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4280522 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumventricular%20organs | Circumventricular organs | Circumventricular organs (CVOs) (circum-: around ; ventricular: of ventricle) are structures in the brain characterized by their extensive and highly permeable capillaries, unlike those in the rest of the brain where there exists a blood–brain barrier (BBB) at the capillary level. Although the term "circumventricular organs" was originally proposed in 1958 by Austrian anatomist Helmut O. Hofer concerning structures around the brain ventricular system, the penetration of blood-borne dyes into small specific CVO regions was discovered in the early 20th century. The permeable CVOs enabling rapid neurohumoral exchange include the subfornical organ (SFO), the area postrema (AP), the vascular organ of lamina terminalis (VOLT — also known as the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis (OVLT)), the median eminence, the pituitary neural lobe, and the pineal gland.
The circumventricular organs are midline structures around the third and fourth ventricles that are in contact with blood and cerebrospinal fluid, and they facilitate special types of communication between the central nervous system and peripheral blood. Additionally, they are an integral part of neuroendocrine function. Highly permeable capillaries allow the CVOs to act as an alternative route for peptides and hormones in the neural tissue to sample from and secrete to circulating blood. CVOs also have roles in body fluid regulation, cardiovascular functions, immune responses, thirst, feeding behavior and reproductive behavior.
CVOs can be classified as either sensory or secretory organs serving homeostatic functions and body water balance. The sensory organs include the area postrema, the subfornical organ, and the vascular organ of lamina terminalis, all having the ability to sense signals in blood, then pass that information neurally to other brain regions. Through their neural circuitry, they provide direct information to the autonomic nervous system from the systemic circulation. The secretory organs include the subcommissural organ (SCO), the pituitary gland, the median eminence, and the pineal gland. These organs are responsible for secreting hormones and glycoproteins into the peripheral blood using feedback from both the brain environment and external stimuli.
Circumventricular organs contain capillary networks that vary between one another and within individual organs both in density and permeability, with most CVO capillaries having a permeable endothelial cell layer, except for those in the subcommissural organ. Furthermore, all CVOs contain neural tissue, enabling a neuroendocrine role.
Although the choroid plexus also has permeable capillaries, it does not contain neural tissue; rather, its primary role is to produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and therefore is typically not classified as a CVO.
Sensory organs
Area postrema
Anatomy
The area postrema is located in the caudal medulla oblongata near the junction of the brainstem and the spinal cord. In humans and in most other mammals that have been studied, it consists of swellings on either wall of the fourth ventricle. In rodents and lagomorphs, however, the area postrema forms a midline structure dorsal to the obex. When viewed histologically for its capillary distribution and morphology, the area postrema has numerous subregions separated according to capillary permeability, rates of blood flow, and duration of blood transit through respective capillary beds.
Function
Relatively little is known about the function of the area postrema in humans. However, there is strong evidence that the area postrema acts as the chemoreceptor trigger zone for vomiting, which is triggered by the presence of noxious stimulation from the blood. There is also evidence that the area postrema is the site at which angiotensin stimulates glucose metabolism, presumed efferent neural activity, blood pressure control, and thirst. The area postrema also has integrative capacities that enable it to send major and minor efferents to sections of the brain involved in the autonomic control of cardiovascular and respiratory activities.
Vascular organ of the lamina terminalis
Anatomy
Classified as a sensory circumventricular organ (along with the SFO and AP), the vascular organ of lamina terminalis (VOLT) is situated in the anterior wall of the third ventricle. Characteristically of the CVOs, it lacks the tight endothelial blood brain barrier. The vascular organ is further characterized by the afferent inputs from the subfornical organ (SFO), the median pre-optic nucleus (MnPO) region, the brainstem, and even the hypothalamus. Conversely, the vascular organ of the lamina terminalis maintains efferent projections to the stria medullaris and basal ganglia.
As a major player in the maintenance of the mammalian body fluid homeostasis, the VOLT features the primary neurons responsible for osmosensory balance. These neurons, in turn, feature angiotensin type I receptors, which are used by circulating angiotensin II to initiate water intake and sodium consumption. In addition to the angiotensin receptors, the neurons of the VOLT are also characterized by the presence of a nonselective cation channel deemed the transient receptor potential vanilloid 1, or TRPV1. Though there are other receptors within the TRPV family, a study by Ciura, Liedtke, and Bourque demonstrated that hypertonicity sensing operated via a mechanical mechanism of TRPV1 but not TRPV4. Despite a significant amount of data, the anatomy of the VOLT is not yet fully comprehended.
Function
As previously mentioned, the vascular organ of lamina terminalis features neurons responsible for the homeostatic conservation of osmolarity. In addition, the fenestrated vasculature of the VOLT allows the astrocytes and neurons of the VOLT to perceive a wide variety of plasma molecules whose signals may be transduced into other regions of the brain, thereby eliciting autonomic and inflammatory reactions.
In experiments, mammalian VOLT neurons were shown to transduce hypertonicity by the activation of the TRPV1 nonselective cation channels. These channels are highly permeable to calcium and are responsible for membrane depolarization and increased action potential discharge. Stated simply, an increase in osmolarity results in a reversible depolarization of the VOLT neurons. This can be seen through the predominantly excitatory effects of ANG on the VOLT through the TRPV1 receptor. In this context, it is worthy to note the VOLT neurons typically feature a resting membrane potential in the range of -50 to -67 mV with input resistances ranging from 65 to 360 MΩ.
Despite a solid understanding of the VOLT’s role in the maintenance of body fluid homeostasis, other functions are less understood. For example, it is thought that the VOLT may also play a role in the regulation of LH secretion via a negative feedback mechanism. It is also hypothesized that the VOLT may be the mechanism through which pyrogens function to initiate a febrile response in the CNS. Finally, VOLT neurons have been observed to respond to temperature changes indicating that the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis is subject to different climates.
Subfornical organ (SFO)
Anatomy
The subfornical organ is a sensory CVO situated on the underside of the fornix and lacking a BBB, the absence of which characterizes the circumventricular organs. Protruding into the third ventricle of the brain, the highly vascularized SFO can be divided into 3–4 anatomical zones, especially by its capillary density and structure. The central zone is composed exclusively of the glial cells and neuronal cell bodies. Conversely, the rostral and caudal areas are mostly made of nerve fibers while very few neurons and glial cells can be seen in this area. Functionally, however, the SFO may be viewed in two portions, the dorsolateral peripheral (pSFO) division and the ventromedial core segment.
As an important mechanism of both energy and osmotic homeostasis, the SFO has many efferent projections. In fact, SFO neurons have been experimentally shown to broadcast efferent projections to regions involved in cardiovascular regulation including the lateral hypothalamus with fibers terminating in the supraoptic (SON) and paraventricular (PVN) nuclei, and the anteroventral 3rd ventricle (AV3V) with fibers terminating in the VOLT and the median preoptic area. It seems that the most essential of all these connections is the SFO’s projections to the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus. Based on their functional relevance, the SFO neurons can be branded as either GE, featuring nonselective cation channels, or GI, featuring potassium channels. While the afferent projections of the SFO are considered less important than the various efferent connections, it is still notable that the subfornical organ receives synaptic input from the zona incerta and arcuate nucleus.
Study of subfornical organ anatomy is still ongoing but evidence has demonstrated slow blood transit time which may facilitate the sensory capability of SFO, enabling increased contact time for blood-borne signals to penetrate its permeable capillaries and influence regulation of blood pressure and body fluids. This observation coincides with the fact that SFO neurons have been shown to be intrinsically osmosensitive. Finally, it has been established that SFO neurons maintain resting membrane potential in the range of -57 to -65 mV.
Function
The subfornical organ is active in many bodily processes including, but not limited to, osmoregulation, cardiovascular regulation, and energy homeostasis. In a study by Ferguson, both hyper- and hypotonic stimuli facilitated an osmotic response. This observation demonstrated the fact that the SFO is involved in the maintenance of blood pressure. Featuring an AT1 receptor for ANG, the SFO neurons demonstrate an excitatory response when activated by ANG, therefore increasing blood pressure. The induction of the drinking response via the SFO can be antagonized, however, by the peptide, ANP. Additional research has demonstrated that the subfornical organ may be an important intermediary though which leptin acts to maintain blood pressure within normal physiological limits via descending autonomic pathways associated with cardiovascular control.
Recent research has focused on the subfornical organ as an area particularly important in the regulation of energy. The observation that subfornical neurons respond to a wide range of circulating energy balance signals, and that electrical stimulation of the SFO in rats resulted in food intake supports the SFO’s importance in energy homeostasis. Additionally, it is assumed that the SFO is the lone forebrain structure capable of constant monitoring of circulating concentrations of glucose. This responsiveness to glucose again serves to solidify the SFO’s integral role as a regulator of energy homeostasis.
Secretory organs
Subcommissural organ
Anatomy
The subcommissural organ (SCO) is a small secretory organ located on the ventral surface of the posterior commissure near the anterior entrance of the cerebral aqueduct. It differs from other CVOs in that it does not have highly permeable capillaries. Its role as a neuroendocrine structure associated with the ventricular system qualifies it for classification as a CVO. Related to its secretory function, the SCO is partially composed of ependymal cells. These ependymocytes are characterized by elongated cell bodies that contain secretory materials and are covered in cilia. The most prominent of these is the glycoprotein SCO-spondin.
Function
One function of the SCO is the secretion of the glycoprotein SCO-spondin, which is released into the third ventricle where it aggregates to create Reissner's fiber. Reissner's fiber is a long fibrous projection that travels caudally through the Sylvian aqueduct and terminates in the spinal cord. This fiber is thought to contribute to the maintenance of the patency of the Sylvian aqueduct.
While the function of the subcommissural organ remains under investigation, it may be part of the mechanism of aldosterone secretion and CSF detoxification, along with osmoregulation. The SCO is innervated by many systems, the most common of which is associated with the serotonergic system, which influences water and sodium intake. During water deprivation, it will also reduce its innervation to the SCO. The reduction of input to the SCO causes a marked decrease in RF production. This finding implies that the subcommissural organ and its associated Reissner's fiber are integral parts of fluid electrolyte balance and water homeostasis.
Pituitary neural lobe
The pituitary gland is subdivided into lobes the anterior pituitary, the intermediate pituitary, and the posterior pituitary (also known as the adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis (or neural lobe), respectively). Each one functions as a separate endocrine organ.
The pituitary neural lobe consists of axonal projections that directly extend from cell bodies in the hypothalamus through the infundibulum. Under neurohumoral control, it secretes oxytocin and vasopressin, thereby qualifying it as a circumventricular organ with both neural and secretory functions.
The anterior pituitary contains non-neural secretory cells derived from oral ectoderm which are indirectly controlled by "releasing hormones" from the median eminence of the hypothalamus, through the hypophyseal portal circulation.
The intermediate lobe (also called pars intermedia) synthesizes and secretes a hormone stimulating melanocytes under neural control by the hypothalamus. It is not commonly included among circumventricular organs.
The pituitary gland is located in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone at the base of the skull.
Median eminence
The median eminence (ME) is located in the inferior portion of the hypothalamus and is ventral to the third ventricle. While some publications do not list the ME as a CVO, when it is considered to be a circumventricular organ, it is classified as a secretory organ. The median eminence is rich in fenestrated capillaries, allowing for the passage of proteins and neurohormones. More specifically, the median eminence allows for the transport of neurohormones between the CSF and the peripheral blood supply. The major cell type that makes up the median eminence are specialized ependymal cells known as tanycytes. These contribute to the organ's ability to selectively allow macromolecules to pass from the central to the peripheral neuroendocrine systems. Ventromedial subregions of the bilateral hypothalamic arcuate nucleus display relatively high capillary permeability, indicating this nucleus may have moment-to-moment regulatory roles for sensing and neurally conveying hormonal signals.
Tanycytes line the floor of the third ventricle and can be characterized by a singular long projection that delves deep inside the hypothalamus. Tanycytes have been evolutionarily linked to radial glial cells of the central nervous system. The tanycytes of the median eminence are often found along the fenestrated peripheral capillaries. They are tightly packed on the capillaries, forming a seal between the third ventricle and the median eminence. This seal can be attributed to the tight junctions observed between tanycytes and functions to restrict the travel of molecules between the median eminence and the third ventricle. The median eminence is also closely linked to the transport of GnRH between the median eminence and the anterior pituitary. Neuronal projections of GnRH neurons actually end at the median eminence, allowing for its release into the portal blood system.
Pineal gland
Anatomy
Gross anatomy
The morphology of the pineal gland varies greatly among mammals. The most commonly used classification for this gland takes into account its location relative to the diencephalon and the third ventricle of the brain, as well as its size and shape. Under these conditions, the human pineal gland is classified as type A. A type A pineal gland rests proximally to the posterior section of the diencephalon. It is located within 1-2mm of the midline of the brain.
The pineal gland starts to develop during the second month of gestation. In the average adult, the dimensions are as follow: 5-9mm in length, 1-5mm in width and 3-5mm in thickness. Its average weight is 100–180 mg.
The pineal gland consists of a central core made up of small lobes and a cortex that possesses a diffuse distribution of neurons. The principal cell type of the pineal is the pinealocyte sensu stricto. This type of cell has a prominent nucleus and a granular appearance.
Vascularization and innervation
The level of vascularization in the pineal gland is high. It receives a large supply of blood from branches of the posterior choroidal arteries that derive from cerebral arteries in the posterior mesencephalon.
The pineal gland is innervated by fibers from the peripheral parasympathetic and sympathetic systems, in addition to fibers from the central nervous system. The most important set of fibers involved are the unmyelinated postganglionic sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglia, which also form the bilateral nervi conarii. The second set of fibers enters the pineal gland anteriorly via the commissural peduncles. The third set of fibers is myelinated and forms the ventro-lateral pineal tract.
Function
The pineal gland is considered a secretory organ and its activity shows circadian oscillations. Its main function – secretion of the hormone melatonin – rests when there is no input from the primary circadian pacemaker in the suprachiasmatic nuclei. Melatonin production is controlled by the previously mentioned circadian timing and is suppressed by light. Pineal tumors can affect sexual development, but the mechanism has yet to be established.
Other pineal substances
Other peptides aside from melatonin have been detected in the pineal. They are most likely associated with a type of innervation deemed "pineal peptidergic innervation." These include vasopressin, oxytocin, VIP, NPY, peptide histidine isoleucine, calcitonin gene-related peptide, substance P and somatostatin.
References
Ventricular system |
4280622 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace%20Robertson | Horace Robertson | Lieutenant General Sir Horace Clement Hugh Robertson, (29 October 1894 – 28 April 1960) was a senior officer in the Australian Army who served in the First World War, the Second World War and the Korean War. He was one of the first graduates of the Royal Military College, Duntroon, to reach the ranks of major general and lieutenant general.
During the First World War, Robertson served with the 10th Light Horse in the Gallipoli Campaign, including the disastrous Battle of the Nek, where much of his regiment was wiped out. He later participated in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, where he captured a Turkish Army general, and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order.
During the Second World War, Robertson led the 19th Infantry Brigade at the Battle of Bardia and accepted the surrender of the Italian Navy at Benghazi. Later, he commanded the 1st Armoured Division in Western Australia. In the final weeks of the war he commanded troops in the closing stages of the New Britain Campaign and the Aitape–Wewak campaign. At the end of the war, he accepted the surrender of Japanese Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi.
Following the war, he commanded the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in the Occupation of Japan and the British Commonwealth Forces Korea in the Korean War. Robertson was a key figure in establishing the Australian Armoured Corps. Its headquarters in Darwin is named Robertson Barracks in his honour.
Early life
Horace Clement Hugh Robertson was born in Warrnambool, Victoria, on 29 October 1894, the sixth child of John Robertson, a state school teacher, and his wife Anne née Grey. Horace was educated at a state school in Outtrim, from May 1905 to April 1910, when he went to The Geelong College. Horace was nicknamed "Red Robbie" by his fellow schoolboys after his hair colour, in contrast to his older brother John, or "Black Robbie".
In October 1911 Robertson took the entrance examination for the Royal Military College, Duntroon, and was accepted into the second intake of cadets in 1912. His class was due to be commissioned on 1 January 1916, but the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 caused it to be graduated early. He was commissioned as a lieutenant in both the Permanent Military Forces (PMF) and the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) on 3 November 1914.
On 7 November 1914, Robertson married Jessie Bonnar in a private service at a registry office in Collingwood. The ceremony was kept secret, because at the time junior officers required the Army's permission to marry, and at age 20 Robertson would not have received it. Later they would claim that they had been married in 1916. Their marriage produced no children.
First World War
Major General William Bridges decided that the Duntroon cadets, none of whom had yet finished their training, should be split up and posted to the various units of the AIF as regimental rather than staff officers. Robertson was posted to the 10th Light Horse as its machine-gun officer. He was one of seven members of his class in the 3rd Light Horse Brigade. By the end of August 1915, three of them would be dead.
The 10th Light Horse was concentrated at Claremont, Western Australia, before departing for the Middle East on the transport Mashobra in February 1915. After arriving at Alexandria, Egypt, in March 1915, the regiment moved to Mena Camp near Cairo. In May, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade began moving, without horses, to Gallipoli, preceded by the machine-gun sections, which embarked at Alexandria on 8 May 1915. At Gallipoli, the machine guns were brigaded together to provide additional firepower. Robertson's machine guns were in support during the disastrous Battle of the Nek on 7 August 1915, during which much of the 10th Light Horse became casualties. Afterwards, Robertson was promoted to captain and became second in command of A Squadron. He assumed command of C Squadron on 28 August, and led it in the fighting at Hill 60 the next day.
The 10th Light Horse was reorganised after returning to Egypt in January 1916, and Robertson assumed command of B Squadron, with the AIF rank of major from May 1916. This was as far as he could go, for Duntroon graduates could not be promoted above major in the AIF. This was the result of an AIF policy aimed at giving them a broad a range of experience, which would benefit the post-war Army, while not allowing an accumulation of young officers of high rank, for whom the reduced post-War Army would not have sufficient posts. His substantive rank remained that of lieutenant; he would not be promoted to the substantive rank of captain in the PMF until 30 September 1920, and promotion to major would not come until 1 July 1932. At the Battle of Magdhaba, his colonel was wounded and Robertson took over command of the 10th Light Horse. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) for his actions during this battle. His citation read:
Robertson's men took many Turkish prisoners, including a senior officer of engineers who insisted that he would only surrender his sword to the Australian officer in charge. He was disappointed to discover that it was Robertson, a youthful major, but handed it over anyway.
In February 1917 Robertson was attached to the Desert Column as a staff officer. From there, he was sent to staff school in Egypt. However, on 7 March he suffered a broken leg in a riding accident and was hospitalised for two months. He returned to the staff school in May and finally graduated on 17 June. He was then posted to the newly formed Yeomanry Mounted Division as a General Staff Officer (Grade 3). In March 1918, he was posted to Headquarters Delta Force in Cairo. This was disbanded in April and Robertson became Deputy Assistant Adjutant General (DAAG) at AIF Headquarters in Cairo. In January 1919, he became Assistant Adjutant General (AAG). He returned to Australia in July 1919. In addition to his Distinguished Service Order, he was twice mentioned in despatches, and awarded the Order of the Nile (4th Class) by the Sultan of Egypt.
Between the wars
On returning to Australia, Robertson became brigade major in the 7th Light Horse Brigade. In September 1920 he was posted to the staff of the 3rd Military District and then the 2nd Cavalry Division and the 3rd Division. In April 1922 he sat for and passed the entrance examination to the Staff College, Camberley, where his class included Majors Arthur Percival, John Smyth and Georges Vanier, and Lieutenant Colonel Harry Crerar. Robertson eventually became the first Australian to graduate with an A-grade pass.
Afterwards, Robertson went on to attend a series of shorter training courses in Britain. He attended the School of Musketry at Hythe, Kent; the Machine Gun School at Netheravon, Wiltshire; the Artillery College at Woolwich; the Anti-Gas School at Porton Down; the Anti-Aircraft School at Westerham, Kent; and the Royal Tank Corps School at Woolwich. He returned to Australia in 1925 to become Chief Instructor at the Small Arms School at Randwick, New South Wales in 1926. Following the retirement of General Sir Harry Chauvel in 1930, Robertson was posted to the 7th Infantry Brigade as its brigade major. In 1931 he became brigade major of the 1st Cavalry Brigade in Queensland. He returned to Sydney in February 1934 as General Staff Officer (Grade 2) at the 2nd District Base. In June 1934, he was appointed Director of Military Art at the Royal Military College, which had been transferred to Victoria Barracks, Sydney, as a cost-cutting measure during the Great Depression. It returned to Canberra in 1937, and Robertson returned with it.
Robertson was finally breveted as a lieutenant colonel in June 1936. The rank became substantive in July 1937. Like other regular officers, Robertson was opposed to the "Singapore strategy", and therefore to the defence policy of the government of the day, and said so publicly in the British Army Quarterly. Robertson argued for a local defence of Australia by land and air units. The naval theorist, Admiral Sir Herbert Richmond, responding to Robertson's arguments in an editorial, pointed out that local defence would fragment the British Empire's defence effort and could not secure the sea lanes. However, in view of the weakness of the Royal Navy, Richmond was forced to concede that Robertson's approach was not unreasonable.
Second World War
Libya
In March 1939, Robertson was appointed commander of the 7th Military District, which encompassed the Northern Territory. It was his first command since the First World War. He was promoted to the temporary rank of colonel in August 1939, and this became substantive in November. The job involved cooperation with the Royal Australian Navy and Royal Australian Air Force, and the administration of a company of regular soldiers known as the Darwin Mobile Force. After the Second World War began in September 1939, Robertson became responsible for supplying the 7th Military District's quota of volunteers for the Second Australian Imperial Force (AIF). A strike on the waterfront saw Robertson committing troops to help unload cargo.
