector, livestock is not well developed with herds of cattle and sheep. Instead the agriculture industry relies on a thousand small and medium entrepreneurs engaged in intensive cultivation of fruits, vegetables, almonds and especially olives (Olea europea).
Craft and industry
Industry in the territory is present with 250 industrial companies and 17.96% of the workforce. The manufacturing sectors are agro-processing (like artichokes), but also mechanical, textile, packaging and wood processing companies.
Services and Tourism
The activity of the service sector, is the fastest growing, with 17.22% of the employed labor force, found primarily in services of transportation and storage businesses, as well as real estate agents. Employment is now reduced in public administration because of the closure of the U.S. military base in the past. Lately, important experiments are being tried in tourism, allowing the industry to grow from year to year.
Unfortunately the leak of education in the population and the bad organization of the city hall make the city, especially the surrounding areas, a real open air dump with trashes of different types in the side streets and the fields. Even the roads have not maintains, making sure that many of these are unusable even by garbage collectors.
In addition, we often find corpses of animals on the side of the streets given by the large amount of annual abandonment of pets.
Infrastructure and Roads
The main road links are represented by
A14 Bologna - Taranto: known as Bari-Lecce Highway.
SS 16 connects San Vito dei Normans to Carovigno and Ostuni.
Brindisi-Lecce expressway connects San Vito dei Normans through the SS 16.
Brindisi-Taranto connects San Vito dei Normanni to Taranto through the provincial roads 48, 45 and 44.
Railways
The station in San Vito dei Normanni, served by the Adriatic railway, is currently active with passenger service, but it served by only a few regional trains. The station is located ten kilometres () from the city. The legend says that at the time of construction of the railroad, the prince did not want the "new infernal machine" to pass on its territories. The local service stations is ensured by the ESF in Ceglie Messapica and Francavilla Fontana.
Twin Cities
Salzwedel (Germany)
Louviers (France)
Sports
The San Vito Volley Volleyball team was founded in 1989 by the league President Luigi Sabatelli in the Series A of the Italian Women's volleyball championship. The Cogeir is a men's volleyball team and campaigning in the C series of the Men's Volleyball Regional Championship.
The basketball team is in the Regional C Series. At youth level is also practiced by the company "Basketball San Vito. As for U.S. football, it plays in the San Vito Football Championship. Sport facilities include:
F. Macchitella Sport Palace presents an outside field for football, a basketball court and two tennis courts open to the public, while the interior features a basketball court and volleyball. Made in the 1970s, was the subject of a recent expansion due to the growth of sports, especially in the case of volleyball.
EM Citiolo Sports field.
A. Broad Sports Ground Created in the 1990s in district 167.
The Tennis Club
References
External links
Photos and videos of San Vito dei Normanni on youtube
Community Site of San Vito dei Normanni
Regional Site for Apulia (Puglia in Italian)
San Vito on the Web
News of San Vito dei Normanni
Official homepage of the Italian Railways
San Vito dei Normanni -Salento high coast of the trulli-
Cities and towns in Apulia
Localities of Salento |
4335254 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loudspeaker%20enclosure | Loudspeaker enclosure | A loudspeaker enclosure or loudspeaker cabinet is an enclosure (often rectangular box-shaped) in which speaker drivers (e.g., loudspeakers and tweeters) and associated electronic hardware, such as crossover circuits and, in some cases, power amplifiers, are mounted. Enclosures may range in design from simple, homemade DIY rectangular particleboard boxes to very complex, expensive computer-designed hi-fi cabinets that incorporate composite materials, internal baffles, horns, bass reflex ports and acoustic insulation. Loudspeaker enclosures range in size from small "bookshelf" speaker cabinets with woofers and small tweeters designed for listening to music with a hi-fi system in a private home to huge, heavy subwoofer enclosures with multiple or even speakers in huge enclosures which are designed for use in stadium concert sound reinforcement systems for rock music concerts.
The primary role of the enclosure is to prevent sound waves generated by the rearward-facing surface of the diaphragm of an open speaker driver interacting with sound waves generated at the front of the speaker driver. Because the forward- and rearward-generated sounds are out of phase with each other, any interaction between the two in the listening space creates a distortion of the original signal as it was intended to be reproduced. As such, a loudspeaker cannot be used without installing it in a baffle of some type, such as a closed box, vented box, open baffle, or a wall or ceiling (infinite baffle).
The enclosure also plays a role in managing vibration induced by the driver frame and moving airmass within the enclosure, as well as heat generated by driver voice coils and amplifiers (especially where woofers and subwoofers are concerned). Sometimes considered part of the enclosure, the base, may include specially designed "feet" to decouple the speaker from the floor. Enclosures designed for use in PA systems, sound reinforcement systems and for use by electric musical instrument players (e.g., bass amp cabinets) have a number of features to make them easier to transport, such as carrying handles on the top or sides, metal or plastic corner protectors, and metal grilles to protect the speakers. Speaker enclosures designed for use in a home or recording studio typically do not have handles or corner protectors, although they do still usually have a cloth or mesh cover to protect the woofer and tweeter. These speaker grilles are a metallic or cloth mesh that are used to protect the speaker by forming a protective cover over the speaker's cone while allowing sound to pass through undistorted.
Speaker enclosures are used in homes in stereo systems, home cinema systems, televisions, boom boxes and many other audio appliances. Small speaker enclosures are used in car stereo systems. Speaker cabinets are key components of a number of commercial applications, including sound reinforcement systems, movie theatre sound systems and recording studios. Electric musical instruments invented in the 20th century, such as the electric guitar, electric bass and synthesizer, among others, are amplified using instrument amplifiers and speaker cabinets (e.g., guitar amplifier speaker cabinets).
History
Early on, radio loudspeakers consisted of horns, often sold separately from the radio itself (typically a small wood box containing the radio's electronic circuits), so they were not usually housed in an enclosure. When paper cone loudspeaker drivers were introduced in the mid 1920s, radio cabinets began to be made larger to enclose both the electronics and the loudspeaker. These cabinets were made largely for the sake of appearance, with the loudspeaker simply mounted behind a round hole in the cabinet. It was observed that the enclosure had a strong effect on the bass response of the speaker. Since the rear of the loudspeaker radiates sound out of phase from the front, there can be constructive and destructive interference for loudspeakers without enclosures, and below frequencies related to the baffle dimensions in open-baffled loudspeakers . This results in a loss of bass and in comb filtering, i.e., peaks and dips in the response power regardless of the signal that is meant to be reproduced. The resulting response is akin to two loudspeakers playing the same signal but at different distances from the listener, which is like adding a delayed version of the signal to itself, whereby both constructive and destructive interference occurs.
Before the 1950s many manufacturers did not fully enclose their loudspeaker cabinets; the back of the cabinet was typically left open. This was done for several reasons, not least because electronics (at that time tube equipment) could be placed inside and cooled by convection in the open enclosure.
Most of the enclosure types discussed in this article were invented either to wall off the out of phase sound from one side of the driver, or to modify it so that it could be used to enhance the sound produced from the other side.
Background
In some respects, the ideal mounting for a low-frequency loudspeaker driver would be a rigid flat panel of infinite size with infinite space behind it. This would entirely prevent the rear sound waves from interfering (i.e., comb filter cancellations) with the sound waves from the front. An "open baffle" loudspeaker is an approximation of this, since the driver is mounted on a panel, with dimensions comparable to the longest wavelength to be reproduced. In either case, the driver would need a relatively stiff suspension to provide the restoring force which might have been provided at low frequencies by a smaller sealed or ported enclosure, so few drivers are suitable for this kind of mounting.
The forward- and rearward-generated sounds of a speaker driver appear out of phase from each other because they are generated through the opposite motion of the diaphragm and because they travel different paths before converging at the listener's position. A speaker driver mounted on a finite baffle will display a physical phenomenon known as interference, which can result in perceivable frequency-dependent sound attenuation. This phenomenon is particularly noticeable at low frequencies where the wavelengths are large enough that interference will affect the entire listening area.
Since infinite baffles are impractical and finite baffles tend to suffer poor response as wavelengths approach the dimensions of the baffle (i.e. at lower frequencies), most loudspeaker cabinets use some sort of structure (usually a box) to contain the out of phase sound energy. The box is typically made of wood, wood composite, or more recently plastic, for reasons of ease of construction and appearance. Stone, concrete, plaster, and even building structures have also been used.
Enclosures can have a significant effect beyond what was intended, with panel resonances, diffraction from cabinet edges and standing wave energy from internal reflection/reinforcement modes being among the possible problems. Bothersome resonances can be reduced by increasing enclosure mass or rigidity, by increasing the damping of enclosure walls or wall/surface treatment combinations, by adding stiff cross bracing, or by adding internal absorption. Wharfedale, in some designs, reduced panel resonance by using two wooden cabinets (one inside the other) with the space between filled with sand. Home experimenters have even designed speakers built from concrete, granite and other exotic materials for similar reasons.
Many diffraction problems, above the lower frequencies, can be alleviated by the shape of the enclosure, such as by avoiding sharp corners on the front of the enclosure. A comprehensive study of the effect of cabinet configuration on the sound distribution pattern and overall response-frequency characteristics of loudspeakers was undertaken by Harry F. Olson. It involved a very wide number of different enclosure shapes, and it showed that curved loudspeaker baffles reduce some response deviations due to sound wave diffraction. It was discovered later that careful placement of a speaker on a sharp-edged baffle can reduce diffraction-caused response problems.
Sometimes the differences in phase response at frequencies shared by different drivers can be addressed by adjusting the vertical location of the smaller drivers (usually backwards), or by leaning or 'stepping' the front baffle, so that the wavefront from all drivers is coherent at and around the crossover frequencies in the speaker's normal sound field. The acoustic center of the driver dictates the amount of rearward offset needed to "time-align" the drivers.
Types
Enclosures used for woofers and subwoofers can be adequately modeled in the low-frequency region (approximately 100–200 Hz and below) using acoustics and the lumped component models. Electrical filter theory has been used with considerable success for some enclosure types. For the purposes of this type of analysis, each enclosure must be classified according to a specific topology. The designer must balance low bass extension, linear frequency response, efficiency, distortion, loudness and enclosure size, while simultaneously addressing issues higher in the audible frequency range such as diffraction from enclosure edges, the baffle step effect when wavelengths approach enclosure dimensions, crossovers, and driver blending.
Closed-box (sealed) enclosures
The loudspeaker driver's moving mass and compliance (slackness or reciprocal stiffness of the suspension) determines the driver's resonance frequency (Fs). In combination with the damping properties of the system (both mechanical and electrical) all these factors affect the low-frequency response of sealed-box systems. The response of closed-box loudspeaker systems has been extensively studied by Small and Benson, amongst many others. Output falls below the system's resonance frequency (Fc), defined as the frequency of peak impedance. In a closed-box loudspeaker, the air inside the box acts as a spring, returning the cone to the 'zero' position in the absence of a signal. A significant increase in the effective volume of a closed-box loudspeaker can be achieved by a filling of fibrous material, typically fiberglass, bonded acetate fiber (BAF) or long-fiber wool. The effective volume increase can be as much as 40% and is due primarily to a reduction in the speed of sound propagation through the filler material as compared to air. The enclosure or driver must have a small leak so that the internal and external pressures can equalise over time, to compensate for changes in barometric pressure or altitude; the porous nature of paper cones, or an imperfectly sealed enclosure, is normally sufficient to provide this slow pressure equalisation.
Infinite baffle
A variation on the 'open baffle' approach is to mount the loudspeaker driver in a very large sealed enclosure, providing minimal 'air spring' restoring force to the cone. This minimizes the change in the driver's resonance frequency caused by the enclosure. The low-frequency response of infinite baffle loudspeaker systems has been extensively analysed by Benson. Some infinite baffle 'enclosures' have used an adjoining room, basement, or a closet or attic. This is often the case with exotic rotary woofer installations, as they are intended to go to frequencies lower than 20 Hz and displace large volumes of air. "Infinite baffle" or simply "IB" is also used as a generic term for sealed enclosures of any size, the name being used because of the ability of a sealed enclosure to prevent any interaction between the forward and rear radiation of a driver at low frequencies.
In conceptual terms an infinite baffle is a flat baffle that extends out to infinity – the so-called "endless plate". A genuine infinite baffle cannot be constructed but a very large baffle such as the wall of a room can be considered to be a practical equivalent. A genuine infinite-baffle loudspeaker has an infinite volume (a half-space) on each side of the baffle and has no baffle step. However the term "infinite-baffle loudspeaker" can fairly be applied to any loudspeaker that behaves (or closely approximates) in all respects as if the drive unit is mounted in a genuine infinite baffle. The term is often and erroneously used of sealed enclosures which cannot exhibit infinite-baffle behavior unless their internal volume is much greater than the Vas Thiele/Small of the drive unit AND the front baffle dimensions are ideally several wavelengths of the lowest output frequency. It is important to distinguish between genuine infinite-baffle topology and so-called infinite-baffle or IB "enclosures" which may not meet genuine infinite-baffle criteria. The distinction becomes important when interpreting textbook usage of the term (see Beranek (1954, p. 118) and Watkinson (2004)).
Acoustic suspension
Acoustic suspension or air suspension is a variation of the closed-box enclosure, using a box size that exploits the almost linear air spring resulting in a −3 dB low-frequency cut-off point of 30–40 Hz from a box of only one to two cubic feet or so. The "spring" suspension that restores the cone to a neutral position is a combination of an exceptionally compliant (soft) woofer suspension, and the air inside the enclosure. At frequencies below system resonance, the air pressure caused by the cone motion is the dominant force. Developed by Edgar Villchur in 1954, this technique was used in the very successful Acoustic Research line of "bookshelf" speakers in the 1960s–70s. The acoustic suspension principle takes advantage of this relatively linear spring. The enhanced suspension linearity of this type of system is an advantage. For a specific driver, an optimal acoustic suspension cabinet will be smaller than a bass reflex, but the bass reflex cabinet will have a lower −3 dB point. The voltage sensitivity above the tuning frequency remains a function of the driver, and not of the cabinet design.
Isobaric loading
The isobaric loudspeaker configuration was first introduced by Harry F. Olson in the early 1950s, and refers to systems in which two or more identical woofers (bass drivers) operate simultaneously, with a common body of enclosed air adjoining one side of each diaphragm. In practical applications, they are most often used to improve low-end frequency response without increasing cabinet size, though at the expense of cost and weight. Two identical loudspeakers are coupled to work together as one unit: they are mounted one behind the other in a casing to define a chamber of air in between. The volume of this "isobaric" chamber is usually chosen to be fairly small for reasons of convenience. The two drivers operating in tandem exhibit exactly the same behavior as one loudspeaker in twice the cabinet.
Ported (or reflex) enclosures
Bass-reflex
Also known as vented (or ported) systems, these enclosures have a vent or hole cut into the cabinet and a port tube affixed to the hole, to improve low-frequency output, increase efficiency, or reduce the size of an enclosure. Bass reflex designs are used in home stereo speakers (including both low- to mid-priced speaker cabinets and expensive hi-fi cabinets), bass amplifier speaker cabinets, keyboard amplifier cabinets, subwoofer cabinets and PA system speaker cabinets. Vented or ported cabinets use cabinet openings or transform and transmit low-frequency energy from the rear of the speaker to the listener. They deliberately and successfully exploit Helmholtz resonance. As with sealed enclosures, they may be empty, lined, filled or (rarely) stuffed with damping materials. Port tuning frequency is a function of the cross-sectional area of the port and its length. This enclosure type is very common, and provides more sound pressure level near the tuning frequency than a sealed enclosure of the same volume, although it actually has less low frequency output at frequencies well below the cut-off frequency, since the "rolloff" is steeper (24 dB/octave versus 12 dB/octave for a sealed enclosure). Malcolm Hill pioneered the use of these designs in a live event context in the early 1970s.
Vented system design using computer modeling has been practiced since about 1985. It made extensive use of the theory developed by researchers such as Thiele, Benson, Small and Keele, who had systematically applied electrical filter theory to the acoustic behavior of loudspeakers in enclosures. In particular Thiele and Small became very well known for their work. While ported loudspeakers had been produced for many years before computer modeling, achieving optimum performance was challenging, as it is a complex sum of the properties of the specific driver, the enclosure and port, because of imperfect understanding of the assorted interactions. These enclosures are sensitive to small variations in driver characteristics and require special quality control concern for uniform performance across a production run. Bass ports are widely used in subwoofers for PA systems and sound reinforcement systems, in bass amp speaker cabinets and in keyboard amp speaker cabinets.
Passive radiator
A passive radiator speaker uses a second "passive" driver, or drone, to produce similar low-frequency extension, or efficiency increase, or enclosure size reduction, similar to ported enclosures. Small and Hurlburt have published the results of research into the analysis and design of passive-radiator loudspeaker systems. The passive-radiator principle was identified as being particularly useful in compact systems where vent realization is difficult or impossible, but it can also be applied satisfactorily to larger systems. The passive driver is not wired to an amplifier; instead, it moves in response to changing enclosure pressures. In theory, such designs are variations of the bass reflex type, but with the advantage of avoiding a relatively small port or tube through which air moves, sometimes noisily. Tuning adjustments for a passive radiator are usually accomplished more quickly than with a bass reflex design since such corrections can be as simple as mass adjustments to the drone. The disadvantages are that a passive radiator requires precision construction like a driver, thus increasing costs, and may have excursion limitations.
Compound or band-pass
A 4th-order electrical bandpass filter can be simulated by a vented box in which the contribution from the rear face of the driver cone is trapped in a sealed box, and the radiation from the front surface of the cone is directed into a ported chamber. This modifies the resonance of the driver. In its simplest form a compound enclosure has two chambers. The dividing wall between the chambers holds the driver; typically only one chamber is ported.
If the enclosure on each side of the woofer has a port in it then the enclosure yields a 6th-order band-pass response. These are considerably harder to design and tend to be very sensitive to driver characteristics. As in other reflex enclosures, the ports may generally be replaced by passive radiators if desired. An eighth-order bandpass box is another variation which also has a narrow frequency range. They are often used to achieve sound pressure levels in which case a bass tone of a specific frequency would be used versus anything musical. They are complicated to build and must be done quite precisely in order to perform nearly as intended.
Aperiodic enclosures
This design falls between acoustic suspension and bass reflex enclosures. It can be thought of as either a leaky sealed box or a ported box with large amounts of port damping. By setting up a port, and then blocking it precisely with sufficiently tightly packed fiber filling, it's possible to adjust the damping in the port as desired. The result is control of the resonance behavior of the system which improves low-frequency reproduction, according to some designers. Dynaco was a primary producer of these enclosures for many years, using designs developed by a Scandinavian driver maker. The design remains uncommon among commercial designs currently available. A reason for this may be that adding damping material is a needlessly inefficient method of increasing damping; the same alignment can be achieved by simply choosing a loudspeaker driver with the appropriate parameters and precisely tuning the enclosure and port for the desired response.
A similar technique has been used in aftermarket car audio; it is called "aperiodic membrane" (AP). A resistive mat is placed in front of or directly behind the loudspeaker driver (usually mounted on the rear deck of the car in order to use the trunk as an enclosure). The loudspeaker driver is sealed to the mat so that all acoustic output in one direction must pass through the mat. This increases mechanical damping, and the resulting decrease in the impedance magnitude at resonance is generally the desired effect, though there is no perceived or objective benefit to this. Again, this technique reduces efficiency and the same result can be achieved through selection of a driver with a lower Q factor, or even via electronic equalization. This is reinforced by the purveyors of AP membranes; they are often sold with an electronic processor which, via equalization, restores the bass output lost through the mechanical damping. The effect of the equalization is opposite to that of the AP membrane, resulting in a loss of damping and an effective response similar to that of the loudspeaker without the aperiodic membrane and electronic processor.
Dipole enclosures
A dipole enclosure in its simplest form is a driver located on a flat baffle panel, similar to older open back cabinet designs. The baffle's edges are sometimes folded back to reduce its apparent size, creating a sort of open-backed box. A rectangular cross-section is more common than curved ones since it is easier to fabricate in a folded form than a circular one. The baffle dimensions are typically chosen to obtain a particular low-frequency response, with larger dimensions giving a lower frequency before the front and rear waves interfere with each other. A dipole enclosure has a "figure-of-eight" radiation pattern, which means that there is a reduction in sound pressure, or loudness, at the sides as compared to the front and rear. This is useful if it can be used to prevent the sound from being as loud in some places as in others.
Horn enclosures
A horn loudspeaker is a speaker system using a horn to match the driver cone to the air. The horn structure itself does not amplify, but rather improves the coupling between the speaker driver and the air. Properly designed horns have the effect of making the speaker cone transfer more of the electrical energy in the voice coil into the air; in effect the driver appears to have higher efficiency. Horns can help control dispersion at higher frequencies which is useful in some applications such as sound reinforcement. The mathematical theory of horn coupling is well developed and understood, though implementation is sometimes difficult. Properly designed horns for high frequencies are small (above say 3 kHz or so, a few centimetres or inches), those for mid-range frequencies (perhaps 300 Hz to 2 kHz) much larger, perhaps 30 to 60 cm (1 or 2 feet), and for low frequencies (under 300 Hz) very large, a few metres (dozens of feet). In the 1950s, a few high fidelity enthusiasts actually built full sized horns whose structures were built into a house wall or basement. With the coming of stereo (two speakers) and surround sound (four or more), plain horns became even more impractical. Various speaker manufacturers have produced folded low-frequency horns which are much smaller (e.g., Altec Lansing, JBL, Klipsch, Lowther, Tannoy) and actually fit in practical rooms. These are necessarily compromises, and because they are physically complex, they are expensive.
Multiple entry horn
The multiple entry horn (also known as a coentrant horn, unity horn or synergy horn) is a manifold speaker design; it uses several different drivers mounted on the horn at stepped distances from the horn's apex, where the high frequency driver is placed. Depending on implementation, this design offers an improvement in transient response as each of the drivers is aligned in phase and time and exits the same horn mouth. A more uniform radiation pattern throughout the frequency range is also possible. A uniform pattern is handy for smoothly arraying multiple enclosures.
Tapped horn
Both sides of a long-excursion high-power driver in a tapped horn enclosure are ported into the horn itself, with one path length long and the other short. These two paths combine in phase at the horn's mouth within the frequency range of interest. This design is especially effective at subwoofer frequencies and offers reductions in enclosure size along with more output.
Transmission line
A perfect transmission line loudspeaker enclosure has an infinitely long line, stuffed with absorbent material such that all the rear radiation of the driver is fully absorbed, down to the lowest frequencies. Theoretically, the vent at the far end could be closed or open with no difference in performance. The density of and material used for the stuffing is critical, as too much stuffing will cause reflections due to back-pressure, whilst insufficient stuffing will allow sound to pass through to the vent. Stuffing often is of different materials and densities, changing as one gets further from the back of the driver's diaphragm.
Consequent to the above, practical transmission line loudspeakers are not true transmission lines, as there is generally output from the vent at the lowest frequencies. They can be thought of as a waveguide in which the structure shifts the phase of the driver's rear output by at least 90°, thereby reinforcing the frequencies near the driver's free-air resonance frequency Fs. Transmission lines tend to be larger than ported enclosures of approximately comparable performance, due to the size and length of the guide that is required (typically 1/4 the longest wavelength of interest).
The design is often described as non-resonant, and some designs are sufficiently stuffed with absorbent material that there is indeed not much output from the line's port. But it is the inherent resonance (typically at 1/4 wavelength) that can enhance the bass response in this type of enclosure, albeit with less absorbent stuffing. Among the first examples of this enclosure design approach were the projects published in Wireless World by Bailey in the early 1970s, and the commercial designs of the now defunct IMF Electronics which received critical acclaim at about the same time.
A variation on the transmission line enclosure uses a tapered tube, with the terminus (opening/port) having a smaller area than the throat. The tapering tube can be coiled for lower frequency driver enclosures to reduce the dimensions of the speaker system, resulting in a seashell like appearance. Bose uses similar patented technology on their Wave and Acoustic Waveguide music systems.
Numerical simulations by Augspurger and King have helped refine the theory and practical design of these systems.
Quarter wave enclosure
A quarter wave resonator is a transmission line tuned to form a standing quarter wave at a frequency somewhat below the driver's resonance frequency Fs. When properly designed, a port that is of much smaller diameter than the main pipe located at the end of the pipe then produces the driver's backward radiation in phase with the speaker driver itself; greatly adding to the bass output. Such designs tend to be less dominant in certain bass frequencies than the more common bass reflex designs and followers of such designs claim an advantage in clarity of the bass with a better congruency of the fundamental frequencies to the overtones. Some loudspeaker designers like Martin J. King and Bjørn Johannessen consider the term "quarter wave enclosure" as a more fitting term for most transmission lines and since acoustically, quarter wavelengths produce standing waves inside the enclosure that are used to produce the bass response emanating from the port. These designs can be considered a mass-loaded transmission line design or a bass reflex design, as well as a quarter wave enclosure. Quarter wave resonators have seen a revival as commercial applications with the onset of neodymium drivers that enable this design to produce relatively low bass extensions within a relatively small speaker enclosure.
Tapered quarter-wave pipe
The tapered quarter-wave pipe (TQWP) is an example of a combination of transmission line and horn effects. It is highly regarded by some speaker designers. The concept is that the sound emitted from the rear of the loudspeaker driver is progressively reflected and absorbed along the length of the tapering tube, almost completely preventing internally reflected sound being retransmitted through the cone of the loudspeaker. The lower part of the pipe acts as a horn while the top can be visualised as an extended compression chamber. The entire pipe can also be seen as a tapered transmission line in inverted form. (A traditional tapered transmission line, confusingly also sometimes referred to as a TQWP, has a smaller mouth area than throat area.) Its relatively low adoption in commercial speakers can mostly be attributed to the large resulting dimensions of the speaker produced and the expense of manufacturing a rigid tapering tube. The TQWP is also known as a Voigt pipe and was introduced in 1934 by Paul G. A. H. Voigt, Lowther's original driver designer.
See also
Acoustic transmission line
Audio crossover
Full-range speaker
Guitar speaker cabinet
Impedance matching
Jabez Gough enclosure
Midrange speaker
Powered speakers
Subwoofer
Soundbar
Speaker grille
Super tweeter
Transmission line loudspeaker
Tweeter
Woofer
References
External links
How a Hole-in-the-Box Works - information about bass reflex.
Quarter-Wave - details about transmission line design
Humble Homemade Hifi - DIY site with examples & plans of several speaker enclosure types
Free Speaker Plans - Community oriented DIY loudspeaker design plans, general resources and forum.
Loudspeakers
Loudspeaker technology
Audio engineering |
4335769 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1926%20in%20baseball | 1926 in baseball |
Champions
World Series: St. Louis Cardinals over New York Yankees (4-3)
Negro World Series: Chicago American Giants over Bacharach Giants (5-4-2)
Awards and honors
League Award
George Burns, Cleveland Indians, 1B
Bob O'Farrell, St. Louis Cardinals, C
Statistical leaders
Major league baseball final standings
American League final standings
National League final standings
Negro leagues final standings
Negro National League final standings
Kansas City won the first half, Chicago won the second half.
Chicago beat Kansas City 5 games to 4 games in a play-off.
Eastern Colored League final standings
†Homestead was not in the league, but these games counted in the standings.
Events
January 15 – The Cincinnati Reds purchase the contract of first baseman Wally Pipp from the New York Yankees for $7,500.
February 6 – The St. Louis Browns acquire catcher Wally Schang from the New York Yankees in exchange for pitcher George Mogridge and cash considerations. Although Schang is 36 years old, he will hold the job as the regular catcher for the Browns for the next four seasons.
April 13
In one of the greatest Opening Day pitchers' duels ever, Walter Johnson of the Washington Senators defeats Eddie Rommel and the Philadelphia Athletics, 1–0, in a 15-inning battle. Johnson strikes out nine and gives up just six hits.
Future Hall of Famers Tony Lazzeri and Paul Waner made their debuts in the Major Leagues. Lazzeri with the New York Yankees, in a 12–11 victory against the Boston Red Sox, while Waner does the same with the Pittsburgh Pirates in a 7–6 loss to the St. Louis Cardinals.
April 19 – Boston Red Sox center fielder Ira Flagstead ties a Major League record by starting three double plays in one game from the outfield.
April 27 – Future Hall of Famer Mel Ott makes his major league debut with the New York Giants and strikes out in his only at-bat.
April 29 – Future Hall of Famer Joe Cronin makes his major league debut with the Pittsburgh Pirates a 16–9 loss to the Cincinnati Reds at Forbes Field.
May 8 - The left field bleachers and grand stand roof at Fenway Park are lost in a three alarm fire. The cash strapped Red Sox use the insurance money to pay for operations, leaving a vacant lot where the bleachers once were.
May 12 – Walter Johnson of the Washington Senators records his 400th career win when he defeats the St. Louis Browns, 7–4, to reach the rarely achieved milestone.
May 22 – The contest between the Detroit Tigers and Washington Senators is called after eight innings, resulting in a 6–6 tie.
May 26 – The New York Yankees defeat the Boston Red Sox, 9–8, for their sixteenth victory in row.
June 14- John McGraw, manager of the New York Giants trades outfielder Billy Southworth to the St. Louis Cardinals for outfielder Heinie Muller. The trade is a flop. Southworth goes on to become a member of the "Gashouse Gang" in St. Louis and becomes part of a dynasty. Mueller struggles at the plate and leaves the Giants after two unproductive seasons.
June 24 – At Sportsman's Park, the St. Louis Cardinals and Pittsburgh Pirates play to a 3–3 tie.
July 4 – The contest between the New York Yankees and Washington Senators is called after six innings, resulting in a 4–4 tie. It is Washington's second tie of the season.
August 11 – Tris Speaker of the Cleveland Indians hits his 700th career double, but Cleveland loses to the Chicago White Sox, 7–2. The double came in the third inning off Sox pitcher Joe Edwards.
August 21 – Ted Lyons pitches a no-hitter in a 6–0 Chicago White Sox win over the Boston Red Sox.
September 8 – Hal Wiltse and the Boston Red Sox defeat the New York Yankees, 5–2, to end their seventeen-game losing streak.
September 15 – At Dunn Field, the New York Yankees defeat the Cleveland Indians, 6–4. Nevertheless, the Indians take four of the six-game series to reduce the Yankees' lead in the American League to 3½ games from its peak of eleven.
September 23 – After fifteen innings, the contest between the Cincinnati Reds and Philadelphia Phillies at the Baker Bowl is called a 6–6 tie.
September 25 – Excluding the tie on the 23rd, the Cincinnati Reds lose their sixth game in a row, 6–1, against the Philadelphia Phillies. Meanwhile, the St. Louis Cardinals, who had been playing poorly themselves, clinch the National League title.
September 26 – The Philadelphia Athletics take their third game in a row from the Cleveland Indians, relegating them to the second place in the American League two games behind the New York Yankees.
October 2 – After scoring a run in the first inning on two hits, the St. Louis Cardinals are held hitless for the next seven innings by Herb Pennock. Jim Bottomley singles in the ninth, but is left stranded as the New York Yankees win Game One of the 1926 World Series, 2–1.
October 3 – Grover Cleveland Alexander gives up two runs to the Yankees in the second inning, but sets down the last 21 batters, striking out 10, in Game Two of the World Series. A three-run home run by Billy Southworth breaks a 2–2 tie, while Tommy Thevenow collect three hits for a 6–2 Cardinals win.
October 5 – In Game Three of the World Series, Jesse Haines pitches a five-hit shutout and hits a three-run home run as the Cardinals beat the Yankees, 4–0, to take a 2–1 lead in the Series.
October 6 – Babe Ruth hits three home runs to lead the Yankees to a 10–5 victory over St. Louis in Game Four of the World Series to tie the Series at two games apiece. His first inning curtain-raiser is a majestic 395-footer, exiting Sportsman's Park over its right field bleacher roof. His second homer clears the roof in right center, carrying 515 feet, breaking a window on the other side of Grand Avenue. Ruth's final foray, however, is the main attraction, carrying deep into the never-before reached centerfield bleachers, far beyond the 430-foot mark. Estimated at 530 feet, it is still deemed, as of April 2012, the longest home run in World Series history. On October 18, , Reggie Jackson became the second player in history to hit three home runs during a single World Series game. On October 27, , Albert Pujols became the third player in history to hit three home runs in single World Series game.
October 7 – Mark Koenig scores on a sacrifice fly by Tony Lazzeri in the tenth inning, giving the Yankees the 3–2 victory in Game Five of the World Series, to take a 3–2 lead in the Series.
October 9 – Grover Cleveland Alexander scatters eight hits in Game Six of the World Series, while St. Louis tee off New York at Yankee Stadium for a 10–2 romp that sends the Series to a seventh game.
October 10 – The St. Louis Cardinals defeat the New York Yankees, 3–2, in the decisive Game Seven of the World Series to clinch their first World Championship. One day after picking up his second complete-game victory of the Series, 39-year-old Grover Cleveland Alexander saves the game after fanning Tony Lazzeri with the bases loaded in the seventh inning, then proceeding to no-hit New York the rest of the way. The Series would feature thirteen future Hall of Famers. The series ends when Babe Ruth is thrown out trying to steal second base making it the only World Series to end on a caught stealing to this day.
November 30 – Bill Carrigan, popular Boston Red Sox manager who won World Series pennants for the team in 1915 and 1916, is drafted out of retirement in an attempt to resurrect the moribund Red Sox.
December 5 – St. Louis Cardinals catcher Bob O'Farrell is named National League MVP. O'Farrell hit .293 in 146 games and polls 79 points. Cincinnati Reds second baseman Hughie Critz is runner-up with 60 and Pittsburgh Pirates pitcher Ray Kremer (20-6, 2.61 ERA) is third with 32. Critz set a major-league record handling 588 assists, which will be topped by Frankie Frisch with 643 in .
December 20 – Rogers Hornsby is traded by the St. Louis Cardinals to the New York Giants in exchange for Frankie Frisch and Jimmy Ring.
Births
January
January 2 – Stan Hollmig
January 3 – Harry Fisher
January 6 – Ralph Branca
January 8 – Dick Lajeskie
January 10 – George Strickland
January 18 – Bob Scherbarth
January 23 – Chico Carrasquel
January 25 – Frances Janssen
January 26 – La Ferne Price
January 27 – Bob Borkowski
January 31 – Tom Alston
February
February 5 – Hank Workman
February 6 – Sam Calderone
February 6 – Dale Long
February 7 – Mary Flaherty
February 7 – Jerry Lane
February 7 – Danny Lynch
February 10 – Randy Jackson
February 12 – Joe Garagiola
February 12 – Ruth Williams
February 13 – Bob Habenicht
February 15 – Bubba Harris
February 16 – Howie Judson
February 17 – Jack Crimian
February 27 – Audrey Kissel
March
March 2 – Joe Taylor
March 4 – Cass Michaels
March 8 – Dick Teed
March 18 – Dick Littlefield
March 22 – Billy Goodman
March 30 – Dick Koecher
April
April 1 – Jake Thies
April 3 – Alex Grammas
April 6 – Ed White
April 8 – Pauline Dennert
April 12 – Walt Moryn
April 12 – Lou Possehl
April 15 – Bill Pierro
April 17 – Helene Machado
April 26 – Stanley Glenn
April 26 – Ruth Kramer
May
May 3 – Stan Jok
May 4 – Bert Thiel
May 6 – Dick Cole
May 9 – Ray Medeiros
May 12 – Rose Folder
May 15 – Fred Baczewski
May 16 – Rube Walker
May 17 – Irvin Castille
May 19 – Mike Kume
May 21 – Elmer Sexauer
May 24 – Willy Miranda
May 27 – Harvey Gentry
May 28 – Frank Saucier
May 30 – Kathleen Malach
May 30 – Dixie Upright
June
June 1 – Ray Moore
June 2 – Frank Verdi
June 7 – Roy Jarvis
June 9 – Roy Smalley Jr.
June 13 – Jeanne Gilchrist
June 14 – Don Newcombe
June 16 – Bob Miller
June 27 – Al Porto
June 29 – Bobby Morgan
July
July 5 – Roy Hawes
July 5 – Mario Picone
July 7 – Mel Clark
July 7 – George Spencer
July 8 – Gene Patton
July 10 – Harry MacPherson
July 15 – Jesse Levan
July 23 – Johnny Groth
July 25 – Whitey Lockman
July 26 – Bobby Herrera
July 27 – Doris Satterfield
August
August 1 – Erma Keyes
August 3 – Christine Jewitt
August 6 – Clem Labine
August 6 – Ralph Schwamb
August 10 – Elizabeth Farrow
August 15 – Jim Goodwin
August 15 – Barney Schultz
August 16 – Shirley Danz
August 25 – Bob Milliken
August 25 – Jim Suchecki
August 26 – Frank Barnes
August 26 – Alva Jo Fischer
August 28 – Bob Trice
August 29 – Al Naples
August 31 – Ruth Roberts
September
September 8 – Lou Sleater
September 9 – Ed Mickelson
September 10 – Helen Westerman
September 11 – Lois Bellman
September 11 – Eddie Miksis
September 12 – George Freese
September 16 – Kurt Krieger
September 16 – Roger McKee
September 19 – Duke Snider
September 19 – Murray Wall
September 26 – Mel McGaha
September 28 – Ozzie Van Brabant
September 30 – Robin Roberts
October
October 4 – Senaida Wirth
October 11 – Joe Ginsberg
October 12 – John Kennedy
October 13 – Eddie Yost
October 15 – Don Carlsen
October 20 – Leon Brinkopf
October 24 – Beverly Dustrude
October 26 – Dick Bokelmann
October 28 – Bowie Kuhn
October 28 – Rudy Rufer
November
November 6 – Harley Hisner
November 10 – Carmen Mauro
November 11 – Jacquelyn Kelley
November 12 – Don Johnson
November 13 – Steve Lembo
November 16 – Amy Irene Applegren
November 17 – Naomi Meier
November 18 – Roy Sievers
November 19 – Bob Thorpe
November 22 – Lew Burdette
November 23 – Charlie Osgood
December
December 3 – Al Corwin
December 4 – Julie Gutz
December 7 – Armando Roche
December 10 – Leo Cristante
December 11 – Johnny Gray
December 13 – Carl Erskine
December 17 – Ray Jablonski
December 25 – Dick Manville
December 29 – Tom Upton
Deaths
January–February
January 12 – Michael Campbell, 76[?], Irish first baseman for the 1873 Elizabeth Resolutes of the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players.
January 27 – Bill McCauley, 56, shortstop for the 1895 Washington Senators of the National League.
January 31 – Lou Bierbauer, 60, second baseman for Philadelphia and Pittsburgh teams who batted .300 three times, while leading the National League in fielding percentage in the 1892 season.
February 10 – Frank J. Farrell, 60, New York City politician prominent in horse-racing circles who, with William Stephen Devery, bought the original Baltimore Orioles of the American League in 1902, moved them to New York as the Highlanders in 1903, and sold them (as the New York Yankees) to Jacob Ruppert and Tillinghast L'Hommedieu Huston in 1915.
February 10 – Charlie Krehmeyer, 62, catcher and outfielder who played from to 1885 for the NL St. Louis Browns, AA Louisville Colonels and UA St. Louis Maroons.
February 12 – Francis Richter, 72, sportswriter, editor of annual Reach Guides since 1901, revered for his authoritative commentary on the state of the sport; established first newspaper sports department in 1872, founded Sporting Life newspaper in 1883; helped form 1882 American Association, assisted in 1891 merger with the National League, while renouncing NL presidency in 1907.
February 14 – Gil Whitehouse, 32, right fielder for the 1912 Boston Braves (NL) and the 1915 Newark Peppers (FL).
February 20 – Ed High, 52, pitcher for the 1901 Detroit Tigers of the American League.
February 23 – Hi Church, 62, outfielder for the 1890 Brooklyn Gladiators of the American Association.
February 24 – Eddie Plank, 50, Hall of Fame pitcher for the Philadelphia Athletics from 1901 to 1914, who became the first left-hander to win 200 games, continuing until he had compiled 326 victories, including eight 20-win seasons, a two-hit victory in final game of 1913 World Series, 2246 strikeouts and 69 shutouts, being the top left-hander with 410 complete games, and setting American League career marks for left-handers in games, innings and starts.
February 25 – Otto Hess, 47, Swiss pitcher who played for the AL Cleveland Bronchos/Naps (1902–1908) and the NL Boston Braves (1912–1915).
February 27 – Otis Clymer, 50, right fielder for the Senators, Pirates, Cubs and Braves in six seasons between 1905 and 1913.
March–May
March 8 – Howard Armstrong, 36, pitcher for the AL Philadelphia Athletics during the 1911 season.
March 19 – Wild Bill Hutchinson, 66, pitcher for the Colts, White Stockings, Browns and Cowboys between 1884 and 1897, who led the National League in wins from 1890 to 1892 (41, 44 and 36), averaging 596 innings in each of these seasons, while retiring with a 182–162 record and a 3.59 ERA in 356 games.
March 27 – Kick Kelly, 69, umpire in the 1880s who officiated in three World Championship Series; played 16 games in 1879 with Syracuse and Troy, also managed Louisville.
April 1 – Al Martin, 78, second baseman for the Brooklyn Eckfords (1872) and Brooklyn Atlantics (1874–75) of the National Association.
April 14 – Eddie Fusselback, 69, catcher/outfielder for the 1882 St. Louis Brown Stockings (AA), 1884 Baltimore Monumentals (UA), 1885 Philadelphia Athletics (AA) and 1888 Louisville Colonels (AA).
April 16 – George Chauncey, 78, owner of the 1890 Brooklyn Ward's Wonders and part-owner of the Brooklyn Grooms (1891–1896).
April 18 – George Haddock, 59, pitcher for seven seasons from 1888 to 1894, winning 34 games for the 1891 Boston Reds and 29 for the 1892 Brooklyn Grooms.
April 23 – Henry Schmidt, 52, pitcher for the 1903 Brooklyn Superbas (1903) of the National League.
April 27 – Charlie Abbey, 59, outfielder who played from 1893 through 1887 with the Washington Senators of the National League.
May 1 – Ed Conwell, 36, pinch-hitter for the 1911 St. Louis Cardinals.
June–August
June 4 – Sandy Griffin, 67, outfielder for the Broncos/Browns/Statesmen/Gothams in parts of four seasons spanning 1884–1893.
June 13 – Johnny Beall, 44, outfielder for the Cardinals/WhiteSox/Reds/Naps between 1913 and 1918.
June 18 – Alex Gardner, 65, Canadian catcher for the 1884 Washington Nationals of the American Association.
June 22 – Joe Crotty, 66, catcher for the Louisville Eclipse, St. Louis Brown Stockings, Cincinnati Outlaw Reds, Louisville Colonels and New York Metropolitans between the 1882 and 1886 seasons.
June 24 – Jim Gillespie, 64, outfielder for the 1890 Buffalo Bisons of the Players' League.
August 7 – Moose Baxter, 50, first baseman for the 1907 St. Louis Cardinals.
August 19 – George Cobb, 60, pitcher for the 1892 Baltimore Orioles of the National League.
August 20 – Cal McVey, 75, early star with the 1869 Red Stockings who batted .431 in National Association's 1871 debut season, topped .300 mark through 1878; led National League in hits, RBI and total bases twice each, and in runs and doubles once.
August 23 – Emil Batch, 46, third baseman and left fielder for the Brooklyn Superbas between 1904 and 1907.
September–October
September 2 – Ed McDonough, 39, backup catcher for the Philadelphia Phillies from 1909 to 1910.
September 9 – Dick Conway, 60, pitcher/right fielder for the 1886 Baltimore Orioles and the 1887-88 Boston Beaneaters.
September 12 – Danny Richardson, 63, National League infielder/outfielder who played from 1884 through 1894 with the New York Gothams/Giants, Washington Senators and Brooklyn Grooms.
September 17 – Tom Drohan, 39, pitcher for the 1913 Washington Senators of the American League.
September 21 – Jim Keenan, 68, catcher/first baseman who played between 1875 and 1891 for the New Haven Elm Citys, Buffalo Bisons, Pittsburgh Alleghenys, Indianapolis Hoosiers, and the Cincinnati Red Stockings/Reds.
October 2 – Art Sunday, 64, right fielder for the 1890 Brooklyn Ward's Wonders of the Players' League.
October 5 – Al Burch, 42, outfielder for the St. Louis Cardinals and the Brooklyn Superbas/Dodgers from 1906 to 1911.
October 5 – Howard Murphy, 44, backup centerfielder for the St. Louis Cardinals in the 1909 season.
October 6 – Holly Hollingshead, 73, center fielder/second baseman from 1872 to 1873, 1875 and manager in 1875 and 1884, for the National and Blue Legs teams in the Washington, D.C. area.
October 10 – Brownie Foreman, 51, pitcher for the Pittsburgh Pirates and Cincinnati Reds from 1895 to 1896.
October 16 – Charlie Levis, 66, first baseman for the Baltimore Monumentals, Washington Nationals, Indianapolis Hoosiers and Baltimore Orioles between 1884 and 1885, and also a minor league player/manager during eight seasons spanning 1883–92.
October 22 – Jake Aydelott, 65, pitcher/centerfielder for the 1884 Indianapolis Hoosiers and the 1886 Philadelphia Athletics of the American Association.
November–December
November 2 – Bill Bailey, 38, pitcher for the St. Louis Browns, Baltimore Terrapins, Chicago Whales, Detroit Tigers and St. Louis Cardinals in parts of 11 seasons spanning 1907–1922.
November 10 – John Cattanach, 63, pitcher/right fielder who played for the Providence Grays and the St. Louis Maroons in the 1884 season.
November 10 – Ed Flanagan, 65, first baseman for the 1887 Philadelphia Athletics and the 1889 Louisville Colonels of the American Association.
November 10 – George Pinkney, 67, a daring base runner and steady third baseman, who played from 1884 to 1893 with the Cleveland Blues, Brooklyn Grays/Bridegrooms/Grooms, St. Louis Browns and Louisville Colonels, collecting a .263 average with 874 runs and 296 stolen bases in 1163 games, while leading the American Association in several statistical categories, including games played (1886, 1888), runs (1888), walks (1886), putouts (1886), assists (1887) and fielding percentage (1887, 1889).
November 13 – Frank Pearce, 66, pitcher for the 1876 Louisville Grays of the National League.
November 19 – Fred Smith, 61, pitcher for the 1890 Toledo Maumees of the American Association.
November 21 – John Shaffer, 62, pitcher who played from 1886 to 1887 for the New York Metropolitans of the American Association.
December 2 – Dave Skeels, 34, pitcher for the 1919 Detroit Tigers.
December 4 – Abel Lizotte, 56, first baseman for the 1896 Pittsburgh Pirates.
December 12 – Ed Sixsmith, 63, catcher for the 1884 Philadelphia Quakers of the National League.
December 14 – George Myers, 66, National League catcher/outfielder for the Buffalo Bisons, St. Louis Maroons and Indianapolis Hoosiers from 1884 to 1889.
December 14 – Tom Needham, 47, Irish catcher who played from 1904 through 1914 for the Boston Beaneaters/Doves, New York Giants and Chicago Cubs, collecting a .962 fielding average and a 45% of caught stealing in 465 career games, while gunning down a 60.5% percent of potential base stealers in 1911 to lead the National League.
December 22 – Harry Weber, 64, backup catcher for the 1884 Indianapolis Hoosiers of the American Association.
December 26 – William Stecher, 57, pitcher and third baseman for the 1890 Philadelphia Athletics of the American Association. |
4335840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bh%C5%ABmi%20%28Buddhism%29 | Bhūmi (Buddhism) | In Buddhism, Bhūmi (Sanskrit: भूमि 'foundation', Chinese: 地 'ground' ) is the 32nd and 33rd place (10th and 11th in simple count) on the outgoing's process of Mahayana awakening. Each stage represents a level of attainment in that case, and serves as a basis for the next one. Each level marks a definite advancement in one's training that is accompanied by progressively greater power and wisdom. Buddhist monks who arrived at Bhūmi were originally called śrāvakas, in opposition to Brahminism. Śakro devānām and Trāyastriṃśa are together called "Bhūmi nivāsin".
The ten bodhisattva stages are also called vihara ('dwelling').
Ten bhūmis of the Daśabhūmika Sūtra
The Daśabhūmika Sūtra refers to the following ten bhūmis.
The first bhūmi, the Very Joyous. (Skt. pramuditā), in which one rejoices at realizing a partial aspect of the truth;
The second bhūmi, the Stainless. (Skt. vimalā), in which one is free from all defilement;
The third bhūmi, the Light-Maker. (Skt. prabhākarī), in which one radiates the light of wisdom;
The fourth bhūmi, the Radiant Intellect. (Skt. arciṣmatī), in which the radiant flame of wisdom burns away earthly desires;
The fifth bhūmi, the Difficult to Master. (Skt. sudurjayā), in which one surmounts the illusions of darkness, or ignorance as the Middle Way;
The sixth bhūmi, the Manifest. (Skt. abhimukhī) in which supreme wisdom begins to manifest;
The seventh bhūmi, the Gone Afar. (Skt. dūraṃgamā), in which one rises above the states of the Two vehicles;
The eighth bhūmi, the Immovable. (Skt. acalā), in which one dwells firmly in the truth of the Middle Way and cannot be perturbed by anything;
The ninth bhūmi, the Good Intelligence. (Skt. sādhumatī), in which one preaches the Law freely and without restriction;
The tenth bhūmi, the Cloud of Doctrine. (Skt. dharmameghā), in which one benefits all sentient beings with the Law (Dharma), just as a cloud sends down rain impartially on all things.
The first bhūmi, the Very Joyous
The First bhūmi, called "Very Joyous", is attained with the first direct perception of emptiness (Sunyata) and is simultaneous with entry into the third of the five paths to awakening, the path of seeing. It is called "very joyous" because the bodhisattva works at the perfections of generosity and develops the ability to give away everything without regret and with no thought of praise or reward (for themselves). All phenomena are viewed as empty and as subject to decay, suffering, and death, and so bodhisattvas lose all attachment to them. According to Tsong Khapa, first level bodhisattvas directly understand that persons do not exist by way of their own nature. Due to this, they overcome the false idea that the five aggregates constitute a truly existent person. They also eliminate predispositions toward corrupted ethics so completely that they will not arise again.
Despite having directly and correctly perceived emptiness, bodhisattvas on the first level are primarily motivated by faith. They train in ethics in order to cleanse their minds of negativity and so they prepare themselves for the cultivation of mundane meditative absorption that comes on the second level.
The second bhūmi, the Stainless
Bodhisattvas on the second level, the "Stainless", perfect ethics and overcome all tendencies towards engagement in negative actions. Their control becomes so complete that even in dreams they have no immoral thoughts. According to Tsong Khapa for such a bodhisattva, "on all occasions of waking and dreaming his movements or activities of body, speech and mind are pure of even subtle infractions...he fulfills the three paths of virtuous actions-abandoning killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct-with his body; the middle four-abandons lying, divisive talk, harsh speech, and senseless chatter-with his speech; and the last three-abandoning covetousness, harmful intent, and wrong views-with his mind. Not only does he refrain from what is prohibited but he also fulfills all the positive achievements related to proper ethics."
And according to Nāgārjuna,
The second is called the Stainless
Because all ten [virtuous] actions
Of body, speech, and mind are stainless
And they naturally abide in those [deeds of ethics].
Through the maturation of those [good qualities]
The perfection of ethics becomes supreme.
They become Universal Monarchs helping beings,
Masters of the glorious four continents and of the seven precious objects.
Because of this, the bodhisattva's mind becomes purified and equanimous, which is a prerequisite for training in the four rūpadhyānas ("form" meditative absorptions i.e. those correlated with the form realm) and the four arūpadhyānas (formless absorptions).
The third bhūmi, the Light-Maker
Tsong Khapa states that the third bhūmi is called the "Light-Maker" because when it is attained "the fire of wisdom burning all the fuel of objects of knowledge arises along with a light which by nature is able to extinguish all elaborations of duality during meditative equipoise." Bodhisattvas on this level cultivate the perfection of patience. Their equanimity becomes so profound that
even if someone...cuts from the body of this bodhisattva not just flesh but also bone, not in large sections but bit by bit, not continually but pausing in between, and not finishing in a short time but cutting over a long period, the bodhisattva would not get angry at the mutilator.
The Bodhisattva realizes that his tormentor is motivated by afflicted thoughts and is sowing seeds of his own future suffering. As a result, the bodhisattva feels not anger, but a deep sadness and compassion for this cruel person, who is unaware of the operations of karma. Trainees on the third level overcome all tendencies toward anger, and never react with hatred (or even annoyance) to any harmful acts or words. Rather, their equanimity remains constant, and all sentient beings are viewed with love and compassion:
All anger and resentment rebound on the person who generates them, and they do nothing to eliminate harms that one has already experienced. They are counterproductive in that they destroy one's peace of mind and lead to unfavorable future situations. There is nothing to be gained through anger and resentment, revenge does nothing to change the past, and so the bodhisattva avoids them.
Bodhisattvas on this level also train in the four form meditations, the four formless meditations, and the four immeasurables, and the higher knowledges.
The fourth bhūmi, the Radiant Intellect
On the fourth level, the "Radiant Intellect", bodhisattvas cultivate the perfection of effort and eliminate afflictions. According to Wonch'uk, this level is so named because fourth bhumi bodhisattvas "constantly emit the radiance of exalted wisdom." He also cites Maitreya's Ornament for the Mahayana Sutras, which explains that bodhisattvas on this level burn up the afflictive obstructions and the obstructions to omniscience with the radiance of their wisdom. They enter into progressively deeper meditative absorptions and attain a powerful mental pliancy as a result. This eliminates laziness and increases their ability to practice meditation for extended periods of time. They destroy deeply rooted afflictions and cultivate the thirty-seven factors of awakening.
Through training in these thirty-seven practices, bodhisattvas develop great skill in meditative absorptions and cultivate wisdom, while weakening the artificial and innate conceptions of true existence.
The fifth bhūmi, Difficult to Master
The fifth level is called the "Difficult to Master" because it involves practices that are so arduous and require a great deal of effort to perfect. It is also called the "Difficult to Overcome" because when one has completed the training of this level one has profound wisdom and insight that are difficult to surpass or undermine. According to Nāgārjuna,The fifth is called the Extremely Difficult to Overcome
Since all evil ones find it extremely hard to conquer him;
He becomes skilled in knowing the subtle
Meanings of the noble truths and so forth.
Bodhisattvas on this level cultivate the perfection of samadhi. They develop strong powers of meditative stabilization and overcome tendencies toward distraction. They achieve mental one-pointedness and they perfect calm abiding. They also fully penetrate the meanings of the Four Noble Truths and the two truths (conventional truths and ultimate truths) and perceive all phenomena as empty, transient and prone to suffering.
The sixth bhūmi, the Manifest
The sixth level is called the "Manifest" because the bodhisattva clearly perceives the workings of dependent arising and directly understands "the signless" (Mtshan ma med pa, Tibetan. Animitta, Sanskrit). The signless refers to the fact that phenomena seem to possess their apparent qualities by way of their own nature, but when one examines this appearance one realizes that all qualities are merely mentally imputed and not a part of the nature of the objects they appear to characterize.
As a result of these understandings bodhisattvas manifest meditative wisdom and avoid attachment to either cyclic existence or nirvana. Having overcome all attachments, bodhisattvas on this level can attain nirvana, but because of the force of the mind of awakening they decide to remain in the world in order to benefit other sentient beings. They cultivate the Perfection of Wisdom, through which they perceive all phenomena as lacking inherent existence, as being like dreams, illusions, reflections, or magically created objects. All notions of "I" and "other" are transcended, along with conceptions of "inherent existence" and "inherent nonexistence." These sixth-level bodhisattvas abide in contemplation of suchness, with minds that are undisturbed by false ideas.
The seventh bhūmi, the Gone Afar
Bodhisattvas on the seventh level develop the ability to contemplate signlessness uninterruptedly and enter into advanced meditative absorptions for extended periods of time, thus passing beyond both the mundane and supramundane paths of śrāvakas and Pratyekabuddhas (Hearers and solitary realizers). For this reason, this level is called the "Gone Afar." According to Nāgārjuna, The seventh is the Gone Afar because
The number of his qualities has increased,
Moment by moment he can enter
The equipoise of cessation,
On this level bodhisattvas perfect their skill in means of meditation and practice (Thabs la mkhas pa, Tibetan; Upaya-Kausalya, Sanskrit), which is their ability to cleverly adapt their teaching tactics to the individual proclivities and needs of their audiences. They also develop the ability to know the thoughts of others, and in every moment are able to practice all the perfections. All thoughts and actions are free from afflictions, and they constantly act spontaneously and effectively for the benefit of others.
The eighth bhūmi, the Immovable
The eighth level is called the "Immovable" because bodhisattvas overcome all afflictions regarding signs and their minds are always completely absorbed in the dharma. At this level, a bodhisattva has achieved nirvana. According to Nāgārjuna,The eighth is the Immovable, the youthful stage,
Through nonconceptuality he is immovable;
And the spheres of his body, speech and mind's
Activities are inconceivable.
Because they are fully acquainted with signlessness, their minds are not moved by ideas of signs. Eighth Bhumi bodhisattvas are said to be "irreversible", because there is no longer any possibility that they might waver on the path or backslide. They are destined for full buddhahood, and there are no longer any inclinations to seek a personal nirvana. They cultivate the "perfection of aspiration", which means that they undertake to fulfill various vows, due to which they accumulate the causes of further virtues. Although they resolve to work for the benefit of others and they pervade the universe with feelings of friendliness toward all sentient beings, these bodhisattvas have transcended any tendency to misunderstand anatta.
Their understanding of emptiness is so complete that it overturns innate delusions, and reality appears in a completely new light. They enter into meditation on emptiness with little effort. Bodhisattvas on this level are compared to people who have awakened from dreams, and all their perceptions are influenced by this new awareness. They attain the meditative state called "forbearance regarding non-arisen phenomena", due to which they no longer think in terms of inherent causes or inherent causelessness. They also develop the ability to manifest in various forms in order to instruct others. Compassion and skillful means are automatic and spontaneous. There is no need to plan or contemplate how best to benefit others, since bodhisattvas on the eighth level automatically react correctly to every situation.
The ninth bhūmi, the Good Intelligence
From this point on, bodhisattvas move quickly toward awakening. Before this stage, progress was comparatively slow, like that of a boat being towed through a harbour. On the eighth through tenth bhumi, however, bodhisattvas make huge strides toward buddhahood, like a ship that reaches the ocean and unfurls its sails. On the ninth level, they fully understand the three vehicles - hearers, solitary realizers, and bodhisattvas - and perfect the ability to teach the doctrine. According to the Sutra Explaining the Thought,Because of attaining faultlessness and very extensive intelligence in terms of mastery of teaching the doctrine in all aspects, the ninth level is called the "Good Intelligence."
Ninth bhūmi bodhisattvas also acquire the "four analytical knowledges"-of fundamental concepts, meaning, grammar, and exposition. Due to this, they develop wondrous eloquence and skill in presenting doctrinal teachings. Their intelligence surpasses that of all humans and gods, and they comprehend all names, words, meanings, and languages. They can understand any question from any being. They also have the ability to answer them with a single sound, which is understood by each being according to its capacities. On this level they also cultivate the perfection of virya, which means that because of the strength of their mastery of the four analytical knowledges and their meditation they are able to develop paramitas energetically and to practice them continually without becoming fatigued.
The tenth bhūmi, the Cloud of Dharma
On the tenth bhūmi, bodhisattvas overcome the subtlest traces of the afflictions. Like a cloud that pours rain on the earth, these bodhisattvas spread the dharma in all directions, and each sentient being absorbs what it needs in order to grow spiritually. Thus Nāgārjuna states that
The tenth is the Cloud of Dharma because
The rain of excellent doctrine falls,
The Bodhisattva is consecrated
With light by the Buddhas.
At this stage bodhisattvas enter into progressively deeper meditative absorptions and develop limitless powers with regard to magical formulas. They cultivate the perfection of exalted wisdom, which, according to Asaṅga, enables them to increase their exalted wisdom. This in turn strengthens the other perfections. As a result, they become established in the joy of the doctrine.
They acquire perfect bodies, and their minds are cleansed of the subtlest traces of the afflictions. They manifest in limitless forms for the benefit of others and transcend the ordinary laws of time and space. They are able to place entire world systems in a single pore, without diminishing them or increasing the size of the pore. When they do this, the beings inhabiting the worlds feel no discomfort, and only those who are advanced bodhisattvas even notice.
Bodhisattvas on this level receive a form of empowerment from innumerable buddhas. This is called "great rays of light", because the radiance of these bodhisattvas shines in all directions. This empowerment helps them in removing the remaining obstructions to omniscience and gives them added confidence and strength. At the final moment of this stage they enter into a meditative state called the "vajralike meditative stabilization", in which the subtlest remaining obstacles to buddhahood are overcome. They arise from this concentration as Buddhas.
Six bhūmis in the Yogācārabhūmi
The Yogacara compendium of yogic praxis, the Yogācārabhūmi, contains a subsection on the bodhisattva path (the Bodhisattvabhūmi), which lists six bhūmis:
The bhūmi of practicing with ascertainment (adhimukticaryābhūmi, shèngjiě xíng dì 勝解行地, mos pas spyod pa'i sa),
The bhūmi of pure exalted conviction (śuddhādhyāśayabhūmi, jìng shèngyìyào dì 淨勝意樂地, lhag pa'i bsam pa dag pa'i sa),
The bhūmi of accomplishing practices (caryāpratipattibhūmi, xíng zhèngxíng dì 行正行地, spyod la 'jug pa'i sa),
The bhūmi of certainty (niyatabhūmi, duò juédìng dì 墮決定 地, nges par gyur pa'i sa),
The bhūmi of practicing with certainty (niyatacaryābhūmi, juédìng xíng zhèngxíng dì 決定行正行地, nges pa'i spyod pa'i sa)
The bhūmi of reaching perfection (niṣṭhāgamanabhūmi, dào jiūjìng dì 到究竟地, mthar thug par 'gyur ba'i sa).
Five Paths
The bhūmis are often categorized with or merged into, the separate schema of the "five paths". The main ideas of this schema were inherited by Yogacara from the Sarvāstivāda Vaibhāṣika Abhidharma texts as well as Vasubadhu's Abhidharmakośakārikā (AKBh).<ref name=":0">Watanabe, Chikafumi (2000), A Study of Mahayanasamgraha III: The Relation of Practical Theories and Philosophical Theories.” Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Calgary, pp. 38-40.</ref> This schema continues to be developed in Yogacara texts like Asanga's Mahāyānasaṃgraha (MS), where it is given a more Mahayanist explanation and becomes tied to the bodhisattva path and the bhūmis.
The Five Paths (pañcamārga, Wylie Tibetan lam lnga), are:Watanabe, Chikafumi, A Study of Mahayanasamgraha III: The Relation of Practical Theories and Philosophical Theories, 2000, pp. 40-65.Mokṣa-bhāgīya (The state leading up to release) or Saṃbhāra-mārga (path of accumulation, tshogs lam). According to Vasubandhu's AKBh, in this path, one practices morality and contentment, learns and reflects on the teaching, keeps themselves free from unwholesome thinking, and practices the four foundations of mindfulness. In the Tibetan tradition, persons on the path are said to possess a strong desire to overcome suffering, either their own or others and renounce the worldly life.Nirveda-bhāgīya (The state leading up to penetration) or Prayoga-mārga (The path of preparation, sbyor lam). According to the AKBh, in this stage, one observes the four noble truths in terms of its sixteen aspects. In the Tibetan tradition, this path is when one begins to practice meditation and gains analytical knowledge of emptiness.Darśana-mārga (The path of seeing or insight, mthong lam). According to the AKBh, in this path one continues to observe the four noble truths until one realizes it and abandons eighty eight afflictions (kleshas). In Asanga's MS, this stage is when one realizes that all things are mere mental presentations (vijñapti matra), which leads to the first instance of the turning of the basis (āśraya-parāvṛtti). In the Tibetan tradition, this is when one practices samatha and realizes emptiness directly. Bhāvanā-mārga, (The path of cultivation, sgom lam). According to the AKBh, in this stage, one continues to practice and abandons 10 further kleshas. In the MS, one practices in this stage by applying the antidotes (pratipakṣa) to all of the obstructions (sarvā varaṇa) and continues the process of the turning of the basis (āśraya-parāvṛtti).Aśaikṣā-mārga (The path of no more learning or consummation, mi slob pa’i lam or thar phyin pa'i lam) also known as Niṣṭhā-mārga (in the MS). Persons on this path have completely freed themselves of all obstructions and afflictions and are thus perfected or fulfilled (niṣṭhā). According to the MS, one has achieved the bodies of a Buddha.
As part of the Bodhisattva path
Passage through the grounds and paths begins with Bodhicitta, the wish to liberate all sentient beings. Aspiring Bodhicitta becomes Engaging Bodhicitta upon actual commitment to the Bodhisattva vows. With these steps, the practitioner becomes a Bodhisattva, and enters upon the paths.
Before attaining the ten grounds, the bodhisattva traverses the first two of the five Mahayana paths:
The path of accumulation
The path of preparation
The ten grounds of the bodhisattva are grouped within the three subsequent paths:
Bhūmi 1: The path of seeing
Bhūmi 2-7: The path of meditation
Bhūmi 8-10: The path of no more learning
In Hua-yen Buddhism there are some 40 previous stages before the first bhumi:
10 faiths
10 abodes
10 practices
10 merit-transferences
In Tientai Buddhism the practitioner of the so-called "perfect teaching" is equal in attainment to arhats by just the 4th faith.
Mahayana literature often features an enumeration of "two obstructions" (Wylie: sgrib gnyis):
The "obstructions of delusive emotions" (Sanskrit: kleśa-varaṇa, Wylie: nyon-mongs-pa'i sgrib-ma)
The "obstructions to knowledge" (Sanskrit: jñeyāvaraṇa, Wylie: shes-bya'i sgrib-ma'').
The obstruction of delusive emotions is overcome at the attainment of the path of seeing, and the obstructions to knowledge are overcome over the course of the path of meditation. This is not a statement agreed upon by all Buddhist schools, e.g. Korean Son's Kihwa states that the obstructions to knowledge are overcome by the 10th bhumi.
Additional bhūmi
Various Vajrayana lineages of tantra recognize bhumis after the 10th bhumi.
Within the Dzogchen and Mahamudra schools of tantra there are either thirteen or sixteen bhumis depending on the lineage.
One system of Dzogchen/Mahamudra presents thirteen bhumis:
eleventh bhumi of Universal Light
twelfth bhumi of the Lotus of Nonattachment
thirteenth bhumi of the Vajra Holder.
Another system of Dzogchen presents sixteen bhumis:
eleventh bhumi of Universal Radiance/Light
twelfth bhumi of the Lotus of Nonattachment
thirteenth bhumi of the Gatherings of Rotating Syllables
fourteenth bhumi of the Great Samadhi
fifteenth bhumi of the Vajra Holder
sixteenth bhumi of the Unexcelled Wisdom
See also
Buddhist Paths to liberation
References
Bibliography
Buddhist philosophical concepts |
4335941 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscan%20Missions%20in%20the%20Sierra%20Gorda%20of%20Quer%C3%A9taro | Franciscan Missions in the Sierra Gorda of Querétaro | The Franciscan missions of the Sierra Gorda of Querétaro in Mexico, are five missions built between 1750 and 1760, the foundation of the missions is attributed to Junípero Serra, who also founded the most important missions in California. They were declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2003.
They are an example of an architectural and stylistic unity with a tempera painting that is one of the best examples of popular New Spain Baroque. According to the criteria to which the UNESCO inscription as a World Heritage Site refers, the missions are testimony to the important exchange of values during the colonization process, both in the center and north of Mexico, and in the west of what currently occupies the territory of the United States.
Region
The Sierra Gorda is an ecological region centered on the northern third of the state of Querétaro and extending into the neighboring states of Guanajuato, Hidalgo and San Luis Potosí . The region is on a branch of the Sierra Madre Oriental mountain range and consists of a series of mountain chains that run north to southeast. Within Querétaro, the ecosystem extends from the center of the state starting in parts of San Joaquín and Cadereyta de Montes municipalities and covering all of the municipalities of Peñamiller, Pinal de Amoles, Jalpan de Serra, Landa de Matamoros and Arroyo Seco, for a total of 250km2 of territory.
All of the Sierra Gorda is marked by very rugged terrain, which includes canyons and steep mountains. Altitudes range from just 300 meters above sea level in the Río Santa María Canyon in Jalpan to 3,100 masl at the Cerro de la Pingüica in Pinal de Amoles. The micro-environments of the region range from conifer forests, oak forests, mostly found on mountain peaks, banana and sugar cane fields in the deeper canyons. On the east side, there are deciduous forests. On the west side, bordering the Mexican Plateau, there are desert and semi desert conditions, with a variety of cactus and arid scrub brush. Among its features are the peaks associated with the Sierra Alta de Hidalgo, the pine forests of Zamorano, the Extorax Canyon and the slopes of the Huazmazonta, the inter-mountain valleys where the five missions are found and the rolling hills leading into La Huasteca. The wide variations of altitude and rainfall favor a wide variety of flora and wildlife.
Foundation
Although the mission of Jalpan was founded in 1750 before Junípero Serra arrived in the region, he is credited with building the five main missions in the area and completing the evangelization of the local population. In reality, the missions were built by the Pame people, under the direction of various Franciscan friars, including José Antonio de Murguía in San Miguel Conca, Juan Crispi in Tilaco, Juan Ramos de Lora in Tancoyol, and Miguel de la Campa de Landa.
However, the vision for the construction of the missions belonged to Serra, as he imagined a kind of utopia based on Franciscan principles, Serra put a firm missionary attitude that consisted in the accompaniment and understanding of its social problems, in the knowledge of their hunger and their language; Serra founded cooperatives, supported and strengthened their organization and production capacities, motivated the distribution of land and imposed doctrinal tasks in the Pame language. It was a missionary task of great dimensions and profound consequences from the human point of view and whose results are today appreciable in the Baroque syncretism that it exhibits in all the missions.
History
Although there had been some city building in this area during the Pre Classic era, with heights between the 6th and 10th centuries, these cities had been abandoned long before the Spanish arrived in the 16th century. At this time, the native peoples of the region were nomadic hunter gathers, such as the Pames, Ximpeces Guachichils and Jonaz, generally referred to together as the Chichimecas. In addition, there were also groups of Otomis and Huasteca to be found. The Spanish dominated the far west and the far east of the Sierra Gorda (today in the states of Guanajuato and Hidalgo), but could not dominate the center in what is now Querétaro. This is because the rugged terrain and fierce resistance, especially by the Jonaz.
Efforts to dominate the region included evangelization efforts, many of which failed before the mid 18th century. During the 16th and 17th century, there were attempts to evangelize the Sierra Gorda of Querétaro by the Augustinians, Franciscans and Dominicans. However, almost all of these missions were never completed or were destroyed soon after they were built by the indigenous communities. The best known example is the Bucareli Mission is located in the community of Puerto de Tejamanil in the municipality of Pinal de Amoles. The mission was founded in 1797 by Franciscan Juan Guadalupe Soriano for evangelization of the local Jonaz people. The full name of the mission is the Purísima Concepción de Bucarelí. It was never finished with only part of the monastery, the mines and the church visible. On 4 February, mass in honor of Francis of Assisi is performed here, in a small chapel with still remains, although there is no roof in any part of the complex. The mission was completely abandoned during the Mexican Revolution in 1914 and construction officially suspended in 1926.
In 1740, the colonial government decided to exterminate indigenous resistance here to secure trade routes to Guanajuato and Zacatecas. This was accomplished by José de Escandón, whose expedition culminated in the Battle of Media Luna, defeating the Jonaz and Ximpeces. The military pacification of the area by José de Escandón in the 1740s allowed for the building of permanent missions in the heart of the Sierra Gorda. However, the five Franciscans missions accredited to Junípero Serra were built in Pame territory, as these people were more accepting of Spanish domination. The Spanish decided to burn original Pame villages and resettle the population around missions for better control. Those who did not submit either committed suicide or went to live in the mountains. The placement of the missions had the purpose of dividing the heart of the Sierra Gorda and to open roads into San Luis Potosí.
Junípero Serra spent eight years on the project of building the missions until 1770, when a number of historical events, including the expulsion of the Jesuits, forced the abandonment of the missions. Serra moved onto California. From then until the late 20th century, the complexes suffered abandonment, deterioration and damage. This was especially true during the Mexican Revolution with many churches in the region were sacked and a number of portal figures on these Franciscan churches became "decapitated" by the fighting.
In the 1980s, a group from the Xilitla office of INAH got lost in the area and came upon one of the missions. The find led to efforts to save the missions and culminated with their declaration as a World Heritage Site in 2003. Initial restoration work to the structure and exterior of the mission churches was begun in the 1980s. Between 1991 and 1997, interior work on altars, choirs, organs and paintings was done. Further work was sponsored by the state between 1997 and 2002, which included that on surrounding plazas and monuments. Restoration costs for the Tancoyol mission alone were over three million pesos by 2008. The effort to inscribe the missions as a World Heritage Site began in 2000 by a group of Mexican intellectuals including Dr. Miguel León Portilla. The effort took two and a half years but was ultimately successful in 2003, when it was added during the 27th meeting of the World Heritage Committee. The five missions are promoted by the state tourism authority as the Ruta de las Misiones, (Mission Route) .
Architecture
The main characteristic of these temples is the rich decoration of the main doors, this decoration is called "New Spanish Baroque" or "mestizo Baroque", according to the INAH. The rich decoration is mainly aimed at teaching the new religion to the indigenous peoples, but unlike the Baroque of the temples and works further south, the indigenous influence is obvious. The idea of Serra was to demonstrate a mixture of cultures instead of a complete conquest. One of them was the use of the colors red, orange and yellow, as well as pastel shades, and of sacred native figures, such as the rabbit and the jaguar. The temples have a single nave, covered by a barrel vault, but each one has its own peculiarities, especially in the portals. Serra spent eleven years in the Sierra Gorda, before moving to the north, around 1760. The missions established in Querétaro would be the first in a long series of missions that would be established in what is now southern California.
The Sierra Gorda missions have unique characteristics in New Spanish Baroque, both for their conceptions of floor plans and elevations. On their facades they present a series of very original compositions based on high-quality decorative elements and ingenious design; its forms are armed with partitions covered with stucco, made of quicklime burned on site and colored with earth. Despite the fact that these missions were established in the 18th century, in them some basic elements of the religious architecture of the Mendicant orders of the 16th century are discovered. The architecture of these missions obeys the so-called "moderate trace" program that was implemented in the 16th century and accepted by the Franciscan, Augustinian and Dominican orders; and that they applied in the convent-fortresses.
The missions have what is called a Capilla posa, one of the architectural solutions used in the monastery complexes of New Spain in the 16th century, consisting of four quadrangular vaulted buildings located at the ends of the atrium outside them. Like the Capilla abierta, it is a unique solution and a contribution of Spanish-American colonial art to universal art given its originality and the plastic and stylistic resources used in its ornamentation. There are several theories about its function. It has been proposed that, following the processional path, the Capillas posas were used to pose or rest the Blessed Sacrament when it was carried in procession through the atrium.
Missions
The Santiago de Jalpan mission was established before the arrival of Junípero Serra in 1744, but Serra was in charge of building the mission complex that stands today from 1751 to 1758, the first to be built. It is dedicated to James the Greater, the first evangelist. This complex is situated in the center of the modern town in front of the main plaza and formed by an atrium, cloister, pilgrim portal and church, with a chapel annex on the left side. The original atrium wall was lost, but reconstructed in the same style, with three portals and inverted arches. The main features of the ornate portal on the facade are Our Lady of the Pillar and the Virgin of Guadalupe, both with Mesoamerican connections, as well as a double headed eagle, meant to symbolize the blending of the two cultures.
The facade is elaborately done in stucco and stone work, with ochre of the pilasters contrasting with the yellow of many of the decorative details. Much of the detail is vegetative, along with small angels and eagles. European elements include images of saints such as Saint Dominic and Francis of Assisi and the Franciscan coat of arms. Inside the door, there are the images of Saints Peter and Paul. Native elements include a double-headed Mexican eagle devouring a serpent. On the upper left, there is an image of the Virgin of Guadalupe on the upper left, the Our Lady of the Pillar. These are the virgin images of Mexico and Spain respectively. This statue is said to have been taken by a general at the end of the 19th century. It was replaced by a more modern clock. Inside, the cupola of the Jalpan mission contains scenes of the appearance of the Virgin of Guadalupe.
A second mission is located in the community of Tancoyol called Nuestra Señora de la Luz de Tancoyol, dedicated to Our Lady of Light. This facade has profuse vegetative ornamentation, with ears of corn prominent and is the most elaborate of the five missions. It is likely that this mission was constructed by Juan Ramos de Lora, who resided here from 1761 to 1767. The structure is similar to those in Jalpan and Landa. It has a church with a Latin cross layout and choir area, a sacristy, atrium with cross and chapels in the corners of the atrium called "capillas posas." There is also a pilgrims' gate, a cloister and quarters for the priest.
The interior has a number of sculptures including one of "Our Lady of Light." The facade is marked by a rhomboid window surrounded by a representation of the cord Franciscans use to tie their habits. The basic theme of the facade is mercy, represented by interventions by the Virgin Mary and various saints. The iconography of this portal is the most elaborate of the five missions. The facade consists of three bodies, a pediment and four estípite columns. The lower body has sculptures of Saints Peter and Paul and who Franciscan coats of arms. The second body has sculptures of Joachim and Saint Anne, with the Virgin Mary in her arms, and a niche in the center. There are also images from the Passion such as nails and a lance. This niche contained an image of Our Lady of Light, but it is empty now. Between the second and third bodies, there is a large window and above it, a representation of the stigmata of Francis of Assisi.
The pediment contains a large cross in relief of two styles related to the Franciscan and Dominican orders. The main cross at the top represents redemption with the crosses of Calatrava and Jerusalem on either side. Indigenous elements are found in the church's interior, with an image of a jaguar and a person with Olmec features. The bell tower is narrow and the baptistery is at the base of this tower. On the lower part appears a small window which illuminates the baptistery. The cupola of the tower is in a pyramid shape with a Baroque iron cross on top.
San Miguel Concá mission is located forty km from Jalpan on Highway 69 to Río Verde. The church is in the center of the community on one side of Guerrero Street. It is oriented to the south and dedicated to the Archangel Michael. It is the smallest of the mission churches and was probably finished in 1754, according to an inscription located inside the church. Concá is a Pame word which means "with me." San Miguel Concá is the furthest north and the smallest of the missions. The decoration features large flowers, foliage and coarse figures in indigenous style. It is distinguished by an image of the Holy Trinity at the crest along with a rabbit (a Pame symbol) and double-headed eagle.
San Francisco de Asís del Valle de Tilaco mission is in a small community eighteen km northeast of Landa de Matamoros. It was constructed between 1754 and 1762 by Juan Crespi and dedicated to Francis of Assisi . It has some characteristics different from the other missions. First, it is built on a gradient. The bell tower is separated from the main nave of the church by the baptistery and structurally functions as a buttress for the church. Tilaco is the best conserved of the five missions and has the most subtle ornamentation on its facade. Its facades are composed of three horizontal and three vertical partitions, with the Franciscan coat of arms prominent over the main entrance. In Tilaco, the facade has small angels, ears of corn and a strange large jar over which is an image of Francis of Assisi. One distinctive decorative element is four mermaids with indigenous features. Tilaco has the best conserved atrium corner chapels called "capillas posas," which were used for processions.
Santa María de la Purísima Concepción del Agua de Landa mission is located twenty km from Jalpan on Highway 120 towards Xilitla. The mission was built between 1760 and 1768 by Miguel de la Campa is dedicated to Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception, which gives rise to part of the community's name. It was the last of the missions to be built. The atrium is bordered by a wall and centered by a cross, and paved in stone. It is noted for its equilibrium in composition and very narrow bell tower, which is integrated into the facade. The sculpture of this facade is considered to be the best of the five according to Arqueología Mexicana magazine. The faces of the mermaids at Landa have indigenous features.
The facade bears a great resemblance to that of Jalpan, in various aspects, its sizes and aesthetics, the atrium is surrounded by a wall and centered by a cross, and paved. In addition to them, the Franciscan friars leave an unprecedented rubric and the notorious reflection of their predilections in the last of their missions, there we have seen through his mother, the Immaculate Conception, Saint Francis and the four saints of the column of observance, to Archangel Michael and those studies and protectors of the order, Duns Escoto and María de Agreda. We see the universal church with Saint Peter and Paul and Christ in these three martyrs, as well as the shields of the Franciscans.
Inside we have medallions on the ceiling of the main nave beginning with Saint Michael the Archangel, with his traditional iconography, followed by Juan Duns Escoto exposed in a very didactic way presented with his hands holding the Immaculate Conception in one and a same pen with which through writing he tirelessly defended the dogma of Mary. And again Archangel Michael account to the center of the transept of two other archangels, Raphael and Gabriel.
It stands out for its balanced composition and very narrow bell tower, which is integrated into the façade. The sculpture on this facade is considered the best of the five according to the Mexican Archeology magazine.
See also
Mendicant monasteries in Mexico
Spanish missions in Mexico
References
External links
UNESCO Site
Missions in Mexico
Buildings and structures in Querétaro
Colonial Mexico
Franciscan churches in Mexico
History of Querétaro
Tourist attractions in Querétaro
Spanish Colonial architecture in Mexico
Baroque architecture in Mexico
Baroque church buildings in Mexico
World Heritage Sites in Mexico
Junípero Serra |
4336092 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra%20Gorda | Sierra Gorda | The Sierra Gorda () is an ecological region centered on the northern third of the Mexican state of Querétaro and extending into the neighboring states of Guanajuato, Hidalgo and San Luis Potosí. Within Querétaro, the ecosystem extends from the center of the state starting in parts of San Joaquín and Cadereyta de Montes municipalities and covering all of the municipalities of Peñamiller, Pinal de Amoles, Jalpan de Serra, Landa de Matamoros and Arroyo Seco, for a total of 250 km2 of territory. The area is extremely rugged with high steep mountains and deep canyons. As part of the Huasteca Karst, it also contains many formations due to erosion of limestone, especially pit caves known locally as sótanos. The area is valued for its very wide diversity of plant and animal life, which is due to the various microenvironments created by the ruggedness of the terrain and wide variation in rainfall. This is due to the mountains’ blocking of moisture coming in from the Gulf of Mexico, which generally makes the east side fairly moist and the west semiarid scrub brush. Most of the region is protected in two biosphere reserves, with the one centered in Querétaro established in 1997 and the one centered in Guanajuato established in 2007. The Sierra Gorda is considered to be the far west of the La Huasteca region culturally and it is home to the Franciscan Missions in the Sierra Gorda of Querétaro World Heritage Site.
Geography
The region is on a branch of the Sierra Madre Oriental mountain range and consists of a series of mountain chains that run northwest to southeast, formed 240 million years ago. Most are made of limestone, formed by sea beds from the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Later there were intrusions of volcanic rock, especially in the eastern portion in Hidalgo state, from which come the mineral deposits of the area. The limestone has been affected by erosion to form the Huasteca Karst, and the area contains a large number of caverns, and pit caves (sótanos), some of which extend for hundreds of meters in depth. All of the Sierra Gorda is marked by very rugged terrain, which includes canyons and steep mountains. Elevations range from just 300 meters above sea level in the Río Santa María Canyon in Jalpan to 3,100 m asl at the Cerro de la Pingüica in Pinal de Amoles. The most significant peak in the Hidalgo area is Cerro Cangandhó which has an elevation of 2,820 m asl. Rainfall also varies greatly from 350 mm to 2,000 mm per year. Among its mountains are the peaks associated with the Sierra Alta de Hidalgo, the pine forests of Zamoarano, the Extoraz Canyon and the slopes of the Huazmazonta, the inter-mountain valleys where the five missions are found and the rolling hills leading into La Huasteca. The wide variations of elevation and rainfall favor a wide variety of flora and wildlife.
There are three main rivers in the Sierra Gorda, all of which are part of the Pánuco River basin. These are the Santa María River, the Extoraz or Peñamiller River and the Moctezuma River. All three pass through deep canyons and tend to form borders between the states and municipalities of the region. Santa María marks part of the border between Querétaro and San Luis Potosí, and the Moctezuma River marks part of the border between Querétaro and Hidalgo. The Tula and Moctezuma Rivers meet in the Sierra Gorda of Hidalgo. Here, the Moctezuma River Canyon extends for twelve km and rises 480 meters above the floor.
Climate
The climate of the region depends on elevation and that the mountains form a natural barrier against the main source of moisture, the Gulf of Mexico. The east side of the mountains gets significant more rainfall than the west, in the form of orographic precipitation and clouds as the moisture-laden winds from the Gulf of Mexico ascend the mountain slopes. Forests and even rainforests are found in the east, while the west is dominated by desert and near desert conditions. In the east, mornings in the high mountain areas usually bring cloud cover and fog. The most moisture falls in the northeastern edges of the regions, where it merges into La Huasteca proper, in San Luis Potosí and Hidalgo. In the entire region, the coldest temperatures occur between December and January, with high temperatures in April and May. Temperatures vary widely depending on elevation with an annual average of 13 °C in the higher elevations such as Pinal de Amoles to 24 °C in lower areas such as Jalpan. In the highest elevations, frosts and freezes are not uncommon. In 2010, the Sierra Gorda had it first significant snowfall in eighteen years in the municipality of Pinal de Amoles, with temperatures of −4 °C. In some places, the cover was 15 cm deep.
Ecology
Because of its great variety of ecosystems, the Sierra Gorda has one of the diverse ecologies in Mexico, with one of the largest number of species of plants and animals.
The micro-environments of the region range from conifer forests, oak forests, mostly found on mountain peaks, banana and sugar cane fields in the deeper canyons. On the east side, there are deciduous forests. On the west side, bordering the Mexican Plateau, there are desert and semi desert conditions, with a variety of cacti and arid scrub brush.
Species in danger of extinction include the jaguar, puma, the black bear, the green parrot, the Veracruz partridge, and the Humboldt butterfly, mostly due to human activities. Endangered plant species include the biznaga gigante (Echinocactus platyacanthus), the chapote (Diospyros riojae), the guayamé (Abies guatemalensis), the magnolia (Magnolia dealbata) and the peyote (Lophophora diffusa). monarch butterflies can be found in the area as well, as they pass through to their wintering grounds on the State of Mexico-Michoacán border . There have been plagues in the forests of the area due to the recent drought conditions. The most serious is a bark beetle (Dendroctonus adjunctus) and mistletoe (Arceuthobium sp.). The drought conditions have been blamed on global climate change. Areas in Querétaro and Guanajuato have been declared as biosphere reserves. The Sierra Gorda in Hidalgo has not, but it still contains a large number of important ecosystems.
Biosphere reserves
There are two major conservation areas in the Sierra Gorda region: one in Querétaro and one in the state of Guanajuato.
Biosphere reserve in Querétaro
The Sierra Gorda Biosphere in Querétaro was established by decree on May 19, 1997 because of its exceptional variety of species and ecosystems. Uniquely among protected areas of Mexico, it was established thanks to environmental activism, efforts that were led by Martha Isabel Ruiz Corzo and her Sierra Gorda Ecological Group (GESG, Grupo Ecológico Sierra Gorda). The reserve extends for about 400,000 hectares over the states of Querétaro and San Luis Potosí. It covers about 32% of the state of Querétaro and is roughly the size of Rhode Island. When it was declared, the reserve had 683 communities with about 100,000 inhabitants. However, since then, the population has nearly dropped to about half. In Querétaro, the biosphere reserve encompasses the municipalities of Jalpan de Serra, Landa de Matamoros, Arroyo Seco, Pinal de Amoles (88% of its territory) and Peñamiller (69.7% of its territory). The biosphere was declared as a result of grassroots efforts, the only one to be established this way in Mexico. The original declaration encompasses 383.567 hectares. In 2001, it was added to the International Networks of Man and Biosphere of UNESCO as the thirteenth Mexican reserve on the list, occupying first place in regards to ecodiversity. It is also recognized as a Área de Importancia para la Conservación de las Aves (Area of Importance for the Conservation of Birds) by the Consejo Internacional para la Preservación de las Aves Mexicanas.
The reserve begins in the dry semi desert areas in the center of Querétaro and as one moves north and higher into the mountain peaks of Pinal de Amoles at around , the scenery changes to temperate forest of conifers. The elevation is lower north into Jalpan and the climate is warmer and wetter before moving into the rolling hills of the La Huasteca in San Luis Potosí and Hidalgo. Elevations in the reserve range from 350 to 3,100 meters above sea level, with rugged mountains, canyons, lush valley and “sótanos” or pit caves carved out from the limestone of the Huasteca Karst. Humidity is primarily from the Gulf of Mexico, which makes the northeast of the region green, but the southwest, blocked from the moisture by the high mountains, is dominated by arid scrub brush. This combination of varying elevation and moisture patterns creates the regions primary biological characteristic, which is a large number of ecosystems in a relatively small area. It has 15 vegetative types, including old growth moist montane forests covered in bromeliads and orchids, high elevation pine-oak forests, a great diversity of cactus, wild oregano and lowland tropical forests . The biosphere is the seventh largest federally protected natural area and has the greatest biodiversity of all of them, including those which encompass marine areas, as it is home to 10 of Mexico's 11 ecosystems.
The diversity of the area can also be seen in the number of plant and animals species found in the reserve. There are 2,308 species of plants, with about thirty-five percent of the area covered by forested areas of oaks, junipers and pines. There are 130 mammal, 71 reptile and 23 amphibian species, including six feline species, the black bear (Ursus americanus) and the Mexican spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi vellerosus). There are 360 species of birds, more than 30 percent of the bird species in the country, including military macaws (Ara militaris). Migrating monarch butterflies pause here on their southern route, and butterfly species in general total more than all that are in the U.S. and Canada combined. Many of these species are endangered, and many have not yet been studied.
The biosphere reserve in Querétaro is managed by Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas of Semarnat. The management system is a combination of federal authorities working with the participation of local communities. The land is generally not owned by the government. Thirty percent of the reserve is communally owned land with the rest privately owned, with the government issuing regulations. Cooperation between federal authorities and local communities has not always gone smoothly, with local residents complaining that the government has issues decrees without consulting them. The CESG and the biosphere project have attracted international support from sponsors such as the Schwab Foundation, Shell, Wal-Mart, Hewlett-Packard, Grupo Bimbo and nongovernmental organizations such as Ashoka, conservation foundations and U.N. agencies. The Grupo Ecológico Sierra Gorda was one of 94 winners of the Energy Globe competition among 700 entrants. It received 10,000 Euros to help fund its projects. Conservation of the area has also attracted the attention of people such as director James Cameron, who sponsored a reforestation project on 120 hectares. This is in addition to various other reforestation projects that have been ongoing since the 1990s. These projects even include an overall forest management plan designed to produce enough wood for local woodcutters to earn a living.
Biosphere reserve in Guanajuato
Much of the Sierra Gorda region which extends into the state of Guanajuato was declared a biosphere reserve in 2007 to preserve its biodiversity as well. In this state, protected area covers 236,882 hectares which is the entire municipality of Xichú, 70% of Victoria, 65% of Atarjea, about a quarter of San Luis de la Paz and a small portion of Santa Catarina. The reserve here is divided into a nucleus, which is in the municipalities of Victoria, Ajarjea and Xichú, and a periphery. Only eco tourism, research activities, traditional economic activities and low impact development is allowed in the nucleus.
This section of the Sierra Gorda is home to eighty four species of plants from trees to cacti, 182 species of birds and 42 species of mammals. The rugged terrain means that there are a wide number and variety of microclimates although average temperatures vary only between 16 and 19 °C. It lowest point is a canyon called Paso de Hormigas in Xichú at 650 meters above sea level with a very warm climate suitable for tropical fruit. The highest point is Pinal de Zamorano at 3,300 meters, followed by El Picacho de Pueblo Nuevo, El Zorillo and El Cuervo all above 2,700 meters. The largest changes are seen in arid versus wetter zones, which can often be relatively nearby, with foliage changing from rainforest to pine forest to desert landscapes.
The area is the poorest in Guanajuato, with over 200 communities which have a population of less than 150. This area is the most rugged in the state where most of the natural areas and small villages are remain intact due to their inaccessibility. Culturally, the Sierra Gorda region is the far western part of La Huasteca, which extends over parts of the states of Querétaro, San Luis Potosí, Hidalgo and Veracruz.
Conservation challenges
The greatest conservation challenge is that the area is the second most populated natural protected area in Mexico with severe problems with poverty. This creates a need to balance conservation efforts with local subsistence needs. One important aspect of this is to manage forest resources so that local woodcutters can make a living while controlling how much is cut. However, mass migration out of the region has almost halved the population of the Querétaro biosphere to about 50,000 people since it was declared. This has taken pressure off of local natural resources, as agriculture, livestock production and logging lessen. Many of the people who have left are in the United States and send money back home. This money has spurred the building of larger homes and the proliferation of pick up trucks, many with U.S. license plates. It has also allowed for the change to gas over firewood for cooking, but garbage has become a problem. However, overall the depopulation has been positive for the recuperation of the biosphere.
Despite the lessened pressure, economic activities still take a toll on the area. Illegal logging is still a very serious problem, as the area has attracted loggers from outside. The problem is most serious in Landa de Matamoros, Pinal de Amoles and Jalpan de Serra. Aside from commercial loggers, areas are also cleared by local farmers looking for more space for animals and crops. This has led to springs and river drying up and eroding of topsoil. While strict environmental protection laws exist, enforcement is lacking. Local authorities have requested the creation of environmental police to guard the forest areas. However, much of the enforcement is done by the local community itself.
Lastly, there have been problems with droughts and pest infestations. These include the roundheaded pine beetle, European mistletoe, and caterpillars. Some residents see the event as divine will but others place global warming. It is not known how much of the oaks, junipers and pines that make up most of the forested areas have been compromised but there are visible yellow patches seen in the otherwise green forest. The pests have been able to infest more because trees are weak due to drought conditions.
Efforts to help the local community preserve the area and make a living primarily consist of payouts to landowners who conserve and eco-tourism. Recently, the federal government along with the United Nations, began a program to pay private land owners for "environmental services" of between 18 and 27 US dollars for each hectare they conserve each year. However, this only covers about 215 landowners and 21.500 hectares, 5.6% of the total reserve. The second is the promotion of tourism based on the area's natural resources. One organization dedicated to this is Sierra Gorda Ecotours.
Sierra Gorda de Hidalgo
The Sierra Gorda in Hidalgo has not been declared a biosphere reserve, but it still contains a large number of important ecosystems. It is mountainous with a wide variety of ecosystems like other parts of the Sierra Gorda, but this area has a greater percentage of the volcanic rock when entered the area late in its geological history. The terrain is very rocky and difficult to travel. The most important elevation in the Hidalgo area is the Cerro Cangandhó which has an elevation of 2,820 masl, located in the Sierra Alta de Hidalgo, The area is marked by the Moctezuma and Tula Rivers. The first contains a canyon which is 480 meters deep. The border between Hidalgo and Querétaro is marked by where the Moctezuma and Tula Rivers meet. This area is also home to one of the largest hydroelectric dams in Mexico.
The Sierra Gorda of Hidalgo roughly divides into an arid south and a north filled with forests. In both areas, days are significantly warmer than the nights. The north contains forests of pine, ocote, oaks, junipers and other trees. The south is more arid and much of it is scrub brush. This part of the Sierra Gorda, especially the south, is dominated by the Otomis, rather than the Huasteca or Chichimeca. The most important city is Zimapán. Agriculture is limited to corn grown during the rainy season but yields are poor due to the lack of flat lands and fertile soil. Agriculture also increases erosion. More important to the economy is mining, with minerals such as lead, zinc, magnesium, silver and stone such as marble and opals.(higalgogob)
People and culture
A number of indigenous communities still inhabit the region. The eastern part in Hidalgo is dominated by the Otomi. The far north of Querétaro still has significant communities of Pames, and Guanajuato has a number of Chichimeca groups.
While indigenous people make up a very small percentage of the population of the region, the Huasteca culture has had a strong impact since the pre Hispanic period. Most of the region is considered to be at least nominally the far western part of this cultural region. Huapango is the dominant native musical and dance style in the Sierra Gorda, with festivals dedicated to it in Xichú, Pinal de Amoles, San Joaquín, where Huasteca influence is strongest. Most of the population lives in very small rural communities, many under 500 inhabitants. There are no notable social conflicts in this area, which is free of problems related to the illegal drug trade that afflict other parts of the country.
Poverty levels are high in the area despite the ecological and cultural richness. Tourism has been a recent phenomenon here, as the area's ecological importance becomes more widely known. Most still make a living from agriculture, livestock and mining and in some areas, these traditional economies are protected by law. However, the extreme poverty of the area has forced many, especially younger residents, to migrate to seek employment. This has led to many areas becoming dependent on remittances sent back home, much of it from the United States. In some areas, one in four households is supported by remittance money.
There is an annual cycling event called "Escalera del Infierno" (Hell's Ladder) which extends over the Sierra Gorda in Querétaro in March. The event begins in Bernal, through Ezequiel Montes, Cadereyta and ends in San Joaquín, for 137 km, 28 km of which are uphill.
Settlements
Jalpan de Serra is in the north of Querétaro. It is called the "heart of the Sierra Gorda" in part due to is geographic location in the city and the fact that it is the only city in the biosphere. Jalpan is closely surrounded by mountains, with cobblestone streets around the very center. Mornings frequently are foggy or cloudy, with the sun burn such off by midday. Ecotourism and tourism related to the five Franciscan friary declared a World Heritage Site have recently become an important part of the economy. The Jalpan Dam has become important as a habitat for aquatic birds.
There is a museum in Jalpan de Serra dedicated to the history and geography of the Sierra Gorda region. The museum building was first constructed in 1576 as a fort and military outpost. It was reconstructed at the end of the 16th century. It was remodeled in 1990 and was inaugurated as a museum in 1991, with a collection of pieces that range from the pre Hispanic era to the Reform War. It has eight halls for exhibits, a bookstore, an audiovisualroom, a temporary exhibit hall, research center and library. It organizes educational, ecological and cultural events.
Xichú, in the state of Guanajuato, was founded in 1585 as a mining town, with the municipality containing a high elevation at Cerro El Descarado, at 2,400 masl and a low elevation where the Santa María River and the Xoconoxtle meet at 826 masl, the lowest in the state. It has a population of over 11,000 people and although very few are indigenous, Huasteca influence is notable.
Zimapán is the largest city in the Hidalgo portion of the Sierra Gorda. Unlike other parts of the Sierra Gorda, this area has been dominated by the Otomi, with the Spanish city founded in 1522. It is primarily a mining center, extracting various metals and stones from the steep mountains that surround it. The municipality has a fairly significant number of indigenous language speakers; over 3,000 in a total population of about 34,000.
History
Human settlements in the area have been dated to between 6,000 and 4,000 years ago, in the southern part of the region, with the earliest found in the far south of the area in what is now the municipality of Cadereyta de Montes, in an area called the Mesa de León. The earliest inhabitants were hunter-gatherers; however over time, many developed sedentary agricultural villages by the end of the Pre Classic period . The development of these villages was bolstered by migration of agricultural peoples from the Mexican Plateau and the Gulf of Mexico coast, especially from the latter. Agriculture was concentrated in the lower valley areas, the few plains and some sides of mountains. This also included the cutting of forests to make more agricultural land. Most settlements are found near springs, ponds and small lakes as they were the most readily usable sources of water, instead of the rivers which ran deep inside narrow canyons. This included the Huastecas, who were found mostly in the far northeast of the region, noted for growing cotton.
The height of settlement of the area came between the 6th and 10th centuries, with the largest number of successful human settlements, with an economy based on farming and mining. During this time, the area saw intense commercial traffic and cultural exchanges between Gulf of Mexico, the Huasteca area and the Mexican Plateau, with artifacts related to Río Verde in San Luis Potosí, Teotihuacan, Tula, west to the Bajío and from the valleys of Querétaro and San Juan del Río all found. However, the peoples of the Sierra Gorda had more ties with peoples to the west, north and east, than with the Mexican Plateau to the south. This is when the cities of Las Ranas and Toluquilla grew. The two cities’ economies were based on the control of trade routes and mining of cinnabar, used as a red pigment. The mining of cinnabar required coordinated and hierarchical labor practices for the various tasks involved, which would lead to the development of these cities. This area was the primary provider of red pigment to Mesoamerica.
Between 200 and 1000 CE, the area was culturally divided into three regions, Río Verde, the Serrana Cultura and the Huasteca. The Río Verde region is located in the northwest of the state of Querétaro into San Luis Potosí. The Serrana Culture is found around the archeological sites of Las Ranas and Toluquilla, which dominated most of the trade routes, and had the greatest population during the Classic Period (200-900CE). The Huasteca region is in the far northeast with major settlements at Tancoyol, La Campana, Tancama and Tonatico, which had fertile lands. The Otomi arrived in the area in 800 CE and settled peacefully.
The development of cities and dominions came to a halt in the 11th century, after being in decline for over 300 years before that. During the Post classic (900–1521) all of the area's cities in Querétaro would become abandoned. There are two theories as to why this occurred. The first is that there was climate change during this time, which caused the area to dry out. The second was that it was due to social phenomena, as a number of cities in Mesoamerica, including Teotihuacan went into decline. Eventually the cities of the Sierra Gorda were abandoned altogether, but this may have been gradual. Evidence at Las Ranas and Toluquilla indicate a non violent transition, as farming communities were abandoned and replaced by hunter-gatherer communities.
The hunter gatherer cultures that moved in from the 11th century remained until the colonial period, and were categorized together as "Chichimecas". These consisted in various ethnicities including Pames, Ximpeces Guachichils and Jonaz. All speak languages in the Oto-Manguean family, with differences mostly cultural. The Pames were found mostly in the east with the Jonaz in the west. In addition, there were also groups of Otomis and Huasteca to be found.
The areas in the far east and far west of the Sierra Gorda were dominated by the Spanish soon after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. What is now the Sierra Gorda in Guanajuato and Hidalgo states had Spanish cities in them by the middle of the 16th century. The main reason for this was that these areas had higher concentrations of mineral deposits. Another factor was that the indigenous peoples in these areas were relatively compliant to Spanish rule, especially in Hidalgo, where the Otomi had already been dominated by Xilotepec.
The Spanish entered the heart of the Sierra Gorda early, with Nuño de Guzmán conquering the Oxitipa dominion, which encompassed Jalpan, Xilitla, Tancoyol and Tilaco in 1527. However, during the early colonial period, the Querétaro Sierra Gorda would remain dangerous territory as the Chichimecas fought Spanish domination. with the first war between the Chichimeca Jonaz and the Spanish occurring in 1554. During the 16th and 17th century, the Spanish would surround this area on west, east and south, with military and missionary incursions into the interior. Spanish settlements were begun to the south of it, such as the Villa de Cadereyta in order to form a bulwark against the nomadic Chichimeca tribes. In the late 16th century, a number of forts were established in the area including El Jofre and Jalpan. The incursions were provoked not because of significant mineral deposits in northern Querétaro, but rather, the area laid on roads which led into mining areas such as Guanajuato and Zacatecas.
Missionary work began in 1550 with an Augustinian mission in Xilitla, San Luis Potosí. However, like military incursions, evangelism would occur from outside the heart of the region and gradually move inwards with many failures. However, the challenge to the Spanish was not only the hostility of the native peoples, but also this area lacked cities or towns, or the social hierarchy that was taken advantage of in other areas of Mesoamerica. In this region, the Spanish would have to create population centers.
Systematic evangelization of the Querétaro area would not be attempted until the 17th century, when Augustinians in the east and Franciscans in the west began building missions in 1670 and 1680s, under the military protection of Captain Jerónimo de Labra. However, Labra died in 1683, and the missions were unprotected. The Dominicans would arrive soon after but by 1700, both they and the Augustinians and Dominicans abandoned missions in most of the area, leaving only the Franciscans in Tolimán, Cadereyta, Escanela and Maconí. Many of the missions built in the interior during the 16th and 17th centuries were destroyed shortly after they were built. Successful missions were established in the far south of the region, with the mission of San Francisco Tolimán in 1683,the mission of San José de Vizarrón in the 1740s. Because of this, much of the first evangelization efforts undertaken before the mid 18th century have been largely forgotten.
In 1740, the colonial government in Mexico City decided to extinguish indigenous resistance the Sierra Gorda, and send an expedition headed by José de Escandón to accomplish this. Escandón mostly fought the Chichimeca Jonaz, culminating in the Battle of Media Luna in 1749, when the Chichimeca were decisively defeated. Legend states that at the end of the battle, the Chichimecas and Ximpeces climbed the hill the battle was fought on to commit collective suicide rather than to be integrated into the Spanish order.
In the far north of Querétaro, the Pames were more pacifistic and accepting of Spanish domination. It was these people who the Franciscans were able to group into larger settlements around missions. Although the mission in Jalpan was established before Junípero Serra's 1750 arrival into the region, Serra is given credit for building the five main missions of this area and completing the evangelization of the local people. In reality, the missions were built by Pame hands, under the direction of various Franciscan friars including José Antonio de Murguía in Concá, Juan Crispi in Tilaco, Juan Ramos de Lora in Tancoyol and Miguel de la Campa in Landa. However, the vision for the building of the missions was Serra's, as he imagined a type of utopia based on Franciscan principles. Serra insisted that the missionaries learn the local languages and experience hunger along with the rest of the population. There was still hostility to the Spanish presence, and Serra's response was economic as well as spiritual. The portals of the five main mission churches reflect this vision as well. The style of the five missions is called "Mestizo Baroque" as the indigenous elements are more clearly visible here than in other Baroque structures further south. The Baroque is mostly confined to the portals of the main facades and are meant to function much as an altarpiece, and to teach a world view to the natives of the area. Serra spent eleven years in the Sierra Gorda before moving on in the late 1760s. The missions established in Querétaro would be the first of a long series of missions that would be established as the Spanish made their way north into what is now southern California.
Various uprisings occurred in the area in 1810 as part of the Mexican War of Independence. The town of Jalpan was burned and sacked by royalist forces in 1819.
In the 19th century, the area was still heavily dominated by indigenous people, with small settlements of mestizos and criollos. Conflicts between the indigenous groups and others began at this time over natural resources such as land, water and especially forests. The Sierra Gorda Rebellion began in 1847 by deserters from the Mexican army. The uprising spread to nearly all parts of the Sierra Gorda region from Guanajuato to San Luis Potosí to Veracruz, with the most activity in Santa María del Río, Xichú and Rioverde between 1847 and 1849. The rebels demanded free use of various lands, the abolition of levies, the division of haciendas and the termination of parish church rights to land. Initial efforts by authorities to subdue the uprising were only partially successful. Rebels had control of various cities such as Ciudad Fernández, Rioverde and Santa María del Río by 1849. However, the government caught the most important rebel leader by the name of Quiroz that same year and executed him. This broke the main resistance and the government was able to put much of the rebellion down by 1850.
From Jalpan, General Tomás Mejía led military actions here against the Liberal government installed in the state of Querétaro and the country. He managed to take the main square of Querétaro in 1857. However, at the end of the Reform War, he was executed along with Maximilian I of Mexico.
In 1880, the first major (dirt) road was built through the area to connect it with the capital. This spurred economic development in the region.
Jalpan gained city status in 1904 as it already has electricity, telephone, telegraph and a sugar cane mill.(arqueomex) In 1911, the Grupo Revolucionario Aquiles Serdán was created in Jalpan under Policarpo Olvera and fought with the forces under Francisco I. Madero.
The modern Querétaro-Jalpan highway was built between 1962 and 1970, along with a number of other roads, bridges, electrification and water services.
The economy of the region had remained mostly the same since the colonial period, mostly based on agriculture and livestock. In 1989, this began to change as local residents formed the non governmental organization Grupo Ecológico Sierra Gorda. The group works with environmental education, reforestation and waste management among other things. The group worked to get the biosphere declared in 1997 and has had international support since then. This has spurred ecotourism.
The mission churches of the area suffered damage from the Mexican War of Independence and the Mexican Revolution, and had been all but completely abandoned by the second half of the 20th century. In the 1980s, the churches were "discovered" by a group from INAH from Xilitla. The churches were restored in the 1980s and 1990s, and declared a World Heritage Site in 2003.
Cinnabar and mercury mining has been part of the southern Sierra Gorda since the Pre classic period. This mining remained important until the 1970s, when most of the commercial mines closing and the last, in Maconí, closed in 2000. However, there are still at least six families known to mine the element on a very small scale. According to researchers, the long history of mercury mining here has caused the contamination of the environment as it built up over time. They believe this is behind the high levels of certain chronic diseases in the region.
There are plans to build a dam on the Extóraz River, 85 meters tall to store 118 million m3 of water. The water would be transported by aqueduct 138 km to the city of Querétaro. However, there is local opposition to the project.
Missions
During the 16th and 17th century, there were attempts to evangelize the Sierra Gorda of Querétaro by the Augustinians, Franciscans and Dominicans. However, almost all of these missions were never completed or were destroyed soon after they were built by the indigenous communities. The military pacification of the area by José de Escandón in the 1740s allowed for the building of permanent missions in the heart of the Sierra Gorda. However, the five Franciscans missions accredited to Junípero Serra were built in Pame territory, as these people were more accepting of Spanish domination. The placement of the missions had the purpose of dividing the heart of the Sierra Gorda and to open roads into San Luis Potosí. The missions were built by Pame hands, under the direction of various Franciscan friars including José Antonio de Murguía in Concá, Juan Crispi in Tilaco, Juan Ramos de Lora in Tancoyol and Miguel de la Campa in Landa. However, the vision for the building of the missions was Serra's, as he imagined a type of utopia based on Franciscan principles. Serra insisted that the missionaries learn the local languages and experience hunger along with the rest of the population. There was still hostility to the Spanish presence, and Serra's response was economic as well as spiritual.
The main feature of these churches is the ornate decoration of the main portals, although there is decoration on the bell towers and in some churches, other areas as well. This decoration is termed "Mestizo Baroque" or "Mestizo architecture" according to INAH. The ornate decoration is primarily aimed at teaching the new religion to the indigenous peoples, but unlike even the Baroque works further south, indigenous influence is obvious as the Serra's idea was to demonstrate a blending of cultures rather than complete conquest. One element is the use of red, orange, and yellow, including pastel shades, and native sacred figures such as the rabbit and jaguar appear. The mission churches have a single nave, covered by a cannon vault, but each has its own peculiarities, especially in the portals. Serra spent eleven years in the Sierra Gorda before moving on in the late 1760s north.
The mission in Jalpan was established before the arrival of Junípero Serra in 1744, but Serra was in charge of building the mission complex that stands today from 1751 to 1758. It is dedicated to the Apostle James, the first evangelist. This complex is situated in the center of the modern town in front of the main plaza and formed by an atrium, cloister, pilgrim portal and church, with a chapel annex on the left side. The original atrium wall was lost, but reconstructed in the same style, with three portals and inverted arches. The main features of the ornate portal on the facade are Our Lady of the Pillar and the Virgin of Guadalupe, both with Mesoamerican connections, as well as a double headed eagle, meant to symbolize the blending of the two cultures.
A second mission is located in the community of Tancoyol called Nuestra Señora de la Luz de Tancoyol, dedicated to Our Lady of Light. This facade has profuse vegetative ornamentation, with ears of corn prominent and is the most elaborate of the five missions. It is likely that this mission was constructed by Juan Ramos de Lora, who resided here from 1761 to 1767. The structure is similar to those in Jalpan and Landa. It has a church with a Latin cross layout and choir area, a sacristy, atrium with cross and chapels in the corners of the atrium called "capillas posas". There is also a pilgrims' gate, a cloister and quarters for the priest. The interior has a number of sculptures including one of "Our Lady of Light".
The facade consists of three bodies, a pediment and four estípite columns. The lower body has sculptures of Saints Peter and Paul and who Franciscan coats of arms. The second body has sculptures of Joachem and Saint Anne, with the Virgin Mary in her arms, and a niche in the center. There are also images from the Passion such as nails and a lance. This niche contained an image of Our Lady of Light, but it is empty now. Between the second and third bodies, there is a large window and above it, a representation of the stigmata of Francis of Assisi. The pediment contains a large cross in relief of two styles related to the Franciscan and Dominican orders. The bell tower is narrow and the baptistery is at the base of this tower. On the lower part appears a small window which illuminates the baptistery. The cupola of the tower is in a pyramid shape with a Baroque iron cross on top. Indigenous influence is noted in the interior columns of the church, which have images of a jaguar and a person with Olmec features.
San Miguel Concá is located forty km from Jalpan on Highway 69 to Río Verde. The church is in the center of the community on one side of Guerrero Street. It is oriented to the south and dedicated to the Archangel Michael. It is the smallest of the mission churches and was probably finished in 1754, according to an inscription located inside the church. Concá is a Pame word which means "with me". The decoration is mestizo as well with large flowers, foliage and coarse figures in indigenous style. It is distinguished by an image of the Holy Trinity at the crest along with a rabbit and double-headed eagle.
San Francisco del Valle de Tilaco is a small community eighteen km northeast of Landa de Matamoros. It was constructed between 1754 and 1762 by Juan Crespi and dedicated to Francis of Assisi. It has some characteristics different from the other missions. First, it is built on a gradient. The bell tower is separated from the main nave of the church by the baptistery and structurally functions as a buttress for the church. Tilaco is the best conserved of the five missions and has the most subtle ornamentation on its facade. Its facades are composed of three horizontal and three vertical partitions, with the Franciscan coat of arms prominent over the main entrance. In Tilaco, the facade has small angels, ears of corn and a strange large jar over which is an image of Francis of Assisi. One distinctive decorative element is four mermaids with indigenous features. Tilaco has the best conserved atrium corner chapels called "capillas posas", which were used for processions.
Santa María del Agua de Landa is located twenty km from Jalpan on Highway 120 towards Xilitla. The mission was built between 1760 and 1768 by Miguel de la Campa is dedicated to Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception, which gives rise to part of the community's name. It was the last of the missions to be built. The atrium is bordered by a wall and centered by a cross, and paved in stone. It is noted for its equilibrium in composition and very narrow bell tower, which is integrated into the facade. The sculpture of this facade is considered to be the best of the five according to Arqueología Mexicana magazine. The faces of the mermaids at Landa have indigenous features.
Junípero Serra spent eight years on the project of building the missions until 1770. When a number of historical events, including the expulsion of the Jesuits, forced the abandonment of the missions. Serra moved on to California. When Serra left, the missions were left in the hands of regular clergy. During both the Mexican War of Independence and the Mexican Revolution, the missions suffered sacking and destruction. Initial restoration work to the outside of the mission churches was begun in the 1980s. Between 1991 and 1997, interior work on altars, choirs, organs and paintings was done. Further work was sponsored by the state between 1997 and 2002. Work done in the 1990s also included that on surrounding plazas and monuments. The effort to inscribe the missions as a World Heritage Site began in 2000 and was ultimately successful in 2003, when it was added during the 27th meeting of the World Heritage Committee.
Archeological sites
At the end of the Preclassic, most of the Sierra Gorda was populated by agricultural villages established by people who migrated here from the Mexican Plateau and Gulf of Mexico coast, mostly from the latter. Agriculture was concentrated in the lower valley areas, the few plains and some sides of mountains. This also included the cutting of forests to make more agricultural land. Most settlements are found near springs, ponds and small lakes as they were the most readily usable sources of water, instead of the rivers which ran deep inside narrow canyons. Settlements were ranked in importance according to their function, with Las Ranas and Toluquillo occupying the most important positions.
The height of settlement of the area came between the 6th and 10th centuries, with the largest number of successful human settlements, with an economy based on farming and mining. The pre Hispanic architecture of the area is best developed in the major urban centers. These cities are centered on a Mesoamerican ball court which then opens up to various plazas and monumental structures on pyramid bases. Other structures such as administrative buildings and residences are found in both squared and round forms, but most often with a talud topped by a cornice. As many cities were situated on top of hills, the leveling of terraces to create space is another distinctive feature. However, while stucco was used on some floors, there is no evidence of walls being covered in it, as seen further south. The mining of cinnabar required coordinated and hierarchical labor practices for the various tasks involved, which would lead to the development of the cities of Las Ranas and Toluquilla. This area was the primary provider of this red pigment to Mesoamerica.
The pottery of the area was influenced by the mineral deposits of the area for coloring and Olmec based influences coming from the east of the area. One strong example of both is the production of what is called "black Olmec pottery". There is little known about the religious beliefs of this area, as few symbols have been found to identify deities or religious calendar. Burials do indicate a belief in life after death, as interred individuals, sometimes sacrificed, are found in a fetal position. Grave goods include many objects used in life as well as containers which may have contained food.
Aracheology in the Sierra Gorda began just before the second half of the 19th century, when mine engineers reported archeological finds in the mountains. Several of these engineers organized expeditions, some with state support, which resulted in the mapping of sites such as Las Ranas and Toluquillo. These expeditions also include the first photographs of these sites. The discovery of these two cities generated academic interest, but they were not further explored until 1931, when archeologist Eduardo Noguera and architect Emilio Cuevas went to evaluate the sites for the Direction of Pre Hispanic Monuments. By 1939, twenty seven sites had been identified in Querétaro, with twenty three in the Sierra Gorda. There are over 400 archeological sites, with twenty six primary ones, Ahuacatlán, Arroyo Seco, Arquitos, Canoas, Cerro de la Campana, Cerro del Sapo, Concá, Deconí, Ecatitlán, El Doctor, La Colonia, La Plazuela, Lobo, Los Moctezumas, Pueblo Viejo, Purísima, Ranas, Sabino, San Juan, Soyatal, Tancama, Tancoyol, Tilaco, Toluquilla, Tonatico and Vigas.
From an anthropological perspective, Querétaro, especially the northeast, is of great interest because of the cultures which developed and disappeared here as well as its connections with Mesoamerica and cultures to the north, but knowledge of the region is limited. It is possible that the peoples of the area had cultural and economic contacts as far north as Casas Grandes, and what is now New Mexico and Arizona. The mummy of a girl was found in a cave near the community of Altamira in the municipality of Cadereyta de Montes which shows evidence of agricultural settlement in an area that today does not support it. The semi desert conditions that currently prevail in most of the Sierra Gorda dates from climate change that occurred at the end of the first millennia CE, which dried the area and probably put an end to city and dominion development.
Las Ranas and Toluquilla were the two largest prehispanic cities to develop in the Sierra Gorda area. Las Ranas was the most developed city from the 7th to the 11th century, with Toluquilla somewhat smaller and reaching its height in the 11th century. Both cities are near to each other and both controlled the active trade routes of the area as well as the mining of cinnabar, highly prized as a red pigment in Mesoamerica. The trade that passed through the area linked the Gulf of Mexico to the central Mexican Plateau and some areas north as well. Extensive mining was done at both Toluquilla and Las Ranas beginning between 200 and 300 CE, extracting cinnabar, mercury and sulfur. Cinnabar was the most prized used in funerals. The structures at the sites indicate a stratified society and built with stone slabs and mud and covered in stucco in some places. At Toluquilla, many structures were built on terraces cut into the mountain to create more space. Las Ranas was taken over by the Chichimeca Jonaz late in its history but by the time the Spanish arrived, both cities were abandoned. In 2009, INAH and other institutions carried out research at Toluquilla on thirty skeletons from the pre Hispanic era in order to determine the importance of mining in the south of the Sierra Gorda. The objective of the study was to determine the amount of accumulation of mercury in the bones to find out who was most involved in the mining and how it affected the health of the population. It also studies patterns of mercury contamination in the surrounding environment as well. There have been over eighty extraction sites for cinnabar found around Las Ranas and Toluquilla, which lie on one of the largest deposits of the mineral in Mexico.
The archaeological study of mining by the Sierra Gorda Project was begun in the 1970s, based on an earlier interdisciplinary study carried out at the Sierra de Querétaro. The project was supported by the federal and state governments as well as UNAM. The project further mapped the cities of Las Ranas and Toluqillo. Further studies in the 1980s consolidated earlier findings and worked out settlement patterns in the wider area. Continued work at that time classified the ancient cultures and register more than 500 sites, encompassing all of northern Querétaro and into San Luis Potosí. The effect of mercury poisoning is not only an ancient problem but a modern one as well. These studies are also investigating the high levels of certain chronic diseases in the current population. The theory is that there is widespread mercury contamination in the environment because of it build up from mining for over hundreds of years.
References
Bibliography
External links
http://www.sierragorda.net
Photos galleries of the missions:
http://www.pbase.com/larpman/jalpan
http://www.pbase.com/larpman/landa
http://www.pbase.com/larpman/tancoyol
http://www.pbase.com/larpman/tilaco
http://www.pbase.com/larpman/conca
Biosphere reserves of Mexico
Geography of Querétaro
Sierra Madre Oriental
World Heritage Sites in Mexico
Protected areas established in 1997
1997 establishments in Mexico
Protected areas of the Sierra Madre Oriental
Protected areas of Hidalgo (state)
Protected areas of San Luis Potosí
Protected areas of Querétaro
Important Bird Areas of Mexico
Karst formations of Mexico
Protected areas of Guanajuato |
4336376 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Drowsy%20Chaperone | The Drowsy Chaperone | The Drowsy Chaperone is a Canadian musical with music and lyrics by Lisa Lambert and Greg Morrison, and a book by Bob Martin and Don McKellar.
The story concerns a middle-aged, asocial musical theater fan who, feeling "blue", decides to play for the audience an LP of his favorite musical, the fictional 1928 show The Drowsy Chaperone. As the record plays, the show - a parody of 1920s American musical comedy - comes to life onstage, as the man wryly comments on the music, story and actors.
The Drowsy Chaperone debuted in 1998 at The Rivoli in Toronto, and, after a 2005 run in Los Angeles, opened on Broadway on May 1, 2006. The show was nominated for multiple Broadway and West End theatre awards, winning five Tony Awards and seven Drama Desk Awards. The show has had major productions in Toronto, Los Angeles, New York, London, Melbourne and Japan, as well as two North American tours as well as Batemans Bay in New South Wales.
History
The Drowsy Chaperone started in 1997, when Don McKellar, Lisa Lambert, Greg Morrison and several friends created a spoof of old musicals for the stag party of Bob Martin and Janet van de Graaf. In its first incarnation, there was no Man in chair, the musical styles ranged from the 1920s to the 1940s, and the jokes were more risqué. When the show was reshaped for the Toronto Fringe Festival, Martin became a co-writer, creating Man in chair to serve as a narrator/commentator for the piece.
Following the Fringe staging, Toronto commercial theatre producer David Mirvish financed an expanded production at Toronto's 160-seat, independent Theatre Passe Muraille in 1999. Box office success and favourable notices led Mirvish in 2001 to finance further development and produce a full-scale version at Toronto's 1000-seat Winter Garden Theatre. During that production, Linda Intaschi, Associate Producer of Mirvish Productions, invited New York producer Roy Miller to see the musical. Miller saw potential in the show and he optioned the rights.
With Canadian actor and fund-raiser Paul Mack, Miller produced a reading for the New York's National Alliance for Musical Theatre on 5 October 2004 – and invited Broadway producer Kevin McCollum. The reading captured McCollum's interest and eventually resulted in Miller, McCollum and Bob Boyett, Stephanie McClelland, Barbara Freitag and Jill Furman committing to producing the play. An out-of-town engagement followed at the Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles (2005), and after alterations, The Drowsy Chaperone opened on Broadway on 1 May 2006.
Productions
Broadway
The Broadway production opened in May 2006 at the Marquis Theatre. It was directed and choreographed by Casey Nicholaw. The production featured sets by David Gallo, costumes by Gregg Barnes, lighting by Ken Billington and Brian Monahan, hair by Josh Marquette, and makeup by Justen M. Brosnan. The original cast featured Bob Martin as the Man in chair, Sutton Foster as Janet, Georgia Engel as Mrs. Tottendale, Edward Hibbert as Underling, and Beth Leavel as the Chaperone. Throughout the course of the show, replacements for the Man in Chair included Jonathan Crombie, Bob Saget, and John Glover. Upon Engel's exit from the production, Jo Anne Worley and Cindy Williams became replacements for Mrs. Tottendale, Mara Davi assumed the role of Janet once Foster left, and Peter Bartlett took over for Hibbert.
In his mixed review of the show, New York Times critic Ben Brantley said that the show "...seems poised to become the sleeper of the Broadway season, [though] it is not any kind of masterpiece," and that "...all the songs, while serviceably imitative of the 1920's, are forgettable." In a slightly more enthusiastic review, Variety's David Benedict noted that "The secret behind the success of Casey Nicholaw's exquisitely honed hymn to the forgotten musicals of yesteryear is that its authors knew exactly what they were doing when they took the broad out of Broadway."
Despite the mixed reviews, The Drowsy Chaperone was nominated for 13 Tony Awards, including Best Musical. It won five including Best Original Score, Best Book of a Musical, and Best Featured Actress in a Musical for Leavel.
The production closed on 30 December 2007 after 674 performances and 32 previews.
West End
The Broadway team staged the West End production. Previews started on 14 May 2007, first night was on 6 June, but it closed on 4 August after fewer than 100 performances. A largely British cast, including Elaine Paige – making her return to the West End after six years – John Partridge and Summer Strallen joined the show's co-author Bob Martin recreating his Broadway role of "Man in Chair", with Anne Rogers, Nickolas Grace, Nick Holder, Selina Chilton and Adam Stafford. Later during the run, TV star Steve Pemberton took over the role of "Man in Chair". Novello Theatre's owner Sir Cameron Mackintosh, who had seen the show in previews in New York had supported its transatlantic transfer.
London's critics generally gave positive reviews of the show, although some were less impressed. An early drastic reduction in the cost of premium seating for the show failed to generate sufficient enthusiasm for the production, and the producers closed it in August instead of the scheduled February 2008 date. The Stage commented, "shows in London can run safely ... at lower capacities than they require on Broadway. ... But, as the transfer of The Drowsy Chaperone has just proved, sometimes even a Tony-winning Broadway hit can't even achieve that." The production received 2008 Olivier Award nominations for Best New Musical, Best Actress in a Musical (Strallen), Best Actor in a Musical (Martin), Best Theatre Choreographer (Casey Nicholaw), and Best Costume Design (Gregg Barnes).
North American tour
A national tour of The Drowsy Chaperone opened 19 September 2007 in Toronto at the Elgin Theatre. Among the performers were original Broadway cast members Bob Martin and Georgia Engel. While Engel performed with the company for the extended engagement, Martin did not continue beyond Toronto; his role was taken over by Jonathan Crombie. Nancy Opel played the role of "The Drowsy Chaperone". The Drowsy Chaperone played more than 30 cities in the United States, including Los Angeles at the Ahmanson Theatre, where the show ran before going to Broadway.
Subsequent North American productions
The Vancouver Playhouse Theatre Company mounted an independent production of The Drowsy Chaperone directed by Max Reimer, musical-directed by Lloyd Nicholson and choreographed by Dayna Tekatch in Vancouver, British Columbia. It opened 27 November 2008 and ran until 27 December 2008. The cast of this version included Jay Brazeau, Thom Allison, Debbie Timuss, Laird Mackintosh, Gabrielle Jones, Neil Minor, Shawn Macdonald, Mark Burgess, Nathalie Marable, Nora McLellan and David Marr.
In co-production with Canada's National Arts Centre English Theatre, the Vancouver Playhouse Theatre Company's production of The Drowsy Chaperone directed by Max Reimer played on the Shoctor stage of the Citadel Theatre in Edmonton, Alberta, opening on 5 September and closing on 4 October (2009) and thereafter played at the National Arts Centre though 1 November 2009; however, musical director Lloyd Nicholson died of a heart attack on the eve of the first performance in Ottawa, causing the production's run in that city to be truncated slightly as a couple of early performances were cancelled.
The Drowsy Chaperone ran 30 June – 11 July 2015 at the Cape Playhouse in Dennis, Massachusetts with Jo Anne Worley reprising her Broadway role of Mrs. Tottendale: the cast also included Simon Jones as the Man in the chair and Bill Nolte as Feldzieg. The review of this production posted 12 July 2015 at BroadwayWorld.com stated "The Drowsy Chaperone is one of those shows that is inherently comical in its nature: it is literally laugh-out-loud funny, portraying the lives and actions of each of its characters as almost too absurd to be believed....The Drowsy Chaperone is really a beautiful show that is saturated with singing, dancing, some very odd characters and an almost too-simple plot that makes this show awesome."
International productions
The first translated production of the musical opened in Japan on 5 January 2009.
The Australian production, staged by the Melbourne Theatre Company, opened for a limited engagement in Melbourne on 21 January 2010. Prominent Australian actor Geoffrey Rush played Man in chair. The production was announced to run through 20 February, but due to impressively high demand for tickets when they were first made available, the producers arranged for it to continue through 27 February.
Ovation Productions and Alex Segal presented a production at Upstairs at the Gatehouse directed by Racky Plews, musical supervisor Michael England, choreographed by Fabian Aloise. 23 September – 31 October 2010.
The Drowsy Chaperone was first translated to Portuguese in 2013, and performed from 17 August 2013 to 29 June 2014 in São Paulo city. In the cast there were popular Brazilian musical actors such as Ivan Parente, Sara Sarres, Stella Miranda, Saulo Vasconcelos, Kiara Sasso and Andrezza Massei. It was staged on Teatro Popular do SESI, and it was the first time a musical show had free tickets, due to sponsorship.
Synopsis
Act I
Man in chair, a mousy, agoraphobic Broadway fanatic, seeking to cure his "non-specific sadness", listens to a recording of the fictional 1928 musical comedy, The Drowsy Chaperone. As he listens to this rare recording, the characters appear in his dingy apartment, and it is transformed into an impressive Broadway set with seashell footlights, sparkling furniture, painted backdrops, and glitzy costumes. Man in chair provides a running commentary throughout the show from the stage, though he is on the audience side of the fourth wall, invisible to the players.
In the opening number, "Fancy Dress", the premise and characters of the show are introduced: it's the day of the wedding of oil tycoon Robert Martin and Broadway star Janet Van De Graaff, who plans to give up her career for married life. Those in attendance include aging hostess Mrs. Tottendale; her loyal employee known only as Underling; Robert's best man, George; Broadway producer Feldzieg, who is hoping to persuade Janet to forgo marriage and continue starring in Feldzieg's Follies; ditzy flapper Kitty, who hopes to take Janet's place in the Follies; two gangsters disguised as pastry chefs; self-proclaimed famed Latin lover Aldolpho; Janet's alcoholic Chaperone, who is supposed to keep her away from Robert until the wedding; and Trix, an aviatrix.
The gangsters reveal to Feldzieg that their boss has invested in the Follies and wants to make sure the show is a financial success, which it presumably will not be without Janet. They tell Feldzieg that he must sabotage the wedding and make sure Janet stays in show business. Feldzieg enlists the vain, easily manipulated Aldolpho to seduce Janet and spoil her relationship with Robert. Meanwhile, in his room, Robert realizes that he is nervous about the wedding. To get rid of his "Cold Feets", he tap dances, and George, who is also nervous, joins in the dance. George notes that tap dancing could be injurious, so he suggests that Robert go roller skating in the garden instead, while wearing a blindfold to keep him from seeing Janet. Outside by the pool, Janet tells reporters that she is happy to be getting married and ostensibly doesn't want to be an actress anymore ("Show Off"), but her song evolves into a big production number.
In Janet's room, Janet is having doubts about whether Robert really loves her, and she asks the Chaperone for advice. The Chaperone responds with the extemporaneous "As We Stumble Along", a "rousing anthem to alcoholism", which, Man in chair explains, the original actress playing the Chaperone insisted on including in the show. More helpfully, the chaperone tells Janet that she is feeling "drowsy" and must take a nap, giving Janet the opportunity to ask Robert if he loves her. Janet leaves for the garden, and Aldolpho enters, mistaking the Chaperone for Janet. The Chaperone happily pretends to be Janet and allows Aldolpho to "seduce" her ("I Am Aldolpho"). Janet meets the blindfolded and roller-skating Robert in the garden, and she pretends to be a French woman, "Mimi," "from ze middle part [of France], where zey make ze toast." She asks Robert how he met his bride, and he describes their lovestruck first meeting ("Accident Waiting to Happen"). Carried away by his emotions, Robert kisses "Mimi" because she seems just like Janet. Janet furiously storms off because Robert has "kissed a strange French girl".
Kitty, hoping to take Janet's place in the Follies, tries to demonstrate her mind-reading talents to Feldzieg, but he is unimpressed. The gangsters confront Feldzieg, threatening him with a murderous "Toledo Surprise" because he has not yet succeeded in cancelling the wedding. Feldzieg distracts them by insisting that they actually have singing and dancing talent, and they turn "Toledo Surprise" into an upbeat dance number. Aldolpho, with the Chaperone on his arm, announces that he has seduced the bride and the wedding is therefore cancelled, but Feldzieg angrily tells him he has seduced the wrong woman. Janet announces that she is cancelling the wedding, and Robert protests in vain that he only kissed "Mimi" because she reminded him of Janet ("Toledo Surprise").
Man in chair announces that this is the end of the first act and the first record of the two-record set.
Act II
Man in chair puts on another record, saying that the audience can listen to the opening of the second act of The Drowsy Chaperone, and leaves for the restroom. A scene set in an oriental palace appears onstage, with characters in stereotypical oriental costumes and the chaperone costumed as an Englishwoman in a hoopskirted dress ("Message from A Nightingale"). Man in chair hurriedly stops the record, explaining to the audience that that was the wrong record—it was the musical The Enchanted Nightingale, not the second act of The Drowsy Chaperone. He finds the right record, and The Drowsy Chaperone continues.
In a musical dream sequence, Janet laments her lost romance and decides to return to the stage ("Bride's Lament"). Mrs. Tottendale tells Underling that the wedding will proceed as planned because "Love is Always Lovely" in the end. She reveals to Underling that she is in love with him ("Love is Always Lovely in the End"). The Chaperone announces that there will be a wedding after all: she and Aldolpho are getting married (which Aldolpho helplessly protests). Mrs. Tottendale announces that she and Underling are getting married as well.
Robert tells Janet that he loves her, and Man in chair announces that one of his favorite parts is coming up. The chaperone gives Janet advice on what to do as Aldolpho drops his cane and the Chaperone says "l-ve while you can," leaving out the middle syllable of the word. Man in chair has an emotional monologue where he expresses his wonderment about the phrase, asking if it says "live while you can," or "leave while you can." He shares a brief backstory about his unsuccessful marriage and about how you should never leave, only live. The scene transforms back to Janet where she admits that she was really the French girl and agrees to marry him. To appease the gangsters, Feldzieg tells them that he has discovered a new star: Kitty. He asks her to demonstrate her mind-reading talent, and when she "reads Feldzieg's mind", she announces that he is asking her to marry him.
George, now best man for all four weddings, realizes that he has failed at his most important task: finding a minister. Trix lands her plane in the garden, announcing she is about to depart for Rio. Because a captain on board a ship can perform marriages, everyone rationalizes that Trix, as a pilot, can perform marriages on board a plane, and she can fly them all to Rio for their honeymoons ("I Do, I Do in the Sky").
As the record is about to play the show's final chord, the power goes out in Man in chair's apartment, and a superintendent arrives to check the circuit breakers. The power returns, the final chord plays, and the show is over. Alone again, Man in chair sadly expresses his deep love for a musical that he has never actually seen. He begins to sing "As We Stumble Along" and the cast members, for the first time, acknowledge his presence, join in, and cheer him on ("As We Stumble Along (Reprise)").
Musical numbers
Overture – Orchestra
Fancy Dress –Tottendale, Underling, Company
Cold Feets – Robert, George
Show Off – Janet, Company
As We Stumble Along – Drowsy Chaperone, Ensemble
I Am Aldolpho – Aldolpho, Drowsy Chaperone
Accident Waiting To Happen – Robert, Janet
Toledo Surprise – Gangsters, Feldzieg, Kitty, Mrs. Tottendale, and Company
Message From A Nightingale – Kitty, Gangsters, Aldolpho, Drowsy Chaperone
Bride's Lament – Janet, Company
Love Is Always Lovely in the End – Mrs. Tottendale, Underling
I Do, I Do in the Sky – Trix, Company
As We Stumble Along (Reprise) – Company
The original cast recording contains two bonus tracks titled, "I Remember Love," which is a duet between Mrs. Tottendale and Underling, and "Message From A Nightingale", which is the unabridged version of a portion of a song that is cut short in the show. "I Remember Love" also contains a ukulele solo by Ukulele Lil as Mrs. Tottendale. It was replaced by "Love is Always Lovely in the End."
Cast recording
A one-disc compact disc by the original Broadway cast was released in 2006.
Principal roles and casting
Notable replacements (Broadway)
Jo Anne Worley and Cindy Williams as Mrs. Tottendale
Mara Davi as Janet van de Graaff
Peter Bartlett as Underling
Jonathan Crombie, Bob Saget, and John Glover as Man in Chair
Notable replacement (London)
Steve Pemberton replaced Bob Martin in the role of Man in chair from 10 July until the production closed on 4 August.
Notable replacement (North American Tour)
Jonathan Crombie as Man in Chair (Crombie replaced Martin after the tour's launch in Martin's hometown Toronto)
Show-within-a-show structure
The concept that the audience is listening to the musical on an old LP record is used throughout the show. As he listens to the show, Man in chair is torn between his desire to absorb every moment of the show as it unfolds and his need to insert his personal footnotes and his extensive-but-trivial knowledge of musical performances and actors, as he flamboyantly brings the audience in and out of the fantasy. As the show goes on, more of his personal life is revealed through his musings about the show, until, as the record ends, he is alone– but still with his record of a long-beloved show to turn to whenever he's depressed.
At one point, the record skips, which causes the last notes (and dance steps) of a song to be repeated until the Man in chair bumps the turntable. A "power outage" near the end causes the stage to go dark in the middle of the big production number. Despite the show-within-the-show being a two-act musical, The Drowsy Chaperone is played without an intermission; at the end of the "show"'s first act, the Man in chair observes that there would be an intermission "if we were sitting in the Morosco Theatre, watching The Drowsy Chaperone. Which we're not." (In the original Broadway production, he added, "They tore it down and put up a hotel," an in-joke reference to the fact that the show was playing in the Marquis Theatre, part of the Marriott Marquis complex built on the spot where the Morosco stood). His monologue at the musical's intermission point ends when he changes records (ostensibly preparing the turntable to play the musical's second act), then leaves the stage "to use the bathroom". The new record is actually the second act of a different musical by the same composer and librettist, starring many of the same actors. Message from a Nightingale is performed in costumes evoking Imperial China, with the performers displaying clichéd Chinese accents and mannerisms. The Man in chair returns to the stage and replaces the record with the correct one for Act II of The Drowsy Chaperone.
Parodies of musical comedy
The plot incorporates mistaken identities, dream sequences, spit takes, a deus ex machina, an unflappable English butler, an absent-minded dowager, a Broadway impresario and his Follies production, comic gangsters, a ditzy chorine, a harried best man, and Janet's "Drowsy" (i.e. "tipsy") Chaperone, played in the show-within-a-show by a blowzy Grande Dame of the Stage, specializing in "rousing anthems" and not above upstaging the occasional co-star.
Awards and nominations
Original Broadway production
Original London production
Film adaptation
On 2 June 2014, director Fred Schepisi was hired to direct a film adaptation.
References
External links
Drowsy closes early in the capital – Society of London Theatre, 9 July 2007
The Drowsy Chaperone at the Music Theatre International website
Bob Martin – Downstage Center interview at American Theatre Wing.org, June 2006
Study guide from TUTS
2006 musicals
Broadway musicals
Musicals set in the Roaring Twenties
West End musicals
Original musicals
Theatre in Toronto
One-act musicals
Black comedy plays
Canadian musicals
Tony Award-winning musicals |
4336650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1925%20in%20baseball | 1925 in baseball |
Champions
World Series: Pittsburgh Pirates over Washington Senators (4-3)
Negro World Series: Hilldale Daisies over Kansas City Monarchs (5-1)
Awards and honors
League Award
Roger Peckinpaugh, Washington Senators, SS
Rogers Hornsby, St. Louis Cardinals, 2B
MLB statistical leaders
Major league baseball final standings
American League final standings
National League final standings
Negro leagues final standings
Negro National League final standings
This was the sixth season of the first Negro National League. This was the first season in which a playoff was held to determine the pennant, for which the first half leader would be matched against the second half winner. Kansas City won the first half while St. Louis won the second half. As such, they met for a best-of-seven Championship Series. Kansas City would win the series in seven games to win their first pennant.
Eastern Colored League final standings
This was the third of six seasons for the Eastern Colored League. According to the Center for Negro League Baseball Research, it was common practice for the teams in the league to all play a different number of games during the season. The Wilmington Potomacs dropped out of the league in July 1925. Hilldale Club faced the Kansas City Monarchs in the second overall Colored World Series.
Events
April 14
On opening day, there is a slugfest in St. Louis as the Browns and visiting Cleveland Indians put up a combined 35 runs. Cleveland puts up twelve in the eighth, and wins 21-14.
Hall of Famer Lefty Grove is the opening day starter for the Philadelphia Athletics. He lasts 3.2 innings, and gives up five runs (four earned) in his major league debut. Fellow Hall of Famer Mickey Cochrane also makes his major league debut, and is one-for-two as the A's defeat the Boston Red Sox, 9-8 in ten innings.
April 21 - The National League cancels the entire slate of games due to the death of Brooklyn Dodgers owner Charles Ebbets three days prior from a heart attack. Edward McKeever assumes the title of president of the club. However, McKeever's tenure is short lived, as he dies eight days later from influenza.
May 1 – Jimmie Foxx hits a double in his first major league at-bat. His Athletics lose 9-4 to the Washington Senators.
May 5
Detroit Tigers player/manager Ty Cobb hits three home runs, a double and two singles, to lead his team to a 14–8 victory against the St. Louis Browns at Sportsman's Park.
Everett Scott's record streak of 1‚307 consecutive games played comes to an end as he is replaced by rookie Pee-Wee Wanninger at shortstop in the 6–2 loss to the Philadelphia Athletics. His mark will be broken by Lou Gehrig on August 17, .
May 7 – Pittsburgh Pirates shortstop Glenn Wright turns the fifth unassisted triple play in Major League history in the ninth inning of a 10-9 loss to the St. Louis Cardinals.
May 17 – The Cleveland Indians' Tris Speaker gets his 3,000th hit, off Tom Zachary, in a 2-1 loss to the Washington Senators.
June 1 – Lou Gehrig pinch hits for Pee-Wee Wanninger, beginning a 2,130 consecutive game streak.
June 2 – After losing five in a row, New York Yankees manager Miller Huggins "shakes up" the slumping lineup by replacing first baseman Wally Pipp in the starting lineup with Lou Gehrig, and second baseman Aaron Ward with utility infielder Howie Shanks. The strategy works as Gehrig goes three-for-five with a run scored, and Shanks goes one-for-four with a run scored in the Yankees' 8-5 victory over the Washington Senators. Pipp only logs seventeen more plate appearances for the rest of the season, and is sold to the Cincinnati Reds for $7,500 following the season.
June 6 – Eddie Collins of the Chicago White Sox records his 3000th career hit.
July 23 – Yankees first baseman Lou Gehrig hits the first of his major league record 23 grand slams to beat Firpo Marberry and the Senators, 11–7.
August 6 – Three American League teams put up ten runs, as the Chicago White Sox defeat the Boston Red Sox 10-0, the New York Yankees defeat the Detroit Tigers 10-4 and the Washington Senators defeat the St. Louis Browns 10-3.
August 25 – Boston Red Sox catcher Al Stokes finishes an unusual double play, tagging Detroit Tigers base runners Johnny Bassler and Fred Haney as they both simultaneously slide into home plate.
August 27 – The St. Louis Browns' Bullet Joe Bush one hits the Washington Senators to complete a three-game sweep of the first place team.
August 30 – After being swept by the St. Louis Browns at Sportsman's Park, the Washington Senators come back and sweep the Chicago White Sox at Comiskey Park. They sweep the second place Philadelphia Athletics on September 1 & 2 to build a 5.5 game lead, and coast the remainder of the way to their second consecutive American League championship.
September 13 – Dazzy Vance pitches a no-hitter for the Brooklyn Robins in a 10-1 win over the Philadelphia Phillies.
September 27 – 1925 National League Most Valuable Player Rogers Hornsby goes three-for-three to raise his batting average to .403. The Cardinals, however, lose 7-6 to the Boston Braves. With the Cards 19 games back of first place, Hornsby sits out the remaining four games on his team's schedule to secure a .400 average for the third time in his career.
September 28 – The Washington Senators are guests of President Calvin Coolidge at the White House, becoming the first reigning World Series champions to visit the White House.
October 2
Leo Durocher makes his major league debut in the Yankees' 10-0 loss to the Philadelphia Athletics.
Replacing Rogers Hornsby at second base in the St. Louis Cardinals' line-up, Specs Toporcer is the hitting star of the Cardinals' 4-3 victory over the Chicago Cubs with a home run, double and two runs scored. Toporcer goes eight-for-eighteen filling in for Hornsby in the final four games on the Cardinals' schedule.
October 4 – Ty Cobb pitches a 1-2-3 ninth inning in the Detroit Tigers' 11-6 victory over the St. Louis Browns.
October 7 – Walter Johnson's pitching leads the Washington Senators to a 4-1 victory over the Pittsburgh Pirates in game one of the 1925 World Series. Senators shortstop Roger Peckinpaugh commits the first of a record eight errors in the series.
October 8 – Kiki Cuyler's two-run home run in the eighth inning carriers the Pittsburgh Pirates to a 3-2 victory in the second game of the World Series.
October 10 – The Washington Senators come from behind to take game three of the World Series.
October 11 – Walter Johnson wins his second game of the 1925 World Series, holding the Pirates to six hits, and no runs.
October 12 – The Pirates take game five of the World Series, 6-3. Clyde Barnhart is the hitting star of the game, going two-for-four with two RBIs and a run scored.
October 13 – Eddie Moore leads the fifth inning off with a home run to break a 2-2 tie as the Pirates even the World Series at three games apiece.
October 15 – Walter Johnson again took the mound for Game seven, and carried a 6–4 lead into the bottom of the seventh inning, but errors by 1925 American League Most Valuable Player Roger Peckinpaugh in the seventh and eighth innings lead to four unearned runs, and the Pittsburgh Pirates defeat the Washington Senators, 9-7. The Pirates become the first team in a best-of-seven Series to overcome a 3–1 Series deficit to win the World Championship.
October 21 – Marv Goodwin, a former pitcher for the Washington Senators and St. Louis Cardinals who joined the Cincinnati Reds at the end of the season, is killed in a plane he was piloting. Goodwin was one of the original spitballers whose method for getting batters out was grandfathered when that pitch was deemed illegal. At age 34, Goodwin becomes the first active Major League player to die from injuries sustained in an airplane crash.
Births
January
January 4 – Tom Gorman
January 7 – Gene Collins
January 12 – Ed Stevens
January 17 – Hank Schmulbach
January 19 – Alice Hohlmayer
January 19 – Marilyn Jones
January 22 – Johnny Bucha
January 22 – Bobby Young
January 24 – Meryle Fitzgerald
January 30 – Brooks Lawrence
February
February 2 – Joe Szekely
February 3 – Harry Byrd
February 5 – Jack Maguire
February 8 – Milt Nielsen
February 9 – Vic Wertz
February 11 – Sara Reeser
February 13 – Mike Palm
February 14 – Buddy Lively
February 18 – Joe Lutz
February 19 – Takumi Otomo
February 22 – Bob Wilson
March
March 1 – Bob Usher
March 3 – George Eyrich
March 5 – Mary Rini
March 10 – Lou Limmer
March 10 – Amy Shuman
March 13 – Ray Martin
March 18 – Fred Hatfield
March 20 – Al Widmar
March 21 – Phil Pepe
March 24 – Dick Kryhoski
April
April 6 – Hal Schacker
April 10 – Pete Milne
April 11 – Bob Spicer
April 16 – Alton Brown
April 23 – Buddy Peterson
April 24 – Theda Marshall
April 28 – Clarence Marshall
April 30 – Marie Wegman
May
May 1 – Anna Mae Hutchison
May 2 – Ralph Brickner
May 5 – Bob Cerv
May 5 – Johnny Rutherford
May 12 – Yogi Berra
May 14 – Sophie Kurys
May 14 – Les Moss
May 20 – Lee Griffeth
May 21 – Margaret Wenzell
May 25 – Don Liddle
May 31 – Colleen Smith
June
June 2 – Hazel Measner
June 4 – Dick Aylward
June 8 – Del Ennis
June 8 – Eddie Gaedel
June 9 – Jim Pearce
June 11 – Al Smith
June 14 – Fenton Mole
June 15 – Gene Baker
June 20 – Clem Koshorek
June 24 – Jack Banta
June 24 – Wally Yonamine
June 27 – Wayne Terwilliger
June 29 – Bill Connelly
June 29 – Nippy Jones
July
July 2 – Isaiah Harris
July 15 – Bob Wellman
July 18 – Windy McCall
July 21 – Earl Mossor
July 22 – Elise Harney
July 26 – Jackie Mayo
July 26 – Emily Stevenson
July 30 – Bill Glynn
July 30 – Bill Moisan
July 31 – Harry Malmberg
August
August 1 – Bobby Balcena
August 3 – Dave Hoskins
August 5 – Tony Jacobs
August 5 – Ruth Born
August 15 – Ruth Lessing
August 16 – Willie Jones
August 20 – Larry Miggins
August 25 – Earle Brucker
August 26 – Billy DeMars
August 28 – Johnny Pramesa
August 30 – George Wilson
August 31 – Paul Hinrichs
August 31 – Pete Vonachen
September
September 8 – Mary Carey
September 9 – Dorothy Christ
September 12 – Stan Lopata
September 13 – Frank Cashen
September 17 – Shigeru Sugishita
September 18 – Harvey Haddix
September 24 – Wally Hood
September 26 – Bobby Shantz
September 28 – Fredda Acker
September 28 – Vince Gonzales
September 28 – Bill Jennings
September 28 – Carolyn Morris
September 29 – Tom Hamilton
October
October 3 – Chris Haughey
October 5 – Bobby Hofman
October 7 – Mildred Earp
October 9 – Tommy Giordano
October 18 – Joyce Barnes
October 20 – Chuck Brayton
October 21 – Valmy Thomas
October 25 – Roy Hartsfield
October 26 – Lee Surkowski
October 28 – Luis Márquez
November
November 3 – Irene Kerwin
November 4 – Spook Jacobs
November 6 – Bob Addis
November 9 – Bill Bruton
November 10 – Hank Ruszkowski
November 13 – Jim Delsing
November 13 – Betty Whiting
November 17 – Jean Faut
November 18 – Gene Mauch
November 19 – Chuck Comiskey
November 21 – Lillian DeCambra
November 29 – Minnie Miñoso
December
December 1 – Niles Jordan
December 1 – Cal McLish
December 3 – Harry Simpson
December 4 – Ted Toles Jr.
December 6 – Rance Pless
December 8 – Hank Thompson
December 11 – Dick Hoover
December 14 – Toothpick Sam Jones
December 19 – Loretta Dwojak
December 21 – Dorothy Kamenshek
December 21 – Kent Peterson
December 21 – Bob Rush
December 23 – Ed Blake
December 25 – Ned Garver
December 25 – Dorothy Mueller
December 26 – Lucille Stone
December 29 – Joyce Hill
December 31 – Dorothy Kovalchick
Deaths
January–February
January 1 – Hank Simon, 62, outfielder for the Cleveland Blues, Brooklyn Gladiators and Syracuse Stars of the American Association between the 1887 and 1890 seasons.
January 16 – George Bignell, 66, backup catcher for the 1884 Milwaukee Brewers of the Union Association.
January 25 – Cy Bowen, 63, pitcher for the 1896 New York Giants of the National League.
January 25 – John B. Day, 77, first owner (1883 to 1892) of the New York Giants; later, field manager of the Giants for the first 66 games of the 1899 season.
February 15 – Duke Farrell, 58, durable catcher who caught 1565 games from 1888 to 1905 while playing with seven different teams, particularly for the 1903 Boston Americans, the champion team in the first World Series ever played, and also a four-time .300 hitter who led the American Association in home runs and runs batted in 1891.
February 18 – Charlie Dougherty, 63, infielder/outfielder for the 1884 Altoona Mountain City of the Union Association.
February 20 – John Mansell, 66, outfielder for the 1882 Philadelphia Athletics of the American Association.
March–April
March 4 – John Montgomery Ward, 65, Hall of Fame pitcher who posted 164-102 record and a 2.10 earned run average in 293 games, including 47 wins for 1879 champion Providence Grays and a perfect game in 1880. He then became a shortstop, batting over .325 three times, to become the fifth player to reach the 2000 hit club. In addition, he organized the first players' union in 1888, and formed the Players' League in 1890.
March 21 – Harry Raymond, 63, infielder who played with the Louisville Colonels of the American Association (1888–1891) and for the Pittsburgh Pirates and Washington Senators of the National League (1892).
March 23 – Tom Evers, 72, second baseman for the 1882 Baltimore Orioles of the American Association and the 1884 Washington Nationals of the Union Association.
April 18 – Charles Ebbets, 65, owner of Brooklyn's National League franchise since 1897 and the builder and namesake of Ebbets Field.
April 19 – Suter Sullivan, 52, infielder/outfielder who played from 1898 to 1899 for the Cleveland Spiders and Baltimore Orioles of the National League.
April 23 – Ad Gumbert, 56, pitcher who collected a 123-102 record for the Chicago Cubs, Boston Reds, Pittsburgh Pirates and Philadelphia Phillies from 1888 through 1896.
April 27 – Fred Crane, 84, first baseman for the Elizabeth Resolutes (1873) and the Brooklyn Atlantics (1875) of the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players.
April 29 – Ed McKeever, 66, co-owner of Brooklyn Robins since 1912 who succeeded Charles Ebbets as team president, but died from influenza only 11 days after Ebbets.
May–June
May 9 – Ed Beatin, 58, National League pitcher for the Detroit Wolverines and Cleveland Spiders from 1887 to 1891, and a member of the 1887 champion Wolverines.
May 10 – Tod Brynan, 61, National League pitcher/left fielder for the Chicago White Stockings (1888) and the Boston Beaneaters (1891).
May 31 – Harry Deane, 79, National Association outfielder for the Fort Wayne Kekiongas (1871) and the Baltimore Canaries (1874), who also managed briefly the Fort Wayne team.
June 5 – Sam Trott, 66, National League catcher for the Boston Red Caps, Detroit Wolverines and Baltimore Orioles, who later managed the Washington Statesmen in 1891.
June 26 – Sam Crane, 71, 19th century second baseman in seven seasons for the New York Metropolitans, Cincinnati Outlaw Reds, Detroit Wolverines, St. Louis Maroons, New York Giants and Pittsburgh Alleghenys, who also managed and later went on to a long career as a sportswriter.
July–August
July 4 – George Derby, 87, pitcher for the Detroit Wolverines (1881–1882) and Buffalo Bisons (1885) of the National League, who led the circuit for the most strikeouts in 1881.
August 2 – Patrick T. Powers, 63, founder of the minor leagues' governing body and its first president from 1901 to 1909.
August 13 – Arthur Soden, 82, American Civil War veteran and owner or co-owner of the National League's Boston Red Stockings/Red Caps/Beaneaters franchise from 1876 to 1906, who also served as NL president in 1882; under his ownership, Boston won seven NL pennants between 1876 and 1898.
August 14 – Asa Stratton, 72, shortstop who played for the 1881 Worcester Ruby Legs.
September–October
September 5 – Emil Huhn, 33, first baseman and catcher for the Federal League's Newark Pepper (1915) and the National League's Cincinnati Reds (1916–1917).
September 11 – Pat Duff, 50, pinch-hitter for the 1906 Washington Senators of the American League.
September 21 – Charlie Irwin, 56, third baseman who played from 1893 through 1902 for the Chicago Colts, Cincinnati Reds and Brooklyn Superbas of the National League.
September 22 – Dave Beadle, 61, catcher/outfielder for the 1884 Detroit Wolverines of the National League.
October 7 – Christy Mathewson, 45, Hall of Fame pitcher for the New York Giants, whose 373 victories and a 2.13 earned run average included two no-hitters and thirteen 20-win seasons. Notably, Mathewson reached 30 wins four times and posted an ERA under 2.00 five times, including a National League record of 37 wins in 1908, while leading the circuit in ERA and strikeouts five times each; in wins and shutouts four times, setting league's career records for wins, strikeouts, games and shutout. Other of his highlights includes having pitched three shutouts in a six-day span to lead the Giants to the 1905 World Series title.
October 19 – Jack Carney, 58, National League first baseman for the Washington Nationals, Buffalo Bisons and Cleveland Infants from 1889 to 1890.
October 21 – Marv Goodwin, 34, former pitcher for the Washington Senators, St. Louis Cardinals and Cincinnati Reds between 1916 and 1925, and one of the original spitballers who was grandfathered when that pitch was deemed illegal.
October 28 – Willy Wilson, 41, pitcher for the 1906 Washington Senators of the American League.
November–December
November 1 – Roy Clark, 51, backup outfielder for the 1902 New York Giants of the National League.
November 1 – Billy Serad, 62, National League pitcher who played between 1884 and 1888 with the Buffalo Bisons and Cincinnati Red Stockings.
November 3 – Sam Frock, 42, National League pitcher for the Boston Doves/Rustlers and Pittsburgh Pirates between 1907 and 1911.
November 6 – Harvey McClellan, 30, backup infielder for the Chicago White Sox from 1919 to 1924.
November 7 – Sam Kimber, 73, pitcher for the 1884 Brooklyn Atlantics and the 1885 Providence Grays of the National League, who hurled a no-hitter in his first season.
November 9 – Ralph Frary, 49, saloon-keeper and ex-minor league player who umpired 17 National League games during the 1911 season.
November 20 – Walter Coleman, 52, pitcher for the 1895 St. Louis Cardinals.
November 23 – Henry Lynch, 59, outfielder for the 1893 Chicago Colts of the National League.
November 23 – Guerdon Whiteley, 66, backup outfielder for the Cleveland Blues (1884) and the Boston Beaneaters (1885) of the National League.
December 19 – Corty Maxwell, 74, National Association umpire during the 1875 season.
December 31 – Denny Sullivan, 67, third baseman for the Providence Grays 1879 National League champions and the 1880 Boston Red Caps.
References |
4336860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Buck%20Rogers%20comic%20strips | List of Buck Rogers comic strips | Listing of the publication history for the Buck Rogers comic strip.
The history of the Buck Rogers comic strip is a complicated one. The early strips were numbered rather than dated, and every so often the numbering was restarted, creating a new strip numbering "series". To add to the complexity, different newspapers ran the strips on different days – sometimes several months apart from each other. Below is a very detailed story guide to all of the Buck Rogers comics strips, complete with story titles, dates, strips numbers (where applicable), artist/writer information and a large number of detailed notes addressing the "eccentricities" of the strip.
Original series daily comic strip stories
D001 – "Meeting the Mongols" (1/7/29 to 7/5/29) (Series I, Strips 1 to 155) (A), (B)
D002 – "Capturing the Mongol Emperor" (7/6/29 to 10/9/29) (Series I, Strips 156 to 237) (C)
D003 – "Pact of Perpetual Peace" (10/10/29 to 11/26/29) (Series I, Strips 238 to 278)
D004 – "Defeat of the Mongol Rebels" (11/27/29 to 1/21/30) (Series I, Strips 279 to 326)
D005 – "Tiger Men of Mars" (1/22/30 to 5/21/30) (Series I, Strips 327 to 429) - First space story.
D006 – "Land of the Golden People" (5/22/30 to 8/23/30) (Series I, Strips 430 to 510)
D007 – "Synthetic Gold Plot" (8/25/30 to 11/15/30) (Series I, Strips 511 to 582)
D008 – "In the City Below the Sea" (11/17/30 to 5/11/31) (Series I, Strips 583 to 733)
D009 – "Mystery of the Atlantian Gold Ships" (5/12/31 to 8/15/31) (Series I, Strips 734 to 816)
D010 – "On the Planetoid Eros" (8/17/31 to 12/2/31) (Series I, Strips 817 to 909)
D011 – "On the Moons of Saturn" (12/3/31 to 5/14/32) (Series I, Strips 910 to 1050)
D012 – "Beneath the Greenland Ice Sheet" (5/16/32 to 8/29/32) (Series I, Strips 1051 to 1141)
D013 – "Asterite Invaders" (8/30/32 to 2/24/33) (Series I, Strips 1142 to 1295)
D014 – "The Great Wolves of Jupiter" (2/25/33 to 6/22/33) (Series I, Strips 1296 to 1396)
D015 – "In the City of Floating Globes" (6/23/33 to 9/1/33) (Series I, Strips 1397 to 1457)
D016 – "Depth Men of Jupiter" (9/2/33 to 11/8/33) (Series I, Strips 1458 to 1515)
D017 – "Tika of the Tidegates" (11/9/33 to 1/20/34) (Series I, Strips 1516 to 1578)
D018 – "Doom Comet" (1/22/34 to 5/5/34) (Series II, Strips 1 to 90)
D019 – "Rebuilding the World" (5/7/34 to 9/1/34) (Series II, Strips 91 to 192)
D020 – "Planetoid Plot" (9/3/34 to 2/19/35) (Series II, Strips 193 to 338)
D021 – "Rescue of King Innaldo" (2/20/35 to 5/11/35) (Series II, Strips 339 to 408)
D022 – "Prisoners on Uranus" (5/13/35 to 12/16/35) (Series II, Strips 409 to 595) (D)
D023 – "Liquid Light" (12/17/35 to 2/19/36) (Series II, Strips 596 to 651) (E), (F)
D024 – "Mummies of Ceres" (2/20/36 to 4/15/36) (Series II, Strips 652 to 698)
D025 – "Palladian Space Pirates" (4/16/36 to 12/4/36) (Series II, Strips 699 to 899) (1)
D026 – "Princess Elthana of Venus Visits Earth" (12/5/36 to 3/20/37) (Series II, Strips 900 to 990)
D027 – "Interplanetary War With Venus" (3/22/37 to 11/13/37) (Series III, Strips 1 to 204)
D028 – "Wokkie and the Novans" (11/15/37 to 4/8/38) (Series III, Strips 205 to 329)
D029 – "The Fiend of Space" (4/9/38 to 8/19/38) (Series III, Strips 330 to 443)
D030 – "Overturned World" (8/20/38 to 12/2/38) (Series III, Strips 444 to 533)
D031 – "Martian War Threat" (12/3/38 to 7/31/39) (Series III, Strips 534 to 739)
D032 – "The Super-Dwarf of Space" (8/1/39 to 3/23/40) (Series III, Strips 740 to 774; Series IV, Strips 1 to 168)
D033 – "Forgotten Earth Colony" (3/25/40 to 6/20/40) (Series IV, Strips 169 to 180; Series V, Strips 1 to 64)
D034 – "Thrown Back 500 Years" (6/21/40 to 3/24/41) (Series V, Strips 65 to 301) (G)
D035 – "Goddess of Stygia" (3/25/41 to 10/11/41) (Series V, Strips 302 to 474) (H)
D036 – "Martians Invade Jupiter" (10/13/41 to 2/6/43) (Series VI, Strips 1 to 414) (2)
D037 – "Mechanical Bloodhound" (2/8/43 to 7/10/43) (Series VI, Strips 415 to 546)
D038 – "Monkeymen of Planet X" (7/12/43 to 1/29/44) (Series VII, Strips 1 to 180) (I)
D039 – "Hollow Planetoid" (1/31/44 to 7/22/44) (Series VIII, Strips 1 to 150)
D040 – "Plastic Percy" (7/24/44 to 12/2/44) (Series VIII, Strips 151 to 264)
D041 – "Planets, Incorporated" (12/4/44 to 2/24/45) (Series VIII, Strips 265 to 336) (J)
D042 – "Explosive Light" (2/26/45 to 6/19/45) (Series IX, Strips 1 to 98)
D043 – "Time Retracto Swindle" (6/20/45 to 10/13/45) (Series IX, Strips 99 to 102; Series X, Strips 1 to 96)
D044 – "Brain Ray Threat" (10/15/45 to 5/6/46) (Series XI, Strips 1 to 102; Series XII, Strips 1 to 73)
D045 – "Kane's Double vs. the Atomites" (5/7/46 to 2/1/47) (Series XII, Strips 73-A/74 to 192) (K), (L)
D046 – "Wanted For Murder" (2/3/47 to 12/27/47)
D047 – "Dr. Modar of Saturn" (12/29/47 to 12/10/48) (M)
D048 – "Lost Planet of Thor" (12/11/48 to 8/25/49) (N), (O)
D049 – "Vulcan Trouble-Shooter" (8/26/49 to 1/13/51) (P), (Q), (R), (3)
D050 – "Capsule-Men" (1/15/51 to 7/3/51)
D051 – "Asteroid "Z"" (7/4/51 to 10/20/51)
D052 – "Stolen Space Fortress" (10/22/51 to 1/8/52) (S)
D053 – "Operation Survival" (1/9/52 to 9/16/52) (4)
D054 – "Operation Vanish" (9/17/52 to 2/12/53)
D055 – "Octopus of Space" (2/13/53 to 6/2/53)
D056 – "Dogfight on the Moon" (6/3/53 to 9/19/53)
D057 – "Rocketship Graveyard" (9/21/53 to 2/10/54)
D058 – "Space Tide" (2/11/54 to 12/22/54) (5)
D059 – "Arctic Bubble Men" (12/23/54 to 6/28/55)
D060 – "X-Ten" (6/29/55 to 2/15/56) (6)
D061 – "Great Tog Mystery" (2/16/56 to 8/14/56)
D062 – "Black Swan's Volcano Protection" (8/15/56 to 11/2/56)
D063 – "Pleiadite War Machine" (11/3/56 to 4/17/57)
D064 – "Star of Mars" (4/18/57 to 8/6/57)
D065 – "Abduction of Princess Elthana" (8/7/57 to 10/31/57)
D066 – "Death Sphere" (11/1/57 to 1/10/58)
D067 – "Eternal Youth" (1/11/58 to 7/10/58)
D068 – "Hydro-X Bomb Threat" (7/11/58 to 9/11/58)
D069 – "Trouble at the Great Moon Fair" (9/12/58 to 12/12/58)
D070 – "Threat to the Space Mirror" (12/13/58 to 4/23/59)
D071 – "Rebels of Uras" (4/24/59 to 8/20/59) (T)
D072 – "Stolen Zero-Bomb Formula" (8/21/59 to 12/15/59)
D073 – "Greetings to Earth From Elektrum" (12/16/59 to 4/7/60)
D074 – "Revolt of the Dwarf Princess" (4/8/60 to 7/7/60)
D075 – "Caltechium Heist" (7/8/60 to 10/15/60)
D076 – "Episode on Starrock" (10/17/60 to 2/9/61)
D077 – "Miss Solar System Beauty Pageant" (2/10/61 to 5/20/61) (U)
D078 – "Mysticus Metallicus" (5/22/61 to 8/22/61)
D079 – "Defective Super Alloy" (8/23/61 to 11/30/61)
D080 – "Missing Scientists" (12/1/61 to 3/2/62)
D081 – "Poison Epidemic" (3/3/62 to 5/26/62)
D082 – "Planetary Peace Brigade" (5/28/62 to 8/24/62)
D083 – "Undersea Station" (8/25/62 to 12/13/62)
D084 – "Advertising Scheme" (12/14/62 to 2/23/63)
D085 – "Mind Reader" (2/25/63 to 5/4/63)
D086 – "Operation Crop Failure" (5/6/63 to 7/18/63) (V)
D087 – "Penal Asteroid" (7/19/63 to 9/28/63)
D088 – "Million-Dollar Crooner" (9/30/63 to 12/11/63)
D089 – "Bullet of Light" (12/12/63 to 2/19/64)
D090 – "Space Junk" (2/20/64 to 4/25/64)
D091 – "Martian Trojan Horse" (4/27/64 to 6/27/64)
D092 – "Project Baby Boy" (6/29/64 to 10/2/64)
D093 – "Venusian Jury Duty" (10/3/64 to 12/12/64)
D094 – "Blackmail Decoy" (12/14/64 to 2/18/65)
D095 – "Tactical Exercises" (2/19/65 to 5/1/65)
D096 – "Poisoned Food Shipment" (5/3/65 to 7/8/65)
D097 – "Space Gypsies" (7/9/65 to 10/1/65)
D098 – "Space Race Treachery" (10/2/65 to 12/8/65)
D099 – "False Reputation" (12/9/65 to 2/21/66)
D100 – "Broken Cease-Fire" (2/22/66 to 4/25/66)
D101 – "Fashion Pirates" (4/26/66 to 6/24/66)
D102 – "Visitors From Ophiuchus" (6/25/66 to 8/30/66)
D103 – "Reunion on Titan" (8/31/66 to 12/9/66)
D104 – "Cosmic Fever" (12/10/66 to 2/24/67)
D105 – "Underground Menace" (2/25/67 to 5/13/67)
D106 – "The Land of Goldie Silver" (5/15/67 to 7/8/67)
Notes:
General – The term "series" refers to a new numbering sequence and are differentiated using Roman numerals. The dates used for strips that contained only strip numbers (prior to 9/16/46) are the dates these strips ran in most newspapers. Some newspapers ran the strips several months behind. At different points in the strip's run "extra" individual strips or week of strips were run that ran in a limited number of papers. In some cases, entire "series" of strips were dropped by papers in order to synch up with the rest.
(A) – Of the first 17 strips, 12 have two versions and 5 have three versions. There are also two versions of at least 13 later strips and three versions of one other strip.
(B) – Strip numbers 29 and 30 have their strip numbers transposed
(C) – There was an "extra" strip between 155 and 156 that ran in some newspapers as an introductory strip to the new story
(D) – Strip number 455 was misnumbered as 355
(E) – Strip numbers 637A and 638A appear between 636 and 637
(F) – Strip numbers 641 and 642 are skipped (number 643 appears the day after number 640)
(G) – Strip numbers 229 to 234 are misumbered as 129 to 134
(H) – Strip number 383 was misnumbered as 283
(I) – Strip numbers 175 to 180 were "extra" strips that did not run in all papers
(J) – Strip numbers 292 and 293 have their numbers transposed
(K) – Strip number 73-A was an "extra" strip that ran in some newspapers as an introductory strip
(L) – Strip numbers 187 to 192 were "extra" strips that did not run in all papers
(M) – The 1/1/48 strip was a special New year's Day message (not part of the story's continuity)
(N) – The 12/25/48 strip was a special Christmas message (not part of the story's continuity)
(O) – The 1/1/49 strip was a special New year's Day message (not part of the story's continuity)
(P) – The strips from 5/22/50 to 5/27/50 were misdated one day early
(Q) – The 12/25/50 strip was a special Christmas message (not part of the story's continuity)
(R) – The 1/1/51 strip was a special New year's Day message (not part of the story's continuity)
(S) – The strips from 10/22/51 to 11/24/51 contained strip numbers (numbered from 1 to 30) rather than dates
(T) – The daily and Sunday strip began running the same storyline with this story
(U) – The daily strip once again began running the stories independent of the Sunday strip with this story
(V) – The 5/10/63 strip was misdated as 6/10/63
Five of the daily stories contained multiple sub-plots that are broken out as follows:
(1) – D025 – "Palladian Space Pirates":
Part 1 – "Escape From Ceres" (4/16/36 to 5/29/36) (Series II, Strips 700 to 737)
Part 2 – "Mission to Pallas" (5/30/36 to 9/17/36) (Series II, Strips 738 to 832)
Part 3 – "Interplanetary War" (9/18/36 to 12/4/36) (Series II, Strips 833 to 899)
(2) – D036 – "Martians Invade Jupiter":
Part 1 – "Behind Martian Lines" (10/13/41 to 11/19/42) (Series VI, Strips 1 to 346)
Part 2 – "Capture of Madwolf Hetlah" (11/20/42 to 2/6/43) (Series VI, Strips 347 to 414)
(3) – D049 – "Vulcan Trouble-Shooter":
Part 1 – "The Founding of Port Buck Rogers" (8/26/49 to 6/24/50)
Part 2 – "Invasion of the Zot Mogs" (6/26/50 to 1/13/51)
(4) – D053 – "Operation Survival":
Part 1 – "Plot to Seize Washington" (1/9/52 to 5/1/52)
Part 2 – "Mysterious Death-Cloud" (5/2/52 to 7/3/52)
Part 3 – "The Red Robes" (7/4/52 to 9/16/52)
(5) – D058 – "Space Tide":
Part 1 – "The Quadri-Thrust" (2/11/54 to 4/17/54)
Part 2 – "Maid of Mercury" (4/19/54 to 6/1/54)
Part 3 – "Black Swan and Cygnet" (6/2/54 to 12/22/54)
(6) – D060 – "X-Ten":
Part 1 – "Escape From the Amazon" (6/29/55 to 10/6/55)
Part 2 – "Baby Genius" (10/7/55 to 2/15/56)
Artist/Writer credits:
Jan 1929 to Sep 1939 – Dick Calkins (a), Philip Nowlan (w)
Sep 1939 to Nov 1947 – Dick Calkins (a); Dick Calkins (w)
Dec 1947 to Oct 1949 – Murphy Anderson (a), Bob Williams (aka Bob Barton) (w)
Oct 1949 to Jan 1951 – Leonard Dworkins (a); John F. Dille, Sr (w)
Jan 1951 to Jun 1958 – Rick Yager (a), Rick Yager (w)
Jun 1958 to Apr 1959 – Murphy Anderson (a), ??? (w)
Apr 1959 to Apr 1960 – George Tuska (a), Jack Lehti (w)
Apr 1960 to Oct 1960 – George Tuska (a), Howard Liss (w)
Oct 1960 to Feb 1961 - George Tuska (a), Fritz Leiber (w)
Feb 1961 to May 1961 – George Tuska (a), Ray Russell (w)
May 1961 to Nov 1961 – George Tuska (a), Fritz Leiber (w)
Dec 1961 to Jul 1967 – George Tuska (a), Howard Liss (w)
Art Assistants:
1929 to 1933 – Zack Mosley
1938 to 1942 – Leonard Dworkins
1951 to 1956 – Leonard Dworkins
1954 to 1955 – Dick Locher
Original series Sunday comic strip stories
S01 – "Golden Princess of Mars" (3/30/30 to 6/15/30) (Series I, Strips 1 to 12)
S02 – "Fish Men of Planet ‘X’" (6/22/30 to 9/7/30) (Series I, Strips 13 to 24)
S03 – "Mysterious Saturnian" (9/14/30 to 11/30/30) (Series I, Strips 25 to 36)
S04 – "Marooned on Venus" (12/7/30 to 7/12/31) (Series I, Strips 37 to 68)
S05 – "Land of Mystery" (7/19/31 to 10/25/31) (Series I, Strips 69 to 83)
S06 – "Prisoners of Alpha Centaurians" (11/1/31 to 1/24/32) (Series I, Strips 84 to 96)
S07 – "Attacked by Mercurians" (1/31/32 to 8/7/32) (Series I, Strips 97 to 124)
S08 – "Remaking Ancient Aster" (8/14/32 to 11/27/32) (Series I, Strips 125 to 140)
S09 – "Locket of Madness" (12/4/32 to 2/26/33) (Series I, Strips 141 to 153)
S10 – "Prophet of the Fire Demon" (3/5/33 to 5/21/33) (Series I, Strips 154 to 165)
S11 – "Enslaving the Giants" (5/28/33 to 12/10/33) (Series I, Strips 166 to 194)
S12 – "Amazons of Venus" (12/17/33 to 5/6/34) (Series I, Strips 195 to 215)
S13 – "Strange Adventures in the Spider Ship" (5/13/34 to 10/21/34) (Series I, Strips 216 to 239)
S14 – "Mekkanos of Planet Vulcan" (10/28/34 to 1/6/35) (Series I, Strips 240 to 250) (A)
S15 – "Exploring the Water Moon of Mercury" (1/13/35 to 3/17/35) (Series I, Strips 251 to 260)
S16 – "Fleeing the Long Night" (3/24/35 to 6/2/35) (Series I, Strips 261 to 271)
S17 – "Masked Sky Pirates" (6/9/35 to 12/15/35) (Series I, Strips 272 to 299)
S18 – "Menace of Mura" (12/22/35 to 8/16/36) (Series I, Strips 300 to 334)
S19 – "Invaders From a Dying World" (8/23/36 to 11/15/36) (Series I, Strips 335 to 347)
S20 – "The Mind of Minds" (11/22/36 to 1/17/37) (Series I, Strips 348 to 356)
S21 – "Wilma to the Rescue" (1/24/37 to 4/25/37) (Series I, Strips 357 to 370)
S22 – "War With Venus" (5/2/37 to 10/10/37) (Series I, Strips 371 to 394) (B)
S23 – "Mysterious New World" (10/17/37 to 6/5/38) (Series I, Strips 395 to 428)
S24 – "Secret City of Mechanical Men" (6/12/38 to 9/18/38) (Series I, Strips 429 to 443)
S25 – "Earth Shifts on Axis" (9/25/38 to 12/18/38) (Series I, Strips 444 to 456)
S26 – "Martian Invasion of Earth" (12/25/38 to 10/20/40) (Series I, Strips 457 to 552) (1)
S27 – "N.E.L.D.A. (No Earthman Leaves Doomar Alive)" (10/27/40 to 3/9/41) (Series I, Strips 553 to 572)
S28 – "The Four Powers of Doomar" (3/16/41 to 2/8/42) (Series I, Strips 573 to 600, Series II, Strips 1 to 20) (C), (2)
S29 – "Planet of the Rising Sun" (2/15/42 to 1/30/44) (Series II, Strips 21 to 122) (D), (E), (3)
S30 – "Parchment of the Golden Crescent" (2/6/44 to 3/11/45) (Series II, Strips 123 to 180) (4)
S31 – "Misadventures of Admiral Cornplaster" (3/18/45 to 12/1/46) (Series II, Strips 181 to 270) (5)
S32 – "Battle on the Moon" (12/8/46 to 8/1/48) (Series II, Strips 271 to 357) (F), (6)
S33 – "Escape from the Martian Fortress" (8/8/48 to 2/20/49) (Series II, Strips 358 to 386)
S34 – "Venusian Vaporizing Mystery" (2/27/49 to 7/10/49) (Series II, Strips 387 to 406)
S35 – "The Eye of the Universe" (7/17/49 to 11/6/49) (Series II, Strips 407 to 423)
S36 – "Invasion of the Green Ray Smackers" (11/13/49 to 1/29/50) (Series II, Strips 424 to 435)
S37 – "Martian Undersea Threat" (2/5/50 to 6/18/50) (Series II, Strips 436 to 455)
S38 – "The Treasure of Benito" (6/25/50 to 12/3/50) (Series II, Strips 456 to 479)
S39 – "Mystery Planet" (12/10/50 to 6/3/51) (Series II, Strips 480 to 505)
S40 – "The Space Hermit" (6/10/51 to 8/12/51) (Series II, Strips 506 to 515)
S41 – "Great Za" (8/19/51 to 10/21/51) (Series II, Strips 516 to 525)
S42 – "Cadet's First Flight" (10/28/51 to 12/23/51) (Series III, Strips 100 to 108) (G)
S43 – "Hidden Martian Moon Base" (12/30/51 to 5/4/52) (Series III, Strips 109 to 127)
S44 – "Space Pirates" (5/11/52 to 9/28/52) (Series III, Strips 128 to 148)
S45 – "Trespassing on Incuba" (10/5/52 to 6/14/53) (Series III, Strips 149 to 185)
S46 – "Immorta Vapor" (6/21/53 to 10/18/53) (Series III, Strips 186 to 203)
S47 – "Plot to Steal Squadron X-99" (10/25/53 to 4/18/54) (Series III, Strips 204 to 229)
S48 – "Returning the Sacred Pearls" (4/25/54 to 11/21/54) (Series III, Strips 230 to 260)
S49 – "Prisoner of Zopar" (11/28/54 to 6/26/55) (Series III, Strips 261 to 291)
S50 – "Brand O' Mars" (7/3/55 to 1/8/56) (Series III, Strips 292 to 319) (H)
S51 – "The Invisible Martian" (1/15/56 to 7/1/56) (Series III, Strips 320 to 344)
S52 – "Mad Meteors" (7/8/56 to 12/23/56) (Series III, Strips 345 to 369)
S53 – "Land of the Sleeping Giant" (12/30/56 to 6/30/57) (Series III, Strips 370 to 396)
S54 – "Moment-Zero on Videa" (7/7/57 to 1/12/58) (Series III, Strips 397 to 424)
S55 – "Operation Moon-Pull" (1/19/58 to 5/11/58) (Series III, Strips 425 to 428)
S56 – "Search For Impervium" (5/18/58 to 9/28/58)
S57 – "Supernova Threat" (10/5/58 to 1/11/59)
S58 – "California Earthquake Plot" (1/18/59 to 4/19/59)
S59 – "Rebels of Uras" (4/26/59 to 8/16/59) (I)
S60 – "Stolen Zero-Bomb Formula" (8/23/59 to 12/13/59)
S61 – "Greetings to Earth From Elektrum" (12/20/59 to 4/3/60)
S62 – "Revolt of the Dwarf Princess" (4/10/60 to 7/10/60)
S63 – "Caltechium Heist" (7/17/60 to 10/16/60)
S64 – "Episode on Starrock" (10/23/60 to 2/5/61)
S65 – "Shape Changing Elixir" (2/19/61 to 5/21/61) (J)
S66 – "Water Polo Caper" (5/28/61 to 8/27/61)
S67 – "Greatest Gourmet on Tour" (9/3/61 to 12/17/61)
S68 – "The Richest Man in the Universe" (12/24/61 to 4/15/62)
S69 – "Security Risk!" (4/22/62 to 7/22/62)
S70 – "Googie and Carol" (7/29/62 to 10/14/62)
S71 – "Space Survival Kit" (10/21/62 to 1/6/63)
S72 – "Huk's Hostage" (1/13/63 to 3/31/63)
S73 – "The Old Toymaker" (4/7/63 to 6/30/63)
S74 – "Heart Central" (7/7/63 to 9/29/63)
S75 – "Exploring Transient-101" (10/6/63 to 1/5/64)
S76 – "Human Chess" (1/12/64 to 3/22/64)
S77 – "Interplanetary Olympic Games" (3/29/64 to 7/5/64)
S78 – "Slippery Circus Clown" (7/12/64 to 9/27/64)
S79 – "Alfie the Inventive Genius" (10/4/64 to 12/27/64)
S80 – "A New Brain" (1/3/65 to 3/21/65)
S81 – "Big Game Hunt" (3/28/65 to 6/13/65)
Notes:
General – The term "series" refers to a new numbering sequence and are differentiated using Roman numerals. The dates used for strips that contained only strip numbers (prior to 2/16/58) are the dates these strips ran in most newspapers. Some newspapers ran the strips several months behind. At two points in the strip's run "extra" individual strips were run that ran in a limited number of papers.
(A) – Beginning with strip number 243, a one-tier "sub-strip" was included at the bottom of the Sunday page in some papers that ran the strip in a tabloid format. They contained a storyline independent of the story in the main Sunday strip.
(B) – The sub-strip was dropped after Sunday strip number 380 with the final storyline left unresolved.
(C) – The last full-page format Sunday was strip number 578 (4/20/41)
(D) – There was an un-numbered "extra" strip between strip numbers 54 and 55 that did not run in all papers
(E) – Strip number 10½ was an "extra" strip between strip numbers 110 and 111 that did not run in all papers
(F) – Strip number 314 was misnumbered 214
(G) – The third strip numbering series began with number 100
(H) – The strip that should have been numbered 296 contains no strip number
(I) – The Sunday and daily strip began running the same storyline with this story
(J) – The Sunday strip once again began running the stories independent of the daily strip with this story
Six of the Sunday stories by Rick Yager contained multiple sub-plots that are broken out as follows:
(1) – S26 – Martian Invasion of Earth:
Part 1 – "Captured by Tigermen" (Series I, Strips 457 to 480)
Part 2 – "The Island of Doom" (Series I, Strips 481 to 506)
Part 3 – "Flight of the Ghost Ship" (Series I, Strips 507 to 538)
Part 4 – "The Red Ray" (Series I, Strips 539 to 552)
(2) – S28 – The Four Powers of Doomar:
Part 1 – "Hydro" (Series I, Strips 573 to 581)
Part 2 – "Scorpia" (Series I, Strips 582 to 597)
Part 3 – "Arcto" (Series I, Strips 598 to 600, Series II, Strips 1 to 6)
Part 4 – "Hexxo" (Series II, Strips 7 to 20)
(3) – S29 – Planet of the Rising Sun:
Part 1 – "Through the Door of No Return" (Series II, Strips 21 to 58)
Part 2 – "The Mission of 99-Zero" (Series II, Strips 59 to 77)
Part 3 – "Marooned on the Planet of the Rising Sun" (Series II, Strips 78 to 101)
Part 4 – "Arrival of the Mysterious Sky Wizard" (Series II, Strips 102 to 122)
(4) – S30 – Parchment of the Golden Crescent:
Part 1 – "Enslaved in Niarb's Mind Foundry" (Series II, Strips 132 to 143)
Part 2 – "Treasure Hunting on Llore" (Series II, Strips 144 to 180)
(5) – S31 – Misadventures of Admiral Cornplaster:
Part 1 – "Voyage of the Golden Spaceship El Dorado" (Series II, Strips 181 to 216)
Part 2 – "Trapped on Tantoris" (Series II, Strips 217 to 250)
Part 3 – "The Terrible Creations of Dr. Nameless" (Series II, Strips 251 to 270)
(6) – S32 – Battle on the Moon:
Part 1 – "Moon Song's Misfortune" (Series II, Strips 271 to 285)
Part 2 – "The Ring and Arrow Boys" (Series II, Strips 286 to 302)
Part 3 – "Enter Commodore Pounce" (Series II, Strips 303 to 321)
Part 4 – "Dogfight for the Uranium Fields" (Series II, Strips 322 to 357)
Artist/Writer credits:
Mar 1930 to Sep 1933 – Russell Keaton (a), Philip Nowlan (w)
Oct 1933 to Apr 1937 – Rick Yager (a), Philip Nowlan (w)
May 1937 to June 1958 – Rick Yager (a), Rick Yager (w)
July 1958 to Apr 1959 – Murphy Anderson (a), ??? (w)
Apr 1959 to Apr 1960 – George Tuska (a), Jack Lehti (w)
Apr 1960 to Feb 1961 – George Tuska (a), Howard Liss (w)
Feb 1961 to May 1961 – George Tuska (a), Ray Russell (w)
May 1961 to Dec 1961 – George Tuska (a), Fritz Lieber (w)
Dec 1961 to Jun 1965 – George Tuska (a), Howard Liss (w)
Art Assistants:
1951 to 1956 – Leonard Dworkins
1957 to 1958 – William Juhre
Original series Sunday "Sub-Strip" story guide
SS01 – "Adventures of Wilma" (11/18/34 to 6/9/35) (Series I, Strips 243 to 272)
SS02 – "Captain Spear of the Martian Patrol" (6/16/35 to 8/11/35) (Series I, Strips 273 to 281)
SS03 – "Peril Planet" (8/18/35 to 12/22/35) (Series I, Strips 282 to 300)
SS04 – "Lost in Space" (12/29/35 to 3/29/36) (Series I, Strips 301 to 314)
SS05 – "The Flat Planet of Hex" (4/5/36 to 8/2/36) (Series I, Strips 315 to 332)
SS06 – "The Ghost Planet" (8/9/36 to 9/27/36) (Series I, Strips 333 to 340)
SS07 – "Black Barney on Earth" (10/4/36 to 11/22/36) (Series I, Strips 341 to 348)
SS08 – "The Wizard of Zoor" (11/29/36 to 2/28/37) (Series I, Strips 349 to 362)
SS09 – "Oghpore the Terrible" (3/7/37 to 5/9/37) (Series I, Strips 363 to 372)
SS10 – "’Buzz’ Brent Calling C-Q" (5/16/37 to 7/4/37) (Series I, Strips 373 to 380) (A)
Notes:
General – The term "series" refers to a new numbering sequence and are differentiated using Roman numerals. The dates used for strips that contained only strip numbers (prior to 2/16/58) are the dates these strips ran in most newspapers. Some newspapers ran the strips several months behind. The sub-strip only appeared in tabloid format papers.
(A) – The sub-strip was dropped after Sunday strip number 380 with the final storyline left unresolved. Three fan-produced strips written by Eugene Seger and drawn by Bud Gordinier were created in 2001 (and published in 2004) to finish the story.
Artist/Writer credits:
Nov 1934 to Apr 1937 – Rick Yager (a), Philip Nowlan (w)
May 1937 to Jul 1937 – Rick Yager (a), Rick Yager (w)
Revival Series comic strip stories
R01 – "On the Moon of Madness!" (September, 1979) (A)
R02 – "Space Vampire" (9/9/79 to 11/6/79)
R03 – "Mutant Zone" (11/7/79 to 1/17/80)
R04 – "Vostrian Crisis" (1/18/80 to 4/2/80)
R05 – "The Faceless Kid" (4/3/80 to 8/17/80)
R06 – "Ultra-Time-Warp" (8/18/80 to 10/29/80)
R07 – "Mist-Creatures" (10/30/80 to 3/8/81)
R08 – "Project Edon" (3/9/81 to 5/5/81)
R09 – "Mystery Woman From the Black Hole" (5/6/81 to 7/8/81)
R10 – "Runaway Planetoid" (7/9/81 to 9/18/81)
R11 – "Pyramid Mystery" (9/19/81 to 11/27/81) (B)
R12 – "Miners' Madness" (11/28/81 to 3/13/82)
R13 – "Down Memory Lane" (3/14/82 to 6/12/82)
R14 – "Welcome to Atlantis" (6/13/82 to 9/9/82)
R15 – "Alien Stowaway" (9/10/82 to 11/13/82)
R16 – "Space Convicts" (11/14/82 to 1/11/83)
R17 – "Robot Revolution" (1/12/83 to 3/20/83)
R18 – "Deadly Contest" (3/21/83 to 5/23/83)
R19 – "The Gauntlet" (5/24/83 to 8/21/83)
R20 – "Pursuit of Vurik" (8/22/83 to 10/17/83)
R21 – "The Duplicate" (10/18/83 to 12/25/83)
Notes:
General – The daily and Sunday strips ran one continuous storyline
(A) – Appeared in Heavy Metal Magazine
(B) – Beginning with the 9/20/81 Sunday page, the panels in the upper tier contained an educational science series separate from the storyline which was restricted to the panels in the bottom two tiers.
Artist/Writer credits:
Sep 1979 to Feb 1981 – Gray Morrow (a), Jim Lawrence (w)
Feb 1981 to Jun 1982 – Gray Morrow (a), Cary Bates (w)
Jun 1982 to Dec 1983 – Jack Sparling (a), Cary Bates (w)
Look-In magazine (UK) comic strip stories
LI01 – "The Praxonian Conquest" (10/18/80 to 11/29/80) (Issue #s 43 to 49)
LI02 – "The Re-Integration Bombarder" (12/6/80 to 1/17/81) (Issue #s 50 to 4)
LI03 – "Robot Revolution" (1/24/81 to 3/7/81) (Issue #s 5 to 11)
LI04 – "The Evil Collector" (3/14/81 to 5/2/81) (Issue #s 12 to 19)
LI05 – "Sweet Dreams?" (5/9/81 to 6/13/81) (Issue #s 20 to 25) (A)
LI06 – "Farnn the Invincible" (6/20/81 to 8/1/81) (Issue #s 26 to 32)
LI07 – "The Oxygen Oceans of Anubis" (8/8/81 to 9/5/81) (Issue #s 33 to 37)
LI08 – "Interplanetary Civil War" (9/12/81 to 10/24/81) (Issue #s 38 to 44)
LI09 – "Stinnkex the Genie" (10/31/81 to 11/21/81) (Issue #s 45 to 48)
LI10 – "Visitor From the Future" (11/28/81 to 1/2/82) (Issue #s 49 to 1)
Notes:
General – Each issue of Look-In Magazine contained a two-page Buck Rogers comic strip. Issue numbers restarted at number 1 with the first issue of each year and ran to number 52 with the last issue of each year. There were, however, occasional exceptions to this such as in 1981 where issue number 1 was actually the December 27, 1980, issue and the final issue in 1981 on December 26 was numbered 53.
(A) This story was reprinted in an edited black & white format in the 1990 Look-In Annual
Artist/Writer credits:
Oct 1980 to May 1981 – Martin Asbury (a), Angus P. Allan (w)
May 1981 to Sep 1981 – Arthur Ranson (a), Angus P. Allan (w)
Sep 1981 to Oct 1981 – John M. Burns (a), Angus P. Allan (w)
Oct 1981 to Nov 1981 – Martin Asbury (a), Angus P. Allan (w)
Nov 1981 to Jan 1982 – John M. Burns (a), Angus P. Allan (w)
TV Tops Magazine (UK) comic strip stories
TT01 – "Heart of the Black Hole" (9/4/82 to 10/2/82) 48–52
TT02 – "Enemy From the Past" (10/9/82 to 10/23/82) 53–55
TT03 – "Terrorist From Thul" (10/30/82 to 11/6/82) 56–57
TT04 – "Warlord" (11/13/82 to 11/27/82) 58–60
TT05 – "The Sun Eater" (1/8/83 to 1/22/83) 66–68 (A)
TT06 – "Golden Death" (1/29/83 to 2/5/83) 69–70
TT07 – "The Changelings" (2/12/83 to 2/26/83) 71–73
TT08 – "Escape Into the Past" (3/5/83 to 3/19/83) (Issue #s 74 to 76)
TT09 – "Attack on Outer City" (4/2/83 to 4/9/83) (Issue #s 78 to 79) (B)
TT10 – "The Alien Jar" (4/30/83 to 5/7/83) (Issue #s 82 to 83) (C)
TT11 – "Ghost Ship" (5/28/83 to 6/4/83) (Issue #s 86 to 87) (D)
TT12 – "Robodrone" (6/18/83 to 6/18/83) (Issue #s 89 to 89) (E)
TT13 – "Return of Warlord" (6/25/83 to 6/25/83) (Issue #s 90 to 90) (F)
TT14 – "The Zoo Keeper" (7/9/83 to 7/23/83) (Issue #s 92 to 94) (G)
TT15 – "The Flame Monster" (7/30/83 to 8/6/83) (Issue #s 95 to 96)
TT16 – "Alien Video Game" (8/20/83 to 9/3/83) (Issue #s 98 to 100) (H)
TT17 – "Buck's Evil Twin" (9/17/83 to 9/24/83) (Issue #s 102 to 103) (I)
TT18 – "Parallel Dimension" (10/1/83 to 10/8/83) (Issue #s 104 to 105)
TT19 – "The Space Knight" (10/15/83 to 10/22/83) (Issue #s 106 to 107)
TT20 – "The Living Trees" (10/29/83 to 11/5/83) (Issue #s 108 to 109) (J)
TT21 – "Intergalactic War" (11/12/83 to 11/19/83) (Issue #s 110 to 111)
TT22 – "The Aging Ray" (11/26/83 to 12/3/83) (Issue #s 112 to 113)
TT23 – "Overlord" (12/10/83 to 12/24/83) (Issue #s 114 to 116)
TT24 – "The Ghost Planet" (12/31/83 to 1/7/84) (Issue #s 117 to 118)
TT25 – "Buck Rogers in the 30th Century" (1/14/84 to 1/21/84) (Issue #s 119 to 120)
TT26 – "500,000-Year Delay" (1/28/84 to 1/28/84) (Issue #s 121 to 121)
Notes:
General – Each issue of TV Tops Magazine contained a 2-page Buck Rogers comic strip.
(A) Issue numbers 61–65 did not have Buck Rogers comic strips
(B) Issue number 77 did not have a Buck Rogers comic strip
(C) Issue numbers 80 and 81 did not have Buck Rogers comic strips
(D) Issue numbers 84 and 85 did not have Buck Rogers comic strips
(E) Issue number 88 did not have a Buck Rogers comic strip
(F) The title of the magazine changed from "TV Tops" to "Tops" with issue 90
(G) Issue numbers 91 and 93 did not have a Buck Rogers comic strip
(H) Issue number 97 did not have a Buck Rogers comic strip
(I) Issue number 101 did not have a Buck Rogers comic strip
(J) The size of the magazine was reduced beginning with issue 108
Collected editions
Famous Funnies issues #3–190, 209–215 (Eastern Color Printing, 1934–1955)
Buck Rogers in the City Below the Sea (Whitman Publishing, 1934)
Buck Rogers on the Moons of Saturn (Whitman, 1934)
Buck Rogers in the Dangerous Mission, With "Pop-Up" Picture (Blue Ribbon Press, 1934)
Buck Rogers 25th century A.D. and the Depth Men of Jupiter (Whitman, 1935)
Buck Rogers in the City of Floating Globes (Whitman, 1935)
Buck Rogers 25th Century: Strange Adventures in the Spider-Ship with Three Pop-ups (Pleasure Books, Inc., 1935)
The Story of Buck Rogers on the Planetoid Eros (Whitman, 1936)
Buck Rogers 25th century A.D. vs. the Fiend of Space (Whitman, 1940)
Buck Rogers #1–6 (Eastern Color, 1942 to 1943)
Buck Rogers and the Super-Dwarf of Space (Whitman, 1943)
Buck Rogers #100 (#7), #101 (#8), #9 (Toby Press, 1951)
Buck Rogers volumes 1–5 (Ed Aprill, 1967 to 1969)
The Collected Works of Buck Rogers (Chelsea House Publishers, 1969) — also published a revised edition in 1977
Buck Rogers 1931–32 (The Greatest Adventure Strip of All Time) (Ed Aprill, 1971)
Buck Rogers, 25th century A.D. (E.M. Aprill, 1971)
Menomonee Falls Gazette #95–126, 128, 130, 132, 134, 136, 138, 140, 142, 144, 146 (Street Enterprises, 1973–1974)
Feature Showcase (Funnies Publishing Company (Alan Light), 1974)
Buck Rogers #1–52 (Club Anni Trenta, 1980–1992)
Classic Adventure Strips #10 (Dragon Lady Press, 1987)
Buck Rogers in the 25th Century (Quick Fox, 1981)
Buck Rogers – The First 60 Years in the 25th Century (TSR, Inc., 1988)
Cosmic Heroes #1–11 (Eternity Comics, 1988–1989)
Len’s 1950 Buck Rogers (Leonard Dworkins)
Buck Rogers in the 25th Century (Fan publication, 1999)
Air Strips Magazine #2–4 (Spec Productions)
Buck Rogers Magazine #1–14 (Spec Productions)
The Sunday Buck Rogers #1–5 (Spec Productions)
Buck Rogers: The Sunday Adventures (Spec Productions) — reprints Sunday Buck Rogers #1–4 "The Rising Sun Planet" story from February 22, 1942, through February 27, 1944
Buck Rogers 25th century: Featuring Buddy and Allura in "Strange Adventures in the Spider Ship" (Applewood Books, 1994)
Buck Rogers in the 25th Century: The Complete Newspaper Dailies (Hermes Press, fall 2008–present) — series of volumes reprinting the entire original run of daily comic strips from 1929 to 1967 (ongoing)
Buck Rogers in the 25th Century: The Complete Newspaper Sundays (Hermes Press, spring 2010–present) — series of volumes reprinting the entire original run of Sunday comic strips from 1930 to 1965 (ongoing)
Buck Rogers
Buck Rogers
Science fiction comic strips |
4337123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic%20history%20of%20Germany | Economic history of Germany | Until the early 19th century, Germany, a federation of numerous states of varying size and development, retained its pre-industrial character, where trade centered around a number of free cities. After the extensive development of the railway network during the 1840s, rapid economic growth and modernisation sparked the process of industrialization. Under Prussian leadership Germany was united in 1871 and its economy grew rapidly. The largest economy in Europe by 1900, Germany had established a primary position in several key sectors, like the chemical industry and steel production. High production capacity, permanent competitiveness and subsequent protectionist policies fought out with the US and Britain were essential characteristics.
By the end of World War II, the country's economic infrastructure was completely destroyed. West Germany embarked in its program of reconstruction guided by the economic principles of the Minister of Economics Ludwig Erhard excelled in the economic miracle during the 1950s and 1960s. East Germany's last remaining economic facilities were dismantled by the Soviet occupation force as one of the first steps of the war reparations plan. The country was embedded in the Eastern Bloc system of socialist planned economy. It fell far behind in terms of living standards.
Contemporary Germany employs a highly skilled work force in the largest national economy as the largest exporter of high quality goods in Europe, like cars, machinery, pharmaceutics, chemical and electrical products with a GDP of US$3.67 trillion in 2017.
Medieval Germany
Medieval Germany, lying on the open Northern European Plain, was divided into hundreds of contending kingdoms, principalities, dukedoms/duchies, bishoprics/dioceses, and free cities. Economic prosperity did not mean geographical expansion; it required collaboration with some, competition with others, and an intimate understanding among government, commerce, and production. A desire to save was also born in the German experience of political, military, and economic uncertainty.
Towns and cities
Total population estimates of the German territories range around 5 to 6 million by the end of Henry III's reign in 1056 and about 7 to 8 million after Friedrich Barbarossa's rule in 1190. The vast majority were farmers, typically in a state of serfdom under the control of nobles and monasteries. Towns gradually emerged and in the 12th century many new cities were founded along the trading routes and near imperial strongholds and castles. The towns were subjected to the municipal legal system. Cities such as Cologne, that had acquired the status of Imperial Free Cities, were no longer answerable to the local landlords or bishops, but immediate subjects of the Emperor and enjoyed greater commercial and legal liberties. The towns were ruled by a council of the - usually mercantile - elite, the patricians. Craftsmen formed guilds, governed by strict rules, which sought to obtain control of the towns; a few were open to women. Society had diversified, but was divided into sharply demarcated classes of the clergy, physicians, merchants, various guilds of artisans, unskilled day laborers and peasants. Full citizenship was not available to paupers. Political tensions arose from issues of taxation, public spending, regulation of business, and market supervision, as well as the limits of corporate autonomy.