On 4 April 1940, Robertson joined the Second AIF himself, with the rank of brigadier, and was allocated the AIF service number VX20321. He was appointed to command the 19th Infantry Brigade, which was then being formed from units made surplus by the reduction of the 6th Division from 12 infantry battalions to nine. All three of its battalions, the 2/4th, 2/8th and 2/11th Infantry Battalions, were initially commanded by over-age officers, but the commander of the 2/4th was replaced by Ivan Dougherty in August. Initially, Dougherty received a cool reception from Robertson, who was disappointed at being unable to select his own battalion commanders, but Dougherty soon made such a good impression that when Robertson went on leave in October 1940 he recommended that Dougherty act as brigade commander, despite the fact that he was the youngest and most junior of Robertson's battalion chiefs.
The Battle of Bardia brought to the fore the simmering hostility between regular officers and reservists. Frank Berryman, the 6th Division's General Staff Officer (Grade 1), and Alan Vasey, the Deputy Assistant Adjutant and Quartermaster General (DA&QMG), were eager for Robertson to do well and show that Staff Corps officers could make good commanders, and if that could be done at the expense of an old-style reservist like Stanley Savige, so much the better. They pushed for Robertson's 19th Infantry Brigade, then in reserve, to be committed when the attack by Savige's 17th Infantry Brigade slowed down. The abrupt manner in which this was done generated antipathy between Robertson and Savige.
The 19th Infantry Brigade then advanced on Tobruk. The attack on this fortified town proceeded along similar lines to that on Bardia, with the 16th Infantry effecting a break-in of the position, but this time the 19th Infantry Brigade was to carry out the exploitation phase. Robertson's contribution to the plan was to increase its tempo, so that the attack would be carried through without pause, the exploitation being carried out before the initial break-in was complete. Robertson accepted the surrender of the fortress commander, Generale di Corpo d'Armata Pitassi Mannella, and later Admiral Massimiliano Vietina, the Italian naval commander. Comments by "a sunburnt red-headed Australian brigadier" made headlines in Britain, where senior officers rarely spoke to the media, but did not endear Robertson to his critics, who felt that his ego was out of control. Following the entry of the 19th Infantry Brigade to Benghazi on 7 February, Robertson declared "give me two stout ships and a bearing on Rome and we'll dine in the hall of the caesars".
For this campaign, Robertson was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE), but later that month he was hospitalised for varicose veins in the leg he had broken in 1917. He was replaced as commander of the 19th Infantry Brigade by Alan Vasey. When Robertson recovered he was given responsibility for the training of AIF reinforcements in the Middle East. Robertson's service in the field and his long experience in training troops made him an ideal candidate for the post. For his services, Robertson was mentioned in despatches a third time.
Defence of Australia
Around the time of the outbreak of war with Japan, many senior officers with distinguished records in the Middle East were recalled to Australia to lead militia formations and fill important staff posts. One of these was Robertson, who was recalled to take command of the 1st Cavalry Division in January 1942. In March 1942, an unusual event occurred. Major Generals Alan Vasey and Edmund Herring, and Brigadier Clive Steele, fearing that Gordon Bennett or John Lavarack was about to be appointed Commander in Chief, approached the Minister for the Army, Frank Forde, with a proposal that in view of the danger of an invasion of Australia, all officers over the age of 50 be immediately retired and Robertson be appointed Commander in Chief. This reflected an extraordinary endorsement of Robertson by his colleagues, but such favourable opinion was not universally held. Sydney Rowell later explained that:
The "revolt of the generals" collapsed with the welcome news that Blamey was returning from the Middle East to become Commander in Chief. In the reorganisation of the Army that followed, Robertson was appointed to command the 1st Armoured Division. Initially, the 1st Armoured Division had a key role in the defence of Australia as a mobile reserve, but it was only partly trained and equipped, representing another major challenge to Robertson as a trainer of troops. When the prospect of an invasion of Australia became remote, the 1st Armoured Division was sent to Western Australia in January 1943, where it became part of Bennett's III Corps. The area became a backwater and the 1st Armoured Division was slowly broken up and then disbanded. To recoup some of the nation's investment in training for armoured warfare, Robertson arranged for 25 officers to be seconded to the British 7th Armoured Division in Europe. Following the disbandment of the 1st Armoured Division, Robertson took over command of the 2nd Division, the other division in Western Australia, and then, upon Bennett's retirement, III Corps in April 1944. This too was disbanded in June 1944 and Robertson took over Western Command.
Because the Army reached its greatest extent in 1942 and shrank in size thereafter, Blamey was faced with a limited number of senior appointments and more senior officers than he needed to fill them. He faced public and political criticism over "shelving" senior officers, including Robertson. That Robertson and Bennett, two troublesome potential rivals of Blamey's, had been sent to Western Australia did not escape comment. However, it was always more likely that Robertson would be the one recalled. Nevertheless, Blamey had serious concerns about Robertson's health, after the latter was hospitalised with internal haemorrhaging in July 1944 and sent to the eastern states to convalesce. While there he joined Vasey and Brigadier Bertrand Coombes, the Commandant of Duntroon, in conducting an inquiry into the future training and organisation of the Royal Military College. Their report, submitted to Blamey in January 1945, called for a number of reforms, the most significant being that the postings of regular officers should alternate between staff and regimental duties.
New Guinea
In April 1945, Robertson returned to the field, replacing Alan Ramsay as commander of the 5th Division, which was then engaged in the final stages of the New Britain Campaign. In July, Robertson became commander of the 6th Division, leading it through the final days of the Aitape–Wewak Campaign. On 13 September 1945, Robertson accepted the surrender of Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi, and his Japanese Eighteenth Army. In December 1945, Robertson took over command of the First Army, becoming one of a select number of Australians to command such a formation, at least on paper, with the rank of lieutenant general. For the final campaigns, Robertson was mentioned in despatches a fourth time.
Post-war career
British Commonwealth Occupation Force
Robertson returned to Australia in March 1946 to take over Southern Command. In June he was appointed to replace Lieutenant General John Northcott as commander of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF) in the occupation of Japan. Northcott had negotiated the Northcott-MacArthur agreement in January 1946 with General of the Army Douglas MacArthur, which governed the terms and conditions under which the BCOF would occupy part of Japan. They agreed that the BCOF would serve under American command, with American policy being followed. It remained to make the occupation work. Robertson had a poor relationship with the British component commander, Major General David Tennant Cowan, who resented being placed under an Australian officer. "It did not occur to me", Robertson later wrote, "that officers of the British and Indian armies looked upon us from Australia and New Zealand as they looked upon Indians, and were prepared to do anything to avoid being publicly commanded by us."
The British government's principal interest in Japan was to renew pre-war trade concessions, and to secure new ones; it was particularly interested in the port city of Kobe. The Americans blocked these attempts. Robertson clashed repeatedly with Lieutenant General Sir Charles Gairdner, the official representative of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. Gairdner was nominally senior in rank to Robertson until March 1947, when Robertson was promoted to the substantive rank of lieutenant general, backdated to January 1944. Robertson resisted Gairdner's requests for BCOF aircraft for personal purposes.
Korean War
By mid-1950, the BCOF was winding down. All the contingents other than the Australians had departed, and the Australians were preparing to leave. For his services as commander of the BCOF, Robertson was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (Military Division) (KBE) in the King's Birthday Honours List. Robertson intended to travel to London to be invested by King George VI but his plans were disrupted by the outbreak of the Korean War on 25 June 1950. Robertson passed on to the Australian government requests from MacArthur for BCOF assistance, which were agreed to. He committed the frigate and No. 77 Squadron RAAF but, although authorised to do so, he hesitated to deploy the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment, as he considered the risks too great.
Robertson built up what became the British Commonwealth Forces Korea (BCFK). While the British government had hoped to have the Americans supply all their logistic support, Robertson realised that this was impossible. The US Army was being stretched to its limit just supporting itself and the army of the Republic of Korea, and British Commonwealth equipment was different in many respects. The British Army then scrambled to meet its own logistic needs, creating ad hoc arrangements and requesting support from Robertson and MacArthur. The Chief of the General Staff, Sydney Rowell, sent a cable to his British counterpart, Field Marshal Sir William Slim, warning of "a bugger's muddle in which the only people to suffer will be the soldiers". Slim agreed; a Maintenance Area was established in Korea to support Commonwealth forces there, which drew some resources from American sources, such as petrol, oil and lubricants, engineer stores, casualty evacuation and port operations, and the rest from BCOF in Japan.
Once again, the British government did not wish to entrust its interests in Japan to a foreign officer, so the British Chiefs of Staff appointed Air Vice Marshal Cecil Bouchier as their representative at MacArthur's headquarters. His brief made it clear that he had no responsibility or authority over the BCOF or Commonwealth forces in Korea. After rashly ordering the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade to Pusan without transport or heavy equipment, much to Robertson's annoyance, Bouchier did attempt to confine himself to acting solely as a liaison officer. Following the dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur, Robertson held a press conference in which he defended the general and his conduct of the war. This constituted an implicit condemnation of the British government's policy. Soon after, during the Battle of the Imjin River, Robertson was consulted by the Americans about the possible consequences of the loss of the 1st Battalion, the Gloucestershire Regiment, and he advised them not to endanger the rest of the I Corps line with a rescue attempt. For his services in the Korean War, he was awarded the American Legion of Merit, and the South Korean Order of Military Merit.
Later life
Robertson was recalled to Australia in November 1951, replacing Sir Edmund Herring as Director General of Recruiting. In January 1953, Robertson took over Southern Command again. This put him in uncomfortably close proximity to Rowell, however, and the two clashed over a number of minor issues. Robertson turned 60 on 29 October 1954, and retired the next day, after racking up 3,985 days of active service in 43 years in the Australian Army. From 1954 to 1960, he was honorary colonel of the Royal Australian Regiment. In retirement Robertson served on the committee of the Metropolitan Golf Club and was president of the Victorian branch of the Royal Empire Society for a time. He commenced writing his memoirs, which he promised would be "the million pound libel". The fate of the papers he gathered for it and the unfinished manuscript itself is unknown.
On 28 April 1960 he suffered a ruptured aorta and died at the Repatriation General Hospital, Heidelberg. His sudden death came as a shock to many. A funeral with full military honours was held at Scots' Church, Melbourne. For pall bearers, he had eight generals: Leslie Beavis, Allan Boase, Cyril Clowes, Hector Edgar, Ragnar Garrett, Edmund Herring, Sydney Rowell and Colin Simpson. Frank Kingsley Norris carried his decorations while the 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment and 1st Armoured Regiment provided honour guards for the largest military funeral since Blamey's in 1951. Afterwards, he was buried with his wife, who had died in 1956, at Springvale Botanical Cemetery. The Robertson Barracks was later named in his honour.
Notes
References
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|-
1894 births
1960 deaths
Military personnel from Victoria (state)
Australian Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Australian generals
Australian Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Australian military personnel of the Korean War
Australian military personnel of World War I
Australian Army personnel of World War II
Chief Commanders of the Legion of Merit
Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley
People educated at Geelong College
People from Warrnambool
Recipients of the Order of Military Merit (Korea)
Royal Military College, Duntroon graduates |
4280721 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italians%20in%20Germany | Italians in Germany | Italian Germans (; ) are German-born citizens who are fully or partially of Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to France during the Italian diaspora, as well as the communities of Italians in Switzerland. Most Italians moved to Germany for reasons of work, others for personal relations, study, or political reasons. Today, Italians in Germany form one of the largest Italian diasporas in the world and account for one of the largest immigrant groups in Germany.
It is not clear how many people in Germany are of Italian descent, since the German government does not collect data on ethnicity. However, based on the German "microcensus," which surveys 1% of the German population annually and includes a question on the nationality of the surveyees' parents, the number is at least 873,000 people. The total number (i.e. including third generation German Italians and above) is approximately 1,200,000 people.
History
Pre-unification (to 1871)
Large numbers of Italians have resided in Germany since the early Middle Ages, particularly architects, craftsmen and traders. During the late Middle Ages and early modern times many Italians came to Germany for business, and relations between the two countries prospered. The political borders were also somewhat intertwined under the German princes' attempts to extend control over all the Holy Roman Empire, which extended from northern Germany down to Northern Italy. During the Renaissance many Italian bankers, architects and artists moved to Germany and successfully integrated in the German society.
German unification to end of World War II (1871–1945)
Germany was a comparatively minor destination of Italians during the waves of Italian emigration after Italian unification and the resulting breakdown of the feudal system, with most leaving for the Americas. Between 1876, the year Italy began keeping track of people leaving the country permanently, and 1915, around 1.2 million Italians moved to Germany. For comparison, a total of 14 million Italians emigrated to various parts of the world during this period.
Post-World War II (1945–1990)
With Germany's post-World War II economic boom (Wirtschaftswunder), the country signed a number of immigration treaties with other mostly European nations starting in 1955 with Italy, which allowed immigrants to move to Germany in large numbers to work and live. The treaty allowed companies experiencing labor shortages to request the transference of Italian workers via the Italian Ministry of Labor. Italy had signed a number of such treaties with other countries in Europe, Oceania and South America in the 1950s to alleviate widespread unemployment. The biggest sectors for which migrants were recruited to Germany were mining, construction and manufacturing. Companies recruiting Italian workers were concentrated primarily in Germany's southeast, especially the industrial states of Baden-Württemberg, North Rhine-Westphalia, Bavaria and Hesse. Today, these regions are home to the country's biggest Italian-German communities.
In 1973, due to that year's oil crisis and a resulting recession, Germany annulled the immigration treaties it had signed. However, by then the European Coal and Steel Community (later the European Economic Community), of which both Italy and Germany were members, had established freedom of movement for workers (beginning in 1968). As a result, Italians continued to be able to move to Germany for work with relative ease. An estimated 2 million Italians moved to Germany between 1956 and 1972 alone, especially from southern and northeastern Italy. The majority of Italians that came with this first wave of immigration were men without families; most intended to return there in the medium term, although a great many ended up settling in Germany permanently. From the early 1970s onward, many of these workers' families joined them. The total number of Italians who moved to Germany between 1955 and 2005 is estimated at 3−4 million.
Initially seen as temporary "guest workers" by both Germany and Italy, almost no effort was made at first to ease the assimilation of immigrants into German society. Adults were not encouraged to learn German and schools were instructed to encourage students' ties to their parents' culture to promote their eventual return. Nonetheless, Italian immigrants gradually began to integrate. While most of the Italians among the 1955–1973 wave of immigrants were employed as laborers in the mining, construction and manufacturing sectors, they began to diversify into more skilled employment, especially in the automotive and electronics industry and mechanical engineering. A growing market for Italian cuisine among the local German population also led many to open restaurants. These trends contributed to the gradual upward mobility of Italian immigrants and their descendants.
After reunification (1990–present)
Socioeconomic indicators on immigrant groups in Germany are generally hard to come by, since most studies collect data only on the basis of citizenship, which excludes German citizens of Italian descent. However, a study in 2005 showed that Italian-German students remain over-represented in the lower tier of German secondary education (Hauptschulen) and underrepresented in the middle and highest tiers (Realschulen and Gymnasiums). They also remain underrepresented in company leadership positions, the civil service, and white-collar employment. Nevertheless, the gaps are much less extreme than during the era of the biggest waves of arrivals in the mid-20th century, demonstrating the strides the Italian-German community has made since. Although Italians are among the most popular immigrants in Germany, they are often poorly integrated and have little contact with Germans. However, since the reporting of failed integration in the media and measures to promote integration are mostly limited to immigrants from muslim countries, integration problems and disadvantages, especially in terms of education, are increasingly often not clearly perceived among Italian migrants.
This may also be due to the fact that the Italians, like the other southern Europeans, are comparatively well integrated economically and can successfully compensate for their educational deficits in working life. As a result, people with an Italian migration background almost reach the values of the natives in some labor market indicators. Youth unemployment is even lower than that of the autochthonous Germans. The proportion of those dependent on public services also fell from over eleven to under eight percent between the first and second generation.
Among the German cities Wolfsburg and Ludwigshafen had the highest share of Italian migrants in 2011 according to German Census data.
Social integration
Historically, Italians have had a significant impact on the development of the fine arts in Germany, from the Romanesque and Gothic to contemporary fashion and design. Since the late 1950s, Italians have also had a very large influence on German gastronomy and food culture; many Italian dishes are now everyday dishes in Germany. There have also been acquisitions at the level of popular culture, such as the foundation of the Bensheim Passion or the Stations of the Cross in Saarlouis.
During the 1950s and 1960s, Italian guest workers were often subjected to severe discrimination. Before entering the country, they had to endure sometimes degrading procedures in Italian emigration centres, where they were tested for their ability to work. In Germany, workers were isolated from the local population in cramped barracks, with around four people sharing a 13-square-metre room. In front of some German restaurants there were signs saying "Dogs and Italians not allowed".
However, unlike other large immigrant groups in Germany, relatively few Italians have acquired German citizenship.
According to a study by the weekly Die Zeit, pupils of Italian descent in German schools fare worse than members of other large immigrant groups. According to this, approximately 48% of pupils of Italian origin attend the Hauptschule and 8.6% attend the Sonderschule. Although Italians are among the most popular immigrants in Germany, they are often poorly integrated and have little contact with Germans. However, as reports of lack of integration in the media and measures to promote integration are mostly limited to immigrants of Islamic culture, the problems and disadvantages of integration, especially in terms of education, are often not clearly increasing perceived among Italian migrants.
This may also be due to the fact that Italians, like other Southern Europeans, are relatively well integrated economically and can successfully compensate for their educational deficits in working life. As a result, people with an Italian migration background nearly match native values in some labor market indicators. Youth unemployment is even lower than that of native Germans. The share of employees in public services also fell from over 11% to under 8% between the first and second generations. There are many Italian-German associations scattered throughout the territory, and there is a monthly magazine in Italian language called Corriere d'Italia.
German stereotypes about Italians
Given the differences in culture and mentality between Germans and Italians, the Italian community in Germany has sometimes been the victim of prejudice in the last century.
There are several derogatory terms such as Spaghettifresser, i.e. "spaghetti eaters", Katzelmacher, i.e. "kitty-factory" in reference to the prolificity of some groups of immigrants such as the Italians, Mafiamann, which means mafiosi. Some forms of anti-Italianism were manifested by Germans nostalgic for Nazism who considered Italians "traitors" to the Armistice of Cassibile, and this is also testified by the filing, in 2006, of a criminal case against Ottmar Muhlhauser, a German officer responsible for the shooting of a hundred Italian soldiers in the massacre of the Acqui Division, motivated by the fact that the soldiers killed were traitors.
But even the German mass media have sometimes given a negative image of Italians. In 1977, the cover of the magazine Der Spiegel was entitled Pistole auf spaghetti, which represented an image of a plate of spaghetti with a pistol on it, in reference to the "Years of Lead" which bloodied Italy in that period. Another example of insulting Italians was a 2008 TV spot by the German electronics department store chain Media Markt, which showed an Italian fan named Toni (imitated by the German comedian Olli Dittrich) a "womanizer" and crook with sunglasses and gold chain around the neck. The commercial was subsequently withdrawn.