Cologne's central location on the Rhine river placed it at the intersection of the major trade routes between east and west and was the basis of Cologne's growth. The economic structures of medieval and early modern Cologne were characterized by the city's status as a major harbor and transport hub upon the Rhine. It was governed by its burghers.
Hanseatic League
The Hanseatic League was a commercial and defensive alliance of the merchant guilds of towns and cities in northern and central Europe. It dominated marine trade in the Baltic Sea, the North Sea and along the connected navigable rivers during the Late Middle Ages (12th to 15th centuries). Each of the affiliated cities retained the legal system of its sovereign and, with the exception of the Free imperial cities, had only a limited degree of political autonomy. Beginning with an agreement of the cities of Lübeck and Hamburg, guilds cooperated in order to strengthen and combine their economic assets, like securing trading routes and tax privileges, to control prices and better protect and market their local commodities. Important centers of commerce within the empire, such as Cologne on the Rhine river and Bremen on the North Sea joined the union, which resulted in greater diplomatic esteem. Recognized by the various regional princes for the great economic potential, favorable charters for, often exclusive, commercial operations were granted. During its zenith the alliance maintained trading posts and kontors in virtually all cities between London and Edinburgh in the west to Novgorod in the east and Bergen in Norway. By the late 14th century the powerful league enforced its interests with military means, if necessary. This culminated in a war with the sovereign Kingdom of Denmark from 1361 to 1370. The principal city of the Hanseatic League remained Lübeck, where in 1356 the first general diet was held and its official structure was announced. The league declined after 1450 due to a number of factors, such as the 15th-century crisis, the territorial lords' shifting policies towards greater commercial control, the silver crisis and marginalization in the wider Eurasian trade network, among others.
Between 1347 and 1351 Germany and Europe were haunted by the most severe outbreak of the Black Death pandemic. Estimated to have caused the abrupt death of 30 to 60% of Europe's population, it led to widespread social and economic disruption and deep religious disaffection and fanaticism. Minority groups, and Jews in particular were blamed, singled out and attacked. As a consequence, many Jews fled and resettled in Eastern Europe. The death of large parts of the population caused a major collapse of the labor force. Human power became a rare commodity and the social and economic situation of average workers improved for several decades as employers were forced to pay higher wages.
Change and reform
The early-modern European society gradually developed after the disasters of the 14th century as religious obedience and political loyalties declined in the wake of the Great Plague, the schism of the Church and prolonged dynastic wars. The rise of the cities and the emergence of the new burgher class eroded the societal, legal and economic order of feudalism. The commercial enterprises of the mercantile patriciate family of the Fuggers of Augsburg generated unprecedented financial means. As financiers to both the leading ecclesiastical and secular rulers, the Fuggers fundamentally influenced the political affairs in the empire during the 15th and 16th century. The increasingly money based economy also provoked social discontentment among knights and peasants and predatory "robber knights" became common. The knightly classes had traditionally established their monopoly through warfare and military skill. However, the shift to practical mercenary infantry armies and military-technical advances led to a marginalization of heavy cavalry.
Early modern Germany
Unlike most Western European countries, Germany as a domain of the Holy Roman Empire, which lacked a strong centralized leadership, did not embark on the exploration of the world during the 16th and 17th century Age of Discovery, nor did it establish a trading fleet, trading posts and colonies during the subsequent era of colonialism. As a consequence Germany's society remained stagnant as its economy played only a secondary role with limited access to international markets and resources, while in France, Britain and the Netherlands, worldwide trade and colonial possessions greatly empowered mercantile and industrial groups and led to the rise of a bourgeoisie, who was able to benefit from the new economic opportunities.
Thirty Years' War
The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) was ruinous to the twenty million civilians and set back the economy for generations, as marauding armies burned and destroyed what they could not seize. The fighting often was out of control, with marauding bands of hundreds or thousands of starving soldiers spreading plague, plunder, and murder. The armies that were under control moved back and forth across the countryside year after year, levying heavy taxes on cities, and seizing the animals and food stocks of the peasants without payment. The enormous social disruption over three decades caused a dramatic decline in population because of killings, disease, crop failures, declining birth rates and random destruction, and the emigration of terrified people. One estimate shows a 38% drop from 16 million people in 1618 to 10 million by 1650, while another shows "only" a 20% drop from 20 million to 16 million. The Altmark and Württemberg regions were especially hard hit. It took generations for Germany to fully recover.
According to John Gagliardo, the recovery period lasted for about fifty years until the end of the century and was over by the 1700s. At that time, Germany probably had reached its pre-war population (though this is disputed). Then, there was a period of steady though quite slow growth to the 1740s. Afterward came a period of rapid but not exceptional economic expansion, that mainly occurred in the great states in the east (Austria, Saxony, Prussia) rather than in the small states of central or south Germany.
Peasants and rural life
Peasants continued to center their lives in the village, where they were members of a corporate body and help manage the community resources and monitor the community life. Across Germany and especially in the east, they were serfs who were bound permanently to parcels of land. In most of Germany, farming was handled by tenant farmers who paid rents and obligatory services to the landlord, who was typically a nobleman. Peasant leaders supervised the fields and ditches and grazing rights, maintained public order and morals, and supported a village court which handled minor offenses. Within the family, the patriarch made all the decisions, and tried to arrange advantageous marriages for his children. Much of the villages' communal life centered around church services and holy days. In Prussia, the peasants drew lots to choose conscription required by the army. The noblemen handled external relationships and politics for the villages under their control, and were not typically involved in daily activities or decisions.
The emancipation of the serfs came in 1770–1830, beginning with then Danish Schleswig in 1780. Prussia abolished serfdom with the October Edict of 1807, which upgraded the personal legal status of the peasantry and gave them the chance to purchase for cash part of the lands they were working. They could also sell the land they already owned. The edict applied to all peasants whose holdings were above a certain size, and included both crown lands and noble estates. The peasants were freed from the obligation of personal services to the lord and annual dues. A bank was set up so that landowner could borrow government money to buy land from peasants (the peasants were not allowed to use it to borrow money to buy land until 1850). The result was that the large landowners obtained larger estates, and many peasant became landless tenants, or moved to the cities or to America. The other German states imitated Prussia after 1815. In sharp contrast to the violence that characterized land reform in the French Revolution, Germany handled it peacefully. In Schleswig the peasants, who had been influenced by the Enlightenment, played an active role; elsewhere they were largely passive. Indeed, for most peasants, customs and traditions continued largely unchanged, including the old habits of deference to the nobles whose legal authority remained quite strong over the villagers. Although the peasants were no longer tied to the same land like serfs had been, the old paternalistic relationship in East Prussia lasted into the 20th century.
Industrial Revolution
Before 1850 Germany lagged behind the leaders in industrial development, United Kingdom, France and Belgium. However, the country had considerable assets: a highly skilled labor force, a good educational system, a strong work ethic, good standards of living and a sound protectionist strategy based on the Zollverein. By mid-century, the German states were catching up, and by 1900 Germany was a world leader in industrialization, along with Britain and the United States. In 1800, Germany's social structure was poorly suited to any kind of social or industrial development. Domination by modernizing France during the era of the French Revolution (1790s to 1815) produced important institutional reforms, including the abolition of feudal restrictions on the sale of large landed estates, the reduction of the power of the guilds in the cities, and the introduction of a new, more efficient commercial law. Nevertheless, traditionalism remained strong in most of Germany. Until mid-century, the guilds, the landed aristocracy, the churches, and the government bureaucracies had so many rules and restrictions that entrepreneurship was held in low esteem, and given little opportunity to develop. The 1867 Passport Law let workers search for work in their own interest. Freedom of movement went hand in hand with destruction of guilds and freedom of entry into all occupations.
From the 1830s and 1840s, Prussia, Saxony, and other states reorganized agriculture, introducing sugar beets, turnips, and potatoes, yielding a higher level of food production that enabled a surplus rural population to move to industrial areas. The beginning of the industrial revolution in Germany came in the textile industry, and was facilitated by eliminating tariff barriers through the Zollverein, starting in 1834. The takeoff stage of economic development came with the railroad revolution in the 1840s, which opened up new markets for local products, created a pool of middle managers, increased the demand for engineers, architects and skilled machinists, and stimulated investments in coal and iron. The political decisions about the economy of Prussia (and after 1871, all of Germany) were largely controlled by a coalition of "rye and iron", that is the Junker landowners of the east and the heavy industry of the west.
Regions
The north German states were for the most part richer in natural resources than the southern states. They had vast agricultural tracts from Schleswig-Holstein in the west through Prussia in the east. They also had coal and iron in the Ruhr Valley. Through the practice of primogeniture, widely followed in northern Germany, large estates and fortunes grew. So did close relations between the owners and local as well as national governments.
The south German states were relatively poor in natural resources and those Germans therefore engaged more often in small economic enterprises. They also had no primogeniture rule but subdivided the land among several offspring, leading those offspring to remain in their native towns but not fully able to support themselves from their small parcels of land. The south German states, therefore, fostered cottage industries, crafts, and a more independent and self-reliant spirit less closely linked to the government.
Coal
The first important mines appeared in the 1750s, in the valleys of the rivers Ruhr, Inde and Wurm where coal seams outcropped and horizontal adit mining was possible. In 1782 the Krupp family began operations near Essen. After 1815 entrepreneurs in the Ruhr Area, which then became part of Prussia, took advantage of the tariff zone (Zollverein) to open new mines and associated iron smelters. New railroads were built by British engineers around 1850. Numerous small industrial centers sprang up, focused on ironworks, using local coal. The iron and steel works typically bought mines and erected coking ovens to supply their own requirements in coke and gas. These integrated coal-iron firms ("Huettenzechen") became numerous after 1854; after 1900 they became mixed firms called "Konzern".
The output of an average mine in 1850 was about 8,500 short tons; its employment about 64. By 1900, this output had risen to 280,000 and employment to about 1,400. Total Ruhr coal output rose from 2.0 million short tons in 1850 to 22 in 1880, 60 in 1900, and 114 in 1913, on the verge of war. In 1932 output was down to 73 million short tons, growing to 130 in 1940. Output peaked in 1957 (at 123 million), declining to 78 million short tons in 1974. By the end of 2010, only five coal mines were producing in Germany.
The miners in the Ruhr region were divided by ethnicity (Germans and Poles) and religion (Protestants and Catholics). Mobility in and out of the mining camps to nearby industrial areas was high. The miners split into several unions, with an affiliation to a political party. As a result, the socialist union (affiliated with the Social Democratic Party) competed with Catholic and Communist unions until 1933, when the Nazis took over all of them. After 1945 the socialists came to the fore.
Banks and cartels
German banks played central roles in financing German industry. Different banks formed cartels in different industries. Cartel contracts were accepted as legal and binding by German courts although they were held to be illegal in Britain and the United States.
The process of cartelization began slowly, but the cartel movement took hold after 1873 in the economic depression that followed the postunification speculative bubble. It began in heavy industry and spread throughout other industries. By 1900 there were 275 cartels in operation; by 1908, over 500. By some estimates, different cartel arrangements may have numbered in the thousands at different times, but many German companies stayed outside the cartels because they did not welcome the restrictions that membership imposed.
The government played a powerful role in the industrialization of the German Empire founded by Otto von Bismarck in 1871 during a period known as the Second Industrial Revolution. It supported not only heavy industry but also crafts and trades because it wanted to maintain prosperity in all parts of the empire. Even where the national government did not act, the highly autonomous regional and local governments supported their own industries. Each state tried to be as self-sufficient as possible. The beginning of rapid industrialization also gave rise to the period of "integration", in the Foreign Direct Investment made by the German companies. One of the main justifications was the growing competition among local enterprises, especially in the newly emerging industries.
Despite the several ups and downs of prosperity and depression that marked the first decades of the German Empire, the ultimate wealth of the empire proved immense. German aristocrats, landowners, bankers, and producers created what might be termed the first German economic miracle, the turn-of-the-century surge in German industry and commerce during which bankers, industrialists, mercantilists, the military, and the monarchy joined forces.
Class and the welfare state
Germany's middle class, based in the cities, grew exponentially, but it never gained the political power it had in France, Britain or the United States. The Association of German Women's Organizations (BDF) was established in 1894 to encompass the proliferating women's organizations that had sprung up since the 1860s. From the beginning the BDF was a bourgeois organization, its members working toward equality with men in such areas as education, financial opportunities, and political life. Working-class women were not welcome; they were organized by the Socialists.
Bismarck built on a tradition of welfare programs in Prussia and Saxony that began as early as in the 1840s. In the 1880s he introduced old age pensions, accident insurance, medical care and unemployment insurance that formed the basis of the modern European welfare state. His paternalistic programs won the support of German industry because its goals were to win the support of the working classes for the Empire and reduce the outflow of immigrants to America, where wages were higher, but welfare did not exist. Bismarck further won the support of both industry and skilled workers by his high tariff policies, which protected profits and wages from American competition, although they alienated the liberal intellectuals who wanted free trade.
Railways
Political disunity of three dozen states and a pervasive conservatism made it difficult to build railways in the 1830s. However, by the 1840s, trunk lines did link the major cities; each German state was responsible for the lines within its own borders. Economist Friedrich List summed up the advantages to be derived from the development of the railway system in 1841:
as a means of national defense, it facilitates the concentration, distribution and direction of the army.
It is a means to the improvement of the culture of the nation. It brings talent, knowledge and skill of every kind readily to market.
It secures the community against dearth and famine, and against excessive fluctuation in the prices of the necessaries of life.
It promotes the spirit of the nation, as it has a tendency to destroy the Philistine spirit arising from isolation and provincial prejudice and vanity. It binds nations by ligaments, and promotes an interchange of food and of commodities, thus making it feel to be a unit. The iron rails become a nerve system, which, on the one hand, strengthens public opinion, and, on the other hand, strengthens the power of the state for police and governmental purposes.
Lacking a technological base at first, the Germans imported their engineering and hardware from Britain, but quickly learned the skills needed to operate and expand the railways. In many cities, the new railway shops were the centers of technological awareness and training, so that by 1850, Germany was self-sufficient in meeting the demands of railroad construction, and the railways were a major impetus for the growth of the new steel industry. Observers found that even as late as 1890, their engineering was inferior to Britain's. However, German unification in 1870 stimulated consolidation, nationalization into state-owned companies, and further rapid growth. Unlike the situation in France, the goal was support of industrialization, and so heavy lines crisscrossed the Ruhr and other industrial districts, and provided good connections to the major ports of Hamburg and Bremen. By 1880, Germany had 9,400 locomotives pulling 43,000 passengers and 30,000 tons of freight, and pulled ahead of France.
Agriculture
Perkins (1981) argues that more important than Bismarck's new tariff on imported grain was the introduction of the sugar beet as a primary crop. Farmers quickly abandoned traditional, inefficient practices for modern new methods, including use of new fertilizers and new tools. The knowledge and tools gained from the intensive farming of sugar and other root crops made Germany the most efficient agricultural producer in Europe by 1914. Even so, farms were small in size, and women did much of the field work. An unintended consequence was the increased dependence on migratory workers, especially from Germany's Polish districts.
Chemicals
The economy continued to industrialize and urbanize, with heavy industry (coal and steel especially) becoming important in the Ruhr, and manufacturing growing in the cities, the Ruhr, and Silesia. Based on its leadership in chemical research in the universities and industrial laboratories, Germany became dominant in the world's chemical industry in the late 19th century. Big businesses such as BASF and Bayer led the way in their production and distribution of artificial dyes and pharmaceuticals during the Wilhelmine era, leading to the German monopolization of the global chemicals market at 90 percent of the entire share of international volumes of trade in chemical products by 1914.
Steel
Germany became Europe's leading steel-producing country in the late-19th century, thanks in large part to the protection from American and British competition afforded by tariffs and to cartels. The leading firm was "Friedrich Krupp AG Hoesch-Krupp" run by the Krupp family. The "German Steel Federation" was established in 1874.
Foreign direct investment
The end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century is associated with the time of expansion in demand, the growth of the production capacity and the rise of exports to Germany. This in its turn stimulated the foreign direct investments (FDI) into the economics. Ten countries were considered the major investors, namely: Austria-Hungary, the UK, followed by France, USA, Italy, Russia, Poland (was a part of neighboring empires), Switzerland, Netherlands, and Czechoslovakia (as a part of Austria-Hungary). Their aim was to get via FDI the access to raw material, and to get involved into the production and sales. The preferred methods of investments were via equity stakes, mergers and greenfield investments.
In order to implement the destination analysis of the FDI during this time frame mostly knowledge-capital model is used due to the predominant role of horizontal investments (or market-driven FDI). Moreover, there were found some evidence of the vertical investment structure (known as cost-driven FDI). To be more precise, when there were the wage differences between countries the FDI flows were higher to the low-wage ones. Major factors that influenced FDI were market environment (e.g. tariffs and market opening) and company size. Interestingly, cultural differences or distance between countries did not have major influence on FDI.
Trade unions
Trade unions in Germany have a history reaching back to the German revolution in 1848, and still play an important role in the German economy and society. In 1875 the SPD, the Social Democratic Party of Germany, which is one of the biggest political parties in Germany, supported the forming of unions in Germany. However, according to John A. Moses, the German trade unions were not directly affiliated with the Social Democratic Party. The SPD leadership insisted on the primacy of politics, and refused to emphasize support for union goals and methods. The unions led Carl Legien (1861-1920) developed their own nonpartisan political goals.
In the early 1930s, according to Gerard Braunthal, the three main trade unions (Allgemeiner Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund, Allgemeiner freier Angestelltenbund, and Allgemeiner Deutscher Beamtenbund) failed to actively oppose Hitler in 1932-33. They minimized the threat in 1932 and opposed a general strike because it might spark a civil war. As the Nazis took power in 1933, the high unemployment had demoralized workers. Their historic faith in socialism gave way to a wave of nationalism. The leaders did not foresee how the Nazis would completely unseat them and suppress labor's aspirations.
The most important labour organisation is the German Confederation of Trade Unions (Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund – DGB), which represents more than 6 million people (31 December 2011) and is the umbrella association of several single trade unions for special economic sectors. The DGB is not the only Union Organization that represents the working trade. There are smaller organizations, such as the CGB, which is a Christian-based confederation, that represent over 1.5 million people.
Early 20th century
The merger of four major firms into the Vereinigte Stahlwerke (United Steel Works) in 1926 was modeled on the U.S. Steel corporation in the U.S. The goal was to move beyond the limitations of the old cartel system by incorporating advances simultaneously inside a single corporation. The new company emphasized rationalization of management structures and modernization of the technology; it employed a multi-divisional structure and used return on investment as its measure of success.
Whereas Britain's share of world trade had declined between 1880 and 1913 from 38.2 per cent to 30.2 per cent, Germany's share had increased in the same period from 17.2 per cent to 26.6 per cent. Between 1890 and 1913 German exports tripled and by 1913 Germany's share of world manufacturing production was 14.8 per cent, ahead of Britain's 13.6 per cent. By 1913 American and German exports dominated the world steel market, as Britain slipped to third place. In 1914 German steel output was 17.6 million tons, larger than the combined output of Britain, France and Russia. Germany's coal production reached 277 million tons in 1914, not far behind Britain's 292 million tons and far ahead of Austria-Hungary's 47 million tons, France's 40 million tons and Russia's 36 million tons.
In machinery, iron and steel and other industries, German firms avoided cut-throat competition and instead relied on trade associations. Germany was a world leader because of its prevailing "corporatist mentality", its strong bureaucratic tradition, and the encouragement of the government. These associations regulated competition and allowed small firms to function in the shadow of much larger companies.
World War I
Unexpectedly Germany plunged into World War I (1914–1918). It rapidly mobilized its civilian economy for the war effort. The economy suffered under the British blockade, which cut off supplies. The impact of the blockade was gradual, with relatively little impact on German industry in the first couple of years. Mobilization and armament caused a short-lived but dramatic economic shock at the beginning of the conflict: unemployment spiked from 2.7% in July 1914 to 22.7% in September. The unemployment level thereafter fell dramatically, as war industry and recruitment placed a massive demand on manpower. Intervention by the government in the economy was also moderate at the beginning, because the war was anticipated to be brief. Securing materials for armaments production and the control of food markets were two areas where the German government was involved from the start of the conflict. Private corporations were created under the supervision of the government to oversee specified industries and manage the supply and distribution of foodstuffs. This began in November 1914 with the establishment of a wheat corporation. There were around 200 of these corporations by the end of the war, representing an unprecedented level of cooperation between government and the private sector.
The insatiable demands on manpower led to yet more government intervention and triggered a massive redistribution of the workforce from "peacetime" industries to war industries and the military. High levels of conscription into the army threatened to deprive the armaments industry of workers, with the result that by 1916 the German government began exempting large numbers of otherwise eligible men from military service so they could remain as workers. Overall this balance between conscription and industry was handled efficiently, with Germany's industrial workforce shrinking by only 10%. About 1.2 million men were exempted in 1916, 740,000 of whom were fit to serve; by 1918 2.2 million men had been exempted from service, 1.3 million of whom were fit to serve. There was an exodus of workers from "peacetime" industries and agriculture into the better-paid war industries, which claimed 45% of the work force by 1918. The result was that "peacetime" industry declined by about 43% over the course of the war, claiming only 20% of the workforce by 1918.
Germany exploited its own natural resources and those of its occupied territories to fill the import gap caused by the British blockade, while neutral neighbors like the Netherlands and the Scandinavian nations exported crucial foodstuffs like wheat to keep the German population fed. There were some commodities, like rubber, cotton, and nitrates (Saltpeter), which Germany could not easily substitute from within, and which it could not obtain from its neutral trading partners because the Allies classified them as contraband. The loss of nitrate imports, vital for the production of both explosives and fertilizers, proved disastrous for German agriculture. German chemical firms turned to producing synthetic nitrates, but output was only high enough to sustain the explosives industry. Without fertilizer, agricultural productivity declined dramatically. The freezing 'Turnip Winter' of 1916-17 only compounded the growing subsistence problem; wheat and potato crops failed and Germans had to turn to turnips to satisfy their nutritional needs, a vegetable previously used for livestock feed.
The cumulative impact of the First World War on the German economy was disastrous. The German economy shrank by approximately one-third during the war, with overall industrial production down by 40% compared to pre-war levels.
Weimar Republic
British economist John Maynard Keynes denounced the 1919 Treaty of Versailles as ruinous to German and global prosperity. In his book The Economic Consequences of the Peace, Keynes said the treaty was a "Carthaginian peace", a misguided attempt to destroy Germany on behalf of French revanchism, rather than to follow the fairer principles for a lasting peace set out in President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, which Germany had accepted at the armistice. Keynes argued the sums being asked of Germany in reparations were many times more than it was possible for Germany to pay, and that these would produce drastic instability. French economist Étienne Mantoux disputed that analysis in The Carthaginian Peace, or the Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes (1946). More recently economists have argued that the restriction of Germany to a small army in the 1920s saved it so much money it could afford the reparations payments.
In reality, the total German Reparation payments actually made were far smaller than anyone expected. The total came to 20 billion German gold marks, worth about $5 billion US dollars or £1 billion British pounds. German reparations payments ended in 1931.
The war and the treaty were followed by the hyper-inflation of the early 1920s that wreaked havoc on Germany's social structure and political stability. During that inflation, the value of the nation's currency, the Papiermark, collapsed from 8.9 per US$1 in 1918 to 4.2 trillion per US$1 by November 1923.
Prosperity reigned 1923–29, supported by large bank loans from New York. By 1929 GDP per capita was 12 per cent higher than in 1913 and between 1924 and 1929 exports doubled. Net investment reached a high average figure of nearly 12 per cent. However, unemployment was over two millions by the winter of 1928–29.
The Great Depression struck Germany hard, starting already in the last months of 1927. Foreign lending, especially by New York banks, ceased around 1930. Unemployment soared, especially in larger cities, fueling extremism and violence on the far right and far left, as the center of the political spectrum weakened. Capital flows finally reversed in 1931 and a currency crisis ensued. At the same time Germany was hit by a banking crisis, when the second largest German bank, the Danat-Bank, failed. At the peak of the crisis the United States, with the Hoover Moratorium, unilaterally declared a one-year moratorium on all reparations and war debts. Germany had paid about one-eighth of its war reparations when they were suspended in 1932 by the Lausanne Conference of 1932. The failure of major banks in Germany and Austria in 1931 worsened the worldwide banking crisis.
Germany was among the countries most severely affected by the Great Depression because its recovery and rationalization of major industries was financed by unsustainable foreign lending. War reparation obligations reduced investment propensity and, perhaps most importantly, the government implemented a rigid austerity policy that resulted in deflation.
As unemployment reached very high levels, the National Socialists accumulated government power and began to pursue their policies against the Jewish minority, political leftists and many other groups. After being elected, the National Socialists undertook a series of rapid steps to abolish democracy. Their trade policy in Germany consisted of an autarkic policy regime that aimed to cancel all imports, such as foodstuffs, that could be replaced with domestic substitutes or raw materials for the consumer-oriented industries. Only imports of iron ore and similar items were considered necessary because a main aim of the government was to strengthen the production capacity of military products. Both the persecuted and non-persecuted German groups suffered from these autarkic and trade-restraining policies.
Nazi economy
During the Hitler era (1933–45), the economy developed a hothouse prosperity, supported with high government subsidies to those sectors that tended to give Germany military power and economic autarky, that is, economic independence from the global economy. During the war itself the German economy was sustained by the exploitation of conquered territories and people. "The economic recovery in the Third Reich, as measured by GDP, is well documented; real GDP grew by some 55% between 1933 and 1937."
Physical capital in the occupied territories was destroyed by the war, insufficient reinvestment and maintenance, whereas the industrial capacity of Germany increased substantially until the end of the war despite heavy bombing. (However, much of this capacity was useless after the war because it specialized in armament production.)
With the loss of the war, the country entered into the period known as Stunde Null ("Zero Hour"), when Germany lay in ruins and the society had to be rebuilt from scratch.
Post-World War II
The first several years after World War II were years of bitter penury for the Germans. Seven million forced laborers left for their own land, but about 14 million Germans came in from the East, living for years in dismal camps. It took nearly a decade for all the German POWs to return. In the West, farm production fell, food supplies were cut off from eastern Germany (controlled by the Soviets) and food shipments extorted from conquered lands ended. The standard of living fell to levels not seen in a century, and food was always in short supply. High inflation made savings (and debts) lose 99% of their value, while the black market distorted the economy. In the East, the Soviets crushed dissent and imposed another police state, often employing ex-Nazis in the dreaded Stasi. The Soviets extracted about 23% of the East German GNP for reparations, while in the West reparations were a minor factor.
Even while the Marshall Plan was being implemented, the dismantling of ostensibly German industry continued; and in 1949 Konrad Adenauer, an opponent to Hitler's regime and the head of the Christian Democratic Union, wrote to the Allies requesting the end of industrial dismantling, citing the inherent contradiction between encouraging industrial growth and removing factories, and also the unpopularity of the policy. Adenauer had been released from prison, only to discover that the Soviets had effectively divided Europe, with Germany divided even further. Support for dismantling was by this time coming predominantly from the French, and the Petersberg Agreement of November 1949 greatly reduced the levels of deindustrialization, though dismantling of minor factories continued until 1951. The first "level of industry" plan, signed by the Allies on March 29, 1946, had stated that German heavy industry was to be lowered to 50% of its 1938 levels via the destruction of 1,500 listed manufacturing plants. Marshall Plan played a huge role in post-war recovery for Europe in general. 1948, conditions were improving, European workers exceeded by 20 percent from the earning from the west side. Thanks to the Plan, during 1952, it went up 35 percent of the industrial and agricultural.
In January 1946 the Allied Control Council set the foundation of the future German economy by putting a cap on German steel production. The maximum allowed was set at about 5,800,000 tons of steel a year, equivalent to 25% of the pre-war production level. The UK, in whose occupation zone most of the steel production was located, had argued for a more limited capacity reduction by placing the production ceiling at 12 million tons of steel per year, but had to submit to the will of the US, France and the Soviet Union (which had argued for a 3 million ton limit). Steel plants thus made redundant were to be dismantled. Germany was to be reduced to the standard of life it had known at the height of the Great Depression (1932). Consequently, car production was set to 10% of pre-war levels, and the manufacture of other commodities was reduced as well.
The first "German level of industry" plan was subsequently followed by a number of new ones, the last signed in 1949. By 1950, after the virtual completion of the by then much watered-down "level of industry" plans, equipment had been removed from 706 manufacturing plants in western Germany and steel production capacity had been reduced by 6,700,000 tons. Vladimir Petrov concludes that the Allies "delayed by several years the economic reconstruction of the war-torn continent, a reconstruction which subsequently cost the United States billions of dollars." In 1951 West Germany agreed to join the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) the following year. This meant that some of the economic restrictions on production capacity and on actual production that were imposed by the International Authority for the Ruhr were lifted, and that its role was taken over by the ECSC.
Economist Ludwig Erhard, was determined to shape a new and different kind of German economy. He was given the opportunity by American officials, who saw that many of his ideas coincided with their own. Erhard abolished the Reichsmark and then created a new currency, the Deutsche Mark, on June 21, 1948, with the concurrence of the Western Allies but also taking advantage of the opportunity to abolish most Nazi and occupation rules and regulations. It established the foundations of the West German economy and of the West German state.
Marshall Plan and productivity
The Marshall Plan was implemented in West Germany 1948-1950 as a way to modernize business procedures and utilize the best practices. The Marshall Plan made it possible for West Germany to return quickly to its traditional pattern of industrial production with a strong export sector. Without the plan, agriculture would have played a larger role in the recovery period, which itself would have been longer.
The use of the American model had begun in the 1920s. After 1950, Germany overtook Britain in comparative productivity levels for the whole economy, primarily as a result of trends in services rather than trends in industry. Britain's historic lead in productivity of its services sector was based on external economies of scale in a highly urbanized economy with an international colonial orientation. On the other hand, the low productivity in Germany was caused by the underdevelopment of services generally, especially in rural areas that comprised a much larger sector. As German farm employment declined sharply after 1950 thanks to mechanization, catching-up occurred in services. This process was aided by a sharp increase in human and physical capital accumulation, a pro-growth government policy, and the effective utilization of the education sector to create a more productive work force.
Social market economy
The German economy self-defines as a "soziale Marktwirtschaft", or "social market economy". The designation emphasizes that the system as it has developed in Weimar days and after 1945 has both a material and a social—or human—dimension stressing freedom with responsibility. The term "market" is of significance, as free enterprise is considered to be main driving force for a healthy economy. The state was to play only a minor role in the new West German economy, such as the protection of the competitive environment from monopolistic or oligopolistic tendencies—including its own. The term "social" is stressed because West Germans wanted an economy that would not only help the wealthy but also care for the workers and others who might not prove able to cope with the strenuous competitive demands of a market economy. The term "social" was chosen rather than "socialist" to distinguish their system from those in which the state claimed the right to direct the economy or to intervene in it.
Beyond these principles of the social market economy, but linked to it, comes a more traditional German concept, that of Ordnung, which can be directly translated to mean order but which really means an economy, society, and policy that are structured but not dictatorial. The founders of the social market economy insisted that Denken in Ordnungen—to think in terms of systems of order—was essential. They also spoke of Ordoliberalism because the essence of the concept is that this must be a freely chosen order, not a command order.
Over time, the term "social" in the social market economy began to take on a life of its own. It moved the West German economy toward an extensive social welfare system that has become one of the most expensive in the world. Moreover, the West German federal government and the states (Länder; singular, Land) began to compensate for irregularities in economic cycles and for shifts in world production by beginning to shelter and support some sectors and industries. In an even greater departure from the Erhard tradition, the government became an instrument for the preservation of existing industries rather than a force for renewal. In the 1970s, the state assumed an ever more important role in the economy. During the 1980s, Chancellor Helmut Kohl tried to reduce that state role, and he succeeded in part, but German unification again compelled the German government to assume a stronger role in the economy. Thus, the contradiction between the terms "social" and "market" has remained an element for debate in Germany.
Given the internal contradiction in its philosophy, the German economy is both conservative and dynamic. It is conservative in the sense that it draws on the part of the German tradition that envisages some state role in the economy and a cautious attitude toward investment and risk-taking. It is dynamic in the sense that it is directed toward growth—even if that growth may be slow and steady rather than spectacular. It tries to combine the virtues of a market system with the virtues of a social welfare system.
Economic miracle and beyond
The economic reforms and the new West German system received powerful support from a number of sources: investment funds under the European Recovery Program, more commonly known as the Marshall Plan; the stimulus to German industry provided by the diversion of other Western resources for Korean War production; and the German readiness to work hard for low wages until productivity had risen. But the essential component of success was the revival of confidence brought on by Erhard's reforms and by the new currency.
The West German boom that began in 1950 was truly memorable. The growth rate of industrial production was 25.0 percent in 1950 and 18.1 percent in 1951. Growth continued at a high rate for most of the 1950s, despite occasional slowdowns. By 1960 industrial production had risen to two-and-one-half times the level of 1950 and far beyond any that the Nazis had reached during the 1930s in all of Germany. GDP rose by two-thirds during the same decade. The number of persons employed rose from 13.8 million in 1950 to 19.8 million in 1960, and the unemployment rate fell from 10.3 percent to 1.2 percent.
Labor also benefited in due course from the boom. Although wage demands and pay increases had been modest at first, wages and salaries rose over 80 percent between 1949 and 1955, catching up with growth. West German social programs were given a considerable boost in 1957, just before a national election, when the government decided to initiate a number of social programs and to expand others.
In 1957 West Germany gained a new central bank, the Deutsche Bundesbank, generally called simply the Bundesbank, which succeeded the Bank deutscher Länder and was given much more authority over monetary policy. That year also saw the establishment of the Bundeskartellamt (Federal Cartel Office), designed to prevent the return of German monopolies and cartels. Six years later, in 1963, the Bundestag, the lower house of Germany's parliament, at Erhard's urging established the Council of Economic Experts to provide objective evaluations on which to base German economic policy.
The West German economy did not grow as fast or as consistently in the 1960s as it had during the 1950s, in part because such a torrid pace could not be sustained, in part because the supply of fresh labor from East Germany was cut off by the Berlin Wall, built in 1961, and in part because the Bundesbank became disturbed about potential overheating and moved several times to slow the pace of growth. At the beginning of 1966, the West German government submitted a budget with a strong reduction in government expenses. In the months that followed, both Karl Blessing, the president of the Bundesbank and Erhard, the chancellor, called for a cooling off of the economy in fear of inflation. By mid-1966, the joint efforts worked, and the economy started to slow down. Erhard, who had succeeded Konrad Adenauer as chancellor, was voted out of office in December 1966, largely—although not entirely—because of the economic problems of the Federal Republic. He was replaced by the Grand Coalition consisting of the Christian Democratic Union (Christlich Demokratische Union—CDU), its sister party the Christian Social Union (Christlich-Soziale Union—CSU), and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands—SPD) under Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger of the CDU.
Under the pressure of the slowdown, the new West German Grand Coalition government abandoned Erhard's broad laissez-faire orientation. The new minister for economics, Karl Schiller, argued strongly for legislation that would give the federal government and his ministry greater authority to guide economic policy. In 1967 the Bundestag passed the Law for Promoting Stability and Growth, known as the Magna Carta of medium-term economic management. That law, which remains in effect although never again applied as energetically as in Schiller's time, provided for coordination of federal, Land, and local budget plans in order to give fiscal policy a stronger impact. The law also set a number of optimistic targets for the four basic standards by which West German economic success was henceforth to be measured: currency stability, economic growth, employment levels, and trade balance. Those standards became popularly known as the magisches Viereck, the "magic rectangle" or the "magic polygon".
Schiller followed a different concept from Erhard's. He was one of the rare German Keynesians, and he brought to his new tasks the unshakable conviction that government had both the obligation and the capacity to shape economic trends and to smooth out and even eliminate the business cycle. Schiller's chosen formula was Globalsteuerung, or global guidance, a process by which government would not intervene in the details of the economy but would establish broad guidelines that would foster uninterrupted noninflationary growth.
Schiller's success in the Grand Coalition helped to give the SPD an electoral victory in 1969 and a chance to form a new coalition government with the Free Democratic Party (Freie Demokratische Partei—FDP) under Willy Brandt. The SPD-FDP coalition expanded the West German social security system, substantially increasing the size and cost of the social budget. Social program costs grew by over 10 percent a year during much of the 1970s, introducing into the budget an unalterable obligation that reduced fiscal flexibility (although Schiller and other Keynesians believed that it would have an anticyclical effect). This came back to haunt Schiller as well as every German government since then. Schiller himself had to resign in 1972 when the West German and global economies were in a downturn and when all his ideas did not seem able to revive West German prosperity. Willy Brandt himself resigned two years later.
Helmut Schmidt, Brandt's successor, was intensely interested in economics but also faced great problems, including the dramatic upsurge in oil prices of 1973-74. West Germany's GDP in 1975 fell by 1.4 percent (in constant prices), the first time since the founding of the FRG that it had fallen so sharply. The West German trade balance also fell as global demand declined and as the terms of trade deteriorated because of the rise in petroleum prices.
By 1976 the worst was over. West German growth resumed, and the inflation rate began to decline. Although neither reached the favorable levels that had come to be taken for granted during the 1950s and early 1960s, they were accepted as tolerable after the turbulence of the previous years. Schmidt began to be known as a Macher (achiever), and the government won reelection in 1976. Schmidt's success led him and his party to claim that they had built Modell Deutschland (the German model).
But the economy again turned down and, despite efforts to stimulate growth by government deficits, failed to revive quickly. It was only by mid-1978 that Schmidt and the Bundesbank were able to bring the economy into balance. After that, the economy continued expanding through 1979 and much of 1980, helping Schmidt win reelection in 1980. But the upturn proved to be uneven and unrewarding, as the problems of the mid-1970s rapidly returned. By early 1981, Schmidt faced the worst possible situation: growth fell and unemployment rose, but inflation did not abate.
By late 1982, Schmidt's coalition government collapsed as the FDP withdrew to join a coalition led by Helmut Kohl, the leader of the CDU/CSU. He began to direct what was termed the (turning or reversal). The government proceeded to implement new policies to reduce the government role in the economy and within a year won a popular vote in support of the new course.
Within its broad policy, the new government had several main objectives: to reduce the federal deficit by cutting expenditures as well as taxes, to reduce government restrictions and regulations, and to improve the flexibility and performance of the labor market. The government also carried through a series of privatization measures, selling almost DM10 billion (for value of the deutsche mark—see Glossary) in shares of such diverse state-owned institutions as VEBA, VIAG, Volkswagen, Lufthansa, and Salzgitter. Through all these steps, the state role in the West German economy declined from 52 percent to 46 percent of GDP between 1982 and 1990, according to Bundesbank statistics.
Although the policies of the changed the mood of the West German economy and reinstalled a measure of confidence, progress came unevenly and haltingly. During most of the 1980s, the figures on growth and inflation improved but slowly, and the figures on unemployment barely moved at all. There was little job growth until the end of the decade. When the statistics did change, however, even modestly, it was at least in the right direction.
Nonetheless, it also remained true that West German growth did not again reach the levels that it had attained in the early years of the Federal Republic. There had been a decline in the growth rate since the 1950s, an upturn in unemployment since the 1960s, and a gradual increase in inflation except during or after a severe downturn.
Global economic statistics also showed a decline in West German output and vitality. They showed that the West German share of total world production had grown from 6.6 percent in 1965 to 7.9 percent by 1975. Twelve years later, in 1987, however, it had fallen to 7.4 percent, largely because of the more rapid growth of Japan and other Asian states. Even adding the estimated GDP of the former East Germany at its peak before unification would not have brought the all-German share above 8.2 percent by 1989 and would leave all of Germany with barely a greater share of world production than West Germany alone had reached fifteen years earlier.
It was only in the late 1980s that West Germany's economy finally began to grow more rapidly. The growth rate for West German GDP rose to 3.7 percent in 1988 and 3.6 percent in 1989, the highest levels of the decade. The unemployment rate also fell to 7.6 percent in 1989, despite an influx of workers from abroad. Thus, the results of the late 1980s appeared to vindicate the West German supply-side revolution. Tax rate reductions had led to greater vitality and revenues. Although the cumulative public-sector deficit had gone above the DM1 trillion level, the public sector was growing more slowly than before.
The year 1989 was the last year of the West German economy as a separate and separable institution. From 1990 the positive and negative distortions generated by German reunification set in, and the West German economy began to reorient itself toward economic and political union with what had been East Germany. The economy turned gradually and massively from its primarily West European and global orientation toward an increasingly intense concentration on the requirements and the opportunities of unification.
German reunification and its aftermath
Germany invested over 2 trillion marks in the rehabilitation of the former East Germany, helping it to transition to a market economy and cleaning up the environmental degradation. By 2011 the results were mixed, with slow economic development in the East, in sharp contrast to the rapid economic growth in both west and southern Germany. Unemployment was much higher in the East, often over 15%. Economists Snower and Merkl (2006) suggest that the malaise was prolonged by all the social and economic help from the German government, pointing especially to bargaining by proxy, high unemployment benefits and welfare entitlements, and generous job-security provisions.
21st century
The German economic miracle petered out in the 1990s, so that by the end of the century and the early 2000s it was ridiculed as "the sick man of Europe". It suffered a short recession in 2003. The economic growth rate was a very low 1.2% annually from 1988 to 2005. Unemployment, especially in the eastern districts, remained stubbornly high despite heavy stimulus spending. It rose from 9.2% in 1998 to 11.1% in 2009. The worldwide Great Recession of 2008-2010 worsened conditions briefly, as there was a sharp decline in GDP. However unemployment did not rise, and recovery was faster than almost anywhere else. The old industrial centers of the Rhineland and North Germany lagged as well, as the coal and steel industries faded in importance. The economic policies were heavily oriented toward the world market, and the export sector continued to be very strong. Prosperity was pulled along by exports that reached a record of $1.7 trillion US dollars in 2011, or half of the German GDP, or nearly 8% of all of the exports in the world. While the rest of the European Community struggled with financial issues, Germany took a conservative position based on an extraordinarily strong economy after 2010. The labor market proved flexible, and the export industries were attuned to world demand.
See also
History of Germany
Notes
Further reading
Alfani, Guido, Victoria Gierok, and Felix Schaff. "Economic inequality in preindustrial Germany, ca. 1300–1850." Journal of Economic History 82.1 (2022): 87-125. online
Allen, Christopher S. "Ideas, institutions and organized capitalism: The German model of political economy twenty years after unification". German Politics and Society; 28.2 (2010): 130–150.
Banken, Ralf. "Introduction: The room for manoeuvre for firms in the Third Reich" Business History (April 2020) 62#3 pp 375–392.
Banken, Ralf, and Ben Wubs. The Rhine: A Transnational Economic History (Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG, 2017).
Berghahn, Volker Rolf. Modern Germany: Society, Economy, and Politics in the Twentieth Century (1987) ACLS E-book
Berghahn, Volker R. American Big Business in Britain and Germany: A Comparative History of Two "Special Relationships" in the Twentieth Century (Princeton University Press, 2014).
Böhme, Helmut. An Introduction to the Social and Economic History of Germany: Politics and Economic Change in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries(1978)
Brinkmann, Carl. "The Place of Germany in the Economic History of the Nineteenth Century". Economic History Review 4#2 (1933), pp 129–146. online.
Buse, Dieter K. ed. Modern Germany: An Encyclopedia of History, People, and Culture 1871-1990 (2 vol 1998)
Clapham, J. H. The Economic Development of France and Germany: 1815-1914 (1921) online, a famous classic, filled with details.
Clark, Christopher. Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600-1947 (2006)
Curi, Luiz Felipe Bruzzi, and Ian Coelho de Souza Almeida. "Beyond the Sonderweg: defining political economy in 19th-century Germany." European Journal of the History of Economic Thought (2021): 1-21.
Detwiler, Donald S. Germany: A Short History (3rd ed. 1999) 341pp;
Dustmann, Christian, et al. "From sick man of Europe to economic superstar: Germany's resurgent economy". Journal of Economic Perspectives 28.1 (2014): 167–88. in early 21st century online
Fairbairn, Brett, "Economic and Social Developments", in James Retallack, Imperial Germany 1871-1918 (2010)
Fink, Leon. "The Good Postwar: German Worker Rights, 1945–1950" in Fink, Undoing the Liberal World Order: Progressive Ideals and Political Realities Since World War II (Columbia UP, 2022) online 46-74.
Fischer, Wolfram. "Some Recent Developments of Business History in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland". Business History Review (1963): 416–436. online
Fohlin, Caroline, and Amanda G. Gregg. "Finance Capitalism in Industrializing Autocracies: Evidence from Corporate Balance Sheets in Imperial Germany and Russia." (2022). online
Gray, William Glenn. Trading Power: West Germany’s Rise to Global Influence, 1963–1975 (Cambridge University Press, 2023). ISBN 9781108341196
Haber, Ludwig. The Chemical Industry During the Nineteenth Century: A Study of the Economic Aspect of Applied Chemistry in Europe and North America (1958); The Chemical Industry: 1900-1930: International Growth and Technological Change (1971)
Haffert, Lukas, Nils Redeker, and Tobias Rommel. "Misremembering Weimar: Hyperinflation, the Great Depression, and German collective economic memory." Economics & Politics 33.3 (2021): 664-686.
Hamerow, Theodore S. Restoration, Revolution, Reaction: Economics and Politics in Germany, 1815-1871 (1958)
Hardach, Karl. The Political Economy of Germany in the Twentieth Century (U of California Press, 2020).
Henderson, William O. The State and the Industrial Revolution in Prussia, 1740-1870 (1958)
Holborn, Hajo. A History of Modern Germany (3 vol 1959–64); vol 1: The Reformation; vol 2: 1648–1840; vol 3. 1840-1945
James, Harold. Krupp: A History of the Legendary German Firm. (Princeton University Press, 2012). .
Knapp, Manfred, et al. "Reconstruction and West-Integration: The Impact of the Marshall Plan on Germany". Zeitschrift Für Die Gesamte Staatswissenschaft / Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics 137#3 (1981), pp 415–433. online in English
Lee, W. R. (ed.), German Industry and German Industrialisation (1991)
Link, Stefan J. Forging Global Fordism: Nazi Germany, Soviet Russia, and the Contest over the Industrial Order (2020) excerpt
Meskill, David. Optimizing the German Workforce: Labor Administration From Bismarck to the Economic Miracle (Berghahn Books; 2010) 276 pages; studies continuities in German governments' efforts to create a skilled labor force across the disparate imperial, Weimar, Nazi, and postwar regimes.
Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. The Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780-1870 (1973), pp 365–431 covers 1815-1870 online;
Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850-1914 (1977) pp 17–70 online
Naudé, Wim, and Paula Nagler. "The Ossified Economy: The Case of Germany, 1870-2020." (2022). online
Overy, R. J. The Nazi Economic Recovery 1932-1938 (1996) excerpt and text search
Overy, R. J. War and Economy in the Third Reich (1994)
Perkins, J. A. "Dualism in German Agrarian Historiography, Comparative Studies in Society & History, April 1986, Vol. 28 Issue 2, pp 287–330, compares large landholdings in the territories east of the Elbe river, and the West-Elbian small-scale agriculture.
Pierenkemper, T., and R. Tilly, The German Economy during the Nineteenth Century (2004)
Plumpe, Werner, Alexander Nützenadel, and Catherine Schenk. Deutsche Bank: The Global Hausbank, 1870–2020 (Bloomsbury, 2020).
Plumpe, Werner. German Economic and Business History in the 19th and 20th Centuries (Palgrave Macmillan, 2016)
Priemel, Kim Christian. "National Socialism and German Business". in A Companion to Nazi Germany (2018): 281+.
Rosenberg, Hans. "Political and Social Consequences of the Great Depression of 1873-1896 in Central Europe". Economic History Review 13#1/2, 1943, pp 58–73. online
Sagarra, Eda. A Social History of Germany: 1648-1914 (1977)
Siebert, Horst. The German Economy: Beyond the Social Market (Princeton University Press, 2005)
Stern, Fritz. Gold and Iron: Bismark, Bleichroder, and the Building of the German Empire (1979) in-depth scholarly study from viewpoint of Bismarck's banker excerpt and text search
Tipton, Frank B. "The National Consensus in German Economic History", Central European History (1974) 7#3 pp 195–224 in JSTOR
Tooze, Adam. The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy. London: Allen Lane, 2006. .
Primary sources
Pollard, Sidney and Colin Holmes, eds. Documents of European Economic History: Process of Industrialization, 1750-1870 v. 1 (1968) passim.
Pollard, Sidney and Colin Holmes, eds. Documents of European Economic History: Industrial Power and National Rivalry 1870-1914 v. 2 (1972) passim.
Pollard, Sidney and Colin Holmes, eds. Documents of European Economic History: The End of the Old Europe 1914-1939 v. 3 (1972) passim.
Germany
External links
Articles containing video clips |
4337404 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic%20history%20of%20Turkey | Economic history of Turkey | The economic history of the Republic of Turkey may be studied according to sub-periods signified with major changes in economic policy:
1923–1929, when development policy emphasised private accumulation;
1929–1945, when development policy emphasised state accumulation in a period of global crises;
1950–1980, a period of state guided industrialisation based on import substituting protectionism;
1980 onwards, opening of the Turkish economy to liberal trade in goods, services and financial market transactions.
However one distinct characteristic between 1923–1985, in large part as a result of government policies, a backward economy developed into a complex economic system producing a wide range of agricultural, industrial, and service products for both domestic and export markets the economy grew at an average annual rate of six percent.
Since 1820, Turkey has experienced economic growth and human development at average levels (compared to the rest of the world) but at higher rates than other developing countries.
From World War I to World War II
At the time of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire (see Economy of the Ottoman Empire) during World War I and the subsequent birth of the Republic, the Turkish economy was underdeveloped: agriculture depended on outmoded techniques and poor-quality livestock, and Turkey's industrial base was weak; the few factories producing basic products such as sugar and flour were under foreign control as a result of the capitulations.
After the establishment of the Turkish Republic, the new government committed itself to a relatively moderate economic policy. The basic direction of Turkey's economic development has been preliminarily determined, namely, the development of modern national industries, protection of customs duties, encouragement of private investment and absorption of foreign investment. At the same time, Economy Minister Mahmut Esat Bozkurt as representative of the "new Turkish economics" illustrates the basic economic policies of the Turkish government in the 1920s, the principle of nationalism and liberalism dual economy, the state-owned economy and non-state economy coexist and mixed structure of national capital and foreign capital, to raise tariffs and restrict imports, to protect national industry, emphasizing the countries in the credit and dominant position in the field of industry.
The first President, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk announced that foreign companies and foreign businessmen would be allowed to invest in Turkey within the framework of the law in 1921. At the beginning of the Republic of Turkey, foreign capital played an important role in Turkey's economic life, with finance, railways, and mining under the control of foreign capital.
From 1923 to 1926, agricultural output rose by eighty-seven percent, as agricultural production returned to pre-war levels. Industry and services grew at more than nine percent per year from 1923 to 1929; however, their share of the economy remained quite low at the end of the decade.
In 1927, Anglo-French controlled Ottoman Banks provided about half of Turkey's production credit and even the right to issue notes.
In 1930, the Turkish government established the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey, which was responsible for the formulation of monetary policies and the regulation of money supply. At the same time, it recovered the right to issue notes and purchased foreign enterprises and railways and ports operated by foreign capital. The degree of nationalization of the national economy was significantly improved.
In the 1930s, the Turkish government abandoned the relatively moderate liberal economic policies and promoted the radical nationalist economic policies, vigorously developed the state-owned economy, emphasized the principle of giving priority to industrial development, and expanded government intervention and investment in industrial production, aiming at accelerating the process of industrialization. Coping with the negative impact of the western economic crisis from 1929 to 1933 on the Turkish economy is the direct cause of the implementation of the nationalist policy in Turkey. The government stepped in during the early 1930s to promote economic recovery, following a doctrine known as statism. Growth slowed during the worst years of the depression, except between 1935 and 1939 when it reached six percent per year. During the 1940s, the economy stagnated, in large part because maintaining armed neutrality during World War II increased the country's military expenditures while almost entirely curtailing foreign trade.
Post 1950
In the 1950s, the Turkish government emphasized the liberal economic policies, encouraged private capital and foreign capital to invest in the industrial sector, and established the Turkish industrial development bank to provide loans to private entrepreneurs who invested in industry.
In 1954, the Turkish government promulgated the Foreign Investment Act (Act no. 6224), offering many preferential conditions to foreign investors, opening up the domestic market and attracting foreign investors. With investors from the US, West Germany, France and Italy the following suit, the modern industrial sector is the preferred investment for foreign investors.
After 1950 the country suffered economic disruptions about once a decade; the most serious crisis occurred in the late 1970s. In each case, an industry-led period of rapid expansion, marked by a sharp increase in imports, resulted in a balance of payments crisis. Devaluations of the Turkish lira and austerity programs designed to dampen domestic demand for foreign goods were implemented in accordance with International Monetary Fund guidelines. These measures usually led to sufficient improvement in the country's external accounts to make possible the resumption of loans to Turkey by foreign creditors. Although the military interventions of 1960 and 1971 were prompted in part by economic difficulties, after each intervention Turkish politicians boosted government spending, causing the economy to overheat. In the absence of serious structural reforms, Turkey ran chronic current account deficits usually financed by external borrowing that made the country's external debt rise from decade to decade, reaching by 1980 about US$16.2 billion, or more than one-quarter of annual gross domestic product. Debt-servicing costs in that year equaled 33 percent of exports of goods and services.
During this period, the number and size of private enterprises have shown a trend of substantial growth. According to statistics, there were 660 private enterprises with more than 10 employees in 1951, 1,160 in 1953 and 5,300 in 1960. At the same time, the average number of workers employed by the private sector increased from 25 to 33.
Since the 1960s, the Turkish government take a series of positive measures, including tax rebates for private entrepreneurs in the emerging industry investment and preferential tariffs on imported equipment imported industrial tariffs and private companies to provide low-interest loans, to encourage the development of private enterprises, private enterprises accelerate the pace of development, production of private enterprises the soaring, the industrial structure of the private enterprises are also changing accordingly. The constitution promulgated in 1961 emphasizes the common development of the private economy and state-owned economy, the organic combination of market economy and planned economy, and the leading position of the state in the financial field. Investment in the state-owned economy is mainly concentrated in large enterprises that are capital – and technology-intensive, such as infrastructure construction and metallurgy and chemical industry. The investment sector of the private economy is mainly small and medium-sized enterprises that produce daily consumer goods such as food processing and textiles.
In this period, the mixed economic structure of state-owned organizations and private business coexisted for a long time, and state-owned companies and private enterprises were divided equally. State-owned organizations were few in numbers but large in scale; The number of business that owned by privates was huge, but the scale was small. Enterprises which owned by the state had advantages in capital, technology and production scale, and private enterprises had higher production efficiency and market competitiveness than state-owned enterprises. The input-output ratio of national enterprises was lower than the private sectors. The size of organizations owned by the state and their proportion in the total value of industrial output showed a trend of a gradual decline, while the size of private enterprises and their proportion in the total industrial output value showed an increasing trend. Still, the state sector had long dominated Turkey's industrial production.
By the late 1970s, Turkey's economy had perhaps reached its worst crisis since the fall of the Ottoman Empire. Turkish authorities had failed to take sufficient measures to adjust to the effects of the sharp increase in world oil prices in 1973–74 and had financed the resulting deficits with short-term loans from foreign lenders. By 1979 inflation had reached triple-digit levels, unemployment had risen to about 15 percent, the industry was using only half its capacity, and the government was unable to pay even the interest on foreign loans. It seemed that Turkey would be able to sustain crisis-free development only if major changes were made in the government's import-substitution approach to development. Many observers doubted the ability of Turkish politicians to carry out the needed reforms.
Reforms under Özal
In the 1980s, the Turkish government abandoned the import-important industrial development model, formulated new economic development strategies, encouraged private investment, expanded the market economy, established a free trade zone, and emphasized the competitiveness of the international market in the context of globalization. The export-oriented economic model has gradually matured. In January 1980, the Demirel government announced a new economic reform program, abandoning the industrialization strategy of inward-looking import substitution, reducing direct government intervention, reducing import tariffs, implementing liberalized economic policies, and formulating export-oriented and market-adjusted Economic strategy is a turning point in the history of Turkey's economic development model. Furthermore, Turgutz Özal was appointed as the deputy prime minister to oversee economic affairs. In the year after the military coup, Özal's economic recovery plan was initially implemented, and the inflation rate fell from 140% to 35%. The government's fiscal revenues and expenditures gradually became balanced.
After Özal was elected prime minister in 1983, he increased the implementation of new economic policies, devalued currencies, raised interest rates, frozen wages, encouraged private investment, attracted foreign investment, encouraged exports, relaxed import and export trade and currency restrictions, and increased export competitiveness. To alleviate the trade deficit, improve fiscal revenue and expenditure, and curb inflation. At the same time, the government is committed to transforming state-owned enterprises and promoting the privatization of state-owned enterprises. Since 1984, the government has abolished the preferential and subsidy policies enjoyed by state-owned enterprises, implemented fair competition between state-owned enterprises and private enterprises, and sold privately owned enterprises' securities and stocks to privately, canceled private investment restrictions, and expanded private investment.
The Özal strategy called for import-substitution policies to be replaced with policies designed to encourage exports that could finance imports, giving Turkey a chance to break out of the postwar pattern of alternating periods of rapid growth and deflation. With this strategy, planners hoped Turkey could experience export-led growth over the long run. The government pursued these goals by means of a comprehensive package: devaluation of the Turkish lira and institution of flexible exchange rates, maintenance of positive real interest rates and tight control of the money supply and credit, elimination of most subsidies and the freeing of prices charged by state enterprises, reform of the tax system, and encouragement of foreign investment. In July 1982, when Özal left office, many of his reforms were placed on hold. Starting in November 1983, however, when he again became prime minister, he was able to extend the liberalization program.
The liberalization program overcame the balance of payments crisis, reestablished Turkey's ability to borrow in international capital markets, and led to renewed economic growth. Merchandise exports grew from US$2.3 billion in 1979 to US$8.3 billion in 1985. Merchandise import growth in the same periodfrom US$4.8 billion to US$11.2 billiondid not keep pace with export growth and proportionately narrowed the trade deficit, although the deficit level stabilized at around US$2.5 billion. Özal's policies had a particularly positive impact on the services account of the current account. Despite a jump in interest payments, from US$200 million in 1979 to US$1.4 billion in 1985, the services account accumulated a growing surplus during this period. Expanding tourist receipts and pipeline fees from Iraq were the main reasons for this improvement. Stabilizing the current account helped restore creditworthiness on international capital markets. Foreign investment, which had been negligible in the 1970s, now started to grow, although it remained modest in the mid-1980s. Also, Turkey was able to borrow on the international market, whereas in the late 1970s it could only seek assistance from the IMF and other official creditors.
The reduction in public expenditures, which was at the heart of the stabilization program, slowed the economy sharply in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Real gross national product declined 1.5 percent in 1979 and 1.3 percent in 1980. The manufacturing and services sectors felt much of the impact of this drop in income, with the manufacturing sector operating at close to 50 percent of total capacity. As the external-payments constraint eased, the economy bounced back sharply. Between 1981 and 1985, real GNP grew 3 percent per year, led by growth in the manufacturing sector. With tight controls on workers' earnings and activities, the industrial sector began drawing on unused industrial capacity and raised output by an average rate of 9.1 percent per year between 1981 and 1985. The devaluation of the lira also helped make Turkey more economically competitive. As a result, exports of manufactures increased by an average rate of 4.5 percent per annum during this period.
The rapid resurgence of growth and the improvement in the balance of payments were insufficient to overcome unemployment and inflation, which remained serious problems. The official jobless rate fell from 15 percent in 1979 to 11 percent in 1980, but, partly because of the rapid growth of the labor force, unemployment rose again, to 13 percent in 1985. Inflation fell to about 25 percent in the 1981–82 period, but it climbed again, to more than 30 percent in 1983 and more than 40 percent in 1984. Although inflation eased somewhat in 1985 and 1986, it remained one of the primary problems facing economic policy makers.
Rapid economic growth in the 1990s
The new economic policy implemented in the 1980s accelerated the development of the Turkish economy. The annual growth rate of GDP was 3.3% in 1983, 5.1% in 1985, and 7.5% in 1987. In contrast, the rate of economic development in the 1990s, except 1991 and 1994, generally exceeded the 1980s (annual growth in GDP, 9.4% in 1990 and 0.3% in 1991). In 1992, it was 6.4%, in 1993 it was 8.1%, in 1994 it was 6.1%, in 1995 it was 8%, in 1996 it was 7.1%, and in 1997 it was 8%).
On the other hand, the implementation of the new economic policy has led to a rapid increase in import and export trade. Along with the growth of import and export trade, the structure of export commodities has undergone significant changes; the export volume of industrial products has continued to rise, which constitutes a prominent phenomenon in the rapid development of the export-oriented economy in the 1990s. In 1990, Turkey's total exports increased to 13 billion U.S. dollars, of which the proportion of agricultural products in total exports fell to 25.5%, and the proportion of industrial products in total exports rose to 67.9%. In 1997, Turkey's total exports reached US$26.2 billion, of which agricultural products accounted for only 20.8% of total exports, and industrial products accounted for 74.9% of total exports.
Late 20th century
With limited access to the Persian Gulf, Iraq also came to depend heavily on Turkey for export routes for its crude oil. Iraq had financed two pipelines located next to one another from its northern Kirkuk oilfields to the Turkish Mediterranean port of Yumurtalık, slightly northwest of İskenderun. The capacity of the pipelines totaled around (bpd). Not only did Turkey obtain part of its domestic supplies from the pipeline, but it was paid a sizable entrepôt fee. Some sources have estimated this fee at US$300 million to US$500 million.
Turkey's economy was battered by the 1991 Persian Gulf War. The UN embargo on Iraq required the ending of oil exports through the Kirkuk-Yumurtalık pipelines, resulting in the loss of the pipeline fees. In addition, the economy may have lost as much as US$3 billion in trade with Iraq. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) moved to compensate Turkey for these losses, however, and by 1992 the economy again began to grow rapidly.
Turkey's impressive economic performance in the 1980s won high marks from Wall Street's credit-rating agencies. In 1992 and 1993, the government used these ratings to attract funds to cover its budget deficits. International bond issues over this period amounted to US$7.5 billion. These capital flows helped maintain the overvalued exchange rate. In a market economy, a high level of government borrowing should translate into higher domestic interest rates and even possibly "crowd out" private-sector borrowers, thereby eventually slowing economic growth. But the government's foreign borrowing took the pressure off domestic interest rates and actually spurred more private-sector borrowing in an already overheated economy. Sensing an easy profit opportunity during this period, commercial banks borrowed at world interest rates and lent at Turkey's higher domestic rates without fear of a depreciating currency. As a result, Turkey's foreign short-term debt rose sharply. External and internal confidence in the government's ability to manage the impending balance of payments crisis waned, compounding economic difficulties.
Disputes between Prime Minister Tansu Çiller (1993–1996) and the Central Bank governor undermined confidence in the government. The prime minister insisted on monetizing the fiscal deficit (selling government debt instruments to the Central Bank) rather than acceding to the Central Bank's proposal to issue more public debt in the form of government securities. The Central Bank governor resigned in August 1993 over this issue. In January 1994, international credit agencies downgraded Turkey's debt to below investment grade. At that time, a second Central Bank governor resigned.
Mounting concern over the disarray in economic policy was reflected in an accelerated "dollarization" of the economy as residents switched domestic assets into foreign-currency deposits to protect their investments. By the end of 1994, about 50 percent of the total deposit base was held in the form of foreign-currency deposits, up from 1 percent in 1993. The downgrading by credit-rating agencies and a lack of confidence in the government's budget deficit target of 14 percent of GDP for 1994 triggered large-scale capital flight and the collapse of the exchange rate. The government had to intervene by selling its foreign-currency reserves to staunch the decline of the Turkish lira. As a result, reserves fell from US$6.3 billion at the end of 1993 to US$3 billion by the end of March 1994. Before the end of April, when the government was forced to announce a long-overdue austerity program following the March 1994 local elections, the lira had plummeted by 76 percent from the end of 1993 to TL41,000 against the United States dollar.
The package of measures announced by the government on April 5, 1994, was also submitted to the IMF as part of its request for a US$740 million standby facility beginning in July 1994. Measures included a sharp increase in prices the public-sector enterprises would charge the public, decreases in budgetary expenditures, a commitment to raise taxes, and a pledge to accelerate privatization of state economic enterprises (SEEs). Some observers questioned the credibility of these measures, given that the tax measures translated into a revenue increase equivalent to 4 percent of GDP and the expenditure cuts were equivalent to 6 percent of GDP.
The government actually succeeded in generating a small surplus in the budget during the second quarter of 1994, mainly as a result of higher taxes, after running a deficit of 17 percent of GDP in the first quarter. The slowdown in government spending, a sharp loss in business confidence, and the resulting decline in economic activity reduced tax revenues, however. The fiscal crisis resulted in a decline in real GDP of 5 percent in 1994 after the economy had grown briskly in 1992 and 1993. Real wages also fell in 1994: average nominal wage increases of 65 percent were about 20 percent below the rate of consumer price inflation.
Analysts pointed out that despite the fragility of the macroeconomic adjustment process and the susceptibility of fiscal policy to political pressures, the government continued to be subject to market checks and balances. Combined with a stronger private sector, particularly on the export front, the economy was expected to bounce back to a pattern of faster growth.
A comprehensive research in Journal of Developing Economies which was authored by Mete Feridun of University of Greenwich Business School, report statistical evidence that currency crises in Turkey during this period are associated with global liquidity conditions, fiscal imbalances, capital outflows, and banking sector weaknesses
A more recent research by Mete Feridun which was published in Emerging Markets Finance and Trade investigates the hypothesis that there is a causal relation between speculative pressure and real exchange rate overvaluation, banking-sector fragility, and the level of international reserves in Turkey shedding more light on Turkey's economic history of 1990s.
Consequences of the new economic policy
As a result of the rapid growth of population and the rapid progress of industrialization, Turkey's urbanization has also led to corresponding changes in the social structure, shaping a new social class.
The consequences of the new economic policy are the violent fluctuations in the economic field, the intensification of the polarization between the rich and the poor, which has a wide-ranging social influence and profound political influence. It is the historical background for the emergence of Islamism in the Turkish political arena. The inflation rate was lower than 40% in the early 1980s, 70% in 1987, and 120.1% in 1992. In 1987, 20% of the rich had a 49.8% income; in 1994, 20% of the rich had a 50% income.
On the one hand, modern industrial workers have gradually emerged and become important social forces; on the other hand, the shanty towns where rural immigrants live have expanded year by year, and the urban poor have expanded dramatically. The 1950s was the fastest stage of urbanization. In the 1980s, the number of shanty towns around the city, the number of people living in the city, and the proportion of the urban population showed a significant upward trend. With the expansion of shanty towns around the city and the rapid expansion of the urban poor, the opposition between the rich and the poor in urban society has become increasingly prominent, and the collapse of the traditional order has led to the state of helplessness and serious unemployment in the lower classes moving from rural to urban areas, providing radical forces and soils that are highly inclined to breed.
Early 21st century
In the 21st century, the economy of Turkey has prospered thanks to a long period of steady economic growth, well above the average of the 1990s. It has become one of the world's emerging economies and one of the fastest growing countries in the world with a strong industrial base caused by an economic boom in the 2000s. In addition, Turkey's economic situation was relatively prosperous during the 2008 global financial crisis. The Turkish government has developed a series of macroeconomic policies in accordance with the new economic plan and the Turkish government has used the new government structure and cooperated with the International Monetary Fund, which has led to some good effects, including reducing the unemployment rate, higher education level, and increasing life expectancy. As a result, real GDP growth made Turkey one of the fastest growing countries in the 2000s. Turkish geopolitical strategy and geography are extremely important as it is the crossroads connecting Europe and Asia. Turkey is a founding member of the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development, a member of the G20 and the NATO, and a candidate for the European Union.
Turkey's location at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and the Middle East has made it a strategic hub for trade and investment, but also a vulnerable target for economic turmoil. In this article, we will examine the major trends and challenges that have shaped the Turkish economy from 2003 to 2023.
Since the early 2000s, Turkey has experienced a period of high economic growth, averaging 5.4% annually until 2018. This growth was largely driven by a series of structural reforms initiated by the AKP government, including the privatization of state-owned enterprises, deregulation of key sectors, and improvements in fiscal and monetary policies. These reforms also helped to reduce inflation from double digits to single digits and increase foreign direct investment in the country.
Turkey's economy has undergone a significant structural transformation, with the share of agriculture declining from 27% to 8% of GDP, and the share of industry and services increasing to 31% and 61% respectively. The country has become a major exporter of automobiles, textiles, and electronics, while the tourism industry has also been a significant contributor to GDP. However, the reliance on a few key industries has made the economy vulnerable to external shocks, as seen in the aftermath of the 2016 coup attempt and the COVID-19 pandemic.
Inflation has been a persistent challenge for the Turkish economy, with rates fluctuating between 6% and 25% in the last two decades. The depreciation of the Turkish lira has been a major factor contributing to inflation, as well as external factors such as fluctuations in oil prices and global trade tensions. The lira has also experienced significant depreciation against major currencies, leading to a rise in foreign debt and a decline in purchasing power for Turkish citizens.
Current economic status and future economy
According to data released by the Turkish Statistical Institute, gross domestic product (GDP) fell by 2.4% in the fourth quarter of 2017, which was the second consecutive quarter of economic decline after the third quarter contracted by 1.6%. Affected by the deterioration of the relationship between Turkey and the United States, the exchange rate crisis in Turkey. For the whole of last year, the Turkish lira fell by 30% against the US dollar. Due to the sharp depreciation of the lira, the cost of corporate debt repayment has increased, and many companies have filed for bankruptcy. In addition, Turkey is also facing high inflation problems. In October 2018, the consumer price index (CPI) rose by 25% year-on-year, a record high in 15 years.
See also
Economy of Turkey
References
Further reading
Aşık, Güneş; Karakoç, Ulaş; Pamuk, Şevket (2023). "Regional inequalities and the West–East divide in Turkey since 1913". The Economic History Review. 76 (4): 1305–1332.
External links
https://economics.rabobank.com/publications/2013/september/the-turkish-2000-01-banking-crisis/
Turkey: From Empire to Revolutionary Republic; The Emergence of the Turkish Nation from 1789 to Present |
4337584 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamite%20Entertainment | Dynamite Entertainment | Dynamite Entertainment is an American comic book publisher founded in 2004 by Nick Barrucci in Mount Laurel, New Jersey, known for publishing comic book adaptations of licensed feature film properties, such as Army of Darkness, Terminator, and RoboCop; licensed or public domain literary properties such as Zorro, Dracula, Sherlock Holmes, Alice in Wonderland, Red Sonja, Tarzan, and John Carter of Mars; and superhero books including Project Superpowers, which revived classic public domain characters, and original creator-owned comics like The Boys.
Creators who have produced Dynamite's books include Alex Ross, John Cassaday, Matt Wagner, Garth Ennis, Howard Chaykin and Frank Miller. Dynamic Forces, a distribution of Dynamite's comics and books, announced a partnership with Diamond Distribution in 2008, when Diamond had the rights to publishing the international versions of books made by Dynamite Entertainment.
History
Dynamite Entertainment was founded by Nick Barrucci in 2004, initially publishing one comic: Army of Darkness, a miniseries it published through Devil's Due Publishing until it began self-publishing its own titles later that year. After devoting itself to publishing only Army of Darkness, which included a second miniseries, Dynamite published Red Sonja, starting with a 25-cent issue #0. It sold 240,000 copies. Issue #1 of Red Sonja, the first to sell at the full cover price of $2.99, sold 100,000 in initial orders, securing a stable position in the American comic book industry. By 2009, Dynamite was publishing 14–20 comic books and 2–10 collections per month.
Dynamite focuses primarily on comic book adaptations of licensed properties, such as Sherlock Holmes, The Lone Ranger, and Red Sonja. They also publish original books like Project Superpowers, and creator-owned comics like The Boys.
Among its adaptations are those based on classic literature such as Alice in Wonderland, Dracula, and Zorro; television series such as Xena: Warrior Princess Battlestar Galactica, and Buck Rogers, and films such as Darkman, The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, RoboCop, Highlander, and the Terminator franchise.
Its film adaptations also include those of classic monsters such as Dracula, Dr. Jekyll & Mr. Hyde, Frankenstein's Monster, and the Wolfman.
The company gradually built its graphic novel program with titles like Howard Chaykin's American Flagg!, reprints of Marvel Comics' Red Sonja series, and material by other creators like Jim Starlin and Jae Lee.
In addition to publishing crossover storylines in which characters from these various properties meet, such as Terminator/RoboCop, and Vampirella/Dracula: Unholy!, Dynamite has also produced intercompany crossover books with other publishers. One, titled "Monster War", was released through Image Comics in 2005, and consisted of several titles that pitted the classic monsters against Top Cow published characters Witchblade, the Darkness, Magdalena, and Tomb Raider. The other was a 2006 crossover between DC Comics' Red Sonja/Claw The Unconquered: Devil's Hands.
In February 2007, Dynamite Entertainment the publishing rights to Garth Ennis' creator-owned series The Boys after the book was cancelled six months into its run by DC Comics' WildStorm imprint. In July 2019, Sony Pictures Television and Amazon Studios premiered an adapted television series of The Boys for Amazon Prime Video after a brand licensing agreement was granted by Dynamite.
In 2009 Dynamite announced it would publish new comics featuring Lee Falk's The Phantom.
In 2010, Dynamite began publishing comic books based on The Green Hornet, beginning with a miniseries written by Kevin Smith and followed by Green Hornet: Year One, which was written by Matt Wagner, and another written by Brett Matthews.
In May 2010, Dynamite Entertainment acquired Chaos! Comics' library, which included and all of that publisher's associated assets, with the exception of Lady Death. Among these properties were the publishing labels Black Label Graphics, Infinity Comics, and the properties Evil Ernie, Smiley The Psychotic Button, Chastity, Purgatori, Jade, Omen, Bad Kitty, Cremator, Lady Demon.
In October 2013, Dynamite announced it would launch a line of comics based on titles originally published by Gold Key Comics, the first of which would be Magnus: Robot Fighter, The Occult Files of Doctor Spektor, Solar: Man of the Atom, and Turok.
In July 2016, author Andy Mangels stated in a New York Times interview that he was writing a new intercompany crossover mini-series for the company, in conjunction with DC Comics, Wonder Woman '77 Meets the Bionic Woman, which brought together the Lynda Carter television version of the Amazon superhero with Jaime Sommers, the cyborg super-heroine played by Lindsay Wagner in the 1970s TV series, The Bionic Woman. The series was released in that December.
List of Dynamite Entertainment titles
#
007 #1–6 (August–November 2022)
007: For King and Country #1–6 (April–September 2023)
A
Adolescent Radioactive Black Belt Hamsters #1–4 (January–June 2008)
After Earth: Innocence (October 2012)
Agent 47: Birth of the Hitman #1–6 (2017–June 2018)
Alice Cooper #1–6 (September 2014–February 2015)
Alice Cooper vs. Chaos #1–6 (2015–2015)
Aliens/Vampirella #1–6 (2015–2016; co-published with Dark Horse Comics)
Alpha and Omega: Cry Wolf #1–8 (June 2010–June 2012)
Altered Carbon: Download Blues (June 2019)
Altered Carbon: One Life One Death (May 2022)
Altered States: Doc Savage (March 2015)
Altered States: Red Sonja (March 2015)
Altered States: The Shadow (March 2015)
Altered States: Vampirella (March 2015)
Animal Jam #1–3 (2017)
Ani-Max (August 2010; co-published with Liquid Comics)
Army of Darkness #5–13 (March 2006–December 2006, the first four issues previously published by Devil's Due Publishing)
Army of Darkness vol. 2, #1–27 (August 2007–April 2010)
Army of Darkness vol. 3, #1–13 (February 2012–May 2013), #1992.1 (November 2014)
Army of Darkness vol. 4, #1–5 (December 2014–April 2015)
Army of Darkness: Ash for President (September 2016)
Army of Darkness: Ash Gets Hitched #1–4 (July–November 2014)
Army of Darkness: Ash Saves Obama #1–4 (August–December 2009)
Army of Darkness: Ash's Christmas Horror (December 2008)
Army of Darkness: Convention Invasion (October 2014)
Army of Darkness: Furious Road #1–6 (March–August 2016)
Army of Darkness/Bubba Ho-Tep #1–4 (February–June 2019)
Army of Darkness/Xena: Why Not? #1–4 (March–July 2008)
Army of Darkness/Xena: Forever... and a Day #1–6 (2016–2017)
The Army of Darkness 1979 #1–5 (September 2021–January 2022)
The Army of Darkness versus Reanimator: Necronomicon Rising #1–5 (July–November 2022)
Army of Darkness vs. Hack/Slash #1–6 (July 2013–February 2014)
Army of Darkness vs. Re-Animator #1–4 (October 2005–February 2006)
Ash and the Army of Darkness #1–8 (2013–June 2014), Annual (2014)
Ash vs. the Army of Darkness #0–5 (June–November 2017)
Army of Darkness/Reanimator (October 2013)
Athena #1–4 (September 2009–January 2010)
The Avenger #1–6 (June–November 2015)
The Avenger: Faces of Justice #1–4 (2017)
The Avenger: The Television Killers (December 2014)
B
Bad Ass #1–4 (January–April 2014)
Bad Kitty (October 2014)
Barbarella #1–12 (2017–November 2018)
Barbarella vol. 2, #1–10 (July 2021–June 2022)
Barbarella: The Center Cannot Hold #1–6 (February–August 2023)
Barbarella/Dejah Thoris #1–4 (January–June 2019)
Batman '66 Meets the Green Hornet #1–6 (August 2014–January 2015; co-published with DC Comics)
Batman/The Shadow #1–7 (June–November 2017; co-published with DC Comics)
Battlefields #1–9 (December 2009–August 2010)
Battlefields vol. 2, #1–6 (October 2012–May 2013)
Battlefields: Dear Billy #1–3 (January–March 2009)
Battlefields: Night Witches #1–3 (October 2008–January 2009)
Battlefields: The Tankies #1–3 (April–July 2009)
Battlestar Galactica #0–12 (June 2006–July 2007)
Battlestar Galactica vol. 2, #1–12 (May 2013–June 2014), Annual (April 2014)
Battlestar Galactica vol. 3, #1–5 (August—December 2016)
Battlestar Galactica: Cylon Apocalypse #1–4 (March–June 2007)
Battlestar Galactica: Cylon War #1–4 (January–April 2009)
Battlestar Galactica: Death of Apollo #1–6 (December 2014–May 2015)
Battlestar Galactica: Ghosts #1–4 (October 2008–January 2009)
Battlestar Galactica: Gods and Monsters #1–5 (2016—2017)
Battlestar Galactica: Origins #1–11 (December 2007–October 2008)
Battlestar Galactica: Pegasus (November 2007)
Battlestar Galactica: Season Zero #1–12 (August 2007–August 2008)
Battlestar Galactica: Six #1–5 (April 2014–May 2015)
Battlestar Galactica: Starbuck #1–4 (2013–2014)
Battlestar Galactica: The Final Five #1–4 (April–July 2009)
Battlestar Galactica: Zarek #1–4 (December 2006–April 2007)
Battlestar Galactica Classic #1–5 (October 2006—March 2007)
Battlestar Galactica Classic vol. 2, #0–5 (October 2018–May 2019)
Battlestar Galactica vs. Battlestar Galactica #1–6 (January–June 2018)
Bettie Page #1–8 (2017–February 2018), Halloween Special (October 2018)
Bettie Page vol. 2, #1–5 (November 2018–May 2019), Halloween Special (October 2019)
Bettie Page vol. 3, #1–5 (July 2020–January 2021)
Bettie Page vol. 4, #1–4 (July–September 2023)
Bettie Page: The Alien Agenda #1–5 (March–July 2022)
Bettie Page: The Curse of the Banshee #1–5 (June–October 2021)
Bettie Page Unbound #1–10 (June 2019–January 2020)
Betty Boop #1–4 (2016–2017)
The Bionic Man #1–26 (August 2011–December 2013), Annual #1 (March 2013)
The Bionic Man vs. the Bionic Woman #1–5 (January–May 2013
The Bionic Woman #1–4 (April 2012–July 2013)
The Bionic Woman Season Four #1–4 (September–December 2014)
The Black Bat #1–12 (May 2013–July 2014)
The Black Terror #1–14 (November 2008–February 2011)
The Black Terror vol. 2, #1–5 (October 2009–February 2020)
Blackbeard: Legend of the Pyrate King #1–6 (October 2009–October 2010)
Blackcross #1–6 (March–November 2015)
Blood Brothers #1–4 (2017)
The Blood Queen #1–6 (June 2016–November 2014), Annual (October 2014)
Blood Queen vs. Dracula #1–4 (March–June 2015)
Blood Trail: Trailing (May 2013)
Bob's Burgers #1–5 (August–December 2014)
Bob's Burgers vol. 2, #1–16 (June 2015–October 2016)
Boo: The World's Cutest Dog #1–3 (October 2016)
The Boys: Dear Becky #1–8 (June 2020–January 2021)
Brickleberry: Armoogeddon #1–4 (July–October 2016)
Bring the Thunder #1–4 (December 2010–April 2011)
Brothers in Arms #1–4 (May–October 2008)
Buck Rogers #1–12 (April 2009–June 2010), Annual #1 (February 2011)
Buddha A Story of Enlightenment (November 2010)
Bullet to the Head #1–6 (June–December 2010)
Butcher, Baker, Candlestickmaker #1–6 (July–December 2011)
C
Cage Hero #1–4 (November 2015–February 2016)
Captain Action Cat #1–4 (April 2014–September 2014)
Captain Victory and the Galactic Rangers #1–6 (August 2014–March 2015)
Cat-Man and Kitten #1 (December 2022)
Centipede #1–5 (2017)
Chaos #1–6 (May–October 2014), Holiday Special (December 2014)
Charlie's Angels #1–5 (June–October 2018)
Charlie's Angels vs. the Bionic Woman #1–4 (July–October 2019)
Charmed #1–5 (2017)
Chastity #1–6 (July–December 2014)
Chastity vol. 2, #1–5 (September 2019–February 2020)
Cherish #1–5 (November 2022–March 2023)
The Chosen #1–3 (October–December 2012)
A Clash of Kings #1–16 (June 2017–March 2019)
A Clash of Kings Part II #1–16 (January 2020–November 2021)
Classic Red Sonja Re-Mastered #1–4 (June–September 2010)
Codename: Action (September 2013–February 2014)
The Complete Alice in Wonderland #1–4 (December 2009–May 2010)
The Complete Dracula #1—5 (May–December 2009)
Conan/Red Sonja #1–4 (January–April 2015; co-published with Dark Horse Comics)
Control #1–6 (June–November 2016)
Cornboy (June 2011; co-published with Liquid Comics and Periscope Entertainment)
Crackdown #1–4 (February–October 2019)
Cryptozoic Man #1–4 (October 2013–February 2014)
Curse of the Wendigo (January 2012)
D
The Damnation of Charlie Wormwood #1–5 (October 2014–March 2015)
Damsels #1–13 (September 2012–February 2014)
Damsels: Giant Killer #0 (August 2013)
Damsels: Mermaids #1–5 (May–September 2013)
Danger Girl and the Army of Darkness #1–6 (April 2011–August 2012; co-published with IDW Publishing)
Dark Shadows #1–23 (November 2011–November 2013)
Dark Shadows: Year One #1–6 (April–September 2013)
Dark Shadows/Vampirella #1–5 (July–December 2012)
Darkman vs. Army of Darkness #1–4 (August 2006–March 2007)
The Darkness/Eva #1–4 (March–June 2008; co-published with Top Cow Productions)
Darkwing Duck #1–9 (January 2023–present)
Darkwing Duck: Negaduck #1–present (2023–present)
Dawn/Vampirella #1–5 (September 2014–2015)
Dead Irons #1–4 (February–June 2009)
Dead Soldier #1–4 (September–December 2010; co-published with Liquid Comics)
Dean Koontz's Frankenstein: Prodigal Son Volume Two #1–5 (September 2010–March 2011)
Dean Koontz's Frankenstein: Storm Surge #1–6 (October 2015–March 2016)
The Death-Defying Devil #1–4 (December 2008–March 2009)
The Death-Defying Devil vol. 2, #1–5 (August 2019–June 2020)
Death to the Army of Darkness! #1–5 (February–September 2020)
Dejah of Mars #1–4 (May–September 2014)
Dejah Thoris #1–6 (2016)
Dejah Thoris vol. 2, #0–10 (January–November 2018)
Dejah Thoris vol. 3, #1–12 (December 2019–April 2021)
Dejah Thoris vol. 4, #1–6 (March–July 2023)
Dejah Thoris: Fairy Tales (August 2022)
Dejah Thoris: Winter's End (April 2021)
Dejah Thoris and the Green Men of Mars #1–12 (February 2013–March 2014)
Dejah Thoris and the White Apes of Mars #1–4 (April–July 2012)
Dejah Thoris versus John Carter of Mars #1–6 (July 2021–January 2022)
The Devilers #1–7 (July 2014–2015)
Devolution #1–5 (2016)
Die!namite #1–5 (October 2020–February 2021)
Die!namite Lives #1–5 (June–November 2021)
Die!namite Never Dies #1–5 (March–June 2022)
Disney Villains: Hades #1–present (August 2023–present)
Disney Villains: Maleficent #1–5 (May–September 2023)
Disney Villains: Scar #1–4 (April–July 2023)
Django/Zorro #1–7 (November 2014–May 2015; co-published with Vertigo Comics)
Doc Savage: The Man of Bronze #1–8 (December 2013–July 2014), Annual (May 2014)
Doc Savage: The Ring of Fire #1–4 (March–July 2017)
Doc Savage: The Spider's Web #1–5 (2015–2016)
Doc Savage Special: Woman of Bronze (December 2014)
Doctor Spektor, Master of the Occult #1–4 (May–November 2014)
Doodle Jump #1–6 (June 2014–February 2015)
Draculina #1–6 (February–September 2022)
Draculina: Blood Simple #1–6 (2023–present)
The Dresden Files: Dog Men #1–6 (2017)
The Dresden Files: Down Town #1–6 (February–July 2015)
The Dresden Files: Fool Moon #1–8 (April 2011–October 2012)
The Dresden Files: Ghoul Goblin #1–6 (January–August 2013 Dynamite)
The Dresden Files: Storm Front Volume Two #1–4 (July 2009–September 2010)
The Dresden Files: War Cry #1–5 (June–October 2014)
The Dresden Files: Wild Card #1–6 (April–September 2016)
Dying Light (April 2023)
E
Elvira in Horrorland #1–5 (May–December 2022)
Elvira in Monsterland #1–5 (May–September 2023)
Elvira Meets Vincent Price #1–5 (August 2021–March 2022)
Elvira, Mistress of the Dark #1–12 (July 2018–February 2020), Spring Special (May 2019)
Eternity Kill (December 2012; co-published with Liquid Comics)
Eva: Daughter of the Dragon (September 2007)
Evil Ernie #1–6 (October 2012–June 2013)
Evil Ernie vol. 2, #1–6 (October 2014–April 2015)
Evil Ernie vol. 3, #1–5 (December 2021–April 2022)
Evil Ernie: Godeater #1–6 (August 2016–2017)
Ex-Con #1–5 (September 2014–January 2015)
The Expendables #1–4 (May–July 2010)
F
Fathom Prelude #1 (June 2005; co-published with Aspen Comics)
Fear Nothing (October 2010)
Fire and Ice #1–present (July 2023–present)
First Family (October 2010)
Flash Gordon #1–8 (April 2014–January 2015), Annual (November 2014), Holiday Special (December 2014)
Flash Gordon vol. 2, #1–5 (January–May 2015)
Flash Gordon: Kings Cross #1–5 (2016–2017)
Flash Gordon: Zeitgeist #1–10 (November 2011–March 2013)
Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash #1–6 (November 2007–March 2008; co-published with WildStorm)
Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash: The Nightmare Warriors #1–6 (August–December 2009; co-published with WildStorm)
Fruit Ninja #1 (2017)
G
Galactica 1980 #1–4 (September 2009–January 2010)
A Game of Thrones #1–24 (September 2011–February 2015)
Garbage Pail Kids: Origins #1–3 (October–December 2022)
Gargoyles #1–10 (December 2022–present)
Gargoyles: Dark Ages #1–3 (July 2023–present)
G.I. Joe vs. The Six Million Dollar Man #1–4 (February–May 2018; co-published with IDW Publishing)
Gold Key: Alliance #1–5 (April–August 2016)
The Good, the Bad and the Ugly #1–8 (July 2009–February 2010)
Grand Passion #1–5 (2016–2017)
Grave Sight Vols. 1–3 (May 2011–March 2012)
Grave Surprise (December 2016)
The Great Divide #1–6 (2016–2017)
The Greatest Adventure #1–9 (April 2017–February 2018)
Green Hornet #1–35 (February 2010–April 2023), Annual #1–2 (September 2010–Januaey 2012)
The Green Hornet vol. 2, #1-13 (March 2013–June 2014)
The Green Hornet vol. 3, #1–5 (March–July 2018)
The Green Hornet vol. 4, #1–5 (July 2020–January 2021)
The Green Hornet '66 Meets the Spirit #1–5 (2017)
The Green Hornet Strikes! #1–10 (May 2010–October 2012)
The Green Hornet: Aftermath #1–4 (April–July 2011)
Green Hornet: Blood Ties #1–4 (October 2010–February 2011)
The Green Hornet: Golden Age Remastered #1–8 (August 2010–February 2011)
Green Hornet: Legacy #35–42 (April–October 2013)
Green Hornet: One Night in Bangkok (January 2023)
The Green Hornet: Parallel Lives #1–5 (June–November 2010)
The Green Hornet: Reign of the Demon #1–4 (2016–2017)
The Green Hornet: Year One #1–12 (March 2010–September 2011), Special #1 (January 2012)
Grimm #1–12 (May 2013–April 2014)
Grimm vol. 2, #1–5 (September 2016–2017)
Grimm: The Warlock #1–4 (December 2013–March 2014)
Grumpy Cat (and Pokey!) (February–July 2016), Halloween ComicFest (October 2016)
Grumpy Cat/Garfield #1–3 (August 2017–October 2017; co-published with Boom! Studios)
Gwar: Orgasmageddon #1–4 (2017)
H
H2O (February 2011; co-published with Liquid Comics)
Hack/Slash vs. Chaos! #1–5 (December 2018–May 2019)
Hack/Slash vs. Vampirella #1–5 (October 2017–February 2018)
Hack/Slash/Eva: Monster's Ball #1–4 (May–November 2011)
Hell Sonja #1–5 (January–May 2022)
Herogasm #1–6 (2009)
Highland Laddie #1–6 (August 2010–January 2011)
Highlander #0–12 (July 2006–November 2007)
Highlander: Way of the Sword #1—4 (December 2007–April 2008)
Highlander Origins: Kurgan #1–2 (January–February 2009)
The Hollows: A Hollowland Graphic Novel (June 2014)
Homies #1–4 (2016)
I
Immortal Red Sonja #1–10 (April 2022–February 2023)
Intertwined (2016–2017)
The Invincible Red Sonja #1–10 (May 2021–September 2022)
J
James Bond 007 #1–12 (2015–2016)
James Bond 007: Felix Leiter #1–6 (2017)
James Bond 007: Hammerhead #1–6 (2016–2017)
James Bond 007: M (February 2018)
James Bond 007: Moneypenny (August 2017)
James Bond 007: Origin (September 2018–August 2019)
James Bond 007: Service (2017)
Jeepers Creepers #1–5 (April–September 2018)
Jennifer Blood #1–36 (February 2011–February 2014)
John Carter: The End #1–5 (2017)
John Carter of Mars #1–5 (April–August 2022)
John Carter, Warlord of Mars #1–14 (November 2014–2015)
John Wick #1–5 (November 2017–February 2019)
Jungle Girl #0–5 (September 2007–March 2008)
Justice, Inc. #1–6 (August 2014–January 2015)
K
Karma (September 2022)
Kato #1–14 (May 2010–October 2011), Annual #1 (February 2011)
Killer Instinct #1–6 (September 2017–April 2018)
Killing Red Sonja #1–5 (March–December 2020)
King Kong: The Great War #1–4 (May–August 2023)
Kings Quest #1–5 (May–September 2016)
Kings Watch #1–5 (September 2013–April 2014)
Kirby: Genesis #0–8 (May 2011–July 2012)
Kiss #1–10 (October 2016–August 2017)
Kiss Zombies #1–5 (November 2019–March 2020)
Kiss: Blood and Stardust #1–5 (October 2018–March 2019)
Kiss: Forever (2017)
Kiss: Phantom Obsession #1–4 (August 2021–January 2022)
Kiss: The Demon #1–4 (2017)
Kiss: The End #1–5 (April–September 2019)
Kiss/Army of Darkness #1–5 (February–July 2018)
Kiss/Vampirella #1–5 (June–October 2017)
L
Lady Demon #1–4 (December 2014–April 2015)
Lady Hel #1–4 (August–December 2022)
Lady Rawhide #1–5 (August 2013–April 2014)
Lady Rawhide/Lady Zorro #1–4 (2015)
Lady Zorro #1–4 (July–October 2014)
The Last Phantom #1–12 (August 2010–February 2012), Annual #1 (November 2011)
Legendary Talespinners #1–3 (February–June 2010)
Legenderry: A Steampunk Adventure #1–7 (December 2013–September 2014)
Legenderry: Green Hornet #1–5 (February–June 2015)
Legenderry: Red Sonja #1–5 (February–June 2015)
Legenderry: Red Sonja vol. 2, #1–5 (February–June 2018)
Legenderry: Vampirella #1–5 (February–June 2015)
Legends of Red Sonja #1–5 (November 2013–March 2014)
The Librarians #1–4 (2017–March 2018)
Li'l Battlestar Galactica (January 2014)
Li'l Bionic Kids (January 2014)
Li'l Ernie (December 2013)
Li'l Sonja (January 2014)
Li'l Vampi (January 2014), Holiday Special (November 2014)
The Living Corpse Exhumed #1–6 (August 2011–February 2012)
The Living Corpse Haunted (August 2013)
The Lone Ranger #1–25 (August 2006–May 2011)
The Lone Ranger vol. 2, #1–25 (January 2012–June 2014), Annual (September 2013)
The Lone Ranger vol. 3, #1–5 (October 2018–February 2019)
The Lone Ranger & Tonto #1–4 (March 2008–December 2010)
The Lone Ranger: Snake of Iron #1–4 (July–December 2012)
The Lone Ranger: The Death of Zorro #1–5 (March–June 2011)
The Lone Ranger: Vindicated #1–4 (November 2014–February 2015)
The Lone Ranger/Green Hornet #1–5 (July–November 2016)
Looking for Group #1–12 (April 2015–March 2016)
Lord of the Jungle #1–15 (January 2012–May 2013), Annual #1 (May 2012)
Lord of the Jungle vol. 2, #1–6 (November 2022–July 2023)
Lords of Mars #1–6 (August 2013–January 2014)
Lords of the Jungle #1–6 (March–August 2016)
M
Madballs vs. Garbage Pail Kids #1–4 (July–October 2022)
Madballs vs. Garbage Pail Kids: Time Again, Slime Again #1–4 (February–May 2023)
Magnus #1–5 (2017)
Magnus, Robot Fighter #1–12 (March 2014–March 2015), #0 (July 2014)
The Man with No Name #1–11 (May 2008–June 2009)
Mandrake the Magician #1–4) (February–September 2015)
Mars Attacks #1–5 (October 2018–February 2019)
Mars Attacks Red Sonja #1–5 (August 2020–January 2021)
Marvel Zombies vs. The Army of Darkness #1–5 (May–August 2007; co-published with Marvel Comics)
Masks #1–8 (November 2012–June 2013)
Masks 2 #1–8 (April 2015–November 2015)
Masquerade #1–4 (February–June 2009)
Meet the Bad Guys
The Green Lama/Bloodlust #1 (August 2009)
Fighting Yank/The Revolutionary #2 (October 2009)
The Mighty Samson/Dagon #3 (November 2009)
The Scarab/Supremacy #4 (November 2009)
Mercenaries #1–3 (November 2007–January 2008)
Merciless: The Rise of Ming #1–4 (April–September 2012)
Mercy Thompson: Hopcross Jilly #1–6 (October 2014–March 2015)
Mercy Thompson: Moon Called #1–8 (September 2010–September 2011)
Mighty Mouse #1–5 (2017)
The Misadventures of Grumpy Cat (and Pokey!) #1–3 (2015)
Miss Fury #1–11 (April 2013–May 2014)
Miss Fury vol. 2, #1–5 (April–August 2016)
Miss Fury Digital #1–2 (August–October 2013)
The Mocking Dead #1–5 (September 2013–January 2014)
Monster War (co-published with Top Cow Productions)
The Magdalena vs. Dracula #1 (June 2005)
Tomb Raider vs. The Wolf-Men #2 (July 2005)
Witchblade vs. Frankenstein #3 (August 2005)
The Darkness vs. Mr. Hyde #4 (September 2005)
My Little Phony: A Brony Adventure (2014)
Myopia #1 (November 2016)
Myopia: The Rise of the Domes (May 2018)
N
Nancy Drew #1–5 (June–October 2018)
Nancy Drew and the Hardy Boys: The Big Lie #1–6 (2017)
Nancy Drew and the Hardy Boys: The Death of Nancy Drew #1–6 (June–November 2020)
Nevermore #1–5 (2011)
The Ninjettes #1–6 (February–August 2012)
The Ninjettes vol. 2, #1–5 (September 2022–January 2023)
Noir #1–5 (November 2013–March 2014)
Nowhere Man #1–4 (January–July 2012)
Nyx #1–10 (November 2021–October 2022)
O
Obey Me #0–5 (March–August 2019)
The Owl #1–4 (July–October 2013)
P
Painkiller Jane #1–3) March–August 2006)
Painkiller Jane vol. 2,#0–5 (April 2007–March 2008)
Pantha #1–6 (June 2012–January 2013)
Pantha vol. 2, #1–5 (January–September 2022)
Path of Exile: Origins (May 2015)
Pathfinder #1–12 (August 2012–December 2013)
Pathfinder Special (November 2013)
Pathfinder: City of Secrets #1–6 (May–October 2014)
Pathfinder: Goblins! #1–5 (August–November 2013)
Pathfinder: Hollow Mountain #1–6 (2015–2016)
Pathfinder: Origins #1–6 (February–August 2015)
Pathfinder: Runescars #1–5 (May–September 2017)
Pathfinder: Spiral of Bones #1–5 (March–July 2018)
Pathfinder: Wake the Dead #1–3 (May 2023–present)
Pathfinder: Worldscape #1–6 (2016–2017)
Peter Cannon, Thunderbolt #1–10 (September 2012–July 2013)
Peter Cannon, Thunderbolt vol. 2, #1–5 (January–May 2019)
The Phantom #1–4 (2015)
The Precinct #1–5 (2015–2016)
Prince of Persia: Before the Sandstorm #1–4 (June–November 2010)
Prince Valiant #1–4 (2015)
Project Superpowers #0–7 (January–October 2008), #1/2 (2008)
Project Superpowers vol. 2, #0–6 (July 2018–February 2019)
Project Superpowers: Chapter Two #0–12 (June 2009–September 2010)
Project Superpowers: Chapter Two Prelude (October 2008)
Project Superpowers: Fractured States #1–5 (April–August 2022)
Project Superpowers: HeroKillers #1–5 (Msy–September 2017)
Project Superpowers: X-Mas Carol (December 2010)
Prophecy #1–7 (June 2012–February 2013)
Pulse of Power (September 2010)
Pumpkinhead #1–5 (February–July 2018)
Purgatori #1–5 (September 2014–January 2015)
Purgatori vol. 2, #1–5 (October 2021–February 2022)
Purgatori Must Die! #1–5 (January–June 2023)
Q
Queen Sonja #1–35 (October 2009–April 2013)
R
Rainbow Brite #1–5 (October 2018–March 2019)
Raise the Dead #1–4 (April–July 2007)
Raise the Dead 2 #1–4 (December 2010–April 2011)
Re-Animator #0 (2005)
Reanimator #1–4 (April–July 2015)
Red Rising: Sons of Ares #1–6 (2017)
Red Sonja #0–80 (April 2005–August 2013), Annual #1–4 (January 2007–May 2013)
Red Sonja vol. 2, #0–18 (July 2014–September 2015), #100 (February 2015)
Red Sonja vol. 3, #1–6 (2016)
Red Sonja vol. 4, #0–25 (December 2016–January 2019)
Red Sonja vol. 6, #1–28 (February 2019–June 2021), Valentine's Day Special (February 2021)
Red Sonja vol. 7, #1–12 (September 2021–August 2022), Valentine's Day Special 2022 (February 2022)
Red Sonja vol. 8, #1–3 (July 2023–present)
Red Sonja 1982 (June 2021)
Red Sonja and Cub (April 2014)
Red Sonja and Vampirella Meet Betty and Veronica #1–12 (May 2019–July 2020)
Red Sonja Halloween Special (October 2018)
Red Sonja Unchained #1–4 (February–August 2013)
Red Sonja vs. Thulsa Doom #1–4 (January–June 2006)
Red Sonja: Age of Chaos #1–6 (January–August 2020)
Red Sonja: Atlantis Rises #1–4 (August–December 2012)
Red Sonja: Berserker (2014)
Red Sonja: Birth of the She-Devil #1–4 (June–September 2019)
Red Sonja: Black White Red #1–8 (July 2021–March 2022)
Red Sonja: Blue (June 2011)
Red Sonja: Break the Skin (April 2011)
Red Sonja: Deluge (March 2011)
Red Sonja: Fairy Tales (August 2022)
Red Sonja: Lord of Fools (July 2019)
Red Sonja: Monster Isle (October 2006)
Red Sonja: One More Day (November 2005)
Red Sonja: Raven (January 2012)
Red Sonja: Red Sitha #1–4 (May–August 2022)
Red Sonja: Revenge of the Gods #1–5 (March–June 2011)
Red Sonja: Sanctuary (June 2014)
Red Sonja: Sonja Goes East (January 2006)
Red Sonja: The Black Tower #1–4 (September 2014–January 2015)
Red Sonja: The Long Walk to Oblivion (2017)
Red Sonja: The Price of Blood #1–3 (December 2020–February 2021)
Red Sonja: Vacant Shell (May 2007)
Red Sonja: Vulture's Circle #1–5 (January–May 2015)
Red Sonja: Wrath of the Gods #1–5 (February–June 2010)
Red Sonja/Conan #1–4 (2015; co-published with Dark Horse Comics)
Red Sonja/Hell Sonja #1–4 (December 2022–March 2023)
Red Sonja/Tarzan #1–6 (May–December 2018)
Red Sonja/The Superpowers #1–5 (January–May 2021)
Red Team #1–7 (February 2013–March 2014)
Red Team: Double Tap, Center Mass #1–9 (2016–2017)
Repairman Jack: Scar-Lip Redux (May 2020)
RoboCop #1–6 (January–August 2010)
RoboCop: Road Trip #1–4 (January–March 2012)
Robotech/Voltron #1–4 (2013–September 2014)
Robots Versus Princesses #1–4 (August 2018–January 2019)
Rocketman & Rocketgirl (May 2023)
S
Sacred Six #1–12 (July 2020–August 2021)
Samurai Sonja #1–5 (June–October 2022)
Savage Red Sonja: Queen of the Frozen Wastes #1–4 (September–November 2006)
Savage Tales #1–10 (April 2007–November 2008)
Savage Tales vol. 2 (July 2022)
Savage Tales Halloween Special: Featuring Red Sonja (October 2019)
Savage Tales: Vampirella (May 2018)
Saved by a Whisker (February 2022)
Scarlet Sisters (October 2022)
Seduction of the Innocent #1–4 (2015–2016)
Shaft #1–6 (December 2014–May 2015)
Shaft: Imitation of Life #1–4 (February–May 2016)
Sheena #0–10 (August 2017–July 2018)
Sheena, Queen of the Jungle #1–10 (November 2021–November 2022
The Shadow #1–25 (April 2012–May 2014), Annual #1 (September 2012), Annual (September 2013), #0 (July 2014), #100 (June 2015)
The Shadow vol. 2, #1–5 (2015)
The Shadow vol. 3, #1–6 (August 2017–January 2018)
The Shadow Now #1–6 (October 2013–April 2014)
The Shadow over Innsmouth (July 2014)
The Shadow: Agents of the Shadow (December 2014)
The Shadow: Midnight in Moscow #1–6 (May–December 2014)
The Shadow: The Death of Margo Lane #1–5 (June–October 2016)
The Shadow: Year One #1–10 (February 2013–September 2014)
The Shadow/Batman #1–6 (October 2017–March 2018; co-published with DC Comics)
The Shadow/Green Hornet: Dark Nights #1–5 (July–November 2013)
The Shape of Elvira #1–4 (January–December 2019)
Sherlock Holmes #1–5 (April–October 2009)
Sherlock Holmes vs. Harry Houdini #1–5 (October 2014–April 2015)
Sherlock Holmes: Moriarty Lives #1–5 (December 2013–July 2014)
Sherlock Holmes: The Liverpool Demon #1–5 (December 2012–June 2013)
Sherlock Holmes: The Vanishing Man #1–4 (May–August 2018)
Silver Scorpion (December 2012; co-published with Open Hands Initiative and Liquid Comics)
Sirens Gate #1–5 (October 2022–present)
The Six Million Dollar Man #1–5 (March–July 2019)
The Six Million Dollar Man: Fall of Man #1–5 (July–November 2016)
The Six Million Dollar Man: Season Six #1–6 (March–September 2014)
Skin and Earth #1–6 (2017)
Smiley the Psychotic Button (January 2015)
Smosh #1–6 (May–November 2016)
Solar: Man of the Atom #1–12 (April 2014–May 2015)
Sonjaversal #1–10 (February–December 2021)
The Sovereigns #0–5 (April–September 2017)
The Spider #1–18 (May 2012–March 2014), Annual (October 2013)
Spider-Man/Red Sonja #1–5 (October 2007–February 2008; co-published with Marvel Comics)
The Spirit #1–12 (2015–2016)
The Spirit: The Corpse-Makers #1–5 (February 2017–January 2018)
Starfinder: Angels of the Drift #1–2 (2023–present)
Stargate: Daniel Jackson #1–4 (July–November 2010)
Stargate: Vala Mal Doran #1–5 (May–November 2010)
Steampunk Battlestar Galactica 1880 #1–4 (August–November 2014)
Street Magik (October 2006)
Super Zombies #1–5 (March–July 2009)
Swashbucklers: The Saga Continues #1–5 (April–August 2018)
Sweetie: Candy Vigilante #1–6 (October 2022–June 2023)
The Switch: Electricia (July 2018)
Sword of Red Sonja: Doom of the Gods #1–4 (October–December 2007)
Swordquest #0–5 (May–October 2017)
Swords of Sorrow #1–6 (May–October 2015)
Swords of Sorrow: Black Sparrow & Lady Zorro (2015)
Swords of Sorrow: Chaos! Prequel (May 2015)
Swords of Sorrow: Dejah Thoris & Irene Adler #1–3 (2015)
Swords of Sorrow: Masquerade & Kato (May 2015)
Swords of Sorrow: Miss Fury & Lady Rawhide (2015)
Swords of Sorrow: Pantha & Jane Porter (2015)
Swords of Sorrow: Red Sonja & Jungle Girl #1–3 (2015)
Swords of Sorrow: Vampirella & Jennifer Blood #1–4 (May–August 2015)
T
Tales of Army of Darkness (February 2006)
Terminal Hero #1–6 (August 2014–February 2015)
Terminator: Infinity #1–7 (July 2007–March 2008)
Terminator: Revolution #1–6 (December 2008–June 2009)
Terminator/RoboCop: Kill Human #1–4 (July–November 2011)
A Thousand Arts (October 2010; co-published with Liquid Comics)
Thulsa Doom #1–4 (September–December 2009)
Thunda #1–5 (August–December 2012)
Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Echoes #1–4 (July–September 2014)
Total Recall #1–4 (May–December 2011)
A Train Called Love #1–10 (2015–July 2016)
Turok #1–5 (August–December 2017)
Turok vol. 2, #1–5 (January–September 2019)
Turok: Dinosaur Hunter #1–12 (February 2014–February 2015)
The Twilight Zone #1–12 (December 2013–February 2015), Annual (June 2014)
The Twilight Zone: 1959 (2016)
The Twilight Zone: Lost Tales (October 2014)
The Twilight Zone: Shadow & Substance #1–4 (January–April 2015)
The Twilight Zone/The Shadow #1–4 (April–July 2016)
U
Unbreakable Red Sonja #1–5 (October 2022–April 2023)
Uncanny #1–6 (June 2013–February 2014)
Uncanny: Season Two #1–5 (April–August 2015)
Untouchable (December 2010; co-published with Liquid Comics)
V
Vampire Huntress: The Hidden Darkness #1–4 (August 2010–May 2011)
Vampirella #1–38 (November 2010–February 2014), Annual #1–2 (December 2011–August 2012), Annual (December 2013)
Vampirella vol. 2, #1–13 (June 2014–June 2015), #100 (January 2015), Annual (2015)
Vampirella vol. 3, #1–6 (March–August 2016)
Vampirella vol. 4, #1–11 (2017–March 2018)
Vampirella vol. 5, #1–25 (July 2019–November 2021)
Vampirella: Fairy Tales (August 2022)
Vampirella: Feary Tales #1–5 (October 2014–February 2015)
Vampirella: Mindwarp #1–5 (September 2022–January 2023)
Vampirella: Nublood (February 2013)
Vampirella: Prelude to Shadows (October 2014)
Vampirella: Roses for the Dead #1–4 (June 2018–June 2019)
Vampirella: Southern Gothic #1–5 (August 2013–February 2014)
Vampirella: The Dark Powers #1–5 (December 2020–April 2021)
Vampirella: The Red Room #1–4 (April–November 2012)
Vampirella: Trial for the Soul (September 2020)
Vampirella: Year One #1–6 (July 2022–April 2023)
Vampirella and the Scarlet Legion #1–5 (May–October 2011)
Vampirella Strikes #1–6 (January–June 2013)
Vampirella Strikes vol. 2, #1–13 (May 2022–May 2023)
Vampirella vs. Dracula #1–6 (January–August 2012)
Vampirella vs. Fluffy the Vampire Killer (October 2012)
Vampirella vs. Purgatori #1–5 (March–July 2021)
Vampirella vs. Reanimator #1–5 (December 2018–April 2019)
Vampirella versus Red Sonja #1–5 (November 2022–March 2023)
Vampirella versus The Superpowers #1–5 (May–September 2023)
Vampirella/Army of Darkness #1–4 (2015)
Vampirella/Dejah Thoris #1–4 (September 2018–February 2009)
Vampirella/Dracula: Rage #1–present (2023–present)
Vampirella/Dracula: Unholy #1–6 (December 2021–June 2022)
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4337705 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimrod%20Expedition | Nimrod Expedition | The Nimrod Expedition of 1907–1909, otherwise known as the British Antarctic Expedition, was the first of three successful expeditions to the Antarctic led by Ernest Shackleton and his second expedition to the Antarctic. Its main target, among a range of geographical and scientific objectives, was to be first to the South Pole. This was not attained, but the expedition's southern march reached a Farthest South latitude of 88° 23' S, just from the pole. This was by far the longest southern polar journey to that date and a record convergence on either Pole. A separate group led by Welsh Australian geology professor Edgeworth David reached the estimated location of the South Magnetic Pole, and the expedition also achieved the first ascent of Mount Erebus, Antarctica's second highest volcano.
The expedition lacked governmental or institutional support, and relied on private loans and individual contributions. It was beset by financial problems and its preparations were hurried. Its ship, Nimrod, was less than half of the size of Robert Falcon Scott's 1901–1904 expedition ship Discovery, and Shackleton's crew lacked relevant experience. Controversy arose from Shackleton's decision to base the expedition in McMurdo Sound, close to Scott's old headquarters, in contravention of a promise to Scott that he would not do so. Nevertheless, although the expedition's profile was initially much lower than that of Scott's six years earlier, its achievements attracted widespread interest and made Shackleton a national hero. The scientific team, which included the future Australasian Antarctic Expedition leader Douglas Mawson, carried out extensive geological, zoological and meteorological work. Shackleton's transport arrangements, based on Manchurian ponies, motor traction, and sled dogs, were innovations which, despite limited success, were later copied by Scott for his ill-fated Terra Nova Expedition.
On his return, Shackleton overcame the Royal Geographical Society's (RGS) initial scepticism about his achievements and received many public honours, including a knighthood from King Edward VII. He made little financial gain from the expedition and eventually depended on a government grant to cover its liabilities. Within three years his southernmost record had been surpassed, as first Amundsen and then Scott reached the South Pole. In his own moment of triumph, Amundsen nevertheless observed: "Sir Ernest Shackleton's name will always be written in the annals of Antarctic exploration in letters of fire".
Origins
Ernest Shackleton had been a junior officer on Robert Falcon Scott's first Antarctic expedition aboard RRS Discovery. He had been sent home on the relief ship Morning in 1903 after a physical collapse during the expedition's main southern journey. Scott's verdict was that he "ought not to risk further hardships in his present state of health". Shackleton felt this physical failure as a personal stigma, and on his return to England he was determined to prove himself, in the words of Discovery's second-in command Albert Armitage, as "a better man than Scott". He nevertheless declined the opportunity of a swift Antarctic return as chief officer of Discoverys second relief ship Terra Nova, after helping to fit her out; he also helped to equip Uruguay, the ship being prepared for the relief of Otto Nordenskjold's expedition, stranded in the Weddell Sea. During the next few years, while nursing intermittent hopes of resuming his Antarctic career, Shackleton pursued other options. In 1906 he was working for the industrial magnate Sir William Beardmore as a public relations officer.
According to his biographer Roland Huntford, the references to Shackleton's physical breakdown made in Scott's The Voyage of the Discovery, published in 1905, reopened the wounds to Shackleton's pride. It became a personal mission that he should return to the Antarctic and outperform Scott. Shackleton began looking for potential backers for an expedition of his own; his initial plans appear in an unpublished document dated early 1906. These include a cost estimate of £17,000 (updated value £) for the entire expedition. He received his first promise of financial backing when early in 1907 his employer, Beardmore, offered a £7,000 loan guarantee (updated value £). With this in hand, Shackleton felt confident enough to announce his intentions to the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) on 12 February 1907. One reason for Shackleton's sense of urgency was the knowledge that the Polish explorer Henryk Arctowski was planning an expedition, which was announced at the RGS on the same day as Shackleton's. In the event, Arctowski's plans were stillborn.
Preparations
Initial plans
Shackleton's original unpublished plan envisaged basing himself at the old Discovery Expedition headquarters in McMurdo Sound. From there he proposed to launch attempts to reach the geographical South Pole and the South Magnetic Pole. Other journeys would follow, and there would be a continuous programme of scientific work. This early plan also revealed Shackleton's proposed transport methods, involving a combination of dogs, ponies and a specially designed motor vehicle.
Neither ponies nor motor traction had been used in the Antarctic before, although ponies had been used by Frederick George Jackson during the Jackson-Harmsworth Arctic expedition of 1894–1897. Despite Jackson's confused reports of his ponies' prowess, and contrary to specific advice from Fridtjof Nansen, the renowned Norwegian polar traveller, Shackleton decided he would take 15 ponies, later scaled down to 10. By the time he announced his plans to the RGS in February 1907 Shackleton had revised his cost estimate to a more realistic £30,000 (updated value £). However, the response of the RGS to Shackleton's proposals was muted; Shackleton would learn later that the Society was by this time aware of Scott's wish to lead a new expedition and that the Society wished to reserve its full approval for Scott.
Nimrod
Shackleton intended to arrive in Antarctica in January 1908, which meant leaving England during the 1907 summer. He therefore had six months to secure the financing, acquire and fit out a ship, buy all the equipment and supplies, and recruit the personnel. In April, believing that he had got the backing of Scottish businessman Donald Steuart, Shackleton travelled to Norway intending to buy a 700-ton polar vessel, Bjorn, that would have served ideally as an expedition ship. When Steuart withdrew his support, however, Bjorn was beyond Shackleton's means. Bjorn was eventually acquired by German explorer Wilhelm Filchner and, renamed Deutschland, was used in his 1911–1913 voyage to the Weddell Sea. Shackleton had to settle for the elderly, much smaller Nimrod, a forty-year-old wooden sealer of 334 gross register tons, which he was able to acquire for £5,000 (updated value £).
Shackleton was shocked by his first sight of Nimrod after her arrival in London from Newfoundland in June 1907. "She was much dilapidated and smelt strongly of seal oil, and an inspection [...] showed that she needed caulking and that her masts would have to be renewed." However, in the hands of experienced ship-fitters she soon "assumed a more satisfactory appearance." Later, Shackleton reported, he became extremely proud of the sturdy little ship.
Fundraising
By early July 1907 Shackleton had secured little financial support beyond Beardmore's guarantee and was lacking the funds to complete the refit of Nimrod. In mid-July he approached the philanthropic Earl of Iveagh, otherwise known as Edward Guinness, head of the Anglo-Irish brewing family, who agreed to guarantee the sum of £2,000 (updated value £) provided that Shackleton found other backers to contribute a further £6,000. Shackleton was able to do this, the extra funds including £2,000 from Sir Philip Brocklehurst, who paid this sum to secure a place on the expedition.
A last-minute gift of £4,000 from Shackleton's cousin William Bell still left the expedition far short of the required £30,000, but enabled Nimrods refit to be finished. Fundraising continued in Australia after the ship arrived there; a further £5,000 was provided as a gift from the Australian government, and the New Zealand government gave £1,000. By these means, and with other smaller loans and donations, the £30,000 was raised, although by the end of the expedition total costs had risen, by Shackleton's estimate, to £45,000.
Shackleton expected to make large sums from his book about the expedition and from lectures. He also hoped to profit from sales of special postage stamps bearing the cancellation stamp of the Antarctica post office that Shackleton, appointed temporary postmaster by the New Zealand government, intended to establish there. None of these schemes produced the anticipated riches, although the post office was set up at Cape Royds and used as a conduit for the expedition's mail.
Personnel
Shackleton hoped to recruit a strong contingent from the Discovery Expedition and offered his former comrade Edward Adrian Wilson the post of chief scientist and second-in-command. Wilson refused, citing his work with the Board of Agriculture's Committee on the Investigation of Grouse Disease. Further refusals followed from former Discovery colleagues Michael Barne, Reginald Skelton and finally George Mulock, who inadvertently revealed to Shackleton that the Discovery officers had all committed themselves to Scott and his as-yet unannounced expedition plans. The only Discovery hands to join Shackleton were the two petty officers, Frank Wild and Ernest Joyce. Apparently Shackleton spotted Joyce on the top deck of a bus as it passed the expedition's London offices, whereupon someone was sent to find him and bring him in.
Shackleton's second-in-command—although this was not clarified until the expedition reached the Antarctic—was Jameson Boyd Adams, a Royal Naval Reserve lieutenant who had turned down the chance of a regular commission to join Shackleton. He would also act as the expedition's meteorologist. Nimrods captain was another naval reserve officer, Rupert England; 23-year-old John King Davis, who would later make his own reputation as an Antarctic captain, was appointed chief officer at the last moment. Aeneas Mackintosh, a merchant navy officer from the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company (P&O), was originally second officer, but was later transferred to the shore party, being replaced as second officer by A. E. Harbord. Others in the shore party were the two surgeons, Alistair Mackay and Eric Marshall, Bernard Day the motor expert, and Sir Philip Brocklehurst, the subscribing member who had been taken on as assistant geologist.
The small scientific team that departed from England included 41-year-old biologist James Murray and 21-year-old geologist Raymond Priestley, a future founder of the Scott Polar Research Institute. Two important additions to the team were made in Australia. The first of these was Edgeworth David, a professor of geology at the University of Sydney, who became the party's chief scientific officer. The second was a former pupil of David's, Douglas Mawson, a lecturer in mineralogy at the University of Adelaide. Both had originally intended to sail to Antarctica and then immediately back with Nimrod but were persuaded to become full members of the expedition. David was instrumental in securing the Australian government's £5,000 grant.
Before departure for the Antarctic in August 1907, Joyce and Wild took a crash course in printing methods, as it was Shackleton's intention to publish a book or magazine while in the Antarctic.
Promise to Scott
Shackleton's February 1907 announcement that he intended to base his expedition at the old Discovery headquarters was noted by Scott, whose own future Antarctic plans were at that stage unannounced. In a letter to Shackleton, Scott claimed priority rights to McMurdo Sound. "I feel I have a sort of right to my own field of work," he wrote, adding: "anyone who has had to do with exploration will regard this region primarily as mine". He concluded by reminding Shackleton of his duty of loyalty towards his former commander.
Shackleton's initial reply was accommodating: "I would like to fall in with your views as far as possible without creating a position that would be untenable to myself". Wilson, asked by Shackleton to mediate, took an even tougher line than Scott. "I think you should retire from McMurdo Sound", he wrote, advising Shackleton not to make any plans to work from anywhere in the entire Ross Sea quarter until Scott decided "what limits he puts on his own rights". To this Shackleton replied: "There is no doubt in my mind that his rights end at the base he asked for [...] I consider I have reached my limit and I go no further".
The matter was unresolved when Scott returned from sea duty in May 1907. Scott pressed for a line of demarcation at 170° W—everything to the west of that line, including McMurdo Sound, Ross Island, and Victoria Land, would be Scott's preserve. Shackleton, with other concerns pressing on him, felt obliged to concede. On 17 May he signed a declaration stating that, "I am leaving the McMurdo base to you", and that he would seek to land further east, either at the Barrier Inlet visited briefly during the Discovery Expedition, or at King Edward VII Land. He would not touch the coast of Victoria Land at all. It was a capitulation to Scott and Wilson, and meant forfeiting the expedition's aim of reaching the South Magnetic Pole which was located within Victoria Land. Polar historian Beau Riffenburgh believes this was "a promise that should never ethically have been demanded and one that should never have been given, impacting as it might on the entire safety of Shackleton's expedition". The dispute soured relations between the two men (who nevertheless maintained public civilities) and would eventually lead to the complete rupture of Shackleton's formerly close friendship with Wilson.
In his own account of the expedition, Shackleton makes no reference to the wrangle with Scott. He merely states that "before we finally left England I had decided that if possible I would establish my base in King Edward VII Land instead of [...] McMurdo Sound".
Expedition
Voyage south
After inspection by King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra, Nimrod sailed on 11 August 1907. Shackleton remained behind on expedition business; he and other expedition members followed on a faster ship. The entire complement came together in New Zealand, ready for the ship's departure to Antarctica on New Year's Day, 1908. As a means of conserving fuel, Shackleton had arranged with the New Zealand government for Nimrod to be towed to the Antarctic circle, a distance of approximately , the costs of the tow being met partly by the government and partly by the Union Steam Ship Company as a contribution to the expedition. On 14 January, in sight of the first icebergs, the towline was cut; Nimrod, under her own power, proceeded southward into the floating pack ice, heading for the Barrier Inlet where six years earlier Discovery had paused to allow Scott and Shackleton to take experimental balloon flights.
The Barrier (later known as the Ross Ice Shelf) was sighted on 23 January, but the inlet had disappeared; the Barrier edge had changed significantly in the intervening years, and the section which had included the inlet had broken away to form a considerable bay, which Shackleton named the Bay of Whales after the large number of whales seen there. Shackleton was not prepared to risk wintering on a Barrier surface that might calve into the sea, so he turned the ship towards King Edward VII Land. After repeated efforts to approach this coast had failed, and with rapidly moving ice threatening to trap the ship, Nimrod was forced to retreat. Shackleton's only choice now, other than abandonment of the expedition's goals, was to break the promise he had given to Scott. On 25 January he ordered the ship to head for McMurdo Sound.
Cape Royds
Establishing the base
On arriving in McMurdo Sound on 29 January 1908, Nimrods progress southward to the Discovery base at Hut Point was blocked by frozen sea. Shackleton decided to wait a few days in the hope that the ice would break up. During this delay, second officer Aeneas Mackintosh suffered an accident that led to the loss of his right eye. After emergency surgery by Marshall and Mackay, he was forced to relinquish his shore party place and go back to New Zealand with Nimrod. He recovered sufficiently to return with the ship in the following season.
On 3 February Shackleton decided not to wait for the ice to shift but to make his headquarters at the nearest practicable landing place, Cape Royds. Late that evening the ship was moored, and a suitable site for the expedition's prefabricated hut was selected. The site was separated from Hut Point by of sea, with no landward route to the south. Shackleton believed the party was "fortunate to get winter quarters as near as this to our starting point for the south."
The following days were occupied with the landing of stores and equipment. This work was hampered by poor weather and by the caution of Captain England, who frequently took the ship out into the bay until ice conditions at the landing ground were in his view safer. The next fortnight followed this pattern, leading to sharp dissent between Shackleton and the captain. At one point, Shackleton asked England to stand down on the grounds that he was ill, but England refused. The task of unloading became, in Riffenburgh's description, "mind-numbingly difficult" but was finally completed on 22 February. Nimrod at last sailed away north, England unaware that ship's engineer Harry Dunlop was carrying a letter from Shackleton to the expedition's New Zealand agent, requesting a replacement captain for the return voyage next year. This knowledge was an open secret among the shore party; Marshall recorded in his diary that he was "glad to see the last of [England] ... whole thing damned disgrace to name of country!"
Ascent of Mount Erebus
After Nimrods departure, the sea ice broke up, cutting off the party's route to the Barrier and thus making preparatory sledging and depot-laying impossible. Shackleton decided to give the expedition impetus by ordering an immediate attempt to ascend Mount Erebus. This mountain, high, had never been climbed. A party from Discovery (which had included Wild and Joyce) had explored the foothills in 1904 but had not ascended higher than . Neither Wild nor Joyce was in the Nimrod Expedition's main Erebus party, which consisted of David, Mawson and Mackay. With Marshall, Adams and Brocklehurst forming a support group, the ascent began on 5 March.
On 7 March the two groups combined at around and all advanced towards the summit. On the following day a blizzard held them up, but early on 9 March the climb resumed; later that day the summit of the lower, main crater, was achieved. By this time Brocklehurst's feet were too frostbitten for him to continue, so he was left in camp while the others advanced to the active crater, which they reached after four hours. Several meteorological experiments were carried out and many rock samples were taken. Thereafter a rapid descent was made, mainly by sliding down successive snow-slopes. The party reached the Cape Royds hut "nearly dead", according to Eric Marshall, on 11 March.
Winter 1908
The expedition's hut, a prefabricated structure measuring 33 x 19 feet (10m x 5.8m), was ready for occupation by the end of February. It was divided into a series of mainly two-person cubicles, with a kitchen area, a darkroom, storage and laboratory space. The ponies were housed in stalls built on the most sheltered side of the hut, while the dog kennels were placed close to the porch. Shackleton's inclusive leadership style, in contrast to that of Scott, meant no demarcation between upper and lower decks—all lived, worked and ate together. Morale was high; as Brocklehurst recorded, Shackleton "had a faculty for treating each member of the expedition as though he were valuable to it".
In the ensuing months of winter darkness Joyce and Wild printed around 30 copies of the expedition's book, Aurora Australis, which were sewn and bound using packaging materials. The most important winter's work, however, was preparing for the following season's major journeys, which were to include attempts on both the South Pole and the South Magnetic Pole. By making his base in McMurdo Sound, Shackleton had been able to reinstate the Magnetic Pole as an expedition objective. Shackleton himself would be leading the South Pole journey, which had suffered a serious setback during the winter when four of the remaining ponies died, mainly from eating volcanic sand for its salt content.
Southern journey
Outward march
Shackleton's choice of a four-man team for the southern journey to the South Pole was largely determined by the number of surviving ponies. Influenced by his experiences on the Discovery Expedition, he had put his confidence in ponies rather than dogs for the long polar march. The motor car, which ran well on flat ice, could not cope with Barrier surfaces and was not considered for the polar journey. The men chosen by Shackleton to accompany him were Marshall, Adams and Wild. Joyce, whose Antarctic experience exceeded all save Wild's, was excluded from the party after Marshall's medical examination raised doubts about his fitness.
The march began on 29 October 1908. Shackleton had calculated the return distance to the Pole as . His initial plan allowed 91 days for the return journey, requiring a daily average distance of about . After a slow start due to a combination of poor weather and lameness in the horses, Shackleton reduced the daily food allowance to extend the total available journey time to 110 days. This required a shorter daily average of around 13½ nautical miles. Between 9 and 21 November they made good progress, but the ponies suffered on the difficult Barrier surface, and the first of the four had to be shot when the party reached 81° S. On 26 November a new farthest south record was established as they passed the 82° 17' mark set by Scott's southern march in December 1902. Shackleton's party covered the distance in 29 days compared with Scott's 59, using a track considerably east of Scott's to avoid the surface problems the earlier journey had encountered.
As the group moved into unknown territory, the Barrier surface became increasingly disturbed and broken; two more ponies succumbed to the strain. The mountains to the west curved round to block their path southward, and the party's attention was caught by a "brilliant gleam of light" in the sky ahead. The reason for this phenomenon became clear on 3 December when, after a climb through the foothills of the mountain chain, they saw before them what Shackleton later described as "an open road to the south, [...] a great glacier, running almost south to north between two huge mountain ranges". Shackleton christened this glacier the "Beardmore" after the expedition's biggest sponsor.
Travel on the glacier surface proved to be a trial, especially for Socks, the remaining pony, who had great difficulty in finding secure footings. On 7 December, Socks disappeared down a deep crevasse, very nearly taking Wild with him. However, the pony's harness broke, and the sledge containing their supplies remained on the surface. For the rest of the southward journey and the whole of the return trip they had to rely on man-hauling.
As the journey continued, personal antagonisms emerged. Wild privately expressed the wish that Marshall would "fall down a crevasse about a thousand feet deep". Marshall wrote that following Shackleton to the Pole was "like following an old woman. Always panicking". However, Christmas Day was celebrated with crème de menthe and cigars. Their position was 85° 51' S, still from the Pole, and they were now carrying barely a month's supply of food, having stored the rest in depots for their return journey. They could not cover the remaining distance to the Pole and back with this amount of food. However, Shackleton was not yet prepared to admit that the Pole was beyond them and decided to go forward after cutting food rations further, and dumping all but the most essential equipment.
On Boxing Day the glacier ascent was at last completed, and the march on the polar plateau began. Conditions did not ease; Shackleton recorded 31 December as the "hardest day we have had". On the next day he noted that, having attained 87° 6½′ S, they had beaten North and South polar records. That day, referring to Marshall and Adams, Wild wrote: "if we only had Joyce and Marston here instead of those two grubscoffing useless beggars we would have done it [the Pole] easily." On 4 January 1909, Shackleton finally accepted that the Pole was beyond them and revised his goal to the symbolic achievement of getting within 100 geographical miles of the Pole. The party struggled on, at the borders of survival, until on 9 January 1909, after a last dash forward without the sledge or other equipment, the march ended. "We have shot our bolt", wrote Shackleton, "and the tale is 88° 23' S". They were 97.5 geographical miles from the South Pole. The Union Jack was duly planted, and Shackleton named the polar plateau after King Edward VII.
Return journey
Shackleton's party turned for home after 73 days' southward travel. Rations had been cut several times to extend the return journey time beyond the original 110-day estimate. Shackleton now aimed to reach Hut Point in 50 days, since according to Shackleton's prior orders Nimrod, having returned to take the expedition home, would depart on 1 March at the latest. The four men were now much weakened, yet in the following days they achieved impressive distances, reaching the head of the glacier on 19 January. As they began the descent they had five days' food at half rations, to last them until the Lower Glacier depot; during the ascent the same distance had taken 12 days. Shackleton's physical condition was by now a major concern, yet according to Adams "the worse he felt, the harder he pulled".
The depot was reached on 28 January. Wild, ill with dysentery, was unable to pull or to eat anything but biscuits, which were in short supply. On 31 January Shackleton forced his own breakfast biscuit on Wild, a gesture that moved Wild to write: "BY GOD I shall never forget. Thousands of pounds would not have bought that one biscuit". A few days later, the rest of the party were struck with severe enteritis, the result of eating tainted pony-meat. But the pace of march had to be maintained; the small amounts of food carried between depots would make any delay fatal. However, a strong wind behind them enabled them to set a sail on the sledge and maintain a good marching rate.
"We are so thin that our bones ache as we lie on the hard snow", wrote Shackleton. From 18 February onward they began to pick up familiar landmarks, and on the 23rd they reached Bluff Depot, which to their great relief had been copiously resupplied by Joyce. The range of delicacies over and above the crates of regular supplies was listed by Shackleton: "Carlsbad plums, eggs, cakes, plum pudding, gingerbread and crystallised fruit". Wild's laconic comment was, "Good old Joyce".
Their food worries were now resolved, but they still had to get back to Hut Point before the 1 March deadline. The final leg of their march was interrupted by a blizzard, which held them in camp for 24 hours. On 27 February, when they were still from safety, Marshall collapsed. Shackleton then decided that he and Wild would make a dash for Hut Point in hopes of finding Nimrod and holding her until the other two could be rescued. They reached the hut late on 28 February. Hoping that the ship was nearby, they sought to attract its attention by setting fire to a small wooden hut used for magnetic observations. Shortly afterwards the ship, which had been anchored at the Glacier Tongue, came into view: "No happier sight ever met the eyes of man", wrote Wild later. It was a further three days before Adams and Marshall could be picked up from the Barrier, but by 4 March the whole southern party was aboard and Shackleton was able to order full steam towards the north.
Northern Party
While preparing for his southern journey, Shackleton gave instructions to David to lead a northern party to Victoria Land to carry out magnetic and geological work. The party was to try to reach the Magnetic Pole, and was to carry out a full geological survey in the Dry Valley area. David's party consisted of himself, Mawson and Mackay. It would be a man-hauling party; the dogs remained at base to be used for depot-laying and other routine work. The party had orders to plant the Union Jack at the Magnetic Pole and to take possession of Victoria Land for the British Empire. After several days' preparatory work, they started out on 5 October 1908, drawn for the first few miles by the motor car.
Due to sea ice conditions and adverse weather, progress was initially very slow. By the end of October they had crossed McMurdo Sound and advanced 60 miles (100 km) up the difficult Victoria Land coast, at which point they decided to concentrate all their efforts on reaching the Magnetic Pole. After traversing the Nordenskjold Ice Tongue and the treacherous Drygalski Ice Tongue they were finally able to leave the coast and turn north-west, towards the Magnetic Pole's approximate location. Before then, David had a narrow escape after falling into a crevasse but was rescued by Mawson.
Their way up to the inland plateau was via a labyrinthine glacier (later named the Reeves Glacier after the RGS's main map curator), which brought them on 27 December to a hard snow surface. This enabled them to move more swiftly, at a rate of about daily, taking regular magnetic observations. On 16 January, these observations showed them to be about from the Magnetic Pole. The next day, 17 January 1909, they reached their goal, fixing the pole's position as 72° 15' S, 155° 16' E, at an elevation of . In a muted ceremony, David took formal possession of the area for the British Empire.
Exhausted, and short of food, the party faced a return journey of , with just 15 days to complete it if they were to make their prearranged coastal rendezvous with Nimrod. Despite increasing physical weakness they maintained their daily distances, and on 31 January were from their agreed pick-up point. Bad weather delayed them, and the rendezvous was not reached until 2 February. That night, in heavy drifting snow, Nimrod passed by them, unable to make out their camp. Two days later, however, after Nimrod had turned south again, the group was spotted from the ship and was able to scramble to safety, although in the rush to get aboard Mawson fell down a crevasse. The party had been travelling for four months and were wearing the same clothes in which they had departed Cape Royds; reportedly "the aroma was overpowering". Before this rescue, Nimrod had picked up a geological party consisting of Priestley, Brocklehurst and , who had been carrying out geological work in the Ferrar Glacier region.
Aftermath
On 23 March 1909, Shackleton landed in New Zealand and cabled a 2,500-word report to the London Daily Mail, with which he had an exclusive contract. Amid the acclamation and unstinting praise that Shackleton received from the exploring community, including Fridtjof Nansen and Roald Amundsen, the response of the RGS was more guarded. Its former president, Sir Clements Markham, privately expressed his disbelief of Shackleton's claimed latitude. However, on 14 June, Shackleton was met at London's Charing Cross Station by a very large crowd, which included RGS president Leonard Darwin and a rather reluctant Captain Scott.
As to the latitude claimed, the reason for doubting its accuracy was that after 3 January all positions had been computed by dead reckoning: on direction, speed and elapsed time. The last proper observation, on 3 January, had calculated the latitude as 87° 22'. Shackleton's table of distances show that over the next three days they covered just over , to reach an estimated 88° 7' on 6 January. They were then held up for two days by a blizzard. On 9 January 1909, the table shows that the party travelled a further to reach their farthest south, and the same distance back to camp. This distance in a single day far exceeded those for any other stage of the journey. Shackleton explained that this was a dash, "half running, half walking", unencumbered by the sledge or other equipment. Each of the four men independently confirmed his belief in the latitude achieved, and none gave any subsequent cause for his word to be doubted.
Shackleton was made a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (CVO) by King Edward VII, who later conferred a knighthood on him. The RGS presented him with a gold medal, although apparently with reservations—"We do not propose to make the Medal so large as that which was awarded to Captain Scott", recorded an official. Although in the eyes of the public he was a hero, the riches that Shackleton had anticipated failed to materialise. The soaring costs of the expedition and the need to meet loan guarantees meant that he was saved from financial embarrassment only by a belated government grant of £20,000.
The farthest south record of the Nimrod Expedition stood for less than three years, until Amundsen reached the South Pole on 15 December 1911. For his trail-breaking achievements, Shackleton received a fulsome tribute from Amundsen: "What Nansen is to the North, Shackleton is to the South". Thereafter, Shackleton's Antarctic ambitions were fixed on a transcontinental crossing, which he attempted unsuccessfully with the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914–17, although his status as a leading figure in the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration was by then assured. Other members of the Nimrod Expedition also achieved fame and standing in future years. David, Adams, Mawson and Priestley all eventually received knighthoods, the latter two continuing their polar work on further expeditions, though neither went south again with Shackleton. Mawson led the 1911–13 Australian Antarctic Expedition, and Priestley was part of the Terra Nova Expedition's scientific team. Wild was second-in-command to the "Boss" on the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition and on the short Quest Expedition, where he took over command after Shackleton's death at South Georgia Island in 1922. Ten years after her return from the Antarctic, Nimrod was battered to pieces in the North Sea after running aground on the Barber Sands off the Norfolk coast on 31 January 1919. Only two of her 12-person crew survived.
Several mostly intact cases of whisky and brandy left behind at Cape Royds in 1909 were recovered in 2010, for analysis by a distilling company. A revival of the vintage (and since lost) formula for the particular brands found has been offered for sale with a portion of the proceeds to benefit the New Zealand Antarctic Heritage Trust, which discovered the lost spirits.
There was also a monkey named Bouncy onboard the expedition which nobody knew about until 2014, when a recount of crew members onboard was discovered.
See also
Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration
List of Antarctic expeditions
Notes and references
Notes
References
Sources
Online sources
External links
British Antarctic Expedition 1907–1909 at the New Zealand Antarctic Heritage Trust
Nimrod, Crew and Personnel List at Cool Antarctica
The Nimrod expedition, 1907–1909 at the Glasgow Digital Library
Shackleton hut to be resurrected at BBC News
Alfred S. Bull, Seaman Diary at Dartmouth College Library
1907 in Antarctica
1908 in Antarctica
1909 in Antarctica
Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration
Antarctic expeditions
United Kingdom and the Antarctic
Ernest Shackleton
Expeditions from the United Kingdom
South Pole
History of the Ross Dependency |
4337996 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema%20of%20South%20Korea | Cinema of South Korea | South Korean films have been heavily influenced by such events and forces as the Korea under Japanese rule, the Korean War, government censorship, the business sector, globalization, and the democratization of South Korea.
The golden age of South Korean cinema in the mid-20th century produced what are considered two of the best South Korean films of all time, The Housemaid (1960) and Obaltan (1961), while the industry's revival with the Korean New Wave from the late 1990s to the present produced both of the country's highest-grossing films, The Admiral: Roaring Currents (2014) and Extreme Job (2019), as well as prize winners on the festival circuit including Golden Lion recipient Pietà (2012) and Palme d'Or recipient and Academy Award winner Parasite (2019) and international cult classics including Oldboy (2003), Snowpiercer (2013), and Train to Busan (2016).
With the increasing global success and globalization of the Korean film industry, the past two decades have seen Korean actors like Lee Byung-hun and Bae Doona star in American films, Korean auteurs such as Park Chan-wook and Bong Joon-ho direct English-language works, Korean American actors crossover to star in Korean films as with Steven Yeun and Ma Dong-seok, and Korean films be remade in the United States, China, and other markets. The Busan International Film Festival has also grown to become Asia's largest and most important film festival.
American film studios have also set up local subsidiaries like Warner Bros. Korea and 20th Century Fox Korea to finance Korean films like The Age of Shadows (2016) and The Wailing (2016), putting them in direct competition with Korea's Big Four vertically integrated domestic film production and distribution companies: Lotte Cultureworks (formerly Lotte Entertainment), CJ Entertainment, Next Entertainment World (NEW), and Showbox. Netflix has also entered Korea as a film producer and distributor as part of both its international growth strategy in search of new markets and its drive to find new content for consumers in the U.S. market amid the "streaming wars" with Disney, which has a Korean subsidiary, and other competitors.
History
The earliest movie theaters in the country opened during the late Joseon to Korean Empire periods. The first was Ae Kwan Theater, followed by Dansungsa.
Liberation and war (1945–1953)
With the surrender of Japan in 1945 and the subsequent liberation of Korea, freedom became the predominant theme in South Korean cinema in the late 1940s and early 1950s. One of the most significant films from this era is director Choi In-gyu's Viva Freedom! (1946), which is notable for depicting the Korean independence movement. The film was a major commercial success because it tapped into the public's excitement about the country's recent liberation.
However, during the Korean War, the South Korean film industry stagnated, and only 14 films were produced from 1950 to 1953. All of the films from that era have since been lost. Following the Korean War armistice in 1953, South Korean president Syngman Rhee attempted to rejuvenate the film industry by exempting it from taxation. Additionally foreign aid arrived in the country after the war that provided South Korean filmmakers with equipment and technology to begin producing more films.
Golden age (1955–1972)
Though filmmakers were still subject to government censorship, South Korea experienced a golden age of cinema, mostly consisting of melodramas, starting in the mid-1950s. The number of films made in South Korea increased from only 15 in 1954 to 111 in 1959.
One of the most popular films of the era, director Lee Kyu-hwan's now lost remake of Chunhyang-jeon (1955), drew 10 percent of Seoul's population to movie theaters However, while Chunhyang-jeon re-told a traditional Korean story, another popular film of the era, Han Hyung-mo's Madame Freedom (1956), told a modern story about female sexuality and Western values.
South Korean filmmakers enjoyed a brief freedom from censorship in the early 1960s, between the administrations of Syngman Rhee and Park Chung Hee. Kim Ki-young's The Housemaid (1960) and Yu Hyun-mok's Obaltan (1960), now considered among the best South Korean films ever made, were produced during this time. Kang Dae-jin's The Coachman (1961) became the first South Korean film to win an award at an international film festival when it took home the Silver Bear Jury Prize at the 1961 Berlin International Film Festival.
When Park Chung Hee became acting president in 1962, government control over the film industry increased substantially. Under the Motion Picture Law of 1962, a series of increasingly restrictive measures was enacted that limited imported films under a quota system. The new regulations also reduced the number of domestic film-production companies from 71 to 16 within a year. Government censorship targeted obscenity, communism, and unpatriotic themes in films.
Nonetheless, the Motion Picture Law's limit on imported films resulted in a boom of domestic films. South Korean filmmakers had to work quickly to meet public demand, and many films were shot in only a few weeks. During the 1960s, the most popular South Korean filmmakers released six to eight films per year. Notably, director Kim Soo-yong released ten films in 1967, including Mist, which is considered to be his greatest work.
In 1967, South Korea's first animated feature film, Hong Kil-dong, was released. A handful of animated films followed including Golden Iron Man (1968), South Korea's first science-fiction animated film.
Censorship and propaganda (1973–1979)
Government control of South Korea's film industry reached its height during the 1970s under President Park Chung Hee's authoritarian "Yusin System." The Korean Motion Picture Promotion Corporation was created in 1973, ostensibly to support and promote the South Korean film industry, but its primary purpose was to control the film industry and promote "politically correct" support for censorship and government ideals. According to the 1981 International Film Guide, "No country has a stricter code of film censorship than South Korea – with the possible exception of the North Koreans and some other Communist bloc countries."
Only filmmakers who had previously produced "ideologically sound" films and who were considered to be loyal to the government were allowed to release new films. Members of the film industry who tried to bypass censorship laws were blacklisted and sometimes imprisoned. One such blacklisted filmmaker, the prolific director Shin Sang-ok, was kidnapped by the North Korean government in 1978 after the South Korean government revoked his film-making license in 1975.
The propaganda-laden movies (or "policy films") produced in the 1970s were unpopular with audiences who had become accustomed to seeing real-life social issues onscreen during the 1950s and 1960s. In addition to government interference, South Korean filmmakers began losing their audience to television, and movie-theater attendance dropped by over 60 percent from 1969 to 1979.
Films that were popular among audiences during this era include Yeong-ja's Heydays (1975) and Winter Woman (1977), both box office hits directed by Kim Ho-sun. Yeong-ja's Heydays and Winter Women are classified as "hostess films," which are movies about prostitutes and bargirls. Despite their overt sexual content, the government allowed the films to be released, and the genre was extremely popular during the 1970s and 1980s.
Recovery (1980–1996)
In the 1980s, the South Korean government began to relax its censorship and control of the film industry. The Motion Picture Law of 1984 allowed independent filmmakers to begin producing films, and the 1986 revision of the law allowed more films to be imported into South Korea.
Meanwhile, South Korean films began reaching international audiences for the first time in a significant way. Director Im Kwon-taek's Mandala (1981) won the Grand Prix at the 1981 Hawaii Film Festival, and he soon became the first Korean director in years to have his films screened at European film festivals. His film Gilsoddeum (1986) was shown at the 36th Berlin International Film Festival, and actress Kang Soo-yeon won Best Actress at the 1987 Venice International Film Festival for her role in Im's film, The Surrogate Woman.
In 1988, the South Korean government lifted all restrictions on foreign films, and American film companies began to set up offices in South Korea. In order for domestic films to compete, the government once again enforced a screen quota that required movie theaters to show domestic films for at least 146 days per year. However, despite the quota, the market share of domestic films was only 16 percent by 1993.
The South Korean film industry was once again changed in 1992 with Kim Ui-seok's hit film Marriage Story, released by Samsung. It was the first South Korean movie to be released by business conglomerate known as a chaebol, and it paved the way for other chaebols to enter the film industry, using an integrated system of financing, producing, and distributing films.
Renaissance (1997–present)
As a result of the 1997 Asian financial crisis, many chaebols began to scale back their involvement in the film industry. However, they had already laid the groundwork for a renaissance in South Korean film-making by supporting young directors and introducing good business practices into the industry. "New Korean Cinema," including glossy blockbusters and creative genre films, began to emerge in the late 1990s and 2000s.
South Korean cinema saw domestic box-office success exceeding that of Hollywood films in the late 1990s largely due to screen quota laws that limited the public showing foreign films. First enacted in 1967, South Korea's screen quota placed restrictions on the number of days per year that foreign films could be shown at any given theater—garnering criticism from film distributors outside South Korea as unfair. As a prerequisite for negotiations with the United States for a free-trade agreement, the Korean government cut its annual screen quota for domestic films from 146 days to 73 (allowing more foreign films to enter the market). In February 2006, South Korean movie workers responded to the reduction by staging mass rallies in protest. According to Kim Hyun, "South Korea's movie industry, like that of most countries, is grossly overshadowed by Hollywood. The nation exported US$2 million-worth of movies to the United States last year and imported $35.9 million-worth".
One of the first blockbusters was Kang Je-gyu's Shiri (1999), a film about a North Korean spy in Seoul. It was the first film in South Korean history to sell more than two million tickets in Seoul alone. Shiri was followed by other blockbusters including Park Chan-wook's Joint Security Area (2000), Kwak Jae-yong's My Sassy Girl (2001), Kwak Kyung-taek's Friend (2001), Kang Woo-suk's Silmido (2003), and Kang Je-gyu's Taegukgi (2004). In fact, both Silmido and Taegukgi were seen by 10 million people domestically—about one-quarter of South Korea's entire population.
South Korean films began attracting significant international attention in the 2000s, due in part to filmmaker Park Chan-wook, whose movie Oldboy (2003) won the Grand Prix at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival and was praised by American directors including Quentin Tarantino and Spike Lee, the latter of whom directed the remake Oldboy (2013).
Director Bong Joon-ho's The Host (2006) and later the English-language film Snowpiercer (2013), are among the highest-grossing films of all time in South Korea and were praised by foreign film critics. Yeon Sang-ho's Train to Busan (2016), also one of the highest-grossing films of all time in South Korea, became the second highest-grossing film in Hong Kong in 2016.
In 2019, Bong Joon-ho's Parasite became the first film from South Korea to win the prestigious Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival. At the 92nd Academy Awards, Parasite became the first South Korean film to receive any sort of Academy Awards recognition, receiving six nominations. It won Best Picture, Best Director, Best International Feature Film and Best Original Screenplay, becoming the first film produced entirely by an Asian country to receive a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Picture since Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, as well as the first film not in English ever to win the Oscar for Best Picture.
LGBTQ cinema
LGBTQ films and representations of LGBTQ characters in South Korean cinema can be seen since the beginning of South Korean cinema despite public perceptions of South Korea as being largely anti-LGBT. Defining "queer cinema" has been up for debate by critics of cinema because of the difficulties in defining "queer" in film contexts. The term "queer" has its roots in the English language and although its origins held negative connotations, reclamation of the term began in the 1980s in the U.S. and has come to encompass non-heteronormative sexualities even outside of the U.S. Thus, queer cinema in South Korea can be thought of as encompassing depictions of non-heteronormative sexualities. On this note, LGBTQ and queer have been used interchangeably by critics of South Korean cinema. While the characteristics that constitute a film as LGBTQ can be subjective due to defining the term "queer" as well as how explicit or implicit LGBTQ representation is in a film, there are a number of films that have been considered as such in Korean cinema.
According to Pil Ho Kim, Korean queer cinema can be categorized into three different categories regarding visibility and public reception. There is the Invisible Age (1945-1997), where films with queer themes have received limited attention as well as discrete representations due to societal pressures, the Camouflage Age (1998-2004) characterized by a more liberal political and social sphere that encouraged filmmakers to increase production of LGBTQ films and experiment more with their overt depictions but still remaining hesitant, and finally, the Blockbuster Age (2005–present) where LGBTQ themed films began to enter the mainstream following the push against censorship by independent films prior.
Though queer Korean cinema has mainly been represented through independent films and short films, there exists a push for the inclusion of LGBTQ representation in the cinema as well as a call for attention to these films. Turning points include the dismantling of the much stricter Korean Performing Arts Ethics Committee and the emergence of the Korean Council for Performing Arts Promotions and the "Seoul Queer Film and Video Festival" in 1998 after the original gay and lesbian film festival was shut down by Korean authorities. The Korea Queer Film Festival, part of the Korea Queer Culture Festival, has also pushed for visibility of queer Korean films.
LGBTQ films by openly LGBTQ directors
LGBTQ films by openly LGBTQ identifying directors have historically been released independently, with a majority of them being short films. The films listed reflect such films and reveal how diverse the representations can be.
Everyday is Like Sunday (Lee Song Hee-il 1997): The independent, short film directed by openly-LGBTQ identifying Lee Hee-il follows two male characters who meet then become separated, with direct representation of their relationship as homosexual. The independent aspect of the film may have had a role in allowing for a more obvious representation of homosexuality since there is less pressure for appealing to a mainstream audience and does not require government sponsorship.
No Regret (Lee Song Hee-il, 2006): An independent film co-directed by Lee Hee-il and Kim-Cho Kwang-su, both of whom had ties to the gay activist group Ch’in’gusai, portrays LGBTQ characters in a way that normalizes their identities. The film was also able to see more success than usual for independent films for its marketing strategy that targeted a primarily female audience with an interest in what is known as Boys' Love.
Boy Meets Boy (Kimjo Kwang-soo, 2008): Claimed by the director to be inspired by their own personal experience, the independent short film tells an optimistic story of two men, with the possibility of mutual feelings of attraction after a brief encounter. Even though there is homosexual attraction, it is told through a heterosexual lens, since the masculinity of one character and the femininity of the other are in contrast with each other, creating ambiguity about their queerness due in part to homophobia in society and the political climate.
Just Friends? (Kimjo Kwang-soo, 2009): This independent short film by Kimjo Kwang-soo, also written as Kim Cho Kwang-soo, represents LGBTQ characters, with the main character, Min-soo, having to deal with his mother's disapproval of his relationship with another male character. This short film, like Boy Meets Boy also offers a more optimistic ending.
Stateless Things (Kim Kyung-mook, 2011): In the film, both LGBT characters and Korean-Chinese immigrant workers are considered non-normative and are marginalized. The film can be considered to have a queer point-of-view in the sense that it has an experimental quality that creates ambiguity when it comes to non-normative themes. However, the film does depict graphic, homoeroticism, making the representation of homosexuality clear.
LGBTQ films not by openly LGBTQ directors
The Pollen of Flowers (Ha Kil-jong, 1972): Regarded as the first gay Korean film by the director's brother Ha Myong-jung, the film depicts homosexuality in the film through tension in LGBTQ relationships though it was not typically regarded as a queer film at the time of release. The film's political message and critique of the president at the time, Park Chung Hee, may be the reason that queer relationships were overshadowed. In spite of being an earlier Korean film depicting homosexuality, the film is more explicit in these relationships than might be expected at the time.
Ascetic: Woman and Woman (Kim Su-hyeong, 1976): Though the film was given award-winning status by the Korean press, during the time of the release, Ascetic remained an under-recognized film by the public. The film is seen as the first lesbian film by Korean magazine Buddy and tells the story of two women who develop feelings for each other. Though the homosexual feelings between the women are implied through “thinly-veiled sex acts” that could be more explicit, it was considered homosexual given the context of the heavy censorship regulations of the 1970s. Despite the film's status as a lesbian film, it has been noted that the director did not intend to make an LGBTQ film, but rather a feminist film by emphasizing the meaningfulness of the two women's interactions and relationships. Even so, Kim Su-hyeong has said the film can be seen as both lesbian and feminist.
Road Movie (Kim In-shik, 2002): Even though the film was released through a large distribution company, the film did not reach the expected mainstream box office success, yet it is still seen as a precursor to queer blockbuster films to come. The film is explicit in its homosexual content and portrays a complicated love triangle between two men and a woman while focusing primarily on a character who is homosexual. It is noteworthy that Road Movie is one of the few full-length feature films in South Korea to revolve around a queer main character.
The King and the Clown (Lee Joon-ik, 2005): The King and the Clown is seen as having a major impact in queer cinema for its great mainstream success. In the film, one of the characters is seen as representing queer-ness through his embodiment of femininity, which is often regarded as the character trope of the “flower boy” or kkonminam. However, actual depictions of homosexuality are limited and are depicted only through a kiss. The King and the Clown is seen as influential because of its representation of suggested gay characters that preceded other queer films to come after it. The film depicts undertones of a love triangle between two jesters and a king and suggests homosexuality in a pre-modern time period (Joseon Dynasty) and is based on the play Yi (2000) which drew on the passage The Annals of the Choseon Dynasty, two pieces that were more explicit in their homosexuality in comparison the film. The representation of gay intimacy and attraction remains ambiguous in the film and has been criticized by the LGBT community for its portrayal of queerness.
Frozen Flower (Yoo Ha, 2008): A Frozen Flower followed other queer films such as The King and the Clown, Broken Branches, and Road Movie. This film reached a mainstream audience which may have been due in part to a well-received actor playing a homosexual character. Critiques of the film have questioned the character Hong Lim's homosexuality, however, it may be suggested that his character is actually bisexual. Despite the explicit homosexual/queer love scenes in the film that brought a shock to mainstream audiences, the film still managed to be successful and expose a large audience to a story about queer relationships.
The Handmaiden (Park Chan-wook, 2016): The film is a cross-cultural adaptation of the lesbian novel Fingersmith written by Sarah Waters. The Handmaiden includes representation of lesbian characters who are seen expressing romantic feelings towards each other in a sensual way that has been critiqued as voyeuristic for its fetishization of the female body. Explicitly depicting the homosexual attraction of the characters Sook-hee and Lady Hideko is a bath scene where the act of filing down the other's tooth has underlying sexual tension. The film had mainstream box-office success and "over the first six weeks of play [reached a gross] of £1.25 million".
Highest-grossing films
The Korean Film Council has published box office data on South Korean films since 2004. As of March 2021, the top ten highest-grossing domestic films in South Korea since 2004 are as follows.
The Admiral: Roaring Currents (2014)
Extreme Job (2019)
Along with the Gods: The Two Worlds (2017)
Ode to My Father (2014)
Veteran (2015)
The Thieves (2012)
Miracle in Cell No.7 (2013)
Assassination (2015)
Masquerade (2012)
Along with the Gods: The Last 49 Days (2018)
Film awards
South Korea's first film awards ceremonies were established in the 1950s, but have since been discontinued. The longest-running and most popular film awards ceremonies are the Grand Bell Awards, which were established in 1962, and the Blue Dragon Film Awards, which were established in 1963. Other awards ceremonies include the Baeksang Arts Awards, the Korean Association of Film Critics Awards, and the Busan Film Critics Awards.
Film festivals
In South Korea
Founded in 1996, the Busan International Film Festival is South Korea's major film festival and has grown to become one of the largest and most prestigious film events in Asia.
South Korea at international festivals
The first South Korean film to win an award at an international film festival was Kang Dae-jin's The Coachman (1961), which was awarded the Silver Bear Jury Prize at the 1961 Berlin International Film Festival. The tables below list South Korean films that have since won major international film festival prizes.
Academy Awards
Berlin International Film Festival
Cannes Film Festival
Venice Film Festival
Toronto International Film Festival
Sundance Film Festival
Telluride Film Festival
Tokyo International Film Festival
Locarno Festival
See also
Cinema of Korea
Cinema of North Korea
Korean horror
South Korean Queer Cinema
References
New Korean Cinema (2005), ed. by Chi-Yun Shin and Julian Stringer. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
External links
Korean Film Council
Korean Film Archive
Korean Movie Database (in Korean) |
4338200 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E.%20J.%20Josey | E. J. Josey | Elonnie J. Josey (January 20, 1924 – July 3, 2009) was an African-American activist and librarian. Josey was the first chair of the Black Caucus of the American Library Association, having been instrumental in its formation in 1970; served as president of the American Library Association from 1984 to 1985; and was the author of over 400 books and other publications.
Early life
Josey was born Elonnie Junius Josey in Norfolk, Virginia to Willie and Frances Bailey Josey. His mother completed teacher-training school and taught for one year before marrying Josey's father, a WWI veteran who worked as a laborer at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth. Josey credits his mother for encouraging him to pursue reading and creativity. The Josey family moved to the Mount Hermon section of Portsmouth, Virginia shortly after Josey's birth, where he was raised with four siblings. The family attended the Celestial Baptist Church, where Josey "found his love of God and music". Josey attended the segregated Mount Hermon Elementary School and I. C. Norcom High School, where he excelled academically.
Josey's father died when he was a sophomore in high school, and Josey graduated early to earn money as a dishwasher, porter, and stock clerk as well as by playing the piano and organ at neighborhood churches. He was drafted into the army on May 18, 1943, and served in an all-black squadron in the South as an assistant to chaplains and as an organist. Josey was able to use a non-segregated library in the army and he noted, "The opportunity to read a wide variety of materials in the Army caused me to continue my quest for knowledge and revived my desire for a college education". His army service ended in 1946.
Josey enrolled in Howard University in 1947 and graduated in 1949, majoring in history. He received his master's in History from Columbia University in 1950 and a master's in librarianship from the University at Albany, SUNY in 1953 being the second African American to do so. While at Columbia, Josey worked as a desk assistant in the Journalism Library and in several other jobs in departmental libraries, and was "encouraged to pursue librarianship as a career by his supervisor, Basil Miller". Josey joined the American Library Association in 1952 but like other African American librarians, his application to join the Georgia Library Association was rejected. (In 1965, he would become the first African American librarian of the Georgia Library Association after he led a protest against the Southern state library associations).
Career
Immediately after graduating from library school in 1953, Josey was recruited into a position in a branch library at the Free Library of Philadelphia by Emerson Greenaway. With support from his minister, Reverend Leon Sullivan, Josey successfully advocated to be transferred to a position that could make use of his master's degree in history as part of the social science section. Unfortunately, Josey experienced racism from existing staff with lesser credentials who resented his advanced degree and the ability that enabled him to answer questions from patrons that his colleagues could not answer, and he was assigned clerical tasks beneath his abilities. As a result, Josey stayed just one year at the Free Library before deciding to leave the profession, accepting a position as a history instructor in social sciences at Savannah State College in Savannah, Georgia, where he remained for one year.
Josey was recruited into the position of assistant professor and Director of the Library at Delaware State College, Dover, Delaware in September, 1955 as part of a re-accreditation effort, and was able to obtain certification for the library two years later. A major initiative was the "Library Culture Program" which featured authors such as Langston Hughes, Kay Boyle, and Elizabeth Vroman. He remained at Delaware State until 1959. In this position Josey also began his career as an author, writing a series of articles while in the position about library management, library accreditation, and library use. He also began his first position as editor, of the Delaware Library Association Bulletin—the first African American in the role. In recognition of Josey's many accomplishments in the state, he was appointed to a statewide school librarian certification revision committee by the Delaware State Department of Public Instruction. While at Delaware, Josey also met and married Dorothy Johnson and became a father to Elaine Jacqueline Josey, his only child.
In 1959, Josey was invited to return to Savannah State College by the president to oversee the building of a new library facility, and he served as chief librarian and associate professor there until 1996. During Josey's tenure, he implemented two programs that "attracted large numbers of whites into the Savannah State College campus for the first time"; as a result, the library was recognized in 1962 and 1964 by the American Library Association's John Cotton Dana Library Public Relations award. Josey was also able to increase library circulation from 20 to 39 percent as the result of a multi-year summer reading program to improve incoming students' independent reading. Josey was the faculty advisor for the debate team and Alpha Phi Omega fraternity, and supported students' founding of a local chapter of the NAACP.
In 1966, Josey joined the New York State Education Department in its Division of Library Development as an Associate in the Bureau of Academic and Research Libraries. In this position he "developed and improved services for the 216 academic and research libraries in New York. In 1968 he was promoted to Chief of the Bureau of Academic and Research Libraries and held that position until 1976 when he was appointed Chief, Bureau of Specialist Library Services, New York State Library. While in these roles, Josey implemented the New York State interlibrary loan system, providing access to 72,000 libraries around the world.
Educator for Library and Information Science
The next phase of Josey's career involved education for librarianship. From 1970 until his retirement in 1995, Josey served on the North Carolina Central University's library school advisory council, supporting student recruitment and faculty research; mentoring students; and enhancing collections. In 1986, he was recruited to the University of Pittsburgh School of Library and Information Science as a senior professor, where he continued his civil rights activities and became even more well known for mentorship, teaching, scholarship, and recruitment. During Josey's first five years, the number of minority students increased from three to twenty-seven. He went on to receive emeritus status at the University of Pittsburgh.
Research and Scholarship
Josey authored more than 400 articles in library, educational, and history journals, and authored or edited thirteen books in the fields of education, history, and library science. Several works collected together and amplified the experiences of African American Librarians. The Black Librarian in America, published in 1970, is often noted as his seminal work. The book collects twenty-five autobiographical essays, including pioneers such as Virginia Lacy Jones, Augusta Baker, Binnie Tate Wilkin, A. P. Marshall, Miles Jackson, and Robert Wedgeworth. The book addressed "the widespread existence of racism in the profession and incorporated stories of segregation, bias, discrimination, and ignorance about black librarianship." In The Black Librarian in America Revisited, published almost 25 years later, Josey collected thirty biographical and topical essays, including some authors from the original collection. The Handbook of Black Librarianship, co-edited with Ann Allen Shockley, was said by Josey to be his most prized work. The second edition, published in 2000, was co-edited with Marva DeLoach. Both editions provide insight into the critical issues confronted by African American Librarians. The chapter "Discrimination and Affirmative Action: Concerns for Black Librarians and Library Workers," included commentaries from twenty-three prominent librarians who "described frustration with being overlooked for promotions and director positions".
Josey served as editor of The Bookmark from 1976 to 1986, and as contributing editor to "Afro-Americans in New York Life and History." He also served on Multicultural Review educational advisory committee.
Activities in Professional Associations
Active in the field of human rights, he was a life member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). He was elected vice president of the Albany, New York Branch in 1980 and 1981, and served as president from 1982 to 1986. He also served as President of the Albany Branch of the Association for the Study of Afro-American Life and History. Active in community affairs, he also served as a member of the Board of Directors of the Albany County Opportunity, Inc., the local anti-poverty agency for four years.
Josey became a member of the American Library Association in 1952 after entering library school, and attended his first conference in 1957), at the 1964 annual conference, he authored the resolution forbidding Association officers and staff from participating in state associations "which are unable to meet fully the requirements of chapter status in ALA." This action led to the integration of the library association of several Southern states, and in 1965, he became the first black librarian to be accepted as a member of the Georgia Library Association. In The Black Librarian in America (1970) Josey recalled the 1964 annual conference:
Josey was a key leader along with Effie Lee Morris and others in the formation of the Black Caucus of the American Library Association, which formed in 1970; Josey was elected as the first chairman. He is now honored by having scholarships awarded in his name to African American library school students.
As an ALA member, Josey partnered with Clara Stanton Jones during her ALA presidency to object vigorously to the ALA film The Speaker due to its racist subject matter, and with cataloger and activist Sanford Berman to protest negative terminology in the Library of Congress Subject Headings. Josey and Berman continued this work for 20 years. Josey was also known for helping other librarians advance in professional associations; for example, he encouraged future ALA President Patricia G. Schuman to give her first speech and nominated her to run for ALA Council.
Josey was first elected to the ALA Council, the policy making body of the Association in 1970 and served until the summer of 2000, a period of 29 years. In 1979, he was elected to a four-year term on the ALA Executive Board. From 1980 to 1982, he served as Chair of the Cultural Minorities Task Force of the National Commission on Libraries and Information Science. Having served on numerous ALA Committees, he chaired the ALA Committee on Pay Equity, the ALA Committee on Legislation, and the ALA International Relations Committee several times. Josey was nominated to the position of vice president and president elect in 1983.
Josey was the President of ALA in 1984–85. In his inaugural address on June 27, 1984, Josey articulated his presidential vision:
In the same address, Josey went on to add: "The information industry has the technology to control information, but its price tag on information distribution and its profit goal create a bias in what information is made available and how it is dispensed. Only the nonprofit organization, the library, dedicated to a total community service goal with trained experts, librarians, running the operation can provide the full scope of information for the total population in a fair and objective manner."
As president, Josey was noted for building coalitions and partnerships and created innovative conference programs on the topic of coalition building. He also appointed key committees on pay equity, government information, and library services to minorities. Another highlight of his presidency was the joint meeting of BCALA and the Kenya Library Association for a weeklong seminar
Josey was also a member of the Association for Library and Information Science Education and in 1990 presented a report at the Board of Directors meeting on behalf of a committee he led at the request of president Miles J. Jackson "to explore the state of affairs in ethnic, multicultural, and humanistic concerns in LIS." This report led to the establishment of the Multicultural, Ethnic, and Humanistic Concerns Special Interest Group of ALISE, which continues to this day in the form of the Equity and Social Justice special interest Group.
International librarianship
Josey was a staunch advocate of international librarianship and in 1977, ALA President Eric Moon appointed Josey as chair of the ALA International Relations Committee, where he "directed a series of hearings that led to the adoption of ALA's first formal policy on international relations. In the spring of 1987, he was elected to a 4-year term on the board of directors of the Freedom to Read Foundation and again chaired the ALA International Relations Committee from 1987 to 1990. In this tenure he revised ALA's policies to encourage donation of materials to libraries in developing countries and protested against apartheid in South Africa, advocating that IFLA exclude South African apartheid associations and institutions as members. From 1990 to 1994 he served as the Chair of the ALA Legislation Committee. He returned to chair the ALA International Relations Committee for the next two years.
In May and June, 1987, Professor Josey lectured in three African countries, Ethiopia, Zimbabwe, and Zambia under the auspices of the United States Information Agency.
Civil Rights activities
During the early 1960s, he participated in the Civil Rights struggle in Savannah (see The Black Librarian in America, pp. 308–11). While at Savannah University, Josey supported students' founding of a local chapter of the NAACP, which participated in sit-ins. Josey also served on the executive board of the Savannah Branch of the NAACP under the leadership of W. W. Law and met Martin Luther King Jr. at a dinner in support of the NAACP.
In 1964 he carried the Civil Rights struggle into the American Library Association. In spite of the 1954 United States Supreme Court decision, which encouraged desegregation of libraries and ALA chapters, the ALA was slow in implementing integration of all of its southern chapters until Josey offered his resolution at the 1964 Conference which prevented ALA officers and staff members from attending segregated state chapter meetings. The four remaining segregated chapters that denied membership to African-American librarians at that time were Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Mississippi; and they integrated immediately. He is well known for his uncompromising opposition to any form of discrimination whether it is racial, gender, age or sexual orientation.
In 1965, Josey became the first African American librarian in the Georgia Library Association after, protesting the southern state library association he was finally allowed membership.
In 1981, Josey was elected vice president of the Albany, New York branch of the NAACP. and in 1986 received the NAACP President's Award from the Albany Board for "significant contributions to special populations in New York State".
Josey was one of the founders of the Equal Opportunity Authority in Savannah, Georgia, and contributed his leadership in the development of the Ralph Mark Gilbert Civil Rights Museum.
Death
Josey died from natural causes in Washington, North Carolina at the age of 85, on July 3, 2009, and was survived by his daughter, Amina Josey Turner (née Elaine Jacqueline Josey) and her husband, Lawrence Richard Turner, III; his ex-wife, Rev. Dorothy J. Josey; six grandchildren, and ten great-grandchildren.
Awards
Josey was recipient of many awards. The American Library Association History Round Table presented him with its Journal of Library History Award for research on Edward Christopher Williams, the first African American to graduate from library school in 1900.
Under his leadership, the Savannah State University Library received the 1962 and 1964 John Cotton Dana Award.
In 1967, he returned to Savannah State University to be honored with the Savannah State University Award.
In 1980, he received the American Library Association's most coveted award, the Joseph W. Lippincott Award. The citation of the award read in part:
He has received a number of awards from the NAACP. In 1965, he received the NAACP National Office Award for Work with Youth. In 1966, he received the Georgia NAACP Conference Award. In 1983 and in 1986, he was honored by an award from the Albany Board of the NAACP.
On May 1, 1981, he received the first annual Award for Distinguished Service in Librarianship from the School of Library and Information Science, State University of New York at Albany.
On November 10, 1982, he received the Library Association of the City University of New York Award for his outstanding contribution to American Librarianship and for his support of Libraries and Librarians of the City University of New York.
In 1984, he received the following awards: Martin Luther King Jr. Award for Distinguished Community Leadership, SUNY, Albany; District of Columbia Association of School Librarians Award for Contributions to Librarianship; Award from the New Jersey Black Librarians Network; African Library Award from the Kenya Library Association; Award for Contribution to International Librarianship from the Afro-Caribbean Library Association, England, and in 1985 Honorary Membership in the Virgin Islands Library Association was bestowed upon him.
In 1985, for his contribution to the Profession and his leadership as ALA President, a Capital Tribute was presented in Washington, D.C., by Congressman Major Owens and the Congressional Black Caucus Brain Trust; New York State Legislative Resolution; Ohio House of Representatives Resolution; and a U.S. Congressional Resolution.
In 1986 he received the New York Library Association Award for significant contributions to special populations in New York State.
In 1991, the American Library Association bestowed upon him its ALA Equality Award.
In 1996, the American Library Association honored him at its 50th Anniversary of the ALA Washington Office for his contribution to the Legislative Program. The Pennsylvania Library Association honored him with its Distinguished Service Award.
In 1998, Forest Press and OCLC bestowed upon him the John Ames Humphrey Award, "in recognition of significant contributions to international librarianship."
In 2002, the American Library Association bestowed upon him its highest award, Honorary Membership in the Association.
Scholarships and Honors
The Black Caucus of the American Library Association established its first independent scholarship fund in his honor. The E. J. Josey Scholarship Award is given annually to African-American citizen of the United States or Canada pursuing a degree in an ALA accredited Library and Information Science program in the U.S. or Canada.
Upon his retirement from the University of Pittsburgh's School of Information Science in 1995, he was named Professor Emeritus and a scholarship was named in his behalf: E. J. Josey Endowment Scholarship for Minorities. This scholarship is awarded annually to an enrolled African-American graduate student in the Department of Library & Information Science who demonstrates potential for academic excellence and leadership in the profession.
The Association of College and Research Libraries named the Dr. E. J. Josey Mentoring Program for Spectrum Scholars in his honor.
Publications
The author of more than 400 articles in library, educational, and history journals, Josey also authored or edited thirteen books in the fields of education, history, and library science, which include:
The Black Librarian in America, Scarecrow Press, 1970. (This was the first book published which dealt exclusively with issues related to Black librarians in the United States.)
What Black Librarians are Saying, Scarecrow Press, 1972.
New Dimensions for Academic Library Service, Scarecrow Press, 1975.
A Century of Service: Librarianship in the United States and Canada, co-editor with Sidney Jackson and Elinor Herling, ALA, 1976.
Opportunities for Minorities in Librarianship,co-editor with Kenneth Peeples, Jr., Scarecrow Press, 1977.
Handbook of Black Librarianship, co-editor with Ann Allen Shockley, Fisk University Library, Libraries Unlimited, 1977.
The Information Society: Issues and Answers, Oryx Press, 1978.
Libraries in the Political Process, Oryx Press, 1980.
Ethnic Collections in Libraries, with Marva L. DeLoach, Neal-Schuman Press, 1983.
Libraries, Coalitions and the Public Good, Neal-Schuman Press, 1987.
Politics and the Support of Libraries with Dr. Kenneth Shearer, November, 1990.
The Black Librarian in America Revisited, Scarecrow Press in January 1994.
Handbook of Black Librarianship. 2nd ed. E. J. Josey and Marva L. DeLoach, eds. Lanham, Md., Scarecrow Press, 2000. (See item 6)
Josey served as Editor of:
the Delaware Library Association Bulletin during his tenure at Delaware State College, 1955–1959.
The Bookmark from 1976 to 1986. In the fall of 1986 he relinquished the editorship of The Bookmark and served as its co-editor for the next five years.
Notable articles and book chapters with historical acclaim include:
"The Absent Professors." January 15, 1962. Library Journal, 87(181).
"The Role of the College Library Staff in the Instruction in the Use of the Library", College and Research Libraries, 1962
"The Future of the Black College Library" Library Journal 94(16) (September 1969): 3019–22.
"The Civil Rights Movement and American Librarianship: The Opening Round" in Activism in American Libraries 1962-1973, 1987
Honors and degrees
Josey held earned degrees from Howard University, Columbia University, and the State University of New York at Albany.
In 1973, Shaw University conferred on him an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree. The University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee conferred the Doctor of Public Services (D.P.L.) Honoris Causa on May 16, 1987, North Carolina Central University honored him with the Doctor of Humanities, Honoris Causa on September 29, 1989, and Clark Atlanta University bestowed upon him the Doctor of Letters Degree (D.Litt.) on May 22, 1995. Clarion University of Pennsylvania honored him with the Doctor of Humane Letters on December 15, 2001.
In September 1992, a festschrift, E. J. Josey: An Activist Librarian, Scarecrow Press, edited by Ismail Abdullahi, was published in his honor.
In 1999, Josey was honored for his contribution to intellectual freedom at the ALA Midwinter Meeting on the occasion of the celebration of the thirtieth anniversary of the Office of Intellectual Freedom.
After Josey died in 2009, the E. J. Josey Foundation for Justice and Peace was established as a 501(c)(3) tax-exempt organization in Washington, North Carolina.
See also
American Library Association
Civil rights
References
Bibliography
E. J. Josey : an activist librarian / ed. by Ismail Abdullahi. Metuchen, NJ. [etc.] : Scarecrow Press, 1992.
External links
E.J.Josey at the University of Pittsburgh
Obituary in Library Journal, July 2009.
E. J. Josey Foundation for Justice and Peace
American librarians
1924 births
2009 deaths
Howard University alumni
Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
Savannah State University faculty
American activists
University of Pittsburgh faculty
African-American activists
African-American librarians
Columbia University librarians
Delaware State University people
Presidents of the American Library Association
American librarianship and human rights
People from Washington, North Carolina
21st-century African-American people |
4338696 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Google | History of Google | Google was officially launched in 1998 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin to market Google Search, which has become the most used web-based search engine. Larry Page and Sergey Brin, students at Stanford University in California, developed a search algorithm at first known as "BackRub" in 1996, with the help of Scott Hassan and Alan Steremberg. The search engine soon proved successful and the expanding company moved several times, finally settling at Mountain View in 2003. This marked a phase of rapid growth, with the company making its initial public offering in 2004 and quickly becoming one of the world's largest media companies. The company launched Google News in 2002, Gmail in 2004, Google Maps in 2005, Google Chrome in 2008, and the social network known as Google+ in 2011 (which was shut down in April 2019), in addition to many other products. In 2015, Google became the main subsidiary of the holding company Alphabet Inc.
The search engine went through many updates in attempts to eradicate search engine optimization.
Google has engaged in partnerships with NASA, AOL, Sun Microsystems, News Corporation, Sky UK, and others. The company set up a charitable offshoot, Google.org, in 2005.
The name Google is a misspelling of Googol, the number 1 followed by 100 zeros, which was picked to signify that the search engine was intended to provide large quantities of information.
History
Beginnings
Google has its origins in "BackRub", a research project that was begun in 1996 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin when they were both PhD students at Stanford University in Stanford, California. The project initially involved an unofficial "third founder", Scott Hassan, the lead programmer who wrote much of the code for the original Google Search engine, but he left before Google was officially founded as a company; Hassan went on to pursue a career in robotics and founded the company Willow Garage in 2006. Craig Nevill-Manning was also invited to join Google at its formation but declined and then joined a little later on.
In the search of a dissertation theme, Larry Page had been considering among other things exploring the mathematical properties of the World Wide Web, understanding its link structure as a huge graph. His supervisor, Terry Winograd, encouraged him to pick this idea (which Larry Page later recalled as "the best advice I ever got") and Larry Page focused on the problem of finding out which web pages link to a given page, based on the consideration that the number and nature of such backlinks was valuable information about that page (with the role of citations in academic publishing in mind). Larry Page told his ideas to Hassan, who began writing the code to implement Larry Page's ideas.
The research project was nicknamed "BackRub", and it was soon joined by Brin, who was supported by a National Science Foundation Graduate Fellowship. The two had first met in the summer of 1995, when Page was part of a group of potential new students that Brin had volunteered to give a tour around the campus and nearby San Francisco. Both Brin and Page were working on the Stanford Digital Library Project (SDLP). The SDLP's goal was "to develop the enabling technologies for a single, integrated and universal digital library" and it was funded through the National Science Foundation, among other federal agencies. Brin and Page were also part of a computer science research team at Stanford University that received funding from Massive Digital Data Systems (MDDS), a program managed for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the National Security Agency (NSA) by large intelligence and military contractors.
Page's web crawler began exploring the web in March 1996, with Page's own Stanford home page serving as the only starting point. To convert the backlink data that is gathered for a given web page into a measure of importance, Brin and Page developed the PageRank algorithm. While analyzing BackRub's output which, for a given URL, consisted of a list of backlinks ranked by importance, the pair realized that a search engine based on PageRank would produce better results than existing techniques (existing search engines at the time essentially ranked results according to how many times the search term appeared on a page).
Convinced that the pages with the most links to them from other highly relevant Web pages must be the most relevant pages associated with the search, Page and Brin tested their thesis as part of their studies and laid the foundation for their search engine. The first version of Google was released in August 1996 on the Stanford website. It used nearly half of Stanford's entire network bandwidth.
Scott Hassan and Alan Steremberg were cited by Page and Brin as being critical to the development of Google. Rajeev Motwani and Terry Winograd later co-authored with Page and Brin the first paper about the project, describing PageRank and the initial prototype of the Google search engine, published in 1998. Héctor García-Molina and Jeff Ullman were also cited as contributors to the project.
PageRank was influenced by a similar page-ranking and site-scoring algorithm earlier used for RankDex, developed by Robin Li in 1996. Larry Page's patent for PageRank filed in 1998 includes a citation to Li's earlier patent. Li later went on to create the Chinese search engine Baidu in 2000.
Late 1990s
Originally the search engine used Stanford's website with the domains google.stanford.edu and z.stanford.edu. The domain google.com was registered on September 15, 1997. They formally incorporated their company, Google, on September 4, 1998 in their friend Susan Wojcicki's garage in Menlo Park, California. Wojcicki eventually became an executive at Google and CEO at YouTube.
Both Brin and Page had been against using advertising pop-ups in a search engine, or an "advertising funded search engines" model, and they wrote a research paper in 1998 on the topic while still students. They changed their minds early on and allowed simple text ads.
By the end of 1998, Google had an index of about 60 million pages. The home page was still marked "BETA", but an article in Salon.com already argued that Google's search results were better than those of competitors like Hotbot or Excite.com, and praised it for being more technologically innovative than the overloaded portal sites (like Yahoo!, Excite.com, Lycos, Netscape's Netcenter, AOL.com, Go.com and MSN.com) which at that time, during the growing dot-com bubble, were seen as "the future of the Web", especially by stock market investors.
Early in 1999, Brin and Page decided they wanted to sell Google to Excite. They went to Excite CEO George Bell and offered to sell it to him for $1 million. He rejected the offer. Vinod Khosla, one of Excite's venture capitalists, talked the duo down to $750,000, but Bell still rejected it.
In March 1999, the company moved into offices at 165 University Avenue in Palo Alto, home to several other noted Silicon Valley technology startups. After quickly outgrowing two other sites, the company leased a complex of buildings in Mountain View at 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway from Silicon Graphics (SGI) in 2003. The company has remained at this location ever since, and the complex has since become known as the Googleplex (a play on the word googolplex, a number that is equal to 1 followed by a googol of zeros). In 2006, Google bought the property from SGI for US$319 million.
2000s
The Google search engine attracted a loyal following among the growing number of Internet users, who liked its simple design. In 2000, Google began selling advertisements associated with search keywords. The ads were text-based to maintain an uncluttered page design and to maximize page loading speed. Keywords were sold based on a combination of price bid and click-throughs, with bidding starting at $.05 per click. This model of selling keyword advertising was first pioneered by Goto.com, an Idealab spin-off created by Bill Gross. When the company changed names to Overture Services, it sued Google over alleged infringements of the company's pay-per-click and bidding patents. Overture Services would later be bought by Yahoo! and renamed Yahoo! Search Marketing. The case was then settled out of court; Google agreed to issue shares of common stock to Yahoo! in exchange for a perpetual license. While many of its dot-com rivals failed in the new Internet marketplace, Google quietly rose in stature while generating revenue.
Google's declared code of conduct is "Don't be evil", a phrase which they went so far as to include in their prospectus (aka "S-1") for their 2004 IPO, noting that "We believe strongly that in the long term, we will be better served—as shareholders and in all other ways—by a company that does good things for the world even if we forgo some short term gains."
In February 2003, Google acquired Pyra Labs, owner of the Blogger website. The acquisition secured the company's competitive ability to use information gleaned from blog postings to improve the speed and relevance of articles contained in a companion product to the search engine Google News.
In February 2004, Yahoo! dropped its partnership with Google, providing an independent search engine of its own. This cost Google some market share, yet Yahoo!'s move highlighted Google's own distinctiveness. The verb "to google" has entered a number of languages (first as a slang verb and now as a standard word), meaning "to perform a web search" (a possible indication of "Google" becoming a genericized trademark).
After the IPO, Google's stock market capitalization rose greatly and the stock price more than quadrupled. On August 19, 2004, the number of shares outstanding was 172.85 million while the "free float" was 19.60 million (which makes 89% held by insiders). Google has a dual-class stock structure in which each Class B share gets ten votes compared to each Class A share getting one. Page said in the prospectus that Google has "a dual-class structure that is biased toward stability and independence and that requires investors to bet on the team, especially Sergey and me."
In June 2005, Google was valued at nearly $52 billion, making it one of the world's biggest media companies by stock market value.
On August 18, 2005 (one year after the initial IPO), Google announced that it would sell 14,159,265 (another mathematical reference as π ≈ 3.14159265) more shares of its stock to raise money. The move would double Google's cash stockpile to $7 billion. Google said it would use the money for "acquisitions of complementary businesses, technologies or other assets".
With Google's increased size came more competition from large mainstream technology companies. One such example is the rivalry between Microsoft and Google. Microsoft had been touting its Bing search engine to counter Google's competitive position. Furthermore, the two companies are increasingly offering overlapping services, such as webmail (Gmail vs. Hotmail), search (both online and local desktop searching), and other applications (for example, Microsoft's Windows Live Local competes with Google Earth). In addition to an Internet Explorer replacement, Google designed its own Linux-based operating system called ChromeOS to directly compete with Microsoft Windows. There were also rumors of a Google web browser, fueled much by the fact that Google was the owner of the domain name "gbrowser.com". These were later proven when Google released Google Chrome. This corporate feud boiled over into the courts when Kai-Fu Lee, a former vice-president of Microsoft, quit Microsoft to work for Google. Microsoft sued to stop his move by citing Lee's non-compete contract (he had access to much sensitive information regarding Microsoft's plans in China). Google and Microsoft reached a settlement out of court on December 22, 2005, the terms of which are confidential.
Click fraud also became a growing problem for Google's business strategy. Google's CFO George Reyes said in a December 2004 investor conference that "something has to be done about this really, really quickly, because I think, potentially, it threatens our business model."
While the company's primary market is in the web content arena, Google has experimented with other markets, such as radio and print publications. On January 17, 2006, Google announced that it had purchased the radio advertising company dMarc, which provides an automated system that allows companies to advertise on the radio. Google also began an experiment in selling advertisements from its advertisers in offline newspapers and magazines, with select advertisements in the Chicago Sun-Times.
During the third quarter of 2005 Google Conference Call, Eric Schmidt said, "We don't do the same thing as everyone else does. And so if you try to predict our product strategy by simply saying well so and so has this and Google will do the same thing, it's almost always the wrong answer. We look at markets as they exist and we assume they are pretty well served by their existing players. We try to see new problems and new markets using the technology that others use and we build."
After months of speculation, Google was added to the Standard & Poor's 500 index (S&P 500) on March 31, 2006. Google replaced Burlington Resources, a major oil producer based in Houston that had been acquired by ConocoPhillips. The day after the announcement Google's share price rose by 7%.
In 2008, Google launched Knol, their own equivalent of Wikipedia, which failed four years later.
Use of cookies
Although Google was already deriving the vast majority of its income from advertising at the time of its 2004 IPO, it did not use any HTTP cookie-based web tracking until during the 2007-2008 financial crisis on Google. By 2006, Google's Ad revenue was already facing signs of decline, as "a growing number of advertisers were refusing to buy display ads from Google." The financial crisis pushed Google into a hiring freeze, and potentially to the edge of bankruptcy if ad revenue would keep declining. With a market cap of more than $100 billion, if Google was to go bankrupt, it would have serious implications on a stock market that was already seriously hit by the crisis (see United States bear market of 2007–2009).
In 2007, Google agreed to buy DoubleClick for $3.1 billion, marking the start of its use of cookie-based tracking. Even with the purchase, Google only ended up with a 3% revenue in the second quarter of 2009, in the depth of the recession.
Google initially separated the browsing habits collected from AD tracking from data collected by its other services by default. Google removed this last layer of protection in 2016, making its tracking personally-identifiable.
2010s
In 2011, the company launched Google+, its fourth foray into social networking, following Google Buzz (launched 2010, retired in 2011), Google Friend Connect (launched 2008, retired by March 1, 2012), and Orkut (launched in 2004, retired in September 2014)
As of November 2014, Google operated over 70 offices in more than 41 countries.
In 2015, Google reorganized its interests as a holding company, Alphabet Inc., with Google as its leading subsidiary. Google continued to serve as the umbrella for Alphabet's Internet interests. On September 1, 2017, Google Inc. announced its plans of restructuring as a limited liability company, Google LLC, as a wholly owned subsidiary of XXVI Holdings, Inc., which is formed as a subsidiary of Alphabet Inc. to hold the equity of its other subsidiaries, including Google LLC and other bets.
Between 2018 and 2019, tensions between the company's leadership and its workers escalated as staff protested company decisions on internal sexual harassment, Dragonfly, a censored Chinese search engine, and Project Maven, a military drone artificial intelligence, which had been seen as areas of revenue growth for the company. On 25 October 2018, The New York Times published an exposé, "How Google Protected Andy Rubin, the 'Father of Android'". The company subsequently announced that "48 employees have been fired over the last two years" for sexual misconduct. On 1 November 2018, Google employees staged a global walk-out to protest the company's handling of sexual harassment complaints, including the golden parachute exit of former executive Andy Rubin; more than 20,000 employees and contractors participated. CEO Sundar Pichai was reported to be in support of the protests.
On March 19, 2019, Google announced that it would enter the video game market, launching a cloud gaming platform called Google Stadia.
On June 3, 2019, the United States Department of Justice reported that it would investigate Google for antitrust violations. This led to the filing of an antitrust lawsuit in October 2020, on the grounds the company had abused a monopoly position in the search and search advertising markets.
In December 2019, former PayPal chief operating officer Bill Ready became Google's new commerce chief. Ready's role will not be directly involved with Google Pay.
2020s
In April 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Google announced several cost-cutting measures. Such measures included slowing down hiring for the remainder of 2020, except for a small number of strategic areas, recalibrating the focus and pace of investments in areas like data centers and machines, and non-business essential marketing and travel.
The 2020 Google services outages disrupted Google services: one in August that affected Google Drive among others, another in November affecting YouTube, and a third in December affecting the entire suite of Google applications. All three outages were resolved within hours.
In January 2021, the Australian Government proposed legislation that would require Google and Facebook to pay media companies for the right to use their content. In response, Google threatened to close off access to its search engine in Australia.
In March 2021, Google reportedly paid $20 million for Ubisoft ports on Google Stadia. Google spent "tens of millions of dollars" on getting major publishers such as Ubisoft and Take-Two to bring some of their biggest games to Stadia.
In April 2021, The Wall Street Journal reported that Google ran a years-long program called 'Project Bernanke' that used data from past advertising bids to gain an advantage over competing ad services. This was revealed in documents concerning the antitrust lawsuit filed by ten US states against Google in December.
In June 2023, Google stated it would remove Canadian news links from its services throughout the country due to legislation from the Canadian government (Bill C-11) that would require Google and other online platforms such as Facebook to pay for news articles being shown on their platforms.
Financing and initial public offering
The first funding for Google as a company was secured in August 1998 in the form of a US$100,000 contribution from Andy Bechtolsheim, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, given to a corporation which did not yet exist.
On June 7, 1999, a round of equity funding totalling $25 million was announced, the major investors being rival venture capital firms Kleiner, Perkins, Caufield & Byers and Sequoia Capital. While Google still needed more funding for their further expansion, Brin and Page were hesitant to take the company public, despite their financial issues. They were not ready to give up control over Google.
Following the closing of the $25 million financing round, Sequoia encouraged Brin and Page to hire a CEO. Brin and Page ultimately acquiesced and hired Eric Schmidt as Google's first CEO in August 2001.
In October 2003, while discussing a possible initial public offering of shares (IPO), Microsoft approached the company about a possible partnership or merger. The deal never materialized. In January 2004, Google announced the hiring of Morgan Stanley and Goldman Sachs Group to arrange an IPO. The IPO was projected to raise as much as $4 billion.
Google's initial public offering took place on August 19, 2004. A total of 19,605,052 shares were offered at a price of $85 per share. Of that, 14,142,135 (another mathematical reference as ≈ 1.4142135) were floated by Google and 5,462,917 by selling stockholders. The sale raised US$1.67 billion, and gave Google a market capitalization of more than $23 billion. Many of Google's employees became instant paper millionaires. Yahoo!, a competitor of Google, also benefited from the IPO because it owned 2.7 million shares of Google.
Following the company's IPO in 2004, founders Sergey Brin and Larry Page and CEO Eric Schmidt requested that their base salary be cut to $1. Subsequent offers by the company to increase their salaries were turned down, primarily because their main compensation continues to come from owning stock in Google. Before 2004, Schmidt made $250,000 per year, and Page and Brin each received an annual salary of $150,000.
There were concerns that Google's IPO would lead to changes in company culture. Reasons ranged from shareholder pressure for employee benefit reductions to the fact that many company executives would become instant paper millionaires. As a reply to this concern, co-founders Brin and Page promised in a report to potential investors that the IPO would not change the company's culture.
The company was listed on the NASDAQ stock exchange under the ticker symbol GOOG. When Alphabet was created as Google's parent company, it retained Google's stock price history and ticker symbol.
Name
The name "Google" originated from a misspelling of "googol", which refers to the number represented by a 1 followed by one-hundred zeros. Page and Brin write in their first paper on PageRank: "We chose our systems name, Google, because it is a common spelling of googol, or 10100 and fits well with our goal of building very large-scale search engines."
There are uses of the name going back at least as far as the creation of the comic strip character Barney Google in 1919. British children's author Enid Blyton used the phrase "Google Bun" in The Magic Faraway Tree (published 1941) and The Folk of the Faraway Tree (published 1946), and called a clown character "Google" in Circus Days Again (published 1942). There is also the Googleplex Star Thinker from Douglas Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. In March 1996, a business called Groove Track Productions applied for a United States trademark for "Google" for various products including several categories of clothing, stuffed toys, board games, and candy. The firm abandoned its application in July 1997.
Having found its way increasingly into everyday language, the verb "google" was added to the Merriam Webster Collegiate Dictionary and the Oxford English Dictionary in 2006, meaning "to use the Google search engine to obtain information on the internet." The use of the term itself reflects their mission to organize a seemingly infinite amount of information on the web. The first use of "Google" as a verb in pop culture happened on the TV series Buffy the Vampire Slayer, in 2002. In November 2009, the Global Language Monitor named "Google" No. 7 on its Top Words of the Decade list. In December 2009 the BBC highlighted Google in their "Portrait of the Decade (Words)" series. In May 2012, David Elliott filed a complaint against Google, Inc. claiming that Google's once distinctive mark GOOGLE® has become generic and lacks trademark significance due to its common use as a transitive verb. After losing to Google in UDRP proceedings involving many "Google-related" domain name registrations that he owns, Elliott later sought a declaratory judgment that his domain names are rightfully his, that they do not infringe any trademark rights Google may own, and that all Google's registered GOOGLE® marks should be cancelled since "Google" is now a common generic word worldwide that means "to search the internet."
Partnerships
Google has worked with several corporations, in order to improve production and services.
On September 28, 2005, Google announced a long-term research partnership with NASA which would involve Google building a R&D center at NASA's Ames Research Center. NASA and Google are planning to work together on a variety of areas, including large-scale data management, massively distributed computing, bio-info-nano convergence, and encouragement of the entrepreneurial space industry. The new building would also include labs, offices, and housing for Google engineers. In October 2006, Google formed a partnership with Sun Microsystems to help share and distribute each other's technologies. As part of the partnership Google will hire employees to help the open source office program OpenOffice.org.
Time Warner's AOL unit and Google unveiled an expanded partnership on December 21, 2005, including an enhanced global advertising partnership and a US$1 billion investment by Google for a 5% stake in AOL. As part of the collaboration, Google plans to work with AOL on video search and offer AOL's premium video service within Google Video. This did not allow users of Google Video to search for AOL's premium-video services. Display advertising throughout the Google network will also increase.
In August 2006, Google signed a $900 million offer with News Corp.'s Fox Interactive Media unit to provide search and advertising on MySpace and other News Corp. websites including IGN, AmericanIdol.com, Fox.com, and Rotten Tomatoes, although Fox Sports is not included as a deal already exists between News Corp. and MSN.
On December 6, 2006, British Sky Broadcasting released details of a Sky and Google alliance. This includes a feature where Gmail will link with Sky and host a mail service for Sky, incorporating the email domain "@sky.com".
In 2007, Google displaced America Online as a key partner and sponsor of the NORAD Tracks Santa program. Google Earth was used for the first time to give visitors to the website the impression that they were following Santa Claus' progress in 3-D. The program also made its presence known on YouTube in 2007 as part of its partnership with Google.
In 2008, Google developed a partnership with GeoEye to launch a satellite providing Google with high-resolution (0.41 m monochrome, 1.65 m color) imagery for Google Earth. The satellite was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base on September 6, 2008. Google also announced in 2008 that it was hosting an archive of Life Magazines photographs.
In January 2009, Google announced a partnership with the Pontifical Council for Social Communications, allowing the Pope to have his own channel on YouTube.
In January 2013, Google announced a partnership with Kia Motors and Hyundai. The partnership integrates Google Maps and Place into new car models to be released later in 2013.
The Alliance for Affordable Internet (A4AI) was launched in October 2013; Google is part of the coalition of public and private organizations that also includes Facebook, Intel, and Microsoft. Led by Sir Tim Berners-Lee, the A4AI seeks to make Internet access more affordable so that access is broadened in the developing world, where only 31% of people are online. Google will help to decrease Internet access prices so they fall below the UN Broadband Commission's worldwide target of 5% of monthly income.
On September 21, 2017, HTC announced a "cooperation agreement" in which it would sell non-exclusive rights to certain intellectual property, as well as smartphone talent, to Google for $1.1 billion.
See also
Timeline of Google Search
Criticism of Google
Google logo
Larry Page
Sergey Brin
List of Google Easter eggs
Timeline of Mountain View, California, headquarters of Google since 1999
References
Further reading
External links
Google Corporate History (official)
David Hart: On the Origins of Google National Science Foundation, August 17, 2004
History of Silicon Valley
Google
Google
Google |
4338930 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20DeLay%20campaign%20finance%20trial | Tom DeLay campaign finance trial | Tom DeLay, a Republican U.S. Representative from Texas from 1979–83, and from 1985–2006 and the House Majority Leader from 2003–05, was convicted in 2010 of money laundering and conspiracy charges related to illegal campaign finance activities aimed at helping Republican candidates for Texas state office in the 2002 elections. In 2013, a Texas Court of Appeals panel acquitted DeLay when it overturned his conviction. This decision was affirmed by the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals on October 1, 2014. DeLay had three years from that date, i.e. until October 1, 2017, to file any lawsuits for wrongful action.
Ronnie Earle, the Democratic then-District Attorney of Travis County (which includes the state capital of Austin), sought the indictment of Tom DeLay in 2005. After a first grand jury declined to indict DeLay, Earle stated that new evidence had become available. A second grand jury quickly issued an indictment of Delay for one count of criminal conspiracy on September 28, 2005. On October 3, a third grand jury indicted DeLay for the more serious offense of money laundering.
An arrest warrant was issued on October 19, and DeLay turned himself in the next day to the Harris County Sheriff's Office in Houston. In accordance with House Republican Conference rules, DeLay temporarily resigned from his position as House Majority Leader. On January 7, 2006, after pressure from fellow Republicans, he announced that he would not seek to return to the post. On June 9, 2006, DeLay resigned from Congress.
After two judges were recused from the case, the chief justice of the Texas Supreme Court assigned Senior District Judge Pat Priest, a Democrat, of San Antonio to preside over the case. DeLay moved to dismiss all charges. Judge Priest dismissed one count of the indictment alleging conspiracy to violate election law but allowed the other, more serious charges of money laundering and conspiracy to engage in money laundering to proceed. In November 2010, DeLay was found guilty by a Travis County jury on both counts.
In September 2013, a Texas appeals court, composed of two Republicans and a dissenting Democrat, overturned DeLay's conviction. In the opinion of the court, the state's evidence was legally insufficient to sustain DeLay's convictions so the court reversed the judgments of the trial court and rendered judgments of acquittal. The current DA's office said it would appeal the decision to the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, which it later did. The all-Republican Texas Court of Criminal Appeals agreed to review the case and handed down an 8–1 decision affirming the lower courts' dismissal October 1, 2014.
Background
In the reapportionment following the 1990 Census, Texas Democrats drew what Republican political analyst Michael Barone argued was the most effective partisan gerrymander in the country. The Democrats won 70 percent of the Texas congressional seats in 1992, the first year in which the new districts were in effect, while taking half of the total number of votes cast for Congress statewide. After the 2000 census, Republicans sought to redraw the district lines to support a Republican majority in the congressional delegation while Democrats desired to retain a plan similar to the existing lines. The two parties reached an impasse in the Texas Legislature, where Republicans controlled the Senate and Democrats controlled the House. As a result the new district lines were drawn by a three judge federal court panel that made as few changes as possible while adding the two new seats.