Notable people
Activists
Horst Fantazzini (1939–2001), anarchist
Bruno Tesch (1913–1933), antifascist
Arts
Joseph Ignaz Appiani (1834–1903), painter
Alexander Calandrelli (1834–1903), sculptor
Maximilian Dasio, painter
Bonaventura Genelli, painter
Janus Genelli, painter
Luigi Mayer (1755–1803), painter
Alexander Molinari (1772–1831), painter
Conrad Schnitzler (1937–2001), musician
Business
Daniela Cavallo, business executive
Johann Maria Farina, perfumier
Friedrich Grillo, businessman
Gaetano Medini, chef
Joseph Anton von Maffei, industrialist
Henriette Wegner, philanthropist
Astor family
Entertainment
Tatjana Gürbaca, opera director
Francesco Stefani (1923–1989), TV director
Actors
Mario Adorf, actor
Gedeon Burkhard, actor
Tristano Casanova, actor
Hardy Krüger Jr., actor
Oliver Masucci, actor
Denis Moschitto, actor
Krista Posch, actress
Franka Potente, actress
Elisabeth Röhm, actress
Roberto Saccà, actor
Tonio Selwart (1896–2002), actor
Chiara Schoras, actress
Lisa Vicari, actress
Models
Janine Habeck, model
Musicians
Nino de Angelo, singer
Lou Bega, singer
Ferruccio Busoni, composer, pianist, conductor, editor, writer, and piano teacher
Mandy Capristo, singer
Johann Peter Cavallo (1819–1892), pianist
Franz Danzi (1763–1826), composer & conductor
Daniel Küblböck (1985-2021), singer
Toni Landomini, rapper, better known as Toni L
Francesca Lebrun (1756–1791), singer & composer
Pietro Lombardi, singer
Sarah Lombardi, singer
Bruno Maderna, conductor and composer
Daniele Negroni, singer
Oonagh, singer
Nevio Passaro, singer-songwriter
Mille Petrozza, guitarist & singer
Raphael Ragucci, rapper, better known as RAF Camora
Calogero Randazzo, rap music producer, better known as
Andrea Renzullo, singer
Roberto Saccà, opera singer
Daniel Sluga, rap music producer, better known as
Enrico Di Ventura, rapper, better known as
Giovanni Zarrella, singer and TV presenter
Journalism (print & multimedia)
Giovanni di Lorenzo, journalist
, TV presenter
Ingo Zamperoni, TV presenter and journalist
Military
Albrecht Brandi (1914–1966), naval commander
Wilhelm Canaris (1887–1945), admiral
Wilhelm Crisolli (1895–1944), general
Politics & law
Heinrich von Brentano (1904–1964), politician
Lars Castellucci, politician
Udo Di Fabio, legal scholar & judge
Manuel Gava, politician
Victor Perli, politician
Fabio De Masi, politician
Thilo Sarrazin, politician
Tino Schwierzina, politician
Anne Spiegel, politician
Jessica Tatti, politician
Leo von Caprivi, general and statesman
Science
Johannes Agnoli (1925—2003), political scientist
Bernhard Bolzano, mathematician, logician, philosopher, theologian and Catholic priest
Franz Brentano, philosopher & psychologist
Lujo Brentano, economist
Angela D. Friederici, linguist & neuropsychologist
Vittorio Hösle, philosopher
Romano Guardini, Catholic priest, author, and academic
Rocco Guerrini (1525—1596), military engineer
Marcello Pirani, scientist
Philipp J. J. Valentini, explorer & archaeologist
Sports
, basketball player and manager
Rudolf Caracciola, racing driver
Stefano Caruso, ice dancer
Johnny Cecotto Jr., racing driver
Sandro Cortese, motorcycle racer
Marcello Craca, tennis player
Laura Dell'Angelo, tennis player
Matthias de Zordo, javelin thrower
Cathleen Martini, bobsledder
Alexandra Mazzucco, handball player
Pasquale Passarelli, wrestler
Graciano Rocchigiani, boxer
Ralf Rocchigiani, boxer
Giovanna Scoccimarro, judoka
Lorenzo Suding, mountain bike racer
Christian Thun, boxer
Football players
Alessandro Abruscia
Domenico Alberico
Sergio Allievi
Marcos Álvarez
Marcel Appiah
Angelo Barletta
Frank Benatelli
Rico Benatelli
Christian Brucia
Marco Calamita
Daniel Caligiuri
Marco Caligiuri
Giovanni Cannata
Massimo Cannizzaro
Guerino Capretti
Giuseppe Catizone
Stefano Celozzi
Fabio Chiarodia
Stefano Cincotta
Diego Contento
Cataldo Cozza
Davis Curiale
Diego Demme
Giovanni Federico
Marco Fiore
Antonio Fischer
Roberto Floriano
Franco Foda
Sandro Foda
Daniele Gabriele
Salvatore Gambino
Gianluca Gaudino
Maurizio Gaudino
Giuseppe Gemiti
Baldo di Gregorio
Vincenzo Grifo
Adriano Grimaldi
Nicola Guglielmelli
Angelo Hauk
Fabio Kaufmann
Gianluca Korte
Raffael Korte
Bruno Labbadia
Giuseppe Leo
Michele Lepore
Gino Lettieri
Mattia Maggio
Gaetano Manno
Vincenzo Marchese
Luca Marseiler
Gianluca Marzullo
Roberto Massimo
Lukas Mazagg
Fabian Messina
Fabio Di Michele Sanchez
Giuliano Modica
Riccardo Montolivo
Fabio Morena
Oliver Neuville
Massimo Ornatelli
Silvio Pagano
Vincenzo Palumbo
Antonio Pangallo
Raoul Petretta
Marco Pezzaiuoli
Kevin Pezzoni
Giuseppe Pisano
Gustav Policella
Massimilian Porcello
Leandro Putaro
Giuseppe Reina
Michele Rizzi
Calogero Rizzuto
Stefano Russo
Antonio Di Salvo
Nicola Sansone
Flavio Santoro
Gian Luca Schulz
Nico Schulz
Yomi Scintu
Maurizio Scioscia
Sandro Sirigu
Elia Soriano
Roberto Soriano
Giovanni Speranza
Domenico Tedesco
Mike Terranova
Marco Terrazzino
Raffael Tonello
Nicolò Tresoldi
Mattia Trianni
Camillo Ugi
Angelo Vaccaro
Enrico Valentini
Felice Vecchione
Luciano Velardi
Maurizio Vella
Marco Villa
Fabio Viteritti
Writers
Gisela von Arnim (1827–1889), writer
Bernard von Brentano (1901–1964), writer & journalist
Christian Brentano (1784–1851), writer
Clemens Brentano (1778–1842), poet and novelist
Hans Carossa (1878–1956), writer
Ralph Giordano (1923–2014), writer
Oskar Panizza (1853–1921), writer
See also
Germany–Italy relations
References
Bibliography
Johannes Augel, Italienische Einwanderung und Wirtschaftstätigkeit in rheinischen Städten des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts, Bonn, L. Röhrscheid, 1971.
Gustavo Corni, Christof Dipper (eds), Italiani in Germania tra Ottocento e Novecento: spostamenti, rapporti, immagini, influenze, Bologna, Il Mulino, 2006, .
Marco Fincardi, Emigranti a passo romano: operai dell'Alto Veneto e Friuli nella Germania hitleriana, Verona, Cierre, 2002, .
Malte König, Racism within the Axis: Sexual Intercourse and Marriage Plans between Italians and Germans, 1940–3, in: Journal of Contemporary History 54.3, 2019, pp. 508-526.
Brunello Mantelli, Camerati del lavoro. I lavoratori emigrati nel Terzo Reich nel periodo dell'Asse 1938-1943, Scandicci, La Nuova Italia, 1992.
Claudia Martini, Italienische Migranten in Deutschland: transnationale Diskurse, Hamburg, D. Reimer, 2001, .
Edith Pichler, Ethnic economics: the Italian entrepreneurs in Germany, in: Chiapparino, F. (ed.), The Alien Entrepreneur, Milano, 2011, pp. 54-82.
Edith Pichler, 50 anni di immigrazione italiana in Germania: transitori, inclusi/esclusi o cittadini europei?, in: Altreitalie, International journal of studies on Italian migrations in the world, Nr. 33, pp. 6-18. Torino, 2006.
Edith, Pichler, Junge Italiener zwischen Inklusion und Exklusion. Eine Fallstudie. Berlin, 2010.
Edith, Pichler, Dai vecchi pionieri alla nuova mobilità. Italiani a Berlino tra inclusione ed esclusione, in: De Salvo, E./Ugolini, G./Priori, L. (eds), Italo-Berliner. Gli italiani che cambiano la capitale tedesca, Milano-Udine, Mimesis, 2014.
External links
Italian emigration in Germany during the 20th century (in German)
Germany
Germany
Ethnic groups in Germany
Germany–Italy relations |
4280762 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolverine%20%28Ultimate%20Marvel%20character%29 | Wolverine (Ultimate Marvel character) | Wolverine (James Howlett) is a fictional character appearing in books published by Marvel Comics. He is an alternative version of Wolverine that appears in the Ultimate Marvel imprint, in stories separate from the original character. Created by writer Mark Millar and artist Adam Kubert (based on the original character created by Roy Thomas, Len Wein and John Romita Sr.), Ultimate Wolverine first appeared in Ultimate X-Men #1 (February 2001).
Fictional character biography
Early years
Wolverine suffered from amnesia. As a result, what little was known about his early life was both suspect and unverifiable. It is believed that, at one point, Wolverine had a wife or girlfriend, but she was supposedly murdered by Sabretooth. As both Wolverine's and Sabretooth's memories had been tampered with in the past (most commonly by the Weapon X), this claim was highly suspect; however, Wolverine did own a wedding ring that served as his only link to his past. He also owned dogtags. One side read 'Logan' and the other side 'Wolverine'.
Captain America recognized Wolverine as James Howlett, a paratrooper he had made several jumps with during World War II. He was called "Lucky Jim" because he always survived, no matter how gravely he was injured. Dum-Dum Dugan also recognized him as Jim although how he knew him has not yet been specified.
Ultimate Origins depicts Nick Fury and Kingpin's unnamed grandfather as looting a house for its goods only to be caught and taken hostage. Tests were conducted on Fury to see if he was a candidate to become a super soldier, and a little over a year later Howlett was also tested but escaped. Howlett's newly activated mutant abilities kicked in. This was considered the dawn of the mutant race, and Howlett was named "Mutant Zero." At some point in later years he was captured by Erik Lensherr's parents in a plan to 'cure' the mutant gene. When Lensherr discovered the plot he helped to free Wolverine, but not before killing his mother and father. Years later he was experimented on by Weapon X who gave him his adamantium claws by Malcolm Colcord.
Weapon X
Wolverine was kidnapped by John Wraith, a mutant-hating commando, and head of the Weapon X Project. His memory was erased and was given the fake name "Logan". He was often tortured and tormented by Wraith and his guards. It was during this time his skeletal structure was bonded with Adamantium. While being deployed in the desert during the Gulf War, the vehicle he was in was ambushed, and Wolverine was set loose from his cage. He slaughtered the enemies and came across Nick Fury, the only other survivor, who was injured. Logan carried him back to base, though he was then shot and caged once again. Wraith was surprised that his "living weapon" still retained his humanity.
A couple years later, Logan broke out of Weapon X with the help of Fury, who never forgot about the man who saved his life.
Logan later traveled to the Balkan Mountains. After being overwhelmed by a snow storm, he was taken in by a woman named Magda aka "The Witch of Wundagore". While recovering, Logan had intercourse with Magda, but was interrupted by her current boyfriend Eric Lensherr. Using his powers, Lensherr quickly dispatched Logan- hurling him from the mountain forcing him to wander in the wild alone.
Years later, Wolverine joined Magneto's Brotherhood of Mutant Supremacy, and eventually became Magneto's elite assassin.
Joining the X-Men
Eighteen months later, Logan was assigned to infiltrate the X-Men and assassinate Professor X. He was accepted into their ranks, and quickly seduced Jean Grey in order to further entrench himself within the team. However, Wolverine accidentally fell in love with Jean, and was devastated when she left him upon discovering his connection to the Brotherhood. Wolverine eventually betrayed Magneto, abandoning his initial mission and truly joined the X-Men after coming to understand and believe in Xavier's cause.
Seeking answers to Wolverine's past (and to liberate imprisoned mutant test subjects), the team traveled to the site of the Weapon X Project. There they encountered Wraith - and Sabretooth. Sabretooth burned the files on Wolverine - and thus destroyed the only record of his past - in front of his eyes, leading up to the first match-up between the two. At first, Sabretooth appeared to be winning, until Wolverine scored a dirty hit (slashing Sabretooth in the groin). The battle culminated with Sabretooth's plunge off of a cliff and the complete dismantlement of the Weapon X Project.
Unfortunately, by this time, Jean had begun a relationship with Cyclops, leading to a deep rift growing between the two men. Their rivalry came to a head when Xavier sent the two of them on a mission to the Savage Land, hoping to end their enmity. However, the reverse occurred: Wolverine allowed Cyclops to fall to his death, believing he would then be able to continue his relationship with Jean.
Miraculously, Cyclops survived, and returned, revealing Wolverine's hand in his disappearance. Cyclops blasted Wolverine to the ground, and then shocked everyone by offering to let him remain on the team (his only chance of redemption).
This experience had a profound effect upon Logan. He realized how badly he had betrayed his friends and ceased his antisocial, ruthless ways, and even developed a deep and abiding sense of responsibility. He also displayed a protective side for the younger X-Men, namely Rogue, and even eventually formed a bond of friendship - or at least mutual respect - with Cyclops.
Wolverine's nemesis was far from destroyed as Sabretooth returned as a member of the Brotherhood of Mutant Supremacy, replacing Wolverine at Magneto's side. After a fierce battle, Sabretooth began to taunt Wolverine, saying that he could never be killed, could recover from any injury, and would always return to haunt Wolverine - to which Wolverine responded by decapitating him on the spot.
Wolverine later began a half-hearted relationship with Storm, which he quickly ended. However, they both still harbored feelings for one another, and on a future "date", the couple were attacked by a revived Sabretooth (sporting a scar around his neck).
Sabretooth began to explain how he managed to survive thanks to a few little threads Wolverine neglected to cut, but was rendered comatose for several months. He engaged Wolverine in a brief encounter, until Storm separated the two, inadvertently allowing Sabretooth to take her hostage. Sabretooth said he hadn't come to fight, and revealed that, since his resurrection, his original memories had begun to return. He had become able to determine which memories were fake, as well. He also claimed that Wolverine was his biological father. This claim is unverified.
Ultimate Wolverine Vs. Hulk
Wolverine was contacted by Nick Fury, who was concerned that the Hulk may have survived S.H.I.E.L.D.'s attempt to execute him. Fury assigned Wolverine to find the Hulk, who S.H.I.E.L.D. believed to be in Tibet, and eliminate him. Wolverine tracked down the Hulk in Tibet, where he greeted him. To Wolverine's surprise Banner is in complete control of himself as the Hulk. Hulk and Wolverine exchange words, with Hulk belittling Wolverine's intelligence, and also revealed that Fury ordered the Ultimates to kill Logan if he ever abandons the X-Men. Logan then informed Hulk that Betty Ross wants him dead, angering Hulk. Wolverine is about to leave but then asked if he could ask Betty out which infuriated Hulk to attack Wolverine.
After a vicious exchange, the Hulk gained the upper hand and proceeded to rip Wolverine in half. Wolverine survived, and began the long climb up a mountainside to retrieve his legs. Unfortunately for Logan the Hulk is already there when Wolverine arrives. Hulk says that he will eat one of his legs in order to force Wolverine to leave Hulk alone, but Wolverine says that he will never stop chasing Bruce until he kills him. Then She-Hulk arrives and confronts an angry Hulk, Wolverine reattaches his legs as Hulk attacks an atomic bomb sent by Fury. Fury then decapitated Wolverine, demanding information, which Logan did not completely give. Locked in the Triskelion, Wolverine met Forge (a former Brotherhood member), and the two escaped. Wolverine reunited with Betty Ross in a hotel room. Ross transformed into She-Hulk and attacked Wolverine, but Wolverine quickly stabbed She-Hulk, which left her in critical condition. Ross begged Wolverine to spare Bruce, but he refused
Later, Logan went to the airport where Bruce was, got on the same plane, and sat next to him. Logan put a collar made by Forge on Bruce, telling him that if he turns into Hulk while the collar is on him, he will choke to death. Bruce asks why Logan simply won't just kill him and get it over with, and Logan says that he didn't want to kill Bruce, he wanted to kill the Hulk. Bruce said that he did not deserve the treatment and that he was a good person, but Logan replied that he is a bad person and that it is irrelevant what either person deserves.
Bruce said that he does not believe that Logan is a bad person and will prove it. Bruce then said that he wouldn't change, and then jumped out of the airplane emergency exit in mid-flight. Logan jumped out after him screaming at him to turn into the Hulk or the fall would kill him. Bruce said that he would only change if Logan would cut off the collar, or else Logan would have to deal with the fact that he simply let "Bruce," and not the "Hulk" fall to his death. Logan, not wanting to be responsible for Bruce's death, shows his moral side and breaks the collar. Bruce transforms into the Hulk, holds Logan, and lands on his feet with no harm done to either of them. Nick Fury showed up and told them that they were free to go. Fury angrily warns Wolverine that he is now on his %^&* list, but Wolverine states that he is on humanity's %^&* list. Hulk let Fury go, who then left. In the middle of the desert, Hulk and Logan calmly discuss getting back to civilization, and Hulk agrees to pick up Logan and jump to the nearest town to drop him off.
Pre-Ultimatum / Banshee
Wolverine found out that he was dosed with Banshee and goes to Peter Parker for help. He discovered that he wasn't actually dosed, but that properties of the drug were derived from him. Because certain members of the X-Men like Angel, Colossus, Dazzler, Nightcrawler, and Rogue became Banshee addicts with Angel gaining a humanoid eagle form, Colossus getting strong enough to move his metallic form, Dazzler creating solid light constructs, Nightcrawler teleporting greater distances, and Rogue touching things without draining it's lifeforce, the non-addicted members were forced to fight them and prevent them from using it. When Jean fell unconscious, he violently attacked Colossus, but soon cooled off. He then discovered that Xavier and Magneto were responsible for the creation of the power-enhancing drug and that Moira MacTaggert was distributing it. Moira fought him, though he destroyed the facility in which Banshee was produced in.
Ultimatum and Death
Wolverine is forced to travel to the Savage Land to find the brainwashed Multiple Man and kill him, to stop the waves of Multiple Man suicide bombers worldwide. He vows to do the same thing to Magneto. When the X-Men and the Ultimates finally confront Magneto, Wolverine charges towards his foe, slashing him multiple times before Magneto overrides Iron Man's armor and Cyclops' visor to unleash full strength blasts from both to incinerate Wolverine. Believing him to be dead, Magneto gets too close to gloat before Wolverine. The nearly fleshless Wolverine jumps up and stabs his claws into Magneto's chest, mortally wounding him. Magneto rips the Adamantium from Wolverine's bones, killing Wolverine, leaving just a severely charred skeleton and an arm of flesh due to his healing factor not working. Cyclops would later avenge Wolverine's death by killing Magneto Shadowcat returns to Triskelion to find Wolverine's fleshless arm (the one that was left in Magneto after Wolverine was killed). Shadowcat returns to the site of the mansion with Wolverine's arm and adds it to the grave of the fallen X-Men.
Legacy
After Wolverine's death, it was revealed he had a biological son with Magda named Jimmy Hudson. Hudson inherited the claws, healing factor, and facial hair of his father and in addition to these he inherited a unique ability of his own an ability to coat his bone claws with a liquid metal similar to adamantium. After the Ultimate Universe is destroyed, Hudson moves into Earth-616.
Powers and abilities
Wolverine has a healing factor that allows him to recover from wounds fairly quickly. Wolverine's healing factor makes him capable of surviving without his legs or even his head attached to his body. Wolverine's healing factor was not strong enough in the end to defend Wolverine from having himself be obliterated by Magneto who tears the adamantium from his body. Wolverine's mutant power in the Ultimate Universe has been described as the ability to "survive" as opposed to just "heal". It is commonly thought that Wolverine's death in Ultimatum was counter to continuity, as previously Wolverine had survived being ripped in half, decapitation, and a nuclear explosion.
Wolverine also has a keen sense of smell and is able to detect lies.
Other versions
In an alternate future labeled Earth-2107, Logan goes by the name Cable.
Howlett known as Cable's life was identical to the present time Wolverine, until Apocalypse arrived and battled the X-Men. Many of the team died during the battle, and Apocalypse absorbed Cable's healing factor and ripped off his left arm. Some time after the battle was over with Apocalypse the victor, Cable's left arm was used against him and it scarred his face. Because of his lack of healing factor, the scarring on his face remained. Cable then spent the next three decades fighting Apocalypse until he finally found a way to travel back in time, and as soon as he could Cable traveled back 30 years to correct the past.
Cable traveled from the future, appearing before Charles Xavier. Cable prepared to kill Xavier, claiming it to be necessary. However, he hesitated, allowing Charles to defend himself telekinetically.
Xavier asked Cable how he was blocking Charles' telepathy, but the man refused to reveal how, calling it a "secret". Cable then tossed a small device at Xavier, which attached itself to his head and (painfully) rendered him powerless. However, Kitty then arrived, and phased Cable through the floor. Cable stabbed her in the gut, and warned her not to become solid again, not even enough to remove the knife, or she will bleed to death. He then apologized for putting her in this situation. Cable proceeded to face each of the X-Men, defeating them all: he knocked Colossus unconscious, deflected Cyclops's blasts with his metal arm (burying Cyclops in rubble), defeated Jean Grey with the same device he used against Xavier, and attacked Storm with a device that turned her own powers against her.
When he was attacked by Wolverine, he held his own for a while, until the X-Man flew into a rage, attacking Cable mercilessly, until he was pushed back, speechless from the claw marks crossing his chest.
Cable was then revealed to have unsheathed claws identical to Wolverine's from his organic arm. As the X-Men believed the Professor to be dead, Cable actually transported him back to the future to prepare him for the battle with Apocalypse. Bishop, who had pretended that he was against Cable, was trying to build an X-team strong enough to defeat Apocalypse under orders of the US Government. When they returned to the present, S.H.I.E.L.D. was attacking Apocalypse, who defeated them with ease.
While Apocalypse was able to repel all attacks with ease, the armored Xavier/Onslaught convinced Jean to aid as Cable in his own armor pleads to Bishop and his team. Meanwhile Jean was momentarily shocked about the professor being back, and Jean, Cyclops, Toad, and Iceman were no longer in Apocalypse's control due to Xavier's honed abilities. Cable revealed that he and Bishop were in it together all along and that Professor X was the key to stopping Apocalypse. Wolverine jumped in at the end of Cable's explanation and told them all to start fighting. Professor X and Jean shared a tender moment on a rocky peak, told her what to do and then Apocalypse jumps in. Xavier tried to wipe out Apocalypse psychically, but Cable's plan backfires as Apocalypse somehow resisted. Apocalypse destroyed Xavier's helmet, giving him a bloody nose, and as he was about to kill Cable, Xavier used his enhanced telekinesis but to little effect.
As Apocalypse was about to kill Xavier, Jean begged the Phoenix God to help him, to which it told her it knew she would eventually beg for it. The Phoenix was then unleashed and Jean destroyed Apocalypse, reverting him back into Nathaniel Essex/Sinister, followed by her making sure no one remembers Apocalypse except for the X-Men. The people who had died came back to life and Wolverine's body/healing factor were fully restored, effectively diverting the possibility of his becoming this version of himself.
In other media
Television
In X-Men: Evolution, Wolverine (voiced by Scott McNeil) sports the Ultimate version of his costume in Seasons 3 & 4.