In 2001 the Texas Legislative Redistricting Board (a panel composed of the state's Lieutenant Governor, Comptroller of Public Accounts, Speaker of the state House, Attorney General, and Land Commissioner) redrew state legislative districts in accordance with the Census results. The new map that was adopted by the Republican-dominated board gave the Republicans an edge in winning the Texas House of Representatives, still controlled at that time by the Democrats. During the 2002 elections under these new maps, DeLay aggressively raised money for Republican candidates under Texans for a Republican Majority (TRMPAC). In October 2002, TRMPAC made contributions, through several channels, to Nelson Balido of San Antonio ($2,000), Byron Cook of Corsicana ($2,000), Wayne Christian of Center ($2,000), Rick Green of Dripping Springs ($2,000), and Eddie Shauberger of Liberty ($2,000), among others.
The GOP victories in 2002 resulted in their control of the Texas House in addition to the Senate. As a result, the Texas Legislature was called into session in 2003 to establish a controversial mid-decade redistricting plan that favored Republicans. A number of Democrats (the "Killer Ds", in the state House, and "Texas Eleven" in the state Senate) left the state and went to Oklahoma and later New Mexico to deny a quorum for voting. Helen Giddings, the recognized negotiator, was arrested in May 2003, but later the arrest was called a mistake. The political police dragnet was at taxpayer expense. Texas House Speaker Craddick apologized to Giddings, then ordered the Sergeant at Arms to incarcerate Giddings in the state capital building.
On May 26, 2005, a Texas judge ruled that a committee formed by DeLay had violated state law by not disclosing over $600,000 worth of fundraising money, mostly from the credit card industry, including $25,000 from Sears, Roebuck & Co., and $50,000 from Diversified Collections Services of San Leandro.
Some of the money was spent on manning phone banks and posting wanted posters on Federal Highways calling for the arrest of Democratic legislators with an 800 number to the Texas Department of Public Safety to call if seen after the Democratic caucus left for Oklahoma in order to prevent the redistricting legislation from passing. The Federal Highway Administration offered to cooperate in arresting the Democrats, forcing the Democrats to travel to Oklahoma by plane instead of by automobile. Five Texas congressional seats changed hands from Democrats to Republicans during the 2004 election, largely due to the new redistricting. On October 6, 2004, the House Ethics Committee unanimously admonished DeLay on two counts. The first count stated that DeLay "created the appearance that donors were being provided with special access to Representative DeLay regarding the then-pending energy legislation." The second count alleged DeLay had "used federal resources in a political issue" by asking the Federal Aviation Administration and Justice Department to help track Texas legislators during the battle over Texas redistricting. At the time of the latter admonishment, the House Ethics committee deferred action on another count related to fundraising while that matter was subject to state criminal action. That state investigation eventually led to the felony indictment on September 28, 2005.
In 2005, the Federal Elections Commission audited DeLay's national political action committee, Americans for a Republican Majority (ARMPAC). The FEC found that ARMPAC had failed to report $322,306 in debts owed to vendors, and that it had incorrectly paid for some committee expenses using funds from an account designated for non-federal elections. The FEC also found that ARMPAC had misstated the balances of its receipts and ending cash-on-hand for 2001, and of its receipts, disbursements, and beginning and ending cash-on-hand for 2002. ARMPAC corrected the omission of the debts in amended reports, and is reviewing the portion of the audit dealing with incorrect payment for expenses.
DeLay asserted that Earle was "a rogue district attorney" engaged in "blatant political partisanship". Earle retired in December 2007 and was succeeded by Rosemary Lehmberg, whom he mentored.
Grand jury indictments
September 8, 2005: A federal grand jury indicted TRMPAC, which allegedly accepted an illegal political contribution of $100,000 from the Alliance for Quality Nursing Home Care and the Texas Association of Business, on four charges, including unlawful political advertising, unlawful contributions to a political committee and unlawful expenditures such as those to a graphics company and political candidates.
September 28, 2005: A Travis County grand jury operating under Travis County District Attorney Ronnie Earle indicted DeLay for conspiring to violate Texas state election law stemming from issues dealing with his involvement in TRMPAC. Texas law prohibits corporate contributions in state legislative races. The indictment charged that TRMPAC accepted corporate contributions, laundered the money through the Republican National Committee, and directed it to favored Republican candidates in Texas.
September 30, 2005: In response to a motion to dismiss his initial indictment, Earle sought a second indictment of DeLay from a second grand jury. That jury refused to indict. Contrary to normal Texas procedure, a "no bill" document was not publicly released, and no public announcement was made regarding the result until after Earle had presented evidence to a third grand jury and obtained an indictment.
October 3, 2005: Earle sought and received a new indictment of DeLay from a third grand jury in Austin on charges of conspiracy and money laundering. The next day, in a written statement, Earle publicly admitted he had presented the case to three grand juries, and that two of the three had refused to indict. Earle claimed he had presented the new money-laundering charge to another grand jury because the previous grand jury had expired. DeLay's lawyers noted that Earle should not have waited to make the statement until after 5 p.m. that day.
October 3, 2005: DeLay's lawyers filed a motion to throw out the charge of conspiracy to violate election law as fraudulent, claiming it was a violation of the U.S. Constitution's ban on ex-post facto applications of law. DeLay's lawyers argued that, in 2002, the crime of conspiracy did not apply to Texas election law. However, George Dix, a law professor at the University of Texas at Austin, stated that charges of criminal conspiracy could legally be applied to any felony (including violation of election law) committed prior to the 2003 law. He characterized the 2003 change cited by DeLay's lawyers as a clarification of existing law, saying, "It isn't unheard of — the Legislature passing a law to make clear what the law is." As the Texas Penal Code defines laundered money only as money gained as the "proceeds of criminal activity", DeLay's lawyers maintained that misuse of corporate donations, even if it occurred, could not constitute money laundering.
October 7, 2005: DeLay's attorneys filed a motion in court to have the latest indictment thrown out, charging that Earle coerced the grand jury and illegally discussed grand jury information and encouraged others to do the same.
October 19, 2005: A Texas court issued a warrant for DeLay's arrest. DeLay surrendered at the Harris County, Texas jail the next day. He was booked, photographed, and fingerprinted, before posting $10,000 bond.
October 21, 2005: DeLay appeared in court.
November 1, 2005: DeLay prevailed in a motion to remove assigned Travis County judge Bob Perkins from the case. Perkins had donated to Democratic candidates and organizations, including MoveOn.org. DeLay's attorneys argued Perkins could not be perceived as impartial under the circumstances. The motion was heard by retired judge C.W. Duncan. Duncan ordered Perkins' removal from the case. DeLay also sought to have the venue changed from Democratic-leaning Travis County, which was later denied.
November 3, 2005: Pat Priest, a "semi-retired" judge and a Democrat, was selected to preside over the case.
November 22, 2005: DeLay filed a motion to dismiss the charges against him.
December 5, 2005: Judge Priest dismissed one count, conspiracy to violate election law, but let stand two counts alleging money laundering and conspiracy to commit money laundering, of which DeLay was later convicted on November 24, 2010.
April 19, 2006: The Texas Third Court of Appeals upheld the decision to dismiss the charge of conspiracy to violate election law.
September 19, 2013: DeLay's November 2010 convictions were overturned by the Texas 3rd Court of Appeals, which noted in part that "the jury on two occasions had asked trial Judge Pat Priest whether the $190,000 was 'illegal at the start of the transaction' or 'procured by illegal means originally'" and that "the judge never answered the jurors' questions".
October 1, 2014: The Texas Court of Criminal Appeals ruled 8-1 to uphold the decisions of the lower courts, exonerating DeLay.
Indictments of associates
On September 13, 2005, a federal grand jury indicted ARMPAC's executive director Jim Ellis and TRMPAC's former executive director John Colyandro, who already faced charges of money laundering in the case, as well as 13 counts of unlawful acceptance of a corporate political contribution. The charges were brought before the grand jury by Earle. Joe Turner, who represented Colyandro, stated he did not want a jury trial in Austin, because "DeLay and Republicans are hated [there]". The indictment charged that DeLay, Colyandro and Ellis conspired to pass corporate contributions to candidates for the Texas legislature in violation of Texas campaign finance law. Several corporations (such as Diversified Collection Services and Sears Roebuck) allegedly made contributions to TRMPAC. The indictment charged that TRMPAC then sent a check for $190,000 to the Republican National Committee, made payable to "RNSEC" (the Republican National State Elections Committee), along with a list of state-level Republican candidates who should receive the money. According to the indictment, the Republican candidates in Texas did receive the money so designated.
A Travis County grand jury issued the indictment. The third grand jury's foreman, William Gibson, stated that there were "stacks and stacks" [of evidence] and that "[A]s far as we're concerned, they presented us enough evidence and witnesses that we felt we were on the right track. I would not have put my name on that grand-jury indictment unless I felt we had ample probable cause." Gibson, however, later reportedly told KLBJ Radio in an interview that his decision to indict DeLay was based on news stories that the Texas Association of Business mailings against candidate James Spencer, a personal friend of Gibson, were coordinated with TRMPAC.
Earle's investigation of DeLay was the subject of a documentary, The Big Buy: Tom DeLay's Stolen Congress. The filmmakers went to cover the 2003 Texas redistricting battle but eventually focused primarily on the grand jury investigation. Earle cooperated with the documentarians, but DeLay refused to meet with them.
DeLay's response to the indictments
DeLay blasted the charges as a "sham" and an act of "political retribution", perpetuated by his political opponents. He added, "I have done nothing wrong, I have violated no law, no regulation, no rule of the House." He retained former U.S. Representative Edwin Bethune of Arkansas, a Washington, D.C., lawyer and lobbyist, who had earlier represented Gingrich during his ethics cases. DeLay and his attorney, Dick DeGuerin, claimed Earle has a history of indicting political enemies. Due to Republican party rules regarding leadership and indictments, DeLay stepped down from his position as House Majority Leader. Serving his last day on June 9, 2006, he stepped down, "to pursue new opportunities to engage in the important cultural and political battles of our day from an arena outside of the U.S. House of Representatives."
White House spokesman Scott McClellan commented by saying that President Bush still viewed DeLay as "a good ally, a leader who we have worked closely with to get things done for the American people." On January 7, 2006, DeLay announced he would not seek to return to his position as Majority Leader. His lawyers asserted there were various legal insufficiencies regarding the indictments. On October 3, 2005, DeLay's lawyers filed a motion to get the indictment of conspiracy to violate election law thrown out as fraudulent, claiming it was a violation of the U.S. Constitution's ban on ex-post facto applications of law. DeLay's lawyers claimed that, in 2002, the crime of conspiracy did not apply to Texas election law, and maintained the corporate donations came from normal and legal business activity.
Verdict and appeals
On November 24, 2010, DeLay was found guilty by a Travis County jury on both counts. The range of possible sentences was probation to between 5 and 99 years in prison and up to $20,000 in fines. On January 10, 2011, after a sentencing hearing, Judge Priest sentenced DeLay to three years in prison on the charge of conspiring to launder corporate money into political donations. On the charge of money laundering, DeLay was sentenced to five years in prison, which was probated for 10 years, meaning DeLay would have had to serve 10 years' probation. Dick DeGuerin, DeLay's defense attorney, appealed his conviction to the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, which heard oral arguments on October 10, 2012.
On September 19, 2013, two Republican judges on a Texas appeals court overturned Delay's convictions, 2-1, ruling the evidence was legally insufficient to sustain his convictions. The Travis County District Attorney's office issued a statement that it would appeal the decision before the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, which it did. The all-Republican Texas Court of Criminal Appeals agreed to review the case and ruled, 8-1, to affirm the lower courts' dismissal on October 1, 2014.
Notes
External links
Capitol Crimes: The Land of Lobby (documentary), pbs.org; accessed October 2, 2014.
Analysis of alleged flaws in first indictment , humanevents.com; accessed October 2, 2014
Texas v Colyandro, Ellis & DeLay, findlaw.com (copy of indictment on conspiracy charge)
Texas v Colyandro, Ellis & DeLay (copy of money laundering indictment) , coxnewsweb.com; accessed October 2, 2014.
Political scandals in Texas
Congressional scandals
Overturned convictions in the United States
21st-century American trials
Campaign
2005 in American politics
2010 in American politics |
4339157 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic%20Filing%20System | Electronic Filing System | The Electronic Filing System (or EFS) is the Singapore Judiciary's electronic platform for filing and service of documents within the litigation process. In addition, it provides the registries of the Supreme Court and the Subordinate Courts with an electronic registry and workflow system; and an electronic case file. Recent enhancements have added a module which facilitates the conduct of hearing using documents that have been electronically filed.
The EFS provides the legal profession with a rudimentary online case file from which documents can be electronically filed with the courts or served on the other parties in a case. The EFS is also the source for electronic cause book searches that are provided through the Litigation module of LawNet. EFS is set to be replaced by iELS eventually.
An Overview of the Electronic Filing System
The Electronic Filing System (EFS) was implemented by the Singapore Judiciary to provide a platform for Law Firms (LFs) to file documents to the Courts electronically over the Internet. The EFS was specifically designed to fully exploit the electronic super highway to minimise not just the physical movement of people and paper court documents from LFs to the Courts, but also to leverage the benefits of electronic storage within the Courts: i.e. faster document filing and retrieval, eradication of the misplacement of case files, concurrent access to view the same case filed by different parties, etc.
Within the Courts, the EFS allows electronic documents to be automatically routed to the appropriate registry staff for processing. The system allows further routing within the courts e.g. for approvals by the Duty Registrar and a reply is then sent out by the Registry staff which is routed back to the originating LF. This has enabled realisations of improvements in efficiency by minimising paper flow to shorten case processing time. Fees payable by the LFs for filing documents to Court are deducted automatically by the EFS. The whole process is fast, convenient and efficient.
For the LFs, the EFS provides an electronic case file showing hearing dates and documents file by them, served on them or received from the Courts. It also provides an electronic platform for the service of documents on other LFs. The EFS also allows for faster response as well as accurate and up-to-date information. Hence, other benefits of the EFS include the speedy inspection of documents electronically and the ability to request for and receive electronic extracts of documents via the Internet. Electronic cause book searches and legal research are also available through LawNet. Lawyers can even obtain details of hearing fixtures via Short Messaging System (SMS) using their mobile phones.
Within the court room, registrars make use of the EFS to conduct hearings in chambers electronically using the EFS.
The components of EFS
The EFS consists of the following components:
The Front-End (FE) accessed via the Internet from each ‘EFS ready’ Law Firm’s desktop.
A Gateway (GW) that receives submissions from the LFs or the replies from the Courts, routes it to the appropriate party and computes the fees payable by the LF for the transaction.
The Courts’ Workflow (WF) application that resides on Courts’ computers and caters for the internal routing and workflow processes within the courts.
A Hearing Module that is used to conduct hearings electronically.
A stand-alone Key Management System (KMS)
Front End Application
The EFS FE is a web based solution that LFs access from their PCs via the Internet. A LF needs to register in order to gain access. Upon registration, the LF would be issued with smart cards containing the digital certificates from the Court’s Certification Authority.
The FE provides LFs with an online case file through which they can view the documents which have been filed by them, served on them or replied from the Courts. Upcoming hearing dates are also pushed through the EF at the law firm level and at the case level. The FE’s File-n-Serve feature facilitates service of documents on other parties in the case with one click of the mouse.
Documents are transmitted in Portable Document Format (PDF). To file or serve a document, the LF has to fill up the appropriate online template in the FE and attach the document to be filed or served in PDF format. The entire submission may consist of one or several documents and this is digitally signed using the smart card issued upon registration in order to ensure authenticity and non-repudiation.
The Gateway
When the LF files a document to the Court, the submission is actually received by the GW which then performs certain validations, computes the fees to be charged and identifies to which user department the submission is to be routed to. Replies from the Court are received by the GW and routed to the correct LF for retrieval. The GW performs the following crucial functions:
(a) Automated validation checks when documents are filed;
(b) Implementation of certain special rules;
(c) Automated routing of submissions into Courts’ in-trays;
(d) Computation of stamp and other filing fees;
(e) Exchange of information between the Back End and the Front End.
Court’s Workflow Application
The business logic of the courts is built into this application. It encapsulates workflow routing, document management and statistical report generation; documents are stored in a jukebox. An electronic case file allows the easy retrieval of documents; and an upcoming enhancement will collate and present information relating to a case file within a single easy to use interface.
Hearing Module
The Hearing Module is customised to allow registrars and judges to make use of the EFS to conduct paper-less hearings in chambers. The Hearing Module pre-fetches the entire case file of hearings fixed before a registrar to the local PC to allow quick recall of documents. Dual screens are deployed to allow the viewing of the case file and minute sheets on one screen and the viewing of documents on the other. The Pack-n-Go feature allows registrars and judges to download all the documents in a case file onto a thumb drive for reading at home.
Key Management System
The Courts operates as an independent Certification Authority which issues digital certificates on smart cards to LFs. The Key Management System (KMS), which is central to this function, comprises the following components:
(a) A Certificate Authority Management System used to issue and revoke digital certificates;
(b) A Certificate Server that centrally stores the digital certificates;
(d) A web-based Certificate Client System which LFs use to manage smart cards issued to them and to request for and receive digital certificates which are then stored in the smart cards; and
(e) A web-based Key Generating Software which LF use to generate their private–public key pair.
Implementation History
Initial planning (1990 to 1997)
The early 1990s saw a number of technological initiatives that would eventually pave the way for the development of the EFS.
The LawNet information service, which originally provided a single database of statutes for the legal profession, was launched in 1990. The operation of LawNet and other related technological developments was under the purview of the LawNet Council (the predecessor of the present LawNet Management Committee). From a basic legal research service, LawNet was eventually expanded between 1992 and 1997 into a comprehensive network of computer services for the legal sector, comprising six modules covering major areas of legal practice:
Litigation
Conveyancing
Corporate Law
Intellectual Property
Legal Research
Integrated Law Office.
A Judicial Administration computerisation programme was completed in 1994. Under this programme, a comprehensive network infrastructure was put in place to support various applications, including connectivity to external systems. An Electronic Bulletin Board was also set up to facilitate communication through electronic means as a step towards the paperless office environment.
In 1995, the first Technology Court was launched. The Technology Court featured digital recording and transcription of proceedings, as well as facilities for the multimedia presentation of evidence. A Remote Chamber Hearing System was also launched to enable members of the legal profession to have ex parte matters heard via desktop video conferencing, and a Judicial Officer’s Bulletin Board was set up as part of the incremental shift towards a paperless court system.
As the cornerstone of a new electronic paperless case management system, the Electronic Filing System (EFS) initiative was first proposed to the LawNet Council in 1995. Under the proposed EFS, law firms would be able to file their suits and submit documents through an electronic data interchange. In addition to electronic filing, the proposed EFS was to incorporate an electronic case document extract service, allow for electronic service of documents, and provide for a comprehensive electronic information service.
Phases of Implementation (1997 to 2004)
Phase 1.0 (8 March 1997)
Phase 1.0 of the EFS was launched on 8 March 1997 as a pilot programme with voluntary participation for lawyers. The scope of implementation was limited to only certain aspects of writs of summons. The purpose of this pilot phase was to enable planners to benefit from the lessons learnt in order to fine-tune subsequent phases of implementation.
Phase 1.2 (1 March 2000)
Phase 1.2 of the EFS was launched on 1 March 2000. Mandatory e-filing to the courts was introduced, and the scope of EFS was expanded to cover most aspects of writs of summons and their corresponding workflow systems. A service bureau was also set up to cater to those law firms that were not yet EFS-equipped at this stage.
Phase 2 (2 July 2001)
Phase 2 of the EFS was launched on 2 July 2001. This phase saw the introduction of a web-based front-end interface for EFS users, a full-text Electronic Index Search and Extract Service, and an Electronic Service of Documents Facility. The Electronic Index Search and Extract Service allowed law firms to search an electronic case file index and request the extraction of soft copies or certified true copies of case documents. Under the Electronic Service of Documents Facility, law firms were allowed to electronically serve documents on other EFS-ready law firms.
Phase 3 (18 December 2001)
Phase 3 of the EFS was launched on 18 December 2001. The scope of EFS was expanded to include originating summons, appeals to the Court of Appeal, District Court appeals, taxation of costs, interpleader, and the admission of advocates & solicitors.
Phase 4A (28 May 2002)
Phase 4A of the EFS was launched on 28 May 2002. The scope of EFS was expanded to include more forms of civil proceedings such as admiralty matters, originating motions, originating petitions, originating summons in bankruptcy, bankruptcy petitions, petitions of course, companies winding-up, power of attorney, and probate (Supreme Court).
Phase 4B(i) (9 December 2002)
Phase 4B(i) of the EFS was launched on 9 December 2002. This phase saw the inclusion of applications for adoption petitions under the EFS, namely, the auto-generation of adoption petitions in the Family Court using information provided in the form of an electronic data items template.
Phase 4B(ii) (15 December 2003)
Phase 4B(ii) of the EFS was launched on 15 December 2003. In the Family Court, the scope of EFS was expanded to include petitions for divorce under the Women's Charter (Cap 353, 1997 Rev Ed) and originating summonses under the Guardianship of Infants Act (Cap 122, 1985 Rev Ed), the Women's Charter, the Administration of Muslim Law Act (Cap 3, 1999 Rev Ed) and the Supreme Court of Judicature Act (Cap 322, 1999 Rev Ed). The scope of EFS was also expanded to cover probate and administration proceedings in the Subordinate Courts, and procedures were enhanced in respect of probate and administration proceedings in the Supreme Court.
Phase 5 (22 December 2004)
Phase 5 of the EFS was implemented in several sub-phrases between July 2003 and December 2004, and was deemed commissioned on 22 December 2004. Under this phase, EFS was extended to the Corporate Services Department of the Supreme Court. Data contained within the existing mainframe-based civil system was migrated to the EFS. In addition, the ability to generate statistical reports was added to the EFS.
Phase 6 (10 January 2005)
Phase 6 of the EFS was implemented on 10 January 2005. The scope of EFS was expanded to encompass criminal matters in the Supreme Court, including: preliminary inquiries, criminal cases, criminal appeals to the Court of Appeal, criminal revision proceedings, criminal reference proceedings, magistrates’ appeals, criminal motions, and show cause proceedings.
The EFS Review
In April 2003, The Honourable the Chief Justice appointed an EFS Review Committee to conduct a thorough appraisal of the EFS. This review would ensure the system’s continuing relevance, in tandem with the development of technology and the evolving needs of the legal profession. The EFS Review Committee made certain recommendations for improvements to the EFS, which were accepted by The Honourable the Chief Justice.
The EFS Review Implementation Committee (ERIC) was established in August 2003 to implement the recommendations made by the EFS Review Committee. ERIC was to oversee the development of a new Electronic Litigation System to take the place of the current EFS. This system would capitalise on the experience garnered from the current EFS as well as harness projected new and improved technology for the new electronic case management system. In this regard, ERIC was to develop a Roadmap Paper charting the direction of the new Electronic Litigation System, as well as co-ordinate with the Rules Committee to review and modernise the Rules of Court.
The first project which ERIC undertook was the organisation of the Electronic Litigation Colloquium, held on 17 April 2004 at The Sentosa Spa & Resort (formerly known as The Beaufort). The aim of the colloquium was to provide a platform for the stakeholders in the EFS to get together and canvass their views and ideas as to what the new landscape for electronic litigation in Singapore should look like. Representatives from the bench, the bar, IT vendors and the InfoComm Development Authority of Singapore (IDA) were invited to the Colloquium, in order to obtain a good representation from the various stakeholders of the litigation process.
Subsequently, a Select Group was set up to draft the Roadmap Paper and come up with a blueprint to pave the way for the development of the new Electronic Litigation System.
The Electronic Litigation Roadmap
In the course of discussions, it was decided that the appropriate terminology for the new system was the “Electronic Litigation Systems” (ELS) since the interoperability of different systems would be necessary in order to cater for the myriad of new features in the ELS.
The Roadmap Paper is broadly divided into two main sections. The first section describes the functionalities that the ELS will provide. The second part addresses certain corollary issues following from the first section. The structure of the Roadmap Paper is as follows:
Part I: Functionalities of the ELS
(a) Case management for law firms;
(b) Case management for the courts; and
(c) Electronic hearings.
Part II: Corollary considerations
(a) Reviewing the litigation process;
(b) Costs and business models; and
(c) Open technical standards for integration and interoperability.
The Electronic Litigation Roadmap Public Consultation
Following the first publication of the Electronic Litigation Roadmap on 10 January 2005, there was a period of Public Consultation whereby the courts, law firms, government departments and IT vendors were invited to give their feedback on the ideas mooted in the ELS Roadmap. To this end, the ELS Roadmap Paper was published on the websites of the Supreme Court, the Subordinate Courts, the Singapore Academy of Law and LawNet.
There were a heartening number of responses, with a balanced distribution of comments from the stakeholders involved. The responses were generally supportive of the ideas that were proposed in the ELS Roadmap Paper, providing pertinent – and at times, very detailed – observations and comments on the various concepts contained therein.
At the close of the Public Consultation, the Electronic Litigation Roadmap was revised accordingly to incorporate the relevant responses received. ERIC was also reconstituted to form the ELS Committee in May 2005. It is envisaged that in the course of implementing the ELS, focus group discussions will be conducted to seek feedback on specific aspects of the ELS. At the same time, reviews of the ELS will be sought from the various stakeholders at appropriate intervals during the process of implementation.
See also
Electronic court filing
Integrated Electronic Litigation System
References
External links
Supreme Court website
Electronic Litigation Roadmap 2004
Courts in Singapore
Legal procedure of Singapore
Legal software
Legal documents
E-government |
4340329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Lahore | History of Lahore | The recorded history of Lahore ( , ; ), the second largest city-district of Pakistan, covers thousands of years. Lahore is regarded as the post medieval or modern day capital and largest city of the Punjab region, it has since its creation changed hands from Ghaznavid, Hindu, Buddhist, Greek, Muslim, Mughal, Ghorid, Maratha, Sikh and the British, thereby becoming the cultural capital and the heart of modern-day Pakistan.
Ancient era
According to oral traditions, Lahore was named after Lava, son of the Hindu god Rama, who supposedly founded the city. Lahore Fort has a vacant temple dedicated in honour of Lava. Likewise, the Ravi River that flows through northern Lahore was said to be named in honour of the Hindu goddess Durga.
Ptolemy, the celebrated astronomer and geographer, mentions in his Geographia a city called Labokla situated on the route between the Indus river in a region described as extending along the rivers Bidastes or Vitasta (Jhelum), Sandabal or Chandra Bhaga (Chenab), and Adris or Iravati (Ravi).
The oldest authentic document about Lahore was written anonymously in 982 and is called Hudud-i-Alam. It was translated into English by Vladimir Fedorovich Minorsky and published in Lahore in 1927. In this document, Lahore is referred to as a small shahr (city) with "impressive temples, large markets and huge orchards." It refers to "two major markets around which dwellings exist," and it also mentions "the mud walls that enclose these two dwellings to make it one." The original document is currently held in the British Museum.
Jain Heritage
Plutarch as well as many other scholars suggest that Jainism was the most ancient and original religion in Punjab. Lahore was the cultural centre of Jainism. A book written by Plutarch, Life of Alexander talks about the encounters between Alexander the Great and digambara Jain saints called gymnosophists. Bhabra or Bhabhra is an ancient merchant community from Punjab region which mainly follows Jainism. It is believed to be connected with the Bhavadar or Bhavada Gachchha to which the Jain Acharya Kalakacharya belonged to. They may have originated from the Bhabra town (32° 13' 30": 73° 13'). Inscriptions suggest that Bhavada Gachchha had survived until the 17th century. There were Jain temples at localities still called Thari Bhabrian and Gali Bhabrian.
Hindu heritage
Around 580 BC., when King Bimbisara ruled South Asia, the society came to be divided into different communities based on their occupation. One of their communities was called Kshatriyas and King Luv's descendants were classed with them and came to be known as Luvanam, which was also referred to as Luvana. The Luvanas from Loharghat became known as Loharana (masters of swords; or iron ("Loha") chiefs ("Rana")), which later became Lohana.
Chinese traveller Faxian, who visited South Asia between 337 and 472 CE, calls Lohana a brave community ruling the northwest territory of South Asia, in his diary. Another Chinese traveler, Kurmang who came in the eleventh century A.D. speaks of a Lohrana kingdom as a mighty power. Historian Burton writes Lohanas were brave people and says they were spread over today's Baluchistan (Pakistan), Afghanistan and eastern fringes of Central Asia. Col. Todd, who delved into history of Rajasthan, describes Lohanas as one of the oldest Kshatriya community.
The old Hindu city
Many historians agree that Lahore was founded by an ancient Hindu colony sometime between the first and seventh centuries, probably as early as the beginning of the second; that it soon rose to be a place of importance, the parent of other colonies, and eventually the capital of a powerful principality, to which it gave its name. There are some grounds supporting that the old Hindu city of Lahore did not occupy exactly the site of the modern city. Tradition points the site of old Lahore to the vicinity of Ichhra – which is now a part of Lahore City – but was back then a village about three miles to the west.
The name of the village was formerly Icchra Lahore. Moreover, some of the oldest and most sacred Hindu shrines are found within this locality, namely Bhairo ka sthain and the Chandrat. The gate of the present city, known as the Lahori or Lohari Gate was so called as being the gateway looking in the direction of Lohawar or old Lahore just as the Kashmiri Gate looks towards Kashmir, and the Delhi Gate of modern Delhi to the ancient city of that name.
There are no architectural remains of the old Hindu city of Lahore, a circumstance which might well be explained by the absence of stone material, and the numerous destructive invasions to which the city has been subjected. But also, in accordance with what all Indian architectural researchers tend to show namely, that the northern Hindus were not, until a comparatively late period, in the habit of building temples, or durable edifices of any kind. Even at Delhi, the seat of Hindu dynasties from upwards of a thousand years before CE to more than a thousand years after CE, and there, where is abundance of stone, no specimens of Hindu architecture exist dating earlier than the tenth or eleventh century.
Medieval era
In 682 AD, according to Ferishta, the Afghans of Peshawar, who had, even at that early period, embraced Islam, wrested certain possessions from the Hindu prince. A war ensued, and in the space seventy battles were fought with varied success, until the Afghans, having formed an alliance with the Ghakkars, a wild tribe inhabiting the Salt Range of Punjab, compelled the Raja to cede a portion of his territory. The next mention of Lahore is in the Rajputana chronicles, where the Bussas of Lahore, a Rajput tribe, are mentioned as rallying to the defence of Chittore, when besieged by Muslim forces in the beginning of the ninth century.
Ghaznavid Empire
At length, in 975 AD, Sultan Sabuktigin, Governor of Khorassan and father of the celebrated Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi advanced beyond the Indus. He was met by Raja Jayapala, the Raja of Lahore whose dominion is said to have extended from Sirhind to Laghman and from Kashmir to Multan. By the advice of the Bhati Rajput tribe, the Raja Jayapala formed an alliance with the Afghans, and, with their aid, was enabled to withstand the first invasion. However, Sabuktigin later repeated his conquest on his succession to the throne of Ghazni. A battle ensued in the vicinity of Lamghan ending with the defeat of the Raja and overtures being made for peace. His terms were accepted and persons were sent, on the part of Sabuktigin, to take the balance of the stipulated ransom. On reaching Lahore, Jayapala proved faithless and imprisoned those commissioned to receive the treasure. On learning intelligence of his perfidy, Sabuktigin, in the words of the Ferishta, "like a foaming torrent, hastened towards Hindustan".
Another battles ensued, in which Jaipal was again vanquished, and he retreated, leaving the territory to the west of the Nilab or Indus in the hands of the invader. The invader did not retain the conquests that he had made for in 1008 AD, a confederation headed by Anandapala, the son of Raja Jayapala, again met the advancing army, now commanded by Mahmud, son and successor of Sabaktagin, in the vicinity of Peshawar. Lahore was allowed to remain intact for thirteen years longer. Anandapala was succeeded by Nardjanpal, while Mahmud pushed his conquests into Hindustan. But in 1022 AD, he suddenly marched down from Kashmir, seized Lahore without opposition, and gave it over to be plundered. Nardjanpal fled helpless to Ajmer, and the Hindu principality of Lahore was extinguished forever. A final effort was made by the Hindus in the reign of Modud, 1045 AD, to recover their lost sovereignty, but after a fruitless siege of six months, they retired without success.
Few references to Lahore exist for times before its capture by Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi in the eleventh century. In 1021, Mahmud appointed Malik Ayaz to the throne and made Lahore the capital of the Ghaznavid Empire.
The Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi took Lahore after a long siege and battle in which the city was torched and depopulated. As the first Muslim ruler of Lahore, Ayaz rebuilt and repopulated the city. The present Lahore Fort stands in the same location. Under his rule, the city became a cultural and academic center, renowned for poetry. The tomb of Malik Ayaz can still be seen in the Rang Mahal commercial area of town.
Lahore was formally made the eastern capital of the Ghaznavid empire in 1152, under the reign of Khusrau Shah. The city then became the sole capital of the Ghaznavid empire in 1163 after the fall of Ghazni. The entire city of Lahore during the medieval Ghaznavid era was probably located west of the modern Shah Alami Bazaar, and north of the Bhatti Gate.
After the fall of the Ghaznavid Empire, Lahore was ruled by various Muslim dynasties known as the Delhi Sultanate, including the Khaljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyid, Lodhis and Suris. When Sultan Qutb-ud-din Aybak was crowned here in 1206, he became the first Muslim Sultan of South Asia. It was not until 1524 that Lahore became part of the Mughal Empire.
Mamluk
In 1187, the Ghurids invaded Lahore, ending Ghaznavid rule over Lahore. Lahore was made capital of the Mamluk Dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate following the assassination of Muhammad of Ghor in 1206. Under the reign of Mamluk sultan Qutbu l-Din Aibak, Lahore attracted poets and scholars from as far away as Turkestan, Greater Khorasan, Persia, and Mesopotamia. Lahore at this time had more poets writing in Persian than any city in Persia or Khorasan.
Following the death of Aibak, Lahore came to be disputed among Ghurid officers. The city first came under control of the Governor of Multan, Nasir ad-Din Qabacha, before being briefly captured by the sultan of the Mamluks in Delhi, Iltutmish, in 1217.
In an alliance with local Khokhars in 1223, Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu of the Khwarazmian dynasty of modern-day Uzbekistan captured Lahore after fleeing Genghis Khan's invasion of Khwarazm. Jalal ad-Din's then fled from Lahore to capture the city of Uch Sharif after Iltutmish's armies re-captured Lahore in 1228.
The threat of Mongol invasions and political instability in Lahore caused future Sultans to regard Delhi as a safer capital for medieval Islamic India, though Delhi had before been considered a forward base, while Lahore had been widely considered to be the centre of Islamic culture in the subcontinent.
Lahore came under progressively weaker central rule under Iltutmish's descendants in Delhi - to the point that governors in the city acted with great autonomy. Under the rule of Kabir Khan Ayaz, Lahore was virtually independent from the Delhi Sultanate. Lahore was sacked and ruined by the Mongol army in 1241. Lahore governor Malik Ikhtyaruddin Qaraqash fled the Mongols, while the Mongols held the city for a few years under the rule of the Mongol chief Toghrul.
In 1266, Sultan Balban reconquered Lahore, but in 1287 under the Mongol ruler Temür Khan, the Mongols again overran northern Punjab. Because of Mongol invasions, Lahore region had become a city on a frontier, with the region's administrative centre shifted south to Dipalpur. The Mongols again invaded northern Punjab in 1298, though their advance was eventually stopped by Ulugh Khan, brother of Sultan Alauddin Khalji of Delhi. The Mongols again attacked Lahore in 1305.
Mongol invasion and destruction
The Mongols invaded and conquered the Khwarazmian dynasty, the King Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu retreated to modern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa but was defeated in Battle of Indus.
The Mongol army advanced and in 1241, the ancient city of Lahore was invaded by 30,000-man cavalry. The Mongols defeated the Lahore governor Malik Ikhtyaruddin Qaraqash, massacred the entire population and the city was leveled to the ground. There are no buildings or monuments in Lahore that predates the Mongol destruction. In 1266, Sultan Balban reconquered Lahore from the Mongols but in 1296 to 1305 the Mongols again overran northern Punjab. In 1298, 200,000 men Mongol army conquered Punjab and committed atrocities then marched towards Delhi but was defeated by Malik Kafur general of Sultan Alauddin Khalji ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.
Tughluq
Lahore briefly flourished again under the reign of Ghazi Malik of the Tughluq dynasty between 1320 and 1325, though the city was again sacked in 1329, by Tarmashirin of the Central Asian Chagatai Khanate, and then again by the Mongol chief Hülechü. Khokhars seized Lahore in 1342, but the city was retaken by Ghazi Malik's son, Muhammad bin Tughluq. The weakened city then fell into obscurity, and was captured once more by the Khokhars in 1394. By the time Tamerlane captured the city in 1398 from Shayka Khokhar, he did not loot it because it was no longer wealthy.
Fall of the Sultanate
Timur gave control of the Lahore region to Khizr Khan, Governor of Multan, who later established the Sayyid dynasty in 1414 – the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. Lahore was briefly occupied by the Timurid Governor of Kabul in 1432-33. Lahore began to be incurred upon yet again the Khokhar tribe, and so the city was granted to Bahlul Lodi in 1441 by the Sayyid dynasty in Delhi, though Lodi would then displace the Sayyids in 1451 by establishing himself upon the throne of Delhi.
Bahlul Lodi installed his cousin, Tatar Khan, to be governor of the city, though Tatar Khan died in battle with Sikandar Lodi in 1485. Governorship of Lahore was transferred by Sikandar Lodi to Umar Khan Sarwani, who quickly left management of this city to his son Said Khan Sarwani. Said Khan was removed from power in 1500 by Sikandar Lodi, and Lahore came under the governorship of Daulat Khan Lodi, son of Tatar Khan and former employer of Guru Nanak – founder of the Sikh faith.
The last Lodi ruler, Sultan Ibrahim Lodi was greatly disliked by his court and subjects. Upon the death of his father Sultan Sikandar Lodi, he quashed a brief rebellion led by some of his nobles who wanted his younger brother Jalal Khan to be the Sultan. After seizing the throne by having Jalal Khan murdered, he never really did succeed in pacifying his nobles. Subsequently, Daulat Khan, the governor of Punjab and Alam Khan, his uncle, sent an invitation to Babur, the ruler of Kabul to invade Delhi.
The first Battle of Panipat (April 1526) was fought between the forces of Babur and the Delhi Sultanate. Ibrahim Lodi was killed on the battlefield. By way of superior generalship, vast experience in warfare, effective strategy, and appropriate use of artillery, Babur won the First battle of Panipat and subsequently occupied Agra and Delhi.
Early Modern era
Mughal Empire
Lahore reached a peak of architectural glory during the rule of the Mughals, whose buildings and gardens survived the hazards of time. Lahore's reputation for beauty fascinated the English poet John Milton, who wrote "Agra and Lahore, the Seat of Great Mughal" in 1670.
From 1524 to 1752, Lahore was part of the Mughal Empire. Lahore touched the zenith of its glory during the Mughal rule from 1524 to 1752. The Mughals, who were famous as builders, gave Lahore some of its finest architectural monuments, many of which are extant today.
From 1524 to 1752, Lahore was part of the Mughal Empire. Lahore grew under emperor Babur; from 1584 to 1598, under the emperors Akbar the Great and Jahangir, the city served as the empire's capital. Lahore reached the peak of its architectural glory during the rule of the Mughals, many of whose buildings and gardens have survived the ravages of time. Lahore's reputation for beauty fascinated the English poet John Milton, who wrote "Agra and Lahore, the Seat of the Great Mughal" in 1670. During this time, the massive Lahore Fort was built. A few buildings within the fort were added by Akbar's son, Mughal Emperor Jahangir, who is buried in the city. Jahangir's son, Shahjahan Burki, was born in Lahore. He, like his father, extended the Lahore Fort and built many other structures in the city, including the Shalimar Gardens. The last of the great Mughals, Aurangzeb, who ruled from 1658 to 1707, built the city's most famous monuments, the Badshahi Masjid and the Alamgiri Gate next to the Lahore Fort.
During the 18th century, as Mughal power dwindled, Lahore was often invaded, and government authority was lacking. The great Punjabi poet Baba Waris Shah said of the situation, "khada peeta wahy da, baqi Ahmad Shahy da" — "we have nothing with us except what we eat and wear, all other things are for Ahmad Shah". Ahmad Shah Durrani captured remnants of the Mughal Empire and had consolidated control over the Punjab and Kashmir regions by 1761.
The Delhi Sultanate and later Mughal Empire ruled the region. The Lahore region became predominantly Muslim. Due to missionary Sufi saints whose dargahs dot the landscape of Punjab region, and to the efforts of Mughal emperors, whose policies and forced religious conversions discouraged the growth of other religions.
The 1740s were years of chaos, and the city had nine different governors between 1745 and 1756.
Maratha Empire
Shortly after defeating the Afghans in the Battle of Delhi, the Marathas entered Lahore in 1758.
In March 1758, about 50,000 Maratha soldiers sieged Sirhind. They formed an unusual alliance with the Sikh Misls and the Mughal Governor Adina Beg Khan. Lahore was governed by, Taimur Shah, son of Ahmed Shah, and subordinated by Jahan Khan, at the head of about 25,000 strong army. In April 1758, the Marathas massacred the Afghan garrison and victoriously entered Lahore.
In 1759, the Marathas and their allied forces crushed an invasion by the Durrani general Jahan Khan at the Battle of Lahore. The Marathas achieved a string of astonishing successes with their conquests of Delhi, Lahore, Kashmir, Multan, Peshawar and Attock. They appointed Adina Beg Khan as the new governor of Lahore.
Sikhs Misls
After defeating the Durranis In battle of Gujranwala (1761) and battle of Sialkot, in 1761, the Sikhs attacked Lahore and besieged it. The Khawaja was forced to surrender and the Sikhs entered the city and plundered the city, capturing the royal mint and strucking coins bearing "Sikka Zad dar Jahan Bafazat-i-Akal, mulk-i-Ahmad garift Jassa Kalal" , which means 'the coin struck by Grace of God in the country of Ahmad captured by Jassa Kalal.'
On 1765, Bhangi Misl leader Gujjar Singh Dhillon along with Lehna Singh and Sobha Singh Kanhaiya forced their way to Lahore, They recaptured Lahore, dividing the city into three parts with Lehna Singh getting the most important part of capital, who proved to be an able administrator
Sikh Empire
During the 18th century, as Mughal power dwindled, Lahore was often invaded by Afghan armies and became a province of the Afghan Empire, governed by provincial rulers with their own court. mainly in the Punjab region.
On 7 July 1799, Ranjit Singh accompanied by his mother-in-law Sada Kaur captured Lahore. Ranjit Singh used the Hazuri Bagh, the enclosed garden next to the Mosque as his official royal court of audience.
Twelve Sikh misls joined into one to form a new empire and sovereign Sikh State ruled by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Ranjit Singh was crowned on 12 April 1801 at Lahore. The 1740s were years of chaos, and the city had nine different governors between 1745 and 1756. During this period Sikhs and Afghans fought battle against each other which is known as Afghan-Sikh wars, Sikhs able to capture whole Panjab region including Jammu, In 1801, Maharaja Ranjit Singh Established Sikh Empire. He defeated the grandson of Abdali, Zaman Shah in a battle between Lahore and Amritsar. Out of the chaos of Afghan and Sikh conflicts Ranjit Singh who was able to unify the Sikh factions and capture Lahore where he was crowned Emperor.
Syed Ahmad Barelvi in Balakot, Mansehra District on 6 May 1831. Barelvi declared jihad against the Sikhs and established a camp in Balakot. Along with Shah Ismail Dehlvi and his tribesmen, he attacked the Sikhs at dawn. The battle lasted all day. The Sikh soldiers eventually beheaded Syed Ahmad Barelvi, and hundreds of his followers were killed causing the Muslim army to flee the battlefield.
Ranjit Singh's died on 27 June 1839 ultimately ended his reign, while the Sikh rule continued until the British gained control of the empire in 1849.
In 1841, during the Sikh civil war, Ranjit Singh's son, Sher Singh, used the Badshahi Mosque's large minarets for placement of zamburahs or light guns, which were placed atop the minarets of Badshahi Mosque to bombard the supporters of the Sikh Maharani Chand Kaur taking refuge in the besieged Lahore Fort, inflicting great damage to the Fort itself. In one of these bombardments, the Fort's Diwan-e-Aam (Hall of Public Audience) was destroyed (it was subsequently rebuilt by the British but never regained its original architectural splendour). During this time, Henri De la Rouche, a French cavalry officer employed in the army of Sher Singh, used a tunnel connecting the Badshahi Mosque to the Lahore Fort to temporarily store gunpowder.
Modern era
British Raj
Maharajah Ranjit Singh made Lahore his capital and was able to expand the kingdom to the Khyber Pass and also included Jammu and Kashmir, while keeping the British from expanding across the River Sutlej for more than 40 years. Instability following his death in 1839 contributed to a series of adverse events that led eventually to British control of the Lahore Darbar ten years later. These precipitating factors were the internecine fighting between the Sikhs; several rapid forfeitures of territory by his sons; the intrigues of the Dogras; and two Anglo-Sikh wars, the first in 1845–1846 and the second, of 1848-1849. Capitalising on the disarray surrounding the succession struggles after Ranjit Singh's death and only partially diminished by a war fought against the Sikhs on their eastern frontier, the British rode into Lahore in February 1846 and garrisoned their troops in the citadel. Two unstable years later, they were drawn into a second war with the Sikhs at the southern city of Multan when that city's governor, Mul Raj, encouraged his troops to rebel. After a series of closely fought battles, the Sikh army was finally defeated in the Battle of Gujrat, sixty miles north of Lahore. In March 1848, following the British victory, Dalip Singh, Ranjit Singh's teenage son and heir to the throne, was formally deposed in Lahore. The remaining Sikh regiments in the city were abruptly decommissioned and camped outside the city demanding severance pay. Within a year, the Punjab was formally annexed to the British Empire and military sappers had begun leveling Lahore's city wall.
Under British rule (1849–1947), colonial architecture in Lahore combined Mughal, Gothic and Victorian styles. The General Post Office (GPO) and YMCA buildings in Lahore commemorated the golden jubilee of Queen Victoria, an event marked by the construction of clock towers and monuments all over India. Other important British buildings included the High Court, the Government College University, the museums, the National College of Arts, Montgomery Hall, Tollinton Market, the University of the Punjab (Old Campus) and the Provincial Assembly.
Under British rule, Sir Ganga Ram (sometimes referred to as the father of modern Lahore) designed and built the General Post Office, Lahore Museum, Aitchison College, Mayo School of Arts (now the NCA), Ganga Ram Hospital, Lady Mclagan Girls High School, the chemistry department of the Government College University, the Albert Victor wing of Mayo Hospital, Sir Ganga Ram High School (now Lahore College for Women) the Hailey College of Commerce, Ravi Road House for the Disabled, the Ganga Ram Trust Building on Shahrah-e-Quaid-e-Azam, and the Lady Maynard Industrial School. He also constructed Model Town, a suburb that has recently developed into a cultural center for Lahore's growing socioeconomic elite.
The city has built a new campus in quieter environments on the Canal Bank, but the old university buildings are still functioning. For the sake of entertainment, the British introduced horse-racing to Lahore. The first racing club, established in 1924, is called LRC or Lahore Race Club.
Role in Independence
Lahore enjoys a special position in the history of Pakistan Movement and Indian Independence Movement. The 1929 Congress session was held at Lahore. In this Congress, a resolution of "complete independence" was moved by Pandit Nehru and passed unanimously at midnight on 31 December 1929. On this occasion, the contemporary tricolor of India (with a chakra at its centre) was hoisted as a national flag, and thousands of people saluted it.
Lahore prison was a place to detain revolutionary freedom fighters. Noted freedom fighter Jatin Das died in Lahore prison after fasting for 63 days in protest of British treatment of political prisoners. One of the martyrs in the struggle for Indian independence, Shaheed Sardar Bhagat Singh, was hanged in Lahore Jail.
The most important session of the All India Muslim League, later the Pakistan Muslim League, was held in Lahore in 1940. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, leader of the league, publicly proposed the Two Nation Theory for the first time and demanded a separate homeland for Muslims of India.
The predominantly Muslim population supported Muslim League and Pakistan Movement. After the independence of Pakistan in 1947, the minority Hindus and Sikhs migrated to India while the Muslim refugees from India settled in the Lahore District.
Post-independence till present
Lahore is regarded as the heart of Pakistan and is now the capital of the Punjab province in the state of Pakistan. Almost immediately after the independence, large scale riots broke out among Muslims, Sikhs and Hindus, causing many deaths as well as damage to historic monuments—including the Lahore Fort, Badshahi Mosque and other colonial buildings. With United Nations assistance, the government was able to rebuild Lahore, and most scars of the communal violence of independence were erased. Less than 20 years later, however, Lahore once again became a battleground in the War of 1965. The battlefield and trenches can still be observed today close to the Wagah border area.
After independence, Lahore was eclipsed by Karachi, which quickly became the biggest and most industrialized city. It was not until the administration of Mian brothers, and the 1990s riots in Karachi that Lahore once again gained its significance as an economic and cultural powerhouse through government reforms. The second Islamic Summit Conference was held in the city. In 1996, the International Cricket Council Cricket World Cup final match was held at the Gaddafi Stadium in Lahore.
The Walled City of Lahore known locally as the "Un-droone Shehr" (Inner City) is the oldest and most historic part of Lahore. The Punjab government embarked on a major project in 2009 to restore the Royal Trail (Shahi Guzar Gah) from Akbari Gate to the Lahore Fort with the help of the World Bank under the Sustainable Development of the Walled City of Lahore (SDWCL) project. The project aims at the Walled City development, at exploring and highlighting economic potential of the Walled City as a cultural heritage, exploring and highlighting the benefits of the SWDCL project for the residents, and at soliciting suggestions regarding maintenance of development and conservation of the Walled City.
The present day Lahore is a three-in-one city. That is why, when one visits Lahore; he finds three different cities – each distinguished from other in one way or other. The old city – existed for at least a thousand years – developed in and around circular road. Similarly, the British built Lahore covers the area from Mayo Hospital to the Canal Bank on the east. Unquestionably, third Lahore which includes various posh localities such as Gulberg, Bahria Town Joher town, Defence Housing Authority along with several others developed after the independence. Samnabad is a major residential area and administrative subdivision of Lahore, Pakistan. It is the one of Oldest Posh areas of Lahore and located in the center of City.
See also
Timeline of Lahore history
References
Bibliography
Famous city of Pakistan
Further reading
Khalid, Kanwal. "LAHORE DURING THE GHAZNAVID PERIOD."
External links
Lahore
Lahore
Lahore
Ancient history of Pakistan |
4340438 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1t%C3%A1ntang%C3%B3 | Sátántangó | Sátántangó (; meaning 'Satan's Tango') is a 1994 drama film directed by Hungarian filmmaker Béla Tarr. Shot in black-and-white and running for more than seven hours, it is based on the 1985 novel of the same name by Hungarian novelist László Krasznahorkai, whose works Tarr has frequently adapted since his 1988 film Damnation. Tarr had hoped to make the film since 1985 but was unable to proceed with production due to the strict political environment in Hungary.
Sátántangó has received wide acclaim from film critics. In 2012, it appeared in the British Film Institute's Sight & Sound critics' top fifty films.
Plot
In a desolate Hungarian village, after the collapse of a collective farm, two people, Futaki and Mrs. Schmidt (Éva Almássy Albert), are in a romantic embrace when Futaki is awakened at dawn by the ringing of church bells. Mr. Schmidt (László Lugossy) conspires with another co-worker named Kráner to steal the villagers' money and flee to another part of the country. As Futaki is sneaking out of the Schmidt home, he overhears Schmidt's plans, after which he demands to become part of the scheme — all this being watched by a lonely drunken man known as the Doctor (Peter Berling), who writes the events down in a notebook.
However, the conspiracy fails when rumors spread across the village that the charismatic and manipulative Irimiás (Mihály Vig), a former co-worker who had been presumed dead, is returning with his friend Petrina (Putyi Horváth). Previously, Irimiás and Petrina had been forced under threat of arrest to continue their criminal enterprise in the employ of the police captain in a near-by town. After hearing a mysterious drone in a bar and proclaiming their intent to blow everything up, they begin their march to the village. They are welcomed by their young ally Sanyi Horgos (András Bodnár), with whom they had made a deal so that Sanyi would spread word among the villagers that the two had died.
At the village, the Doctor discovers he has run out of fruit brandy. Unaccustomed to leaving his house, he decides to go out to buy liquor nonetheless. Outside, he is met with hostile weather and the arrival of night. He meets Sanyi’s older sisters, who are prostitutes dreaming of running away to town since none of the locals have money anymore. After an impossibly long time, the doctor arrives at the local tavern to purchase his brandy, but is unable to find the courage to enter. The doctor is accosted by Estike (Erika Bók), Sanyi’s little sister, whose father hanged himself and had previously been institutionalized. Estike causes the doctor to fall in the mud. In a state of emotional tension, after reacting angrily to this, the Doctor reconsiders and naively tries to apologize as the girl leaves and disappears in the darkness. Chasing after her, the Doctor passes out and collapses in a nearby wood, and is found in the morning by the town's conductor who takes him to a hospital.
The morning before the Doctor left his house, Estike is tricked by her older brother Sanyi into planting a "money tree" in the forest. She tortures and poisons her cat to death, and carries its corpse to the money tree, finding it dug up by her brother who has reclaimed the money. Marauding through the woods, the girl approaches the local tavern and peers through its window, where most of the villagers dance to accordion music, unaware of the peeping child. Afterwards, she encounters the Doctor and retreats into an abandoned ruin, fatally poisoning herself with the feeling that every movement of the world is preordained.
The following day, Irimiás arrives at the village while Estike's funeral is being held. Irimiás tells the villagers they were all guilty of Estike’s death and talks most of them into handing him all their money in order to start a new collective in a near-by estate. The villagers (excepting the publican, Sanyi's family and the Doctor) walk together, wheeling their few belongings to a distant abandoned mansion where they lie down to sleep, whereupon the narrator describes the dreams each of them has. Meanwhile, Irimiás, Sanyi and Petrina are walking when Irimiás drops to his knees while hearing once again the mysterious drone as the fog lifts from the ruin where Estike died. They later meet with an accomplice in a near-by town to acquire a large amount of explosives, for reasons never explicitly explained.
The next morning, when Irimiás is late, the villagers decide they have been duped by Irimiás, and fight among themselves. Schmidt and Kráner (János Derzsi) accuse Futaki of having led them into this trap and demand that he return their money. As they beat him up, Irimiás arrives, scolds them for their squabbling and tells them that his plan to establish a new farm has been delayed by the authorities and that their only hope is to scatter around the country for an unspecified amount of time. Kráner demands that Irimiás give their money back. Irimiás does so, but expresses his disappointment at their lack of trust and unreliability, shaming Kráner into once more giving his money to him. Irimiás, Petrina and Sanyi drive the villagers and their belongings by truck to the city, where Irimiás assigns the Schmidts, the Kráners and the Halicses different towns and different tasks, gives them each 1,000 forints and dismisses them. Futaki, however, tells Irimiás that he would rather find a job as a watchman, takes his thousand forints and leaves on his own. The fate of the headmaster remains unclear.
The police receive Irimiás’ devastating report about the villagers’ poor abilities and defects and decide to rewrite it in a less vulgar manner before filing it away and leaving.
The Doctor returns home after thirteen days in the hospital, unaware that Irimiás has taken the entire community away with him. He sits down to write his notes, assuming that all his neighbors are snoring in their beds. He suddenly hears the same bells toll that woke Futaki at the beginning of the film. The Doctor leaves his house again to investigate the ruined church from which the sound of the bells comes, because the bell tower is not supposed to be working. He discovers a madman inside the ruins striking a bell clapper with a metal rod like a gong and shouting endlessly that the Turks are coming. Frightened, the Doctor returns home and proceeds to board up the window in front of his desk, plunging himself into total darkness as he sits and writes the narration which began the film. The tolling of church bells continues throughout the last part of the film and the displaying of the end credits.
Cast
Mihály Víg as Irimiás
Putyi Horváth as Petrina
László Lugossy as Schmidt
Éva Almássy Albert as Mrs. Schmidt
János Derzsi as Kráner
Irén Szajki as Mrs. Kráner
Alfréd Járai as Halics
B. Miklós Székely as Futaki
Erzsébet Gaál as Mrs. Halics
Erika Bók as Estike
Peter Berling as the Doctor
Zoltán Kamodi as the Innkeeper
Péter Dobai as the Police Captain
Production
Structure
The structure of the film is based on that of the novel, which borrows, as its title suggests, from tango. The film is broken into twelve parts, and does not always move chronologically, as it follows the tango scheme of going six moves forward, then six back (hence 6 + 6 parts in total). The twelve parts are titled as follows (in the original Hungarian and in English translation):
A hír, hogy jönnek [News of Their Coming]
Feltámadunk [We Are Resurrected]
Valamit tudni [To Know Something]
A pók dolga I. [The Job of the Spider I]
Felfeslők [Unraveling]
A pók dolga II (Ördögcsecs, sátántangó) [The Job of the Spider II (The Devil's Tit, Satan's Tango)]
Irimiás beszédet mond [Irimiás Gives A Speech]
A távlat, ha szemből [The Perspective From the Front]
Mennybe menni? Lázálmodni? [Going to Heaven? Having Nightmares?]
A távlat, ha hátulról [The Perspective From The Rear]
Csak a gond, a munka [Just Trouble and Work]
A kör bezárul [The Circle Closes]
Long takes
The film is composed of long takes, a trait found in Tarr's work. Tarr's adoption of this style has led many people to draw parallels between Tarr, Andrei Tarkovsky and Theo Angelopoulos, all of whom use very long takes and let their films play out at a slow pace. According to Tarr himself, there are roughly only 150 shots in the entire film. Several shots last nearly ten minutes, such as dance sequences, during which the camera rarely moves, but we see the main characters dance and drink. Tarr has said that the cast was actually drunk during these scenes.
The opening shot, in which the camera tracks alongside a herd of cows, lasts nearly eight minutes. There are shots depicting main characters walking (and talking) for minutes at a time, unimpeded by a cut.
The book and the film
This film is based on literary sources and had a screenplay, but much of it was still improvised on set. Tarr had this to say on the subject of having a screenplay, but on his filming method in general:
An omniscient narrator can be heard at several points throughout the film, textually quoting parts of the novel. It also adapts every moment in the book, leaving nothing out.
Music
Mihály Víg, who plays Irimiás in the film, was Béla Tarr's film composer since working on Almanac of Fall in 1984, until the director's retirement in 2011 with the film The Turin Horse. Tarr has described his collaboration with Víg, as well as that with his wife and editor Ágnes Hranitzky and cinematographer Fred Kelemen, as "collaborative filmmaking", in which each one of their individual works stands as a relevant production of its own. As with Damnation (1988) and all of Tarr's work since 1994, Sátántangó utilizes a small set of original compositions by Víg that play at strategic points of the film, to establish connections between themes or situations.
For Sátántangó, Víg composed a type of score that has been described as "carnivalesque" by Tim Brayton. It is composed of melancholic and haunting accordion themes, reminiscent of a slow and repetitive tango. The most prominent musical theme of the film is "Rain II", which is featured at most of the film's signature moments. Three tango suites play once at separate moments of the film, "Galicia" and "May I Have This Tango?" in "The Job of the Spider II"—while the villagers feast as Estike watches from outside the bar—and "Circle Dance II" after the villagers arrive at the new building that is supposed to be their farm, while the camera goes through their faces and emotions. Additionally, the unearthly sound of distant church bells plays several times throughout the film. In the 2009 compilation "Music From the Films of Béla Tarr", all of the mentioned tracks appear, and the latter is listed as "Bell I" and "Bell II."
Themes
As with the novel upon which it is based, Sátántangó deals with strong pessimistic philosophical themes surrounding the absence of authority, the prevalence of nihilism, and the evils of indifference. The opening shot, lasting nearly 8 minutes, depicts a vast herd of cows wandering in a desolate farm and then vanishing in the distance. Although the scene is largely seen as an establishment of the area and the farm's ambiance, several reviewers thought that it symbolizes the outcome of the story. In the chapter "We Are Resurrected", Irimiás and Petrina broker a deal with a Captain that will lead to the inevitable death or imprisonment of the villagers. The Captain does not appear to be comfortable with the lack of empathy and sociopathic conduct of Irimiás. For this reason, the Captain delivers an extended monologue about the importance of authority, quoting Pericles on the subjects of order and freedom. Some authors have judged the figure of the captain to represent a symbol of authoritarianism during the Hungarian People's Republic.
Regarding the film's most prominent theme, the character of Irimiás can be seen wielding a God-like influence over the villagers to the point of convincing them of doing anything and to make himself greatly feared by them. In "The News is They Are Coming", Futaki and Mr. Schmidt are forced to cut off their plans to escape with the money of the village's farm as a result of Mrs. Kráner telling them of the discovery of Irimiás' return. Futaki is seen reflecting on the character of Irimiás with great fear, saying at one point "he could turn a pile of cow shit into a castle if he wanted to." The divine influence of Irimiás is symbolized heavily throughout the film. In "Knowing Something", the Doctor catches a glimpse of Irimiás and his companions' arrival before he blacks out in the forest. In the three middle chapters, concerning Estike's death, the villagers burst into an impromptu feast at the tavern in fear of Irimiás' imminent arrival. Precisely because of their fear of him, as well as their inherent mistrust of their neighbours, they fail to see Estike in the woods outside as she first watches from a window, proceeds to cry to the Doctor for help and subsequently kills herself. Further on, Irimiás makes use of his rhetoric to persuade the villagers to hand him all of the money they had earned at the collective farm, pledging them to the guilt of Estike's death. In many scenes, Irimiás appears as a knowledgeable and worldly person capable of manipulating the villagers, but also fearful of people less naive, such as the Captain and, to an extent, Futaki. Repressed fear of true authority from Irimiás can also be seen in "Going to Heaven? Having Nightmares?", when he encounters the ruins where Estike committed suicide. While he is ignorant of the event that took place in the ruins, Irimiás nonetheless bows before them, almost instinctively, as an acknowledgement. The fact that the villagers are aware they have lost all prospects of stability, but are still willing to follow Irimiás due to his leadership, places him in the position of an archetypical False Prophet, with more Satanic traits to him than divine ones.
Similarly, the character of the Doctor wields an important symbolic side of the film's themes. Appearing as man of culture and developed interests, the old Doctor is past the point of disillusion of his village, staying indoors most of the time and behaving antisocially. The Doctor only decides to go out after running out of brandy, and his choice is deeply regretted when he is met with hostile weather under the cover of darkness and collapses. In "The Perspective From the Front", the villagers remember they have left the Doctor in the desolate village — although he was actually in the hospital — and Futaki's suggestion is that they leave him behind "to starve." The Doctor seems to be deprived of the villagers' indifference; in spite of his hostile behavior towards Mrs. Kráner, he attempts to help Estike before she commits suicide and is disturbed enough to investigate the ringing of the bells in "The Circle Closes." Out of the entirety of the village's inhabitants, the Doctor seems to be the only one willing to accept death, as he chooses to remain in the abandoned village — perhaps to starve — rather than follow Irimiás.
Reception
Sátántangó has garnered widespread critical acclaim since its 1994 release, and grew in reputation among American art house circles following the release of the director-approved 2006 DVD from Facets Video. It currently has a 100% approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes based on 21 reviews, with an average score of 8.2 out of 10. Tarr's direction has been a frequent subject of praise. Ed Halter called Tarr "one of filmdom's criminally undersung geniuses"; in referencing the film's ominous and illusory tones, Halter wrote, "Tarr's overwhelmingly bleak oeuvre makes Robert Bresson seem like an upbeat party animal by comparison." In The New York Times, Manohla Dargis lauded the director's use of long takes. J. Hoberman of The Village Voice described it as "one of the great, largely unseeable movies of the last dozen years," and Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader has called the film his favorite of the 1990s. Susan Sontag described Sátántangó as "devastating, enthralling for every minute of its seven hours," adding she would be "glad to see it every year for the rest of [her] life."
In the 2012 Sight & Sound critics' poll of the greatest films ever made, the film tied for 36th place, with 34 critics having voted for it.
Home video
The film has developed a cult following among certain audiences, due in part to its artistry and length, but also to its having long been unavailable on DVD. The film was only briefly out in VHS and DVD formats in the 1990s, and went out of print very quickly, initiating a period in which only bootlegs transferred from old VHS sources were available. It has since been released in a new transfer supervised by Tarr.
Sátántangó is rarely screened in theatres due to its lengthy running time. Theatres generally show the film either in two separate parts, or in its entirety with two intermissions. Tarr has expressed a wish for the film to be viewed without any interruption.
The scene in "Unraveling” when Estike (Erika Bók) kills her cat led to some difficulties in getting the film shown in the United Kingdom, due to legislation protecting nonhuman animals from cruelty and the British Board of Film Classification refusing to certify such films. Tarr has insisted that there was a veterinarian on the set at all times, and that the cat was under the vet's supervision and was not killed.
See also
List of longest films by running time
Cinema of Hungary
List of films considered the best
References
External links
1994 films
1990s Hungarian-language films
1994 drama films
Films directed by Béla Tarr
Hungarian black-and-white films
Nonlinear narrative films
Films with screenplays by László Krasznahorkai
Hungarian drama films
Animal cruelty incidents in film |
4340865 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia%E2%80%93United%20States%20relations | Colombia–United States relations | The relationship between Colombia and the United States evolved from a mutual cordiality during the 19th and early 20th centuries to a recent partnership that links the governments of both nations around several key issues; this includes fighting communism, the War on Drugs, and the threat of terrorism due to the September 11 attacks in 2001. During the last fifty years, different American governments and their representatives have become involved in Colombian affairs through the implementation of policies concerned with the issues already stated. Some critics of current US policies in Colombia, such as Law Professor John Barry, claim that US influences have catalyzed internal conflicts and substantially expanded the scope and nature of human rights abuses in Colombia. Supporters, such as Under Secretary of State Marc Grossman, defend the idea that the United States has promoted respect for human rights and the rule of law in Colombia; in addition, adding to the fight against drugs and terrorism.
A signing member of the Rio Pact and SICOFAA, as well as a regular participant in RIMPAC, Colombia was notably the only South American nation to support the US-led Iraq War of 2003. The Colombian government also strongly condemned the nuclear tests of North Korea in 2006, 2009, and 2013, resolved to send soldiers to Afghanistan to aid the International Security Assistance Force in their ongoing struggle with the Taliban, joined the West and its allies in recognizing Kosovo, and, in voting in favor of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 officially supported foreign military intervention in the Libyan Civil War. Upon the death of Osama bin Laden, Colombian President Juan Manuel Santos congratulated Obama, stating in a press release that the raid "proves once again that terrorists, sooner or later, always fall. In the global fight against terrorism there is only one way: to persevere, persevere and persevere."
As of 2013, Colombia has expressed its aspirations to eventually join the U.S.-led NATO military alliance. President Juan Manuel Santos stated, "In June, NATO will sign an agreement with the Colombian government, with the Defense Ministry, to start the process of rapprochement and cooperation, with an eye toward also joining that organization." In response, US assistant secretary of state Roberta Jacobson noted, "Our goal is certainly to support Colombia as being a capable and strong member of lots of different international organizations, and that might well include NATO."
According to the 2012 U.S. Global Leadership Report, 47% of Colombians approve of U.S. leadership, with 23% of the people disapproving and 29% remaining percentage uncertain; the sixth-highest rating of the U.S. for any surveyed country in the Americas. In a survey in 2015, the image of President Obama's favorability was 78% among Colombians.
Historical overview
19th century
During the Spanish American wars of independence, the United States was officially neutral but permitted Spanish American agents to obtain weapons and supplies. With the reception of Manuel Torres in 1821, Colombia became the first "former" Spanish colony recognized by the United States, and the United States was the second government (after the Kingdom of Brazil) to recognize an independent Spanish American state. At that time, Gran Colombia included the territory of the present-day Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Panama. Mutual relations have existed since the U.S. established a diplomatic mission in Santa Fe de Bogota in 1823. The next year the Anderson–Gual Treaty became the first bilateral treaty the U.S. concluded with another American country. U.S. relations with the government in Bogotá were not interrupted even when Ecuador and Venezuela left the federation in 1830. In 1846, the U.S. Polk administration signed a treaty with Colombia, which owned Panama at the time. A railway across the isthmus was opened in 1855. Under the treaty, U.S. troops landed in Panama six times in the nineteenth century to crush rebellions, ensuring that the railway was not hindered.
Early 20th century
In 1903, the U.S. and Colombia negotiated a new treaty. The representative of the company which owned the railway publicly predicted and threatened that Panama would secede if the Colombian Senate rejected the treaty. In 1903, despite U.S. threats, the Colombian senate refused to ratify the Hay–Herrán Treaty. The United States encouraged an uprising of historically rebellious Panamanians and then used US warships to impede any interference from Colombia. A representative of the new Panamanian government then negotiated a treaty favorable to the U.S. for the construction and operation of the Panama Canal.
In 1928, U.S. business interests were threatened in Colombia. The workers of the U.S. corporation United Fruit banana plantations in Colombia went on strike in December 1928. The workers demanded "written contracts, eight-hour days, six-day weeks and the elimination of food coupons". After several weeks without an agreement, an army regiment from Bogotá was brought in by the Colombian government of Miguel Abadía Méndez to crush the strike. The soldiers erected their machine guns on the roofs of buildings at the corners of the main square in Ciénaga, Magdalena, closing off the access streets. After a five-minute warning, they ordered "Fuego!", opening fire into a dense crowd of plantation workers and their families who had gathered after Sunday Mass. They waited for an anticipated address from the governor of that region; between forty-seven to 2,000 workers were killed in the Santa Marta Massacre.
A populist Colombian congressman, Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, began to develop a nationwide reputation, especially among the poor, after visiting the site of the United Fruit massacre the same week. Gaitán returned to Bogotá and argued passionately in Congress in favor of the workers, arguing that the army’s actions did not protect Colombia's interests but instead those of the U.S.
Mid-20th century
In 1948, presidential candidate Gaitàn was assassinated in Bogotá during the conference that gave birth to the Organization of American States. Gaitan's assassination marked the beginning of La Violencia, a Colombian civil war which lasted until the mid-fifties and killed an estimated 300,000 Colombians. Towards the end of the conflict, Liberal and Communist armed peasant groups who remained at large, together with displaced peasants who had either fled from the violence or lost their land, formed small independent enclaves in the south. According to author Stokes, citing Jenny Pearce, these enclaves had "no broader political project" other than agriculture and self-protection. The Colombian government, pressured by Conservative Congressmen who defined these enclaves as "independent republics", saw this as a potential threat. In addition, the U.S. government saw these peasant enclaves as potentially dangerous to U.S. business interests in Colombia.
In May 1964, as part of Kennedy's Alliance for Progress, a CIA backed program called Plan LAZO was initiated. The United States trained Colombian military troops to invade the largest peasant enclaves. They used a bomber aircraft with Napalm in order to destroy the threat. Many of the armed inhabitants of the enclaves escaped and two years later part of this group formed the FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia). The FARC became the oldest and largest revolutionary "guerilla" movement (guerilla referring to insurgent militias inspired by the Chinese, Cuban, and Vietnamese revolutions) in the Western Hemisphere. Stokes and other critics believed that the U.S. government focused on the destruction of the FARC and other left-wing guerrilla movements, ignoring and even supporting other destabilizing elements in Colombian society.
1959 "U.S. Special Survey Team" and 1962 Plan LAZO
As La Violencia was ending a "U.S. Special Survey Team" composed of worldwide counterinsurgency experts arrived in October 1959 to investigate Colombia's internal security. Among other policy recommendations the U.S. team advised that "in order to shield the interests of both Colombian and U.S. authorities against 'interventionist' charges any special aid given for internal security was to be sterile and covert in nature." This recommendation is a form of plausible deniability, common in secret U.S. government documents which are later declassified.
In February 1962, three years after the 1959 "U.S. Special Survey Team", a Fort Bragg top-level U.S. Special Warfare team headed by Special Warfare Center commander General William P. Yarborough visited Colombia for a second survey. In a secret supplement to his report to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Yarborough encouraged a stay-behind irregular force and its immediate deployment to eliminate communists representing a future threat:
"A concerted country team effort should be made now to select civilian and military personnel for clandestine training in resistance operations in case they are needed later. This should be done with a view toward development of a civil and military structure for exploitation in the event the Colombian internal security system deteriorates further. This structure should be used to pressure toward reforms known to be needed, perform counter-agent and counter-propaganda functions and as necessary execute paramilitary, sabotage and/or terrorist activities against known communist proponents. It should be backed by the United States... If we have such an apparatus in Colombia it should be employed now."
Interrogation procedures and techniques, including regular questioning of rural villagers "who are believed to be knowledgeable of guerrilla activities" were advised. "Exhaustive interrogation of the bandits, to include sodium pentathol and polygraph, should be used to elicit every shred of information. Both the Army and the Police need trained interrogators." Pentathol, or truth serum, was originally used by doctors for relaxation, but in the 1970s it was reported used by some Latin American militaries to induce "paralysis, agony, and terror." The use of truth serum would later be encouraged in SOA manuals.
"In general, the Yarborough team recommended that the US provide guidance and assistance in all aspects of counter-insurgency...Civilian and military personnel, clandestinely selected and trained in resistance operations, would be required in order to develop an underground civil and military structure. This organization was to undertake 'clandestine execution of plans developed by the United States Government toward defined objectives in the political, economic, and military fields'...it would…undertake...'paramilitary, sabotage, and/or terrorist activities against known communist proponents'."
Ultimately Yarborough's recommendations formed the core of a U.S.-aided reorganization of Colombian military troops. This new counter-insurgency policy debuted with Plan LAZO in 1964. Following Yarborough's recommendations, the Colombian military selected and trained civilians to work alongside the military in its counter-insurgency campaign and paramilitary "civil defense" groups which worked alongside the military. The United States supplied and trained civilian intelligence networks which were closely linked to the military. The system was established to gather "intelligence and providing early warning against bandit or guerrilla attacks". In 1965 Colombian President Guillermo León Valencia issued Decree 3398. Because of the decree, eleven separate civilian intelligence networks had been established with agricultural co-operatives. In 1968, Decree 3398 became Colombia law with the enactment of Law 48 of 1968.
Doug Stokes argues that it was not until the early part of the 1980s that the Colombian government attempted to move away from the policy of counterinsurgency warfare represented by Plan LAZO and Yarborough's 1962 recommendations.
1970 US army manual
The 1970 U.S. army manual titled "Stability Operations" was translated into Spanish and used to train thousands of Latin American military officers in counter intelligence, including Colombian officers. Stokes argues that "the manual extends its definition of subversion beyond armed insurgents and explicitly links civil society organizations to the problem of insurgency." Targets for Counter intelligence operations included, "ordinary citizens who are typical members of organizations or associations which play an important role in the local society." The manual explains that insurgents usually work with union leaders and union members, and those organizations which demand "immediate social, political or economic reform may be an indication that the insurgents have gained a significant degree of control." The manual explains that the indicators of communist/insurgent infiltration include:
Refusal of peasants to pay rent, taxes, or loan payments. Increase in the number of entertainers with a political message. Discrediting the judicial system and police organizations. Characterization of the armed forces as the enemy of the people. Appearance of questionable doctrine in the educational system. Appearance of many new members in established organizations like labor organizations. Increased unrest among laborers. Increased student activity against the government and its police, or against minority groups, foreigners and the like. An increased number of articles or advertisements in newspapers criticizing the government. Strikes or work stoppages called to protest government actions. Increase of petitions demanding government redress of grievances. Proliferation of slogans pinpointing specific grievances. Initiation of letter-writing campaigns to newspapers and government officials deploring undesirable conditions and blaming individuals in power.
Late-20th century
Drug trade
Author Doug Stokes claims that there is a major discrepancy between the U.S. "stated goals of US policy and the actual targets and effects" of the war on drugs in Colombia, arguing that U.S. military assistance has been primarily directed at fighting the FARC and ELN guerrillas despite the fact that past CIA and DEA reports have identified the insurgents as minor players in the drug trade. Stokes proposes a revisionist continuity theory: that the War on drugs is a pre-text and this war, just as the Cold War that preceded it and the War on Terror that followed it, was mainly about Northern Hemisphere competition to control and exploit Southern Hemisphere natural resources. In other words, "the maintenance of a world capitalist order conducive to US economic interests." As this competition for third world resources has continued even after the collapse of the Soviet Union, there would be continuity in U.S. foreign policy.
United States interventions in Colombia on behalf of the 'War on Drugs' saw extensive activity within Colombia during the latter half of the twentieth century. Before the 1990s and vast amounts of US spending was dedicated to combating drug production in Colombia, smaller scale operations were taking place. In the 1980s under the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA), the US federal government oversaw investigative, covert and militant operations both in collaboration with, and against the wishes of, the independent Colombian government. Perhaps the most pressing example of these interventions, was the US involvement in the fight against Pablo Escobar. The DEA's involvement in Colombia as part of the hunt for Escobar demonstrated an important case study in the wider aspects of US-Colombian relations. With the help of the US Delta Force, extensive training, equipment and financial support, the defeat of Pablo Escobar and the Medellin Cartel marked an important moment for both the US and Colombia. The events brought into question the true effectiveness and reasonings for US involvements, their right to do so and the consequences. Mark Peceny and Michael Durnan argue that "ephemeral success" (such as the fight against Escobar, which led to further cartel driven conflicts, i.e., the Cali Cartel) and "U.S antidrug policies make it extremely difficult for the Colombian government to forge a durable public-private partnership for the management the cocaine industry". Ultimately further questioning the righteousness of US interventions in Colombian issues.
1986 RAND, 1992 CIA and 1994 DEA positions
In 1986, the U.S. Defense Department funded a two-year study by the RAND Corporation, a private organization with a long and close relationship with the U.S. government. This study found that the use of the armed forces to interdict drugs coming into the United States would have little or no effect on cocaine trafficking and might in fact raise the profits of cocaine cartels and manufacturers. The 175-page study, "Sealing the Borders: The Effects of Increased Military Participation in Drug Interdiction," was prepared by seven researchers, mathematicians and economists at the National Defense Research Institute. The study noted that seven prior studies in the past nine years, including one by the Center for Naval Research and the Office of Technology Assessment, had come to similar conclusions. Interdiction efforts using current armed forces resources would have almost no effect on cocaine importation into the United States, the report concluded.
President George Bush Sr. disagreed, arguing that "the logic is simple. The cheapest way to eradicate narcotics is to destroy them at their source....We need to wipe out crops wherever they are grown and take out labs wherever they exist."
During the early- to mid-1990s, the Clinton administration ordered and funded a major cocaine policy study, again by RAND. The Rand Drug Policy Research Center study concluded that $3 billion should be switched from federal and local law enforcement to treatment. The report said that treatment is the cheapest way to cut drug use, stating that drug treatment is twenty-three times more effective than the supply-side "war on drugs". President Clinton's drug czar's office disagreed with slashing law enforcement spending.
A 1992 Central Intelligence Agency report acknowledged that "the FARC had become increasingly involved in drugs through their 'taxing' of the trade in areas under their geographical control and that in some cases the insurgents protected trafficking infrastructure to further fund their insurgency." The report also described the relationship between the FARC and the drug traffickers as one "characterized by both cooperation and friction". The 1992 report concluded by stating "we do not believe that the drug industry [in Colombia] would be substantially disrupted in the short term by attacks against guerillas. Indeed, many traffickers would probably welcome, and even assist, increased operations against insurgents."
In 1994, the DEA came to three similar conclusions. First, that any connections between drug trafficking organizations and Colombian insurgents were "ad hoc 'alliances of convenience'". Second, that "the independent involvement of insurgents in Colombia's domestic drug productions, transportation, and distribution is limited…there is no evidence that the national leadership of either the FARC or the ELN has directed, as a matter of policy, that their respective organizations directly engage in independent illicit drug production, transportation, or distribution." Third, the report determined that the DEA "has no evidence that the FARC or ELN have been involved in the transportation, distribution, or marketing of illegal drugs in the United States. Furthermore it is doubtful that either insurgent group could develop the international transportation and logistics infrastructure necessary to establish independent drug distribution in the United States or Europe…the DEA believes that the insurgents never will be major players in Colombia's drug trade."
2000 AUC participation
In 2000, former paramilitary leader Carlos Castaño Gil, the founder of the AUC who disappeared in 2004, revealed on national television how the AUC funded its operations: "drug trafficking and drug traffickers probably finance 70%. The rest come largely from extortion."
Counterterrorism
Both before and after September 11, 2001, the U.S. government provided military and economic aid to Colombia for the purposes of counterinsurgency and counterterrorism, in addition to its Drug War assistance.
In 1999, the U.S. State Department began sharing real-time intelligence about the guerrillas with the Colombian military. Officials told the Washington Post that they feared "Colombia is losing its war against Marxist-led insurgents."
In May 2001, the Bush administration introduced the Andean Regional Initiative (ARI), which broadened U.S. intervention throughout the entire region, directing another $800 million to the project over Plan Colombia. The ARI supplies military support and economic assistance to seven Andean countries: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela.
After September 11, 2001, U.S. government officials compared the FARC with Osama bin Ladin, describing both of them as terrorists. Senator John McCain stated that the United States now "abandons any fictional distinctions between counter-narcotic and counter-insurgency operations". Author Doug Stokes has criticized this, stating that "in the aftermath of September 11th the U.S. has dropped the pretence that its military assistance has been driven solely by counter-narcotics concerns and has now started to overtly couch its funding in terms of a strategy of counter-terrorism targeted at the FARC, who are now being linked to international terrorism as well as drug trafficking."
In July 2002, "the U.S. Congress passed an emergency supplemental spending bill that lifted a previous provision limiting U.S. assistance to counter-narcotics efforts. Under the new rules, U.S. security assistance can be used against 'organizations designated as terrorist organizations...'". According to Amnesty International, "the new U.S. strategy makes U.S. assistance to Colombia available for counter-insurgency activities for the first time, including direct action against armed groups. The U.S. is now providing military aid for direct use in counter-insurgency operations specifically to protect U.S.-operated oil installations, such as Caño Limón." The spending bill included the U.S. Congress approval of a provision coined as 'expanded authorities,' whereby U.S. supplied training and equipment could be used in counter-terrorism efforts as well as counter-drug efforts.
In November 2002, as part of what has been called "a significant shift in American policy", the U.S. began sending advisors to Colombia under a $94 million counterinsurgency program to protect five hundred miles of an oil pipeline.
In 2006, a U.S. congressional report listed a number of PMCs and other enterprises that have signed contracts to carry out anti-narcotics operations and related activities as part of Plan Colombia. DynCorp was among those contracted by the State Department, while others signed contracts with the Defense Department. Other companies from different countries, including Israel, have also signed contracts with the Colombian Defense Ministry to carry out security or military activities.
School of the Americas
The School of the Americas is a U.S. training center for Latin American military officers, that since its 1946 establishment in Panama, has trained 82,767 Latin American officers in counter-insurgency doctrine and combat skills. Colombia was one of the first countries to send military officers to the SOA. According to journalist Grace Livingstone, as of 2003 more Colombian SOA graduates have been identified as alleged human rights abusers than SOA graduates from any other Latin American country. This is in part because the names and records of Colombian officers have been under greater scrutiny than those of officers elsewhere in Latin America.
In 1996, after years of denials the U.S. Pentagon declassified translated excerpts from seven training manuals. These manuals were prepared by the U.S. military and used between 1987 and 1991 for intelligence training courses at the U.S. Army School of the Americas. The manuals were also distributed by Special Forces Mobile Training teams to military personnel and intelligence schools in Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Peru. The manuals taught counterintelligence agents to use "fear, payment of bounties for enemy dead, beatings, false imprisonment, executions and the use of truth serum". The manual titled "Handling of Sources" teaches, "The CI [counterintelligence] agent could cause the arrest of the employees [informants] parents, imprison the employee or give him a beating" to enforce cooperation.
In a 1981 study, human rights researcher Lars Schoultz concluded that U.S. aid "has tended to flow disproportionately to Latin American governments which torture their citizens...to the hemisphere's relatively egregious violators of fundamental human rights." In 1998, Latin American professor Martha Huggins stated "that the more foreign police aid given (by the United States), the more brutal and less democratic the police institutions and their governments become."
Paramilitaries
In 2003, author Grace Livingstone described Colombian paramilitaries as "various types of illegal rightwing armed groups which work alongside the armed forces. They include private militia funded by landowners and business; drug traffickers' hit squads and 'social cleansing' death squads. The largest paramilitary network is the Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia (AUC)." Paramilitaries were considered responsible for three quarters of all Colombian political killings between 1995 and 2001, 52% of the massacres in 1998 (guerrillas were responsible for 20%), and 49% of the refugee displacements in 1999 (guerrillas are responsible for 29%). In 2003, The Guardian'''s columnist George Monbiot stated that "over the past 10 years, the paramilitaries [which the Colombian army] works with have killed some 15,000 trades unionists, peasant and indigenous leaders, human rights workers, land reform activists, leftwing politicians and their sympathizers."
The paramilitaries often target union leaders, members of the civil society and human rights workers. On September 28, 2000, the AUC, Colombia's largest paramilitary group, issued a press release stating that "the AUC identifies the human rights workers and especially members of Credhos as guerrilla sympathizers, and for this reason from this moment forward we consider them military targets of our organization."
U.S. Corporations have also been implicated in the financing of paramilitary groups. The most well known case may be Chiquita Brands International, which has admitted to making payments to the AUC from 1997 to 2004. Due to this involvement with a terrorist organization, Chiquita's board members have even been requested in extradition.
1990 intelligence networks
In 1990, the U.S. created a fourteen-member team whose members included representatives of the CIA, the U.S. Southern Command, U.S. Embassy's Military Group, and the Defense Intelligence Agency (produces intelligence for the United States Department of Defense). This was done in order to give advice on the reshaping of several of the Colombian military's local intelligence networks. The stated reason for this restructuring was to aid the Colombian military in their counter-narcotics efforts. Years later, Col. James S. Roach, Jr., who was the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) country liaison and U.S. Military Attache in Bogotá during the meetings, told Human Rights Watch (HRW) that: "The intent [of the meeting] was not to be associated with paramilitaries. But we knew from Colombian news reports and [even] from Colombian military reports that they were still working with paramilitaries."
The result of these meetings was Order 200-05/91, which was issued by the Colombian Defense Ministry in May 1991. HRW obtained a copy of the Colombian Armed Forces Directive No. 200-05/91. The report makes no explicit mention of illegal narcotics. The Colombian armed forces, "based on the recommendations made by a commission of advisors from the U.S. Armed Forces," presented a plan to better combat "escalating terrorism by armed subversion."
In 1996, HRW concluded that "Order 200-05/91 laid the groundwork for continuing an illegal, covert partnership between the military and paramilitaries and demonstrates that this partnership was promoted by the military high command in violation of [Colombian] Decree 1194, which prohibits such contact. Although the term "paramilitaries" is not used in the order, the document lays out a system similar to the one present under the name of MAS and its military patrons in the Middle Magdalena." HRW argued that the restructuring process solidified linkages between members of the Colombian military and civilian members of paramilitary groups by incorporating them into several of the local intelligence networks and by cooperating with their activities. For HRW, the resulting situation allowed the Colombian government and military to plausibly deny links or responsibility for human rights abuses committed by members or associates of these networks. HRW considered that the intelligence networks created by the U.S. reorganization appeared to have increased violence, citing massacres in Barrancabermeja as an example.
Military-paramilitary links
In 1999, a U.S. Department of State annual report stated that "government forces continued to commit numerous, serious abuses, including extrajudicial killings, at a level that was roughly similar to that of 1998. Despite some prosecutions and convictions, the authorities rarely brought officers of the security forces and the police charged with human rights offenses to justice, and impunity remains a problem. At times the security forces collaborated with paramilitary groups that committed abuses; in some instances, individual members of the security forces actively collaborated with members of paramilitary groups by passing them through roadblocks, sharing intelligence, and providing them with ammunition. Paramilitary forces find a ready support base within the military and police, as well as local civilian elites in many areas."
In 1997, Amnesty International (AI) opined that the war on drugs is "a myth", stating that members of Colombian security forces worked closely with paramilitaries, landlords and narco-traffickers to target political opposition, community leaders, human rights and health workers, union activists, students, and peasants. Amnesty International reported that "almost every Colombian military unit that Amnesty implicated in murdering civilians two years ago [1995] was doing so with U.S.-supplied weapons".
In 2000, studies carried out by both the United Nations and Human Rights Watch argued that
paramilitaries continued to maintain close ties to the Colombian military. HRW considered that the existing partnership between paramilitaries and members of the Colombian military was "a sophisticated mechanism, in part supported by years of advice, training, weaponry, and official silence by the United States, that allows the Colombian military to fight a dirty war and Colombian officialdom to deny it." A contemporary UN report states that "The security forces also failed to take action, and this undoubtedly enabled the paramilitary groups to achieve their exterminating objectives."
Cooperation System of the American Air Forces
Colombia is an active member of the Cooperation System of the American Air Forces (SICOFAA).
1995–1997 diplomatic crisis
Between 1996 and 1997 Bill Clinton's administration decertified Colombia after then President of Colombia, Ernesto Samper was involved in an investigation for allegedly accepting money from drug cartels for his presidential campaign. The media reported Colombia's 'Cuba-nisation' in Washington as United States policy makers constantly called for the isolation of Colombian president Samper. Colombia was officially branded as a 'threat to democracy' and to the United States.
Until mid-2004, the U.S. Embassy in Bogota was the largest U.S. embassy in the world.
21st century
On March 1, 2018, the United States and Colombia decided to continue their partnership that works to better develop and facilitate both countries economies with new opportunities, environmental protection, and efforts to decrease the trade of narcotics. This deal created partnerships between the United States and Colombia that protect Colombia's environment by working to preserve biodiversity, punishing animal traffickers, and limiting illegal gold mining that is destroying Colombia's environment and is harmful to human health. This bilateral agreement also promotes Colombia's economy by creating more job opportunities, funding education and student exchanges, increasing business relations between the two countries by promoting the growth of businesses in Colombia, and encouraging the production of legal crops in Colombia. In this deal the United States also addressees human rights violations in Colombia by carrying out the prosecution of human rights violators. Lastly, it deals with the exchange of narcotics with the agreement to strengthen efforts to eliminate the drug trade by putting in place new restrictions and barriers that will hopefully decrease the cocaine and coca cultivation by 50 in five years.
Interpretations of US role
According to author Robin Kirk, most Americans remain naïve about the role of the United States in Colombia's historical development and the nation's continuing violence.
Colombia's own history has been studied from the perspective of the so-called "violentologist", a new type of social scientist created in order to analyze the nature and development of the country's violence. Camilo A. Azcarate has attributed the violence to three main causes:
A weak central state,
Poverty, and an
Elite political system which excludes the less affluent of society.
Doug Stokes argues that, along with the other factors, the past and present interference of successive American administrations in Colombian affairs has often sought to preserve a measure of stability in Colombia, by upholding a political and economic status quo understood as favorable to U.S. interests even at the cost of contributing to promoting greater instability for the majority of the population.
However, other studies on the influence to Colombian domestic agenda from US military aid have demonstrated controversial results. Different from the stereotypical belief that foreign aid is supposed to strengthen a weak state's governing capacity or lower violence, US's military assistance in actuality worsens Colombian's domestic violence by introducing a higher level of paramilitary attacks as well as decreasing anti narcotics operations. Also, evidence shows that US aid does not help lower violence related to the production of drug crops such as coca.
See also
Latin America–United States relations
Foreign relations of Colombia
Foreign relations of the United States
Right-wing paramilitarism in Colombia
Further reading
Notes
References
Bibliography
Dockterman, Daniel. "Hispanics of Colombian Origin in the United States." (Pew Research Center, May 26, 2011) online
Sturner, Pamela. "Colombian Americans." Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America, edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol. 1, Gale, 2014), pp. 519–530. online
External links
History of Colombia – U.S. relations
US Soldiers and Contractors Sexually Abused at Least 54 Children in Colombia Between 2003 and 2007. Greg Grandin for The Nation'', April 7, 2015.
United States
Bilateral relations of the United States |
4340873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Turtucaia | Battle of Turtucaia | The Battle of Turtucaia (; , Bitka pri Tutrakan), also known as Tutrakan Epopee (, Tutrakanska epopeya) in Bulgaria, was the opening battle of the first Central Powers offensive during the Romanian Campaign of World War I. The battle lasted for five days and ended with the capture of the fortress of Turtucaia (now Tutrakan) and the surrender of its Romanian defenders.
Background
By August 1916 the Central Powers found themselves in an increasingly difficult military situation – in the West the German offensive at Verdun had turned into a costly battle of attrition, in the East the Brusilov Offensive was crippling the Austro-Hungarian Army, and in the South the Italian Army was increasing the pressure on the Austro-Hungarians, while General Maurice Sarrail's Allied expeditionary force in northern Greece seemed poised for a major offensive against the Bulgarian Army.
The Romanian government asserted that the moment was right for it to fulfill the country's national ambitions by aligning itself with the Entente, and declared war on the Austro-Hungarian Empire on 27 August 1916. Three Romanian armies invaded Transylvania through the Carpathian Mountains, pushing back the much smaller Austro-Hungarian First Army. In a short time the Romanian forces occupied Orșova, Petroșani, and Brașov, and reached Sibiu on their way to the river Mureș, the main objective of the offensive.
In response the German Empire declared war on the Kingdom of Romania on 27 August, with the Kingdom of Bulgaria following suit on 1 September. On the next day the Bulgarian Third Army initiated the Central Powers' first major offensive of the campaign by invading Southern Dobruja.
Origins and state of the fortress
Tutrakan was originally a Roman fort. During the reign of Emperor Diocletian (284–305) it developed into one of the largest strongholds of the Danubian limes. In the 7th century it became part of the Bulgarian Empire, until the latter was subjugated by the Ottoman Empire in the late 14th century. When the Ottoman Empire entered its period of decline, it relied on the Danube as its main defensive barrier in the Balkans. The enormous width of the river, however, proved insufficient to defend against the armies of the Russian Empire, which crossed it several times in its lower stretch during the numerous Russo-Ottoman Wars. To counter this constant threat the Ottoman military created the fortified quadrilateral Ruse–Silistra–Varna–Shumen, hoping to prevent any invaders from crossing the Balkan Mountains and threatening Istanbul. Tutrakan was situated on the northern side of the quadrilateral, on a stretch where the Danube is narrow, across from the mouth of the navigable Argeș River. This made it an excellent spot for a crossing and prompted the Ottomans to fortify it with a large garrison.
With the liberation of Bulgaria after the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), Tutrakan became an integral part of the country, but Bulgarian national ambitions were directed in general towards Macedonia and Thrace, and the defense of the Danube was largely neglected. As a result of the Second Balkan War, Tutrakan and the entire Southern Dobruja region were ceded to Romania in 1913, with the town being renamed to Turtucaia.
The Romanian General Staff immediately took measures to strengthen the defences of the town, designing it to serve as a bridgehead in the event of war with Bulgaria. Intensive construction work lasted for more than two years under the guidance of Belgian military engineers. The surrounding terrain was favorable for a bridgehead, as the heights overlooking the town form a plateau 7 to 10 kilometres wide, rising as high as 113 meters over the Danube, and being surrounded by numerous wide ravines.
The basic defense consisted of three concentric lines of trenches anchored on the river. The most forward of these were small outposts designed for surveillance. To the west, around the village of Staro Selo, the outer fortifications were of a more extensive character.
The main defensive line was constructed on the very edge of the plateau in order to keep enemy artillery away from any bridge that could be built to Turtucaia. The line stretched for almost 30 kilometers and had as its heart fifteen "centers of resistance", forts numbered from one to 15 and bearing the names of local settlements - "Turtucaia", "Staro Selo", "Daidâr", "Sarsânlar" etc. Each of these incorporated two shelters for 50 to 70 soldiers, with roofs supported by iron rails or wooden boards, on top of which a two-meter layer of earth was laid. Their profile was low, rising only about 60 centimeters, thus ensuring reasonable protection against field artillery shells. Spaced from 1.2 to 2.2 kilometers apart, the individual forts were linked by shallow trenches and machine gun nests, which were in turn connected via communication trenches to the rear of the main defensive line. The intervening spaces were further covered by rifle and machine gun positions in the flanks of the forts. The "centers of resistance" were well protected by barbed wire obstacles that reached a depth of 10 to 15 meters, but they were placed some 50 metres away from the firing line and thus could not be defended with hand grenades. A hundred meters in front of the main line the Romanians had built three rows of pitfalls and barbed wire that ran continuously from fort 15 to fort 3. Most of the artillery was placed in the main defensive line, although several pieces, along with trenches and machine guns, were placed on the nearby islands of the Danube in order to support the Romanian Danube Flotilla, which was tasked with providing artillery cover on the western approaches to the fortress.
Some four kilometers from the main defensive line and three kilometers from Turtucaia itself lay the secondary defensive line of the fortress. It consisted of a single line of trenches with few prepared machine gun nests or obstacles, and no artillery at all. With their attention focused almost entirely on the main defensive line, the Romanian command largely ignored this secondary line.
For command purposes the entire area of the fortress was divided into three sectors: I (west), II (south) and III (east), also named after local villages - Staro Selo, Daidâr, and Antimova. Each of them had its own commander.
The garrison
The defense of the Danube and Dobruja frontiers was entrusted to the Romanian Third Army, under the command of General Mihail Aslan, who had his headquarters in Bucharest. The fortress of Turtucaia was commanded by the head of the Romanian 17th Infantry Division, General Constantin Teodorescu, who by the beginning of the conflict had the following forces at his disposal:
17th Infantry Division (Teodorescu)
18th Infantry Brigade
36th Infantry Regiment
76th Reserve Regiment
39th Infantry Brigade
40th Infantry Regiment
79th Reserve Regiment
one company of border guards
one cavalry squadron
four militia battalions
one pioneer company
Romanian battle strength stood at 19 battalions, with over 20,000 men and 66 machine guns. Only three of the battalions were of the standing army, with the rest drawn from the reserve. A valuable asset for the garrison was the assistance of the Romanian Danube Flotilla, consisting mainly of the 2nd Monitor Division: Brătianu, Kogălniceanu and Catargiu.
General Teodorescu could rely on a large artillery park, consisting by the end of August of over 157 guns ranging in caliber from 7.5 to 21 centimeters; however, most of these were fixed guns that lacked modern, quick-firing capability. The trench artillery consisted of numerous small-caliber turret guns, while the mobile horse-drawn artillery had 23 guns, only eight of them quick-firing. In the Western Sector the troops benefited from the guns of the Danube Flotilla. Almost all of the artillery was deployed in the main defensive line, but the fixed artillery in particular was positioned in a way that made it difficult for all the guns to concentrate their fire on a single spot. The cannon were distributed in equal quantities among the sectors, leaving no reserve at all. Compounding these difficulties was the fact that the guns, in most cases, were firing from platforms, which meant that their position could not be shifted.
The garrison of Turtucaia was connected to Olteniţa, which lay across the Danube, by a submerged telephone cable, and to Third Army headquarters in Bucharest by a wireless telegraph station; however, it remained relatively isolated from the nearest Romanian units in Dobruja. The 9th division was almost 60 kilometres to the east in Silistra, while the 19th Division and 5th Cavalry brigade were 100 kilometres to the south-east, around Bazargic (now Dobrich). The Romanian 16th, 20th, 18th Infantry and 1st Cavalry divisions were all on the left bank of the Danube and could be used to reinforce the fortress if needed.
In general, despite some of the defence's defects, the Romanian command was convinced of the strength of the fortress, and confident in its ability to hold out against major enemy attacks. It was often referred to as "the second Verdun", or "the Verdun of the East". This comparison was not entirely without justification. Most of the major European fortresses had forts of the same type as the 15 around Turtucaia; e.g. Liège had 12, Przemyśl had 15 and Verdun itself had 23.
The attackers
To protect their Danube frontier the Bulgarians had activated their Third Army as early as September 1915, giving its commander, Lieutenant General Stefan Toshev, almost a year to train and equip his troops. When Romanian intentions became clear in the middle of 1916, strengthening Third Army became a priority for the Bulgarian high command.