Video games
Wolverine appears in the video game Ultimate Spider-Man, voiced by Keith Szarabajka. When Venom attacks a bar, Wolverine comes out of the bathroom to find Venom and engages him in battle after finding out that Venom used Wolverine's motorcycle to smash up the bar. Venom manages to defeat Wolverine.
The Ultimate Marvel costume of Wolverine has been featured in a variety of X-Men video games, normally as an alternate costume. These include X-Men Legends, X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse, Marvel: Ultimate Alliance, and X2: Wolverine's Revenge.
References
External links
Wolverine of Earth-1610 at Marvel Wiki
Canadian superheroes
Characters created by Adam Kubert
Characters created by Mark Millar
Comics characters introduced in 2001
Fictional assassins in comics
Fictional Canadian Army personnel
Fictional Canadian people in comics
Fictional Canadian secret agents
Fictional characters displaced in time
Fictional characters from Alberta
Fictional characters from parallel universes
Fictional characters with amnesia
Fictional characters with slowed ageing
Fictional fist-load fighters
Fictional mass murderers
Fictional mercenaries in comics
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Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
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4281009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply%20officer%20%28Royal%20Navy%29 | Supply officer (Royal Navy) | Supply officer was a specialisation in the British Royal Navy which has recently been superseded by the Logistics Officer, recognising the need to align with the nomenclature and function of similar cadres in the British Army and Royal Air Force. Though, initially, employment of Logistics Officers in the Royal Navy remained broadly the same, it has begun to reflect exposure to the 'tri-service' environment, including a significantly greater number of operational logistics posts, as well as the more traditional Cash, Pay and Records, and 'outer-office' or Aide de Camp duties. The Logistics Branch in the Royal Navy is one of the three main branches of the Senior Service, though due to its unique nature has interaction with all branches of the Naval Service, including the Fleet Air Arm and the Royal Marines, as well as the Defence Equipment and Support Organisation, the Ministry of Defence and many other agencies and organisations. In centuries past, the supply officer had been known as the clerk, bursar, purser and, later, the paymaster. Logistics officers are still generally referred to by the historic sobriquet 'pusser', a derivation of 'purser'.
History
Purser and secretary
At first, the business-man and shop-keeper – later to become responsible for pay as well – this officer was first mentioned as a regular member of a ship's company in one of the King's Ships in the fourteenth century. Later known as the clerk and then bursar in the Royal Navy, the name of this warrant officer soon changed to Purser. In the early days, the purser was a privileged shop-keeper on board ship and, as such, the profession was guilty of many malpractices. Samuel Pepys said of the Purser "A purser without professed cheating is a professed loser."
By the end of the seventeenth century, a new post of captain's clerk was ordained and all Pursers had to pass through this office; this resulted in promotion to the post of Purser largely resting with ship's captains. Gradually, the status of the Purser rose and he received the uniform of a Warrant Officer in 1787 and a distinctive uniform in 1805. The oldest man in the British fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar, 21 October 1805, was the Purser of Nelson's flagship, HMS Victory, Limerick-born Purser Walter Burke, then 69; he survived a further ten years, dying in September 1815 and his gravestone is in Wouldham churchyard, Kent. Admiral Nelson's secretary, John Scott, was killed at Trafalgar; his body was sliced in two by a cannonball, while he was talking with Captain Hardy on the quarterdeck, and his body parts were thrown over the side.
In 1808 the senior warrant officers – the Purser, the Master (later Navigating Lieutenant) and Surgeon – were officially recognized as "Warrant Officer of wardroom rank". It had long been the custom for Royal Navy Flag Officers to select as their secretaries "pursers of talent and approved character" and the Purser's other role as a Secretary was generally formalised by 1816. The Purser became formally responsible in 1825 for the payment of the ship's company.
Paymaster
The title of purser transformed into the "purser and paymaster" in 1842, and the warrant officer rank was elevated to commissioned officer in 1843. The title of Purser finally disappeared in 1852 and he became the Paymaster.
In 1855 the status of these officers was clarified by Order in Council. They were to be "Accountant officers for cash to the Accountant-General of the Navy ..." and the ranks of assistant paymaster, clerk, and assistant clerk emerged. In 1864, these officers were authorised to wear a white strip of distinction cloth between the gold rings on their arms.
By 1867, it was laid down that a Paymaster of 15 years' seniority should rank with a commander and in 1886 followed the distinction between fleet paymaster (ranking with commander) and staff paymaster (ranking with Lieutenants of 8 years' seniority). A paymaster-in-chief ranked with a four-stripe captain.
In March 1918 a paymaster-in-chief was appointed paymaster director-general and, on 8 November 1918, the then paymaster director-general, William Whyte, was given the rank and style of paymaster rear-admiral. At the same time, the branch's other ranks were standardized: a paymaster-in-chief became paymaster captain; fleet paymaster became paymaster commander; staff paymaster became paymaster lieutenant-commander; paymaster became paymaster lieutenant; assistant paymaster became paymaster sub-lieutenant; clerk became paymaster midshipman and assistant clerk became paymaster cadet. Paymaster rear-admiral was established as a rank in its own right by Order in Council of 20 December 1918 applied retroactively to 6 March 1918.
Supply officer
On 26 October 1944 the whole accountant branch name was changed from paymaster to supply and secretariat, and the word paymaster was dropped from its place in front of the rank, e.g. a paymaster commander became a commander (S).
Thus, in late 1944, the supply officer came into being (see – page 302>). As with their paymaster predecessors, supply officers were employed, ashore and afloat, as a ship's supply officer, with responsibility for ratings from the writer branch (see ), the stores and victualling branches, cooks and officers' stewards and, if borne, the NAAFI canteen manager.
They were also employed, ashore and afloat, as admiral's secretary, commodore's secretary and captain's secretary. It was not uncommon for a secretary to follow the same senior officer from one post to the next and, sometimes, a secretary in the substantive rank of lieutenant-commander would be promoted acting commander and then temporary captain – thus, such a lieutenant-commander would be listed as temporary acting captain.
Lists, promotion and entry
With the formation of the Royal Navy's General List (GL) in 1956, supply officers no longer wore the white distinction cloth between the gold lace on their uniform and became indistinguishable from officers of the executive branch or the engineering branches. However, pursers in the British Merchant Navy and the Royal Fleet Auxiliary continue to wear a white distinction cloth.
The General List (GL) of 1956 standardized the promotion opportunities of its officers, regardless of branch, although there remained some minor differences. Thus, a lieutenant of eight-year's seniority was automatically promoted to lieutenant-commander, with retirement generally at age 50 unless promoted to a higher rank; and for supply officers, commanders were selected from lieutenant-commanders of at least three-and-a-half-year's seniority, and retired at age 53; captains were promoted from among commanders with at least six years in the rank. Captains retired on reaching nine-year's seniority in the rank, or at age 55, whichever was the earlier, unless selected for promotion to rear-admiral. Commodore was, until 1996, reserved for a few senior appointments but is now a formal rank achieved by selection from captain. GL supply officers were thus able to serve in a much wider range of appointments, such as shore command, naval attaché, intelligence; indeed none of the posts held by the six serving supply officer admirals in 1991 would have been open to a pusser before 1956.
The substantive rank of lieutenant-commander had been formally introduced in March 1914. However, in 1875, Senior Lieutenants of eight years' standing began to be distinguishable to the naked eye from his more junior brother; he was, in that year, allowed to add to his full dress uniform the now well-known "half-stripe" of quarter-inch gold lace between the two distinctive rings of half-inch braid which the ordinary lieutenant wore, and by 1877 he could wear it in undress uniform too. "Senior Lieutenant" had thus become a rank in all but name. From 1914, promotion to lieutenant-commander was automatic on reaching eight years' seniority as a lieutenant though, in around the year 2000, this has changed and the "half-stripe" is now achieved only by selection.
Supply branch ratings had, in common with ratings from other branches of the Royal Navy, long been offered the opportunity of promotion from the lower deck. There were two avenues of receiving a commission. The Upper Yardman scheme (entering Britannia Royal Naval College (BRNC), Dartmouth, Devon, as a cadet or midshipman, under terms similar to those direct from civilian life) was open to those supply branch ratings under the age of about 25. Such ratings were called CW candidates, and they were specially reported on for selection to attend the Admiralty Interview Board before final selection for promotion and entry to BRNC.
The second avenue of promotion from rating to commissioned officer was to the Special Duties (SD) List. Petty officers and chief petty officers could, with the approval of their commanding officer, become a CW candidate (an 'SD candidate') and such supply branch senior ratings were similarly specially reported on with a view to promotion to officer, generally between the ages of 28 and 35, though most were in their early 30s when promoted to acting sub-lieutenant on the Special Duties List. Unlike GL and SL (see below) officers, SD officers retained their former rating branch specialisation; for example the supply officer (cash) of a large warship or shore establishment would typically be a lieutenant (SD)(S)(W), the (W) indicating that he is a commissioned officer from the Writer branch of ratings. SD officers were, of course, promoted from all supply branches – writer (W), stores assistant/accountant (S) or (V), cook (CK), officer's steward/steward or caterer (CA). Once confirmed as a sub-lieutenant, an SD officer was promoted lieutenant after three years; promotion to lieutenant-commander (SD) was by selection and, from these, a very small number were promoted to commander from 1966 onwards. Retirement was generally compulsory at age 50. A few SD officers were further selected for transfer to the General List, seniority being adjusted on transfer, so as to level the promotion opportunities (generally these officers were earmarked as likely to reach the rank of commander). In the 1970s, to make up for certain branch shortages, some chief petty officers, age over 35, from the supply branch were selected and promoted temporary acting sub-lieutenant (SD), a few of whom were later promoted to temporary lieutenant (SD). By the 1980s, supply officers were no longer necessarily being appointed according to the List they were on (GL, SD or SL); it was not uncommon to find, in different ships in the same squadron or flotilla, a pusser in supply charge from each List.
Prior to the introduction of the Special Duties List in 1956, some senior ratings were selected for promotion to warrant officer on the Branch List, with subsequent possible promotion (from 1864) to Commissioned Warrant Officer; from 1946, officer rank was achieved by commission rather than by warrant. Of the old "standing officers" (the master, boatswain, gunner and carpenter) from the days of sail, the cook was the first to lose his status as a full-blown warrant officer and head of his own department; indeed, an order of 1704 helped him in his downward career as, in future, in the appointment of cooks, the Navy Board was "to give the preference to such cripples and maimed persons as are pensioners of the chest at Chatham". Warrant officers lived in a separate mess – the gunroom – from Wardroom officers and, by the 1800s, wore one thin stripe of gold sleeve lace with, from 1864, for supply branch officers, the white distinction cloth below. The warrant officer's dress uniform was instituted in 1787. In all other respects they were treated as for commissioned officers. A commissioned warrant officer wore the same sleeve lace as a sub-lieutenant – one gold stripe proper; these officers lived in the Wardroom mess.
Between the 1950s and 1990s, recruitment targets for supply officers were generally met, no doubt owing in part to the slightly lower standards for eyesight – executive officers were not recruited if they needed any corrective lenses but supply officers were. Thus there was no real need for a Supplementary List (SL) of supply officers and it was not until 1966 that the Admiralty Board introduced a scheme for SL supply officers. Even then, SL(S) was exclusively for a maximum of three supply branch ratings each year on the Upper Yardman scheme; there was no direct recruitment from civilians as a Supplementary List pusser, though this appears to have been introduced in the 1990s. Supplementary List officers were offered 10-year short-service commissions, with the opportunity to extend to 16 years and beyond, should the exigencies of the Service require; promotion to lieutenant-commander (SL)(S) was by selection and only one officer from this scheme was promoted to commander (SL)(S) – commander J R (Russ) Cameron on 1 October 1993. SL supply officers, like other branch SL officers, were afforded the opportunity to transfer to the General List by selection.
As at 31 March 1996, there were 575 supply officers, male and female, of all lists and ranks, from midshipman to rear-admiral, serving in the Royal Navy (source: The Navy List 1996 (HMSO)). Three were rear-admirals, 26 captain (S) and 85 commander (S) and some 28 (lieutenants (S) and above) were qualified as barristers. In 1998, the General, Special Duties and Supplementary Lists were abolished, all officers being on one, common, List. The Navy List of 2006 lists 581 Logistics Officers, of whom 131 are women: there is one rear-admiral, 3 commodores, 20 captains, 97 commanders, 154 lieutenant-commanders, 249 lieutenants, 56 sub-lieutenants and one midshipman; 78 of the male officers had qualified as a submariner and 26 of the branch as barristers. There were 500 Logistics Officers serving (all ranks, both genders) on 1 April 2013, some 12.4% of the 6,180 officers of the Royal Navy and Royal Marines.
Supply officer renamed logistics officer
In early 2004 the supply officer became the logistics officer, though the function is largely unchanged. The careers page on the Royal Navy's website in 2006 described the duties: "As a Logistics Officer you will play an essential role in the overall logistics support for the Royal Navy, whether at war, reacting to an international crisis, protecting offshore resources or taking part in search and rescue missions. You will manage your department's delivery of equipment, accommodation, food and other vital services in providing the necessary logistic support, which is critical to the effective operation of the Navy's ships, submarines and shore establishments. A Logistics Officer's wider responsibilities will also include the provision of professional advice on policy, personnel, legal or accountancy matters, which are also key elements in the smooth running of a modern fleet ... A major aspect of your job involves managing people and those in your department would include Chefs, Caterers, Stores Accountants, Stewards and Writers. Because of your specialist knowledge you are also often the most appropriate officer to offer advice to those with domestic or other personal problems. As you are responsible for the Ratings in your division, they may ask you for representation in any disciplinary or appeals procedures".
Supply officers in other navies
The Royal Australian Navy and the Royal New Zealand Navy both have supply officers who are broadly similar in employment to those of the Royal Navy and the Royal Canadian Logistics Service is also a sister branch. For some history of the United States Navy equivalents, visit and see Navy Supply Corps.
Naval slang for the supply officer
Naval slang has produced a variety of names for the supply officer. When in "supply charge" he/she is called the "Pusser" (a contraction of "Purser") and the term "Pusser" is used as an adjective, in a variety of contexts, to refer to something that is strictly disciplined, or Service, such as "Pusser's issue" and "Pusser's rum". Also, a supply officer may be referred to as the "SO" and he/she is sometimes described as belonging to the "white mafia" (referring to the historic white distinction cloth worn until 1956). Rather less common now is the nickname "Pay" (being short for Paymaster) and its lower-deck equivalent of "Paybob". Those supply officers appointed as a Secretary to an admiral or captain may be referred to as "Sec", "Inky Fingers" or "Scratch" (from the scratching of his/her pen). In the classic film In Which We Serve (1942), Captain D's secretary, a lieutenant-commander, appears in the opening frames; in the credits actor John Varley is listed as "Secco".
Life as a paymaster and supply officer
One paymaster cadet's account of life on board in 1938–1939, and some of his subsequent career, can be found at . The career of Captain (S) Hugh Rump (1901–1992) gives an idea of a pusser's career in the Royal Navy from 1919–1955 and can be found at .
During the First Battle of Narvik, in the Norway campaign, the destroyer leader HMS Hardy (captain Bernard Warburton-Lee RN) was attacked by German destroyers in Ofotfjord on 10 April 1940, and captain (D) was seriously wounded and most other officers were killed. Captain (D)'s secretary, paymaster lieutenant Geoffrey H. Stanning survived and he awoke from the fearful blast to find his spine and legs badly injured by shrapnel, the ship out of control and heading for the shore at thirty knots. Since the wheel house was below him and nobody was answering his increasingly desperate orders to put the wheel over, he managed to drag himself down a ladder to the wheel house and alter course, enough to stop hitting the shore. When he regained the bridge helped by some seamen, he saw that they were now heading for two German destroyers. Since he could not slow down he decided to ram one of them. Luckily for all those left alive on board, whilst he was deciding which one to have a go at, one of the boilers was hit and the engines ground to a halt. All the forward guns on the Hardy were by now inoperable, but one of the stern guns was still banging away at the Germans who naturally returned fire into the burning wreck. Luckily the Hardy still had some 'way' on her which allowed Stanning to manoeuvre her into Vidrek where she ran aground. As she glided ashore still blazing furiously Stanning gave the order to abandon ship. One hundred and forty men plunged into the icy water, and in between the shell bursts from the German destroyers, managed to clamber to safety on the shore. Captain Warburton-Lee was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross and paymaster lieutenant Stanning the DSO. (Source: and the Supplement to the London Gazette of 1 July 1947 – see ).
Training and employment since 1950
Owing to a shortage of Fleet Air Arm pilots in the 1950s, four supply officers qualified as fixed-wing pilots; both Brian Brown and Andrew Richmond rose to flag rank in the 1980s. There was a similar, but short-lived, scheme in the late 1960s when at least three supply officers were trained as helicopter aircrew; at least one "pusser pilot" served in a number of flying appointments.
The three-month junior supply officers' course (JSOC) was undertaken, certainly from 1973, by all junior supply officers before their first appointment; this became the initial logistics officers' course (maritime) – ILOC (M) – in January 2004. From May 1963, the three-month supply charge course (SCC) prepared senior lieutenants for their first appointment as supply officer (head of department) in a destroyer, frigate or ocean-going survey ship (the supply officer was often the junior head of department); SCC became the advanced logistics officers course (maritime) – ALOC(M)) – in January 2004 and the professional logistics command course (maritime) – PLCC(M) – in September 2010. All training takes place at what was the Royal Naval Supply School (RNSS), since 2004 the Defence Maritime Logistics School (DMLS). The first WRNS officer was appointed to SCC in April 1980 and civilian officers of the RNSTS or Director General Supply and Transport (Navy) civil servants were occasional students, sometimes going to sea for a short familiarization afterwards.
Typically, in the 1970s and 1980s, a commando carrier such as would have nine supply officers on board led by a commander (S), including two borne for the duties of captain's secretary – a lieutenant-commander and captain's assistant secretary – a lieutenant or sub-lieutenant. A guided missile destroyer had three supply officers on board, one as captain's secretary, and a Leander-class frigate, survey ship and nuclear submarine just the one supply officer in "supply charge", usually a senior lieutenant (S), with a junior seaman officer given the additional role of "correspondence officer". A frigate squadron leader had a lieutenant-commander as squadron supply officer and a junior lieutenant or sub-lieutenant as captain's secretary. Supply officers rarely served in ships with a ship's company of fewer than 100. some supply branch captains and commodores have been appointed in command of large naval shore establishments such as , , and .
In the 1980s, one former submariner supply officer served successfully as first lieutenant (executive officer) of a frigate. From 2004–2007, lieutenant-commander (commander from 2006) Heber Ackland served as equerry to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II.
Barristers
Unlike the other armed forces, the Royal Navy has no separate uniformed legal branch. The Director Naval Legal Services (DNLS) is the Navy's senior lawyer. A few supply officers are trained as barristers and one captain (S) serves as Chief Naval Judge Advocate (CNJA). In the Navy List 2006, 26 male and female logistics officers were listed as barristers.
Although much of their time can be spent in criminal cases at courts martial, military lawyers are also required in all major operational theatres as legal advisers to the commanding admiral or general. The Navy legal service also covers employment law, liability of public authorities and the drafting of Acts of Parliament. As of 2010, service lawyers could expect to rejoin their original branch of service every few years (e.g. Naval ships, Royal Marine Commandos), to maintain a sense of balance.
In 1979 the then CNJA (captain David Williamson) was invited to sit in the Crown Court as a deputy circuit judge (later the title became deputy recorder). Others followed in his trail and some continued judicial activity after their retirement from the Active List of the Royal Navy. By the mid-1990s, two captains (S) and a commander (S) who retired from the Royal Navy were appointed as civilian circuit judges: [Shaun] Lyons,[John L] Sessions and [A G Y (Tony)] Thorpe; Robert Fraser was appointed a circuit judge on his retirement as commodore in 2007.
Officers from other naval branches have also trained as barristers. Commander Maxwell Hendry Maxwell-Anderson, formerly a navigating lieutenant, was counsel for the Admiralty in the Prize court during World War I, dealing with prize money cases arising from the sinking of enemy ships. He was Chief Justice of Fiji from 1929 to 1936, while still serving on the retired list.
Additional duties at sea
With the advent of flight decks in destroyers, frigates and ocean survey ships built in the 1960s and subsequently, it became common for supply officers in these ships to be trained as ship's flight deck officers, responsible for helicopter landing and take-off, though this is no longer the case; logistics officers' 'war-role' is now solely as damage control officer (DCO), with control of the ship's fire-main and manpower deployed to fight fires or control floods. Other additional duties performed by supply officers include those of watchkeeping officers in nuclear submarines and damage control officers.
Admirals and head of branch – and a purser pusser
Only two supply officers have ever been promoted to the rank of 'full' admiral. Retiring as chief of fleet support in 1977, Admiral Sir Peter White GBE (born 1919) was promoted on 28 June 1976, becoming the first of the branch to be appointed to the Admiralty Board. He had a most appropriate surname for the first four-star pusser, given the colour of the distinction cloth worn historically by his branch. Admiral Sir Brian Brown KCB, CBE was promoted to that rank on 26 August 1989. Happily, there has been at least one serving supply officer with the surname Purser – Benjamin Purser was promoted lieutenant-commander in July 1973. While there have also certainly been supply officers with the surname of Cook, perhaps the surnames Beauclerk, Bezant, Cater, Clark(e)/Clerk(e), Pay, Purves/Purvis, Scriven(er), Steward and Storer have been those of supply officers, too, over the centuries.