At the end of August the army was subordinated to Army Group Mackensen, under the overall command of Field Marshal August von Mackensen, who had transferred his headquarters from the Macedonian front for the specific purpose of coordinating the offensive against Romania. By 1 September the Third Army had concentrated 62 infantry battalions, 55 artillery batteries and 23 cavalry squadrons on the Dobruja frontier. For operations against the Turtucaia fortress General Toshev planned to use the left wing of his army, composed of the following:
4th Preslav Infantry Division (Kiselov)
1st Infantry Brigade (Ikonomov)
7th Preslav Infantry Regiment(4)
31st Varna Infantry Regiment(4)
3rd Infantry Brigade (Kmetov)
19th Shumen Infantry Regiment(4)
48th Infantry Regiment(3)
47th Infantry Regiment(2)
4th Artillery Brigade (Kukureshkov)
15th Artillery Regiment(6)
5th Artillery Regiment(6)
2nd Heavy Artillery Regiment(2)
3rd Howitzer Regiment(2)
4th Pioneer Battalion
1/1st Infantry Brigade (Nedialkov)
1st Sofia Infantry Regiment(4)
6th Turnovo Infantry Regiment(4)
4th Artillery Regiment(6)
1st Howitzer Regiment(3)
1st Pioneer Battalion
German-Bulgarian Detachment (von Hammerstein from 4 September)
1/21st German Infantry Battalion
5th March Regiment(3)
5th Opalchenie Regiment(2)
6th Uhlan Regiment
105th German Heavy Howitzer Battery
1/201st German Field Battery
two not quick firing 8.7 cm batteries
The battle strength of these forces consisted of 31 infantry and reserve battalions, 29 batteries and 7 squadrons or a total of around 55,000 men with 132 artillery pieces and 53 machine guns. This ensured the initial numerical superiority of the attackers both in men and firepower, but most of the Bulgarian units, with the notable exception of the 1st Brigade of the 1st Sofia Infantry Division, did not have direct combat experience, as they did not take part in the Serbian Campaign. They had, however, profited from recent improvements in the Bulgarian Army, including the addition of more machine gun companies and heavy artillery as well as improved communications and logistical support.
The Bulgarian and German artillery consisted of modern quick-firing howitzer, field or long guns that varied in caliber from 7.5 to 15 centimeters. Unlike the Romanians, however, the Bulgarians and Germans could not rely on supporting fire from their allied Danube monitors because the Austro-Hungarian Danube Flotilla had been bottled up in the Persina channel by passive and active Romanian measures. For reconnaissance, observation and directing of the artillery fire, the invading forces had also deployed a balloon and several aircraft.
Initially general Toshev retained direct control over the left wing of his army, but as the battle progressed it was realized that a common command on the battlefield itself was needed, and general Panteley Kiselov, the commander of the 4th Preslav Division, was placed in charge of all forces operating against Turtucaia. While retaining the control of his division he did not receive any additional staff, which created problems with the coordination of the forces. Nonetheless general Kiselov and his chief of staff Lieutenant Colonel Stefan Noykov were rated excellent officers by the Germans and represented the top divisional leadership in the Third Army.
The Bulgarian government took great care in assisting the preparations of the operations and declared war on Romania on 1 September—five days after the German government, a move that had initially caused a great deal of concern in the German high command.
Strategic planning
The Bulgarian plan
On 28 August field marshal Mackensen issued his first directive to the Bulgarian Third Army, ordering it to prepare for a decisive advance aimed at seizing the vital crossing points on the Danube in Southern Dobruja. This envisaged the simultaneous capture of both Turtucaia and Silistra by the 4th and 1st divisions. Though general Toshev began deploying his forces as required by the field marshal, he was deeply opposed to dividing them in two and attacking both fortresses. On 31 August the two men met at the Gorna Oryahovitsa train station to exchange thoughts on the operation. Relying on his better intelligence on Romanian forces in Dobruja and the state of their fortifications, the general managed to convince the field marshal to prioritize the capture of Turtucaia over that of Silistra, and concentrate all available forces for that purpose alone. On the same day Toshev presented a detailed plan for the assault, according to which the army would advance on 2 September with its left wing against the bridgehead while the 3/1 Infantry Brigade moved in the direction of Silistra to cover its flank. The right wing of the army, consisting of the 6th Infantry Division and the Varna Garrison, was to advance against Bazargic and Balcic with the 1st Cavalry Division linking it to the left wing. On the next day von Mackensen approved the plan with minor adjustments, such as requiring that the 2/1 Infantry Brigade be kept in reserve for the defense of the right flank of the forces attacking Turtucaia. After receiving the field marshal's sanction, the staff of Third Army moved to Razgrad, from where it began coordinating final preparations for the offensive.
On 1 September von Mackensen received a telegram from the new Chief of the German General Staff von Hindenburg informing him that German and Austro-Hungarian build up in Transylvania would be completed no sooner than the second half of September while the forces that were already deployed would be able only to defend their positions against the advancing Romanians. Von Hindenburg and the Bulgarian commander in chief general Zhekov then both confirmed the orders of the Bulgarian Third Army to advance into Dobruja in order to draw and defeat as many Romanian and Russian forces as possible, stressing the importance of a rapid success for the entire Romanian Campaign.
The Romanian plan
The Romanian plan, or the so-called Hypothesis Z, required most of the country's forces to invade Transylvania, while its almost 150,000-strong Third Army assumed a defensive stance along the Danube and Dobruja frontiers for ten days. Thereafter, the southern forces would attack from the Dobruja into Bulgaria with the expected assistance of general Andrei Zayonchkovski's Russian Army Corps and establish a tenable position on the Ruse–Shumen–Varna line, thus providing the northern armies operational freedom.
The Russians crossed the Danube on schedule and concentrated around Cobadin. On 31 August General Aslan subordinated the 19th Romanian Infantry Division, which was deployed in Bazargic, and created the Eastern Operations Group under the command of general Zayonchkovski. The Romanians decided to defend both Turtucaia and Silistra along with the entire Dobruja frontier in order to ensure themselves appropriate conditions for their future drive into Bulgaria. General Aslan realized that his forces were too dispersed for this task and ordered the Russians to deploy closer to the fortresses, but general Zayonchkovski thought that he should concentrate his corps first at Bazargic and then if the conditions allowed move towards Turtucaia and Silistra. Thus valuable time was lost in solving this question and the Russian corps began moving south on 3 September.
The battle
Encirclement of Turtucaia (2–4 September)
Early on the morning of 2 September the Bulgarian Third Army crossed the Romanian border along its entire length, and its left wing began closing on the fortress. Colonel Kaufman's German-Bulgarian detachment advanced against Sector I (West) of the fortress, pushing back the weak Romanian vanguards and taking up positions to the east of the village of Turcsmil, where they were halted by strong Romanian artillery fire from the Danube Flotilla and batteries on the river islands. The 4th Preslav Division, delivering the main attack in Sector II (South), quickly overran the Romanian outposts, the Romanian soldiers retreating so fast that none were captured. The division advanced between 15 and 23 km and came within 2.7 kilometers of the main defensive line, while shortening its front from 20 to 10 kilometers. Meanwhile, in Sector III (East) the Bulgarian 1/1 Infantry Brigade met no resistance at all, as the Romanian commander had pulled his troops behind the main defensive line before coming under attack.
By the evening of the first day the Romanians had abandoned almost their entire preliminary line of defense in favor of the main (second) defensive line. From there they put up continuous rifle fire, supported by occasional artillery fire, throughout the night of 2/3 September - perhaps belying disorganization and nervousness, as the Bulgarian units were, as yet, well out of range. The Romanian command was slow to react to the developing situation, with General Aslan remaining in Bucharest. He ordered general Zayonchkovski to approach the Bulgarian frontier with his forces, but the order was only carried out after extensive delays. Attempts were also made to send reinforcements from the reserves around the capital, but these too were delayed due to the general confusion and congestion accompanying the Romanian mobilization.
On 3 September the Bulgarians began consolidating their positions. To do this more effectively the German-Bulgarian detachment was ordered to take height 131, west of Staro Selo, where it would secure a staging area for the assault on the Romanian forts in Sector I (West). The defenders here were relatively well entrenched and protected by rows of barbed wire, while the attackers had to advance through an open field with their flanks exposed to fire from the Romanian monitors and some of the trenches. Romanian positions further south, around the village of Senovo, were fronted by low hills that could provide cover for advancing infantry, which prompted Colonel Kaufman to divide his detachment into three columns (commanded by Colonel Vlahov, Major von Hamerstein, and Colonel Drazhkov) and use one to attack towards Senovo while the other two supported it. Advancing at about 5 am, Colonel Vlahov's force initially met little resistance; however, Romanian fire gradually intensified, and the Bulgarian column was exposed to flanking fire from the main defensive line. Some of the soldiers reached the barbed wire, but were unable to get through it. At noon the units were ordered to dig in on the positions they had reached. Colonel Vlahov's request for reinforcement was denied. Romanian counterattacks forced the Colonel to order the troops to retire about 300 meters from the barbed wire and dig in. The advance of Major von Hamerstein, met with strong rifle and monitor fire, achieved little. Colonel Drazhkov, meanwhile, repelled Romanian flanking attacks, but his advance was stalled by strong artillery fire at about 50 meters from the Romanian barbed wire. Overall, the attackers in this sector suffered around 300 casualties. They did not achieve their objectives, and had to wait until the next day as darkness settled over the battlefield.
After a rainy night the 4th Preslav Division used 3 September to approach the barbed wire of the main defensive line in Sector II, driving away Romanian patrols, taking Daidâr (now Shumentsi), and repositioning its heavy artillery. In the process the division repelled several Romanian counterattacks, while sustaining light casualties. In Sector III the 1/1 Infantry Brigade managed to close in on the main defensive line without opposition.
The Romanian position was gradually deteriorating. General Teodorescu was forced to respond to requests from the commanders of sectors I and III for reinforcements by sending them his last reserves (which would prove futile, as the main Bulgarian attack was to be delivered in Sector II). Despite Teodorescu's pessimistic reports, the Romanian high command retained its hope that the fortress would hold until relieved by Romanian and Russian forces advancing from the east, or that the garrison would be able to break the encirclement and retreat to Silistra. On 3 September the first attempts to assist Turtucaia were made by the Romanian soldiers on the right wing of the Bulgarian Third Army, but they were defeated by the Bulgarian 1st Cavalry Division at the villages of Cociumar and Karapelit, where a brigade of the Romanian 19th Division suffered the following casualties: 654 killed or wounded and at least 700 captured.
At about 11 am on 3 September General Toshev, having exchanged thoughts with General Kiselov, issued Order No. 17 for the next day's attack on Turtucaia. It stated that the commander of the 4th division was to assume control over all forces operating against the fortress and determine the exact hour of the infantry attack, once the preliminary artillery barrage had inflicted sufficient damage. Major von Hammerstein and his group were to attack and take fort 2 in Sector I (West), the main attack was to be delivered by the 4th Division against forts 5 and 6 in Sector II (South), and finally, the 1/1 Brigade was to capture fort 8 in Sector III (East). To protect the right flank of these forces, General Toshev tasked the remaining two brigades of the 1st Sofia Infantry division with monitoring Romanian activity in Silistra. When Kiselov received this order, he used his new position as overall operational commander to make several changes to the plan. Forts 5 and 6 were now to be attacked only by the Kmetov Brigade, while the Ikonomov Brigade was directed against fort 7. All the heavy artillery was placed under the commander of the 2nd Heavy Regiment, Colonel Angelov, who was to execute the planned artillery barrage from 9 am. The infantry was to approach to within 150 meters and wait for the barrage to end. Angelov, however, felt that intelligence on the Romanian positions was insufficient and that the Bulgarian batteries needed better positioning, so he asked that the attack be postponed for one day. In addition, communication with von Hammerstein's group was weak, and the two German minenwerfer companies that were crucial for the advance in that sector needed more time to position themselves. This convinced general Kiselov to delay the attack.
September 4 was spent in additional preparation for the attack. Active fighting continued only in Sector I, where von Kaufman's detachment had to finish the attack on height 131, which it had started the previous day, and secure the staging ground for the assault on fort 2. This objective was achieved early in the morning with relative ease, most of the Romanian defenders having retired to the main defensive line. That day field marshal Mackensen recalled von Kaufman to Byala, and the German - Bulgarian detachment was placed under the command of Major von Hammerstein.
General Teodorescu continued sending pessimistic and even desperate reports to the Romanian high command and asking for reinforcements. This time he was not ignored: the 10th and 15th divisions, representing the army's strategic reserve, were ordered to move south towards Olteniţa - the first to guard the river shore and the latter to prepare to cross the Danube and assist the garrison in Turtucaia. These were seventeen battalions from the Romanian 34th, 74th, 75th, 80th regiments plus one battalion from the 84th Regiment and 2 battalions from the 2nd Border Regiment, supported by 6 artillery batteries. These new, fresh troops allowed the Romanians to gain numerical superiority over the Bulgarians, but once again they were delayed on their way and would arrive gradually on the battlefield, reducing their impact on the overall course of the battle. The first reinforcements crossed the Danube late in the afternoon and during the night on 4 September. When they stepped on the southern shore they were immediately parceled out to strengthen the different sectors, with no regard for the direction of the main Bulgarian attack or for the establishment of a sufficient reserve.
Fall of the fortress (5–6 September)
By 5 September the garrison had been able to strengthen some parts of the main defensive line with the help of the newly arriving reinforcements. In Sector I, forts 1 to 5 were guarded by nine and a half battalions chiefly from the Romanian 36th Infantry regiment, stiffened with battalions from the 40th, 75th and 80th infantry regiments, as well as four companies from 48th and 72nd militia battalions. Sector II was reinforced with 4 battalions of the 74th and 75th regiments to a total of 8 battalions, but only after the attack had started. Sector III was also reinforced as the assault developed by various infantry, militia and border units until it reached a strength of 14 battalions. The initial reserve of the fortress had been spent on reinforcing the lines, and only on 5 September was a small reserve of newly arrived reinforcements established. It consisted of one infantry battalion, one border battalion, and one infantry company.
Thus in the decisive Sector II the Bulgarians were able to secure a substantial numerical superiority during the initial phase of the assault:
At 5:30 am a Bulgarian observation balloon pulled by an automobile ascended to the sky to direct the planned barrage. Exactly an hour later Colonel Angelov gave the order for the preliminary artillery bombardment to begin. The cannons concentrated their fire on the forts and obstacles between them, and at 7:40 am the observation post at Daidâr reported that groups of Romanian soldiers were leaving forts 5 and 6, making their way through the communication trenches leading to the rear. The Romanian batteries tried to respond, but the effort was not well coordinated; their sporadic fire (indicating low stocks of ammunition) wasn't aimed at the heavy batteries of the attackers, and their fire ceased immediately after the Bulgarians had opened fire at them. The power of the Bulgarian barrage even deceived General Teodorescu into believing that it was executed by 30.5 cm cannons, when in fact there were none. By 8:00 am three out of four fortress batteries in Sector II had their fire suppressed or were destroyed, which forced Teodorescu to send the 1/5 Howitzer Section to the area. It took up position behind fort 8 without being noticed by the Bulgarians.
At about 8:00 am Colonel Angelov informed General Kiselov and Lieutenant Colonel Noykov that in his opinion the artillery had achieved sufficient results for the infantry to begin its advance. The general was not entirely convinced, but as the artillery barrage was supposed to continue while the infantry was approaching the line, he ordered the commanders of the 3/4, 1/4 and 1/1 infantry brigades to begin the attack, and all officers to make an example by personally leading their men in the assault. Later this order was also received by von Hammerstein and the commander of the 47 Infantry Regiment.
According to plan, Colonel Kmetov's brigade attacked forts 5 and 6, which were defended by the Romanian 79th Infantry Regiment. The 19th Shumen Regiment, divided in two groups and supported by the 48th Regiment, prepared to descend along a slope directly facing the Romanian fortifications to the bottom of the ravine in front of the Daidâr village. As soon as the infantry began advancing it was met with strong rifle and machine gun fire supported by the smaller caliber Romanian turret guns that had survived. Bulgarian field and heavy artillery, still concentrated on Romanian batteries behind the defensive line, provided little direct support. Assisted by covering fire from its machine guns, the brigade managed to reach the first obstacles in front of the main defensive line by 10:30 am, and the infantry rushed them and the barbed wire through passages made by the pioneers under heavy fire. Half an hour later the 1/19 battalion and part of the 3/48 battalion, which were part of the brigade's right group, captured fort 6 and the trenches to the east of it. The left group was temporarily held up by Romanian fire, but by 12:30 it had driven the Romanians out of their trenches and achieved control of the main defensive line in that part of the sector. After the fall of forts 5 and 6 the Bulgarians pursued the retreating defenders until 16:00, advancing two kilometers to the north of the main defensive line. The Kmetov Brigade captured 250 soldiers, 4 heavy batteries, six 53 mm turret guns and many rifles. Its artillery had fired 2,606 shells. Both Romanian and Bulgarian infantry losses were heavy, with the 19th Shumen Regiment suffering 1,652 casualties.
To the east of the 3/4 Brigade was the Ikonomov Brigade, tasked with the capture of fort 7. During the night, its 7th Preslav and 31st Varna Infantry Regiments had gotten within 600 meters of the line's artificial obstacles. They began their assault at about 8:00 am on 5 September, but, in spite of suppressing fire from their artillery, met strong Romanian resistance. At 9:30 the forward units were forced to halt and take cover some 200 meters from the obstacles. This was partly a result of the shifting of positions of the Bulgarian artillery, as the 1/15 artillery section had been ordered to move forward in direct support of the advancing infantry. The section took up new positions on a ridge east of Daidâr and immediately opened fire on the trenches around forts 6 and 7. At 10:30 the 31st Regiment rushed the obstacles and, under heavy fire, began scaling the slope leading to fort 7. The Bulgarians managed to enter the fort and its neighboring trenches, where they were engaged in a costly close quarter battle while exposed to fire from their own artillery. By 11:20 the Romanians had been completely expelled, but with its commander wounded and its units disorganized the 31st Regiment did not pursue, and was content with firing on the retreating defenders from the trenches.
The 7th Preslav Regiment meanwhile had been faced with even stronger Romanian fire, and was able to advance only at about 12:00, when its commander, Colonel Dobrev, personally led the assault against a fortification thought by the Bulgarians to be fort 8, but which was actually one of the so-called subcenters of defense that were situated in the gaps between the forts. Many of the defenders had retreated from the line, and those who remained were captured. Parts of the regiment continued to pursue beyond the main defensive line until 13:35, when Colonel Dobrev ordered them to halt. When it was realized that this was not fort 8 he ordered his infantry to cut the retreat routes of that fort, but the Romanians managed to prevent this with artillery fire.
By the afternoon of 5 September the forts of the main defensive line in Sector II had all fallen into the hands of the attackers. The Romanian 79th Regiment which had defended the sector was practically destroyed. It was left with only 400 effectives, having suffered 46 officers and 3,000 soldiers killed or wounded. The newly arriving Romanian battalions were unable to prevent the Bulgarian breakthrough, and, with the remnants of the 79th Regiment, tried to prepare the secondary defensive line. In this they were helped by the thick forest behind the main defensive line, which made it hard for the Bulgarian units - intermixed, disorganized, and unprepared for their own success - to advance.
In Sector III the artillery bombardment began at 6:55, and by 8:15 had achieved considerable success in damaging the Romanian fortifications, forcing some of the defenders to flee to the rear and the Danube. The 1st and 6th Bulgarian regiments advanced through a large corn field that made their movement almost undetectable and by 11:30 reached the plateau north of Antimova. Only now did the Romanians in forts 8 and 9 spot them and open fire, temporarily halting the Bulgarian advance. Colonel Nedialkov, who was with the supporting units, immediately ordered part of the artillery to move forward and directly support the infantry. Following this the 1st Sofia Regiment and the neighboring 4/6 battalion rushed the barbed wire and crossed it without difficulty. This and the breakthrough achieved by the 4th Preslav Division to the west caused the wavering Romanian soldiers to abandon their trenches and retreat to the rear, and by 13:30 the surrounding trenches of fort 8 had fallen. The fort itself was taken simultaneously by parts of the 1st and 7th regiments. After these successes the brigade was directed to conquer the remaining parts of the Eastern Sector, including forts 9, 10, 11 and 12. Meeting little resistance, as the arriving Romanian reinforcements were often caught up by retreating units and compelled to join them, the Bulgarians accomplished this task and by 21:30 reached the shore of the Danube, completing the isolation of the fortress.
The attack in Sector I was delayed considerably as Major Hammerstein gave orders to the three groups of his detachment for the attack on fort 2; he also demanded a prolonged artillery bombardment to better secure the advance of the infantry. So it was only at 14:30, when the guns concentrated their fire on the fort itself, that the major gave the order for the first and second groups to attack. Despite the artillery fire they faced, the Bulgarians and Germans advanced with relative ease as the Romanians, despite their large number, began retreating and even fleeing in panic to Turtucaia. Around 13:00 general Teodorescu ordered the commander of the sector to abandon forts 2, 3, 4 and 5. By the end of the day only fort 1 was still in Romanian hands, as it had powerful artillery cover from the Danube monitors and batteries on the left bank of the river.
By the evening of 5 September the entire main defensive line (save two forts) had been taken, along with all of the Romanian fixed artillery and part of the mobile artillery. The Romanian units were so disorganized that a planned counterattack with the new reinforcements from the 15th Division had to be postponed for the next day. The Bulgarian units, especially those of the 4th Infantry Division, had also suffered heavy casualties and needed the night for reorganization and better positioning of their artillery.
General Kiselov was visited by both General Toshev and Colonel Tappen, Mackensen's chief of staff. Both men were pleased with the day's events, and, despite the heavy casualties, urged him to carry on with the attack.
Resumption of the attack
During the night of 5 September the Romanians established themselves as best they could on their much weaker secondary defensive position. General Teodorescu ordered a redeployment of forces so that 9 battalions were to defend Sector I, 12 battalions Sector II, 2 battalions Sector III and 5 battalions Sector IV, while an additional 7 battalions remained in reserve. This order, however, reached the troops only in the morning and the units were not able to execute it.
At around 4:30 am on 6 September the Bulgarian artillery again opened fire in sectors I and III. Men of the Bulgarian 4th division began crossing the large forest that separated the two main and secondary defensive lines. Aided by the powerful artillery preparation, the Bulgarian 7th and 31st infantry regiments advanced rapidly. By 12:30 they had passed through the trenches that had been abandoned by their defenders earlier in the day. At around 15:00 the two regiments of the 1/4 Brigade gathered on the hill overlooking Turtucaia itself. Meanwhile, the Kmetov Brigade also advanced, though not as quickly and with greater disorganization. Parts of it reached the northern end of the forest at 13:00 and immediately attacked the Romanian trenches, but it was only at 15:30 that the trenches were occupied, most of the defenders having already pulled out due to the success of the 1/4 Brigade and the artillery bombardment. By 17:30 the brigade reached the hill overlooking the town.
The 1/1 Infantry Brigade was ordered to coordinate its actions with the 4th Division and advance against the right flank of the defensive line. At about 6:50, while still waiting to go forward, the units came under attack from several Romanian battalions which threatened to envelop their flank, but who were stopped by Bulgarian reinforcements. After this both the 1st and 6th regiments advanced, and by 11:30 had come within 800 meters of the line. The Romanian defenders, believing that a Russian column was advancing from the east to help the encircled fortress, put up stout resistance; however, once they realized the "relief column" was in fact Bulgarian, they started retreating in panic. So the 1/1 Brigade was allowed to reach the vicinity of the town at 17:00.
In Sector I, Major Hammerstein's detachment entered the forest at 10:00, where it met very weak Romanian vanguards that were swiftly pushed back. During the afternoon it took fort 1 in the face of more determined Romanian resistance, then continued advancing until it was lined up next to the 4th Division.
The only way the garrison could now be saved was with help from outside forces, and as early as 5 September General Aslan ordered the commander of the 9th Division, General , to advance decisively from Silistra and relieve the besieged town. The commander executed this order by leaving 4 battalions in Silistra and sending the remaining 5 battalions, 4 batteries and 2 squadrons to break the siege. On 6 September these forces were met and defeated by the Bulgarian 3/1 Infantry Brigade, which had been ordered to protect the flank of the army, at the village of Sarsânlar (now Zafirovo), some 18 kilometers to the east of Turtucaia. This sealed the fate of the garrison.
With the situation deteriorating rapidly, General Teodorescu ordered his men to retreat and if possible try to break the encirclement in the direction of Silistra. At 13:40 he himself boarded a boat to cross the Danube, leaving behind thousands of panicked soldiers, some of whom tried to follow his example but ended drowning in the river or being hit by artillery fire. Romanian attempts to break out and escape towards Silistra also proved largely unsuccessful in the face of the Bulgarian artillery. As the Bulgarians entered the town the defenders began surrendering in large groups. At 15:30 colonel Mărășescu, who was now in charge of the garrison, and his senior officers wrote a note to general Kiselov in German and dispatched it to three of the sectors, offering the unconditional surrender of the fortress together with all its men and material. At 16:30 one of the truce-bearers reached the Bulgarian 1/31 battalion and was immediately dispatched to Colonel Ikonomov, who at 17:30, via telephone, informed General Kiselov of the note and its contents. Kiselov accepted the surrender on the condition that all military personnel be gathered on the plateau south of the town's barracks before 18:30.
Aftermath
Casualties
The Romanians committed around 39,000 men for the defense of the Turtucaia fortress, and over 34,000 of them became casualties. Only between 3,500 and 4,000 managed to cross the Danube or make their way to Silistra. These were the troops of the 9th Infantry Division, safely evacuated by the four river monitors. While the number of killed and wounded rose to between six and seven thousand men, the vast majority of the garrison - some 480 officers and 28,000 soldiers - surrendered or were captured by the Bulgarians. The attackers also captured all the military material of the fortress, including 62 machine guns and around 150 cannons, among them two Bulgarian batteries captured by Romania during the Second Balkan War. The heaviest fighting was in Sector II where the 79th Regiment, which in general was the unit that resisted the attacks the most, suffered 76% losses - out of 4,659 men some 3,576 were killed or wounded.
Bulgarian casualties were heavy. From 2 to 6 September they totaled 1,517 killed, 7,407 wounded and 247 missing. Of these, only 93 were killed and 479 wounded between 2 and 4 September. Around 82% of the total losses - 1,249 killed and 6,069 wounded - occurred on 5 September during the attack of the main defensive line. The heaviest fighting was in Sector II where, in one example, the 7th Preslav Infantry Regiment had 50% of its officers and 39.7% of its soldiers killed or wounded. Characteristically, almost all of casualties were suffered by the infantry, the heavy artillery having only 2 killed and 7 wounded. German casualties were 5 killed and 29 wounded.
Impact on the campaign
The rapid fall of Turtucaia and the loss of two infantry divisions was a surprise with crucial consequences for the entire Romanian Campaign. Most importantly, it unnerved the Romanian High Command and severely affected the morale of the army and the people. The scale of the defeat forced Romania to detach several divisions from its armies in Transylvania, greatly reducing the impetus of the advance there. On 7 September that advance was restricted by the Romanian high command, and on 15 September it was halted altogether, even before the armies had linked up on a defensible front. Major changes were made in the command structure of the forces operating against the Bulgarian Third Army. General Aslan and his chief of staff were sacked. Command of the Romanian Third Army was taken over by General Averescu, and the Russo-Romanian forces in Dobruja were reorganized as the Dobruja Army under General Zayonchkovski.
The speed with which the victory was achieved was so unexpected by the Central Powers that even Field Marshal Mackensen, who was usually present on the site of important battles, hadn't planned to arrive on the battlefield until several days after the actual capitulation of the fortress. It boosted the morale of the Bulgarians and their allies as far away as the Macedonian front, as well as in political circles in Berlin and Vienna. Kaiser Wilhelm, who had been particularly depressed by Romania's entry into the war, celebrated with a champagne party for the Bulgarian representative at the headquarters of the German High Command. The suspension of the Romanian offensive in Transylvania, which had threatened to overrun the province, gave General Falkenhayn enough time to concentrate his force and go on the offensive by the end of September.
Notes
References
Glenn E. Torrey, "The Battle of Turtucaia (Tutrakan) (2–6 September 1916): Romania's Grief, Bulgaria's Glory".East European Quarterly, Vol. 37, 2003
Constantin Kiriţescu, "Istoria războiului pentru întregirea României: 1916–1919", 1922
Тутраканската епопея
The Battle of Turtucaia at Radio Romania
Battles of World War I involving Romania
Battles of World War I involving Germany
Battles of World War I involving Bulgaria
Battles of the Balkans Theatre (World War I)
Conflicts in 1916
1916 in Bulgaria
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September 1916 events |
4341076 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclops%20%28copepod%29 | Cyclops (copepod) | Cyclops is one of the most common genera of freshwater copepods, comprising over 400 species. Together with other similar-sized non-copepod fresh-water crustaceans, especially cladocera, they are commonly called water fleas. The name Cyclops comes from the Cyclops of Greek mythology, as they have a single large eye; in Cyclops, the eye may be either red or black.
Anatomy
Cyclops individuals may range from ½–5 mm long and are clearly divided into two sections. The broadly oval front section comprises the head and the first five thoracic segments. The hind part is considerably slimmer and is made up of the sixth thoracic segment and the four legless pleonic segments. Two caudal appendages project from the rear. Although they may be difficult to observe, Cyclops has 5 pairs of legs. The long first antennae, 2 in number, are used by the males for gripping the females during mating. Afterwards, the female carries the eggs in two small sacs on her body. The larvae, or nauplii, are free-swimming and unsegmented.
Habitat
Cyclops has a cosmopolitan distribution in fresh water, but is less frequent in brackish water. It lives along the plant-covered banks of stagnant and slow-flowing bodies of water, where it feeds on small fragments of plant material, animals (such as nematodes), or carrion. It swims with characteristic jerky movements. Cyclops has the capacity to survive unsuitable conditions by forming a cloak of slime. Average lifespan is about 3 months.
Public health importance
Cyclops is intermediate host of dracunculiasis (guinea-worm disease) and fish tapeworm (Diphyllobothrium latum) infection. This disease can be passed to humans through drinking infected water. Dracunculiasis will rarely cause death but is a weakening disease.
Control methods
Cyclops can be controlled using physical, chemical, biological and engineering methods.
Physical
Straining of water through piece of fine cloth is sufficient to remove Cyclops. It can also be killed by boiling water, as it is easily killed by heat at 60 °C.
Chemical
Chlorine in strength of 22 ppm destroys Cyclops in 2 hours; although this concentration of chlorine gives bad odour and taste to water. Excess chlorine can be removed with Sodium thiosulfate. Calcium hydroxide at dosage of 4 gram per gallon of water can be used. Temefos kills cyclops at concentration of 1 mg/litre.
Biological
Small fish, like barbel and Gambusia, feed on Cyclops. This type of predation was used in the South Indian state of Karnataka to eradicate dracunculiasis. Additionally, cyclops are widely sold in frozen packages at pet shops and fish stores as a supplemental fish food.
Engineering
Provision of drinking water through piping water supply, use of tubewells and abolition of stepwells are effective measures on community level.
Species
Cyclops abnobensis Brehm, 1958
Cyclops abyssicola Lilljeborg, 1901
Cyclops abyssorum G. O. Sars, 1863
Cyclops acanthoides Douwe, 1914
Cyclops adolescens Herrick, 1882
Cyclops aequoreus Fischer, 1860
Cyclops affinis G. O. Sars, 1863
Cyclops africanus Bourne, 1893
Cyclops agilis Koch, 1838
Cyclops agiloides G. O. Sars, 1909
Cyclops alajensis Ulyanin, 1874
Cyclops albicans G. W. Smith, 1909
Cyclops albidus Jurine, 1820
Cyclops alius Kiefer, 1935
Cyclops alpestris Daday, 1885
Cyclops alticola Kiefer, 1935
Cyclops americanus Marsh, 1893
Cyclops amoenus Mann, 1940
Cyclops anceps (Richard, 1897)
Cyclops angustus S. Grassel, 1999
Cyclops ankyrae Mann, 1940
Cyclops anninae Menzel, 1926
Cyclops annulatus Wierzejski, 1893
Cyclops annulicornis Koch, 1838
Cyclops anophthalmus Joseph, 1882
Cyclops argulus (Fabricius, 1793)
Cyclops armatus Tilesius, 1815
Cyclops arnaudi G. O. Sars, 1908
Cyclops aspericornis Daday, 1906
Cyclops ater Herrick, 1882
Cyclops attenuatus G. O. Sars, 1909
Cyclops aurantius Fischer, 1860
Cyclops australis King, 1855
Cyclops baicalensis Vassilieva, 1950
Cyclops bathybius Daday, 1896
Cyclops bicolor G. O. Sars, 1863
Cyclops bicuspidatus Claus, 1857
Cyclops bisetosus Rehberg, 1880
Cyclops bissextilis Willey, 1925
Cyclops bistriatus Koch, 1838
Cyclops bodamicus Vosseler, 1886
Cyclops bodanus Kiefer, 1954
Cyclops bogoriensis Menzel, 1926
Cyclops bohater Kozminski, 1933
Cyclops bohemicus Srámek-Husek, 1938
Cyclops bopsini Studer, 1878
Cyclops brachypus (Kiefer, 1955)
Cyclops bracteatus (O. F. Müller, 1776)
Cyclops brasiliensis Dana, 1849
Cyclops brehmi (Kiefer, 1927)
Cyclops brevicaudatus Claus, 1857
Cyclops brevicornis Baird, 1835
Cyclops brevicornis Claus, 1857
Cyclops brevipes Brady, 1910
Cyclops brevisetosus Daday, 1885
Cyclops brevispinosus Herrick, 1884
Cyclops brucei T. Scott, 1899
Cyclops buxtoni Gurney, 1921
Cyclops cabanensis Russki, 1889
Cyclops caeruleus O. F. Müller, 1776
Cyclops canadensis Einsle, 1988
Cyclops canthocarpoides Fischer, 1851
Cyclops capillatus G. O. Sars, 1863
Cyclops capilliferus S. A. Forbes, 1893
Cyclops carolinianus Yeatman, 1944
Cyclops caspicus Lindberg, 1942
Cyclops castor Desmarest, 1825
Cyclops caudatus (G. O. Sars, 1927)
Cyclops cavernarum Ulrich, 1902
Cyclops ceibaensis Marsh, 1919
Cyclops cerberus Chappuis, 1934
Cyclops charon Kiefer, 1931
Cyclops chelifer O. F. Müller, 1776
Cyclops chiltoni G. M. Thomson, 1883
Cyclops christianensis Boeck, 1872
Cyclops ciliatus G. O. Sars, 1909
Cyclops clandestinus Yeatman, 1964
Cyclops claudiopolitanus Daday, 1885
Cyclops clausii Lubbock, 1863
Cyclops clausii Poggenpol, 1874
Cyclops claviger O. F. Müller, 1785
Cyclops coecus Pratz, 1866
Cyclops coeruleus O. F. Müller, 1785
Cyclops colchidanus Borutsky, 1930
Cyclops columbianus Grassel, 1956
Cyclops communis Lindberg, 1938
Cyclops compactus G. O. Sars, 1909
Cyclops coronatus Claus, 1857
Cyclops crassicaudis G. O. Sars, 1863
Cyclops crassicaudoides Kiefer, 1928
Cyclops crassicornis O. F. Müller, 1785
Cyclops crinitus Graeter, 1910
Cyclops croaticus Krmpotic, 1924
Cyclops cunningtoni G. O. Sars, 1909
Cyclops curticaudus Dana, 1847
Cyclops curticornis O. F. Müller, 1785
Cyclops cyprinaceus (Shaw, 1789)
Cyclops davidi Chappuis, 1922
Cyclops delachauxi Kiefer, 1925
Cyclops delphinus (O. F. Müller, 1785)
Cyclops demetiensis Scourfield, 1932
Cyclops dengizicus Lepeshkin, 1900
Cyclops dentatimanus Marsh, 1913
Cyclops dentatus Rehberg, 1880
Cyclops dentatus Koch, 1844
Cyclops denticulatus Nicolet, 1849
Cyclops depressus Baird, 1837
Cyclops diaphanus Fischer, 1853
Cyclops diminuta Lindberg, 1937
Cyclops dimorphus Kiefer, 1934
Cyclops distans Kiefer, 1956
Cyclops distinctus Richard, 1887
Cyclops diversus (Kiefer, 1935)
Cyclops divulsus Lindberg, 1956
Cyclops donnaldsoni Chappuis, 1929
Cyclops dubitabilis Kiefer, 1934
Cyclops dubius G. O. Sars, 1909
Cyclops dulvertonensis G. W. Smith, 1909
Cyclops dumasti Joly, 1883
Cyclops dybowskii Landé, 1890
Cyclops eboracensis Brady, 1902
Cyclops echinatus Kiefer, 1926
Cyclops ecornis Tilesius, 1819
Cyclops edax S. A. Forbes, 1890
Cyclops elegans Herrick, 1884
Cyclops elgonensis Kiefer, 1932
Cyclops elongatus Claus, 1863
Cyclops emini Mrázek, 1898
Cyclops entzii Daday, 1885
Cyclops euacanthus G. O. Sars, 1909
Cyclops ewarti Brady, 1888
Cyclops exiguus G. O. Sars, 1909
Cyclops exilis Coker, 1934
Cyclops exsulis Gauthier, 1951
Cyclops falsus Kiefer, 1929
Cyclops fasciacornis Cragin, 1883
Cyclops fedtschenkoi Ulyanin, 1875
Cyclops feuerborni Kiefer, 1933
Cyclops fimbriatus Fischer, 1853
Cyclops finmarchicus O. F. Müller, 1776
Cyclops fischeri Poggenpol, 1874
Cyclops flexipes Kokubo, 1912
Cyclops fluviatilis Herrick, 1882
Cyclops foliaceus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cyclops forbesi Herrick, 1895
Cyclops formosanus Harada, 1931
Cyclops fragilis Kiefer, 1926
Cyclops franciscoloi Brian, 1951
Cyclops frivaldszkyi Daday, 1885
Cyclops furcatus Baird, 1837
Cyclops furcifer Claus, 1857
Cyclops furi Kozhova & Pavlov, 1986
Cyclops fuscus Jurine, 1820
Cyclops gauthieri Green, 1963
Cyclops gemellus (Gurney, 1928)
Cyclops geoffroyi Samouelle, 1819
Cyclops gibbus (Philippi, 1843)
Cyclops gibsoni Brady, 1904
Cyclops gigas Claus, 1857
Cyclops glacialis Brady, 1910
Cyclops gnatho (Philippi, 1843)
Cyclops gracilicornis Landé, 1891
Cyclops gracilis Lilljeborg, 1853
Cyclops graeteri Chappuis, 1927
Cyclops grandis Kiefer, 1935
Cyclops grandispinifer Lindberg, 1940
Cyclops gredleri Heller, 1871
Cyclops gyrinus S. A. Forbes, 1890
Cyclops hadjebensis Kiefer, 1926
Cyclops halepensis Chappuis, 1922
Cyclops hamatus Sovinsky, 1888
Cyclops harpacticoides Shmankevich, 1875
Cyclops haueri Kiefer, 1931
Cyclops heberti Einsle, 1996
Cyclops helgolandicus Rehberg, 1880
Cyclops helleri Brady, 1878
Cyclops horvathii Daday, 1885
Cyclops hungaricus Daday, 1885
Cyclops hutchinsoni Kiefer, 1936
Cyclops hypogeus Kiefer, 1930
Cyclops ignaeus Poggenpol, 1874
Cyclops igneus Poggenpol, 1874
Cyclops incertus Wolf, 1905
Cyclops indolusitanicus Lindberg, 1938
Cyclops inermis Tilesius, 1812
Cyclops infernus Kiefer, 1930
Cyclops ingens Herrick, 1882
Cyclops inopinatus (G. O. Sars, 1927)
Cyclops inopinus Kiefer, 1926
Cyclops insectus S. A. Forbes, 1882
Cyclops insignis Claus, 1857
Cyclops intermedius Sovinsky, 1888
Cyclops isodactylus (Philippi, 1843)
Cyclops jashnovi Streletskaya, 1990
Cyclops javanus Kiefer, 1930
Cyclops jeanneli Chappuis, 1929
Cyclops johnstoni Baird, 1834
Cyclops josephi Moniez, 1887
Cyclops juri Parveen, Mahoon & Saleem, 1990
Cyclops karamani Kiefer, 1932
Cyclops karvei Kiefer & Moorthy, 1935
Cyclops kaufmanni Ulyanin, 1875
Cyclops kentanensis Harada, 1931
Cyclops kieferi Chappuis, 1925
Cyclops kievensis Sovinsky, 1887
Cyclops kikuchii Smirnov, 1932
Cyclops kolensis Lilljeborg, 1901
Cyclops korostyschevi Sovinsky, 1888
Cyclops kozminskii Lindberg, 1942
Cyclops krillei Studer, 1878
Cyclops lacinulatus O. F. Müller, 1776
Cyclops lacunae Lowndes, 1926
Cyclops lacustris G. O. Sars, 1863
Cyclops ladakanus Kiefer, 1936
Cyclops laevimargo G. O. Sars, 1909
Cyclops landei Mahoon & Zia, 1985
Cyclops languidoides Lilljeborg, 1901
Cyclops languidulus Willey, 1925
Cyclops languidus (G. O. Sars, 1863)
Cyclops lascivus Poggenpol, 1874
Cyclops laticauda Templeton, 1836
Cyclops latipes Lowndes, 1927
Cyclops latissimus Poggenpol, 1874
Cyclops laurenticus Lindberg, 1956
Cyclops learii Ulrich, 1902
Cyclops leewenhoekii Hoek, 1878
Cyclops leptopus Kiefer, 1927
Cyclops leuckarti Claus, 1857
Cyclops lilljeborgi G. O. Sars, 1918
Cyclops linjanticus Kiefer, 1928
Cyclops littoralis Brady, 1872
Cyclops lobulosus Ekman, 1905
Cyclops longicaudatus Poggenpol, 1874
Cyclops longispina Templeton, 1836
Cyclops longistylis Brady, 1907
Cyclops lubbocki Brady, 1869
Cyclops lucidulus Koch, 1838
Cyclops maarensis Vosseler, 1889
Cyclops macleayi Dana, 1847
Cyclops macruroides Lilljeborg, 1901
Cyclops macrurus G. O. Sars, 1863
Cyclops macuroides Lilljeborg, 1901
Cyclops madagascariensis Kiefer, 1926
Cyclops magniceps Lilljeborg, 1853
Cyclops magnoctavus Cragin, 1883
Cyclops magnus (Marsh, 1920)
Cyclops malayicus Kiefer, 1930
Cyclops margaretae Lindberg, 1938
Cyclops margoi Daday, 1885
Cyclops marinus Prestandrea, 1833
Cyclops matritensis Velasquez, 1941
Cyclops mendocinus Wierzejski, 1893
Cyclops menzeli Kiefer, 1926
Cyclops meridianus Kiefer, 1926
Cyclops michaelseni Mrázek, 1901
Cyclops micropus Kiefer, 1932
Cyclops miles Nicolet, 1849
Cyclops miniatus Lilljeborg, 1901
Cyclops minimus Kiefer, 1933
Cyclops minnilus S. A. Forbes, 1893
Cyclops minuticornis O. F. Müller, 1785
Cyclops minutissimus Kiefer, 1933
Cyclops minutus Claus, 1863
Cyclops minutus O. F. Müller, 1776
Cyclops modestus Herrick, 1883
Cyclops moghulensis Lindberg, 1939
Cyclops monacanthus Kiefer, 1928
Cyclops monardi Perret, 1925
Cyclops mongoliensis Einsle, 1992
Cyclops mulleri Ferussac, 1806
Cyclops muscicola Menzel, 1926
Cyclops muscicolus Lastochkin, 1927
Cyclops nanus G. O. Sars, 1863
Cyclops naviculus Say, 1818
Cyclops navus Herrick, 1882
Cyclops nearcticus Kiefer, 1934
Cyclops necessarius Kiefer, 1926
Cyclops neglectus G. O. Sars, 1909
Cyclops neumani Pesta, 1927
Cyclops neymanae Streletskaya, 1990
Cyclops niceae Mann, 1940
Cyclops nigeriae Brady, 1910
Cyclops nigricauda Norman, 1869
Cyclops nivalis Daday, 1885
Cyclops novaezealandiae G. M. Thomson, 1879
Cyclops nubicus Chappuis, 1922
Cyclops obesicornis Templeton, 1836
Cyclops obsoletus Koch, 1838
Cyclops ochridanus Kiefer, 1932
Cyclops odessanus Shmankevich, 1875
Cyclops oithonoides G. O. Sars, 1863
Cyclops oligarthrus G. O. Sars, 1909
Cyclops operculatus Chappuis, 1917
Cyclops orientalis Ulyanin, 1875
Cyclops ornatus Poggenpol, 1874
Cyclops ovalis Brady, 1872
Cyclops pachycomus G. O. Sars, 1909
Cyclops pallidus Norman, 1869
Cyclops paludicola Herbst, 1959
Cyclops palustris Sovinsky, 1888
Cyclops panamensis Marsh, 1913
Cyclops papuanus Daday, 1901
Cyclops paradyi Daday, 1885
Cyclops paraplesius Kiefer, 1929
Cyclops parcus Herrick, 1882
Cyclops pauper Fric, 1871
Cyclops pectinatus Herrick, 1883
Cyclops pectinifer Cragin, 1883
Cyclops pelagicus (Rose, 1929)
Cyclops pennatus Claus, 1857
Cyclops pentagonus Vosseler, 1886
Cyclops perarmatus Cragin, 1883
Cyclops phaleratus Koch, 1838
Cyclops phaleroides Labbé, 1927
Cyclops philippinensis Marsh, 1932
Cyclops phreaticus Chappuis, 1928
Cyclops pictus Koch, 1838
Cyclops pilosus Kiefer, 1934
Cyclops piscinus (Linnaeus, 1761)
Cyclops planus Gurney, 1909
Cyclops plumosus (Philippi, 1843)
Cyclops poggenpolii Sovinsky, 1888
Cyclops poppei Rehberg, 1880
Cyclops potamius Burckhardt, 1913
Cyclops prasinus Fischer, 1860
Cyclops prealpinus Kiefer, 1939
Cyclops procerus Herbst, 1955
Cyclops productus (O. F. Müller, 1785)
Cyclops prolatus Kiefer, 1935
Cyclops pubescens Dana, 1847
Cyclops purpureus (Philippi, 1843)
Cyclops pusillus Brady, 1904
Cyclops puteanus Frey, 1869
Cyclops pygmaeus Rehberg, 1880
Cyclops quadricornis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cyclops quinquepartitus Marsh, 1913
Cyclops racovitzai Chappuis, 1923
Cyclops rarispinus G. O. Sars, 1909
Cyclops reductus Chappuis, 1925
Cyclops restrictus Lindberg, 1948
Cyclops ricae Monchenko, 1977
Cyclops richardi Lindberg, 1942
Cyclops robustus G. O. Sars, 1863
Cyclops roseus Daday, 1885
Cyclops rostratus (Philippi, 1843)
Cyclops roumaniae Cosmovici, 1900
Cyclops royi Lindberg, 1940
Cyclops rubellus Lilljeborg, 1901
Cyclops rubens O. F. Müller, 1785
Cyclops salinus Brady, 1903
Cyclops salmoneus (J. C. Fabricius, 1792)
Cyclops saltatonius (O. F. Müller, 1776)
Cyclops sanfilippoi Brian, 1951
Cyclops sanguineus (Philippi, 1843)
Cyclops schmeili Poppe & Mrázek, 1895
Cyclops scourfieldi Brady, 1891
Cyclops scutifer G. O. Sars, 1863
Cyclops semiserratus G. O. Sars, 1909
Cyclops sensitivus Graeter & Chappuis, 1914
Cyclops serratus Pratz, 1866
Cyclops serrulatoides Labbé, 1927
Cyclops serrulatus Fischer, 1851
Cyclops setiger Frey, 1869
Cyclops setosus Haldeman, 1842
Cyclops sevani Meshkova, 1947
Cyclops shatalovi Streletskaya, 1990
Cyclops signatus Koch, 1838
Cyclops silesicus Schäfer, 1934
Cyclops silvestrii Brian, 1927
Cyclops similis Templeton, 1836
Cyclops simillimus Brady, 1907
Cyclops simplex Poggenpol, 1874
Cyclops skopljensis Kiefer, 1932
Cyclops smirnovi Rylov, 1948
Cyclops soli Kokubo, 1912
Cyclops spartinus Ruber, 1966
Cyclops speratus Lilljeborg, 1901
Cyclops spinifer Daday, 1902
Cyclops spinulosus Claus, 1893
Cyclops stagnalis Einsle, 1996
Cyclops staheli Chappuis, 1917
Cyclops staphylinus Desmarest, 1825
Cyclops strenuus Fischer, 1851
Cyclops stroemii Baird, 1834
Cyclops stuhlmanni Mrázek, 1895
Cyclops stygius Chappuis, 1924
Cyclops subaequalis Kiefer, 1928
Cyclops subterraneus Pratz, 1866
Cyclops subtropicus Lindberg, 1937
Cyclops sumatranus Kiefer, 1933
Cyclops sydneyensis Schmeil, 1898
Cyclops sylvestrii Brian, 1927
Cyclops taipehensis Harada, 1930
Cyclops tanganicae (Gurney, 1928)
Cyclops tatricus Kozminski, 1927
Cyclops tenellus G. O. Sars, 1909
Cyclops tenuicaudis Daday, 1885
Cyclops tenuicornis Claus, 1857
Cyclops tenuipes (Philippi, 1843)
Cyclops tenuis Marsh, 1910
Cyclops tenuisaccus G. O. Sars, 1927
Cyclops tenuissimus Herrick, 1883
Cyclops teras Graeter, 1907
Cyclops thomasi S. A. Forbes, 1882
Cyclops thorace (Ström, 1770)
Cyclops transilvanicus Daday, 1885
Cyclops tricolor Lindberg, 1937
Cyclops trisetosus Herbst, 1957
Cyclops triumvirorum Kiefer, 1935
Cyclops troglodytes Chappuis, 1923
Cyclops troglophilus Kiefer, 1932
Cyclops tropicus Kiefer, 1932
Cyclops trouchanowi Sovinsky, 1888
Cyclops uljanini Sovinsky, 1887
Cyclops uniangulatus Cragin, 1883
Cyclops unisetiger Graeter, 1899
Cyclops uruguayensis Kiefer, 1935
Cyclops varicans G. O. Sars, 1863
Cyclops varicoides Brady, 1908
Cyclops varius Lilljeborg, 1901
Cyclops venustoides Coker, 1934
Cyclops venustus Norman & T. Scott, 1906
Cyclops vernalis Fischer, 1853
Cyclops vicinus Ulyanin, 1875
Cyclops viduus Kiefer, 1933
Cyclops vincentianus Brian, 1927
Cyclops vinceus Shmankevich, 1875
Cyclops virescens Brady, 1910
Cyclops viridis (Jurine, 1820)
Cyclops viridosignatus E. F. Byrnes, 1909
Cyclops vitiensis Dana, 1847
Cyclops vulgaris Koch, 1838
Cyclops wigrensis Streletskaya, 1988
Cyclops zschokkei Graeter, 1910
References
External links
Illustration, description – Cyclops
Cyclopidae
Cyclopoida genera
Freshwater crustaceans |
4341861 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Adid | Al-Adid | Abū Muḥammad ʿAbd Allāh ibn Yūsuf ibn al-Ḥāfiẓ (; 1151–1171), better known by his regnal name al-ʿĀḍid li-Dīn Allāh (), was the fourteenth and last caliph of the Fatimid dynasty, and the twenty-fourth imam of the Hafizi Isma'ili branch of Shi'a Islam, reigning from 1160 to 1171.
Like his two immediate predecessors, al-Adid came to the throne as a child, and spent his reign as a puppet of various strongmen who occupied the vizierate. He was a mostly helpless bystander to the slow collapse of the Fatimid Caliphate. Tala'i ibn Ruzzik, the vizier who had raised al-Adid to the throne, fell victim to a palace plot in 1161, and was replaced by his son, Ruzzik ibn Tala'i. Ruzzik was in turn overthrown by Shawar in 1163, but the latter lasted only a few months in office before being overthrown by Dirgham. The constant power struggles in Cairo enfeebled the Fatimid state, allowing both the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Sunni ruler of Syria, Nur al-Din, to advance their own designs on the country. The Crusaders repeatedly invaded Egypt, extracting tribute and ultimately aiming to conquer it; in turn, Nur al-Din supported Shawar's bid to retake the vizierate from Dirgham, and sent his general Shirkuh to counter the Crusaders. For a while, Shawar played the Crusaders and Syrians against one another, but in January 1169, Shirkuh overthrew Shawar, occupied Cairo and became vizier. When Shirkuh died shortly after, he was succeeded by his nephew, Saladin.
Saladin was initially conciliatory towards al-Adid, but quickly consolidated his hold over Egypt, and proceeded to gradually dismantle the Fatimid regime. Fatimid loyalists in the army were purged and replaced with Syrian troops, culminating in the failed mutiny of the Battle of the Blacks. Members of Saladin's family were installed as governors, the civilian bureaucracy was largely won over to the new regime, and al-Adid was sidelined even from ceremonial roles. Finally, Isma'ilism was progressively abolished as the state religion in favour of Sunni Islam, culminating in the official proclamation of Abbasid suzerainty in September 1171. Al-Adid died a few days later. His family was placed under house arrest, and Isma'ilism persecuted by Saladin's new Ayyubid regime, so that within a century after the fall of the Fatimid regime it had almost disappeared in Egypt.
Origin
The future al-Adid was born on 9 May 1151, according to the commonly accepted date, provided by the thirteenth-century historian Ibn Khallikan. Other authors, however, give earlier years, in 1145 or 1149. He was the son of the Fatimid prince Yusuf, a younger son of the eleventh Fatimid caliph, al-Hafiz li-Din Allah (). Yusuf was one of the oldest surviving sons of al-Hafiz, but at the latter's death, the powerful vizier Salim ibn Masal installed al-Hafiz's youngest son, the 16-year-old Isma'il, as caliph with the regnal name al-Zafir bi-Amr Allah. Al-Zafir was assassinated in 1154 by his vizier, Abbas ibn Abi'l-Futuh. The vizier raised al-Zafir's five-year-old son Isa to the throne under the name al-Fa'iz bi-Nasr Allah, and had Yusuf and another older brother of al-Zafir's, Jibril, executed on the same day.
By this time, the Fatimid dynasty was in decline. The official doctrine of Isma'ili Shi'ism had lost its appeal and was weakened by succession disputes and schisms, and the dynasty's legitimacy was increasingly challenged by a Sunni resurgence in Egypt. As the fate of al-Zafir shows, the Fatimid caliphs themselves had become virtual puppets in the hands of their powerful chief ministers: the viziers bore the royal title of sultan, and their names were included in the Friday sermons and on coins alongside the caliph's. The historian Yaacov Lev sums up the state of Egypt as "The Sick Man on the Nile". The weakness of the Isma'ili Fatimid regime was noticed by its Sunni rivals, the Abbasids of Baghdad: in 1154, the Abbasid caliph al-Muqtafi () issued a diploma appointing the Zengid ruler of Syria, Nur al-Din (), as the nominal ruler of Egypt.
Reign
Al-Fa'iz was of sickly disposition and died on 22 July 1160, aged only eleven. Lacking a direct heir, the nine-year-old al-Adid was elevated to the throne by another all-powerful vizier, Tala'i ibn Ruzzik, on 23 July 1160. To further cement his hold over the caliph, Ibn Ruzzik married him to one of his daughters. Throughout his reign, al-Adid was little more than a figurehead monarch, effectively a puppet in the hands of courtiers and strongmen who disputed with one another over the spoils of the tottering Fatimid state. As the French orientalist Gaston Wiet comments, "The Arab writers seem uncertain, and intermittently attribute to him stray impulses of revolt, which had little success [...] in general the caliph looked on helplessly at a shattering series of tragic incidents of which he himself was finally to be the victim."
As a result of the lack of information about al-Adid, his personal traits are not well known. Ibn Khallikan reports that he was violently pro-Shi'a, while the only physical description of him is by the Crusader historian William of Tyre, on the occasion of an audience with Crusader leaders: his face was veiled, but his appearance was described as that of "a young man of an extremely generous disposition, whose first beard was just appearing; he was tall, of swarthy complexion and good frame."
Power struggles in Cairo
Ibn Ruzzik, who was inclined towards the Twelver branch of Shi'ism, was assassinated on 11 September 1161, possibly with the knowledge of the young caliph, as the deed was said to have been instigated by one of al-Adid's aunts, Sitt al-Qusur. Nevertheless, his place was immediately taken by his son, Ruzzik ibn Tala'i, who likewise denied any power to the caliph. The new vizier had Sitt al-Qusur strangled, while al-Adid came under the auspices of another aunt, who had to swear that she had not been involved in the murder plot. Soon after, the new vizier suppressed the last revolt by a claimant of the rival Nizari line of the Fatimid dynasty, Muhammad ibn al-Husayn ibn Nizar: arriving from the Maghreb (western North Africa), he had tried to raise Cyrenaica and Alexandria in revolt, but was captured and executed in August 1162.
Al-Adid—or rather, a palace clique acting through him—turned to Shawar, the governor of Upper Egypt, for support in deposing Ruzzik. With the backing of a Bedouin army, Shawar was indeed successful in capturing Cairo in late December 1162, and had his predecessor executed; he too assumed complete control of the government, excluding the caliph from public affairs. As the contemporary poet Umara ibn Abi al-Hasan al-Yamani commented, "with the end of the Banu Ruzzik ended the Egyptian dynasty".
Shawar was evicted from Cairo in August 1163 by the majordomo Dirgham, but escaped to his Bedouin supporters, before travelling to Damascus to seek the assistance of Nur al-Din. This was an ominous development for the Fatimids. For Nur al-Din, whom the historian Farhad Daftary describes as a "fervent Sunni", Shawar's arrival opened the possibility of intervening in Egypt, not only in order to unify the core territories of the Muslim world under his rule, but also in order to overthrow the Isma'ili Shi'ite Fatimid regime and return the country to Sunni Abbasid allegiance.
Foreign interventions and the fall of Dirgham
In the meantime, Dirgham's regime in Egypt became ever more unpopular, and he quickly lost support among the military. At the same time, the turmoil in Egypt opened the path for intervention by the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: the Crusaders coveted Egypt not only for its riches, but also in order to prevent a takeover by Nur al-Din, which would expose their kingdom to attacks from two directions. Already during Ibn Ruzzik's vizierate, an invasion by King Baldwin III of Jerusalem () had to be bought off by the payment of an annual tribute. Baldwin's successor, Amalric (), seriously considered conquering Egypt. In September 1163 he invaded the country, but was forced to retreat after the Fatimids broke the dams that held back the Nile's cresting floodwaters and inundated the plains of the Nile Delta.
The obvious vulnerability of Egypt to the Crusaders encouraged Nur al-Din to agree to provide assistance to Shawar, who promised in return to send him a third of Egypt's revenue as tribute, and to become his vassal. The remaining two thirds were to be split up between al-Adid and Shawar. Shawar was sent back to Egypt accompanied by a small expeditionary force, barely a thousand strong, under the Kurdish general Shirkuh, who was joined by his nephew, Saladin. This double foreign intervention was a significant point of rupture in the history of the Fatimid state and Egypt: enfeebled by the constant civil wars, but still possessing a vibrant economy and immense resources, the country now became a prize in the wider struggle between Damascus and Jerusalem. Both powers aimed to take over Egypt while preventing the other from doing so, leading to the eventual downfall of the Fatimid dynasty.
Dirgham appealed to Amalric for help against the Syrians, but the King of Jerusalem was unable to intervene in time: in late April 1164, the Syrians surprised and defeated Dirgham's brother at Bilbays, opening the way to Cairo. On the news of the battle, a panic broke out in the capital of Egypt. Desperate for funds to pay his men, Dirgham confiscated the possessions of orphans, thereby provoking a public outcry against him. His troops began deserting him. Left with only 500 horsemen, he appeared in the square before the caliphal palace demanding that al-Adid appear, but the caliph, who had already entered into talks with Shawar, turned him away and advised him to save his life. As his troops continued to defect, Dirgham fled the capital, but was killed by one of Shawar's men.
Shawar's second vizierate
Shawar was restored to the vizierate on 26 May 1164, but quickly fell out with Shirkuh, who attacked Cairo. Shawar now asked for Amalric's help in driving the Syrian army out of Egypt. Shirkuh and Saladin confronted the Crusaders at Bilbays for three months, until Nur al-Din captured Harim in Syria, forcing Amalric to retreat north in November 1164. Left dangerously short of supplies, Shirkuh was obliged to follow suit, after receiving 50,000 dinars from Shawar.
Shawar's position was secured, for a time: having experienced Egypt, its wealth, and the feebleness of its regime, Shirkuh persuaded Nur al-Din to send him again south in January 1167. Learning of this, Amalric gathered his forces and invaded Egypt himself, even before Shawar agreed to an alliance with the Crusaders against the Syrians. To seal the treaty, Hugh of Caesarea entered Cairo to receive the assent of al-Adid in person; Hugh's description of the caliphal audience is one of the very few surviving descriptions of the Fatimid palaces. A Crusader garrison was installed on the walls of Cairo, and the Fatimids and Crusaders jointly confronted the Syrian troops. At the Battle of al-Babein on 18 March 1167, the Syrians were victorious, but shortly after, Saladin was besieged at Alexandria. This forced Shirkuh to come to terms, and in August 1167, both Syrians and Crusaders once again left Egypt, leaving a Crusader garrison in Cairo, as well as an official responsible for collecting an annual tribute of 100,000 gold dinars due to the King of Jerusalem.
This de facto submission to the Crusaders displeased many at the Fatimid court, including Shawar's own son, al-Kamil Shuja, who secretly contacted Nur al-Din for assistance. The Syrians were pre-empted, however, by Amalric, who in October 1168 set out to conquer Egypt; even before launching their campaign, the Crusader leaders divided the country among themselves. As the Crusaders entered Egypt and massacred the inhabitants of Bilbays on 5 November 1168, al-Kamil Shuja persuaded al-Adid to call upon Nur al-Din for assistance. Shawar vehemently opposed this, warning the young caliph of the dire consequences for himself if the Syrians should prevail. Nevertheless, the horrifying news of the massacre at Bilbays rallied opposition to the Crusader advance, and al-Adid is reported to have sent a plea for aid in secret, although this may be an invention by later chroniclers eager to justify Saladin's rise to power. In the meantime, the Crusaders arrived before the gates of Cairo, and began a siege of the city. Shawar had to evacuate the unwalled sister city of Fustat. The sources claim that Shawar, apparently in panic, had the city torched to the ground, but this may be a later invention, and the extent of the destruction was likely much exaggerated. The siege lasted until 2 January 1169, when the Crusaders departed on the approach of the Syrian troops; on 8 January, Shirkuh and his 6,000 men arrived before Cairo.
After a few days of uneasy coexistence, Shawar was seized by Shirkuh's men on 18 January 1169, during a visit to the Syrian camp. Al-Adid is reported to have urged, or at least consented to, the execution of his vizier, which took place on the same day. Two days later, Shirkuh was appointed vizier, with the title of (). Shirkuh's sudden rise alarmed the Crusaders, and displeased Nur al-Din, who mistrusted his subordinate's intentions; the Syrian ruler even wrote to al-Adid, asking him to send the Syrian troops—and their commander—home. Al-Adid did not reply, and was apparently satisfied with his new minister, as Shirkuh appeared to respect the Fatimid institutions, leaving the regime's officials in their place.
Saladin's vizierate
Shirkuh died from choking on his meal on 23 March 1169. His unexpected departure left a power vacuum, both in the Fatimid government as well as the Syrian expeditionary force. The Fatimid elites conferred in the caliphal palace. Some proposed that Saladin be appointed to the vizierate, while others, led by the eunuch majordomo Mu'tamin al-Khilafa Jawhar, suggested that the Syrians should be given military fiefs () in the Nile Delta, thus removing them from Cairo, and that no vizier should be appointed, with al-Adid resuming personal rule like his predecessors at the beginning of the dynasty. The Syrian commanders also vied among themselves for the leadership, until Saladin emerged as the favoured candidate. Then, on 26 March 1169, Saladin was received at the caliphal palace and appointed to the vizierate, with the title of (lit. 'the King who Brings Victory'). The fiction that Saladin was al-Adid's servant was upheld, but the real balance of power is shown by the fact that in the document of investiture, for the first time, the vizierate was declared as hereditary.
Nevertheless, Saladin's position was far from secure. His forces numbered a few thousand and, even though superior in combat ability, were massively outnumbered by the Fatimid troops. Furthermore, Saladin could not fully rely on the loyalty of his own commanders. Saladin's role in the Fatimid state was also a source of contradictions: he was a Sunni, who had come into Egypt with a Sunni army, and who still owed allegiance to Nur al-Din's militantly Sunni regime; but as vizier of the Fatimid caliph, he was in charge of a nominally Isma'ili state, and even of the Isma'ili religious establishment (). The Fatimid elites in the court and the army were bound to oppose Saladin's attempts to dismantle the Egyptian regime, while Nur al-Din was distrustful of his erstwhile subordinate's intentions. This obliged Saladin to tread carefully at first, making a serious effort to establish good relations with al-Adid and promote a public image of harmony between the two. After additional Syrian troops arrived under the command of Saladin's older brother, Turan-Shah, Saladin gradually distanced himself from the Fatimid regime, starting by introducing Nur al-Din's name in the Friday sermon after that of al-Adid. Al-Adid was relegated to a ceremonial role, and even publicly humiliated when Saladin entered the palace on horseback (hitherto a privilege of the caliphs). Saladin also began openly favouring his Syrian troops, awarding them military fiefs for their upkeep, while withdrawing similar fiefs from the Fatimid commanders. Lev points out that a considerable part of the Fatimid civilian bureaucracy, many of them by now Sunnis, had become alienated from the regime they served. Many of them—most notably the chancery official Qadi al-Fadil—chose to collaborate with Saladin and effectively helped him undermine the Fatimid regime.
The pro-Fatimid opposition against the ascendancy of Saladin and his Syrians coalesced around Mu'tamin al-Khilafa Jawhar. The conspirators reportedly did not hesitate to contact the Crusaders for help, in the hopes that a new Crusader invasion would draw Saladin away from Cairo, allowing them to seize control of the capital. When a letter to this effect fell into his hands, Saladin seized the opportunity to quickly and ruthlessly purge Cairo of his rivals, and Mu'tamin al-Khalifa was assassinated. Thereupon, on 21 August 1169, the Black African troops rose in revolt. In street fighting that lasted for two days, Saladin defeated them and ousted them from the city. They were pursued and defeated by Turan-Shah, while their quarters in the suburb of al-Mansuriyya were burnt. In the aftermath, Saladin appointed his confidante, Baha al-Din Qaraqush, as majordomo of the caliphal palaces, thus securing control of the caliph and his court.
Deprived of any loyal troops and closely watched over in his own palace by Qaraqush, al-Adid was now completely at Saladin's mercy. When a joint Byzantine–Crusader attack was launched on Damietta in October–December 1169, al-Adid handed over a million dinars to finance the expedition sent against the invaders. The historian Michael Brett sees in this a measure of accommodation by the caliph to the new situation, but Lev speaks of blatant "extortion" of al-Adid by Saladin, pointing out that the caliph was effectively under house arrest, and that his contribution of such an enormous sum only served to weaken his position. When Saladin's father, Ayyub, arrived in Cairo in March 1170, the caliph in person rode out with Saladin to meet him—an unheard-of honour—and awarded him the title ().
With his position secure, Saladin solidified control of the administrative machinery of Egypt by appointing Syrians instead of native Egyptians to all public posts. As part of this, his immediate family were appointed to the most important provincial governorships. At the same time, Saladin began a slow but inexorable assault on the ideological foundations of the Fatimid state. On 25 August 1170, the call to prayer was changed from the Shi'a formula back to the Sunni one, and the first three Rashidun caliphs included, a practice offensive to Shi'a doctrine. Even al-Adid's name was subtly excluded from it by replacing it with a formula that sought God's blessings for "He who Strengthens God's Faith"—which, as the historian Heinz Halm remarks, could refer to al-Adid's regnal name, but also to "any pious Muslim, even the Sunni caliph of Baghdad". In mid-1170, al-Adid was forbidden from attending the Friday and festival prayers in state. In September 1170, Sunni madrasas were established in the old capital of Fustat; and all juridical posts were filled with Shafi'i Sunnis, mostly Syrians or Kurds. In February 1171, even the chief was replaced by a Sunni appointee, followed by the final suspension of the public lectures of the Isma'ili doctrine at the al-Azhar Mosque. The Sunni jurists even issued a legal decision which allowed Saladin to legally execute al-Adid as a heretic.
Death and the end of the Fatimid Caliphate
Saladin's assault on the Fatimid regime culminated on 10 September 1171, when the Shafi'i jurist Najm al-Din al-Khabushani publicly proclaimed the name of the Sunni Abbasid caliph, al-Mustadi (), instead of al-Adid's, and read out a list of the Fatimids' crimes. This symbolic act restored the country to Abbasid suzerainty after two centuries of Isma'ili Fatimid rule, but was met by general indifference among the Egyptian populace. The Fatimid regime was at an end, but al-Adid likely never learned of it, being already on his deathbed due to a severe illness. His death on 13 September 1171 at the age of twenty only sealed the demise of the Fatimid Caliphate. Some medieval sources claim that al-Adid either committed suicide, was poisoned, or was murdered by Turan-Shah when he refused to reveal where his treasures were hidden, but according to Halm, there is "no serious evidence for a violent elimination" of the caliph, and Saladin's own utterances suggest he thought that the caliph had died of natural causes.
Saladin's reaction to al-Adid's death was careful: he attended the funeral for al-Adid in person, but also organized a parade of his troops as a show of force against any lingering pro-Fatimid sentiment. Publicly, it was stated simply that al-Adid had failed to appoint his oldest son, Daoud, as heir, and thus the caliphal throne was vacant. While Saladin put on a public show of grief, the death of al-Adid and the end of the Fatimid Caliphate caused undisguised jubilation among the Sunni partisans of Saladin's own entourage: Saladin's secretary, al-Katib al-Isfahani, wrote a celebratory poem likening al-Adid to Pharaoh and Saladin to Joseph (Yusuf in Arabic, Saladin's birth name), and calling him a bastard and a heretic. When the news reached Baghdad, the city was festooned in Abbasid black, and Caliph al-Mustadi sent robes of honour to Saladin and Nur al-Din.
After al-Adid's death, the still sizeable Isma'ili community was persecuted by Saladin's new Ayyubid regime. The Fatimid family was placed under effective house arrest in the palace. Al-Adid's heir-apparent, Daoud al-Hamid li-'llah (), was recognized by the Hafizi Isma'ili faithful as the rightful imam, but he, like his own son and successor Sulayman Badr al-Din (), lived and died in captivity. A series of abortive conspiracies and uprisings under pro-Fatimid sympathizers or Fatimid pretenders erupted in the 1170s and continued sporadically, with much diminished impact, until the end of the century. By the end of the thirteenth century, Isma'ilism had been effectively purged from Egypt. The last three surviving members of the dynasty are attested in 1262, when the Mamluk ruler Baybars ordered an inventory of the confiscated Fatimid possessions: they were Kamal al-Din Isma'il, one of al-Adid's sons, and two grandsons, Abu'l-Qasim ibn Abi'l-Futuh ibn al-Adid and Abd al-Wahhab ibn Isma'il ibn al-Adid. Nothing further is known of them; presumably they died still imprisoned in the Citadel of Cairo.
References
Sources
1151 births
1171 deaths
12th-century Fatimid caliphs
Egyptian Ismailis
Hafizi imams
Medieval child monarchs
Muslims of the Crusades
Saladin |
4341882 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria%20Ressa | Maria Ressa | Maria Angelita Ressa (; born Maria Angelita Delfin Aycardo on October 2, 1963) is a Filipino and American journalist. She is the co-founder and CEO of Rappler. She previously spent nearly two decades working as a lead investigative reporter in Southeast Asia for CNN. She will become Professor of Professional Practice in the School of International and Public Affairs at Columbia University on July 1, 2024, and will be a Distinguished Fellow at Columbia's new Institute of Global Politics beginning in the fall of 2023.
Ressa was born in Manila and raised in Toms River, New Jersey. She was included in Time Person of the Year 2018 issue featuring a collection of journalists from around the world actively combating fake news. On February 13, 2019, she was arrested by Philippine authorities for cyberlibel due to accusations that Rappler published a false news story concerning businessman Wilfredo Keng. On June 15, 2020, a court in Manila found her guilty of cyberlibel under the controversial Anti-Cybercrime law, a move condemned by human rights groups and journalists as an attack on press freedom. As she is a prominent critic of the then Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte, her arrest and conviction was seen by many in the opposition and the international community as a politically motivated act by Duterte's government. Ressa is one of the 25 leading figures on the Information and Democracy Commission launched by Reporters Without Borders. She was awarded the 2021 Nobel Peace Prize jointly with Dmitry Muratov for "their efforts to safeguard freedom of expression, which is a precondition for democracy and lasting peace."
Early life
Ressa was born in Manila in October 1963. Ressa's father Phil Sunico Aycardo, a Chinese-Filipino, died when she was one year old. She grew up speaking only Tagalog and studied at St. Scholastica's College in Manila. Her mother Hermelina then moved to the United States, leaving Ressa and her sister with their father's family, but would visit her two children frequently. Subsequently, her mother married an Italian-American man named Peter Ames Ressa and returned to the Philippines. She brought both of her children to New Jersey, United States when Ressa was ten years old. Ressa was adopted by her stepfather and she took his last name. Her parents then relocated to Toms River, New Jersey, where she went to Toms River High School North, a public school nearby. Ressa had to learn the English language, and by high school stood out as a member of the Theater Guild and student council. She explained her experience thus:"I landed in New Jersey, where I could barely speak English, and I had to figure out what a short brown kid was going to do in this big white world."
Her yearbook profile included her dreams to set out and conquer the world. Ressa was an undergraduate student at Princeton University, where she graduated cum laude with an A.B. in English and certificates in theater and dance in 1986. She completed a 77-page-long senior thesis titled "Sagittarius" that was an allegorical play about Philippine politics. She then was awarded a Fulbright Fellowship to study political theater at the University of the Philippines Diliman where she also taught several journalism courses as a faculty member in the university.
Career
Ressa's first job was at government station PTV 4. She then co-founded independent production company Probe in 1987, and simultaneously served as CNN's bureau chief in Manila until 1995. She then ran CNN's Jakarta bureau from 1995 to 2005. As CNN's lead investigative reporter in Asia, she specialized in investigating terrorist networks. She became an author-in-residence at the International Center for Political Violence and Terrorism Research (ICPVTR) of Nanyang Technological University's S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies in Singapore.
From 2004, Ressa headed the news division of ABS-CBN, while also writing for CNN, and The Wall Street Journal. In September 2010, she wrote a piece for The Wall Street Journal criticising the then president Beningno Aquino III handling of the bus hostage crisis. This piece was published two weeks before the president's official visit to the United States of America. Speculations were rife that this, among other reasons, finally led to Ressa leaving the company in 2010, after deciding not to renew her contract.
Ressa is a fellow at the Initiative on the Digital Economy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and
is a 2021 Joan Shorenstein Fellow at the Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy and Hauser Leader at the Center for Public Leadership at Harvard Kennedy School.
Books
She is the author of three books concerning the rise of terrorism in Southeast Asia—Seeds of Terror: An Eyewitness Account of Al-Qaeda's Newest Center (2003) and From Bin Laden to Facebook: 10 Days of Abduction, 10 Years of Terrorism (2013). and How to Stand Up To a Dictator (2022).
Teaching
Ressa has also taught courses in politics and the press in Southeast Asia for Princeton University, and broadcast journalism for the University of the Philippines Diliman.
Rappler
Ressa established the online news site Rappler in 2012 along with three other female founders and with a small team of 12 journalists and developers. It initially started as a Facebook page named MovePH in August 2011, evolving into a complete website on January 1, 2012. The site became one of the first multimedia news websites in the Philippines and a major news portal in the Philippines, receiving numerous local and international awards. She serves as the Executive Editor and Chief Executive Officer of the news website.
"Real Content Oversight Board"
On September 25, 2020, Ressa became one the 25 members of the "Real Facebook Oversight Board," an independent watchdog group established to provide public commentary on Facebook's content moderation policies and role in civic life.
Issue One – Council for Responsible Social Media
In October 2022, Ressa joined the Council for Responsible Social Media project launched by Issue One to address the negative mental, civic, and public health impacts of social media in the United States co-chaired by former House Democratic Caucus Leader Dick Gephardt and former Massachusetts Lieutenant Governor Kerry Healey.
Legal issues
Ressa first interviewed Rodrigo Duterte, the 16th president of the Philippines, in the 1980s when he was mayor of Davao. She again interviewed him in 2015 during his presidential election campaign, where he confessed to killing three people when he was mayor. Under her leadership, Rappler has been consistently critical of Duterte's policies, especially his policies on the war on drugs with their stories demonstrating that the abuses were being carried out by the police with Duterte's approval. The website under her stewardship also wrote about the alleged pro-Duterte online "troll army" which according to their article, were pushing out fake news stories and manipulating the narrative around his presidency.
In July 2017, in his State of the Nation Address, Duterte declared Rappler to be "fully owned" by the Americans and hence in violation of the constitution. He also said, "Not only is Rappler's news fake, it being Filipino is also fake." Subsequently, in August 2017, the Philippine Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) initiated an investigation against Rappler and demanded to check its documents. In January 2018, it revoked Rappler's license to do business. The case went to the court of appeals, where it was remanded back to the SEC for having no basis. Duterte told a Rappler reporter in 2018: "If you are trying to throw garbage at us, then the least that we can do is explain – how about you? Are you also clean?" The government under his leadership revoked the site's operating license.
Arrest and conviction
On January 22, 2018, Ressa appeared before the Philippines' National Bureau of Investigation (NBI), to comply with a subpoena over an online libel complaint under the Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012, which the administration of Rodrigo Duterte has wielded to punish criticism of the President and his allies. The subpoena was issued on January 10 to Ressa, together with former Rappler reporter Reynaldo Santos, and businessman Benjamin Bitanga. The subpoena was filed in October 2017 by a Filipino–Chinese national, Wilfredo Keng, after Rappler published a story on Keng's alleged lending of his sports utility vehicle to now-deceased Chief Justice Renato Corona as a bribed form of favor. Though the article was written in 2012 before the act criminalizing cyberlibel was signed into law by Benigno Aquino III, the Department of Justice considered it republished after a typographical error was corrected in 2014. In 2019, human rights lawyers Amal Clooney, Caoilfhionn Gallagher, and Can Yeginsu joined the legal team (consisting of international and Filipino lawyers) defending Ressa. The Free Legal Assistance Group (FLAG), which is the main human rights law firm in the Philippines, led by Atty. Theodore O. "Ted" Te, managed the legal team of Ressa during her different cases.
In November 2018, the Philippine government announced that it would charge Ressa and Rappler's parent company, Rappler Holdings Corporation, with tax evasion and failure to file tax returns. The charge concerns the investment in Rappler by the Omidyar Network in 2015. Ressa has denied wrongdoing, originally stating that the foreign money was "donated" to its managers, later stating the investments were in the form of securities. Rappler issued a statement denying any wrongdoing. The Philippines' Bureau of Internal Revenue, after a study of Ressa's explanation, ruled that Rappler's issuance of securities-generated capital gains was taxable. It concluded that Rappler evaded payment amounting to ₱133million in taxes.
On February 13, 2019, Philippine judge Rainelda Estacio-Montesa of the Manila Regional Trial Court Branch #46 issued the arrest warrant for "cyber libel" against Ressa for an article published on Rappler. The officials of the Philippines National Bureau of Investigation fulfilled this warrant filed under the charge of cyber libel. The "cyber libel" law was passed after the article was originally published, so the charge was based on the technicality that fixing a typo might be considered "republishing". The arrest was live-streamed by many of Rappler's senior reporters on Facebook.
Due to time constraints, Ressa was unable to post bail amounting to ₱60,000 ($1,150) resulting in her arrest and confinement within the (holding) board room office of the NBI building. A total of six lawyers, two pro bono, were assigned to work on her case. On February 14, 2019, at the executor proceeding of Manila city Judge Maria Teresa Abadilla, Ressa gained freedom by posting bail at ₱100,000 ($1,900).
Ressa's arrest was criticized by the international community. As Ressa is an outspoken critic of President Rodrigo Duterte, many viewed the arrest as being politically motivated. In contrast, the official spokesperson for the Malacañang Palace denied any government involvement in the arrest, asserting that the lawsuit against Ressa was set forth by a private individual, the plaintiff Wilfredo Keng.
Madeleine Albright, a former U.S. Secretary of State, issued an opinion stating that the arrest "must be condemned by all democratic nations". Similarly, the National Union of Journalists of the Philippines called it "a shameless act of persecution by a bully government".
The National Press Club, an organization accused of having close ties to the Duterte regime and with a long history of criticizing the Rappler organization, has stated that the arrest was not harassment, and that Ressa should not be relegated to "the altar of press freedom for martyrdom". It also warned against politicizing the issue.
Ressa's trial on charges of cyberlibel began in July 2019. In a statement she made on the first day of her trial, Ressa said: "This case of cyberlibel stretches the rule of law until it breaks."
Ressa was found guilty on June 15, 2020. In her ruling, Judge Rainelda Estacio-Montesa argued that Rappler "did not offer a scintilla of proof that they verified the imputations of various crimes in the disputed article... They just simply published them as news in their online publication in reckless disregard of whether they are false or not." Judge Rainelda Estacio-Montesa also quoted Nelson Mandela, saying, "To be free is not merely to cast off one's chains but to live in a way that respects and enhances the freedom of others." Sheila Coronel, director of the Stabile Center for Investigative Journalism at Columbia University, argued that the conviction is representative of "how democracy dies in the 21st century."
Ressa faces between six months and six years in prison and a fine of ₱400,000 ($8,000). Ressa warned that her conviction could augur the end of freedom of the press in the Philippines. Presidential Spokesperson Harry Roque asked the media to "respect the decision" and said President Rodrigo Duterte was still committed to free speech, while Vice President Leni Robredo described the conviction as a "chilling development" and the National Union of Journalists of the Philippines said it "basically kills freedom of speech and of the press." Internationally the ruling has been criticized by Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, and Reporters Without Borders. In its statement condemning the sentence, Reporters Without Borders described the legal proceedings against Ressa as "Kafkaesque".
On January 15, 2023, 12 Nobel Peace Prize laureates, including all of the 2022 laureates and her fellow 2021 Nobel Peace Prize winner Dmitri Muratov, issued an open letter to President Marcos implored him to “assist in bringing about a rapid resolution to the unjust charges against Maria Ressa and Rappler.”
In January 2023, the Philippine Court of Tax Appeals acquitted Ressa and Rappler of four tax evasion charges, stemming from the 2018 case. Ressa was acquitted of a fifth tax evasion case in September 2023. Ressa's court conviction for cyberlibel and the Securities and Exchange Commission's order for Rappler to shut down are under appeal.
Awards and recognition
Ressa has won an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Investigative Journalism, the Asian Television Awards, TOWNS – Ten Outstanding Women in the Nation's Service (Philippines) and TOYM Philippines.
In 2010, Esquire proclaimed Ressa the Philippines' "sexiest woman alive", explaining: "Despite her size, fearless enough to write an eyewitness account of Al-Qaeda".
In 2015, the Philippine Movie Press Club awarded Ressa with an Excellence in Broadcasting Lifetime Achievement award at the 29th PMPC Star Awards for Television.
In 2016, she was listed as one of the eight most influential and powerful leaders in the Philippines by Kalibrr.
In November 2017, Ressa, as the CEO of news organization Rappler, accepted the 2017 Democracy Award awarded by the National Democratic Institute to three organizations at its annual Democracy Award Dinner in Washington, D.C., entitled "Disinformation vs. Democracy: Fighting for Facts".
In May 2018, Ressa received the Knight International Journalism Awards, where she was described as "an intrepid editor and media innovator who holds a spotlight to the Philippine government’s bloody war on drugs."
In June 2018, Ressa received the World Association of Newspapers's Golden Pen of Freedom Award for her work with Rappler.
In November 2018, the Committee to Protect Journalists awarded Ressa with the Gwen Ifill Press Freedom Award in "recognition of her journalistic courage in the face of persistent official harassment."
In December 2018, she was included in Times Person of the Year 2018, as one of "The Guardians", a number of journalists from around the world combating the "War on Truth". Ressa is the second Filipino to receive the title after former President Corazon Aquino in 1986.
In February 2019, Ressa received the Ka Pepe Diokno Human Rights Award together with Bishop Pablo Virgilio Ambo David from the Tañada-Diokno College of Law at De La Salle University and the Jose W. Diokno Foundation, as presented by Dean Chel Diokno.
In April 2019, she was included in Times 100 Most Influential People in the World.
In May 2019, Ressa won the Columbia Journalism Award from the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism, the school's highest honor, "for the depth and quality of her work, as well as her courage and persistence in the field."
In June 2019, Ressa received the Canadian Journalism Foundation's Tribute honour, which recognizes a journalist who has made an impact on the international stage.
In October 2019, Ressa was named on the BBC's list of 100 Women.
In April 2021, Ressa won the UNESCO/Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize.
In November 2022, Ressa received an honorary degree from MacEwan University in Edmonton, AB, Canada.
In June 2023, Ressa received an honorary degree in sociology from the Ateneo de Manila University after giving the commencement speech
Nobel Peace Prize
Ressa was nominated for the 2021 Nobel Peace Prize by prime minister and leader of the Norwegian Labour Party Jonas Gahr Støre. On October 8, 2021, Ressa was officially announced as the recipient of the prize alongside Dmitry Muratov of the Russian Federation. They were awarded the prize "for their efforts to safeguard freedom of expression, which is a precondition for democracy and lasting peace". Ressa and Muratov are the first journalists since 1935 to receive the Nobel Peace Prize.
Personal life
Ressa is openly lesbian.
Published works
See also
Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 – the rule applied in the aforementioned case
List of Nobel laureates affiliated with Princeton University
List of Filipino Nobel laureates and nominees
List of Nobel laureates
We Hold the Line, a 2020 documentary film about the Philippine drug war and corruption, repression and violence under the regime of Philippine president Rodrigo Duterte, featuring Ressa and her journalistic work and struggles in the Philippines.
A Thousand Cuts, a 2020 documentary film about Ressa and her journalistic work and struggles in the Philippines.
References
External links
1963 births
Living people
ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs people
American Nobel laureates
American online journalists
American women journalists of Asian descent
CNN people
Filipino dissidents
Filipino Nobel laureates
Filipino non-fiction writers
Filipino online journalists
Filipino women journalists
Harvard University people
Academic staff of Nanyang Technological University
Nobel Peace Prize laureates
People convicted of speech crimes
People from Toms River, New Jersey
Princeton University alumni
Princeton University faculty
Toms River High School North alumni
University of the Philippines Diliman alumni
Academic staff of the University of the Philippines Diliman
Women Nobel laureates
LGBT Nobel laureates
Fulbright alumni
Filipino LGBT journalists
American LGBT journalists
Filipino lesbian writers
American lesbian writers
Lesbian journalists |
4341907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85lesund%20Airport%2C%20Vigra | Ålesund Airport, Vigra | Ålesund Airport (, ), or alternatively Ålesund Vigra Airport, is an international airport serving the town of Ålesund in Møre og Romsdal county, Norway. It is located on the island of Vigra in Giske Municipality and features a runway aligned 07/25. The airport served 1,077,209 passengers in 2013, making it the tenth-busiest airport in the country. Scheduled services are provided domestically to Oslo, Bergen and Trondheim by Scandinavian Airlines (SAS)¸ Norwegian Air Shuttle and Widerøe. International scheduled services are provided by KLM Cityhopper, Norwegian, SAS and Wizz Air.
The first airport serving Ålesund was Ålesund Airport, Sørneset, a water aerodrome. Vigra, which narrowly beat a proposal for an airport on the island of Gossa as the main airport for Møre og Romsdal, opened on 7 June 1958. It originally featured a runway and all scheduled flights were provided by Braathens SAFE. Except for regional routes operated by Widerøe from 1971 to 1993, Braathens flew all routes out of Vigra until 1998. International flights commenced in 1977 and a new terminal opened in 1986. Norwegian Air Ambulance has operated out of the airport since 1988.
Between 1995 and 1998 the 330 Squadron had a detachment at Vigra for its Westland Sea King for search and rescue. Color Air and SAS started flying to Ålesund in 1998. After suffering heavy losses, SAS bought Braathens and Color Air closed down. Norwegian Air Shuttle thereafter entered, first in 2004 and then in 2008. The terminal was expanded in 2007 and the airport has seen an expansion in international destinations.
History
Proposals
Plans for scheduled flights to Ålesund were first articulated in 1919 by a government commission as part of a coastal seaplane route from Stavanger to Trondheim. The first landing in Ålesund took place on 27 May 1920. Thereafter flights were sporadic. The Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service set up a base at Skutvika near the town center in November 1929, which they used to search for herring. They moved the base the following year, establishing Ålesund Airport, Sørneset. Later used both for civilian flights, scheduled services and Luftwaffe operations, the Sørneset water aerodrome remained in use until 1979.
Work on a land airport around Ålesund started with a public speech held by Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen in 1933. In further speeches, he proposed Vigra or the Moa area of Spjelkavik as suitable locations. The former was preferred by the government, who included it in its 1935 plan for primary airports. Following the Nazi invasion of Norway during World War II, the Luftwaffe also considered Moa as a suitable location for the region, but instead opted to build an airport on Gossa, which was not completed by the end war.
After the war ended, Møre og Romsdal County Municipality established a commission to look into the location of a central airport for the county of Møre og Romsdal. They concluded that since Gossa was nearly completed and was more centrally located within the county, it would be a preferred location. Community leaders in Ålesund lobbied to have Vigra chosen, and in 1951 two students completed calculations showing that Vigra would be cheaper than Gossa. Despite this, Gossa was selected by Parliament in 1952.
Construction
The Civil Airport Administration (CAA) issued NOK 3.2 million for the upgrade of Gossa in 1955. However, Vestlandske Luftfartsselskap, which was operating the seaplane route along the coast, launched a plan to operate Scottish Aviation Twin Pioneer aircraft from a runway at Vigra. The CAA therefore placed Gossa's funding on hold. Ålesund Municipality appointed a commission which demanded that the runway should be , allowing for operation of the de Havilland Heron. They negotiated the purchase of the necessary of land at Vigra and started construction on 9 January 1957. At this point Vigra was planned as a regional airport.
Within a short period the CAA determined that the Twin Pioneer would not be approved and that, following Braathens SAFE Flight 253 that Heron's would not be allowed to fly during winter. The municipality therefore applied in February 1957 that Vigra be given status as a primary airport. Parliament approved this and granted funding for air traffic control and operations. Construction involved building a runway and to taxiway. These were built by Veibygg, Fredrikstad Granittkompani and Korsbrekke og Lorck. The terminal was building measured , of which was a garage, and was built by Bjarne Haugseth. Ålesund Municipality was the owner and developer. Three radio beacons were built.
Ålesund was to be connected both to Oslo Airport, Fornebu, and to a coastal service from Stavanger Airport, Sola via Bergen Airport, Flesland and Ålesund to Trondheim Airport, Værnes. The latter had been operated by Vestlandske Luftfartselskap, but they went bankrupt in 1957. Both Braathens SAFE and SAS applied for the Ålesund concession. Initially the ministry wanted to award the coastal service to Braathens and the Oslo route to SAS. But after negotiations, Braathens SAFE stated they were willing to fly the coastal route without subsidies if they were granted the Oslo-route, allowing them to cross-subsidize the former. This was accepted by the ministry.
Early operation
The first aircraft to land was a military de Havilland Canada DHC-3 Otter, on 19 May 1958 with supplies for the navigational aids. Braathens landed a Heron on 2 June. The official opening took place on 7 June with 3,000 spectators. Flights were at first flown using the Douglas DC-4. Initially the coastal service and the Oslo service were flown one time per day.
Vigra did not originally have more to a terminal than a waiting hall. Check-in and baggage pick-up was handled at Braathens SAFE's offices at Skateflua in the city center. They were then transported by bus to the airport by Record og Vigra Rutelag (RVR). They also operated a new car ferry services which was established between Ålesund and Valderøy. Møre og Romsdal Fylkesbåtar (MRF) took over the ferry service from 1965.
Ownership of the airport passed to the CAA and the state from September 1959. This coincided with a new taxiway from the runway and the opening of the instrument landing system (ILS). This could only be used on runway 25. The Vigra Transmitter was situated in the way for the other direction. The ILS was installed without an inner marker. The tarmac was extended in 1960 to make way for a general aviation section near the control tower. Due to sinking of the runway it had to be re-asphalted the following year.
Braathens introduced their new Fokker F27 Friendship from 9 January 1959. From the summer program it flew two daily flights to Oslo and from 1961 twice per day on the coastal route. VHF omnidirectional range and distance measuring equipment navigational system were installed in 1963. Ålesund Airport experienced a massive increase in traffic during the 1960s. A third daily departure to Oslo was introduced in August 1963 and on the coastal route from 2 May 1964. The latter was extended to Bodø Airport and Tromsø Airport from 1 April 1967, and upgraded to a fourth daily service. Some Oslo services were provided using a Douglas DC-6. A year later the coastal route increased to five daily trips, which was matched by the Oslo route in 1969. That year also saws the installation of a visual approach slope indicator and the introduction of the Fokker F28 Fellowship in March.
MRF introduced a hovercraft service from Ørsta via Hareid to Ålesund and Vigra, then onwards to Molde and Åndalsnes. The 18-passenger craft sank only days after the service was inaugurated in April 1965. Two more hovercraft were delivered and served the route. Travel times was 50 minutes to Molde, 80 minutes to Åndalsnes, 25 minutes to Hareid and 50 minutes to Ørsta. However, by the time of the fall storms the authorities withdrew the operating certificate due to safety concerns.
In the course of two years the number of airports in Møre og Romsdal increased from one to four, having a dramatical effect on patronage at Vigra. Kristiansund Airport, Kvernberget opened on 30 June 1970 after which two of the four daily Oslo services were moved there. Ørsta–Volda Airport, Hovden opened on 1 July 1971, along with three airports in Sogn og Fjordane—Florø, Førde and Sogndal. These were connected to Vigra with Widerøe's de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter services. Molde Airport, Årø opened on 5 April 1972. Braathens introduced its Boeing 737-200 on one of the Oslo services that year.
A new works building opened in 1972, including a new fire station, command center and workshop. The Friendship was pulled out of Vigra from 1976, by which time Braathens was back up to fifteen daily services. The Fellowships had five departures in each direction on the coastal service and the 737s had taken over all the Oslo services. To handle the increased traffic the terminal was slightly expanded with a temporary structure, allowing the airport to handle two simultaneous aircraft.
New terminal and longer runway
The first inclusive tour charter at Vigra was carried out by Stjernereiser in June 1977, contracting a Sud Aviation Caravelle from Transeuropa to Palma de Mallorca. The short runway meant that the aircraft could not take a full tank of fuel and therefore stopped in Stavanger to refuel. Vigra saw a limited amount of charter, largely since all flight had to have an intermediate landing.
Mørefly, an Ålesund-based air ambulance and helicopter operator, relocated its base from Sørneset to Vigra in 1979. This followed their building of a hangar and office building at the airport. Braathens extended its city offices in 1979 and the following year a new wing was added to the terminal for international arrivals. Baggage could from then be picked up either at the airport or in the city center.
Meanwhile, the traffic increased made it necessary for the airport to receive a new major upgrade. The works building was expanded in 1982, including more garages and office space. A new control tower was taken into use in November 1984. A new terminal was also built for NOK 53 million. It included an upper story with a restaurant.
MRF operated a fast ferry service from Hareid to Vigra from 12 September 1983. The parking was expanded from 60 to 254 places, and from 1986 parking became paid. A private competitor, Vigra Parkering, offered parking from 1985 to 1991, after which the CAA bought the lot. The new terminal also featured car rental from four companies. Although the old terminal was proposed used as an offshore helicopter terminal, it caught fire in 1986 and was demolished the following year. Mørefly introduced the first international scheduled service, to Aberdeen Airport in the United Kingdom, from 14 April 1986. In conjunction with this the airport introduced airport security for select passengers. The Aberdeen route was terminated on 28 March 1987.
Norwegian Air Ambulance was established on 1 January 1988. Vigra was selected as the base both for a Beechcraft Super King Air fixed-wing air ambulance and an Aérospatiale SA365N Dauphin 2 rotorcraft. From 1 November 1988 to 31 January 1989 Mørefly operated an Aérospatiale SA332 Super Puma search and rescue helicopter from Vigra, before this was relocated. The Dauphin was relocated to Ålesund Heliport, Hospital when it opened in 1993. Mørefly merged with Lufttransport in 1995.
The Vigra Fixed Link opened between 1987 and 1989. It consists of the long Ellingsøy Tunnel between Ålesund and Ellingsøya, the long Valderøy Tunnel connecting the islands of Ellingsøya and Valderøya, and others. This allowed travelers from Ålesund to reach the airport without a ferry. They remained a toll road until 25 October 2009. RVR and the airport coach service was taken over by Ålesund Bilruter from 1 January 1988.
A precision approach path indicator system was completed in 1991. Three years later an automatic terminal information service was taken into use. The airport had for years been limited by its short runway. The construction of the tunnels spurred a surplus of earthwork, which could be used to reclaim land east of the tunnel and extend the runway along it. However, the extension of the runway proper did not take place until 1994, costing NOK 60 million. The new runway was taken into use on 20 October 1995. The most important part of this extension was that inclusive tour charters resumed from the airport, after several years without such services due to the need for a refueling stop. The airport therefore opened a duty-free store in 1996.
Braathens introduced its Boeing 737-500 at Ålesund in 1990, replacing its older -200s by 1995. Widerøe withdrew from Ålesund in 1993, when the Twin Otters were retired. The same year Braathens subcontracted some Ålesund routes to their regional affiliate, Norwegian Air Shuttle, who operated the Fokker 50.
The Super Puma search and rescue service spurred public demands for a rescue helicopter to be based at Vigra. From 11 September 1995 the 330 Squadron of the Royal Norwegian Air Force stated a Westland Sea King helicopter at Vigra for such a service. However, the proximity to Ørland Main Air Station proved that the area was well covered from there. The service was therefore closed from 1 January 1999 and relocated to Rygge Air Station.
Deregulation
The Norwegian airline market was deregulated from 1 April 1994. This initially had little effect on Vigra, as there were insufficient slots at Fornebu for new entrants to start flying to Ålesund. Quite the contrary, the deregulation initially led Braathens to terminate the coastal services to Northern Norway, although it maintained flights to Bergen and Trondheim. From 19 April 1998 Braathens also served Ålesund with its Boeing 737-700. A radar was installed at the airport in 1998. The same year all the electronics in the control tower were replaced.
Fornebu was replaced by Oslo Airport, Gardermoen on 8 October 1998, which had ample room for new routes. Ålesund-based businessman Olav Nils Sunde saw the opportunity to establish a low-cost carrier, Color Air. It started twice-daily services from Ålesund to Gardermoen on 6 August, using a Boeing 737-300. SAS introduced flights from Oslo to Ålesund on 7 December. They initially used Douglas DC-9 and McDonnell Douglas MD-80, later switching to Boeing 737-600. The number of Oslo-bound flights thus increased from seven to seventeen. The three operators started an intense price war which within a year had cost them NOK 3 billion. Color Air ceased operation on 27 September 1999. SAS also opened a route to Copenhagen Airport in Denmark via Bergen, which was soon terminated.
SAS bought Braathens in May 2001, from 2002 the two SAS Group airlines coordinated their flights to Ålesund. Their ground services were taken over by SAS Ground Handling. Norwegian Air Shuttle shifted its operations in 2002 from a regional carrier to a low-cost airline. It took up competition with the SAS Group and launched an Oslo route on 23 August 2003 using the Boeing 737-300, using Røros Flyservice as their ground handler. These were most ex-Braathens employees. Norwegian initially remained at Ålesund only until 10 October 2004. Braathens and SAS merged in 2004 to create SAS Braathens, which served Ålesund until 1 June 2007, when it again became part of Scandinavian Airlines.
Full security check of all passengers took effect on 1 January 2004. An automated weather observing system was installed in 2006. The same year Ålesund Bilruter and the airport coach was taken over by Nettbuss. More tarmac for the general aviation section opened in 2006. In April the following year the main terminal was extended with . This included an arrival section for international passengers, with its own baggage carousel and a larger duty-free store. This allowed for simultaneous arrival of domestic and international passengers.
SAS Braathens commenced a bi-weekly service to London Gatwick Airport on 1 June 2007. It was terminated in 2008. Air Baltic introduced its Riga Airport service on 20 March 2008. SAS commenced a daily service to its hub at Copenhagen Airport from 31 March 2008. From 25 October 2009 this route was flown for SAS by Cimber Sterling using a Bombardier CRJ200 with two daily services. There was insufficient patronage for such a route and SAS resumed a daily service the following year.
Norwegian returned to Vigra on 10 September 2008, when it reintroduced its Oslo service. They introduced bi-weekly services to Gatwick from 16 April 2011, as well as flights to Ålesund to Trondheim and Bergen from the winter program of 2011. They also established weekly services to Alicante Airport and Gran Canaria Airport in Spain in 2012. The Trondheim route had insufficient patronage and were terminated from 1 February 2013. As a response, Krohn Air introduced a twice-daily service to Trondheim on 3 March 2013. It was terminated on 13 September.
Wizz Air introduced thrice-weekly services to Gdańsk Lech Wałęsa Airport in Poland from March 2013. KLM Cityhopper commenced services to Amsterdam Schiphol Airport twice daily from 4 April, using the Fokker 70. It was followed up on 5 June with twice-weekly services by Wizz Air to Vilnius Airport in Lithuania. Norwegian terminated its Bergen route in January 2014. Widerøe responded by starting services to Bergen from the summer program of 2014. SAS responded by introducing more departures to Bergen and Trondheim and replacing some of them with smaller ATR 72 operated by Jet Time.
Facilities
The airport is situated on the island of Vigra on Giske, Norway. The main terminal has , including the control tower. Vigra is an international airport with separate departure and arrival section for domestic and international services. The international section has a duty-free store measuring for both arriving and departing passengers. The upper story features a restaurant while there is a café and kiosk in the lower section. Vigra has a category 7 fire and rescue service. Ground handling is provided by SAS Ground Handling and Aviator.
The asphalt runway measures and is aligned 06/24 (roughly northeast to southwest). Runway 06 has a declared take-off run available (TORA) of and a landing distance available (LDA) of . The TORA and LDA of runway 24 are , respectively. Vigra lacks a parallel taxiway. The airport has a reference altitude of above mean sea level. Vigra features a category I instrument landing system. The aerodrome also features doppler VHF omnidirectional range and distance measuring equipment, and a tactical air navigation system.
Airlines and destinations
The following airlines operate regular scheduled and charter flights at Ålesund Airport:
Norwegian Air Ambulance has a fixed-winged air ambulance stationed at Vigra. The Beechcraft King Air 200 is operated by Lufttransport, with medical personnel from Møre og Romsdal Hospital Trust. The aircraft flew 1,632 missions lasting 1,264 hours in 2013.
Statistics
Ålesund Airport, Vigra served 1,055,098 passengers in 2013, of which 256,512 were international passengers. The airport saw 16,057 aircraft movements and handled 641 tonnes of cargo. Ålesund is the tenth-busiest airport in Norway, measured in passenger numbers.
Ground transport
Nettbuss operates a fleet of eight airport coaches. These run to downtown Ålesund and Moa in correspondence with all arrivals and departures. The airport has parking for 1,050 cars, divided into four categories: short-term, business plus, business and economy. Car rental is available from Avis, Budget, Europcar, Hertz and Sixt. Taxis are also available.
References
Bibliography
External links
Airports in Møre og Romsdal
Avinor airports
Royal Norwegian Air Force airfields
Giske
Airports established in 1958
1958 establishments in Norway
International airports in Norway |
4342232 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBA%20Countdown | NBA Countdown | NBA Countdown, branded for sponsorship purposes as NBA Countdown Presented by DraftKings Sportsbook for ESPN editions and NBA Countdown Presented by Papa John's for ABC editions respectively, is a pregame television show airing prior to National Basketball Association (NBA) telecasts on ABC and ESPN. The networks have aired NBA games since 2002. Typically, the program airs 30 or 60 minutes prior to the game. ESPN2 or another ESPN network may also be used as an overflow channel for the show.
History
2002–2003
ABC and ESPN gained rights to air NBA games prior to the start of the 2002-03. At the time, ABC Sports operated as a separate entity from ESPN even though both were owned by Disney.
Initially, the NBA pregame show was known as NBA Shootaround. The ESPN version was originally hosted by Kevin Frazier, with analyst Tim Hardaway. The original program was broadcast out of one of ESPN's Bristol studios. Some of the features the first edition of NBA Shootaround contained were Walton's World, in which NBA analyst and legend Bill Walton would speak about matters related to the NBA, and Need to Know, in which host Frazier would go over the headlines of the night's upcoming NBA action. Midway through the inaugural season, widely criticized and panned analyst Tim Hardaway was replaced with recently retired NBA guard Greg Anthony. Frazier and Anthony were the tandem for the pregame show throughout the remainder of the season.
The ABC version was hosted by Mike Tirico, with analysts Bill Walton and Tom Tolbert. Unlike most network pregame shows, Shootaround did not take place in a studio, and instead traveled to a different site each week (much like ESPN's College Gameday). Starting with Game 1 of the 2003 Eastern Conference Finals, Walton was replaced in the pregame show by Sean Elliott. Tolbert was dropped from the pregame show starting with Game 1 of the NBA Finals. Tirico and Elliott were joined by a guest analyst for each game of the Finals.
This ABC version ended up not having much consistency, going through five names in five seasons, and several analysts in each season (see below). This was unlike NBC's NBA studio show, NBA Showtime, for the first ten seasons of its existence between 1990 and 2000.
2003–2004
Prior to the start of the 2003-04 season, major changes were made to the ESPN version of NBA Shootaround. The program was moved into its Times Square home, and Frazier and Anthony were joined by then-Detroit Shock head coach Bill Laimbeer and The Philadelphia Inquirer columnist, Stephen A. Smith. Nearly all of the features from the first season were discontinued, while several were added (including Fortune Tellers, in which the three analysts, Anthony, Laimbeer and Smith, would dress as psychics and predict the outcomes of several NBA teams). Laimbeer left early in ESPN's coverage of the 2004 NBA Playoffs due to his duties as coach of the Detroit Shock, and was replaced by Tim Legler. Frazier, Anthony, Smith and Legler were the studio team through ESPN's coverage of the 2004 Eastern Conference Finals.
ABC retooled much of its NBA coverage after bad ratings during its first season. This included its version of the pregame show, which was rebranded NBA Hangtime, and moved into the network's Times Square studios. The pregame show was given new music and graphics, to differentiate itself from its ESPN counterpart, and was still hosted by Mike Tirico. Tom Tolbert was brought back as an analyst, but ABC dropped Bill Walton from pregame show duties. He was replaced by George Karl. After criticism from the media on Karl's lack of opinion during the program, ABC replaced him on February 22, 2004 with former New Jersey Nets coach Byron Scott. NBA Hangtime lasted through the 2003–2004 season, and continued on Christmas Day 2004, prior to the much-hyped Los Angeles Lakers-Miami Heat game. This telecast was the only NBA Hangtime to involve analysts Steve Jones and Bill Walton.
2004–2005
In September 2004, Kevin Frazier left ESPN to become the weekend anchor on Entertainment Tonight. He was replaced for the 2004-05 season by veteran ESPN anchor John Saunders, who had previously done play-by-play for the network's NBA coverage. Saunders was joined by Smith, Anthony, and on a permanent basis, Legler. The new ESPN studio team only had four editions of NBA Shootaround before the most infamous moments in the history of the network's NBA coverage. After the Pacers–Pistons brawl, ESPN went back to its studio for reaction. A visibly angry and shaken Saunders referred to the fans in Detroit as "punks and sissies", and he, Anthony and Legler vehemently defended Ron Artest's actions. After being censured by ESPN and the media in general, the three quickly changed their opinions. NBA analyst David Dupree wrote in a USAToday.com chat:
Later in the season, Smith and Anthony got into an extremely heated debate about the NBA's age-limit and the questions about race which arose from it. Aside from the serious moments, Shootaround did continue its more light-hearted fare, which included an ongoing storyline (and mockery of Ron Artest's similar situation) about Greg Anthony's "rap album". Still, the season did not end without another infamous moment from the pregame show, when prior to Game 2 of the 2005 Western Conference Finals between the Phoenix Suns and San Antonio Spurs, Stephen A. Smith criticized Spurs forward Glenn Robinson for not playing in the game. As viewers (and Smith) found out later that game, Robinson was not playing due to his mother's death.
Over at ABC, the pregame show was renamed NBA Game Time. Like Hangtime, it originated from the network's Times Square studios, and was once more hosted by Mike Tirico. Tirico was re-joined by Bill Walton in the studio, and Walton's old broadcast partner from NBC, Steve "Snapper" Jones. Tom Tolbert was dropped, while Byron Scott and George Karl both returned to the NBA coaching ranks. Game Time, unlike its predecessors, included guest analysts, such as Baron Davis, Jalen Rose, Rick Fox, and Bill Russell. During the 2005 Western Conference Finals, Steve Jones fell ill with appendicitis, and was later replaced for the NBA Finals by ESPN analyst Greg Anthony.
2005–2006
For the 2005-06 NBA season, ESPN continued using Saunders, Legler, Smith and Anthony for its pregame show. On several occasions that year, ABC analyst Scottie Pippen filled in for Tim Legler while he went on assignment. Stephen A. Smith was occasionally absent from the pregame show, likely due to the increased workload he had due to his new talk show, Quite Frankly with Stephen A. Smith.
The ABC pregame show underwent yet another transformation. It adopted the former name of the ESPN2 Tuesday night NBA studio show, and became known as NBA Nation. For most of the season, Mike Tirico hosted the program. He was joined by Scottie Pippen, as Steve Jones and Bill Walton both returned to the broadcast booth. In the first edition of NBA Nation, Pippen was only seen in the final segment of the show. The first three segments involved special-interest stories and a panel of celebrities and sportswriters discussing issues concerning the NBA. This panel of guests was the first of only two. Though it was originally planned for Tirico to be joined by an in-studio panel of guests each week, the plan was evidently scrapped after January 22. Following that, a panel of guests, all of which directly connected to the NBA or basketball in general, joined Tirico via satellite occasionally (with the exception of March 5, when both Mike Krzyzewski and Jerry Colangelo joined Tirico in-studio). Until January 29, the program also featured an NBA-related segment from ESPN's Pardon the Interruption.
On March 3, 2006, the New York Post reported that ABC would replace Tirico with ESPN's Dan Patrick starting on March 19. Tirico moved to the number two play-by-play team, behind Mike Breen, and Patrick hosted ABC's coverage every week, including the NBA Finals. This move ended the most consistent role The NBA on ABC had, which was of Mike Tirico has studio host. In the suddenly revamped edition of NBA Nation, Patrick was joined by Scottie Pippen, who continued his role as pregame analyst, as well as former ESPN commentator and NBA player Mark Jackson and Washington Post and Pardon the Interruption co-host Mike Wilbon on a weekly basis.
On May 12, 2006, the New York Post reported that Pippen had been let go from his duties as studio analyst for ABC, but would remain an analyst for ESPN. ABC went with the team of Dan Patrick, Mark Jackson and Michael Wilbon the rest of the way, representing a complete change from the beginning of the season.
ABC guests
December 25, 2005
Chuck D, rapper
Josh Lucas, actor
Bob Ryan, Boston Globe sportswriter
January 22, 2006
Method Man, rapper
Chad Johnson, NFL player
Peter Vecsey, New York Post sportswriter
January 29, 2006
David Thompson, NBA legend
Jack Ramsay, ABC NBA analyst
J.A. Adande, Los Angeles Times sportswriter
February 12, 2006
Michael Wilbon, Washington Post sportswriter
March 5, 2006
Kobe Bryant, Team USA Guard
Mike Krzyzewski, USA Basketball Head Coach
Jerry Colangelo, Director, USA Basketball
March 12, 2006
Byron Scott, New Orleans Hornets Head Coach
Jay Bilas, ESPN college basketball analyst
2006–2007
Despite reports to the contrary by The Big Lead.com that were picked up by various media publications (namely the New York Post), Greg Anthony, Tim Legler and Stephen A. Smith remained on ESPN's NBA Shootaround. The only change was the host, with Fred Hickman replacing John Saunders.
With ABC Sports' demise and rebranding as ESPN on ABC, ABC's NBA pregame show was given its fifth different name in as many years. Now known as NBA Sunday Countdown, the show would continue featuring Dan Patrick as host, with analysts Mark Jackson and Michael Wilbon. The show would not originate from Times Square, but instead originate from the site of that week's game (ala the original version of ABC's NBA Shootaround pregame show). After only two broadcasts, Mark Jackson moved to game coverage exclusively, and was replaced by Jon Barry.
On December 1, 2006, Patrick hosted ESPN's NBA Shootaround with analyst Michael Wilbon from Dallas, site of that night's ESPN televised Sacramento Kings–Dallas Mavericks game.
2008–2019
ESPN completely overhauled its NBA studio in 2008. Stuart Scott and Mark Jones rotated hosting the ESPN Shootaround pregame show. Originally Stephen A. Smith and Bill Walton were to be the analysts, but after Walton came down with back problems in February, Jalen Rose and Rick Carlisle rotated as analysts along with Smith. Greg Anthony and Tim Legler were demoted to analysts on NBA Fastbreak, SportsCenter, and ESPNEWS, and Fred Hickman moved to hosting ESPNEWS.
In addition to the change of host, ESPN's Shootaround moved from Times Square to the ESPN Bristol, Connecticut studios. On several occasions, ESPN used guest analysts from its other studio shows; Kiki Vandeweghe, Jamal Mashburn and Swin Cash have each made appearances. Stephen A. Smith's role has been greatly reduced. He no longer appears on set with the main studio group, instead appearing via satellite in a segment called "The A List". Ric Bucher, Marc Stein and Jackie MacMullan contribute in a segment called the "NBA Nation", which involves analysis from Boston (MacMullan), Dallas (Stein) and San Francisco (Bucher). On the Wednesday following the cancellation of Smith's show, Stephen A. appeared on the set for Shootaround.
The ABC version was renamed NBA Countdown, and Patrick, who left ESPN, was replaced by Stuart Scott, joining Bill Walton, Michael Wilbon, and Barry as a contributor/fill-in. For the 2008–2009 season (beginning with the Christmas Day doubleheader), Barry replaced Walton full-time, Avery Johnson became the fourth member of the studio team, and Magic Johnson joined the show doing feature interviews and occasionally joining the studio crew as a panelist.
For the 2010–2011 season, Hannah Storm joined Scott as they alternated as host. For the 2011–2012 season, Wilbon was promoted to the host position, with analysis from Barry and Johnson, and Chris Broussard joined as the show as the NBA insider. The show also moved from the ESPN studios in Bristol, Connecticut, to their studios in Los Angeles.
For the 2012–2013 season, the ESPN version was renamed NBA Countdown to match ABC's counterpart. Jalen Rose and Bill Simmons replaced Barry and Broussard at ABC, respectively. Barry became a color commentator and Broussard a sideline reporter during games.
For the 2013–2014 season, Magic Johnson announced his departure. Doug Collins and Doris Burke will both be new additions to the program. Also, ESPN announced that Sage Steele will be replacing Michael Wilbon as host, ending Wilbon's 8-year run on Countdown.
Magic Johnson and Michael Wilbon were slated to return to the program in January 2017 to join Sage Steele for pregame coverage for the NBA Saturday Primetime on ABC series. With the 2017 playoffs looming, ESPN replaced Sage Steele with Michelle Beadle as the host of NBA Countdown on ABC and ESPN. Beadle joined NBA Countdown at the start of the 2016–2017 season, and has led ESPN's regular Wednesday and Friday episodes. Beadle has been named the full time host and will lead ABC and ESPN's NBA pre-game and halftime shows, including for the 2017 NBA Finals on ABC.
As of February 2018, production of NBA Countdown was moved from ESPN's studios in Los Angeles to ESPN's Bristol, CT studios in the set used for the network's NFL studio shows. In April the show once again relocated to a new studio at Pier 17 in New York as Michelle Beadle is the host of ESPN's new morning show Get Up! which debuted on April 2, 2018.
2019–present
Over the 2019 off-season, reports began to emerge that ESPN was planning to retool the program. In August 2019, Richard Deitsch reported that Beadle was being dropped from the program, and that her assignment would be split between Rachel Nichols and Maria Taylor. Richard Jefferson and Jay Williams were brought in to replace Chauncey Billups, with the network retaining Jalen Rose and Paul Pierce. In October, ESPN replaced NBA Countdown as its pre-game show for ABC's Saturday Primetime broadcasts in favor of on-site editions of Nichols' studio show, The Jump.
Those plans crumbled after March 8, as the NBA suspended play due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Because of that, Nichols resorted to the NBA Bubble at the ESPN Wide World of Sports Complex at the Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando, FL, where the NBA restarted their season and held the Playoffs, where she eventually took Doris Burke's spot as sideline reporter for the Finals, meaning Taylor was elevated to host the NBA Finals on ABC, and Countdown being restored as ABC's pregame show.
For the 2020–21 season, Nichols was tapped serve as lead sideline reporter for NBA Saturday Primetime, and continue as sideline reporter of the NBA Finals, meaning Taylor was officially promoted to Nichols' spot as host, with Countdown being restored as pregame show. After he was part of an inappropriate Instagram video, ESPN quietly dropped Pierce on April 6, without replacement for the remainder of the season. Prior to the 2021 NBA Finals, Nichols was removed in favor of Malika Andrews after a video revealed of Nichols uttering racially insensitive comments towards black colleague Taylor. Soon after, Taylor departed to join NBC Sports, and Nichols was removed from all ESPN programming. Nichols has since left ESPN.
For the 2021–22 season, Lisa Salters was reinstated as the primary sideline reporter, replacing the departed Nichols. Following the Nichols-Taylor fallout, ESPN tapped Mike Greenberg to replace both Nichols and Taylor on NBA Countdown. ESPN also dropped Williams from Countdown, while retaining Rose, and bringing Michael Wilbon, Stephen A. Smith, and Magic Johnson back. SportsCenter anchor Michael Eaves was tapped to host on Wednesdays alongside Jefferson, Kendrick Perkins, and WNBA star Chiney Ogwumike. Andrews was tapped to fill-in as Countdown host whenever Eaves or Greenberg have other assignments.
Pregame show sites
Note: ABC's March 9, 2003 edition of NBA Shootaround took place at both Madison Square Garden in New York, with Mike Tirico and Sean Elliott, as well as Staples Center in Los Angeles with analysts Tom Tolbert and Bill Walton.
San Antonio, TX
March 23, 2003, June 4, 2003, June 6. 2003, June 15, 2003, June 9, 2005, June 12, 2005, June 21, 2005, June 23, 2005, May 12, 2007, May 20, 2007, June 7, 2007, June 10, 2007
Auburn Hills, MI
May 18, 2003, June 10, 2004, June 13, 2004, June 14, 2004, June 15, 2005, June 16, 2005, June 19, 2005, February 25, 2007, March 18, 2007, April 8, 2007
Los Angeles, CA
December 25, 2002, March 9, 2003, April 27, 2003, May 11, 2003, May 15, 2003, June 6, 2004, June 8, 2004, December 25, 2004
Miami, FL
June 13, 2006, June 15, 2006, June 18, 2006, December 8, 2006, January 21, 2007, February 11, 2007, December 25, 2014
Dallas, TX
January 4, 2003, June 8, 2006, June 11, 2006, June 20, 2006, April 15, 2007
Cleveland, OH
January 28, 2007, May 6, 2007, June 12, 2007, June 14, 2007
Sacramento, CA
February 16, 2003, March 16, 2003, March 11, 2007, March 25, 2007
East Rutherford, NJ
June 8, 2003, June 11, 2003, June 13, 2003
Phoenix, AZ
March 4, 2007, April 1, 2007, April 22, 2007
Minneapolis, MN
March 30, 2003, April 20, 2003
Chicago, IL
April 21, 2007, May 13, 2007
Washington, D.C.
February 23, 2003
New York City, NY
March 9, 2003
Philadelphia, PA
April 6, 2003
Portland, OR
April 13, 2003
Salt Lake City, UT
May 26, 2007
Secaucus, NJ
May 23, 2003 (for 2003 NBA draft lottery)
Personalities
Current
Malika Andrews (host, 2023–present; fill-in host, 2022–2023)
Michael Wilbon (host/analyst, 2005–2013, 2016–2017, 2021–present)
Stephen A. Smith (analyst, 2019–present)
Adrian Wojnarowski (insider, 2017–present)
Bob Myers (ABC analyst, 2023–present)
Richard Jefferson (analyst, 2019–present; Wednesday analyst, 2022–present)
Kendrick Perkins (analyst, 2019–present, Wednesday analyst, 2022–present)
Chiney Ogwumike (Wednesday analyst, 2022–present)
Former
Past Analysts
Bill Walton (analyst, 2002–2003, 2004–2005, 2007–2008)
Tom Tolbert (analyst, 2002–2004)
Sean Elliott (analyst, 2003)
George Karl (analyst, 2003–2004)
Byron Scott (analyst, 2004)
Steve Jones (analyst, 2004–2005)
Greg Anthony (analyst, 2005 NBA Finals)
Scottie Pippen (analyst, 2005–2006)
Mark Jackson (analyst, 2006–2007)
Jon Barry (analyst, 2007–2012)
Avery Johnson (analyst, 2008–2010, 2013–2015)
Chris Broussard (NBA insider, 2012)
Bill Simmons (analyst, 2012–2014)
Doug Collins (analyst, 2013–2016)
Chauncey Billups (analyst, 2015–2019)
Paul Pierce (analyst, 2017–2021)
Jay Williams (analyst, 2019–2021)
Stan Van Gundy (fill-in analyst; 2019)
Magic Johnson (part-time analyst, 2008–2013, 2016–2017, 2021–2022)
Jalen Rose (analyst, 2012–2023)
Past Hosts
Mike Tirico (host, 2002–2006)
Dan Patrick (host, 2006–2007)
Stuart Scott (host, 2008–2011)
Hannah Storm (host, 2010–2011)
Doris Burke (host, 2013–2016)
Sage Steele (host, 2013–2017)
Michelle Beadle (host, 2016–2019)
Maria Taylor (host, 2019–2021)
Mike Greenberg (host, 2021–2023)
Michael Eaves (Wednesday host, 2022)
References
2002 American television series debuts
American Broadcasting Company original programming
ABC Sports
Countdown
ESPN
2000s American television series
2010s American television series
2020s American television series |
4342271 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerberus%20Capital%20Management | Cerberus Capital Management | Cerberus Capital Management, L.P. is a global alternative investment firm with assets across credit, private equity, and real estate strategies. The firm is based in New York City, and run by Steve Feinberg, who co-founded Cerberus in 1992, with William L. Richter, who serves as a senior managing director. The firm has affiliate and advisory offices in the United States, Europe and Asia.
Cerberus has around US$60 billion under management in funds and accounts. The company is a U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission Registered Investment Adviser. Investors include government and private sector pension and retirement funds, charitable foundations, university endowments, insurance companies, family savings and sovereign wealth funds.
History
Cerberus is named after the mythological three-headed dog that guarded the gates of Hell. Feinberg has stated that while the Cerberus name seemed like a good idea at the time, he later regretted naming the company after the mythological dog.
Dan Quayle, former Vice President of the United States 1989–1993, who served under President George H. W. Bush, joined Cerberus in 1999 and is chairman of the company's Global Investments Division.
Cerberus has grown to include 11 offices in nine countries. Cerberus's largest locations include New York City, Chicago, and Boise, Idaho.
Areas of focus
The company has been an acquirer of businesses over the past several years and now has investments in financial services, healthcare, consumer & retail, government services, manufacturing & distribution, technology & telecommunications, building products, energy & natural resources, apparel, paper, packaging & printing, transportation, commercial services, industrial & automotive, real estate, travel & leisure, and weaponry.
The firm is active in private equity investment, lending, specialty finance, real estate investment, and securities trading. The firm's current investment portfolio includes more than 40 companies around the world with an average hold time of more than five years.
Cerberus maintains the Cerberus Operations & Advisory Company LLC (COAC), which consists of senior operating executives supporting the firm's due diligence and assisting its portfolio companies.
Cerberus Operations and Advisory Company LLC (COAC)
Cerberus utilizes an operations team of over 100 professionals to help source, analyze and monitor portfolio investments. Activities performed by members of COAC in the area of control private equity investments, include due diligence, acquisition planning, board membership, special project staffing and, where appropriate, occupying interim or full-time open positions.
Transactions and initiatives
On March 10, 2010, Cerberus entered into a financing deal with GeoEye in which the firm would provide the satellite imagery company funds of up to $215 million.
In March 2010, Cerberus was the lead investor that gained an ownership stake in Panavision as part of a debt restructuring agreement with shareholder MacAndrews & Forbes, the holding company of billionaire Ronald Perelman.
In March 2010, Cerberus agreed to buy New England's largest community-based healthcare system, the not-for-profit Caritas Christi Health Care, for $830 million, then withdrew its non-profit registration and changed its name to Steward Health Care that November.
On April 12, 2010, Cerberus acquired private government services contractor DynCorp International for approximately $1 billion and the assumption of $500 million of debt.
In June 2010, Cerberus agreed to sell Talecris to Spain's Grifols S.A. The transaction closed on June 1, 2011 at a value of $4.2 billion.
On November 19, 2010, Cerberus and Drago Capital acquired a real estate portfolio of 97 bank branches from Spain's fourth largest financial group, Caja Madrid, in a 25-year leaseback transaction.
On March 17, 2011, Cerberus acquired the senior bank debt and completed a debt restructuring of Maxim Office Park, a one million square foot office and logistics complex located between Glasgow and Edinburgh, Scotland.
On March 31, 2011, Cerberus acquired a real estate portfolio consisting of 45 Metro Cash & Carry properties in Germany from the three major shareholders of Metro AG.
On May 16, 2011, Cerberus completed the acquisition of Silverleaf Resorts, for $2.50 in cash per share.
On May 16, 2011, an affiliate of Cerberus agreed to acquire the U.S.-based global billing and payments unit of 3i Infotech Ltd. for $137 million.
On October 4, 2011, Cerberus and Garanti Securities announced the formation of a joint initiative to pursue investments in Turkey with an initial commitment of $400 million.
On October 19, 2011, J.P. Morgan Worldwide Securities Services announced that it was selected by Cerberus to provide fund administration and related securities services for Cerberus's investment funds.
On October 27, 2011, Cerberus and Chatham Lodging Trust closed their purchase of Innkeepers USA Trust for $1.02 billion. Innkeepers operates hotels, including the Marriott, Hyatt, Hilton, and other brands.
On December 22, 2011, Covis Pharma, a specialty pharmaceutical company owned by affiliates of Cerberus, announced that it had agreed to acquire full commercial rights for Fortaz (ceftazidime), Zinacef (cefuroxime), Lanoxin (digoxin), Parnate (tranylcypromine sulfate), and Zantac injection (ranitidine hydrochloride) in the United States and Puerto Rico from GlaxoSmithKline.
On January 18, 2012, RG Steel, LLC announced that affiliates of Cerberus committed new capital to the company.
On March 8, 2012, an affiliate of Cerberus closed its acquisition of a controlling interest in AT&T Advertising Solutions and AT&T Interactive, which were combined into a new entity YP Holdings LLC. AT&T received approximately $750 million in cash, a $200 million note and a 47-percent equity interest in YP Holdings LLC. David Krantz, former CEO and president of AT&T Interactive, was named CEO of YP.
On May 31, 2012, Cerberus completed the sale of textile company Guilford Mills to Lear Corporation.
On December 18, 2012, the company announced that it would divest its assets in Remington Outdoor Company, formerly Freedom Group. However, as of September 24, 2013, it had not sold any of the Remington Outdoor Company.
In January 2013, it announced a deal to acquire 877 stores in the Albertsons, Acme, Jewel-Osco, Shaw's, and Star Market chains from SuperValu for $100 million and assumption of $3.2 billion of SuperValu debt.
September 16, 2013, Cerberus closed Accurate Metal Solutions (AMS). Over 400 employees were laid off.
On March 6, 2014, Cerberus announced a definitive merger agreement with already owned Albertsons and Safeway.
On November 13, 2015, Cerberus agreed a deal to buy £13 billion ($16.5 billion) of subprime mortgages from UK Asset Resolution (UKAR).
On December 17, 2015, Cerberus announced a $605 million strategic partnership with Avon Products, Inc. According to terms of the agreement, Cerberus will buy 80% of Avon North America. In addition, the investment will result in a nearly 17% stake in Avon Products, Inc.
On January 26, 2016, Keane, a well completion services company owned by Cerberus, agreed to acquire the majority of Canada-based Trican Well Services Ltd.'s U.S. assets for $247 million.
On May 27, 2016, Cerberus sold its 57% stake in Blue Bird Corporation, an independent designer and manufacturer of school buses, to an affiliate of American Securities.
On June 23, 2016, General Electric announced a sale of its consumer finance business, GE Money Bank, to an affiliate of Cerberus.
On July 1, 2016, Cerberus acquired auto parts supplier ABC Group.
On December 7, 2016, Staples, Inc. and Cerberus announced they had entered into an agreement in relation to the sale of a controlling interest in Staples' European operations to a Cerberus affiliate.
In February 2018, Cerberus acquired HSH Nordbank.
In October 2019, Cerberus acquired Stratolaunch Systems, an aerospace company formed by Microsoft co-founder Paul G. Allen in 2011 that has built the world's largest airplane (by wingspan): the Stratolaunch After the acquisition, Stratolaunch is now focusing on offering high-speed flight test services. In March 2020, Cerberus faced backlash after threatening to close the unprofitable Easton Hospital in Lehigh Valley, Pennsylvania, amid the coronavirus pandemic.
In October 2021, Cerberus sold the securitization fund manager Haya Titulización to Beka Finance.
In November 2022, Cerberus acquired the Port of Subic Bay ahead of an impending return of more frequent visits by U.S. Navy vessels to the area of Central Luzon in the Philippines, amid rising tensions with China.
Additional involvements by sector
Pharmaceuticals
In December 2004, the company announced the acquisition of Bayer's plasma products business and renamed it Talecris Biotherapeutics. It purchased Talecris for $83m, and sold the bulk of its shares in October 2009, for a net gain of $1.8bn.
Paper products
The company acquired MeadWestvaco's paper business for $2.3B in 2005 and renamed it NewPage. Cerberus also purchased, from Georgia Pacific Corporation, its Distribution Division/Building Products and all of its associated real estate. It renamed this new company BlueLinx Holdings, based in Atlanta.
Aviation
The Portuguese company TAP Portugal was bought by a consortium that included David Neeleman (Founder of Azul Linhas Aéreas Brasileiras, JetBlue Airways and WestJet) and Humberto Pedrosa.
Government services (military, energy, and food & drug)
Cerberus owns IAP Worldwide Services, which bought Johnson Controls' World Services division in February 2005. Previously owned Multimax (purchased predecessor company in 2000 and Multimax in 2006; sold entire holding in 2007 to Harris Corporation). Cerberus owns Tier 1 Group, a private company that provides military training.
Real estate
Through investment affiliate Cerberus Real Estate, the company has been making direct equity, mezzanine, first mortgage, distressed and special situation investments in all asset types. Cerberus also has a minority stake in Miami Beach-based LNR Property, a large real estate development and investment firm through subsidiary Riley Property. In October 2015 Cerberus completed an acquisition from Building and Land Technology of a portfolio of single family rental homes to be managed by its affiliated company, FirstKey Homes, LLC; there are currently more than 6,000 homes in the portfolio.
Retail
Cerberus purchased 655 of the 2,500 Albertson's, Inc., grocery stores, forming Albertsons LLC of Boise, Idaho, in June 2006. It also had an ownership stake in the now-bankrupt Mervyn's department stores, which was acquired from Target Corp. In May 2012, Cerberus sold its holdings in Torex Retail Holdings, Ltd., a Dunstable, England-based provider of information technology systems for the retail, fuel and convenience stores and pub markets in the United Kingdom and Continental Europe that was acquired in June 2007, to MICROS Systems, Inc. In January 2013, it announced a deal to acquire 877 stores in the Albertson's, Acme, Shaw's and Star Market chains from SuperValu for $100 million and acquisition of $3.2 billion on SuperValu debt. In February 2014, it was reported that Safeway Inc was in advanced talks with private equity firm Cerberus Capital Management LP over a leveraged buyout deal. After integrating the Safeway purchase, on October 14, 2022 Kroger announced it would be acquiring Albertsons for $25 billion, combining the largest and second-largest supermarket chains in North America.
Transportation
Acquired bankrupt ANC Rental, then owner of the National and Alamo car rental chains, for $230 million in October 2003, and subsequently sold to Enterprise Rent-a-Car in 2007. Purchased DaimlerChrysler's 45% share of debis AirFinance, an aircraft leasing business, in May 2005. Acquisition of debis AirFinance (later renamed AerCap) was completed in July 2005. AerCap completed its IPO in 2006. Cerberus also acquired North American Bus Industries, Optima Bus Corporation, and Blue Bird Corp. in the bus manufacturing sector. (Cerberus sold its commercial bus manufacturing assets to New Flyer Industries in 2013 but retained the Blue Bird school bus production line.)
Automotive
Peguform (acquired by Cerberus in 2004 and sold it to Polytec four years later), GDX Automotive (owned by Cerberus until 2011), and Chrysler.
In 2007, Cerberus and about 100 other investors purchased an 80% stake in Chrysler for $7.4 billion seeking to bolster the auto maker's performance by operating as an independent company. In 2008, the plan collapsed due to an unprecedented slowdown in the U.S. auto industry and a lack of capital.
In response to questioning at a hearing before the House committee on December 5, 2008 by Rep. Ginny Brown-Waite, Chrysler President and CEO Robert Nardelli said that Cerberus' fiduciary obligations to its other investors and investments prohibited it from injecting capital. "In order to achieve that goal Cerberus has advised the U.S. Treasury that it would contribute its equity in Chrysler automotive to labor and creditors as currency to facilitate the accommodations necessary to affect the restructuring."
On April 30, 2009, Chrysler declared bankruptcy protection and announced that GMAC would become the financing source for new wholesale and retail Chrysler cars.
On March 30, 2009, Cerberus Capital Management announced that it would voluntarily give up its equity stake in the Chrysler as a condition of the US Treasury Department's bailout deal, but would retain its stake in Chrysler's financing arm, Chrysler Financial. Cerberus agreed to provide $2 billion to backstop a $4 billion December 2008 US Treasury Department loan given to Chrysler. In exchange for obtaining that loan, it promised many concessions including surrendering equity, foregoing profits, and giving up board seats. US Treasury and the Obama administration recognized the "sacrifices by key stakeholders" in an effort to give Chrysler the "opportunity to thrive as a long-term viable 21st century company".
Chrysler Financial, once the exclusive lending arm of the automaker, remained owned by Cerberus until April 2011.
Chrysler Financial initially refused to take $750 million in Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) government bailout aid because executives didn't want to abide by executive-pay limits, and because the firm doesn't necessarily need the money. In January 2009, Chrysler Financial was the recipient of $1.5 billion from the Troubled Asset Relief Program. The company said that it used the money to fund 85,000 loans to purchase Chrysler automobiles. Chrysler Financial repaid all of the TARP loan in July 2009 by raising funds from an asset-backed securitization through the Term Asset-Backed Securities Loan Facility program.
In December 2010, Cerberus agreed to sell certain assets of Chrysler Financial to TD Bank Group for $6.3 billion in cash, retaining approximately $1 billion in Chrysler Financial assets. This transaction, which closed in April 2011, allowed Cerberus to recover virtually all of its investment in Chrysler.Bloomberg. "Cerberus Is Said to Recoup 90% of Chrysler Investment After Loan Unit Sale" .
Staffing services
Advantage Hire Thinking (formerly known as Radia International).
Financial services
Cerberus acquired 51% of GMAC, General Motors' finance arm, in 2006 for $7.4 billion. It appointed Ezra Merkin as nonexecutive Chairman.The New York Times. "Inquiry Started of Financier Who Invested With Madoff" .
On December 10, 2008, GMAC said, "GMAC LLC, the auto and home lender seeking federal aid, hasn't obtained enough capital to become a bank holding company and may abandon the effort, casting new doubt on the firm's ability to survive. A $38 billion debt exchange by GMAC and its Residential Capital LLC mortgage unit to reduce the company's outstanding debt and raise capital hasn't attracted enough participation.” GMAC's exposure to the gap in residual values was around $3.5 billion.
In December 2008, Cerberus subsequently informed GMAC's bondholders that the financial services company may have to file for bankruptcy if a bond-exchange plan is not approved. The company had previously said it may fail in its quest to become a bank holding company because it lacks adequate capital. In January 2009, Merkin resigned from his chairmanship as a condition by the U.S. government. Five days earlier, the Federal Reserve granted GMAC bank holding company status, so it could get access to the bailout money. On December 29, 2008, the U.S. Treasury gave GMAC $5 billion from its $700 billion Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP). (On May 21, 2009, the US Treasury department announced it would invest an additional $7.5 billion in GMAC, and on December 30, 2009, the US Treasury department said that they would invest another $3.8 billion in GMAC because the company had been unable to raise additional funds in the private sector. This raised the total government investment in GMAC to $16.3 billion.)
Cerberus's investments in Chrysler and GMAC totaled about 7% of its assets under management. At the end of May 2009, Cerberus scaled back their ownership of GMAC as a condition of the lender becoming a bank-holding company, when the bulk of GM's existing ownership stake in GMAC was placed into a trust, overseen by a trustee appointed by the Treasury, to be gradually dispersed. Cerberus distributed the majority of its stake in GMAC to its investors. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) gave GMAC access to the Temporary Liquidity Guarantee Program that allows companies to borrow money at lower interest rates. The initiative was created in October 2008 to help banks borrow money by promising to repay investors if the banks defaulted. The U.S. Government also waived a rule that would restrict the amount of loans that GMAC could make to Chrysler's customers and dealers because both firms are owned in part by Cerberus Capital Management.
In December 2006, Cerberus acquired the Austrian bank BAWAG P.S.K. for a reported EUR3.2 billion. In August 2007, Cerberus announced that it was closing one of their mortgage companies, Aegis Mortgage. It owned half of a 9.9% share (5%) with the Gabriel Group in Bank Leumi, purchased in 2005, but as of April 19, 2009, it was decided to sell in order to boost capital. Cerberus also has a controlling interest in Japanese bank Aozora.
In Australia, Cerberus purchased Bluestone Mortgages (specialist mortgage lending and servicing) in 2018, Angle Finance (equipment finance) in 2019 and Westpac Group's Strategic Alliances (Vendor Finance) in 2020.
Firearms
Acquired Bushmaster Firearms International, from Windham, Maine native Dick Dyke for an undisclosed sum in April 2006, and purchased Remington Arms in April 2007. Under Cerberus direction, Bushmaster Firearms acquired Cobb Manufacturing, a manufacturer of large-caliber tactical rifles in August 2007. Cerberus also acquired DPMS Panther Arms December 14, 2007. Remington Arms acquired Marlin Firearms in January 2008. In October 2009, Remington Military products acquired silencer manufacturer Advanced Armament Corporation. These companies were combined into the Remington Outdoor Company. Cerberus made plans to sell its share in the Remington Outdoor Company on December 18, 2012, after the Bushmaster AR-15 was used in the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting. This decision was made due to a threat by the board of the California state teachers' pension plan, which owns a stake in the company, to dispose of stakes it holds in any firearms manufacturer that makes weapons banned by California state law. In March 2014, Cerberus rejected a $1 billion buyout offer for Remington Outdoor Company and thereafter was unable to find a satisfactory buyer. Cerberus continued to have ownership in Remington Outdoor Company, and CalSTRS announced its divestment from Cerberus' gun holdings in June 2015. In March 2018, Freedom Group, now known as Remington Outdoor Company sought chapter 11 bankruptcy protection.In re Remington Outdoor Company Inc., 18-10684, U.S. Bankruptcy Court, District of Delaware (Delaware)
Entertainment
Acquired a group of seven television stations, Four Points Media Group, from CBS Corporation in 2007. On September 8, 2011, Cerberus announced the sale of these same seven stations to the Sinclair Broadcast Group for $200 million; this sale was completed on January 1, 2012.
Spyglass Entertainment, an American film and production company, is also owned by Cerberus.
In 2007, Cerberus bought Corvest a promotional products company based in Largo, Florida with branches in Simi Valley, California & Thorofare, New Jersey.
Other sectors
In 2007, Cerberus sold a holding in Formica, Inc.
Broken deal for United Rentals
In the summer of 2007, Cerberus agreed to buy United Rentals, the world's largest equipment rental company that was traded on the NYSE. After the credit markets began to tighten in August, Cerberus decided not to make the acquisition, agreeing to pay United Rentals a $100 million "reverse termination fee" that the parties had negotiated and included in their agreement. United Rentals sued in the Delaware Court of Chancery for specific performance (i.e., a court mandate that Cerberus complete the deal). Cerberus cited the clear language contained in the deal agreement that capped its liability for not completing the transaction at $100 million. After a two-day trial, Delaware Chancellor William B. Chandler, III, ruled in favor of Cerberus, writing in his ruling that "URI knew or should have known what Cerberus' understanding of the merger agreement was." In a statement, Cerberus said it was "gratified" by the court's ruling and was "pleased that the court chose to decide the case on the merits and confirm that Cerberus acted in accordance with its rights and obligations."
See also
Top 100 US Federal Contractors
Notes and references
Notes
References
Kelley, Matt. "The Congressman and the hedge fund." USA Today. January 19, 2006.
Thornton, Emily. "What's Bigger Than Cisco, Coke, Or McDonald's?" Business Week October 2005.
Stringer, Kortney. "Car Rental Companies are sold." Wall Street Journal. October 16, 2003.
"Acquisition of LNR Property Corporation Completed" Business Wire. February 3, 2005.
"Hirsch, Jerry. "Albertsons To Be Sold, Divided Into 3." Los Angeles Times''. January 24, 2006.
Bushmaster Continues to Grow with New Owner
"Acquisition of debis AirFinance Completed," press release from AerCap, July 4, 2005.
"Cerberus Takes Over Majority Interest in Chrysler Group for $7.4B," press release from DaimlerChrysler AG.
External links
Cerberus Capital Management home page
1992 establishments in New York City
Drexel Burnham Lambert
Financial services companies based in New York City
Financial services companies established in 1992
Hedge fund firms in New York City
Private equity firms of the United States |
4342515 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20defunct%20retailers%20of%20the%20United%20States | List of defunct retailers of the United States | Below is a list of notable defunct retailers of the United States.
Across the United States, a large number of local stores and store chains that started between the 1920s and 1950s have become defunct since the late 1960s, when many chains were either consolidated or liquidated. Some may have been lost due to mergers, while others were affected by a phenomenon of large store closings in the 2010s known as the retail apocalypse.
Automotive
Al's Auto Supply Chain that operated in Washington, California, Idaho, Oregon, Nevada and Alaska; purchased by CSK Auto. Founded by Abe "Al" Wexler in Everett, Washington in the late 1950s; sold 15 store chain to Paccar in 1987; Paccar sold chain (along with Grand Auto) in 1999 to CSK Auto which eventually rebranded stores as Schucks.
Auto Palace A New England-based chain that had 112 stores in six states before it was acquired and rebranded by AutoZone in 1998
Auto Works Began in Michigan in 1976 by Perry Drug Stores and which grew mostly through acquisitions prior to being sold to Northern Automotive in 1988. In turn, Northern became CSK and CSK sold Auto Works to Hahn Automotive in 1993 before Hahn finally closed Auto Works in 1997. At its height, there were 252 stores in eight states.
Chief Auto Parts acquired and rebranded by AutoZone in 1998
CSK Auto (CSK = Checker, Schucks, Kragen) based in Phoenix, Arizona with stores nationwide; bought by O'Reilly Auto Parts in 2008
Parts America Sears created the Parts America store concept in 1995 and tried to convert full service Western Auto stores into the parts only Parts America brand until it sold the stores to Advance Auto Parts in 1998. Upon merger, Parts America stores were rebranded Advance Auto Parts and the website partsamerica.com became a web only store for Advance Auto Parts. With financial backing from Sears, Advance Auto Parts decided to make the partsamerica.com into a portal for web purchasing of auto parts as part of a joint venture with CSK Auto. The website appeared to have been deactivated by 2009.
Super Shops filed for bankruptcy in 1998
Trak Auto Mid-Atlantic, Midwest, and West Coast; founded by Robert Haft (Crown Books) in 1981; purchased and rebranded by Advance Auto Parts in 2002
Western Auto nationwide, once had 1,800 locations, purchased by Sears in 1987 and sold to and rebranded by Advance Auto Parts in 1998
Camping, sports or athletic stores
Davega Stores bankrupt in 1963
Galyan's Trading Post acquired by Dick's Sporting Goods in 2004
Gander Mountain rebranded as Gander Outdoors in 2019 following bankruptcy and reorganization
G.I. Joe's Oregon and Washington; rebranded as Joe's in 2007, went bankrupt and closed in 2009; seven locations taken over by Dick's Sporting Goods
Golfsmith went bankrupt in 2016 and acquired by Dick's Sporting Goods; 36-38 locations rebranded as Golf Galaxy
Herman's World of Sporting Goods went bankrupt in 1993 and closed in 1996
Just for Feet bankrupt in 1999, acquired by Footstar, final stores closed in 2004
MC Sports filed for bankruptcy and closed in 2017
Modell's Sporting Goods first store opened in 1889. On March 11, 2020, the company filed for bankruptcy, and announced it would close all 115 stores. At the time of the announcement, Modell's was the world’s oldest sporting goods chain
Olympia Sports the company was founded in 1975, and on July 22, 2022, the company filed for bankruptcy and announced it would close all 35 stores by September 30th
Oshman's Sporting Goods founded in Houston in 1933; acquired by Gart Sports in 2001; most stores rebranded as Sports Authority
Sportmart merged with Gart Sports in 1998 and closed in 2000
Sports Authority bankrupt in 2016 and liquidated. Brand was acquired by Dick's Sporting Goods
Sports Unlimited First store in 1983. In 2008 closed all stores and moved online.
Sport Chalet went bankrupt and closed in 2016
Sportswest owned by Pay 'n Save and spun off in 1984; acquired by Big 5 Sporting Goods in 1988
Sunny's Surplus went bankrupt in 2000 but emerged in 2001; filed for bankruptcy again in 2007 and closed most locations; three reopened in late 2007 but shut down again in 2008
Catalog showrooms
Best Productsfiled for bankruptcy for the second time in September 1996 and closed all of its stores by the following February
Brendle's became bankrupt and liquidated in 1996
Consumers Distributing sought bankruptcy protection in 1996
Ellman's acquired by Service Merchandise in 1985
H. J. Wilson Co. Southern states, based in Baton Rouge, Louisiana; acquired by Service Merchandise in 1986
K's Merchandise Mart – liquidated in 2006
Luria's – originally L. Luria & Son, was a chain of catalog showroom stores in Florida, from 1961 to 1997.
Service Merchandise closed all its retail stores by early 2002; the name was resurrected in 2004 for an online retail operation
Witmark operated in southwestern Michigan; founded 1969, liquidated 1997
Clothing, shoe and specialty stores
Abby Z. plus size design label founded by Abby Zeichner in 2004. The Abby Z flagship store opened in SoHo, New York at 57 Greene Street in 2008 and closed in 2009 when its parent company filed for bankruptcy.
Anchor Blue – youth-oriented mall chain, founded in 1972 as Miller's Outpost. The brand had 150 stores at its peak, predominantly on the West Coast. Anchor Blue declared bankruptcy in 2009 and shuttered more than 50 stores, and gradually shrank to include stores solely in California. It went bankrupt once more in 2011, with the remaining stores closed before Easter of that year.
Anderson-Little – men's specialty retailer originally associated with a large Massachusetts-based men's clothing manufacturer; also known as Anderson Little-Richman Brothers; owned for many years by F. W. Woolworth Company. Ceased operations in 1998, revived as a small online retailer in 2008.
Casual Corner liquidated in 2005
Chess King – sold to Merry-Go-Round in 1993; liquidated along with that chain in 1995
Christopher & Banks – bankrupted in 2021 from financial loss, because of the COVID-19 pandemic
County Seat – founded in 1973, the denim-focused mall retailer expanded in the 1980s to nearly 500 stores. It filed for bankruptcy in 1996 and shuttered stores, and another bankruptcy in 1999 put the company out of business.
Cygnet Shops women's fashion store that closed in 1975
DEB closed its stores in 2015, and returned later that year as an online-only retailer selling plus-size clothing
Delia's – founded in 1993 as a juniors' clothing catalog, Delia's (stylized as dELiA*s) expanded to more than 100 physical locations before cheaper competitors sent it to bankruptcy in 2014. It was reopened in 2015 as an online retailer, but this was unsuccessful and has been licensed by online fashion company Dolls Kill since 2018.
Disney Store – owned and operated by The Walt Disney Company. Closed the majority of its retail stores in 2021 mainly due to the COVID-19 pandemic, with merchandise moved online and to department stores such as Target and JCPenney.
Edison Brothers Stores – operator of numerous shoe and clothing chains, including Bakers Shoes, Wild Pair, J. Riggings, Oaktree, Foxmoor and Fashion Conspiracy. Company was liquidated in 1999, though some chains it operated, including Bakers, have survived.
Fashion Bug – plus-size women's clothing retailer that once spanned more than 1000 stores. Parent company Charming Shoppes, which owned other plus-size retailers including Lane Bryant, shuttered the brand in early 2013.
Florsheim – mall shoe store; still sells online
Gadzooks – Founded in 1983 as a T-shirt store, Gadzooks grew to a 250-store mall fashion retailer before making an ill-advised decision to discontinue menswear. The company was purchased by competitor Forever 21 out of bankruptcy in 2005, with its stores either closed or converted to F21 formats.
Gantos – a women's specialty clothing retailer based in Grand Rapids, Michigan. In late 1993, the company announced bankruptcy reorganization, closing 50 stores between 1993 and 1994, and the chain announced the liquidation of its remaining 114 stores by the end of the decade, ceasing operations in 2000.
Gottschalks – Founded in 1904, this middle-market regional department store was once the largest independently owned, publicly traded department store in the United States. Bankruptcy claimed the brand in 2009.
Hahn's Shoes (1876–1995) Washington, D.C. region
Harold's founded in 1948 in Norman, Oklahoma, and liquidated through bankruptcy in 2008
Hess Shoe Store (1872–1999) Baltimore, Maryland region.
J. Brannam a unit of the F. W. Woolworth Company established in 1979 that operated primarily in the southern U.S.; closed in 1985
J. Byrons Florida-based retailer, sold to Uptons, closed in 1996
Jay Jacobs Seattle-based clothier; founded in 1941 and closed in 1999
Kids "R" Us – a division of Toys "R" Us, created in 1983 to sell children's and preteen clothing; folded in 2003
Kinney Shoes manufacturer and retailer established in 1894 and purchased by F.W. Woolworth in 1963
Kleinhans a men's clothier in Buffalo, New York that operated from 1893 until 1992
Klopfenstein's a men's clothier in the Seattle-Tacoma area founded in 1918 and in operation until 1992
The Limited filed for bankruptcy and liquidated in 2017. Its products became available again online after the brand was acquired by Sycamore Properties.
Margo's LaMode Dallas-based women's clothing store that closed in 1996 after corporate parent underwent bankruptcy reorganization
Martin + Osa – Established in 2006 as the more mature counterpart to American Eagle Outfitters, the chain grew to 28 stores before millions in losses forced its parent company to discontinue it. The brand's stores and e-commerce site disappeared in 2010.
Merry-Go-Round – Merry-Go-Round had more than 500 locations during its heyday in the 1980s. It went bankrupt in 1995.
Mervyn's – a California-based regional department store founded in 1949. Mervyn's ill-fated expansion out of West Coast markets in the months before a recession sent the company into bankruptcy in 2008.
Miller's Outpost see "Anchor Blue" above
Payless (footwear retailer) – Filed for bankruptcy twice and closed all stores in Canada and the US in 2019.
Raleigh's also known as Raleigh Haberdasher; a men's and women's clothing store in Washington, D.C., 1911–1992
Robert Hall clothing store that existed from 1938 to 1977. At its peak, the store had locations in both New York City and Los Angeles. In addition, the firm invented the big box concept where all non-clothing lines were leased by other retailers.
Rogers Peet New York City based men's clothing retailer established in late 1874. Among the chain's innovations: Rogers Peet showed actual merchandise in their advertising, advertised fabric types on merchandise, and put price tags on merchandise. The chain went belly-up in 1981.
Roos/Atkins – a San Francisco menswear retailer formed in 1957 and expanded throughout the Bay Area in the 60s. The brand went into decline in the 1980s and ceased operations by 1995.
Ruehl No.925 concept brand launched by Abercrombie & Fitch in 2004; poor sales and operating losses led to A&F ceasing operations of Ruehl in early 2010
The Sample Western New York based retailer founded in Buffalo in 1928 when its founder brought a sample set of 48 dresses back from New York City. At its peak, the retailer was noted for its semi-annual clearance known as the Pup Sale. The demise of The Sample was in 1991 following the death of the chain's chairman a year earlier.
Sibley's Shoes a show retailer founded by Harry Rosenfield in 1920; had locations in Michigan and Ohio and closed in 2003 when the company's executives decided to not save the company
Steve & Barry's "extreme value" retail clothing chain that operated 276 stores in 39 states.
Sycamore Shops an Indianapolis-based women's clothing retailer; spun off from L.S. Ayres; was later forced into bankruptcy and liquidated by early 1996
Thom McAn shoe retailer founded in 1922; had over 1,400 stores at its peak in the 1960s. In 1996, the parent company decided to close all remaining stores, but Thom McAn footwear is available in Kmart stores.
Today's Man – a men's suiting store that began in the 1970s and expanded rapidly in the 1980s and 90s. Overexpansion brought the brand to bankruptcy in 1996.
Virginia Dare Dresses, Incorporated merged with Atlantic Thrift Centers, Inc in 1963
Warner Brothers Studio Store – Meant to be the WB answer to the rapidly growing Disney Store, the Warner Bros. Studio Stores sold collectibles and apparel based around WB properties including Looney Tunes and DC Comics. The Studio Stores were a victim of the AOL-Time Warner merger, and shuttered operations in 2001.
Yellow Front Stores – Founded in the 1950s as an army surplus store, Yellow Front transitioned to become a camping gear retailer before going bankrupt in 1990.
Department and discount stores
Drug stores
A–M
A. L. Price Metro Detroit; part of Perry Drug Stores
Adams Drug Company
Arbor Drugs Michigan-based chain; acquired by CVS Pharmacy
Big "B" Drugs
Brooks Pharmacy chain of more than 330 pharmacies located throughout New England and New York with corporate headquarters were located in Warwick, Rhode Island; was acquired by Rite Aid in 2007
Cunningham Drug Stores Metro Detroit, Michigan area; founded 1889, dissolved in 1982
Dart Drug converted to Fantle's
Dorb the Chemist, Inc. filed for bankruptcy in 1932
Drug Emporium
Drug Fair – Alexandria Virginia based drug chain.
Eckerd Corporation acquired by CVS Pharmacy in the South and Rite Aid in the Northeast–Mid atlantic Region
Fantle's
Farmacias El Amal San Juan, Puerto Rico, firm; 20 locations bought by Walgreens in 2008; remaining closed in 2011
Fay's Drug
G. O. Guy acquired by Thrifty PayLess
Genovese Drug Stores
Gray Drug purchased by Rite Aid
Haag Drug Company
Happy Harry's acquired by Walgreens
Hook's Drug Stores acquired by Revco
K&B (also known as Katz & Bestoff) a New Orleans, Louisiana-based pharmacy and general merchandise store chain
Kinsley & Darling Druggists
LaVerdiere's Super Drug Stores a Maine-based pharmacy acquired by Rite Aid in 1994
N–Z
Osco Drug & Sav-on Drugs freestanding locations acquired by CVS Pharmacy; Osco still exists as the pharmacy within Jewel
Pay 'n Save
Peoples Drug acquired by CVS Pharmacy
Perry Drug Stores acquired by Rite Aid in 1995
Phar-Mor bankrupt due to $500 million embezzlement; some assets acquired by Giant Eagle
Read's Drug Store
Reliable Drug Stores
Revco Most locations acquired by CVS Pharmacy and Some Locations In Virginia and Binghamton Were Acquired by Eckerd Corporation
Rexall
Rx Place Woolworth
Sav-on
Schwab's Pharmacy Hollywood, California, hangout for movie actors; closed in 1983
Skaggs Drug Centers became part of Albertsons, Inc.
Snyder Drug Stores acquired by Walgreens in 2010
Standard Drug Company was part of Melville Corporation
SupeRx Kroger created the first SupeRx store in 1961 with most stores next door or very close to existing Kroger stores
Tam's Gold Seal Drugs Central Indiana-based chain
Thrift Drug merged into Eckerd after J.C. Penney bought Eckerd
Thrifty PayLess acquired by Rite Aid in 1996
Treasury Drug acquired by J.C. Penney, then shuttered in 1980
Value Giant
Wellby Super Drug
Electronics stores
47th Street Photo
Allied Radio Chicago, Illinois, acquired by Radio Shack in 1970; some stores sold to Schaak Electronics in 1973, a few stores converted to Radio Shack, and the rest closed
Bernie's
Bryn Mawr Stereo
Circuit City filed for bankruptcy in 2008 and liquidated on March 8, 2009; reopened online through Tiger Direct in April 2009; closed again in late December 2012; intellectual property was sold again to Circuit City Corp. in January 2016, which plans to open an online operation and retail stores
CompuAdd bankrupted in 1993
CompUSA on November 2, 2012, it was announced that Systemax would drop both the CompUSA and Circuit City storefront brands; CompUSA was relaunched in 2018 as an online retailer.
Computer City CompUSA quickly closed this chain after purchasing it from Tandy in 1998
Crazy Eddie liquidated in 1989
Davega Stores bankrupt in 1963
Douglas TV
DOW Stereo/Video
Erol's
Federated Group
Fretter
Fry's Electronics Closed permanently after 35 years as a result of low sales due to online competition and the COVID-19 pandemic
Future ShopClosed in the US 1999. Bought out by Best Buy 2001. March 28, 2015, Best Buy announced the dissolution of the Future Shop brand and the closure of 66 of its locations.
Gateway Country operated by Gateway from 1996 to 2004
Good Guys purchased by CompUSA in 2003
H. H. Gregg, Inc. Went bankrupt and closed in 2017; relaunched as an online retailer in 2017 and opened its first brick and mortar store in 2019 following bankruptcy.
HiFi Buys
Highland Superstores liquidated in 1993
Incredible Universe closed in 1997; six stores acquired by Fry's Electronics and the rest shut down
J&R major New York City electronics and music store officially closed in April 2014
Lafayette Radio
Lechmere
Luskin's Baltimore, Maryland-based appliance and electronics retailer
Mars Music Founded in 1996, over-expansion, a struggle to raise financial capital and a failed reorganization attempt led to Chapter 7 bankruptcy in 2002.
Newmark and Lewis
Olson Electronics (currently a redirect that needs expansion) a nationwide electronics store chain founded in 1927 by brothers Sidney, Philip and Irving Olsen in Akron, Ohio; at one time had more retail locations than Radio Shack; sold to Teledyne in 1968 and rebranded Teledyne Olson Electronics; later sold to 3 Chicago investors in August 1984 who later filed for bankruptcy just 15 months later; filed for bankruptcy in 1985
Polk Brothers
RCA
Schaak Electronics liquidated in 1986 after filing for bankruptcy the second time in a decade
Sharper Image filed for bankruptcy in 2008 only to relaunch in 2009.
Silo
Sound Advice
Steinberg's
Sun Television and Appliances bankrupt and liquidated in 1998
Video Concepts
Tech HiFi
TigerDirect In 2015, TigerDirect phased out brick-and-mortar retail operations. Online operations continued until March 31, 2023 when parent company Insight officially retired the brand.
Tweeter Went bankrupt in 2008; original company remains as a shell company.
Ultimate Electronics
United Audio Centers
The Warehouse
The Wiz
Five-and-dime; variety stores
Ben Franklin (company)
Caldor
Danners 5 & 10
E. J. Korvette
F. W. Woolworth Company successor corporation is Foot Locker Inc.
Fred's
G. C. Murphy
GEM
Gemco
H. L. Green
Hills
Hudson Brothers'
J.G. McCrory
Modell's Shopper's World
J.J. Newberry
Jamesway
King's Department Stores
Kuhn's Big K acquired by Walmart in 1981
MacFrugals merged into Big Lots!
McLellan's
Neisner's
Otasco Arkansas, Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas
Richman Gordman business model was overhauled and name shortened to Gordmans in the late 1990s
Rodgers Oregon
S. Klein
S. H. Kress
S. S. Kresge sold all original S.S. Kresge stores, renamed Kmart in 1977
Shopper's City
Sky City
Sprouse-Reitz
TG&Y
Times Square Stores
Two Guys
W.T. Grant went bankrupt in 1976; more a small scale department store than a 5 and 10 variety store
Woolco big box store version of Woolworth – owned by F.W. Woolworth
Zody's
Furniture stores
Art Van Furniture Founded in 1959 in Warren, MI, and operated over 300 stores and outlets in 7 states. On March 5, 2020, Art Van Furniture announced it would liquidate all of their company owned stores and file for chapter 11 bankruptcy.
Barker Bros. Los Angeles-based furniture store chain which was at one time the largest furniture store chain on the west coast for nearly a century before it filed for bankruptcy in 1992
Bombay Company U.S. stores
Castro Convertibles primarily Northeast and Southeast U.S.
Fradkin Brothers Furniture Baltimore County, Maryland
Georg Jensen Inc. (New York, NY) (1935-1968)
Harden Furniture was in business for 175 years before ceasing operations
Heilig-Meyers
Levitz Furniture was in business for nearly 100 years before liquidating in bankruptcy in early 2008
Linens 'n Things
Mattress Barn Florida
Rhodes Furniture
The Room Store
Seaman's Furniture merged into Levitz Furniture in 2005
Sleepy'smerged into Mattress Firm in 2016
Wickes Furniture went bankrupt February 3, 2008
Grocery stores and supermarkets
A–M
365 by Whole Foods Market convert to regular Whole Foods stores in 2019 after Amazon acquired Whole Foods
A&P also known as The Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company; filed for bankruptcy for the second time in July 2015 and closed its last store in November 2015
ABC Markets
ABCO Foods- former Arizona division of Alpha Beta spun off in 1984; stores closed by 2003
AJ Bayless- Arizona; stores sold to Bashas’ in 1993
Alpha Beta converted to Ralphs or Food 4 Less in 1994
Big Bear Stores Columbus, Ohio based chain; stores closed or sold to Kroger by 2004. Unrelated chain in San Diego with same name sold to Fleming Companies and Albertsons in 1994
BI-LO – dissolved in 2021
Bohack
Bottom Dollar Food acquired by Aldi 2015
Boys Markets converted to Ralphs or Food 4 Less in 1994
Bruno's
Buehler Foods operated as Buehler's Buy-Low
Buttrey Food & Drug Montana, Wyoming, North Dakota; sold to Albertsons in 1998
Cala Foods and Bell Markets rebranded as DeLano's IGA; others sold to other retailers
Carter's Foods
Chatham Supermarkets chain headquartered in Southeastern Michigan founded by Royal Supermarkets in the mid-1950s, bankrupt in 1987, acquired by Kroger after defunct
Clemens Markets suburban Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; acquired by Giant in 2006
Colonial Stores
Big Star Markets
Dahl's Foods Des Moines, Iowa-based chain; acquired by Associated Wholesale Grocers after bankruptcy and rebranded as Price Chopper and Cash Saver in 2015
Delchamps
Dick's Supermarket Southwestern Wisconsin; acquired by Piggly Wiggly in 2006
Dominick's Chicagoland; operated by Safeway from 1998 until the last closures in January 2014; some locations acquired by Jewel, Whole Foods Market, Mariano's Fresh Market, and Heinen's Fine Foods
Eagle Food Centers- Midwest chain; ceased operations by 2003
Earth Fare as of 2021, 19 stores reopened
Eisner Food Stores downstate Illinois chain acquired by Jewel Food Stores, stores converted to the Jewel name by 1985
Family MartFlorida-based Family Mart division of A&P was closed in 1999
Farmer Jack Metro Detroit; acquired by A&P in 1989, closed July 7, 2007, then liquidated
Fazio's originally was Fisher Foods; in California, first known as Fazio's Shopping Bag and then just Fazio's
Finast (also known as First National Stores) purchased by Ahold; rebranded Edwards
Fisher Foods was named Fazio's after a merger in 1965
Food Fair later Pantry Pride
Fresh & Easy California, Nevada, Arizona; American subsidiary of British retailer Tesco
Furrs Supermarkets New Mexico/West Texas; went bankrupt in 2001.
Genuardi's defunct as of 2012 as a chain; 2015 all locations
Giant Ralphs big box format; Southern California
Giant Open Air merged with Farm Fresh Food & Pharmacy
Grand Union New Jersey- and New York-area chain; bankrupt; bought and became Grand Union Family Markets in Upstate New York and Vermont; purchased by Tops Friendly Markets in 2012, converting them to the Tops banner in 2013
Haggen west coast regional chain, acquired by Albertsons
Hills Supermarkets
Hinky Dinky Nebraska chain acquired by Nash Finch in 2000
Hughes Marketsa Southern California-based supermarket chain that was first acquired by QFC in 1996 and then merger into Ralphs the following year when the parent companies of both Hughes and Ralphs were simultaneously acquired by Fred Meyer
Jewel T founded by the Jewel Companies as their discount chain, but was sold to Save-A-Lot in 1984 when Jewel was acquired by American Stores
Jitney Jungle
Kash n' Karry became Sweetbay Supermarket
Kessel Food Market — Michigan chain sold to Kroger
Kohl's Food Stores Wisconsin chain acquired by A&P and closed by 2003
Laneco Eastern Pennsylvania/Western New Jersey; closed in 2001
Loblaws Northeastern Ohio, Northwestern Pennsylvania and Western New York. Stores in California sold in 1976.
Market Basket (California) Former Kroger associated chain that operated in Southern California from 1930 to 1982. Not related to similar named chains in Texas, Louisiana, or New England.
Mars (supermarket)Maryland grocery chain which operated from 1943 to 2016.
Marsh Supermarkets Indiana and Ohio chain that was liquidated in 2017
N–Z
National Tea
O'Malia's Food Markets Central Indiana chain that was liquidated in 2017
Omni Superstore Dominick's big-box format
Pantry Pride
Pathmark
Pay'n Takit acquired by Safeway
Penn Dutch – south Florida chain that shut liquidated in 2019
Penn Fruit
Pick-N-Pay Supermarkets — Cleveland area chain acquired by Finast
Purity Supreme Boston area
QFI
Quality Markets owned by Penn Traffic, Western New York; acquired by Tops Friendly Markets
Rainbow Foods Twin Cities chain owned by Fleming Companies, then Roundy's. Roundy's exited Minnesota in 2014.
Red Food Chattanooga, Tennessee, area; acquired by Bi-Lo Stores
Red Owl Upper Midwest; acquired by Supervalu in 1988
Sage's Sage's Complete Markets based in San Bernardino, California, chain that was liquidated in 1973.
Sav-A-Center A&P in the New Orleans, Louisiana, region
Schwegmann Brothers Giant Supermarkets New Orleans, Louisiana; acquired by National Tea
Seaway Food Town Northwest Ohio chain sold to Spartan Stores in 2000; remaining stores closed or sold by 2003
Seessel's Supermarkets Memphis chain acquired by Schnucks
Shopping Bag Food Stores Southern California chain that was founded in 1930 and later acquired by Vons and then Fazio's before it was rebranded and later sold to Albertsons in 1978
Skaggs-Alpha Beta
Sunflower Market SuperValu-owned natural foods market; closed in 2008; never affiliated with the southwestern US chain of the same name
Super Duper
Super Fresh
Super Saver Foods
Twin Valu – hypermarket launched by SuperValu (owner of Cub Foods and ShopKo) in Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio in 1989 and Euclid, Ohio (1990); closed March 1995
Ukrop's Richmond, Virginia chain acquired by Ahold and converted to Martin's in 2010; notable for pioneering ready-to-eat foods in the 1980s
Victory Supermarkets Greater Boston chain sold to Hannaford
Waldbaum's New York metropolitan area (liquidated in 2015)
Weingarten's Houston area, Arkansas, Louisiana; sold to Safeway in 1983
White Hen Pantry merged with 7-Eleven in mid-2007
Wild Oats Markets
Home decor and craft stores
A.C. Moore
Bombay Company
Frank's Nursery & Crafts
Hancock Fabrics bankrupt 2016; intellectual property acquired by Michaels
Leewards
Old America bankrupt 1999 and liquidated remaining stores
Pier 1 Imports permanently closed all 540 of its stores in 2020
Waccamaw's Homeplace/Waccamaw Pottery
Wicks 'N' Sticks
Home improvement
Builder's Emporium
Builder's Square subsidiary of Kmart; sold to Hechinger
Channel Home Centers
Contractor Supply
Eagle Hardware & Garden bought by Lowe's in 1999
Ernst Home Centers Seattle, Washington
EXPO Design Center
Forest City became Handy Andy
Furrow Building Materials
Gamble-Skogmo bought by Our Own Hardware in 1986
Handy Andy Home Improvement Center
Handy Dan
Hechinger
Home Quarters Warehouse (HQ)
HomeBase
Hugh M. Woods Building Materials
Knox Lumber
Lechters Housewares a kitchenware and home decor store
Lumberjack Building Materials
Orchard Supply Hardware closed by Lowe's in 2018
Pay 'N Pak
Payless Cashways included Furrows & Payless; all assets liquidated as of November 2001
Pergament Home Centers
Rickel
Scotty's Builders Supply
Somerville Lumber
Yardbirds Home Center
Music, booksellers, and video stores (records, tapes, books, CDs, DVDs, etc.)
A–M
B. Dalton closed in 2010
Blockbuster Music sold to Wherehouse Music in 1998; some locations converted to Wherehouse Music; majority were closed
Blockbuster Video sold to Dish Network in 2011; all company-owned stores were closed January 12, 2014, but 1 franchise store remains open in Bend, Oregon.
Bookstop
Borders Books filed for bankruptcy in 2011; some locations purchased by Books-A-Million; borders.com website acquired by Barnes & Noble Booksellers
Camelot Music converted to FYE stores
CD World converted to FYE
Coconuts Music converted to FYE
Crown Books founded by Robert Haft in 1977; liquidated in 2001 after second bankruptcy
Disc Jockey converted to FYE
Encore Books permanently closed in 1999
Family Christian Stores filed for bankruptcy in April 2015, forced to liquidate all stores in 2017
Harmony House Michigan
Hastings Entertainment filed for bankruptcy in June 2016. Remaining stores closed October 31, 2016
Hollywood Video ceased operations in May 2010
Incredible Universe Several stores bought by Frys
J&R New York City; closed their music store at the beginning of 2014
Kim's Video and Music
King Karol New York City
Kroch's and Brentano's Chicago-based bookstore chain; filed for bankruptcy in 1995
Licorice Pizza Southern California chain that was started in Long Beach by James Greenwood in 1969, acquired by Record Bar in 1985, acquired by Musicland in 1986, and rebranded Sam Goody. In November 2021, director Paul Thomas Anderson released a movie with the same name loosely based on this chain.
Media Play closed and dissolved in 2006; a media superstore (books, music, and video) concept created by Musicland in 1992
Movie Gallery operated stores under the Hollywood Video, Movie Gallery, and Game Crazy brands; liquidated and closed in 2010
MovieStop (purchased by Hastings Entertainment shortly before bankruptcy)
Music Plus Southern California-based chain that was acquired by Blockbuster and converted
Musicland founded in Minneapolis in 1955, acquired by American Can in 1977; Musicland Group acquired Sam Goody in 1978 while keeping brand separate until 1997 when the Musicland Group decided to rebrand all existing Musicland stores as Sam Goody; Musicland Group acquired by Best Buy in 2001 and eventually sold to Trans World Entertainment
N–Z
National Record Mart a Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania-based company that went bankrupt in 2002
Planet Music converted to FYE
Record Bar malls; acquired by Blockbuster in 1993 and converted
Record Town store name changed to FYE by parent company Trans World Entertainment
Record World company also operated The Record Shops at TSS; was purchased by W.H. Smith after declaring bankruptcy in 1992; rebranded The Wall the following year
Sam Goody most locations converted to FYE, but two locations continue to operate as Sam Goody
Saturday Matinee converted to FYE
Sound Warehouse Dallas, Texas based chain; acquired by Blockbuster in 1992 and all stores converted to Blockbuster Music.
Spec's Music Florida-based chain; last store closed in 2013
Strawberries Music converted to FYE
Streetside Records converted to FYE
Suncoast Motion Picture Company converted to FYE, though three continue to operate as Suncoast Motion Picture Company.
Tape World a store concept created by Trans World Entertainment in 1979 but later replaced by its f.y.e. store concept
Tower Records founded in 1960 in Sacramento, California; all retail stores were liquidated in 2006 and the name was purchased for use as an online-only retailer
Turtle's Records & Tapes Atlanta, Georgia based chain with most stores located in Georgia and Florida; acquired by Blockbuster in 1993 and converted
Virgin Megastores all Megastores in the United States were closed in 2009 and the remaining airport stores closed a few years later
Waldenbooks in 2011 the chain was liquidated after parent Borders filed for bankruptcy in 2011
Wallichs Music City the largest music retailer on the West Coast during the 1950s and 1960s; founded by Glenn Wallich, founder of Capitol Records; had stores in California and briefly in Arizona before it went bankrupt in 1977
West Coast Video permanently closed in 2009
Wherehouse Music filed for bankruptcy in 2003; Trans World took control of 111 stores and liquidated nearly a third of them
Jewelers
Bailey Banks & Biddle (1832-2020)
Crescent/Friedman's Jewelers
J. E. Caldwell & Co. (1839-2009)
Georg Jensen Inc. (New York, NY) (Fifth Ave., Manhattan)(1935-1968)
Office-supply stores
J. K. Gill Company Pacific Northwest; stationery, office supplies, books; all stores closed by 1999
Office Warehouse a Virginia-based office supply chain that was acquired and absorbed by OfficeMax in 1992
Pet stores
Petland Discounts permanently closed in 2019.
Toy stores
All Wound Up acquired by Borders in 1999 and closed in 2001
Child World (also known as Children's Palace) liquidated in 1992
Circus Worldacquired by Melville in 1990 and converted to KB Toys
Disney Store The Disney Store closed by the end of January 19, 2022 as the retail moves to Target stores.
F.A.O. Schwarz sold to Toys 'R Us after bankruptcy in 2009; all stores closed except original NYC flagship store, which closed in 2015. The chain was bought out by ThreeSixty group and opened two new locations in Rockefeller Center, and LaGuardia airport, with plans to open up to 30 more in the future.
KB Toys liquidated February 9, 2009, which closed all of the remaining stores; sold to Toys "R" Us and then to Strategic Marks, LLC; although it planned to reopen stores in 2019, this never happened due to a lack of funding.
Lionel Kid City founded in 1957 by Leonard Wasserman; liquidated in 1993
Lionel Playworld liquidated in 1993
Noodle Kidoodle acquired in 2000 by Zany Brainy and rebranded
Toys “R” Us liquidated most stores in 2018; still active in Canada and other countries. The company was bought and reformed by its lenders as a brand owned by TRU Kids. On November 27, 2019, Toys “R” Us re-entered the American market with a retail store at Westfield Garden State Plaza in Paramus, New Jersey. On December 7, 2019, a second location was opened at The Galleria in Houston, Texas. Both stores were permanently closed in early 2021. A new stand alone location was later opened in the American Dream Mall in New Jersey. On August 19, 2021, Macy’s bought Toys “R” Us and announced they will be opening store-within-a-store locations in 400 Macy’s locations.
Warner Bros. Studio Store stores closed in 2001
Zany Brainy liquidated in 2003 after parent company filed for bankruptcy
Video games and personal computing software
Babbage's
Egghead Software
FuncoLand
GameCrazy
Rhino Video Games
Software Etc.
Warehouse clubs and membership department stores
E.J. Korvette gradually liquidated by 1981 after declaring bankruptcy
Fedco
GEM initially called Government Employees Mutual Stores, and later Government Employees Mart before settling on G. E. M. Membership Department Stores, a profit-making company that was aimed at the governmental employees market; first store was opened in Denver in 1956; after several expansions, the company filed for bankruptcy in 1974
Gemco acquired by Lucky Stores in 1961; closed in 1986 and stores sold to Target; known as Memco in the Chicago and Washington, D.C. metropolitan areas
Pace Membership Warehouse founded in Denver in 1983 and quickly expanded to the East Coast; acquired by Kmart in 1989; later sold to Sam's Club in 1993 and rebranded
Price Club merged with Costco in 1993 and rebranded
See also
Lists of companies
List of defunct fast-food restaurant chains
List of defunct restaurants of the United States
References
Retailers
Defunct |
4342805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Edward%20Hanley%20Stanner | William Edward Hanley Stanner | William Edward Hanley Stanner CMG (24 November 19058 October 1981), often cited as W.E.H. Stanner, was an Australian anthropologist who worked extensively with Indigenous Australians. Stanner had a varied career that also included journalism in the 1930s, military service in World War II, and political advice on colonial policy in Africa and the South Pacific in the post-war period.
He was the Commanding Officer of the 2/1st North Australia Observer Unit (NAOU) during World War II, also known as the "Nackeroos" and "Curtin's Cowboys". The NAOU was the military predecessor to the modern NORFORCE. Formed in March 1942 and disbanded March 1945, they patrolled northern Australia for signs of enemy activity.
Stanner was an influential figure prior to the successful 1967 referendum on Aboriginal affairs which removed provisions in the Australian Constitution which discriminated against Indigenous Australians. In 1967, the Prime Minister Harold Holt invited Stanner to join H. C. Coombs and Barrie Dexter to form the Commonwealth Council for Aboriginal Affairs and advise on national policy. He subsequently played an important role in establishing the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies.
Stanner is known for coining and popularising the term the Great Australian Silence in his 1968 Boyer Lectures entitled After the Dreaming, which reflected on the silence on Indigenous Australians in Australian history after European settlement. Stanner profoundly changed the way Australians thought about themselves, their country and Aboriginal culture.
Biography
A number of biographical references exist, the most detailed being by Diane Barwick, Jeremy Beckett and Marie Reay which was largely completed before his death in 1981.
Early career
Stanner was born at Watson's Bay, Sydney on 24 November 1905, the second son of Andrew Edwin Stanner and Mary Catherine Stanner (née Hanley). He was 3 years old when his father died. He was educated at state schools and won a bursary to Parramatta High School (1919–21), but was unable to stay on after the Intermediate Certificate for financial reasons. Stanner worked for two years in a bank and matriculated by private study. He worked as a journalist while studying at the University of Sydney, initially for the Cumberland Argus. In 1927 Stanner obtained full-time work as a reporter for the Sydney Daily Guardian for Frank Packer, the first of a number of posts in journalism which financed his studies in Australia and England.
At University, Stanner had an interest in athletics, football and was the secretary of the university's League of Nations Society. He stated afterward that his selection of anthropology as a profession was influenced by the famous anthropologist Alfred Radcliffe-Brown. Stanner worked as a journalist until 1932 by which time he was chief sub-editor of the Sunday Sun including several years in the Parliamentary Gallery. Stanner won the Frank Albert Prize in anthropology in two successive years and graduated with a BA (Honours) (Anthropology and Economics) in 1932.
In September 1933, as lecturer in anthropology at University of Sydney, in the midst of the Caledon Bay crisis, Stanner wrote a piece in The Sun in praise of the Minister for the Interior's decision not to send a punitive expedition to punish the murderer of Constable Albert McColl in the Northern Territory.
In 1933 Stanner took up a temporary position on the personal staff of Bertram Stevens, the Premier of NSW, for whom he drafted parliamentary and public speeches and prepared reports. At that time he met H.C. Coombs and formed an enduring friendship with W.C. Wentworth with whom he worked in later life.
He earned an MA (Class 1 Honours) in Anthropology in 1934 from Sydney University, for which he did extensive field research in the Daly River region of Northern Australia. A. P. Elkin judged Stanner's 1934 thesis on culture-contact at the Daly River as "a work of outstanding quality". Stanner criticised the popular assumption that the main function of the anthropologist was "the naive search for uncontaminated aboriginal cultures". He presented an exposition of a method for studying contact and cultural change, insisting that this was "an important and neglected problem". Barwick, Beckett and Reay wrote in 1985 that already his lifelong concern with the practical value of anthropology to Aboriginal welfare was apparent. Stanner lectured part-time at Sydney University and was the news editor at the World under Sydney newspaperman G. W. 'George' Warnecke.
In 1935, on his second field work, Stanner accompanied the Catholic priest Father Richard Docherty to Port Keats, now known as Wadeye on the south-western coast of the Northern Territory, halfway between the mouths of the Daly River and Fitzmaurice River. Docherty was commissioned to establish a mission in the region and Stanner helped him choose the site. Over the next thirty years, the people of the two river valleys came into the mission and eventually became permanent residents. On his appointment to the Australian National University, Stanner renewed his interest in the Port Keats Wadeye area, renewing old friendships. Much of his work as an anthropologist was based on his field work with Indigenous Australians in the Port Keats Wadeye area.
Stanner moved to London in 1936, completing his PhD at the London School of Economics in 1938 studying under Bronisław Malinowski. Compatriots included Phyllis Kaberry and Piddington. Jomo Kenyatta, the first Prime Minister (1963–1964) of Kenya and subsequently President (1964–1978) was a fellow student. Stanner's doctoral dissertation was an analysis of economic and ceremonial transactions in the Daly River communities. In London, Stanner also worked as a sub-editor in the Foreign Room at The Times.
Early academic appointments and field research included:
1932–36 Department of Anthropology, University of Sydney.
1932, 1934–35 Field research in north and central Australia (for the Australian National Research Council).
1936–38 Research Assistant, London School of Economics.
1937 Personal staff of Commonwealth Treasurer, The Right Honourable The Lord Casey at the Imperial Conference in London.
1938–39 University of Oxford Expedition to Kenya (Oxford Social Sciences Research Committee).
Under the auspices of Oxford University he did field research in Kenya in 1938–39 as part of the Oxford Expedition to Kenya and East Africa for the Oxford Social Studies Research Committee. This field research was discontinued at the outbreak of World War II when Stanner returned to Australia. He obtained employment at the Department of Information and subsequently acted as adviser to successive Ministers for the Army, Percy Spender and Frank Forde who subsequently became Prime Minister.
WW2 Military service
In March 1942, his pre-war experience in northern Australia led to him being directed to "raise and command" to what became the 2/1st North Australia Observer Unit (NAOU), otherwise known as "Stanner's Bush Commandos". At this time he enlisted in the 2nd AIF (1942–1946). Known colloquially as "Nackeroos", the men were deployed in small groups throughout the rugged north of Australia, where they observed and reported on signs of enemy activity, often patrolling on horseback. As the unit's Commander, Major Stanner made contact with many local Aboriginal groups, and employed some to assist his troops as guides and labourers. Nackeroo operations were scaled down as the threat of Japanese invasion passed, and the unit was eventually disbanded in March 1945. The history of the unit was documented in detail by Dr. Amoury Vane.
Promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel (Lt Col) in 1943, on being appointed as assistant director of DORCA. A developer of post-war colonial policy for DORCA, Stanner presented papers to numerous wartime authorities, and finally was appointed Senior Civil Affairs Officer for the British Borneo Civil Affairs Unit (BBCAU) until the conclusion of the war.
Career post WW2
He continued his anthropological work after the war, becoming a prominent writer, lecturer and public advocate of the study and appreciation of Aboriginal society and its place in Australia.
Stanner's notable career postings post-World War II included:
1946 Department of External Affairs. This was a temporary appointment working with Sir Frederick Eggleston on a proposed South Seas Commission.
1946–47 Researcher: Papua-New Guinea, Fiji, West Samoa (Institute of Pacific Relations). This led to the delayed publication in 1953 of his first book South Seas in Transition.
1947–49 Foundation Director of the East African Institute of Social Research, Makerere Uganda.
1949–64 Reader in Social Anthropology, Australian National University. Resumed field work in Daly River and Port Keats in the Northern Territory.
1953–56 Australian Commissioner, South Pacific Commission.
1961 Convenor and chairman, Commonwealth Conference on Aboriginal Studies.
1961–62 First Executive Officer, Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.
1964–70 Professor of Anthropology and Sociology, Australian National University.
1967–77 Appointed to Commonwealth Council for Aboriginal Affairs.
1971 Emeritus Professor and Honorary Fellow, Department of Anthropology and Sociology, Australian National University.
1972–74 Visiting Fellow, Research School of Pacific Studies.
1974–75 Special Adviser to the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Aboriginal Affairs.
1975–79 Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, Australian National University.
1977–79 Consultant to Northern Territory Land Commission.
1971–1981 Honorary Fellow, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies (RSPAS), Australian National University
Stanner also held a number of key leadership positions at the Australian National University including:
1954 Chairman of the Governing Body, University House, Australian National University.
1954–55 Bursar, University House, Australian National University.
1960–1981 Honorary Member, University House, Australian National University.
Referendum in 1967
Stanner was an influential figure prior to the successful 1967 referendum on Aboriginal affairs which removed provisions in the Australian Constitution which discriminated against Indigenous Australians.
Council for Aboriginal Affairs
In 1967, the Prime Minister Harold Holt invited Stanner to join H. C. Coombs and Barrie Dexter to form the Council for Aboriginal Affairs and advise on national policy. Stanner held that position through successive political regimes, including the Whitlam government, which began to implement much of the program Stanner, Coombs and Dexter endorsed: land rights, the movement to outstations, increased social welfare and community-based economies.
Stanner brought to this policy package an anthropologist's sensitivity to the importance of ceremony and ritual. In particular, at the handover of the first native title grant to the Gurindji people at Wattie Creek in the Northern Territory in 1975, Stanner recommended Prime Minister Gough Whitlam should perform the memorable symbolic act of pouring earth through the hands of Gurindji leader, Vincent Lingiari.
Boyer Lectures in 1968
In 1968 Stanner presented the Boyer Lectures, which he titled "After the Dreaming". The Boyer Lectures, an annual series of lectures delivered by prominent Australians on the Australian Broadcasting Commission's Radio National since 1959, have stimulated thought, discussion and debate in Australia on a wide range of subjects. Stanner's lectures, in which he most notably coined the phrase "the great Australian silence" (referring to the erasure from history of the violent colonial encounters with Aboriginal Australians, and Indigenous history in general), have since been reprinted a number of times. The 2019 Boyer Lectures, delivered by filmmaker Rachel Perkins, were entitled "The End of Silence", a direct reference to Stanner's phrase and lectures, 60 years later.
The Great Australian Silence
Stanner was most famous for coining the term "the Great Australian Silence" in his 1968 Boyer Lecture. Stanner stated that there was a "cult of disremembering" which had reduced Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to little more than a "melancholy footnote" in Australia's history. He frequently spoke and wrote about the erasure from history of the violent colonial encounters "invasion, massacres, ethnic cleansing and resistance" between European settlers and the Indigenous population meant that there was "a cult of forgetfulness practised on a national scale". Stanner's Boyer Lectures in 1968 called historians to ensure this pervasive forgetfulness of the Indigenous population ceased, a process that Beasley notes was already under way to a small degree when the lectures were delivered. Beasley has stated that "Ultimately Indigenous Australians moved from being a ‘melancholy footnote’ in Australian history, to occupying a central place in the historiography."
Family
Stanner married Patricia Williams (1 March 1931 – 17 May 2019), a diplomat who resigned on marriage due to the 'marriage bar', in 1962. The couple had two sons: Andrew Stanner and John Stanner.
ANU Conference in 2005
In 2005, the Australian National University commemorated the centenary of the birth of W. E. H. (Bill) Stanner, one of its late professors of anthropology, with a conference discussing his lifetime achievements.
Keith Windschuttle described this in Quadrant magazine as "an uncommon honour for an Australian academic who died 24 years earlier in 1981."
Speakers at the conference were as follows:
Professor Jon Altman, Professor and Director of the Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research, ANU
Emeritus Associate Professor Jeremy Beckett, Honorary Research Associate, Sydney University
Max Charlesworth, Emeritus Professor, Deakin University
Professor Ann Curthoys, School of Social Sciences, the ANU, Manning Clark Professor of History at ANU
Mark Crocombe, Kanamkek—Yile Ngala Museum, Wadeye
Barry Dexter, Member of the Council for Aboriginal Affairs, Diplomat
Professor Mick Dodson AM, National Centre for Indigenous Studies, the ANU and Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
Alberto Furlan, PhD in anthropology (University of Sydney).
Geoffrey Gray, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
Melinda Hinkson, School of Archaeology & Anthropology, the ANU
Bill Ivory, Charles Darwin University
Ian Keen, School of Archaeology & Anthropology, the ANU
Professor Marcia Langton A.M., B.A. (Hons) ANU, PhD, Macq., F.A.S.S.A., Centre for Australian Indigenous Studies, University of Melbourne
Professor Howard Morphy, Centre for Cross-Cultural Research, the ANU
Emeritus Professor John Mulvaney, Emeritus Professor of Pre-History, the ANU
David Nash, Honorary Visiting Fellow, ANU and Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
Professor Nicolas Peterson, School of Archaeology & Anthropology, the ANU
Professor Peter Sutton, ARC Professorial Research Fellow, University of Adelaide
John Taylor, Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research, the ANU
Graeme Ward, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
Nancy Williams, Honorary Reader in Anthropology, University of Queensland
A volume of the conference papers was published in 2008, An Appreciation of Difference: W. E. H. Stanner and Aboriginal Australia, edited by Melinda Hinkson and Jeremy Beckett.
Books and publications
Books, publications and speeches:
1945, Random Reflections During War
1953, South Seas in Transition
1960, On Aboriginal Religion
1967, Industrial Justice in the Never-Never, the Presidential Address delivered to the Canberra Sociology Society, 24 March 1966
1968, After the Dreaming
1975, Australian Aboriginal Mythology: Essays in Honour of W. E. H. Stanner
1979, White Man Got No Dreaming: Essays 1938–1973
1985, Metaphors of Interpretation: Essays in Honour of W.E.H. Stanner
2001, People from the Dawn: Religion, Homeland, and Privacy in Australian Aboriginal Culture
2005, W. E. H. Stanner: Anthropologist and Public Intellectual
2008, An Appreciation of Difference: WEH Stanner, Aboriginal Australia and Anthropology
Honours and tributes
Honours, named in honour of, or tributes to W.E.H. Stanner:
Bestowed with the title "Emeritus Professor" by the ANU Congregation on 1 April 1971
Mueller Medallist awarded by the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science (ANZAAS) in 1971. Established in 1902 in memory of Baron Sir Ferdinand von Mueller, government botanist of Victoria and a prodigious collector of botanic specimens. Awarded by the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science (ANZAAS) for researches in anthropology, botany, geology or zoology.
Sir Raphael Cilento Medallist in 1971, established in 1935 by the Australian Institute of Anatomy. Donated by Sir Raphael Cilento, a prominent Queensland medical man. Awarded biennially to the scientist who has advanced native welfare or advanced tropical medicine in Australia or the Pacific area.
Honorary Doctorate of Literature, Australian National University in 1972
Made Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) in 1972
Honoured in the list of the "200 Australians who have contributed most to making Australia what it is today", the book published by the Australian Bicentennial Authority as part of the Australian Bicentenary celebrations in 1988.
The Stanner Award, established in AIATSIS in 1985 "in recognition of the significant contribution of the late Emeritus Professor W.E.H. (Bill) Stanner to the establishment and development of the Institute".
The WEH Stanner Building at the Australian National University
The Stanner Room at University House at the Australian National University
Stanner Circuit (under construction) at Bonner, Australian Capital Territory in Canberra
The Stanner Club in Darwin, formerly the Norforce soldiers club, since renamed.
References
Footnotes
Notes
External links
ABC Radio National
Report on Bill Stanner Hindsight, 9 January 2005
Battlefields of Aboriginal History Perspective 24 October 2005
W. E. H. Stanner: Anthropologist and Public Intellectual: a two-day symposium to mark the centenary of the birth of W.E.H. Stanner (1905–1981) at the ANU Centre for Cross-Cultural Research, Thursday 24 – Friday 25 November 2005
Stanner Award established by AIATSIS in 1985 in recognition of the significant contribution of the late Emeritus Professor W.E.H. (Bill) Stanner to the establishment and development of the Institute
WEH Stanner building home of the Centre for Cross-Cultural Research at the Australian National University
The WEH Stanner Collection The papers of William Edward Hanley Stanner were donated to AIATSIS by Mrs Patricia Stanner in 1982
The paintings of Nym Bandak The paintings of Nym Bandak were presented by the National Gallery of Australia at an exhibition 'Contemporary Australian Aboriginal Art in Modern Worlds' at the State Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg, the most significant exhibition of Australian Aboriginal art ever to travel abroad
Aboriginal History Volumes 1, 3, 5 & 6 an annual refereed publication in the field of Australian ethnohistory, particularly in the post-contact history of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders
M Force references Lieutenant Colonel Bill Stanner, Commanding Officer of the 2/1 Northern Australia Observer Unit (the Nackeroos).
"The Nackeroos" Australia under attack 1942–43 at the Australian War Memorial
K. Windschuttle, Bill Stanner and the end of Aboriginal High Culture Quadrant, May 2009.
Australian anthropologists
Anthropologists of religion
Military personnel from New South Wales
1905 births
1981 deaths
Australian Army officers
Academic staff of the University of Sydney
Australian Army personnel of World War II
Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
People educated at Parramatta High School
20th-century anthropologists
Academic staff of the Australian National University |
4342880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20irredentist%20claims%20or%20disputes | List of irredentist claims or disputes | This is a list of irredentist claims or disputes. Irredentism is any political or popular movement that seeks to claim or reclaim and occupy a land that the movement's members consider to be a "lost" (or "unredeemed") territory from their nation's past. Not all territorial disputes are irredentist, although they are often couched in irredentist rhetoric to justify and legitimise such claims both internationally and within the country. What is and is not considered an irredentist claim is sometimes contentious.
Current governmental irredentist claims
Argentina
Argentina has claimed land that used to be part of, or was associated with, the Spanish territory of the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata. The viceroyalty began to dissolve into separate independent states in the early 19th century, one of which later became Argentina. The claims included, amongst other areas, parts of what in 2019 were Chile, Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and Bolivia. Some of these claims have been settled, although others are still active. The active claims include part of the land border with Chile, a section of the Antarctic continent, and the British South Atlantic islands, including the Falklands.
Argentina renews these claims periodically. It considers the Falkland archipelago to be part of the Tierra del Fuego Province, along with South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. Its claim is included in the transitional provisions of the Constitution of Argentina as amended in 1994:
Bolivia
The 2009 constitution of Bolivia states that the country has an "unrenounceable right over the territory that gives it access to the Pacific Ocean and its maritime space". In 1873, Bolivia and Peru ceded land to Chile after the War of the Pacific, which left Bolivia as a landlocked country. The lost Atacama region is a source of conflict in the two countries' relations. Every year, Bolivians celebrate the Día del Mar (Day of the Sea) in observance of the lost territories.
China (PRC)
The preamble to the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states, "Taiwan is part of the sacred territory of the People's Republic of China (PRC). It is the lofty duty of the entire Chinese people, including our compatriots in Taiwan, to accomplish the great task of reunifying the motherland." The PRC's claim to sovereignty over Taiwan is generally based on the theory of the succession of states, with the PRC claiming that it is the successor state to the Republic of China (ROC).
However, the People's Republic of China (PRC) has never controlled Taiwan. The ROC government formerly administered both mainland China and Taiwan but has been administering primarily Taiwan only, since the Chinese Civil War in which it fought the People's Liberation Army of the Chinese Communist Party. While the official name of the state remains the 'Republic of China', the country is commonly called 'Taiwan', as Taiwan makes up 99% of the controlled territory of the ROC.
China (ROC)
The Qing dynasty of China ceded Taiwan and the Penghu Islands to the Empire of Japan in perpetuity in the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895, along with the Liaodong Peninsula. The Republic of Formosa was a short-lived republic that then existed on the island of Taiwan for about five months in 1895 in the period between the formal cession of Taiwan to the Empire of Japan and de facto Japanese occupation and control. Japan then established a colony on Taiwan that existed until control of Taiwan was ceded to the Nationalist Government of the Republic of China in 1945.
Article 4 of the Constitution of the Republic of China originally stated that "[t]he territory of the Republic of China within its existing national boundaries shall not be altered except by a resolution of the National Assembly". The National Assembly was de facto abolished in 2005, whose power was inherited by the Legislative Yuan. The Legislative Yuan holds the power to decide a referendum regarding changes to the ROC territory. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the Government of the Republic of China on Taiwan actively maintained itself to be the legitimate ruler of the entirety of China, including both mainland China, Taiwan, Tibet and Outer Mongolia. As part of its current policy of maintaining the 'status quo', the ROC has not renounced claims over the territories currently controlled by the PRC, Mongolia, India, Russia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Bhutan, North Korea and some Central Asian states. However, the ROC does not actively pursue these claims in practice; the remaining claims that the ROC is actively seeking are of uninhabited islands: the Senkaku Islands, whose sovereignty is also asserted by Japan and is part of Ishigaki, Okinawa. As far as the Paracel Islands and Spratly Islands in the South China Sea are concerned, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, and Vietnam have repeatedly claimed sovereignty over some or most of these islands, rejecting the Chinese claimed "Nine-dash line".
Comoros
Article 1 of the Constitution of the Union of the Comoros begins: "The Union of the Comoros is a republic, composed of the autonomous islands of Mohéli, Mayotte, Anjouan, and Grande Comore." Mayotte, geographically a part of the Comoro Islands, was the only island of the four to vote against independence from France (independence losing 37%–63%) in the referendum held December 22, 1974. Mayotte is currently a department of the French Republic.
Guatemala
Guatemala has claimed Belize in whole or in part since 1821.
India, Pakistan and China
Kashmir, a mountainous region spanning the northernmost tip of the Indian subcontinent, has been the subject of a territorial dispute between India and Pakistan since the partition of India in August 1947. In the face of a Pakistani invasion, the Kashmiri king Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession with India, bringing the country into a direct state of conflict with Pakistan in what would become the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948. Since then, the two countries have fought multiple wars over the issue, but neither side has managed to capture and control the entire region. China became involved in the conflict in 1962, after consolidating control over what had been Indian-administered territory in Kashmir during the Sino-Indian War.
In practice, the zones of control in Kashmir remain divided into three disputed parts, with India and Pakistan separated by the Line of Control and India and China separated by the Line of Actual Control. India claims the entire region on the basis of the Instrument of Accession signed with Kashmir's king in 1947; Pakistan claims only the Indian-controlled parts of Kashmir, having signed the Sino-Pakistan Agreement in 1963; and Chinese claims are limited to parts of Indian-controlled territory, not including areas claimed by Pakistan. The official government maps of these countries generally accommodate these territorial claims by including the appropriate disputed lands within their borders.
Israel and Palestine
In November 1947, the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine was adopted with 72% in-favour votes, aiming to split the territory of the region into a Jewish state and an Arab state. However, this plan was never implemented—the Israeli Declaration of Independence had been rejected by the Arab League and ultimately led to the 1948 Palestine war. This war led to the emergence of three zones of control: Israel, an independent Jewish state; the West Bank, annexed by Jordan; and the Gaza Strip, occupied by Egypt. Israel's founding ideology, the Zionist movement, had claimed the territory as the Jewish homeland; these claims are based on the Jews' ancestral habitation and periodic sovereignty in the land as well as the cultural/religious significance of that region as expressed in the Hebrew Bible. The latter is particularly relevant to the Israeli claim to Jerusalem—Israel controlled only half of the city (West Jerusalem) after its independence, with the other half (East Jerusalem) coming under Jordanian control.
In a historical or religious context, many Jews commonly refer to the West Bank as Judea and Samaria (the biblical terms), which formed a large part of the ancient Kingdom of Israel. Following the outbreak of the Six-Day War in 1967, Israel captured the Jordanian-annexed West Bank and the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip, in addition to the Syrian Golan Heights and the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula. Since 1967, Israeli settlements have been established throughout these Israeli-occupied territories, which are regarded as having historical and religious significance to the Jewish people and strategic significance to the Israeli state. Israel withdrew from Gaza in 2005, but the Israeli occupation of the West Bank continues, though the Israeli government has never explicitly claimed sovereignty over any part of that territory apart from East Jerusalem, which it effectively annexed in 1967. The Israeli settlements in the West Bank and the Golan Heights, which were unilaterally annexed by Israel in 1981, are usually supported by the Israeli government and protected by the Israeli military, drawing condemnation from the international community as an obstacle to the Israeli–Palestinian peace process. Though the Gazan Israeli settlements were dismantled in 2005, Israel is still regarded as an occupying power over the Gaza Strip under international law and will remain accountable for the territory until the Egyptian–Israeli blockade of Gaza is lifted.
In 1980, Israel passed the Jerusalem Law, which declares "Jerusalem, complete and united" as the capital city of Israel, formalizing the 1967 effective annexation. Article 3 of the Basic Law of the Palestinian Authority, which was ratified in 2002 and which serves as an interim Palestinian constitution, declares that "Jerusalem is the capital of Palestine" despite the fact that the Palestinian Authority administers from Ramallah and specific "Areas" of the West Bank that were specified by the Oslo Accords. Since 2007, Hamas has administered the Gaza Strip, further isolating it from the West Bank and splitting the Palestinian territories between two separate governments. The Palestinian Authority claims the West Bank and the Gaza Strip (the "1967 borders") as the territory for an independent Palestinian state; Hamas, which does not recognize Israeli sovereignty, claims the entirety of the former British Mandate as the territory for an independent Palestinian state.