Twelve supply officers and one logistics officer rose to the rank of substantive vice-admiral (see list of admirals below), of whom two were further promoted to admiral; two others were promoted to acting/vice-admiral in the late 1940s. In recent decades, among the officers of flag rank in the Royal Navy, at any one time one, two or three supply officers have been rear-admirals. One of these two-star officers is appointed chief naval supply and secretariat officer (CNSSO) – now CNLO – as head of branch; however, there was no admiral in the Logistics Branch from 2008–2010 and the senior officer branch was a commodore. Rear-admiral David Steel, a barrister, was promoted to two-star rank on 20 April 2010 and became naval secretary and chief naval logistics officer (CNLO); he was promoted to vice-admiral in October 2012 on becoming Second Sea Lord, only the second officer from the branch to hold that post. A commander of the Royal Naval Reserve (RNR) is head of the RNR Logistics Branch.
Women
Women officers in the Women's Royal Naval Service (WRNS) would often serve ashore as a captain's secretary but rarely as a supply officer. After the disbanding of the WRNS in 1993, women were fully integrated into the Royal Navy's supply branch, with the wearing of gold stripes instead of blue stripes; for female naval supply officers, service at sea, as well as ashore, started to become the norm. Indeed, Commodore Carolyn Stait OBE FCIPD was the naval base commander, Clyde in from 2004 to 2007.
Defence Maritime Logistics School, RN Logistics School and RN Supply School – history
The present Defence Maritime Logistics School (DMLS) (see ), (until September 2006 the Royal Naval Logistics School (RNLS)) – the alma mater of Logistics Officers and ratings – is a lodger unit within HMS Raleigh in Torpoint, Cornwall PL11 2PD. Functionally however, the school exists as a 'franchise' of the Defence College of Logistics and Personnel Administration, whose headquarters reside in Deepcut, Surrey. The Commandant of the DMLS is Commander Suzi Nielsen RN. From 1 April 1958 to 1983 the RN Supply School (RNSS) was in HMS Pembroke, Chatham, Kent ME4 4UH. Previously the RNSS was in Thorp Arch, Wetherby, Yorkshire, the training establishment being known as HMS Ceres from 1 October 1946 to 31 March 1958 (see and ) and before that as HMS Demetrius, which had commissioned on 15 July 1944 as the Accountant Branch school. The school had transferred from its former wartime home in Highgate School, London N6, where it had been established as HMS President V since being requisitioned and commissioned on 1 November 1941 as the training school for Accountant Branch ratings. The boys of Highgate School had been evacuated from London owing to The Blitz. (Thorp Arch became a borstal when the Navy left in 1958 and it is now known as HM Young Offenders' Institution, Wetherby, LS22 5ED).
Prizes and awards
There are some naval examination prizes available to supply officers. The Gedge Medal and Prize was instituted in about 1928 and is awarded annually to the student who has obtained the highest aggregate of marks in their academic examinations in the current year.
Paymasters, supply officers and logistics officers of flag rank
Supply officers with separate articles in Wikipedia
Not mentioned above, these supply officers have a separate entry, or are mentioned in another article, in Wikipedia:
Richard Aylard
Sir Ronald Brockman
Sir Norman Denning
Alan Hardaker – football administrator
Duncan Lustig-Prean and Beckett v United Kingdom
Charlotte Manley
Edward Travis (later Sir Edward Travis) – operational head of Bletchley Park Feb 1942 to Apr 1952
Nicholas Peter Wright
Sources
England's Sea-Officers by Michael Lewis (George Allen & Unwin, 1948)
Shore Establishments of the Royal Navy by Lt Cdr Ben Warlow RN (Maritime Books, 2000)
The Pusser and His Men by Ben Warlow (Ministry of Defence (DFSD), 1984)
The Navy List (HMSO yearbook)
Royal Navy website
King's College London's Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives
Who's Who 1998
Notes
Royal Navy specialisms |
4281044 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia%20women%27s%20national%20basketball%20team | Australia women's national basketball team | The Australian women's national basketball team is nicknamed the Opals, after the brightly coloured gemstone common to the country. From 1994 onwards, the Opals have been consistently competitive and successful having won nine medals at official FIBA international tournaments (Olympics and World Cups), highlighted by a gold medal winning performance at the 2006 World Championship in Brazil. At the now-defunct regional Oceania Championship for Women, the Opals won 15 titles. Effective in 2017, FIBA combined its Oceanian and Asian zones for official senior competitions; following this change, the Opals compete in the FIBA Women's Asia Cup.
History
1950-60s: Beginnings
Basketball arrived in Melbourne in 1905, but the first major international women's tournament was the 1953 FIBA World Championships held in Chile. Although the Opals did not qualify for the first tournament, they did, however, qualify for the 1957 Championships held in Brazil. Captained by Lorraine Eiler, the Opals defeated Cuba and Peru. Sixteen year-old Bronte Cockburn led the scoring for Australia with an average of 9.5 points per game, but the inexperienced team ultimately finished in 10th place. Since then, the Opals have helped increase the popularity of the sport in Australia. Australia would not get the opportunity to participate at the 1959 World Championship held in Moscow because at the time, the Australian Government would not allow the team to travel to the USSR. The Opals would not qualify for a World Championship again until the 1967 contest in Czechoslovakia. With an entirely new team and a single victory over Italy, Australia finished in 10th position for the second time. Team captain, Jean Forster, led the scoring for Australia with an average of 21.2 points per game, with a tournament high of 34 against Brazil. Her 21.2 points per game would remain unchallenged for 35 years.
1970s: Early development
In 1971, the Opals travelled once again to Brazil. Led by new head coach Merv Harris, and featuring Jill Hammond, the team made several improvements with only three players from the 1967 squad selected. Although the Opals finished in ninth place, they had victories over Madagascar (twice), Argentina, Ecuador and Canada. In 1975, the team headed to Colombia with another new head coach, Jim Madigan. Despite a 74–25 confidence building win over Senegal, as well as victories over Japan, Brazil and Hungary, the team finished in 10th place.
The 1976 Olympics held in Montreal marked the first Olympic medals awarded for women's basketball, but Opals did not qualify for the tournament. Their next major competition would be the 1979 World Championships in South Korea, which would prove to be their first taste of success. The coach again was Jim Madigan, and the squad featured some of the faces of the Opals for the next decade such as Jenny Cheesman, Robyn Maher, Julie Nykiel, Karin Maar and Patricia Mickan. The team would have early success defeating Italy and France, as well as thrashing Malaysia 119–14. Australia would lose their next three games, but bounced back winning their final game over Japan to finish in fourth place, their best international result to that time.
1980s: Into the Olympics
In the early days of women's Olympic basketball, only six countries competed in the tournament, and the host country received an automatic entry. Therefore, there were 22 countries competing for the remaining five spots in 1980 Olympics held in Moscow. In the preliminary tournament, the Opals fell to the US and Hungary, and did not qualify for the Olympics. Three years later, the team traveled to Brazil for the 1983 World Championships, looking to demonstrate that their 1979 success was no accident. Despite an early victory over Japan, Australia failed to advance and finished in 11th place. The Opals were not expected to participate at the 1984 Olympic Games held in Los Angeles. However, following the decision by Cuba to boycott the games, the door was opened for the Opals to compete in their first ever Olympics. Led by head coach Brendan Flynn, and team captain Jenny Cheesman, the Opals played competitively in every game, but finished fifth out of the six teams.
The next tournament for the Opals was the 1986 World Championships in Moscow. The first game against Hungary was a two overtime thriller that the Opals lost 79–77. The game set the tone for the tournament, and despite some close finishes against the top rated teams, Australia finished in ninth place. The Opals then headed into the 1988 Seoul Olympics with a medal hope, but they lost the first game to host nation Korea. The Opals bounced back and defeated Bulgaria, meaning that only the powerful Soviet Union stood between them and a semi-finals berth. In a major upset, the Opals defeated the USSR 60–48, setting up a meeting against Yugoslavia. In a memorable game, the Opals lost a closely contested game at the buzzer 57–56, sending them to a rematch with the USSR for the bronze medal. Motivated by the previous loss, the USSR came out determined and outplayed the Opals 68–53. Despite the loss, the fourth-place finish equalled the Opals’ previous best international placing.
1990s: Rise as an International force
Building from their success at Seoul, the Opals headed to Malaysia for the 1990 World Championships with high hopes. The team won their first two games against Malaysia and Italy, before suffering a string of losses to Bulgaria, the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia. In their final game, the Opals came back from seven-point halftime deficit to beat Bulgaria 73–71 and finish in sixth place. Fifteen teams competed for the five open spots at the 1992 Barcelona Olympics, and despite a respectable 4–2 record at the preliminary tournament, the Opals did not qualify.
Two years later, Australia played host to the 1994 FIBA World Championships. Led by guard Shelley Sandie's 11.9 points per game, the team scored victories over Japan, Italy, Slovakia and Canada to set up a semi-finals match against China. The Opals held an early lead, but China mounted a second half comeback led by Haixia Zheng's 36 points, and Australia just lost by a single point 66–65. In the bronze medal game, Australia played the United States, and despite a small halftime lead, the Opals lost a close game 100–95. The loss however, resulted in a respectable fourth-place finish. The young 1994 team featured the backbone of Australian teams over the next decade; Rachael Sporn, Trisha Fallon, Michelle Brogan, Allison Tranquilli, Sandy Brondello, Annie La Fleur and Jenny Whittle. At the 1994 tournament, the team also adopted the Opals as its nickname.
At the 1996 Summer Olympics held in Atlanta, the Olympic tournament was expanded to twelve teams, making an easier path for Australia to qualify. Captained by Robyn Maher, the Opals started off with strong wins over South Korea, Zaire, and Cuba before losing to eventual gold medalist United States and Ukraine. Australia then persevered through an overtime game against Russia to set up a semi-finals match against the United States. The US won the game 93–71, sending the Opals to a rematch against Ukraine for the bronze medal. Australia held back a second half comeback by Ukraine to win the game 66–56, earning Australia its first ever international basketball medal for either men or women.
In 1998, the Opals looked to build off the bronze medal at the World Championships in Germany. The team featured 17-year-old future star Lauren Jackson, and was led by Michelle Brogan's average of 13.1 points per game. Australia put together a dominant performance, winning their first seven games before losing to Russia 82–76 in a close semi-final match. In the bronze medal game, Carla Boyd's 26 points proved too much for Brazil, and the Opals won 72–67 to earn their second bronze medal in international play.
2000s: A decade of medals and World Champions
With Sydney hosting the 2000 Olympic Games, the Opals gained automatic entry into the tournament. Captained by Michele Timms, the team started out with dominating performances winning all of their first seven games, sending them to their first ever gold medal match, against the US. The American team proved too strong for the Opals however, as they won 76–54. Australia won the Silver Medal, their best result in international competition at the time. In 2002, the Opals looked to continue their success in China at the World Championships. Coached by Jan Stirling, captained by Kristi Harrower, and powered by Lauren Jackson's 23.1 points per game (which led the tournament), Australia won its first five games all by double figures. In the second round the Opals lost to Brazil, but bounced back with a 78–52 victory over France in the quarterfinal. In the semi-finals, the Opals lost to eventual gold medalist United States, but recovered the next day to capture the bronze medal with a convincing 91–63 win over South Korea.
At the 2004 Olympics held in Athens, Greece, the Opals were led by Lauren Jackson's tournament best 22.9 points and 10 rebounds per game. With Penny Taylor contributing with 14.8 points per game, Australia dominated early winning their first seven games, all by double digits. The Opals set up a rematch of the 2000 Olympic gold medal match against the US. The United States outlasted the Opals in the fourth quarter to win 74–63, giving the Opals their second straight Olympic silver medal.
The Opals headed to Brazil for the 2006 World Championships looking to win their sixth straight medal in international competitions. Led by Lauren Jackson's 21.3 points per game and Penny Taylor's 18 points per game, first and third best in the tournament respectively, the Opals played their best tournament to date. Australia began the tournament with a forfeit victory over Lithuania. They continued the trend by winning their next seven games decisively, with only one contest being decided by less than 10 points. In the gold medal game against Russia, the Opals led throughout, paced by Penny Taylor's 28 points and Lauren Jackson's 11 rebounds. At the final buzzer, the scoreboard read Australia 91, Russia 74; a convincing victory that delivered Australia's first ever basketball gold medal. Penny Taylor was named the Most Valuable Player of the tournament.
At the 2008 Beijing Olympics, the Opals looked to reaffirm their title as World Champions. In the lead up, Australia went undefeated against Belarus, Brazil, South Korea, Latvia, Russia, Czech Republic and host China to set up a third straight gold medal match against the United States. The Opals had trouble hitting the basket and shot just 24% en route to a 92–65 defeat. The team earned their third straight Olympic silver medal, and their seventh straight international medal finish. The 2000s was a golden era for the Opals, winning at least a bronze medal at every official FIBA tournament.
2010s: Ushering a new era
In 2010, the 16th edition of the World Championship was held in the Czech Republic. Pre-tournament favourites Australia, United States, and Russia, dominated play in the first two rounds. In the quarterfinals, however, Australia suffered a shock 79–68 loss to the Czech Republic. The loss meant that the Opals could not finish any higher than 5th place, its worst international result since the early 1990s.
Looking to rebound from their disappointing 2010 result, the Opals qualified for the 2012 Olympic Games in London by beating New Zealand three games to nil in the 2011 FIBA Oceania Championship. They finished the Olympic preliminary series with a 4 – 1 record, losing to France in game 2, but after Belinda Snell sank a well behind the half-court line 3-point shot with less than one second on the clock to send the game into overtime. Against Russia, Liz Cambage became the first woman in Olympic history to successfully slam dunk a basketball. In the quarterfinal against China, Lauren Jackson became the Olympic Games record holder for points scored, overtaking Brazilian legend Janeth Arcain's tally of 535 points. The Opals accounted for China 75–60 to set up a semi-final game with their long-time rivals United States. Despite holding a half-time lead, the Opals again fell short losing 86–73. The Opals would however, win their 5th consecutive Olympic medal with an 83–74 win over Russia to claim the bronze.
Leading up to the 2014 World Championship in Turkey, a number of long-serving players announced their retirements or declared themselves unavailable. Those players included Kristi Harrower, Jenni Screen, Kristen Veal, Abby Bishop, Kathleen MacLeod, Samantha Richards, Suzy Batkovic and Jenna O'Hea. Three weeks before the start of the tournament, Lauren Jackson withdrew from the team because of a knee injury. Two weeks later Liz Cambage ruptured her achilles tendon during a pre-tournament game and was ruled-out because of the injury. This resulted in the selection of seven debutants into the squad of 12, a move seen as ushering in a new era of Opals basketball. Despite the loss of veteran players, the Opals went through the preliminary rounds and quarter-final undefeated, setting up a semi-final clash with the US. In a hard-fought game, the Opals cut the lead from 16 points to just six early in the final quarter, before losing 82–70. The Opals would however claim their third bronze medal at world championships with a comfortable 74–44 win against host nation Turkey. Penny Taylor was named to the tournament All-Star Five.
The Opals qualified for the 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro following a series win against New Zealand in August 2015. On 31 March 2016, Lauren Jackson announced her retirement from basketball, citing a chronic knee injury as the reason for her decision. The Olympic squad was announced on 12 July 2016 and included seven Olympic debutants and only three players from the 2012 squad. Notable exclusions included three-time Olympic medallist Suzy Batkovic, reigning WNBL MVP Abby Bishop and Rebecca Allen. Despite slow starts which had plagued Australia throughout the tournament, the Opals finished on top of their group with a 5–0 record, outscoring Japan 33–15 in the final quarter to win by six points. In the Quarter-final, the Opals suffered a shock 73–71 loss to Serbia, conceding 26 turnovers and eliminating them from medal contention. This ended a run of five successive Olympic medals dating back 20 years. One highlight was Liz Cambage breaking Lauren Jackson's Australian Olympic record of points scored in a single game with 37 against Japan. It was the third-highest haul by a woman in Olympic history and the highest in 28 years.
Following the early exit from the Rio Olympics, Brendan Joyce was replaced in April 2017 by former Opals player and Phoenix Mercury head coach, Sandy Brondello. Unlike previous years, the Opals qualified for the 2018 World Cup through the FIBA Women's Asia Cup held in India where they won a silver medal. Kelsey Griffin was named tournament most valuable player. With basketball returning to the Commonwealth Games for the first time since 2006, the Opals easily accounted for England in the final winning the gold-medal game 99–55. At the 2018 World Cup held in Spain, the Opals led their group with a 3–0 record. They then defeated China 83–42 in the quarter-final and Spain 72–66 in the semi-final to set up a gold-medal final with their long-time rivals United States. The Opals lost the game 73–56 with head coach Sandy Brondello stating a lack of offence proved their downfall. Liz Cambage led the tournament scoring with an average of 23.8 points per game and was named to the All-Star Five.
Competitive record
Olympic Games
Women's basketball was introduced as an Olympic sport at Montreal in 1976. From 1976 to 1992, only six countries (teams) participated in the Olympic tournament. However, in 1996 at Atlanta the tournament was expanded to twelve teams. Through the 2016 Olympics, Australia qualified for the Olympic Games through competing in the FIBA Oceania Basketball Championship held each four years in the year preceding the games. Typically, this tournament featured either a two or three-game series between Australia and New Zealand. With the Oceania Championship having been discontinued after its 2015 edition, and FIBA having removed all women's continental championships except for EuroBasket Women from the Olympic qualification process in 2017, Australia will qualify for future Olympics through a two-stage process, starting with an Olympic pre-qualifying tournament involving Asian and Oceanian national teams in the year before the Olympics and followed by a worldwide Olympic qualifying tournament held in the year of the Games.
World Cup
The first official Women's World Cup, known as the Women's World Championship through its 2014 edition, was held in Chile in 1953. The tournament was expanded to 16 countries (teams) in 1990. Since 2017, Australia qualifies for the World Cup through competing in the FIBA Women's Asia Cup, held each four years in the year preceding the Women's World Cup. Before then, Australia qualified through the FIBA Oceania Championship. Typically, this tournament featured either a two or three-game series between Australia and New Zealand. FIBA discontinued the Oceania championships for both women and men after their respective 2015 editions, combining FIBA Asia and FIBA Oceania into a single zone for purposes of World Cup and Olympic qualification.
Asia Cup
Commencing in 2017, teams from Oceania and Asia zones competed together for the first time ever with the top four finishing teams qualifying for the 2018 World Cup.
Commonwealth Games
Statistics
Team
Current roster
Roster for the 2023 FIBA Women's Asia Cup.
Past World Cup squads
Past Olympics squads
International caps
The following is a chronological list of Australian players who have played at official senior FIBA international tournaments (Olympic Games and World Cups). The list includes both past and present players. Active players are shown in bold. Where two or more players debuted in the same series, their cap number is determined by their official uniform number (and not alphabetically). As of the 2020 Olympic Games, 112 players have represented Australia at Olympic Games and World Cups. There were no debutants at the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney.
Deceased
Individual achievements
Opals all-time games played
Legend
Games played is current as at the completion of the London Olympic Games in August 2012.
(*) denotes the player is a member of the Australian Basketball Hall of Fame.
Italic denotes the player is still active.
Opals Team Captains
Legend
Tournaments are those officially sanctioned by FIBA.
See also
Australia men's national basketball team
Australia women's national 3x3 team
Australia women's national under-17 basketball team
Australia women's national under-19 basketball team
Australia women's national wheelchair basketball team
Australian Basketball Hall of Fame
List of Australian WNBA players
List of Olympic medalists in basketball
References
External links
FIBA profile
AustraliaBasket.com – Australia Women Current Squad
Australia Basketball Records at FIBA Archive
Basketball
Women's national basketball teams |
4281228 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turks%20in%20Germany | Turks in Germany | Turks in Germany, also referred to as German Turks and Turkish Germans (; ), are ethnic Turkish people living in Germany. These terms are also used to refer to German-born individuals who are of full or partial Turkish ancestry. Whilst the majority of Turks arrived or originate from Turkey, there are also significant ethnic Turkish communities living in Germany who come from (or descend from) Southeastern Europe (i.e. Balkan Turks from Bulgaria, Greece, North Macedonia, Serbia and Romania), the island of Cyprus (i.e. Turkish Cypriots from both the Republic of Cyprus and Northern Cyprus), as well as Turkish communities from other parts of the Levant (including Iraq, Lebanon, and Syria). At present, ethnic Turkish people form the largest ethnic minority in Germany. They also form the largest Turkish population in the Turkish diaspora.
Turks who immigrated to Germany brought cultural elements with them, including the Turkish language.
History
Turkish migration from the Seljuk Empire and the Rum Seljuk Sultanate
During a series of invading Crusades by European-Christian armies into lands ruled by Turkic rulers in the Middle East, namely under the Seljuk Turks in the Seljuk Empire and the Rum Seljuk Sultanate (but also the Bahri Mamluk Sultanate), many crusaders brought back Turkish male and female prisoners of war to Europe; women were generally baptised and then married whilst "every returning baron and count had [male] prisoners of war in his entourage." Some of the ('booty Turks') taken to Germany during the Crusades also included children and young adults.
The earliest documented Turk in Germany is believed to be (Mehmet Sadık Selim Sultan) (ca.1270-1328) from the Anatolian Seljuk lands. According to , Soltan was a Turkish officer who was captured by Count von Lechtomir (Reinhart von Württemberg) during his return to Germany from the Holy Land in 1291. By 1304 Soltan married Rebekka Dohlerin; he was baptised the following year as "Johann Soldan", but "out of special love to him", the Count "gave him a Turkish nobility coat of arms". Soldan and his wife had at least three sons, including Eberhardus, Christanianus and Melchior. Another source specifies that Soltan came with Count Reinhart von Württemberg to the residential town of Brackenheim in 1304 and was then baptised in 1305 at S. Johannis Church as "Johannes Soldan". There is also evidence that Soltan had a total of 12 sons born in 20 years with Anna Delcherin and Rebecca Bergmännin; eight of his sons passed to the clergy and do not appear in genealogy records due to compulsory celibacy associated with the clergy.