Since 1967, there has been support among right-wing Israelis for a potential Israeli annexation of the West Bank. The territory of Jordan has also been subject to irredentist claims by hardline Israelis and Palestinians, with the former seeing it as part of a "Greater Israel" and the latter seeing it as part of a "Greater Palestine"; the country bordered the British Mandate as a British protectorate, known as the Emirate of Transjordan, until achieving independence in 1946. Jordan claimed sovereignty over the West Bank between 1950 and 1988, when this claim was renounced in light of the upcoming Israel–Jordan peace treaty.
Japan
Japan claims the four southernmost islands of the Russian-administered Kuril Islands, the island chain north of Hokkaido, annexed by the Soviet Union following World War II with the treaty of San Francisco. Japan also claims the South Korean-administered Liancourt Rocks, which are known as Dokdo in Korea and as Takeshima in Japan and have been claimed since the end of the Second World War.
Philippines
The Philippines claim portions of North Borneo as part of its territory, which is administered as part of Malaysia's Sabah state. The Philippines' irredentist claim is based on the disputed territory being formerly administered by the Sultanate of Sulu.
Russia
Russia promotes a claim on the territory of Ukraine, a place which Russian President Vladimir Putin describes as "essentially the same historical and spiritual space." This claim has also been explicitly described as "irredentist" by American commentators.
Russia also promotes claims to various post-Soviet states and militarily supports several breakaway polities in eastern Ukraine, eastern Moldova and northern Georgia.
Ukraine (see All-Russian nation and 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine)
Crimea (see Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, Autonomous Republic of Crimea, 2003 Tuzla Island conflict)
Donbas (see 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine)
Donetsk People's Republic (see 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, International recognition of the Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic) illegally annexed by Russia in October 2022
Luhansk People's Republic (see 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, International recognition of the Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic) illegally annexed by Russia in October 2022
Belarus (see All-Russian nation)
Moldova
Transnistria/Administrative-Territorial Units of the Left Bank of the Dniester (see Proposed Russian annexation of Transnistria)
Georgia
Abkhazia
South Ossetia (see Proposed Russian annexation of South Ossetia)
Spain
Spain maintains a claim on Gibraltar, a British Overseas Territory near the southernmost tip of the Iberian Peninsula, which has been British since the 18th Century.
Gibraltar was captured in 1704, during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714). The Kingdom of Spain formally ceded the territory in perpetuity to the British Crown in 1713, under Article X of the Treaty of Utrecht. Spain's territorial claim was formally reasserted by the Spanish dictator Francisco Franco in the 1960s and has been continued by successive Spanish governments. In 2002 an agreement in principle on joint sovereignty over Gibraltar between the governments of the United Kingdom and Spain was decisively rejected in a referendum. The British Government now refuses to discuss sovereignty without the consent of the Gibraltarians.
Sri Lanka
The North-East of the island has been a mainly Tamil-speaking region since the 13th century AD with many Hindu temples existing for centuries on sites in close proximity to ancient Buddhist ruins, which archaeologists associate with the ancient Sinhalese. Sinhala Buddhist nationalists in Sri Lanka believe that these ancient Buddhist ruins should be reinstated and that the later Hindu temples should be removed or destroyed, despite being in use for centuries. In 2020 the Sri Lankan government set up an Archaeological Taskforce with the powers to implement this project in the Eastern Province. Land belonging to Tamils in the North-East has been confiscated by the Sri Lankan government and given to recent Sinhalese settlers from the south, who believe that they are reclaiming land that only belongs to the Sinhalese.
Venezuela
The Guayana Esequiba is a territory administered by Guyana but claimed by Venezuela. It was first included in the Viceroyalty of New Granada and the Captaincy General of Venezuela by Spain, but was later included in Essequibo by the Dutch and in British Guiana by the United Kingdom. Originally, parts of what is now eastern Venezuela were included in the disputed area. This territory of is the subject of a long-running boundary dispute inherited from the colonial powers and complicated by the independence of Guyana in 1966. The status of the territory is subject to the Treaty of Geneva, which was signed by the United Kingdom, Venezuela and British Guiana governments on February 17, 1966. This treaty stipulates that the parties will agree to find a practical, peaceful and satisfactory solution to the dispute.
Major non-governmental irredentist claims
Albania
Greater Albania or Ethnic Albania as called by the Albanian nationalists themselves, is an irredentist concept of lands outside the borders of Albania which are considered part of a greater national homeland by most Albanians, based on claims on the present-day or historical presence of Albanian populations in those areas. The term incorporates claims to all of Kosovo, as well as territories in the neighbouring countries Montenegro, Greece, Serbia and North Macedonia. According to the Gallup Balkan Monitor 2010 report, the idea of a Greater Albania was supported by the majority of Albanians in Albania (63%), Kosovo (81%) and North Macedonia (53%).
In 2012, as part of the celebrations for the 100th Anniversary of the Independence of Albania, Prime Minister Sali Berisha spoke of "Albanian lands" stretching from Preveza in Greece to Preševo in Serbia, and from the Macedonian capital of Skopje to the Montenegrin capital of Podgorica, angering Albania's neighbours. The comments were also inscribed on a parchment that will be displayed at a museum in the city of Vlore, where the country's independence from the Ottoman Empire was declared in 1912.
Armenia
The concept of a United Armenia (classical , reformed: Միացյալ Հայաստան, translit. Miatsyal Hayastan) refers to areas within the traditional Armenian homeland—the Armenian Highland—which are currently or have historically been mostly populated by Armenians. This incorporates claims to Western Armenia (eastern Turkey), Nagorno-Karabakh (Artsakh), the landlocked exclave Nakhchivan of Azerbaijan and the Javakheti (Javakhk) region of Georgia. Nagorno-Karabakh and Javakhk are overwhelmingly inhabited by Armenians. Western Armenia and Nakhchivan had significant Armenian populations in the early 20th century, but no longer do. The Armenian population of eastern Turkey was almost completely exterminated during the genocide of 1915, when the millennia-long Armenian presence in the area largely ended and Armenian cultural heritage was largely destroyed by the Turkish government. The territorial claims to Turkey are often seen as the ultimate goal of the recognition of the Armenian genocide and the hypothetical reparations of the genocide.
Ireland
The Irish Free State achieved partial independence with a dominion status under the British Empire in 1922. This state did not include Northern Ireland, which comprised six counties in the north-east of the island of Ireland which remained in the United Kingdom. When the Constitution of Ireland was adopted in 1937 it provided that the name of the state is Ireland; this is considered the time that the Republic of Ireland became a full-fledged independent nation. In the constitution Articles 2 and 3 provided that "[t]he national territory consists of the whole island of Ireland", while stipulating that "[p]ending the re-integration of the national territory", the powers of the state were restricted to legislate only for the area which had formed part of the Irish Free State. Arising from the Northern Ireland peace process, the matter was mutually resolved as part of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. Ireland's constitution was altered by referendum and its territorial claim to Northern Ireland was removed.
The amended constitution asserts that while it is the entitlement of "every person born in the island of Ireland … to be part of the Irish Nation" and to hold Irish citizenship, "a united Ireland shall be brought about only by peaceful means with the consent of a majority of the people, democratically expressed, in both jurisdictions in the island". A North/South Ministerial Council was created between the two jurisdictions and given executive authority. The advisory and consultative role of the government of Ireland in the government of Northern Ireland granted by the United Kingdom, that had begun with the 1985 Anglo-Irish Agreement, was maintained, although that Agreement itself was ended. The two states also settled the long-running dispute concerning their respective names: Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, with both governments agreeing to use those names.
Under the Irish republican theory of legitimism, the Irish Republic declared in 1916 was in existence from then on, denying the legitimacy of either the state of Ireland or the position of Northern Ireland within the United Kingdom. Through much of its history, this was the position of Sinn Féin; however, it effectively abandoned this stance after accepting the Good Friday Agreement. Small groups which split from Sinn Féin continue to adopt this stance, including Republican Sinn Féin, linked with the Continuity IRA, and the 32 County Sovereignty Movement, linked with the Real IRA.
Historical irredentist claims
Africa
Irredentism is commonplace in Africa due to the political boundaries of former European colonial nation-states passing through ethnic boundaries, and recent declarations of independence after civil war. For example, some Ethiopian nationalist circles still claim the former Ethiopian province of Eritrea (internationally recognized as the independent State of Eritrea in 1993 after a 30-year civil war).
Horn of Africa
Greater Somalia refers to the region in the Horn of Africa in which ethnic Somalis are and have historically represented the predominant population. The territory encompasses Somalia, Somaliland, the Somali region in Ethiopia, the North Eastern Province in Kenya and southern and eastern Djibouti. Ogaden in eastern Ethiopia has seen military and civic movements seeking to make it part of Somalia. This culminated in the 1977–78 Ogaden War between the two neighbours where the Somali military offensive between July 1977 and March 1978 over the disputed Ethiopian region Ogaden ended when the Somali Armed Forces retreated back across the border and a truce was declared. The Kenyan Northern Frontier District also saw conflict during the Shifta War (1963–1967) when a secessionist conflict in which ethnic Somalis in the Lamu, Garissa, Wajir and Mandera counties (all except Lamu formed part of the former North Eastern Province, abolished in 2013), attempted to join with their fellow Somalis in a "Greater Somalia". There has been no similar conflicts in Djibouti, which was previously known as the "French Somaliland" during colonisation. Here the apparent struggles for unification manifested itself in political strife that ended when in a referendum to join France as opposed to the Somali Republic succeeded among rumours of widespread vote rigging. and the subsequent death of Somali nationalist Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council, who was killed in a plane crash two years later under suspicious circumstances. Some sources say that Somalia has also laid a claim to the Socotra archipelago, which is currently recognized by the international community as part of Yemen, but occupied by the United Arab Emirates
Afar homeland refers to a creation of a homeland for the afar people encompassing the Afar Region of Ethiopia, the Southern Red Sea Region of Eritrea and parts of Djibouti
North Africa
In North Africa, the prime examples of irredentism are the concepts of Greater Morocco and Greater Mauritania. While Mauritania has since relinquished any claims to territories outside its internationally recognized borders, Morocco continues to claim Western Sahara, which it refers to as its "Southern Provinces".
Southern Africa
Greater Eswatini includes much of the Mpumalanga Province of South Africa. King Mswati III of Eswatini set up the Border Restoration Committee in 2013 to negotiate restoration of the original borders.
Asia
Assyria
The Assyrian homeland is a geographic and cultural region situated in Northern Mesopotamia that has been traditionally inhabited by Assyrian people. The area with the greatest concentration of Assyrians on earth is located in the Assyrian homeland, or the Assyrian Triangle, a region which comprises the Nineveh Plains, southern Hakkari and the Barwari regions. This is where some Assyrian groups seek to create an independent nation state. The land roughly mirrors the boundaries of ancient Assyria proper, and the later Achaemenid, Seleucid, Parthian, Roman and Sassanid provinces of Assyria (Athura/Assuristan) that was extant between the 25th century BC and 7th century AD.
Azerbaijan
Whole Azerbaijan is an irredentist concept of uniting presumed historically Azerbaijani-inhabited territories into Republic of Azerbaijan. Western Azerbaijan is an irredentist political concept that is used in Azerbaijan mostly to refer to Armenia. Azerbaijani statements claim that the territory of the modern Armenian republic were lands that once belonged to Azerbaijanis.
Bangladesh
Greater Bangladesh is an assumption of several Indian intellectuals that the neighbouring country of Bangladesh has an aspiration to unite all Bengali dominated regions under their flag. These include the states of West Bengal, Tripura and Assam as well as the Andaman Islands which are currently part of India and the Burmese State of Rakhine. The theory is principally based on a widespread belief amongst Indian masses that a large number of illegal Bangladeshi immigrants reside in Indian territory. It is alleged that illegal immigration to India is actively encouraged by some political groups in Bangladesh as well as the Government of Bangladesh to convert large parts of India's northeastern states and West Bengal into Muslim-majority areas that would subsequently seek to separate from India and join Muslim-majority Bangladesh.
Caucasus
Irredentism is acute in the Caucasus region. The Nagorno-Karabakh movement's original slogan of miatsum ('union') was explicitly oriented towards re-unification with Armenia as to the pre-Soviet status, feeding an Azerbaijani understanding of the conflict as a bilateral one between itself and an irredentist Armenia. According to Prof. Thomas Ambrosio, "Armenia's successful irredentist project in the Nagorno-Karabakh region of Azerbaijan" and "From 1992 to the cease-fire in 1994, Armenia encountered a highly permissive or tolerant international environment that allowed its annexation of some 15 percent of Azerbaijani territory".
In the view of Nadia Milanova, Nagorno-Karabakh represents a combination of separatism and irredentism. However, the area has historically been Armenian, known as the Kingdom of Artsakh or Khachen. In July 1920, the 11th Soviet Red Army invaded and occupied the region and on July 28, the decision to make Nakhchivan a part of modern-day Azerbaijan was cemented on March 16, 1921, in the Treaty of Moscow between Soviet Russia and the newly founded Republic of Turkey.
Azerbaijan's irredentism, on the other hand, is quite explicit in official statements of the Azerbaijani officials by claiming the UN member-state Armenia as Azerbaijani territory despite the absence of historical evidence of Azerbaijan existing as a separate state up until 1918. On his official meeting in Gyanja on January 21, 2014, President Ilham Aliyev said, "The present-day Armenia is actually located on historical lands of Azerbaijan. Therefore, we will return to all our historical lands in the future. This should be known to young people and children. We must live, we live and we will continue to live with this idea."
China
When Hong Kong and Macau were British and Portuguese territories, respectively, China considered these two territories to be Chinese territories under British and Portuguese administration. Therefore, Hong Kong people and Macau people descended from Chinese immigrants were entitled to Hong Kong Special Administrative Region passport or Macao Special Administrative Region passport after the two territories became special administrative regions. Similar claims are made by China on Arunachal Pradesh and Ladakh as part of Tibet, Mongolia, South China Sea, etc.
India
The call for creation of Akhanda Bharata or Akhand Hindustan has on occasion been raised by some Indian right wing Hindutvadi cultural and political organisations, such as the Hindu Mahasabha, Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), Vishwa Hindu Parishad, Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). The name of one organisation sharing this goal, the Akhand Hindustan Morcha, bears the term in its name. Other major Indian non-sectarian political parties, such as the Indian National Congress, maintain a position against the partition of India .
There has been many armed irredentist movements in the region active for almost a century. Most prominent amongst them are the Naga fight for Greater Nagaland, the Chin struggle for a unified Chinland, the Sri Lankan Tamil struggle for a return of their state under Tamil Eelam and other self-determinist movements by the ethnic indigenous peoples of the erstwhile Assam both under the British and post-British Assam under India. Other such movements include Beḻagāva border dispute on Maharashtra and Karnataka border with intentions to unite all Marathi speaking people under one state since the formation of the Karnataka state and dissolution of the bilingual Bombay state.
Indonesia
Indonesia claimed all territories of the former Dutch East Indies, and previously viewed British plans to group the British Malaya and Borneo into a new independent federation of Malaysia as a threat to its objective to create a united state called Greater Indonesia. The Indonesian opposition of Malaysian formation has led to the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation in the early 1960s. It also held Portuguese Timor (modern East Timor) from 1975 to 2002 based on irredentist claims.
The idea of uniting former British and Dutch colonial possessions in Southeast Asia actually has its roots in the early 20th century, as the concept of Greater Malay (Melayu Raya) was coined in British Malaya espoused by students and graduates of Sultan Idris Training College for Malay Teachers in the late 1920s. Some political figures in Indonesia including Mohammad Yamin and Sukarno revived the idea in the 1950s and named the political union concept as Greater Indonesia.
Iran
Pan-Iranism is an ideology that advocates solidarity and reunification of Iranian peoples living in the Iranian plateau and other regions that have significant Iranian cultural influence, including the Persians, Azerbaijanis, Ossetians, Kurds, Zazas, Tajiks of Tajikistan and Afghanistan, the Pashtuns and the Baloch of Pakistan. The first theoretician was Dr Mahmoud Afshar Yazdi.
The ideology of pan-Iranism is most often used in conjunction with the idea of forming a Greater Iran, which refers to the regions of the Caucasus, West Asia, Central Asia, and parts of South Asia that have significant Iranian cultural influence due to having been either long historically ruled by the various Iranian (Persian) empires (such as those of the Medes, Achaemenids, Parthians, Sassanians, Samanids, Timurids, Safavids, and Afsharids and the Qajar Empire), having considerable aspects of Persian culture in their own culture due to extensive contact with the various Empires based in Persia (e.g., those regions and peoples in the North Caucasus that were not under direct Iranian rule), or are simply nowadays still inhabited by a significant amount of Iranic-speaking people who patronize their respective cultures (as it goes for the western parts of South Asia, Bahrain and China). It roughly corresponds to the territory on the Iranian plateau and its bordering plains. It is also referred to as Greater Persia, while the Encyclopædia Iranica uses the term Iranian Cultural Continent.
Iraq
After gaining independence in 1932, the Kingdom of Iraq immediately declared that the Sheikhdom of Kuwait was rightfully a territory of Iraq, claiming it had been part of an Iraqi territory until being created by the British.
The Iraqi Republic under Abd al-Karim Qasim held an irredentist claim to Khuzestan. It also held irredentist claims to Kuwait.
Saddam Hussein's government sought to annex several territories. In the Iran–Iraq War, Ba'athist Iraq claimed it had the right to hold sovereignty to the east bank of the Shatt al-Arab river held by Iran. Iraq had officially agreed to a compromise to hold the border at the centre-line of the river in the 1975 Algiers Agreement in return for Pahlavi Iran to end its support for Kurdish rebels in Iraq. The overthrow of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and the rise of Ruhollah Khomeini to power in the 1979 Iranian Revolution deteriorated Iran–Iraq relations and following ethnic clashes within Khuzestan and border clashes between Iranian and Iraqi forces, Iraq regarded the Algiers Agreement as nullified and abrogated it and a few days later the Iraqi Armed Forces launched a full-scale invasion of Iran that resulted in the Iran-Iraq War. In addition, Saddam supported the Iraq-based Ahwaz Liberation Movement and their goal of breaking their claimed territory of Ahwaz away from Iran, in the belief that the movement would rouse Khuzestan's Arabs to support the Iraqi invasion. In the Gulf War, Iraq occupied and annexed Kuwait before being expelled by an international military coalition that supported the restoration of Kuwait's sovereignty.
After annexing Kuwait, Iraqi forces amassed on the border with Saudi Arabia, with foreign intelligence services suspected that Saddam was preparing for an invasion of Saudi Arabia to capture or attack its oil fields that were a very short distance from the border. It has been suspected that Saddam Hussein intended to invade and annex a portion of Saudi Arabia's Eastern Province on the justification that the Saudi region of Al-Hasa had been part of the Ottoman province of Basra that the British had helped Saudi Arabia conquer in 1913. It is believed that Saddam intended to annex Kuwait and the Al-Hasa oil region, so that Iraq would be in control of the Persian Gulf region's vast oil production, that would make Iraq the dominant power in the Middle East. The Saudi Arabian government was alarmed by Iraq's mobilization of ten heavily armed and well-supplied Iraqi Army divisions along the border of Iraqi-annexed Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, and warned the United States government that they believed that Iraq was preparing for an immediate invasion of Saudi Arabia's Eastern Province. The Saudi Arabian government stated that without assistance from outside forces, Iraq could invade and seize control of the entire Eastern Province within six hours.
Israel
Greater Israel is an expression that has held several different biblical and political meanings over time. It is often used, in an irredentist fashion, to refer to the historic or desired borders of Israel. Currently, the most common definition of the land encompassed by the term is the territory of the State of Israel together with the Palestinian territories. An earlier definition, favored by Revisionist Zionism, included the territory of the former Emirate of Transjordan.
Korea
The 1909 Gando Convention addressed a territory dispute between Qing China and Joseon Korea in China's favor. Because the convention was made by the occupying Empire of Japan, it was de jure nullified after the Surrender of Japan and North Korea started to control the area south of Paektu Mountain.
In 1961, the People's Republic of China published a map nominally claiming a boundary passing dozens of kilometers south of Paekdu Mountain. North Korea protested this by publishing a national map with claims on Gando. While neither of these claims was seriously enforced, the area between the Gando Convention line and Paektu Mountain were still in dispute. In 1963, North Korea signed a boundary treaty with the People's Republic of China, which settled the boundary between the two at the Yalu/Amnok (Chinese/Korean names) and Tumen Rivers; this agreement primarily stipulated that three-fifths of Heaven Lake at the peak of Mt. Baekdu would go to North Korea, and two-fifths to China.
In 1990, the Soviet Union and North Korea signed a border treaty recognizing Noktundo island, an island of historical significance in Joseon military history involving Admiral Yi Sun-sin, as a part of the Soviet Union and later Russia. South Korea does not recognize the treaty and maintains the nation's claim on the island administered by Russia.
While South Korea did not recognize this agreement, they made no serious attempts to gain Korean sovereignty on Gando. South Korea did not officially renounce their claim on Gando, but the Sino-Korean boundary on South Korean national map loosely follows the 1961 line except Mt. Baekdu, accepting the boundary on the map as the de facto boundary.
Some Koreans who maintain an irredentist claim on Gando regard Gando as Korean territory and the 1963 treaty as null and void. More ambitious claims include all parts of Manchuria that the Goguryeo kingdom controlled.
Lebanon
The Lebanese nationalism incorporates irredentist views seeking to unify all the lands of ancient Phoenicia around present day Lebanon. This comes from the fact that present day Lebanon, the Mediterranean coast of Syria, and northern Israel is the area that roughly corresponds to ancient Phoenicia and as a result the majority of the Lebanese people identify with the ancient Phoenician population of that region. The proposed Greater Lebanese country includes Lebanon, Mediterranean coast of Syria, and Northern Israel.
Mongolia
The irredentist idea that advocates cultural and political solidarity of Mongols. The proposed territory usually includes the independent state of Mongolia, the Chinese regions of Inner Mongolia (Southern Mongolia) and Dzungaria (in Xinjiang), and the Russian subjects of Buryatia. Sometimes Tuva and the Altai Republic are included as well.
Nepal
Greater Nepal involves the incorporation of the territories won by the Kingdom of Nepal at its greatest extent back to the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal.
Pakistan
Pakistani irredentism involves the incorporations of Muslim majority lands of British India under Pakistan. This is most notable in the conflict in the Jammu and Kashmir state, a Muslim majority state divided between Pakistan and India.
Syria
The Syrian Social Nationalist Party, which operates in Lebanon and Syria, works for the unification of most modern states of the Levant and beyond in a single state referred to as Greater Syria. The proposed Syrian country includes Lebanon, Israel, Syria, Jordan, and parts of Turkey, and has at times been expanded to include Iraq, Cyprus, and the Sinai peninsula.
Thailand
Thailand allied with the axis powers in the 1940s in an attempt to "reclaim all of the former Thai lands." This was part of the Pan-Thai
movement. The map depicts the occupation and annexation of the Cambodian territory (Nakhon Champassak, Phibunsongkhram, and Phra Tabong), Shan territory (Saharat Thai Doem), Laos territory (Lan Chang) and Malay territory (Si Rat Malai).
Turkey
Misak-ı Millî is the set of six important decisions made by the last term of the Ottoman Parliament. Parliament met on 28 January 1920 and published their decisions on 12 February 1920. These decisions worried the occupying Allies, resulting in the de jure Occupation of Constantinople by the British, French and Italian troops on 16 March 1920 and the establishment of a new Turkish nationalist parliament, the Grand National Assembly, in Ankara.
The Ottoman Minister of Internal Affairs, Damat Ferid Pasha, made the opening speech of parliament due to Mehmed VI's illness. A group of parliamentarians called Felâh-ı Vatan was established by Mustafa Kemal's friends to acknowledge the decisions taken at the Erzurum Congress and the Sivas Congress. Mustafa Kemal said "It is the nation's iron fist that writes the Nation's Oath which is the main principle of our independence to the annals of history." Decisions taken by this parliament were used as the basis for the new Turkish Republic's claims in the Treaty of Lausanne.
United Arab Emirates
The Greater and Lesser Tunbs as well as Abu Musa are disputed by the United Arab Emirates with Iran.
Yemen
Greater Yemen is a theory giving Yemen claim to former territories that were held by various predecessor states that existed between the Himyarite period and 18th century. The areas claimed include parts of modern Saudi Arabia and Oman.
Europe
Bulgaria
Based on territorial definitions according Bulgarian ethnicity, also the territories of the historical Bulgarian national state – the Bulgarian Empire, a Greater Bulgaria nationalist movement has been active for more than a century, aiming to annex the rest of the three national core regions – Moesia, Thrace and Macedonia.
Catalonia
Catalan countries refers to the idea of creating a independent Catalan country encompassing Catalonia, Balearic Islands, Valencian Community, La Franja, Andorra, Carche, Alghero and Roussillon
Croatia
Finland
Greater Finland was an irredentist and nationalist idea which emphasized the territorial expansion of Finland. The most common concept of Greater Finland saw the country as defined by natural borders encompassing the territories inhabited by Finns and Karelians, ranging from the White Sea to Lake Onega and along the Svir River and Neva River—or, more modestly, the Sestra River—to the Gulf of Finland. Some proponents also included the Torne Valley (in Sweden), Ingria, and Estonia.
Former Yugoslavia
Some of the most violent irredentist conflicts of recent times in Europe flared up as a consequence of the break-up of the former federal state of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s. One of the last conflicts erupted further south with the ethnic Albanian majority in Kosovo seeking to switch allegiance to the adjoining state of Albania.
France
The natural borders of France () were a nationalist theory developed in France, notably during the French Revolution. They correspond to the Rhine, the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea, the Pyrenees and the Alps, according to the revolutionaries.
Germany
During the debate of what was then called the German Question (die deutsche Frage) in the 19th century prior to the unification of Germany (1871), the term Großdeutschland, "Greater Germany", referred to a possible German nation consisting of the states that later comprised the German Empire and Austria. The term Kleindeutschland "Lesser Germany" referred to a possible German state without Austria. The term was later used by Germans referring to Greater Germany, a state consisting of pre–World War I Germany, Austria and the Sudetenland.
Since the foundation of the German Reich in 1871, the only times during which German governments did not make some form of explicit or implicit irredentist demand or claim - including the demand for reunification during German partition - were prior to World War I and following German reunification.
The Weimar Republic contained significant irredentist elements which frequently formed part of the governing coalitions. The Treaty of Locarno settled Germany's western boundaries (accepting among others the definitive loss of Alsace-Lorraine) but regarding the eastern boundaries with Czechoslovakia and the Second Polish Republic it only contained a provision that any revision of borders would occur non-violently. There was never a renunciation on the part of the German government prior to World War II of any claim to territory to the east of its internationally recognized borders. The foreign ministers of Germany and France who are credited with the success of the treaty negotiations, Aristide Briand and Gustav Stresemann, were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts. The Territory of the Saar Basin was put under a League of Nations mandate but was de facto a French protectorate. In 1935 (two years after Hitler had been appointed chancellor) a previously agreed to referendum was held, transferring sovereignty over the Saar Area to Germany. The reference to "1937 borders" (:de:Deutsches Reich in den Grenzen vom 31. Dezember 1937) was used after the war to allow for the inclusion of the Saar Area into this concept of "Germany" while at the same time excluding the territorial developments of 1938 and early 1939 (see below), which were widely seen as the illegitimate result of German aggression and Anglo-French appeasement after the war.
A main point of Nazi ideology was to reunify all Germans either born or living outside of Germany to create an "all-German Reich". These beliefs ultimately resulted in the Munich Agreement, which ceded to Germany areas of Czechoslovakia that were mainly inhabited by Sudeten Germans, and the Anschluss, which ceded the entire country of Austria to Germany; both events occurred in 1938. Later (but still prior to the outbreak of general war in Europe) the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was formed which included a Czech ethnic majority and a German speaking minority among other ethnic groups. Among the Origins of World War II in Europe was the German irredentist demand to the Polish corridor an ethnically diverse but predominantly Polish area that separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany and was the only access to the sea for the Second Polish Republic. Another point of contention in the interwar German-Polish relationship was the status of the Free City of Danzig which had an ethnic German majority population but had become a League of Nations backed City State following World War I due to its strategic importance.
During German partition both states initially claimed their intention was an eventual German reunification, but East Germany eventually abandoned this claim. The German Basic Law contained both an exhortation towards reunification and a provision (Article 23) concerning the "joining of other German areas" to the area of validity of the Basic Law. Article 23 was struck from the Basic Law in the course of reunification and has since been replaced with an unrelated provision concerning the European Union. The German Democratic Republic was relatively quick to officially endorse the Oder Neisse line as its new eastern border, signing the Treaty of Zgorzelec in 1950. However, there remained irredentist sentiment regarding territory east of the new border among the populous of both German states. Most of the West German public and political class refused to accept the loss of the eastern territories in the early years of the postwar era as evidenced by a list of potential car license plates for cities in the GDR, in areas lost due to World War II and even in areas like the former Free City of Danzig. The government of Willy Brandt (governed 1969-1974) made efforts to de facto recognize the postwar status quo in exchange for political rapprochement in the course of Ostpolitik, accepting among other things the entry of both East and West Germany into the United Nations in 1973. Willy Brandt was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize for his reconciliation efforts. However, the slim majority his social-liberal coalition had won in the 1969 German federal election had dwindled by 1972 because several members of the Social Democratic Party and the Free Democratic Party had switched parties due to their disagreement with Ostpolitik. After surprisingly surviving the 1972 constructive vote of no confidence, the government was reelected in a landslide in the 1972 German federal election which was held a year early in light of events. While the CDU/CSU government of Helmut Kohl which came into office in 1982 did not reverse Ostpolitik, the treaties accepting the postwar borders had been carefully worded so as to preserve the option of some different "final settlement" in the course of a peace treaty or following a possible German reunification. Thus the question of German claims to territory outside the two German states became acute again in the course of the negotiations that ultimately led to the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany or "two plus four agreement" and the final official renunciation of all German claims to any territory beyond the borders it achieved on October 3, 1990. Since then irredentist claims have been limited to a tiny far right minority and have had no major influence on national politics. However, in the course of the Kaliningrad question there were negotiations between Germany and Russia as to whether sovereignty should be transferred to Germany.
Greece
Following the Greek War of Independence in 1821–1832, Greece began to contest areas inhabited by Greeks, primarily against the Ottoman Empire. The Megali Idea (Great Idea) envisioned Greek incorporation of Greek-inhabited lands, but also historical lands in Asia Minor corresponding with the predominantly Greek and Orthodox Byzantine Empire and the dominions of the ancient Greeks.
The Greek quest began with the acquisition of Thessaly through the Convention of Constantinople in 1881, a failed war against Turkey in 1897 and the Balkan Wars (Macedonia, Epirus, some Aegean Islands). After World War I, Greece acquired Western Thrace from Bulgaria as per the Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine, but also Ionia/Smyrna and Eastern Thrace (excluding Constantinople) from the Ottoman Empire as ordained in the Treaty of Sèvres. Subsequently, Greece launched an unsuccessful campaign to further their gains in Asia Minor, but were halted by the Turkish War of Independence. The events culminated into the Great Fire of Smyrna, Population exchange between Greece and Turkey, and Treaty of Lausanne which returned Eastern Thrace and Ionia to the newfound Republic of Turkey. The events are known as the "Asia Minor Catastrophe" to Greeks. The Ionian Islands were ceded by Britain in 1864, and the Dodecanese by Italy in 1947.
Another concern of the Greeks is the incorporation of Cyprus which was ceded by the Ottomans to the British. As a result of the Cyprus Emergency the island gained independence as the Republic of Cyprus in 1960. The failed incorporation by Greece through coup d'état and the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974 led to the formation of the mostly unrecognized Northern Cyprus and has culminated into the present-day Cyprus issue.
Hungary
The restoration of the borders of Hungary to their state prior to World War I, in order to unite all ethnic Hungarians within the same country once again.
Hungarian irredentism or Greater Hungary are irredentist and revisionist political ideas concerning redemption of territories of the historical Kingdom of Hungary. The idea is associated with Hungarian revisionism, targeting at least to regain control over Hungarian-populated areas in Hungary's neighbouring countries. Hungarian historians did not use the term Greater Hungary, because the "Historic Hungary" is the established term for the Kingdom of Hungary before 1920.
The Treaty of Trianon defined the borders of the new independent Hungary and, compared against the claims of the pre-war Kingdom, new Hungary had approximately 72% less land stake and about two-thirds fewer inhabitants, almost 5 million of these being of Hungarian ethnicity. However, only 54% of the inhabitants of the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary were Hungarians before World War I. Following the treaty's instatement, Hungarian leaders became inclined towards revoking some of its terms. This political aim gained greater attention and was a serious national concern up through the second World War. Irredentism in the 1930s led Hungary to form an alliance with Nazi Germany. Eva S. Balogh states: "Hungary's participation in World War II resulted from a desire to revise the Treaty of Trianon so as to recover territories lost after World War I. This revisionism was the basis for Hungary's interwar foreign policy."
Between November 1938 and April 1941, Hungary took full advantage of German patronage and, in four different stages, approximately doubled her size. Ethnically, these acquisitions were a mixed bag, some were populated mostly by Hungarians, while others, such as the remainder of Carpathian Ruthenia, were almost wholly non-Hungarian in composition. However, regarding partitioned Transylvania, the population was mixed, near equal between Hungarians and non-Hungarians.
Hungary began with the First Vienna Award in 1938 (redeeming southern Slovakia from Czechoslovakia with mainly Hungarians) and the Second Vienna Award in 1940 (Northern Transylvania). Through military campaigns it gained the remainder of Carpathian Ruthenia in 1939. In 1941 it added the Yugoslav parts of Bačka, Baranja, Međimurje, and Prekmurje.
After defeat in 1945, the borders of Hungary as defined by the Treaty of Trianon were restored, except for three Hungarian villages that were transferred to Czechoslovakia. These villages are today administratively a part of Bratislava.
Italy
Italian irredentism was a political movement during the late 19th and early 20th centuries in Italy with irredentist goals which promoted the unification of geographic areas in which indigenous peoples were considered to be ethnic Italians. At the beginning, the movement promoted the annexation to Italy of territories where Italians formed the absolute majority of the population, but retained by the Austrian Empire after the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866. During World War I the main "irredent lands" (terre irredente) were considered to be the provinces of Trento and Trieste and, in a narrow sense, irredentists referred to the Italian patriots living in these two areas.
Italian irredentism was not a formal organization but rather an opinion movement, advocated by several different groups, claiming that Italy had to reach its "natural borders" or unify territories inhabited by Italians. Similar nationalistic ideas were common in Europe in the late 19th century. This idea of Italia irredenta is not to be confused with the Risorgimento, the historical events that led to irredentism, nor with nationalism or Imperial Italy, the political philosophy that took the idea further under fascism.
The term was later expanded to also include multilingual and multiethnic areas, where Italians were a relative majority or a substantial minority, within the northern Italian region encompassed by the Alps, with German, Italian, Slovene, Croatian, Ladin and Istro-Romanian population, such as South Tyrol, Istria, Gorizia and Gradisca and part of Dalmatia. The claims were further extended also to the city of Fiume, Corsica, the island of Malta, the County of Nice and Italian Switzerland.
After the end of World War I, the Italian irredentist movement was hegemonised, manipulated and distorted by fascism, which made it an instrument of nationalist propaganda, placed at the center of a policy, conditioned by belated imperial ambitions, which took the form of "forced Italianizations" , in the aspiration for the birth of a Great Italy and a vast Italian Empire. After World War II, Italian irredentism disappeared along with the defeated Fascists and the Monarchy of the House of Savoy. After the Treaty of Paris (1947) and the Treaty of Osimo (1975), all territorial claims were abandoned by the Italian Republic (see Foreign relations of Italy). The Italian irredentist movement thus vanished from Italian politics.
Lithuania
Ethnographic Lithuania is a nationalist concept that defines Lithuanian territories as a significant part of the territories that belonged to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Lithuanians as all people living on them, regardless of whether those people contemporarily or currently speak the Lithuanian language and considered themselves Lithuanian. According to the supporters of the ethnographic Lithuania, Lithuanian Poles and Northwestern Belarusians were "slavicized Lithuanians" who needed to be re-Lithuanized. They argued that an individual cannot decide on his ethnicity and nationality, which are decided not by language but ancestry.
North Macedonia
Some Macedonian nationalists promoted the irredentist concept of a United Macedonia () among ethnic Macedonian nationalists, which involves territorial claims on the northern province of Macedonia in Greece, but also in Blagoevgrad Province ("Pirin Macedonia") in Bulgaria, Albania, and Serbia. The United Macedonia concept aims to unify the transnational region of Macedonia in the Balkans (which they claim as their homeland and which they assert was wrongfully divided under the Treaty of Bucharest in 1913), into a single state under their domination, with Thessaloniki (Solun in the Slavic languages) as its capital.
Norway
The Kingdom of Norway had several territorial disputes throughout its history, mainly regarding islands and sea boundaries in the Arctic Ocean. The Old Kingdom of Norway, which was the Norwegian territories at its maximum extent, included Iceland, the settleable areas of Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and the Northern Isles and Hebrides (today part of Scotland). Under Danish sovereignty since they established a hegemonic position in the Kalmar Union, the territories were considered as Norwegian colonies. When in the Treaty of Kiel in 1814, Norway's territories were transferred from Denmark to Sweden, the territories of Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands were maintained by Denmark.
In 1919, the foreign minister of Norway, Nils Claus Ihlen, declared that the Norwegians would not object to a claim of Denmark to the whole island of Greenland, which at the time was mostly occupied by Danish colonies, with a few Norwegian settlements in the eastern part of the island. The claim was formally declared in 1921, but the Norwegian government rejected Denmark's claim and later stated that parts of eastern Greenland belonged to Norway. A dispute between the two countries was not settled until 1933, by the Permanent Court of International Justice. The court concluded that Denmark had sovereignty of the whole island of Greenland, ending Norwegian control over Erik the Red's Land. Norway formerly included the provinces Jämtland, Härjedalen, Idre-Särna (lost since the Second Treaty of Brömsebro), and Bohuslän (lost since the Treaty of Roskilde), which were ceded to Sweden after Danish defeats in wars such as the Thirty Years' War and Second Northern War.
Poland
Kresy ("Borderlands") are the eastern lands that formerly belonged to Poland and held a sizable amount of Polish population. In 1921, during the Polish-Soviet war, Polish troops crossed the Curzon Line that had been declared as the eastern polish border by an international commission, and in the Kiev offensive (1920) conquered territories, now today inside the borders of Ukraine and Belarus, which were claimed to have been taken from Poland during the Partitions of Poland, and also seized 7 percent of Lithuania's territory. The new polish territories east of the Curzon line were taken back by the Soviet Union in 1939 under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact after the Soviet-German invasion of Poland, and include major cities, like Lviv (Lwów) (nowadays Ukraine), Vilnius (Wilno) (today the capital of Lithuania), and Hrodna (Grodno) (Belarus), which all had majority Polish population. Even though Kresy, or the Eastern Borderlands, are no longer Polish territories, the area is still inhabited by a significant Polish minority, and the memory of the Polish Kresy is still cultivated. The attachment to the "myth of Kresy", the vision of the region as a peaceful, idyllic, rural land, has been criticized in Polish discourse.
In January, February and March 2012, the Centre for Public Opinion Research conducted a survey, asking Poles about their ties to the Kresy. It turned out that almost 15% of the population of Poland (4.3–4.6 million people) declared that they had either been born in the Kresy, or had a parent or a grandparent who came from that region. Numerous treasures of Polish culture remain and there are numerous Kresy-oriented organizations. There are Polish sports clubs (Pogoń Lwów, and formerly FK Polonia Vilnius), newspapers (Gazeta Lwowska, Kurier Wileński), radio stations (in Lviv and Vilnius), numerous theatres, schools, choirs and folk ensembles. Poles living in Kresy are helped by Fundacja Pomoc Polakom na Wschodzie, a Polish government-sponsored organization, as well as other organizations, such as The Association of Help of Poles in the East Kresy (see also Karta Polaka). Money is frequently collected to help those Poles who live in the Kresy, and there are several annual events, such as a Christmas Package for a Polish Veteran in Kresy, and Summer with Poland, sponsored by the Association "Polish Community", in which Polish children from Kresy are invited to visit Poland. Polish language handbooks and films, as well as medicines and clothes are collected and sent to Kresy. Books are most often sent to Polish schools which exist there—for example, in December 2010, The University of Wrocław organized an event called Become a Polish Santa Claus and Give a Book to a Polish Child in Kresy. Polish churches and cemeteries (such as Cemetery of the Defenders of Lwów) are renovated with money from Poland.
Portugal
Portugal does not recognize Spanish sovereignty over the territory of Olivenza, ceded to Spain during the Napoleonic Wars.
Romania
Romanian nationalists lay claims to Greater Romania, but especially to Moldova, most of the territory which was part of the country between 1918 and 1940. Moldovan was the Soviet name for the Romanian language. There is some (but not universal) support by Moldovans for a peaceful and voluntary reunion with Romania, not least because (having joined the European Union), the economy has burgeoned and Romanian citizens have gained freedom of movement in Europe. Also, Russian irredentism over Transnistria has caused alarm and resentment.
Russia
The annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation in 2014 was based on a claim of protecting ethnic Russians residing there. Crimea was part of the Russian Empire from 1783 to 1917, after which it enjoyed a few years of autonomy until it was made part of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (which was a part of the Soviet Union) from 1921 to 1954 and then transferred to Soviet Ukraine (which also was a part of the Soviet Union) in 1954. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Crimea still remained part of Ukraine until February 2014. Russia declared Crimea to be part of the Russian Federation in March 2014, and effective administration commenced. The Russian regional status is not currently recognised by the UN General Assembly (Resolution 68/262) and by most countries.
Russian irredentism also includes southeastern and coastal Ukraine, known as Novorossiya, a term from the Russian Empire.
If the 12 July 2021 essay On the Historical Unity of Russians and Ukrainians, published by President Vladimir Putin, is to be considered an official Russian position, then its irredentist claims now extend to the entire territory of historical Ukraine and Belarus, including some areas now part of Romania.
Serbia
Serbian irredentism is manifested in Greater Serbia, the Serbian nationalist ideology. Greater Serbia consists of Serbia, North Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and large parts of Croatia. Used in the context of the Yugoslav wars, however, the Serbian struggle for Serbs to remain united in one country does not quite fit the term "irredentism". In the 19th century, Pan-Serbism sought to unite all of the Serb people across the Balkans, under Ottoman and Habsburg rule. Some intellectuals sought to unite all South Slavs (regardless of religion) into a Serbian state. Serbia had gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878. Bosnia and Herzegovina, annexed by the Austrians in 1908, was viewed of as a part of the Serbian homeland. Serbia directed its territorial aspirations to the south, as the north and west was held by Austria. Macedonia was divided between Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece after the Balkan Wars.
In 1914, aspirations were directed towards Austria-Hungary. A government policy sought to incorporate all Serb-inhabited areas, and other South Slavic areas, thereby laying the foundation of Yugoslavia. With the establishment of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), the Serbs now lived united in one country. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, the Serb political leadership in break-away Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina declared their territories to be part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro).
The project of unification of Serb-inhabited areas in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Yugoslav Wars (see United Serb Republic) ultimately failed. The Croatian Operation Storm ended large-scale combat and captured most of the Republic of Serbian Krajina, while the Dayton Agreement ended the Bosnian War. Bosnia and Herzegovina was established as a federal republic, made up by two separate entities, one being Serb-inhabited Republika Srpska. There has since been calls by Bosnian Serb politicians for the secession of Republika Srpska, and possible unification with Serbia.
After the Kosovo War (1998–99), Kosovo became a UN protectorate, still de jure part of Serbia. The Albanian-majority Kosovo assembly unilaterally declared the independence of Kosovo in 2008, and its status since is disputed.
Sweden
The Åland islands were disputed at one point, due to it having a population that overwhelmingly speaks Swedish.
North America
Mexico
In the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) following the Mexican–American War (1845–48), Mexico ceded claims to what is now the Western and Southwestern United States to the United States (see Mexican Cession). The Cortina and Pizaña uprisings of 1859 and 1915 were influenced by irredentist ideas and the "proximity of the international boundary". The unsuccessful Pizaña uprising "was the last major armed protest on the part of Texas-Americans" (Tejanos). This 1915 uprising and the Plan of San Diego that preceded it marked the high point in Mexican irredentist sentiments.
In the early years of the Chicano Movement (El Movimiento) in the 1960s and 1970s, some movement figures "were political nationalists who advocated the secession of the Southwest from the Anglo republic of the United States of America, if not fully, at least locally with regard to Chicano self-determination in local governance, education and means of production". For example, in the 1970s, Reies Tijerina and his group La Alianza, espoused various separatist, secessionist, or irredentist beliefs. The Plan Espiritual de Aztlán, written during the First Chicano National Youth Conference in 1969, also stated "the fundamental Chicano nationalist goal of reclaiming Aztlán"—a reference to ancient Mexican myth—as "the rightful homeland of the Chicanos". However, "Most Chicano nationalists ... did not express the extreme desire for secession from the United States, and the nationalism they expressed weighed more heavily toward the broadly cultural than the explicitly political."
Today, there is virtually no Mexican American support for "separatist policies of self-determination". "Ethnonational irredentism by Mexicans in territories seized by the United States" following the Mexican–American War "declined after the failure of several attempted revolts at the end of the nineteenth century, in favor of internal ... struggles for immigrant and racial civil rights" in the United States. Neither the Mexican government nor any significant Mexican-American group "makes irredentist claims upon the United States". In the modern era, there "has been no evidence of irredentist sentiments among Mexican-Americans, even in such formerly Mexican territories as Southern California, ... nor of disloyalty to the United States, nor of active interest in the politics of Mexico".
Border disputes related to irredentist claims
Afghanistan
The Afghan border with Pakistan, known as the Durand Line, was agreed to by Afghanistan and British India in 1893. The Pashtun tribes inhabiting the border areas were divided between what have become two nations; Afghanistan never accepted the still-porous border and clashes broke out in the 1950s and 1960s between Afghanistan and Pakistan over the issue. All Afghan governments of the past century have declared, with varying intensity, a long-term goal of re-uniting all Pashtun-dominated areas under Afghan rule. No other country in the world accepts Afghanistan's unilateral claim that the Durand Line is in dispute. Afghan claims over Pakistani territory have detrimentally affected Afghanistan–Pakistan relations.
Korea
Since their founding, both Korean states have disputed the legitimacy of the other. The Constitution of North Korea stresses the importance of reunification, but, while it makes no similar formal provision for administering the South, it effectively claims its territory as it does not diplomatically recognise the Republic of Korea, deeming it an "entity occupying the Korean territory".
South Korea's constitution also claims jurisdiction over the entire Korean peninsula. It acknowledges the division of Korea only indirectly by requiring the president to work for reunification. The Committee for the Five Northern Korean Provinces, established in 1949, is the South Korean authority charged with the administration of Korean territory north of the Military Demarcation Line (i.e., North Korea), and consists of the governors of the five provinces, who are appointed by the President. However the body is purely symbolic and largely tasked with dealing with Northern defectors; if reunification were to occur the committee would be dissolved and new administrators appointed by the Ministry of Unification.
Pakistan
Pakistan and India have from their independence sought to have the territory of Kashmir incorporated into them. Pakistan's and India's dispute over the territory of Kashmir stems from events leading up to independence from the British.
See also
Ethnic nationalism
Ethnic cleansing
Identity politics
Lebensraum
Revanchism
Status quo ante bellum
Manifest destiny
Historical powers
References
Imperialism studies |
4343481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Saint%20Seiya%20characters | List of Saint Seiya characters | This article comprises a list of characters that play a role in Saint Seiya (also known as Knights of the Zodiac) and its canonical continuation, Saint Seiya: Next Dimension, two manga series created, written and illustrated by Masami Kurumada.
The plot of Saint Seiya begins in 1986, spanning until 1990, and follows a group of five mystical warriors called Saints as they battle in the name of the goddess Athena against agents of evil who seek to rule the Earth. Their main enemy in the first arc of the story is the traitorous Gold Saint of Gemini, who has murdered the representative of Athena and taken his place as leader of the Saints. In the second arc, the Saints are confronted with the god of the sea, Poseidon, who kidnaps the mortal reincarnation of Athena and threatens to flood the world with incessant rain to cleanse it of the evils of mankind. Their final enemy, who appears in the third arc of the series, is the god of the Underworld, Hades, whom Athena has fought since the age of myth.
Saint Seiya: Next Dimension acts both as a prequel and a sequel to the first series. It details the aftermath of the war against Hades and starts with Athena seeking help from the gods of Olympus and from Chronos to save Pegasus Seiya from Hades' curse by travelling back to the 18th century. The two main antagonists are the troops of the goddess Artemis, in the 20th century storyline, and the incarnation of Hades in the 18th century.
Protagonists
Pegasus Seiya
is the Bronze Saint of Pegasus in the 20th century and titular character of the series. An orphaned child later revealed to be one of Mitsumasa Kido's sons, he was separated from his sister Seika and sent to Greece to become a Saint, a soldier of the goddess Athena. Initially motivated by the desire to rejoin his sister, he eventually discovers he has protected Athena for millennia, his soul returning every time she reincarnates to assist her in the battles against the evil agents that threaten the Earth. As a warrior of immense might, Seiya achieves victory in impossible battles, occasionally donning the Sagittarius Gold Cloth before particularly challenging opponents. He defeats the gods Poseidon and Hades, although the latter curses him at the end of Saint Seiya to stop his cycle of rebirth. He is left in a comatose state which Athena seeks to revert in the canonic sequel Next Dimension. Seiya is proclaimed as the future Gold Saint of the Sagittarius successor to Sagittarius Aiolos.
Andromeda Shun
is the Bronze Saint of Andromeda and Phoenix Ikki's younger brother, although he shares the same father as the rest of the main Bronze Saints. He trained at Andromeda Island under the Silver Saint Cepheus Daidalos and returned to Japan after earning his Cloth, hoping to be reunited with Ikki. He helps Athena reclaim Sanctuary and later becomes involved in the battles against Poseidon and his Generals. In the final arc, it is revealed that the necklace he has carried since he was a baby was given to him by Pandora, to mark his body as Hades's future container. Ikki manages to free him after the god takes hold of his body and both follow Athena to Elysion, where Shun briefly dons the Virgo Gold Cloth and helps to finally defeat Hades. In Next Dimension(canonical sequel and prequel), Shun accompanies Athena to the 18th century, to save Seiya from the curse of Hades's sword. There, he joins forces with the former Pegasus Saint, Tenma, to save the helpless goddess from Hades's Specters.
Shun is proclaimed as the future Gold Saint of Virgo successor to Virgo Shaka.
In the anime adaptation, his master's name was changed to Albiore.
Dragon Shiryu
is the Bronze Saint protected by the constellation of Draco the Dragon, considered the calmest and most collected of the protagonists. As one of Mitsumada Kido's sons, he was sent at an early age to the Five Old Peaks of Rozan to train under the Libra Gold Saint and acquire the Dragon Cloth. This Cloth is known for possessing the strongest fist and shield. After he returns to Japan, Shiryu becomes involved in the battles to recover the Gold Cloth from Ikki and the Black Saints, and eventually discovers that Saori Kido is the goddess Athena whom he swore to protect. In the ensuing battle against the Silver Saint Perseus Algol, Shiryu is forced to blind himself to achieve victory. He recovers his sight upon awakening his seventh sense during the fight against Cancer Deathmask, but later loses it a second time while facing Poseidon's General Chrysaor Krishna. More than once, he dons the Libra Gold Cloth when confronting a particularly powerful opponent. In the Next Dimension official sequel of the manga of Saint Seiya, Shiryu and Shunrei have adopted a baby whom they named Shoryu. Then, he goes back in time with Hyoga, to the time of the previous Holy War against Hades in the eighteenth century, in order to help Saori / Athena save Seiya's life, who is cursed by the sword of the god of the underworld. Shiryu is proclaimed as the future Gold Saint of Libra successor to Dohko, from the Gold Saint of the eighteenth century Libra Dohko(Young)
Cygnus Hyoga
, also known as Swan Hyoga in several international adaptations, is the Bronze Saint of Cygnus. He was born in the fictional village of Kohoutek, in eastern Siberia, which, at the time when Kurumada wrote and drew his manga, was in the Soviet Union. His mastery over his Cosmo grants him the ability to create ice and snow at temperatures as low as absolute zero by stopping subatomic particles. Hyoga is often portrayed wearing a cross and rosary of the Northern Cross, another name for the Cygnus constellation. Calm by nature, he displays a seemingly emotionless exterior, but a more tender side of his character emerges on occasions, such as when he expresses his gratitude to Andromeda Shun for having saved his life and his undying devotion to his mentor Aquarius Camus. He first appears in the series as he receives an order from Sanctuary to eliminate his fellow Bronze Saints, but he quickly abandons this mission when he discovers the truth about Saori Kido's identity and joins her in the battles against her enemies. While in Poseidon's Undersea Temple, he reencounters Kraken Isaac, a fellow apprentice of Camus. To repay an old debt to the Mariner, Hyoga sacrifices one of his eyes. He occasionally dons the Aquarius Gold Cloth. In the anime adaptation, he was given a different master: an original character referred to as the Crystal Saint, who was, in turn, Aquarius Camus's apprentice. In Japan, Hyoga is a popular character, ranking second in the main character polls of the Bronze Saints. In the Next Dimension official sequel of the manga of Saint Seiya, Hyoga goes back in time with Shiryu, to the time of the previous Holy War against Hades in the eighteenth century, in order to help Saori / Athena save Seiya's life, who is cursed by the sword of the god of the underworld. Hyoga is proclaimed as the future Gold Saint of Aquarius successor to Camus, from the Gold Saint of the eighteenth century Aquarius Mystoria
Phoenix Ikki
is the Bronze Saint of the Phoenix constellation and Shun's older brother. He trained at the hellish Death Queen Island under Guilty, which turned him into a loner, cold and harsh. Ikki first appears as an antagonist, as the leader of the Black Saints who is set on taking the Sagittarius Gold Cloth for himself and destroying the other Bronze Saints for revenge against the Graude Foundation. He later overcomes his hate and becomes an ally to Athena and the Bronze Saints, often arriving at critical moments to save them from certain death. Born under the sign of Leo, Ikki dons the Leo Gold Cloth once, during the fight against the twin gods Hypnos and Thanatos in Elysion. In Saint Seiya: Next Dimension, the ongoing canonical sequel and prequel to Saint Seiya authored by Kurumada that deals with the aftermath of the war against Hades. After Athena visits Mount Olympus to meet her sister Artemis and ask for her help to cure Seiya from the curse Hades inflicted on him, Andromeda Shun is attacked by Artemis's soldiers, the Satellites, and their commander Lascomoune. Shun manages to defeat the Satellites, but not Lascomoune, who nearly takes his life. Ikki then intervenes to protect his brother and defeats the commander of the Satellites. Afterwards, he follows Athena and Shun into the past, to the war against Hades that took place in the eighteenth century. Ikki is proclaimed as the future Gold Saint of the Leo successor to Aiolia, from the Gold Saint of the eighteenth century Leo Kaiser
Saori Kido / Athena
, also known as Princess Sienna in some English versions of the series, is the reincarnation of the Greek goddess of war, wisdom, justice and heroic endeavor, , in the 20th century. Based on the Greek goddess of the same name, she is the daughter of Zeus and sister of Artemis and Apollo. She usually carries a golden staff representing Nike, the Goddess of Victory, and a shield which can eliminate all evil and owns a powerful Divine Cloth. She is reborn approximately every 250 years to protect the Earth from evil with the help of her loyal Saints. While still a baby, Gemini Saga attempts to kill her, but Sagittarius Aiolos saves her life and delivers her to Mitsumasa Kido, who raises her in secret in Japan. Thirteen years later, after Mitsumasa's death, Saori gathers the Bronze Saints that the Graude Foundation trained and battles to reclaim Sanctuary from Saga's control. During the Poseidon arc, she offers to be locked inside the main pillar in Poseidon's Undersea Temple while it fills with water that would have otherwise flooded the Earth. After her Saints save her, she reseals Poseidon's soul. In the Hades arc, she infiltrates the Underworld and follows Hades to Elysion, where she also seals away the evil god. In Next Dimension, hoping to save Seiya's life from the curse cast on him by Hades's sword, Saori travels to Olympus to ask for Chronos's help. The God of Time sends her back to the 18th century war against Hades, as per her request, but she appears in the past as a helpless baby at the mercy of her enemies.
In the latest chapters of Next Dimension, author Kurumada introduces , Athena's previous incarnation, who descended to Earth once again during the 18th century.
Sasha (Saint Seiya Next Dimension)
From volume 14 of Saint Seiya Next Dimension (sequel and prequel canonical to Saint Seiya) appears the reincarnation of Athena from the 18th century who has the name of Sasha. She is a pretty and kind girl who lived in the city of Florence (Italy) and was a childhood friend of Alone and Tenma. After the arrival of Saori (20th century Athena) in the 18th century, Sasha fell into a deep sleep due to the great space/time distortion (caused by Saori's travel back in time), she has since been nicknamed " The Sleeping Princess". She is attacked by some Specters of Hades sent by Pandora to kill her, including the powerful Giulietta di Papillon, but she will be protected by Tenma of Pegasus who, after a tough fight, will be able to defeat them. Sasha can awaken when Saori returns to the future.
Pegasus Tenma
Trained to be the Pegasus Saint by Crateris Suikyō, is Seiya's incarnation in the 18th century and Alone's best friend. After he and Alone escape from Libra Dohko and Aries Shion, Tenma realizes that his friend has become Hades. He vows to protect Alone, but, when he tries to make him remember who he is, Pandora and some Skeleton soldiers intervene and Tenma has to be saved by Dohko and Shion. The trio is then beset by Griffon Vermeer and Suikyō, who reveals himself as the Garuda Specter. The Saints manage to escape after Pandora summons the Specters and drink water from the Crateris Cloth to revitalize themselves. There, Tenma sees his future: Seiya in a wheelchair. Returning to Sanctuary with Dohko and Shion, Tenma later encounters Andromeda Shun and the two begin to climb the Twelve Temples, joining forces to protect the infant time-traveling Athena.
An alternate version of Tenma makes an appearance in the spin-off Saint Seiya: The Lost Canvas, where his name is spelled only in katakana.
Other Saints
Athena's army is composed of warriors known as Saints, who for millennia have battled to protect the goddess and the ideals she stands for. They inhabit the Sanctuary and possess superhuman powers thanks to their Cosmo, the energy of the Big Bang that dwells inside every being. They are divided into three hierarchical ranks – Bronze, Silver and Gold – and wear armors that are linked to the constellations named Cloths. Although all Saints have sworn allegiance to the goddess, Kurumada first presented most of them in an antagonistic role.
Antagonists
The first characters to appear in an antagonistic role are the Black Saints, servants of Phoenix Ikki on his quest to kill all the Bronze Saints. The second were most of the Silver and Gold Saints, deceived by the dark personality of the Gemini Gold Saint Saga. The short story dedicated to Hyōga that followed the Sanctuary arc of the manga introduced the Blue Warriors from the icy lands of Bluegrad. Afterwards, most antagonists were various deities from Greek mythology: Poseidon and Hades, in the original Saint Seiya, and the Olympians of the Heavenly Realm, in Saint Seiya: Next Dimension. The anime adaptation of the manga introduced several other antagonists, such as the Ghost Saints and Odin's God Warriors.
Support characters
Hades' chosen vessel in the 18th century, with the purest soul on earth. Prior to the Holy war, he was best friends with Pegasus Tenma since childhood. He first met Tenma during a snowstorm one night, in an abandoned shack where they both sought refuge. Tenma deceived Alone at first so that he could steal his belongings, but was stopped by Suikyō. As Suikyō was going to kill Tenma for theft, Alone lied and said he had given his bag to Tenma. Suikyō was eventually convinced and told Tenma he was now in debt to Alone and should therefore guard Alone for the rest of his life. At the start of the war, he could feel that darkness was headed his way, and that it came after him. He and Tenma escaped from Libra Dohko and Aries Shion, and ended up outside a small mausoleum. As Tenma went back to retrieve his Cloth, a voice called for Alone inside the mausoleum. As he entered, he found Hades' Sword stuck in the ground. It was then that Pandora showed herself and convinced Alone of grabbing the hilt of the sword. Alone started plunging into darkness and ignored Tenma as he strode towards Hades' Castle.
Apprentice under Aries Mu. Also known as Appendix Kiki. Like his master and grandmaster, Kiki also bears the ornaments on his forehead and is the youngest of the people of the continent of Mu. He never fights, but can use powerful telekinesis against normal humans, as well as teleport himself, and can tell when the cloths are damaged. In the Poseidon arc, he was given the duty of bringing the Libra Cloth to all the Bronze Saints, fulfilling it valiantly even at the risk of his life.
Formerly a Saint apprentice under Ophiuchus Shaina. During the final fight for the Pegasus Cloth and the status of Saint, Seiya cut off one of his ears, and he hated Seiya for it ever since. Cassios had great respect and affection toward Shaina; however, he realizes that Shaina had affection toward Seiya. Motivated by this, he takes Seiya's place and dies during the fight with Leo Aiolia in order to wake the Leo Gold Saint from the control of Saga's Dellusional Demon's Emperor Fist. In the anime adaptation, he was also the younger brother of Docrates, an anime-only character.
She was sold as a work slave to an abusive local farmer for only three bags of grain. When Ikki first encountered her, he mistook her for Shun, because she and Shun shared the same facial features with the only differences being hair color and gender. She was killed by Guilty, Ikki's master, in order to provoke Ikki into drawing power from hatred. In the anime adaptation her background is the same, with the addition of being Guilty's daughter.
Lyra Orphée's lover, she enjoyed great happiness at the Saint's side on Earth, until the day of her untimely death because of a snake bite. Crushed by her demise, Orphée descended to the Underworld to bargain for her soul with Hades. Touched by the Saint's pleas and melody, she was allowed to return to Earth by the deity, only to be thwarted by Sphinx Pharaoh. She thus was condemned to remain bound to the Underworld half-turned into stone, and later helped Seiya and Shun to unearth Orphée's seemingly forgotten loyalty to Athena.
Master of Phoenix Ikki during his stance on Death Queen Island. Harsh and heartless, and concealing his features behind a fearsome mask, Guilty employed brutal methods in Ikki's training, to force him to become a being of pure hate, to be able to wield the power of the Phoenix Cloth. Guilty was responsible for Esmeralda's death, and died at the hands of Ikki, as his final trial to become a Saint, not before revealing to Ikki the secret of his birth. Also known as the mysterious Saint, Masami Kurumada never revealed Guilty's destined constellation.
The enormous, three-headed demonic watchdog guarding the entrance to the Underworld. Savage, grotesque in appearance and emitting a foul stench, it relentlessly devoured souls that belonged to greedy people in life. Sphinx Pharaoh was in charge of taking care of the creature, and it was defeated temporarily by Pegasus Seiya and Andromeda Shun.
Seiya's fellow orphan and childhood friend, she works at the orphanage where she and Seiya, along with his sister Seika lived before Seiya was taken away. Miho is in love with Seiya to some degree, and in a sense represents the point of view of the normal people who are mere witnesses to the struggles among the gods.
Foster-grandfather of Saori who adopted her and took her to Japan after finding a dying Sagittarius Aiolos in Sanctuary. In the manga, it was revealed that he was actually the birth father of all the orphans he sent around the world to be trained as Saints. In the anime, he merely took the children from various orphanages, and sent them for their training. Just before he died, he told Saori all the truth regarding the encounter with Aiolos in Sanctuary and her divine origins and purpose of her birth in this era. He is known as Lord Nobu in some English versions.
One of Mitsumasa Kido's women and late mother of Cygnus Hyōga. After dying in a shipwreck, her remains were preserved intact by the gelid waters of the Siberian seas. She's also alternatively known, both in the manga and anime adaptation as . Kurumada later introduced a character of the same name in the short story arc dedicated to Hyōga in the thirteenth volume of the manga, sister to Alexei, leader of the Blue Warriors.
Tenma's loyal horse and steed. He saved Shion's, Dohko and Tenma's lives, by protecting them from the Skeleton soldiers.
Seiya's older sister, whom he lost contact with when he was sent to Greece to be trained as a Saint. After Seiya was taken away, she wandered the world looking for him. It was long implied that Marin, Seiya's mentor, could be Seika, and some characters, including Seiya, thought it was possibly true. Marin and Seika even shared the same physical characteristics: same age, same birthdate, same height, same birthplace. Also, Marin has a brother she lost and was looking for. Seika resurfaced as a separate character in the Hades chapter, completely amnesiac, after having followed Seiya all the way to Greece alone. It was Seika's voice that, more than any other, urged Seiya on in his fight against Thanatos. It is then revealed in the final arc of Kurumada's manga that Seika and Marin are not the same person.
A new character introduced by Kurumada in Next Dimension, an orphaned baby, found in the Five Old Peaks fairylands of Lushan, by Shunrei. He is very fond of Shiryū.
Shunrei was an abandoned orphan found by Dohko in Rozan (China). She cares deeply for Shiryū, and her prayers for Shiryū's safety in battle often help him through his darkest hours, particularly against Cancer Deathmask, as well as against the Specter trio of Sylphid, Gordon and Queen.
Garuda Suikyō's younger brother. The Specter is forced to reminisce about him after suffering the effects of Phoenix Ikki's Demonic Illusion Attack. Suishō was afflicted by a terminal disease, thus Hades offered Suikyō to save his brother's life in exchange of loyalty to him. Suishō died shortly after the deity's offering. Suishō's background remains to be revealed in further detail by Kurumada.
The Pope ruling Sanctuary in the 18th century, a survivor of the Holy War against Hades in the 15th century. He grants Shion and Dohko the rank of Gold Saints and the right to don the Aries and Libra Gold Cloths. He also foresees Hades' return to Earth and prepares Sanctuary to face such event. A false Pope, who swore allegiance to Hades also plays a role in the storyline, whether he and the legitimate Pope are the same person, still remains to be revealed by Kurumada.
Saori's butler, bodyguard and right-hand man. Trusted man of Mitsumasa Kido and a black belt, third dan in Kendō. He was in charge of overseeing the orphans who were to be sent out all over the world to train and become Bronze Saints, and due to his extreme severity and at times downright abusive behavior, most of them were resentful towards him. He always tried to be strong and protect Saori, but even the Sanctuary soldiers can defeat him. (Not without struggle, however, as he offered considerable resistance for an outnumbered man). He starts as a rather daunting and abusive retainer for the future Saints, but he is in truth a man who is honor-bound to protect Saori, and ultimately is the series' comic relief.
A young boy from Kohoutek village, in Eastern Siberia, neighbor and good friend of Cygnus Hyōga. He watches over Natasha's eternal sleep when Hyōga is absent due to his responsibilities as a Saint. He helps Hyōga in various domestic tasks and also assisted the Saint in his escape from the Blue Warriors' imprisonment.
Other deities
Briefly mentioned in the first chapter of Kurumada's manga, the fierce and bloodthirsty god of war, who battled Athena and her Saints millennia ago, in the ages of myth.
and
Briefly mentioned by Libra Dohko in vol.27 of Kurumada's manga, the mighty Titans, whose union gave birth to Hades, god of the Underworld, in the ages of myth.
Mentioned by Thanatos in vol. 27 of Kurumada's manga, attributing the nymphs' agitation caused by Pegasus Seiya, to his usual mischief.
Mentioned briefly in the first chapter of the manga; the ancient race of giants, who battled Athena and her army in the ages of myth in a conflict that became known as the Gigantomachia in Greek myths.
The god who rules time. Said to be shapeless and hidden within the universe. Athena meets with him in the gate to time-space. Chronos helps Athena to return to the era of the previous Holy War in order to remove Hades' curse from Seiya, turning her into a baby.
The greek goddess of victory, who is always at Athena's side, manifested in the form of her golden staff, leading the Saints to triumph. Her true form is visible in the giant Athena Parthenos statue in Sanctuary.
Father of Athena and the supreme god of the Olympus. His participation is to date, reduced to only mentions by other characters and in background narrative.
He is mentioned in passing when Athena visits Artemis, and is said to merely watch over the time of the day. Older brother of Athena and Artemis.
An enlightened being with whom Shaka conversed during his childhood, and taught him the true value of life. Although Kurumada hints at the true identity of this being as Siddharta Gautama, the Supreme Buddha, he doesn't confirm neither he is Buddha Gautama nor if he was who instructed Shaka in the ways of the Saints.
The minor divine spirits in Elysion, who delight Thanatos with their beautiful voice and music.
Characters outside the manga and the anime
Considered canonical within the universe of Saint Seiya, as they were created by Masami Kurumada, these characters were not introduced in his manga, but instead in the first Saint Seiya film. They were also featured in the musical Saint Seiya: Super Musical of 2011, which is based on the same film. They are five former Saints, collectively known as the Ghost Saints: Southern Cross Khristós (voiced by Ryūsei Nakao in the film and played by Yūki Fujiwara in the musical); Sagitta Maya, predecessor of Sagitta Ptolemy (voiced by Michitaka Kobayashi and played by Yūki Matsuoka); Scutum Jan (voiced by Keiichi Nanba and played by Takeshi Hayashino); Lyra Orpheus, predecessor of Lyra Orphée (voiced by Yūji Mitsuya and played by Yasuka Saitoh); and Orion Jäger (voiced by Yū Mizushima and played by Yutaka Matsuzaki).
Kurumada contributed to designing the looks of the God Warriors of Odin in 1988's Saint Seiya: The Heated Battle of the Gods, but had virtually no involvement in the creation of Abel and his three Corona Saints in 1988's Saint Seiya: Legend of Crimson Youth or of Lucifer and the Fallen Angels in Saint Seiya: Warriors of the Final Holy Battle. On the other hand, the 2004 film Saint Seiya Heaven Chapter: Overture was based on an original story by Kurumada. Since the discontinuation of the project, however, the characters and events of that film have since been replaced in the canonical continuity of the series by those found in Next Dimension.
Anime-only characters
The anime adaptation of Saint Seiya features several original characters. Author Masami Kurumada was not involved in their creation process. Although these characters had a participation in the storyline to some extent, some were later retconned from the continuity of the anime itself to keep it closer to the manga. They range from support to antagonistic characters.
This article comprises a list of characters that do not exist in Masami Kurumada's Saint Seiya manga and are found only in its anime adaptation, therefore they remain out of the canon of the fictional universe. Saint Seiya author Kurumada was not involved in their creation process, design or conceptualization and although these characters had a participation in the storyline to some extent, they have now been retconned from the continuity of the anime adaptation to keep it closer to Kurumada's manga. They range from support secondary characters to various ally or antagonistic factions.
Steel Saints
The Steel Saints' armors were created by Dr. Asamori, who was supported at the beginning by Mitsumasa Kido. Unlike the other Saints, the Steel Saints' powers come from their robotic armors and not from their Cosmo. As they are non-existent in Kurumada's manga, they were added to the Silver Saint arc, before the Bronze Saints travel to the Sanctuary in Greece. dons the , which is able to generate earthquakes. dons the which is able to produce sound waves. possesses the , which has the power of "sky waves", the ability to absorb an enemy's technique blasts and attacks from the air.
Ghost Saints
The Caribbean Saints or Ghost Saints are a group of rogue bounty hunters hailing from the Island of Hell. They were known as , and , and were led by Shaina's protegee, . They were sent by the Pope to retrieve the Gold Cloth, and none of them succeeded nor survived. Although they are also known collectively by the alternate name of Ghost Saints, they are not to be confused with the quintet of the same name appearing in the first Saint Seiya theatrical release.
Black Saints
A trio of Black Saints in Death Queen Island, subordinated to Jango, who tried to prevent Ikki from taking the Phoenix Cloth. Their design is inspired by Black Saints drawn by Masami Kurumada in the backgrounds of vol. 5 of his manga, as well as the event they take part in.
The equivalent to Phoenix Ikki among the Black Saints. Unlike Ikki's four shadows, who were of a seemingly incorporeal nature, the Black Phoenix Saint was flesh and blood, an underling of Django, who, along him and the Black Three tried to kill Phoenix Ikki during his brief return to Death Queen Island, after the defeat of Perseus Algol, Kerberos Dante and Auriga Capella. Black Phoenix fell before Ikki, along his comrades, who suffered the same fate.
The previous Pope
The , the legitimate and benevolent Pope, who awarded Seiya the Pegasus Cloth. He was killed by Gemini Saga to usurp his authority, who hid his corpse in Star Hill, where it remained for over 10 years. Said to be the younger brother of the Pope before him, Aries Shion. Although the events he takes part in are taken directly from Kurumada's manga, this character can't be reconciled with an equivalent in it due to plentiful conflicting storyline aspects, as in Kurumada's work, the Pope killed by Saga was Aries Shion, and the Pope Seiya knew was Saga himself. As with all the anime-only characters, he was retconned from the anime continuity with the adaptation of the Hades arc from Kurumada's manga.
Pope Arles' Minions
The identity given to Gemini Saga in the guise of the false Pope of Sanctuary in the anime adaptation. In Kurumada's manga, Saga as the false Pope goes unidentified by name. Arles was the moving force behind the corruption of Athena's Sanctuary. According to screenwriter of Saint Seiya anime, Takao Koyama, in an interview, Arles name comes from the Greek philosopher Aristotle (Greek: Aristotélēs, Japanese: アリストテレス Arisutoteresu).
Chief of Staff of Sanctuary, he oversaw the execution of the Pope's plans for retrieving the Sagittarius Gold Cloth.
Assistant and lieutenant to Gigas. Appointed to oversee the assassination of the Bronze Saints.
Rankless Saints
A gigantic Saint without rank and constellation who is a henchman of the false Pope. Brother of Cassios. His main attack was called . According to screenwriter of Saint Seiya anime, Takao Koyama, in an interview, his name comes from the word , and based on the name of the classical Greek philosopher .
An unnamed Saint loyal to Gigas and sent by the Pope to retrieve the Gold Cloth. Killed by Phoenix Ikki. His main attack was called .
First introduced as Cygnus Hyōga's master in the anime (as opposed to the manga, in which Aquarius Camus was Hyōga's master), and later retconned. In the anime, Camus was the Crystal Saint's master. His Cloth resembles a snowflake when not being worn. A very honorable and righteous Saint, Crystal Saint was considered a threat by Pope Arles, who forced him into his control with the Maōken technique. After an emotional battle with Hyōga, Crystal Saint took his own life to stop Sanctuary from conquering East Siberia. After his death, he was gradually replaced in the anime adaptation by Camus as Hyōga's master and any events concerning him were disregarded in the continuity to stay true to Kurumada's manga.
A Saint without rank and constellation and one of Pope Arles's henchmen sent along Perseus Algol and Ophiuchus Shaina to assassinate the Bronze Saints. He failed on his mission. His main technique was called .
Anime-only Silver Saints
The animated equivalent of Cepheus Daidalos from Kurumada's manga. Mentor to Andromeda Shun and Chameleon June. Although his background and personality and the events he takes part in are identical to those depicted in Kurumada's work, (except the fact he battled two Gold Saints, as opposed to the manga, in which he only fought against Pisces Aphrodite) Albiore's physique, Cloth and name differ from those of the original character Daidalos from the manga.
A Silver Saint without constellation sent by Sanctuary to retrieve the Gold Cloth. Killed by Pegasus Seiya in Jamir. His name is a reference to the Greek myth of Arachne, a maiden who was turned into a spider after she bested the Goddess Athena in a weaving contest. Note: Actually Tarantula is not a constellation, but a nebula.
A Silver Saint, disciple of Virgo Shaka along with Lotus Aghora. He tried to kill Phoenix Ikki on Canon Island. Like Shaka, Shiva was an adept of Buddhism and relied on Shingon chants and prayer to paralyze his opponents, while performing his murderous , a lightning-fast multi-hit technique. Although a buddhist himself, Shiva was not a practitioner of his religion's peaceful and merciful doctrine and precepts. Killed by Phoenix Ikki. His name is a reference to the Hindu god Shiva, and the peacock is a reference to Mahamayuri.
A Silver Saint, disciple of Virgo Shaka, sent to Canon Island to kill Phoenix Ikki. In the same way as his partner Shiva, Aghora relied on a fighting style based on shingon chants of the Lotus Sutra, which proved ineffective against the Phoenix Saint, who killed him. His name is a reference to the Aghori (Sanskrit Aghora), ascetic Shaiva sadhus in Hinduism. Note: unlike "Pavo" (or the Peacock), which is a constellation, the "Lotus" is merely a symbol which is frequently used in religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism.
Odin's Asgardians
The Asgardian characters appear in the anime adaptation only.
The king of Asgard and the Norse god incarnate. His essence is trapped within the seven held within his God Warrior's God Robes. His can only be awakened with the energy from the Sapphires.
A beautiful and powerful young woman who is Odin's representative on Earth and priestess of Asgard. She is possessed by the (controlled by Poseidon manipulated by Kanon who is Dragonsea General) after rejecting his influence, and sets her sights on world domination in the name of Odin. Her younger sister Freya contacts Saori and asks her and the Saints for help.
Saori quickly sets up a strategy: She will take Hilda's place temporarily as the one who prays to avoid the melting of the Polar Ice, while the Bronze Saints fight Hilda's Guardians to reach her. Hilda is finally freed after fighting Seiya, who awakened the Odin God Robe and the legendary sword Balmung with all Odin Sapphires, and returns to her gentle self. It's also revealed that Poseidon locked her spirit away in the Nibelung Ring as her body was controlled by him, torturing her psychologically since she could only watch her warriors die one by one.
Her name is a reference to Brunhild, Siegfried's lover, who gave her the magical ring Andvaranaut taken from the dragon Fafnir unaware that the ring was cursed.
Younger sister of Polaris Hilda. After being the first person (aside from Alberich) who notices the drastic change in her sister, she seeks out Saori and her Saints for help, freeing Hyōga from jail (he had been sent as a scout and then captured) and joining him, therefore she is branded as a traitor. She was deeply saddened for the battle, as she did not want it to come to be between Merak Hägen and Cygnus Hyōga; who was her first friend (and possible love interest) among the Bronze Saints, and Hägen was her bodyguard and best friend since childhood.
Her name is a reference to goddess Freya.
Odin's God Warriors
Odin has a cadre of servants known as . They wear armors known as themed after mythological creatures from Norse mythology and named after the stars of Ursa Major.
He is said to be the strongest warrior among the God Warriors and the second in command after Hilda. He is very loyal to Hilda and seems to harbor deeper feelings for her. In the beginning, he does not believe the Saints when they tell him that Hilda is being controlled by the Niebelungen Ring. However, after Poseidon's Sea General Siren Sorento arrived and told the truth, he switched sides and sacrificed himself to kill Siren Sorento (although Sorento was thought to have died, he actually survived and returns to Poseidon). His armor resembles the dragon Fafner. He is commented to be "invulnerable", in the same way as the Norse legendary hero Siegfried, one of the reasons why he is considered the strongest God Warrior. He shared a common weakness with Shiryū, namely the exposure of the location of his heart, during an attack. It is a common weakness which all Saints (who bear a dragon in their cloth) share.
Since childhood, he lived in the Valhalla Palace training in the cold mountain peaks and volcanic caves in Asgard with the purpose of protecting Hilda and Freya. Jealous of Hyōga's relationship with Freya, Hägen fought against him but was defeated by the freezing blast of the Aurora Execution.
His God Robe resembles Sleipnir, the eight-legged horse owned by Odin, and his name is a reference to Hagen, the slayer of Siegfried, killing the hero during a hunt, wounding him on the only part of his body which was not invulnerable.
Thor was a poor Asgard villager who stole riches from the wealthy and gave it to the poor, similar to Robin Hood. At some point, though, he was severely injured by the Valhalla Palace guardians when he tried to hunt near the Palace. Almost dying, he is forgiven and healed by Odin's priestess Polaris Hilda, despite his harsh words about her reign. Ever since he felt her pure and warm Cosmo, and was moved by Hilda's frustration about not being able to help everyone in Asgard despite being Odin's priestess, Thor swore to protect her as her guardian.
Despite noticing that Hilda's Cosmo had changed, he fought against Athena's Saints hoping that she would return to being the kind person she once was. He even threw one of his hand axes against Saori, and when she returned it to him with her Cosmo, he praised her strength. Finally, he asked Seiya to rescue Hilda after being defeated.
His armor resembles Jörmungandr, the sea serpent, who faced the Norse god Thor at the Battle of Ragnarök.
Descendant of a renowned family of warriors and scholars in Asgard, Alberich was famous for his intelligence and cunning, as well as for his cold heart; his own fellow warriors didn't trust him, and Hilda herself lectured him often. He was the only witness of Hilda's possession by Poseidon's Nibelung ring; taking advantage of this war, he planned to conquer the world. He defeated many of Athena's Saints (including Eagle Marin), encasing several of them in life-sucking giant amethysts; however, Shiryū, with the help of his master Dohko finally defeated him. He was one of the most shrewd, sly warriors as he could have nature fight for him and used his intelligence to avoid fighting.
His God Robe resembles gemstones of the treasure of the Nibelungen that Alberich (the chief of the Nibelungen) guards.
Fenrir was a member of one of the most powerful and richest families in Asgard. One day, when he and his family went hunting, they were attacked by a bear. Helped by wolves and abandoned by humans, he started to live with wolves adopting their life style and deeply hating humans. Later, he was chosen by Hilda as the Epsilon God Warrior. He died fighting against Shiryū when an avalanche fell over him and his wolves.
His God Robe resembles that of his namesake Fenrir, the wolf child of Loki prophesied to bring about Ragnarök.
He was the first God Warrior to be introduced in the Asgard arc. He was sent to Sanctuary to 'declare' war against Athena. He defeated Taurus Aldebaran with one blow (it was later revealed that a hidden force helped him). Then he went to Japan to kill Athena, he was stopped by Seiya and Shun, and he returned to his country waiting for the Saints to come and fight there. He was defeated by Shun's Nebula Storm in the Valhalla palace. Before his death, it was revealed he always knew about his twin brother, Alcor Zeta Bud, and both he and his parents always regretted having abandoned him, but were unable to do anything in his favor. His God Robe is that of a saber-toothed cat.
Syd and Bud are twins who were born into a very wealthy family in Asgard. Due to local superstitions that twins bring bad luck to the family, Bud's parents were forced to abandon the younger twin, Bud. A poor man raised him as his own child, until one day, during hunting, Bud encountered his twin brother Syd and the parents who abandoned him. Hilda made of him a shadow God Warrior, saying he would replace Syd as the real God Warrior only when Syd died. He held much hatred against his brother Syd for all of this; yet after much convincing from Ikki (Phoenix Genma Ken included), he realized that all his actions (helping Syd to defeat Aldebaran, and later Shun when Syd was losing the battle) was due to the fact that he loved his brother very much, yet could not admit it. He then carried Syd's body into the blizzard, where Bud presumably died, wishing that he and Syd could again be brothers should they reincarnate. His God Robe, like his brother, is also a saber-toothed cat.
Mime grew up with his father Folker, a powerful warrior who trained him against his will, since Mime himself wanted to be a musician. One day, Mime discovered that Folker had cruelly killed his true parents; guided by his fury and by Folker's boasting, he killed Folker. After defeating Shun, who was deprived of the use of his chains, he fought against Ikki.
At the end of this battle, Mime discovered (by being attacked with the Phoenix Hōō Genma Ken) that Folker actually was a good man who killed Mime's parents unintentionally. He fought Mime's father and spared him when he found out that he was married, yet he still tried to attack and it was then Folker fatally hit him in self-defense, Mime's mother attempted to stop them yet it was too late and both died. Then, Folker heard baby Mime cry in his crib, and out of guilt he took Mime as his child. Ultimately, Folker actually provoked Mime because he wanted to die by his adopted son's hand, to make up for the fatal mistake that cost Mime his true family.
Mime's last words to Ikki were that he wished that in a new life they could both be reborn and be friends.
Mime's God Robe resembles the harp belonging to Bragi, the god of poetry in Norse mythology accused by the god Loki of being the most afraid to fight among the gods, and his name is a reference to the Nibelung dwarf Mime, brother of Alberich. Mime is a character in the operatic cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen by Richard Wagner, he is the Nibelung who forged the cursed Nibelung Ring. The character is based on Regin, foster father of Sigurd (Siegfried) and brother of Fafnir.
Other support characters
Creator of the Steel Saints' mechanical Cloths, under commission by Mitsumasa Kido.
Ōko was Dragon Shiryū's training partner and bitter rival. Though not a saint, he somehow drew his attacks from the tiger, which in most Asian myths and legends is the counterpart of the dragon.
A former Saint apprentice who failed to achieve his goal, he turned to a life of violence with the enormous strength he managed to attain. He dies after falling off a cliff trying to kill Eagle Marin.
A smart police dog who helped Seiya in the search of the Gold Cloth.
Young children, fellow orphans and admirers of Pegasus Seiya in the Star Children Academy, where they grew up together. Although their appearance is based in unidentified orphans appearing in Kurumada's manga, their names are revealed only in the anime adaptation. They also appear in some of the Saint Seiya theatrical releases.
Saint apprentices under Cepheus Albiore and former training partners of Andromeda Shun. Their names refer to Spica and Leda. References of this can be found in the Cloth and chains both wear.
A young girl and an elderly man from Canon Island, whose lives were endangered by the rage of Lotus Agora and Pavo Shiva. Saved by Phoenix Ikki.
The only anime-original character added in the Hades arc adaptation to anime. A girl from Rodorio village, seemingly romantically interested in Taurus Aldebaran.
References |
4344197 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French%20immigration%20to%20Puerto%20Rico | French immigration to Puerto Rico | French immigration to Puerto Rico came about as a result of the economic and political situations which occurred in various places such as Louisiana (United States), Saint-Domingue (Haiti) and in Europe.
Other important factors which encouraged French immigration to the island was the revival of the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 in the later 19th century.
The Spanish Crown decided that one of the ways to discourage pro-independence movements in Puerto Rico (and Cuba) was to allow Europeans who were not of Spanish origin and who swore loyalty to the Spanish Crown to settle in the island. Therefore, the decree was printed in three languages: the Spanish language, the English language, and the French language and circulated widely through ports and coastal cities throughout Europe.
The French who immigrated to Puerto Rico quickly became part of the Island immigrant communities, which were predominantly Catholic also. They settled in various places in the island. They were instrumental in the development of Puerto Rico's tobacco, cotton and sugar industries and distinguished themselves as business people, merchants, tradesmen, politicians and writers.
Situation in Louisiana
In the 17th century, the French settled an area of North America in what was then referred to as the "New World" which they named New France.
New France included an expansive area of land along both sides of the Mississippi River between the Appalachian Mountains and the Rocky Mountains, including the Ohio Country and the Illinois Country.
"Louisiana" was the name given to an administrative district of New France. Upon the conclusion of the French and Indian War, also known as the Seven Years' War (1754–1763), between the Kingdom of Great Britain and its North American colonies against France and Spain, many French settlers living in area now under British control (as a result of the Treaty of Paris) fled to the Caribbean islands of Cuba, Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic) and Puerto Rico to re-establish their commercial, trading and agricultural enterprises.
These islands were part of the Spanish and New World Catholic Empire, which accepted French settlers due to their shared religion and opposition to Great Britain.
Frenchmen in the defense of Puerto Rico
When the British attempted to invade Puerto Rico in 1797 under the command of Sir Ralph Abercromby, many of the newly arrived French immigrants offered their services to the Spanish colonial government in Puerto Rico in defense of the Island that had taken them in when they fled from the Louisiana "Territory" of the United States.
Among them was Corsair Captain and former Royal Naval officer of the French Navy, Capt. Antoine Daubón y Dupuy, owner and captain of the ship "L'Espiégle" and another Frenchman named Captain Lobeau of the ship "Le Triomphant". Capt. Daubón, who had acquired a "Letter of Marque" from France was in the San Juan Bay area after having captured the American ship "Kitty", of Philadelphia, and was holding captive a crew of American soldiers.
French Capt. Daubón, son of Jacobin French Revolutionary activist, Raymond Daubón, was one of three registered corsairs in the Caribbean's Commercial Tribunal of Basse-Terre, Guadeloupe, licensed to seize and capture enemy vessels on behalf of France.
Daubón offered his services and the use of his vessel and men to the Spanish Colonial Governor of Puerto Rico and together with the French Consul on the island, M. Paris, gathered a group of French immigrants in Puerto Rico and sent these troops to successfully protect the entrance of San Juan at Fort San Gerónimo. Among the French surnames of those who fought on the Island were: Bernard, Hirigoyan, Chateau, Roussell, Larrac and Mallet. It is also worthy of note to mention that the British attempted to land in San Juan harbor with a force of 400 French prisoners of war, who were conscripted by the British to take part in the invasion attempt.
French Consul M. Paris, sent a letter addressed to the French prisoners of war, promising them a safe haven in San Juan if they defected, which was signed by Governor Castro.
Due in part to this successful effort, the British forces were further weakened when the French prisoners agreed to accept the offer from the French Consul in Puerto Rico and become settlers on the Island.
The English invasion quickly floundered and the British retreated on April 30, from the Island to their ships and on May 2, set sail northward out of San Juan Harbor without their 400 French prisoners, who were to become part of the already established immigrant French community in Puerto Rico.
These Frenchmen were immediately accepted and joined the other French immigrants who also had fought against the English invasion with the French prisoners. The newly arrived 400 Frenchmen all stayed and thrive in Puerto Rico. They soon sent for their families who were living in France.
The descendants of these 18th century French immigrant arrivals in Puerto Rico and their families continued as those before them to quickly establish themselves as tradesmen, merchants, traders, community leaders and established innumerable entrepreneurial enterprises with France and other French colonial trading ports and today continue to live in Puerto Rico where they have distinguished themselves among all the aspects of Puerto Rican Insular life.
Haitian Revolution
In 1697, through the Treaty of Ryswick, the Spanish Crown ceded the western half of the island of Hispaniola to the French. The Spanish-controlled section of the island was named Santo Domingo (now the Dominican Republic), with the French-controlled section termed Saint-Domingue (which was later renamed Haiti). The French settlers dedicated themselves to the cultivation of the sugar cane and owned plantations, which required a huge amount of manpower. They enslaved and imported people from Africa to work in the fields. However, soon the population of the enslaved outgrew those of the colonizers. The enslaved lived under terrible conditions and were treated cruelly. In 1791, the enslaved African people were organized into an army led by General Toussaint L'Ouverture who rebelled against the French in what is known as the Haitian Revolution. The ultimate victory of the enslaved over their white colonizing masters came about after the Battle of Vertières in 1803. The French fled to Santo Domingo and made their way to Puerto Rico. Once there, they settled in the western region of the island in towns such as Mayagüez. With their expertise, they helped develop the island's sugar industry, converting Puerto Rico into a world leader in the exportation of sugar.
Settling in Puerto Rico
A Frenchmen who escaped from then-Saint-Domingue was Dr. Luis Rayffer. Rayffer first lived in Mayagüez and in 1796 moved to the town of Bayamón where he established a prosperous coffee plantation.
Juan Bautista Plumey came from Haiti with some slaves and married a woman from San Sebastián. In 1830 he established a coffee hacienda and by 1846, Plumey's hacienda which at the time was called , and later called Hacienda Lealtad, "was the only property labeled as an hacienda in official documents. He had 69 cuerdas planted in coffee worked by 33 slaves." Plumey did not allow his workers to work on any other farm.
Among the families who settled in Puerto Rico were the Beauchamps. Francois Joseph Beauchamp Menier, from St. Nazaire, France, was a member of the French Army stationed in Saint-Domingue (Haiti) with his family during the Haitian revolution. When the French ranks were disbanded he boarded a ship bound for Martinique, together with his wife Elizabeth Sterling and children. The boat however ran ashore in Puerto Rico instead of reaching Martinique. The Spanish government offered Beauchamp Menier land to cultivate and the family settled in the town of Añasco.
The family had thirteen children, including those who were born in Saint-Domingue (Santo Domingo, today). It is believed that all of the Beauchamps in Puerto Rico are descendants of Francois Joseph Beauchamp Menier and Elizabeth Sterling. The Beauchamp family was active in Puerto Rican politics. Among the notable members of this family are Eduvigis Beauchamp Sterling, named Treasurer of the revolution against Spanish colonial rule known as El Grito de Lares by Ramón Emeterio Betances. He was the person who provided Mariana Bracetti with the materials for the Revolutionary Flag of Lares. Pablo Antonio Beauchamp Sterling was a principal leader of the Mayagüez cell during the Lares Revolution. In the early 20th century another member of the family was an active member of the Puerto Rican independence movement, he was Elías Beauchamp, a member of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party who assassinated Colonel Francis Riggs in 1936 in retribution of the events of the Río Piedras massacre. Carlos María Beauchamp Giorgi served as Mayor of Las Marias and Ramón Beauchamp Gonzáles was the Secretary of the Senate in 1916.
Situation in Europe
France and Corsica (an island ceded to France by Genoa in 1768) were going through many economic and political changes during the 19th century.
One of the changes occurred with the advent of the Second Industrial Revolution, which led to the massive migration of farmworkers to larger cities in search of a better way of life and better-paying jobs. Starvation spread throughout Europe as farms began to fail due to long periods of drought and crop diseases.
There was also widespread political discontent. King Louis-Philippe of France was overthrown during the Revolution of 1848 and a republic was established. In 1870–71, Prussia defeated France in what became known as the Franco-Prussian War. The combination of natural and man-made disasters created an acute feeling of hopelessness in both France and Corsica. Hundreds of families fled Europe and immigrated to the Americas, including Puerto Rico. All of this came about when the Spanish Crown, after losing most of her possessions in the so-called "New World", was growing fearful of the possibility of losing her last two possessions, Cuba and Puerto Rico.
Royal Decree of Graces of 1815
In 1815, the Spanish Crown had issued a Royal Decree of Graces (Real Cédula de Gracias) with the intention of encouraging more commercial trade between Puerto Rico and other countries who were friendly towards Spain. This economic strategy directed at all of Europe and its colonies in the New World in the Caribbean, North, Central and South America.
The decree also offered free land to any Spaniard who would be willing to settle on the island and establish commercial and agricultural enterprises, i.e. plantations, farms and business that reached-out to other colonies.
In the mid-1800s, the decree was revised with many more immigrant-friendly enhancements which invited immigration for other non-Spanish-speaking European immigrants who were also Catholic.
The Spanish colonial governments did this, in an attempt to encourage settlers that would not be "pro-independence" and would show allegiance to Spanish colonial government. The newly revised decree now allowed all European immigrants of non-Spanish origin to settle the island of Puerto Rico. The decree was printed in three languages, Spanish, English and French and circulated throughout all of Europe, where there were already immigrant communities bound for the New World colonies.
Those who immigrated to Puerto Rico were given free land and a "Letter of Domicile" with the condition that they swore loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church. Most of the new immigrants eventually were settled in the interior of the island which was mostly undeveloped. After residing in the island for five years these European settlers were granted a "Letter of Naturalization" which made them Spanish subjects. Thousands of French and Corsican families (the Corsicans were French citizens of Italian descent) settled in Puerto Rico.
The cultural influence of the French which had already been making a cultural impact on the Island since the 1700s was further strengthened as evidenced by the construction in 1884 of one of Puerto Rico's grandest theater "El Teatro Francés" (The French Theater), was located on the Calle Méndez Vigo in the City of Mayagüez (the theater building was later destroyed by an earthquake).
The Corsicans (who had Italian surnames) settled the mountainous region in and around the towns of Adjuntas, Lares, Utuado, Guayanilla, Ponce and Yauco, where they became successful coffee plantation owners. The French who immigrated with them from mainland France also settled in various places in the island, mostly in the unsettled interior regions of the Island, which up to that point were virtually uninhabited.
They were instrumental in the development of Puerto Rico's tobacco, cotton and sugar industries. Among them was Teófilo José Jaime María Le Guillou who in 1823 founded the municipality of Vieques, Puerto Rico.
French influence in Vieques
Teófilo José Jaime María Le Guillou Le Guillou was born in Quimperlé, France. He immigrated from France to the Island of Guadeloupe in the French West Indies where he became a land owner.
In 1823, Le Guillou went to the island of Vieques with the intention of purchasing hardwoods. The island at the time had a few residents who were dedicated woodcutters. He was impressed with the island of Vieques and saw the agricultural potential of the island. He returned the following year and purchased lands from a woodcutter named Patricio Ramos. Soon, he established the largest sugar plantation on the island which he named "La Pacience". He then got rid of the pirates and those involved in contraband activities an action which in itself pleased the Spanish colonial government. Le Guillou is considered to be the founder of the municipality of Vieques.
In 1832, Le Guillou proceeded Francisco Rosello as the military commander of Vieques after Rosello's death. Between 1832 and 1843, Le Guillou who had been given the title of "Political and Military Governor of the Spanish Island of Vieques" by the Spanish Crown, developed a plan for the political and economic organization of the island. He established five sugar plantations in the island named Esperanza, Resolucion, Destino, Mon Repos and Mi Reposo.
Le Guillou, who was the most powerful landlord and owner of slaves in the island, requested from the Spanish Crown permission to allow the immigration of French families from the Caribbean Islands of Martinique and Guadalupe which at the time were French possessions. Attracted by the offer of free land as one of the concessions stipulated in the revised Spanish Royal Decree of 1815, dozens of French familles, among them the Mouraille's, Martineau's and Le Brun's, immigrated to Vieques and with the use of slave manpower established sugar plantations. By 1839, there were 138 "habitaciones" which comes from the French word "habitation" meaning plantation. These habitaciones were located from Punta Mulas and Punta Arenas.
Le Guillou died in 1843 and is buried in Las Tumbas de Le Guillou in Isabel Segunda, Vieques Municipality. The town of Isabel II of Vieques was founded in 1844. His wife Madame Guillermina Ana Susana Poncet died in 1855 and is buried alongside Le Guillou. The cemetery where Le Guillou and his wife are buried was officially named "Las Tumbas de J. J. María le Guillou" by the United States Department of the Interior and was listed in the National Register of Historic Places on August 26, 1994, reference #94000923.
French influence in Puerto Rican and popular culture
The French, who had been arriving on the Island since the 1700s, quickly became part of the Spanish colonial community.
They accomplished this by quickly establishing commercial and social connections with the already prospering Spanish settlers and marrying into the ever-increasingly successful Spanish-descended families, adopting the Spanish language and all Ibero-European customs of their new homeland, that they already had familiarity with in France.
Their influence in Puerto Rico is very much present and in evidence in the island's cuisine, literature and arts.
French surnames are common in Puerto Rico. This prolonged immigration flow from mainland France and its Mediterranean territories (especially Corsica) to Puerto Rico was the largest in number, second only to that of the steady flow of Peninsular Spanish immigrants from mainland Spain and its own Mediterranean and Atlantic Maritime provinces of Mallorca and the Canary Islands.
Today, the great number of Puerto Ricans of French ancestry are evident in the 19% of family surnames on the island that are of French origin. These are easily traceable to mainland France, French Louisiana émigrés, and other French colonies in the Caribbean which experienced catastrophic slave upheavals that forced the French colonists to flee.
The descendants of the original French settlers have distinguished themselves as business people, politicians and writers. "La Casa del Francés" (The Frenchman's House), built in 1910, is a turn-of-the-century plantation mansion recently designated as a historical landmark by the National Register of Historic Places. It is located on the island of Vieques and is currently used as a guest house.
Besides having distinguished careers in agriculture, the academy, the arts and the military, Puerto Ricans of French descent have made many other contributions to the Puerto Rican way of life. Their contributions can be found, but are not limited to, the fields of education, commerce, politics, science and entertainment.
Among the poets of French descent who have contributed to the literature of Puerto Rico are Evaristo Ribera Chevremont, whose verses are liberated from folkloric subject matter and excel in universal lyricism, José Gautier Benítez, considered by the people of Puerto Rico to be the best poet of the Romantic Era, the novelist and journalist Enrique Laguerre, a nominee for a Nobel Prize in literature, and writer and playwright René Marqués, whose play La Carreta (The Oxcart) helped secure his reputation as a leading literary figure in Puerto Rico. The drama traces a rural Puerto Rican family as it moved to the slums of San Juan and then to New York in search of a better life, only to be disillusioned and to long for their island.
In the field of science Dr. Carlos E. Chardón, the first Puerto Rican mycologist, is known as "the Father of Mycology in Puerto Rico". He discovered the aphid "Aphis maidis", the vector of the sugar cane Mosaic virus. Mosaic viruses are plant viruses. Fermín Tangüis, an agriculturist and scientist developed the seed that would eventually produce the Tangüis cotton in Peru, saving that nation's cotton industry.
Surnames
The following is an official (but not complete) list of the surnames of the first French families who immigrated from mainland France to Puerto Rico in the 19th century.
This additional list (below) was compiled by genealogists and historians of Proyecto Salon Hogar who have done an exhaustive research on the matter.
See also
List of Puerto Ricans
Cultural diversity in Puerto Rico
Royal Decree of Graces of 1815
Demographics of France
White Puerto Rican
References
External links
19th century French Politics
French influence in Puerto Rican cuisine
National Register of Historic Places
French
European Puerto Rican
Immigration to Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico
Social history of Puerto Rico
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