Soltan/Soldan's descendants, who were more widespread in south-west Germany, include notable German artists, scholars, doctors, lawyers and politicians. For example, through his maternal grandmother, the renowned German poet and writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe belonged to the descendants of the Soldan family and thus had Turkish ancestry. Bernt Engelmann has said that "the German poet prince [i.e. Goethe] with oriental ancestors is by no means a rare exception." Indeed, other descendants of the first recorded Turk in Germany include the lawyer ; the city architects and wine masters Heinrich Soldan and his son Johann Soldan who both served as Mayor of Frankenberg; the sculptor and artist ; and the pharmacist Carl Soldan who founded the confectionery company "". Carl Soldan's grandson, Pery Soldan, has said that the family continue to use the crescent and star on their coat of arms. According to Latif Çelik, as of 2008, the Soldan family numbered 2,500 and are also found in Austria, Finland, France and Switzerland.
Turkish migration from the Ottoman Empire
The Turkish people had greater contact with the German states by the sixteenth century when the Ottoman Empire attempted to expand their territories beyond the north Balkan territories. The Ottoman Turks held two sieges in Vienna: the first Siege of Vienna in 1529 and the Second Siege of Vienna in 1683. The aftermath of the second siege provided the circumstances for a Turkish community to permanently settle in Germany.
Many Ottoman soldiers and camp followers who were left behind after the second siege of Vienna became stragglers or prisoners. It is estimated that at least 500 Turkish prisoners were forcibly settled in Germany. Historical records show that some Turks became traders or took up other professions, particularly in southern Germany. Some Turks fared very well in Germany; for example, one Ottoman Turk is recorded to have been raised to the Hanoverian nobility. Historical records also show that many Ottoman Turks converted to Christianity and became priests or pastors.
The aftermath of the second siege of Vienna led to a series of wars between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League, known as the "Great Turkish War", or the "War of the Holy League", which led to a series of Ottoman defeats. Consequently, more Turks were taken by the Europeans as prisoners. The Turkish captives taken to Germany were not solely made up of men. For example, General Schöning took "two of the most beautiful women in the world" in Buda who later converted to Christianity. Another Turkish captive named Fatima became the mistress of Augustus II the Strong, Elector of Saxony of the Albertine line of the House of Wettin. Fatima and Augustus had two children: their son, Frederick Augustus Rutowsky, became the commander of the Saxon army in 1754-63 whilst their daughter, Maria Anna Katharina Rutowska, married into Polish nobility. Records show that at this point it was not uncommon for Turks in Germany to convert to Christianity. For example, records show that 28 Turks converted to Christianity and were settled in Württemberg.
With the establishment of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701, Turkish people continued to enter the German lands as soldiers employed by the Prussian kings. Historical records show that this was particularly evident with the expansion of Prussia in the mid-18th century. For example, in 1731, the Duke of Kurland presented twenty Turkish guardsmen to King Frederick William I, and at one time, about 1,000 Muslim soldiers are said to have served in the Prussian cavalry. The Prussian king's fascination with the Enlightenment was reflected in their consideration for the religious concerns of their Muslim troops. By 1740 Frederick the Great stated that:
By 1763, an Ottoman legation existed at the Prussian court in Berlin. Its third envoy, Ali Aziz Efendi, died in 1798 which led to the establishment of the first Muslim cemetery in Germany. However, several decades later, there was a need for another cemetery, as well as a mosque, and the Ottoman sultan Abdulaziz was given permission to patronize a mosque in Berlin in 1866.
Once trading treaties were established between the Ottomans and the Prussians in the nineteenth century, Turks and Germans were encouraged to cross over to each other's lands for trade. Consequently, the Turkish community in Germany, and particularly in Berlin, grew significantly (as did a German community in Istanbul) in the years before the First World War. These contacts influenced the building of various Turkish-style structures in Germany, such as the Yenidze cigarette factory in Dresden and the Dampfmaschinenhaus für Sanssouci pumping-station in Potsdam.
During this time, there were also marriages between Germans and Turks. For example, Karl Boy-Ed, who was the naval attaché to the German embassy in Washington during World War I, was born into a German-Turkish family.
Turkish migration from the Republic of Turkey
In the mid-twentieth century, West Germany experienced the Wirtschaftswunder ('economic miracle'); however, the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 exacerbated West Germany's labour crisis by restricting the flow of immigrants from East Germany. Consequently, in the same year, the West German government signed a labour recruitment agreement with the Republic of Turkey on 30 October 1961, and officially invited the Turkish people to emigrate to the country. By 1961–1962, German employers played a crucial role in pressuring the State to end the two-year limitation clause of the Gastarbeiter ('guest worker') agreement so that Turkish workers could stay in West Germany for longer.
As Turkish people of a Romani background came to Germany as guest workers, they were only seen as Turks by the local German population.
Most Turkish people who immigrated to West Germany intended to live there temporarily and then return to Turkey so that they could build a new life with the money they had earned. Indeed, return-migration had increased during the recession of 1966–1967, the 1973 oil crisis, followed by the policy of giving remigration bonuses in the early 1980s. However, the number of Turkish migrants who returned to Turkey ultimately remained relatively small compared to the number of Turkish immigrants arriving in Germany. This was partly due to the family reunification rights that were introduced in 1974 which allowed Turkish workers to bring their families to Germany. Consequently, between 1974 and 1988 the number of Turks in Germany nearly doubled, acquiring a normalised sex ratio and a much younger age profile than the German population. Once the recruitment of foreigner workers was reintroduced after the recession of 1967, the BfA () granted most work visas to women. This was in part because labour shortages continued in low paying, low-status service jobs such as electronics, textiles, and garment work; and in part to further the goal of family reunification.
The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, and the reunification of East and West Germany, was followed by intense public debate around the articulations of national identity and citizenship, including the place of Germany's Turkish minority in the future of a united Germany. These debates about citizenship were accompanied by expressions of xenophobia and ethnic violence that targeted the Turkish population. Anti-immigrant sentiment was especially strong in the former eastern states of Germany, which underwent profound social and economic transformations during the reunification process. Turkish communities experienced considerable fear for their safety throughout Germany, with some 1,500 reported cases of right wing violence, and 2,200 cases the year after. The political rhetoric calling for foreigner-free zones () and the rise of neo-Nazi groups sharpened public awareness of integration issues and generated intensified support among liberal Germans for the competing idea of Germany as a "multicultural" society. Citizenship laws that established eligibility according to place of birth rather than according to descent have been slow in coming and restrictions on dual citizenship are still onerous. However, increasing numbers of second-generation Turkish-Germans have opted for German citizenship and are becoming more involved in the political process.
Turkish migration from the Balkans
Bulgaria
Initially, Turkish Bulgarians arrived in Germany during the introduction of the family reunification laws of 1974; they were able to take advantage of this law despite the very small number of Bulgarian citizens in Germany because some Turkish workers in Germany who arrived from Turkey were actually part of the Turkish minority who had left Bulgaria during the communist regime in the 1980s and still held Bulgarian citizenship, alongside their Turkish citizenship.
The migration of Turkish Bulgarians to Germany increased further once communism in Bulgaria ended in 1989. In particular, Turkish Bulgarians who did not join the massive migration wave to Turkey during the so-called "Revival Process" were faced with severe economic disadvantages and continued to face discrimination through state policies of Bulgarisation. Hence, from the early 1990s onwards many Bulgarian Turks sought asylum in Germany.
The number of Turkish speaking Roma people in Bulgaria in Germany has significantly increased since Bulgaria was admitted into the European Union, which has allowed many Bulgarian Turkish Roma to use the freedom of movement to enter Germany. The Bulgarian Turkish Roma have generally been attracted to Germany because they rely on the well-established Turkish-German community for gaining employment.
Thus, the social network of the first waves of political emigration, as well as the preservation of kinship, has opened an opportunity for many Turkish Bulgarian to continue to migrate to Western Europe, with the majority continuing to arrive in Germany. As a result, Turkish Roma from Bulgarian in Germany outnumber the large Turkish Roma Bulgarian diasporas in countries such as the Netherlands where they make up about 80% of Bulgarian citizens.
Greece
From the 1950s onwards, the Turkish minority of Greece, particularly the Turks of Western Thrace, began to immigrate to Germany alongside other Greek citizens. Whilst many Western Thrace Turks had intended to return to Greece after working for a number of years, a new Greek law was introduced which effectively forced the minority to remain in Germany. Article 19 of the 1955 Greek Constitution essentially stripped the Western Thrace Turks living abroad (particularly those in Germany and Turkey) of their Greek citizenship. According to Article 19 of the Greek Constitution
This law continued to affect Western Thrace Turks studying in Germany in the late 1980s, who intended to return to Greece. A report published by the Human Rights Watch in 1990 confirmed that:
Despite many being stripped of their Greek citizenship since 1955, migration of Western Thrace Turks to Germany has continued to increase significantly. Firstly, in the 1960s and 1970s many came to Germany because the Thracian tobacco industry was affected by a severe crisis and many tobacco growers lost their income. Between 1970 and 2010, approximately 40,000 Western Thrace Turks arrived in Western Europe, most of which settled in Germany. In addition, between 2010 and 2018, a further 30,000 Western Thrace Turks left for Western Europe due to the Greek government-debt crisis. Of these 70,000 immigrants (which excludes the numbers which arrived before 1970), around 80% live in Germany.
In 2013 Cemile Giousouf became the first Western Thrace Turk to become a member of the German parliament. She was the first Muslim to be elected for the Christian Democratic Union of Germany.
North Macedonia
There has been migration from the Turkish Macedonian minority group which have come to Germany alongside other citizens of North Macedonia, including ethnic Macedonians and Albanian Macedonians.
In 2021, Furkan Çako, who is a former Macedonian minister and member of the Security Council, urged Turkish Macedonians living in Germany to participate in North Macedonia's 2021 census.
Romania
Between 2002 and 2011 there was a significant decrease in the population of the Turkish Romanian minority group due to the admission of Romania into the European Union and the subsequent relaxation of the travelling and migration regulations. Hence, Turkish Romanians, especially from the Dobruja region, have joined other Romanian citizens (e.g. ethnic Romanians, Tatars, etc.) in migrating mostly to Germany, Austria, Italy, Spain and the UK.
Turkish migration from the Levant
Cyprus
Turkish Cypriots migrants began to leave the island of Cyprus for Western Europe due to economic and political reasons in the 20th century, especially after the Cyprus crisis of 1963–64 and then the 1974 Cypriot coup d'état carried out by the Greek military junta which was followed by the reactionary Turkish invasion of the island. More recently, with the 2004 enlargement of the European Union, Turkish Cypriots who hold Cypriot citizenship have had the right to live and work across the European Union, including in Germany, as EU citizens. As of 2016, there are approximately 2,000 Turkish Cypriots in Germany, which is the second largest Turkish Cypriot diaspora in Western Europe (after the UK).
The TRNC (unrecognised) provides assistance to its Turkish Cypriots residents living in Germany via the TRNC Berlin Honorary Representative Office; the TRNC Köln Honorary Representative Office; the TRNC Bavarian Honorary Attaché; and the TRNC Bavarian Honorary Representative Office. These Representative Offices and Honorary Representatives also promote friendly relations between Northern Cyprus and Germany, as well as economic and cultural relations.
Lebanon
Due to the numerous wars in Lebanon since the 1970s onwards, many Turkish Lebanese people have sought refuge in Turkey and Europe, particularly in Germany. Indeed, many Lebanese Turks were aware of the large Turkish-German population and saw this as an opportunity to find work once settling in Europe. In particular, the largest wave of Turkish Lebanese migration occurred once the Israel-Lebanon war of 2006 began. During this period more than 20,000 Turks fled Lebanon, particularly from Beirut, and settled in European countries, including Germany.
Iraq
In 2008 there were 85,000 Iraqis living in Germany, of which approximately 7,000 were from the Turkish Iraqi minority group; hence, the Iraqi Turks formed around 8.5% of the total number of Iraqi citizens living in Germany. The majority of Iraqi Turks live in Munich.
Syria
Established in Germany, the , or STKYDA, ('Syrian Turkmen Culture and Solidarity Association – Europe') was the first Syrian Turkmen association to be launched in Europe. It was established in order to help the growing Syrian Turkmen community which arrived in the country since the European migrant crisis which started in 2014 and saw its peak in 2015. The association includes Syrian Turkmen youth activists originating from all Syrian cities and who are now living across Western European cities.
Turkish migration from the modern diaspora
In addition to ethnic Turkish people that have migrated to Germany from post-Ottoman modern nation-states, there has also been an increasing migration wave from the modern Turkish diaspora. For example, members of the Turkish Dutch community have also arrived in Germany as Dutch citizens. According to a study by Petra Wieke de Jong, focusing on second-generation Turkish-Dutch people specifically born between the years 1983 and 1992 only, 805 people from this age group and generation reported Germany as their country of emigration in 2001 to 2017. A further 1,761 people in this group did not report their emigration destination.
Demographics
Population
German state data and estimates
The German state does not allow citizens to self-declare their identity; consequently, the statistics published in the official German census does not show data on ethnicity. According to the 2011 census, 2.7 million German residents had a "migration background" from Turkey. However, this excludes ethnic Turks with both parents who were born with German citizenship as well as the significant ethnic Turkish communities which have migrated to Germany from the Balkans and the Levant. As early as 1997 (i.e. 14 years before the 2011 census), the Chancellor of Germany, Helmut Kohl, said that there was already 3 million Turks living in Germany. Moreover, at the time of the 2011 census, a report published by the Embassy of Germany, Washington, D.C. said that there were roughly 4 million Turks in Germany, of which 2 million had German citizenship. More recently, in 2013, the German chancellor, Angela Merkel, said that "Germany's Leitkultur needs to be accepted by Germany's seven million Turkish immigrants".
Academic estimates
Throughout the decades estimates by academics of the Turkish-German population have varied. In 1990, David Scott Bell et al. put it at between 2.5 million and 3 million Turks in Germany. A lower 1993 estimate by Stephen J. Blank et al. said there were 1.8 million Turks. The German Government's Special Commission on Integration estimated that there were more than 3 million Turks, including third-generation descendants, and that 79,000 new babies were born each year within the community. The estimate of three million was also given by other scholars in the mid-1990s. A higher estimate of 4 million Turks (including three generations) was reported by John Pilger in 1993 and the Deutsches Orient-Institut in 1994. Moreover, Marilya Veteto-Conrad said that in the German capital there was already "over a million Turks in Berlin alone" in 1996.
In 2003, Ina Kötter et al. said that there was "more than 4 million people of Turkish origin" in Germany; this has also been reiterated by other scholars. However, Michael Murphy Andregg said that by the 2000s "Germany was home to at least five million Turks"; various scholars have also given this estimate. Jytte Klausen cited German statistics in 2005 showing 2.4 million Turks, but acknowledged that unlike Catholics, Protestants, and Jews, the Turkish community cannot allocate their ethnic or religious identity in official counts. Indeed, a 2007 study by Clifford Geertz claimed that there was already "two million Turks in Berlin" alone. A higher estimate of 7 million Turks was given by Paul Gottfried in 2003, and Tessa Szyszkowitz quoted a senior European official who also said there was seven million Turks living in Germany in 2005.
As of 2020, numerous scholars have estimated that there are approximately 7 million Turks in Germany, including Graham E. Fuller, James G. Lacey, Daniela Coli, and George K. Zestos and Rachel N. Cooke. Non-academic reports published by The Times, the Foundation for Subsidiarity, and Marianne have also suggested this figure.
Settlements
The Turkish community in Germany is concentrated predominantly in urban centers. The vast majority are found in the former West Germany, particularly in industrial regions such as the states of North Rhine-Westphalia (where a third of Turkish Germans live), and Baden-Württemberg and the working-class neighbourhoods of cities like Berlin, Hamburg, Bremen, Bochum, Bonn, Cologne, Dortmund, Duisburg, Düsseldorf, Essen, Frankfurt, Hanover, Heidelberg, Mannheim, Mainz, Nuremberg, Munich, Stuttgart, Aachen and Wiesbaden. Among the German districts in 2011, Duisburg, Gelsenkirchen, Heilbronn, Herne and Ludwigshafen had the highest shares of migrants from Turkey according to census data.
Return migration
In regards to return-migration, many Turkish nationals and Turkish Germans have also migrated from Germany to Turkey, for retirement or professional reasons. Official German records show that there are 2.8 million "returnees"; however, the German Embassy in Ankara estimates the true number to be four million, acknowledging the differences in German official data and the realities of the under-reporting by migrants.
Integration
Turkish immigrants make up Germany's largest immigrant group and have been ranked last in Berlin Institute's integration ranking.
During a speech in Düsseldorf in 2011, Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan urged Turks in Germany to integrate, but not assimilate, a statement that caused a political outcry in Germany.
The Turks in Turkey (especially more progressive-leaning, and those from large cities like Istanbul) can occasionally have somewhat negative views of the Turks in Germany, specifically (descendants of) the first Turkish Gastarbeiters, for their generally more conservative/Islamist political views, sometimes they are called almancı (literal translation "german-er", Almanya meaning "Germany" in Turkish). They are sometimes regarded as "having insufficiently assimilated by the Germans, yet having excessively assimilated by the Turks in the homeland".
Citizenship
For decades Turkish citizens in Germany were unable to become German citizens because of the traditional German construct of "nationhood". The legal notion of citizenship was based on "blood ties" of a German parent (jus sanguinis) – as opposed to citizenship based on country of birth and residence (jus soli). This adhered to the political notion that Germany was not a country of immigration. For this reason, only those who were of partial Turkish origin (and had one parent who was ethnically German) could obtain German citizenship.
In 1990 Germany's citizenship law was somewhat relaxed with the introduction of the Foreigner's Law; this gave Turkish workers the right to apply for a permanent residency permit after eight years of living in the country. In regards to people of Turkish origin born in Germany, who were also legally "foreign", they were given the right to acquire German citizenship at the age of eighteen, provided that they gave up their Turkish citizenship. Hence, they were deprived of the right to hold dual citizenship because it would increase the Turkish population in the country. Chancellor Helmut Kohl officially stated this as the main reason for denying dual citizenship in 1997 when he said the following:
Nonetheless, another citizenship reform law was soon introduced after Helmut Kohl finished his last term as Chancellor. The Citizenship Law of 1999, which was officially taken into effect on 1 January 2000, has facilitated the acquisition of German citizenship for people born outside of Germany, making it available to Turkish immigrants after eight years of legal residence in the country. The law's most innovative provision granted dual citizenship to Turkish-origin children born in Germany; however, this right to dual citizenship ends at age 23 and the bearers must decide whether to keep their German citizenship or the citizenship of their parent's country of birth.
Former Turkish citizens who have given up their citizenship can apply for the 'Blue Card' (), which gives them some rights in Turkey, such as the right to live and work in Turkey, the right to possess and inherit land or the right to inherit; however, they do not have the right to vote.
In 2011 the Embassy of Germany, Washington, D.C. reported that as of 2005 there were 2 million Turks who already had German citizenship.
Culture
The Turkish people who immigrated to Germany brought their culture with them, including their language, religion, food, and arts. These cultural traditions have also been passed down to their descendants who maintain these values. Consequently, Turkish Germans have also exposed their culture to the greater German society. Numerous Turkish restaurants, grocery stores, teahouses, and mosques are scattered across Germany. The Turks in Germany have also been exposed to German culture, which has influenced the Turkish dialect spoken by the Turkish community in Germany.
Food
Turkish cuisine first arrived in Germany during the sixteenth century and was consumed among aristocratic circles. However, Turkish food became available to the greater German society from the mid-twentieth century onwards with the arrival of Turkish immigrants. By the early 1970s Turks began to open fast-food restaurants serving popular kebap dishes. Today there are Turkish restaurants scattered throughout the country selling popular dishes like döner kebap in take-away stalls to more authentic domestic foods in family-run restaurants. Since the 1970s, Turks have opened grocery stores and open-air markets where they sell ingredients suitable for Turkish home-cooking, such as spices, fruits, and vegetables.
Language
Turkish is the second most spoken language in Germany, after German. It was brought to the country by Turkish immigrants who spoke it as their first language. These immigrants mainly learned German through employment, mass media, and social settings, and it has now become a second language for many of them. Nonetheless, most Turkish immigrants have passed down their mother tongue to their children and descendants. In general, Turkish Germans become bilingual at an early age, learning Turkish at home and German in state schools; thereafter, a dialectal variety often remains in their repertoire of both languages.
Turkish Germans mainly speak the German language more fluently than their "domestic"-style Turkish language. Consequently, they often speak the Turkish language with a German accent or a modelled German dialect. It is also common within the community to modify the Turkish language by adding German grammatical and syntactical structures. Parents generally encourage their children to improve their Turkish language skills further by attending private Turkish classes or choosing Turkish as a subject at school. In some states of Germany the Turkish language has even been approved as a subject to be studied for the Abitur.
Turkish has also been influential in greater German society. For example, advertisements and banners in public spaces can be found written in Turkish. Hence, it is also familiar to other ethnic groups – it can even serve as a vernacular for some non-Turkish children and adolescents in urban neighborhoods with dominant Turkish communities.
It is also common within the Turkish community to code-switch between the German and Turkish languages. By the early 1990s a new sociolect called Kanak Sprak or was coined by the Turkish-German author Feridun Zaimoğlu to refer to the German "ghetto" dialect spoken by the Turkish youth. However, with the developing formation of a Turkish middle class in Germany, there is an increasing number of people of Turkish-origin who are proficient in using the standard German language, particularly in academia and the arts.
Religion
The Turkish people in Germany are predominantly Muslim and form the largest ethnic group which practices Islam in Germany. Since the 1960s, "Turkish" was seen as synonymous with "Muslim"; this is because Islam is considered to have a "Turkish character" in Germany. This Turkish character is particularly evident in the Ottoman/Turkish-style architecture of many mosques scattered across Germany. In 2016, approximately 2,000 of Germany's 3,000 mosques were Turkish, of which 900 were financed by the Diyanet İşleri Türk-İslam Birliği, an arm of the Turkish government, and the remainder by other political Turkish groups. There is an ethnic Turkish Christian community in Germany; most of them came from recent Muslim Turkish backgrounds.
Turkish mosques in Germany
Discrimination and anti-Turkism
Discrimination
In 1985 the German journalist Günter Wallraff shocked the German public with his internationally successful book Ganz unten ('In the Pits' or 'Way Down') in which he reported the discrimination faced by Turkish people in German society. He disguised himself as a Turkish worker called "Ali Levent" for over two years and took on minimal-wage jobs and confronted German institutions. He found that many employers did not register or insure their Turkish workers. Major employers like Thyssen did not give their Turkish workers adequate breaks and did not pay them their full wage.
It has been, and still is, also reported that Turkish-Germans were being discriminated against at school from early age and in workplaces. It has also been found that teachers discriminate against non-German sounding names and tend to give worse grades based on names alone. The studies showed that even though a student might have had the exact number of right and wrong answers, or the exact paper, the teachers favour German names.
This creates a vicious cycle where teachers favour students of German descent over non-Germans, including Turkish students, which results in worse education. This later results in Turkish people not being able to take what are deemed to be "higher-skill jobs", which nonetheless deepens the cracks in the cycle.
There are also the reports of discrimination against Turkish-Germans in other areas such as sports, one example being the discrimination against the football player Mesut Özil.
Attacks against the Turkish community in Germany
The fall of the Berlin wall in 1989, and the reunification of Germany, saw a sharp rise in violent attacks against Turkish-Germans. A series of arson attacks, bombings, and shootings have targeted the Turkish community in both public and private spaces, such as in their homes, cultural centres, and businesses. Consequently, many victims have been killed or severely injured by these attacks.
On 27 October 1991, , a 19-year-old student from Kreuzberg, along with his four Turkish friends were involved in a violent confrontation with three German brothers. As a consequence, Ekşi died due to head injuries caused with a baseball bat which was wrested by the 25-year-old attacker from Ekşi's friend. His death sparked a massive outrage in the local Turkish community alleging fascist motives. This was, however, dismissed by a court as an "overreaction" while acknowledging and condemning open and hidden xenophobia in Germany. His funeral in November 1991 was attended by 5,000 people.
A year after Ekşi's murder, on 22 November 1992, two Turkish girls, Ayşe Yılmaz and Yeliz Arslan, and their grandmother, Bahide Arslan, were killed by two neo-Nazis in an arson attack in their home in Mölln.
On 9 March 1993, , aged 56, was attacked by two members of the German anti-immigrant political party "The Republicans" whilst waiting at a bus stop in Mülheim. The attackers verbally assaulted him prompting a defensive reaction after which one of the attackers threatened him with a gun pointing at his head. Demiral suffered a heart-attack and died at the scene of the crime.
Two months later, on 28 May 1993, four young neo-Nazi German men aged 16–23 set fire to the house of a Turkish family in Solingen. Three girls and two women died and 14 other members of the extended family were severely injured in the attack. German Chancellor Helmut Kohl did not attend the memorial services.
Neo-Nazi attacks continued throughout the 1990s. On 18 February 1994, the Bayram family were attacked on their doorstep by a neo-Nazi neighbour in Darmstadt. The attack was not well publicised until one of the victims, Aslı Bayram, was crowned Miss Germany in 2005. The armed neo-Nazi neighbour shot Aslı on her left arm and then the attacker shot Aslı's father, Ali Bayram, who died from the gunshot.
Between 2000 and 2006 several Turkish shopkeepers were attacked in numerous cities in Germany. The attacks were called the "Bosphorus serial murders" () by the German authorities or pejoratively "Kebab murders" () by the press – which saw eight Turkish and one Greek person killed. Initially, the German media suspected that Turkish gangs were behind these murders. However, by 2011 it came to light that the perpetrators were in fact the neo-Nazi group the National Socialist Underground. This neo-Nazi group was also responsible for the June 2004 Cologne bombing which resulted in 22 Turkish people being injured.
On 3 February 2008, nine Turkish people, including five children, died in a blaze in Ludwigshafen (de). While there have been speculations by the Turkish media about the origin of the fire suspecting an arson attack and allegations of slow fire response time, these were rejected by an investigation and the cause of the fire was determined to have been an electrical fault. Nevertheless, many German and Turkish politicians including Turkish prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan together with locally elected MP of the German parliament and appointed Minister of State for Integration in the Federal Chancellery and German Federal Government Commissioner for Migration, Refugees and Integration Maria Böhmer or Minister President of Rhineland-Palatinate Kurt Beck visited the site to express their condolences. Chancellor Angela Merkel was criticised for not attending a demonstration held in memory of the victims by 16,000 people.
Not all attacks on Turks have been perpetrated by neo-Nazi right-wing Germans: for example, the perpetrator of a mass shooting in Munich on 22 July 2016 who deliberately targeted people of Turkish and Arab origin. On that day, he killed nine victims, of which four victims were of Turkish origin: Can Leyla, aged 14, Selçuk Kılıç, aged 17, and Sevda Dağ, aged 45; as well as Hüseyin Dayıcık, aged 19, who was a Greek national of Turkish origin.
On 19 February 2020, a German neo-Nazi who expressed hate for non-German people, carried out two mass shootings in the city of Hanau, killing nine foreigners. He then returned to his home, killed his mother and committed suicide. Five of the nine victims were Turkish citizens.
On 2 April 2020, in Hamburg, a German family of Turkish descent claimed to have received a threatening letter with xenophobic content allegedly containing the coronavirus.
Crime
Turkish gangs
In 2014, the annual report into organized crime, presented in Berlin by interior minister Thomas de Maizière, showed that there were 57 Turkish gangs in Germany. In 2016, the Die Welt and Bild reported that new Turkish motorbike gang, the Osmanen Germania is growing rapidly. The Hannoversche Allgemeine newspaper claimed that the Osmanen Germania is advancing more and more into red-light districts, which increases the likelihood of a bloody territorial battle with established gangs like the Hells Angels Motorcycle Club.
Turkish ultra-nationalist movements
As a result of the immigration wave in the 1960s and 1970s, far right and ultranationalist organisations established themselves in Germany such as the Grey Wolves, , (ATB) and (ATIB). In 2017, ATB and ATIB together had about 303 locations with 18,500 members.
Popular culture
Media
Films
The first phase in Turkish-German Cinema began in the 1970s and lasted through to the 1980s; it involved writers placing much of their attention on story-lines that represented the living and working conditions of the Turkish immigrant workers in Germany. By the 1990s a second phase shifted towards focusing more on mass entertainment and involved the work of Turkish and German-born Turkish German filmmakers. Critical engagements in story-telling increased further by the turn of the twenty-first century. Numerous films of the 1990s onwards launched the careers of many film directors, writers, and actors and actresses.
Fatih Akin's films, which often examine the place of the Turkish diaspora in Germany, have won numerous awards and have launched the careers of many of its cast including Short Sharp Shock (1998) starring Mehmet Kurtuluş and İdil Üner; Head-On (2004) starring Birol Ünel and Sibel Kekilli; Kebab Connection (2004) starring Denis Moschitto; The Edge of Heaven (2007) starring Baki Davrak; and Soul Kitchen (2009) starring Birol Ünel.
Other notable films which have a transnational context include Feridun Zaimoğlu's book-turned-film (2000); (2004); and Özgür Yıldırım's Chiko (2008). Several Turkish-German comedy films have also intentionally used comical stereotypes to encourage its viewers to question their preconceived ideas of "the Other", such as Züli Aladağ's film 300 Worte Deutsch ("300 words of German", 2013), starring Almila Bagriacik, , Aykut Kayacık, and Vedat Erincin. Similarly, other recent Turkish-German comedies like Meine verrückte türkische Hochzeit (, 2006), starring Hilmi Sözer, Ercan Özçelik, Aykut Kayacık, and Özay Fecht, and the film (2009), starring numerous Turkish-German actors such as Demir Gökgöl, Emine Sevgi Özdamar, Erden Alkan, Gandi Mukli, Hülya Duyar, Jale Arıkan, Lilay Huser, Meral Perin, Mürtüz Yolcu, Sema Meray, and Sinan Akkuş, have emphasised how the Turkish and German cultures come together in contemporary German society. By focusing on similarities and differences of the two cultures using comedy, these films have shifted from the earlier Turkish-German drama films of the 1980s which focused on culture clashes; in its place, these films have celebrated integration and interethnic romance.
By 2011 Yasemin Şamdereli and Nesrin Şamdereli's comedy film Almanya: Welcome to Germany, starring Aylin Tezel and Fahri Yardım, premiered at the Berlin Film Festival and was attended by the German President and the Turkish Ambassador to celebrate fifty years since the mass migration of Turkish workers to Germany. Indeed, stories confronting Turkish labour migration, and debates about integration, multiculturalism, and identity, are reoccurring themes in Turkish-German cinema.
Nonetheless, not all films directed, produced or written by Turkish Germans are necessarily about the "Turkish-experience" in Germany. Several Turkish Germans have been involved in other genres, such as Bülent Akinci who directed the German drama Running on Empty (2006), Mennan Yapo who has directed the American supernatural thriller Premonition (2007), and Thomas Arslan who directed the German Western film Gold (2013).
Several Turkish-origin actors from Germany have also starred in Turkish films, such as Haluk Piyes who starred in O da beni seviyor (2001).
Television
In the first decade of the twenty-first century several German television series in which the experience of Turkish-Germans as a major theme gained popularity in Germany and in some cases gained popularity abroad too. For example, Sinan Toprak ist der Unbestechliche ("Sinan Toprak is the Incorruptible", 2001–2002) and Mordkommission Istanbul ("Homicide Unit Istanbul", 2008–present) which both star Erol Sander. In 2005 Tevfik Başer's book ("Time of Wishes") was turned into a primetime TV German movie starring Erhan Emre, Lale Yavaş, Tim Seyfi, and Hilmi Sözer, and won the prestigious Adolf Grimme Prize. Another popular Turkish-German TV series was Alle lieben Jimmy ("Everybody Loves Jimmy", 2006–2007) starring and Gülcan Kamps. Due to the success of , it was made into a Turkish series called – making it the first German series to be exported to Turkey.
By 2006 the award-winning German television comedy-drama series Türkisch für Anfänger ('Turkish for Beginners', 2006–2009) became one of the most popular shows in Germany. The critically acclaimed series was also shown in more than 70 other countries. Created by Bora Dağtekin, the plot is based on interethnic-relations between German and Turkish people. Adnan Maral plays the role of a widower of two children who marries an ethnic German mother of two children – forming the Öztürk-Schneider family. The comedy consisted of fifty-two episodes and three seasons. By 2012 was made into a feature film; it was the most successful German film of the year with an audience of 2.5 million.
Other notable Turkish-origin actors on German television include Erdoğan Atalay, , , , Özgür Özata, , and .
Whilst Turkish-origin journalists are still underrepresented, several have made successful careers as reporters and TV presenters including and Nazan Eckes.
Many Turkish Germans have also starred in numerous critically acclaimed Turkish drama series. For example, numerous actors and actresses in Muhteşem Yüzyıl were born in Germany, including Meryem Uzerli, Nur Fettahoğlu, Selma Ergeç, and Ozan Güven. Other popular Turkish-German performers in Turkey include Fahriye Evcen who has starred in Yaprak Dökümü and Kurt Seyit ve Şura.
Comedy
One of the first comedians of Turkish origin to begin a career as a mainstream comedian is Django Asül who began his career in satire in the 1990s. Another very successful comedian is Bülent Ceylan, who performed his first solo show "Doner for one" in 2002. By 2011 the broadcasting agency RTL aired Ceylan's own comedy show The Bulent Ceylan Show. Other notable comedians include , , , , Kaya Yanar, and female comedian .
Literature
Since the 1960s Turkish people in Germany have produced a range of literature. Their work became widely available from the late 1970s onwards, when Turkish-origin writers began to gain sponsorships by German institutions and major publishing houses. Some of the most notable writers of Turkish origin in Germany include Akif Pirinçci, Alev Tekinay, Emine Sevgi Özdamar, Feridun Zaimoğlu, Necla Kelek, Renan Demirkan, and Zafer Şenocak. These writers approach a broad range of historical, social and political issues, such as identity, gender, racism, and language. In particular, German audiences have often been captivated by Oriental depictions of the Turkish community.
Music
In the mid-twentieth century the Turkish immigrant community in Germany mostly followed the music industry in Turkey, particularly pop music and Turkish folk music. Hence, the Turkish music industry became very profitable in Germany. By the 1970s, the "arabesque" genre erupted in Turkey and became particularly popular among Turks in Germany. These songs were often played and sang by the Turkish community in Germany in coffee houses and taverns that replicated those in Turkey. These spaces also provided the first stage for semi-professional and professional musicians. Consequently, by the end of the 1960s, some Turks in Germany began to produce their own music, such as who took up themes of the Turkish immigration journey and their working conditions.
By the 1990s the Turkish Germans became more influential in the music industry in both Germany and Turkey. In general, many Turkish Germans were brought up listening to Turkish pop music, which greatly influenced the music they began to produce. They were also influenced by hip-hop music and rap music.
Since the 1990s, the Turkish-German music scene has developed creative and successful new styles, such as "Oriental pop and rap" and "R'n'Besk" – a fusion of Turkish arabesque songs and R&B music. Examples of Oriental-pop and rap emerged in the early 2000s with Bassturk's first single "" ("Side by Side"). The "R'n'Besk"-style gained popularity in Germany with Muhabbet's 2005 single "" ("She lies in my Arms"). By 2007 Muhabbet released the song "" ("Germany"); the lyrics appeal to Germans to finally accept the Turkish immigrants living in the country.
In 2015 several Turkish-German musicians released the song "" ("You are one of us"). The vocalists included Eko Fresh, Elif Batman, Mehtab Guitar, , and . , Ercandize, Serdar Bogatekin, and Zafer Kurus were also involved in the production. The song was used in a campaign to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the Ay Yildiz telephone network and was extensively broadcast on TV and radio. Thereafter, a competition and group was formed called / ("The voice of the new generation") to find new Turkish-German talent and "" was re-released with different lyrics.
Other Turkish-origin musicians in the German music industry include Bahar Kızıl (from the former girl-group Monrose), and winner of Germany's "Star Search" Martin Kesici.
Several Turkish-origin singers born in Germany have also launched their careers in Turkey, such as Akın Eldes, Aylin Aslım, , İsmail YK, Ozan Musluoğlu, Pamela Spence, and Tarkan. The German-born Turkish Cypriot pianist Rüya Taner has also launched her career in Turkey.
There are also some musicians who perform and produce songs in the English language, such as Alev Lenz, DJ Quicksilver, DJ Sakin, and Mousse T.
Rappers
Especially in the 1990s, Turkish-German rap groups have sold hundreds of thousands of albums and singles in Turkey, telling their stories of integration and assimilation struggles they experienced due to discrimination they faced during their upbringing in Germany.
Sports
Football
Men's football
Many football players of Turkish origin in Germany have been successful in first-division German and Turkish football clubs, as well as other European clubs. However, in regards to playing for national teams, many players of Turkish origin who were born in Germany have chosen to play for the Turkish national football team. Nonetheless, in recent years there has been an increase in the number of players choosing to represent Germany.
The first person of Turkish descent to play for the Germany national football team was Mehmet Scholl in 1993, followed by Mustafa Doğan in 1999 and Malik Fathi in 2006. Since the twenty-first century there has been an increase in German-born individuals of Turkish origin opting to play for Germany, including Serdar Tasci and Suat Serdar, Kerem Demirbay, Emre Can, İlkay Gündoğan, Mesut Özil,. Of those, Mesut Özil played the most matches for Germany (92 apps). His photo with Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (together with Ilkay Gündogan and Cenk Tosun) just before the World Cup 2018 and his subsequent retirement after World Cup led to a controversy as well as political and
social discussion. In his retirement statement, Özil also reported about racism experiences after his photo with Erdoğan.
Those who have chosen to retain their Turkish citizenship and who have competed for Turkey include Cenk Tosun, Ceyhun Gülselam, Gökhan Töre, Hakan Balta, Hakan Çalhanoğlu, Halil Altıntop, Hamit Altıntop, İlhan Mansız, Nuri Şahin, Ogün Temizkanoğlu, Olcay Şahan, Mehmet Ekici, Serhat Akin, Tayfun Korkut, Tayfur Havutçu, Tunay Torun, Ümit Davala, Umit Karan, Volkan Arslan, Yıldıray Baştürk, Yunus Mallı, Kaan Ayhan, Ahmed Kutucu, Levin Öztunalı, Kenan Karaman, Ömer Toprak, Salih Özcan, Nazim Sangaré, Güven Yalçın, Berkay Özcan and Hasan Ali Kaldırım.
Many Turkish Germans have also played for other national football teams; for example, Turkish German football players in the Azerbaijan national football team include Ufuk Budak, Tuğrul Erat, Ali Gökdemir, Taşkın İlter, Cihan Özkara, Uğur Pamuk, Fatih Şanlı, and .
Several Turkish-German professional football players have also continued their careers as football managers such as Kenan Kocak, Hüseyin Eroğlu, Tayfun Korkut and Eddy Sözer. In addition, there are also several Turkish-German referees, including Deniz Aytekin.
Women's football
In regards to women's football, several players have chosen to play for the Turkish women's national football team, including Aylin Yaren, Aycan Yanaç, Melike Pekel, Dilan Ağgül, Selin Dişli, Arzu Karabulut, Ecem Cumert, Fatma Kara, Fatma Işık, Ebru Uzungüney and Feride Bakır.
There are also players who plays for the German women's football national football team, including Sara Doorsoun and Hasret Kayıkçı.
Turkish-German football clubs
The Turkish community in Germany has also been active in establishing their own football clubs such as Berlin Türkspor 1965 (established in 1965) and Türkiyemspor Berlin (established in 1978). Türkiyemspor Berlin were the Champions in the Berlin-Liga in the year 2000. They were the winners of the Berliner Landespokal in 1988, 1990, and 1991.
Türkgücü München, established in 1975, play in the 3. Liga.
Politics
German politics
The Turks in Germany began to be active in politics by establishing associations and federations in the 1960s and 1970s – though these were mainly based on Turkish politics rather than German politics. The first significant step towards active German politics occurred in 1987 when Sevim Çelebi became the first person of Turkish origin to be elected as an MP in the West Berlin Parliament.
With the reunification of East Germany and West Germany, unemployment in the country had increased and some political parties, particularly the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), used anti-immigration discourses as a political tool in their campaigns. To counter this, many people of Turkish origin became more politically active and began to work in local elections and in the young branches of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and the Green Party. Several associations were founded by almost all German parties to organise meetings for Turkish voters. This played an important gateway for those who aspired to become politicians.
Federal Parliament
In 1994 from the SPD and Cem Özdemir from the Green Party became MPs in the Federal Parliament. They were both re-elected in the 1998 elections and were joined by Ekin Deligöz from the Green party. Deligöz and Özdemir were both re-elected as MPs for the Greens and Lale Akgün was elected as an MP for the SPD in the 2002 elections. Thereafter, Deligöz and Akgün were successful in being re-elected in the 2005 elections; the two female politicians were joined by Hakkı Keskin who was elected as an MP for the Left Party.
By the end of the first decade of the twenty-first century, the number of German MPs of Turkish origin remained similar to the previous elections. In the 2009 elections Ekin Deligöz and Mehmet Kılıç were elected for the Greens, Aydan Özoğuz for the SPD, and for the FDP. Nonetheless, several Turkish-origin politicians were successful in becoming ministers and co-chairs of political parties. For example, in 2008 Cem Özdemir became the co-chair of the Green Party. In 2010 Aygül Özkan was appointed as the Women, Family, Health and Integration Minister, making her the first ever minister of Turkish origin or the Muslim faith. In the same year, Aydan Özoğuz was elected as deputy chairperson of the SPD party. By 2011, from the SPD was appointed as Integration Minister in the Baden-Württemberg State.
Since the 2013 German elections, Turkish-origin MPs have been elected into Federal Parliament from four different parties. Cemile Giousouf, whose parents immigrated from Greece, became the first person of Western Thracian Turkish-origin to become an MP. Giousouf was the first Turkish-origin MP and first Muslim to be elected from the CDU party. Five MPs of Turkish-origin were elected from the SPD party including Aydan Özoğuz, Cansel Kiziltepe, Gülistan Yüksel, Metin Hakverdi and Mahmut Özdemir. Özdemir, at the time of his election, became the youngest MP in the German Parliament. For the Green Party, Cem Özdemir, Ekin Deligöz and Özcan Mutlu were elected as MPs, and Azize Tank for the Left Party.
European Parliament
In 1989 from the SPD party was the first person of Turkish-origin to be a member of the European Parliament for Germany. By 2004 Cem Özdemir and Vural Öger also became members of the European Parliament. Since then, Ismail Ertug was elected as a Member of the European Parliament in 2009 and was re-elected in 2014.
Turkish-German political parties
Turkish politics
Some Turks born or raised in Germany have entered Turkish politics. For example, Siegen-born, Justice and Development Party (AKP) affiliated Akif Çağatay Kılıç has been the Minister of Youth and Sports of Turkey since 2013.
Germany is effectively Turkey's 4th largest electoral district. Around a third of this constituency vote in Turkish elections (570,000 in the 2015 parliamentary elections), and the share of conservative votes for the Justice and Development Party (AKP) and Recep Tayyip Erdoğan is even higher than in Turkey itself. Following the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt, huge pro-Erdogan demonstrations were held by Turkish citizens in German cities. The Economist suggested that this would make it difficult for Germany politicians to criticize Erdogan's policies and tactics. However, equally huge demonstrations by Turkish Kurds were also held in Germany some weeks later against Erdogan's 2016 Turkish purges and against the detention the HDP party co-chairpersons Selahattin Demirtaş and Figen Yüksekdağ in Turkey.
Notable people
See also
List of Turkish Germans
List of German locations named after people and places of Turkish origin
Turks in Berlin
Germany–Turkey relations
Turkish diaspora
Turks in Europe
Turks in Austria
Turks in France
Turks in the Netherlands
Turks in Liechtenstein
Turks in Russia
Turks in Switzerland
Turks in the United Kingdom
Turkish Americans
References
Bibliography
External links
Relations between Turkey and Germany at the German Federal Foreign Office
"Germany's guest workers mark 40 years", by Rob Broomby, BBC News
Berlin Türk Kulübü
Turkish Flair in Berlin
Citizenship Test
Migrants in Germany
Islam in Germany
Labor in Germany
Middle Eastern diaspora in Germany
Muslim communities in Europe
Germany |
4281315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm%20the%20Studio | Storm the Studio | Storm the Studio is the debut album by English electronic music group Meat Beat Manifesto, released on 20 February 1989 by Sweatbox Records in the United Kingdom and later that year by Wax Trax! in the United States. Recorded in three recording studios, the album contains four compositions, each split into separate parts, that mostly originated as twelve-inch singles the band released in 1988. The record's inventive musical style features elements of industrial music, electro, dub, noise rock and hip hop music, and incorporates breakbeats, noise and sporadic rap vocals. The group also incorporated heavy usage of sampling in a fashion they compared to pop art. Television was a further influence on the record, and numerous items of television dialogue appear throughout Storm the Studio as samples.
Named for a William S. Burroughs quote sampled on the album, Storm the Studio was greeted with critical acclaim upon release, and its dark tone helped distance Meat Beat Manifesto from the hedonistic dance music of the time. It has gone on to be considered a groundbreaking and innovative album, and has influenced numerous artists in the industrial, breakbeat, drum and bass and trip hop genres. It was re-released by TVT Records in 1993, Mute Records in 1994 and Run Recordings in 2003. A remix album, containing new remixes of the Storm the Studio by artists such as DJ Spooky and Jonah Sharp, was released by Tino Corp as Storm the Studio RMXS in 2003.
Background and recording
Swindon-based Meat Beat Manifesto began in 1987 when Jack Dangers and Jonny Stephens of the pop group Perennial Divide – who they had formed in 1986 and recorded the album Purge (1986) with – began releasing electronic side-project twelve-inch singles under the Meat Beat Manifesto name on Perennial Divide's label Sweatbox Records, the first of which was "Suck Hard" (1987). These were followed by the singles which later formed the basis of Storm the Studio, namely "I Got the Fear", "Strap Down" and "God O.D." After Perennial Divide's dissolution, the newly prioritised Meat Beat Manifesto began recording their debut album soon after, naming the projected album Armed Audio Warfare and scheduling its release for May 1988, but the tapes were destroyed in a studio fire before the album could be released. Though the story was something of a rumour for many years, Jack Dangers confirmed the story of the fire in a 2010 interview.
The band recorded Storm the Studio, their replacement debut album, at The Slaughterhouse in South Yorkshire, F2 Studios in London and at Drive Studios. It was mixed and mastered at London's Townhouse Studios. The Sound Defence Policy, presumably a pseudonym for Dangers, is credited for the album's production. Nix Lowrey The Quietus later noted how the material on Storm the Studio was rumoured to be the subsequent resurrection and "reshaping" of the material destroyed in the fire, although the band recreated what their debut album was supposed to have been like on their second album Armed Audio Warfare (1990), which takes its name from the proposed debut album and among its tracks includes alternate versions of several of the songs on Storm the Studio, some in the form of remixes and others in the form of unreleased original versions.
Composition
Production
Storm the Studio makes heavy usage of sampling, with samples being collected onto a Casio DA1 DAT machine and then moved to a fully expanded Akai S1000. Band member Marcus Adams explained that unlike contemporaneous artists who use sampling, who Adams felt were doing it "because it's hip [...] because Public Enemy do it," Meat Beat Manifesto used sampling "because it's a magpie thing [...] it's like pop art. The pop artists used to take other peoples' work and make it into their own, and we see sampling as doing that, we don't see it as 'we'll use that because it's a hip sound at the moment'."
Rather than primarily use music as a source for samples and influence, Storm the Studio was influenced by television and uses numerous samples of television shows and news items. According to Adams, the band would occasionally "get a track ready on the sampler so that we can sync that with the timecode, then the sampler is cued in so that when you play a record or tune in the television and as the track is running on, we can make samples which immediately go in time with the track." This allowed the band to capture certain television dialogue samples and edit them unit they were in sync with the track. One journalist noted that "[t]he way in which Dangers and Adams generate samples incorporates a random element - this makes it stranger still that the samples seem so carefully chosen." Jack Dangers enjoyed sampling sources that much of their audience would recognise, hence the appearance of a sample of a Michael Jackson song. The album was also the band's first release to use vocoders.
The group enjoyed experimenting with different sounds to see which would be worth incorporating into the final product. Adams recorded the squeak of his sneaker on the ground, then sampled it and slowed it down, but he felt it "sounded really stupid" so did not use it on the album. The usage of a sample from children's series Rainbow, in which Zippy says "You're supposed to listen to the rhythm George, the rhythm of the music," was explained by Adams: "There's not much else you can do when you're on the dole except watch Rainbow." The band taped every episode of the show for three years looking for the particular scene so they could sample it. Another of the album's television-sourced samples, a news broadcaster saying "a spokesman at the Health Ministry said that to talk repeatedly about AIDS would cause the public to panic, tourism will certainly be affected," was the result of what the group called a 'random edit,' although they kept it on the album because they felt it showed how the news "sounded like they were more concerned with tourism than peoples' lives. It was something that would make you think, rather than the 'DJ get on down' stuff."
Musical style
Three of the band's early singles, namely "God O.D.", "Strap Down" and "I Got the Fear", as well as the new composition "Re-Animator", feature on Storm the Studio disassembled and remixed into four separate parts each, with the exception of "Strap Down", which only has three parts. Each of the four pieces are intended to fill one side of the double vinyl. Trouser Press wrote that the album stretches "the concept of the remix further than most," finding few of the tracks on the album to sound similar to any of the record's other tracks, with Matthew Jeanes of Brainwashed echoing that "most of the record works through free association to connect the dots." Describing its musical style, Trouser Press felt the album took "the groundbreaking electronic grooves" of Cabaret Voltaire and Throbbing Gristle as its base and significantly toughened them up, sporadically adding raps in a stream-of-consciousness style. Band founder Jack Dangers explained: "If you listen to Storm The Studio, there's vocals for all of the songs, but there are 4 different versions of each and not so many vocals on the other versions."
Andy Hermann of PopMatters wrote that people were unable to pigeonhole the album into a single genre successfully, writing that it was referred to by different people upon release as an industrial, acid house, techno or hip hop album. Similarly, Ron Nachmann of SF Weekly said the album disregarded "the genre rules of the time" in its combination of hip hop breakbeats, scratch edits, bulky samples, electro tone, dub techniques and "industrial attitude." John Bush of AllMusic felt the album combined the styles of noise rock, hip hop and "high-energy dub," while Robert Christgau made note of the "industrial-strength samples", "annihilating rhythm" and occasional detours into electro dance. Matthew Jeanes of Brainwashed said the album "runs the gamut from funky breaks to outright noise."
Although a thread runs through all four parts of the record's opening track "God O.D.", the piece changes drastically throughout, with the ending of Part 4 bearing no resemblance to Part 1. The composition is noisy and funky, with the lyrics "It's genocide, can't you see?/Genocide in the first degree" being shouted by the band's then-vocalist Johnny Stephens. The first part of "Re-Animator" is a funky club track containing vocals, whereas by the fourth part, the piece has transformed into a psychedelic dub style incorporating "half-time rhythm layers of tape noise, reverberating voices, and feedback," with Jeanes noting that "[s]ometimes a bass line or a sample repeats, other times, it doesn't."
"Strap Down" begins with drums that have been compared to machine guns and numerous loops that one reviewer felt "[sound] like a marching band fighting with a circus over a breakbeat." Several minutes of bass bursts, changes in rhythm the repetition of the title phrase follow, followed thereafter by the drastically different, seven-minute second part of the piece, which keeps to a fast tempo. At the six-minute mark, this part is starkly altered by the introduction of a self-described "annihilating rhythm." "I Got the Fear" repeats phrases from previous tracks, such as "reanimate" and "re-animator", turning the album "into a kind of mobius strip of samples and themes" in the words of Jeanes, who commented that "If Jack Dangers isn't literally sampling himself here, he is quite figuratively doing it by recycling his own ideas from one track to the next without any regard for which sounds or ideas belong to which songs."
Release
In the United Kingdom, Storm the Studio was released on 20 February 1989 by Sweatbox Records, a label who signed the group after they presented them with some demo recordings. In the United States, it was released by Wax Trax!, which led to the group being regarded as an industrial band, despite Dangers' and Jonny Stephens' dislike for being pigeonholed. Dangers later told one interviewer he was not concerned by the labelling, as he felt "industrial" meant different things in different countries. He later said that when he moved to the United States, "industrial was like Ministry, Frontline Assembly, Nine Inch Nails. I just didn't get it, there were too many guitars. Industrial to me is Einstürzende Neubauten, Test Dept, SPK. I love those bands; if we're only connected to that light, great. It was mainly the Wax Trax thing, because we were licensed to Wax Trax. We weren't on Wax Trax anywhere else in the world. It was only here."
Storm the Studio features artwork designed by the agency Accident, and was named after one of the album's samples, a clip of postmodernist writer William S. Burroughs declaring "Storm the studio," which is used as the start of "God O.D. (Part 1)". "Strap Down (Part 3)" was only made available on the vinyl editions and later the digital edition, with the song being removed from CD and cassette releases. Regardless, American CD releases have incorrectly listed Part 3 on the sleeve. The album had become out of print after several years, leading to the album's CD re-release in the United States by TVT Records in 1993 and by Mute Records in 1994, the latter time with different artwork, designed by Rich Borge. Storm the Studio and Armed Audio Warfare were re-released again by Run Recordings on 22 July 2003, newly remastered by Jack Dangers and again with redesigned album sleeves by Rich Borge."
Critical reception
Upon release, Storm the Studio received acclaim from music critics and was praised for its distinctive style. Writing for The Village Voice, Robert Christgau wrote that, "Bill Burroughs having given the word, these Brit art-schoolers shape two years of 12-inches into four sides of industrial-strength samples and 'annihilating rhythm.' And though they do sometimes settle for electrodance, the laughs and abrasions keep on coming.
Among retrospective reviews, Matthew Jeanes of Brainwashed noted that although Storm the Studio was "released on the cusp of the DJ record/remix fetish of the 1990s," when maxi-singles containing numerous remixes of the A-side were commonplace, Storm the Studio was "about as far from a remix 12" as possible" despite only listing four songs, citing this as one of several enigmatic qualities to the album. He wrote that "somehow getting lost" in the album makes a degree of sense, given that the record "is constantly folding in on itself from different direction," and also found that the album's eclectic style and "memorable lead ins" transformed the album into "the perfect DJ tool except for the fact that it's almost impossible to know what the record is going to sound like wherever you drop the needle. I love that this record takes so many strange turns, even if I've never known quite how to navigate through them."
John Bush of AllMusic rated the album four and a half stars out of five, calling it a "four-track mini-album" and noted the influence of dub and hip hop on the remixes, while also stating that the album is "just as dense and sample-heavy" as the original singles created by the band. Jason Josephes of Pitchfork later called the album a "sheer work of genius." Dutch magazine OOR ranked the album at number 25 in their list of the 50 best albums of 1989, while in 1994, Nieuwe Revu ranked the album at number 62 in its list of the "Top 100 Albums of All Time." In 2006, VPRO named the album as one of the 299 greatest albums of all time, and in 2014, Rockdelux named the album as one of the 500 greatest albums released between 1984–2004. The album is also celebrated in a brief blurb included in the liner notes of the compilation box set Black Box – Wax Trax! Records: The First 13 Years (1994).
Legacy
Storm the Studio has been hailed as groundbreaking and innovative by music critics. The album was released when "house and techno ruled the dancefloor" in the words of Ron Nachmann of SF Weekly, who wrote that Storm the Studio marked a change in that it "put said dance floor on notice" with a message that "simplistic hedonism was dead." He wrote that the album's titular William S. Burroughs sample upended the "get down" paradigm of dance music and "urged listeners to seize the means of production, to create chaos, to do something." He also described the album as having "blasted the genre rules of the time, boosting hip hop breakbeats, substantive samples, scratch edits, and electro flavor with dub technique and industrial attitude." Andy Hermann of PopMatters, who called the album genuinely "seminal", wrote that the album's musical style was so unprecedented that critics found it hard to write about:
The album has proven influential, with Alex Veronac of Release Magazine writing that the album affected many musicians and producers in the techno, noise, industrial and dance scenes, while William Tilland of AllMusic wrote that the album's "heavy, pounding mix of dub, hip-hop, and incipient techno impulses" were influential on many drum and bass and trip hop artists which emerged throughout the 1990s. Quinn Morrison Vice wrote that the "seminal" album remains "a truly major milestone of breaks-based electronica." He stated that: "The influence of this record cannot be overestimated. Without it, the music of everyone from Nine Inch Nails to the Chemical Brothers to Fatboy Slim just wouldn't be the same." Nix Lowrey of The Quietus noted the album's influence on the Chemical Brothers' debut album Exit Planet Dust (1995).
A remix album of newly commissioned remixes of the Storm the Studio material, Storm the Studio RMXS, was released by Tino Corp on 23 September 2003. Those remixing the material on the album include Eight Frozen Modules, Merzbow and Frank Bretschneider, English producers Scanner and Jonah Sharp, and American producers DJ Spooky, DJ Swamp and The Opus. Meat Beat Manifesto have continued playing material live from the album; for their 2008 tour, which included accompanying visuals, Dangers tracked down the television clips that were used on the Storm the Studio material on the set list. During the band's sets, the accompanying visuals to the samples were displayed on-screen. The band would continue to use the visuals in later performances of the material. In 2008, Dangers described Storm the Studio as "a part of me," despite admitting he rarely plays the album.
Track listing
All songs written by Jack Dangers
"God O.D. (Part 1)" – 5:19
"God O.D. (Part 2)" – 6:42
"God O.D. (Part 3)" – 5:21
"God O.D. (Part 4)" – 2:55
"Re-Animator (Part 1)" – 6:06
"Re-Animator (Part 2)" – 4:08
"Re-Animator (Part 3)" – 5:30
"Re-Animator (Part 4)" – 4:00
"Strap Down (Part 1)" – 5:49
"Strap Down (Part 2)" – 6:59
"Strap Down (Part 3)" – 8:02
"I Got the Fear (Part 1)" – 6:14
"I Got the Fear (Part 2)" – 3:59
"I Got the Fear (Part 3)" – 3:06
"I Got the Fear (Part 4)" – 5:21
The version of "Strap Down (Part 3)" on the remastered album on Bandcamp removes the long unadorned sample of Rev. Jimmie Rodgers Snow preaching against rock 'n' roll in 1956 from the beginning, reducing its length to 7:42. The music is otherwise unaffected.
Personnel
Jack Dangers – writing
Accident – sleeve design
The Sound Defence Policy – production
Simon Collins - Live Drum samples on ‘God O.D’
References
Meat Beat Manifesto albums
1989 debut albums
Albums produced by Jack Dangers
Wax Trax! Records albums
Electronic albums by English artists |
4282471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan%20Municipal%20Building | Manhattan Municipal Building | The David N. Dinkins Municipal Building (originally the Municipal Building and later known as the Manhattan Municipal Building) is a 40-story, building at 1 Centre Street, east of Chambers Street, in the Civic Center neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. The structure was built to accommodate increased governmental space demands after the 1898 consolidation of the city's five boroughs. Construction began in 1909 and continued through 1914 at a total cost of $12 million ().
Designed by McKim, Mead & White, the Manhattan Municipal Building was among the last buildings erected as part of the City Beautiful movement in New York. Its architectural style has been characterized as Roman Imperial, Italian Renaissance, French Renaissance, or Beaux-Arts. The Municipal Building is one of the largest governmental buildings in the world, with about of office space. The base incorporates a subway station, while the top includes the gilded Civic Fame statue.
The Municipal Building was erected after three previous competitions to build a single municipal building for New York City's government had failed. In 1907, the city's Commissioner of Bridges held a competition to design the building in conjunction with a subway and trolley terminal at the Brooklyn Bridge, of which McKim, Mead & White's plan was selected. The first offices in the Municipal Building were occupied by 1913. In later years, it received several renovations, including elevator replacements in the 1930s and restorations in the mid-1970s and the late 1980s. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the building a landmark in 1966, and it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972.
Site
The Manhattan Municipal Building is located on the eastern side of Centre Street, in the Civic Center of Manhattan in New York City. It occupies the length of two city blocks, between Duane Street to the north and the Brooklyn Bridge ramps to the south. The west–east Chambers Street has its eastern terminus at Centre Street, at the center of the building's base. The site had a frontage of approximately on Centre Street to the west, on Park Row to the southeast, on Duane Street to the northeast, and on Tryon Row to the east; except for Centre Street, all of these streets have been relocated or removed. Near the Municipal Building are the Thurgood Marshall United States Courthouse and St. Andrew Church to the northeast; 1 Police Plaza and the Metropolitan Correctional Center to the east; Surrogate's Courthouse and Tweed Courthouse to the west; and New York City Hall to the southwest.
Prior to the Municipal Building's construction, several streets passed through the building site, which had been located at the south end of the Five Points neighborhood. New Chambers Street continued east through the center of the building, while the west-east Reade Street continued eastward through what is now the building's northern edge. City Hall Place (now Cardinal Hayes Place) originated at the intersection of Chambers and Centre Streets, crossing southwest–northeast through the building site. The area to the south of the Municipal Building was once known as Tryon Row, a one-block east–west street between Centre Street and Park Row. The Municipal Building's site was occupied by buildings including the old headquarters of the New Yorker Staats-Zeitung. Immediately to the south were two elevated railway stations: the Park Row Terminal of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (closed 1944) and the City Hall station of the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (closed 1953).
After the Municipal Building was finished, New Chambers Street ran through the building's central archway. Park Row bounded the building to the southeast and Duane Street abutted it to the northeast. Park Row was rerouted in the mid-20th century, and New Chambers and Duane Streets were closed in 1971 as part of the construction of 1 Police Plaza. These streets subsequently became part of a pedestrian plaza surrounding the Municipal Building and 1 Police Plaza.
Architecture
William M. Kendall of the architectural firm McKim, Mead & White designed the Municipal Building. Two of the firm's other partners, Burt L. Fenner and Teunis J. van der Bent, were tasked with leading construction, while the city's Department of Bridges supervised the project. Alexander Johnson was chief engineer, Purdy and Henderson were consulting engineers, and the Thompson–Starrett Company was the general contractor. The Mount Waldo Construction Company provided the granite, while Robert Wetherill & Co. installed the original elevators. The foundations were dug by the Foundation Company. Enormously influential in the civic construction of other American cities, the building's architectural style has been "variously described as Roman Imperial, Italian Renaissance, French Renaissance, or Beaux-Arts." Its construction marked the end of the City Beautiful movement in New York.
The Municipal Building is one of the largest governmental buildings in the world, with about of interior space and 2,000 employees. Of this, about is used for offices. The Municipal Building was the first in New York City to incorporate a subway station, the Chambers Street station, below its base. The approved building plans in 1909 also called for three basement levels within the volume not occupied by the subway station. The building features various types of sculpture and relief. These include the large gilded Civic Fame statue at the top of the building; smaller sculptural groups; and plaques and coats-of-arms representing the various governments that have ruled Manhattan.
Form
The building is shaped like a ten-sided "C", although the lot that it occupies is an irregular hexagon. The main facade, along Centre Street to the west, is long, while the eastern facade is long. The building has a width of , measured from west to east. The northeastern and southeastern sides accommodated the diagonal paths of Duane Street and Park Row, respectively. The floors' north–south axes are longer than their west–east axes; the wings of the "C" face west. This floor plan ensured that all of the building's windows would be able to receive direct sunlight and eliminated the need for an interior light court.
The Manhattan Municipal Building is 34 stories tall; the main structure consists of 26 stories, and a tower rises eight stories above the center of the structure. The top of the main structure is about or above ground level. The tower rises to around above ground level; including the Civic Fame statue, the building stands at around tall. Atop the northern and southern wings of the "C" are pavilion roofs, which are connected to the central tower with roof decks and a stone cornice. The central tower is composed of a two-story square section. Atop this is a circular section flanked by four circular turrets, one above each corner of the square. The circular section of the central tower is composed of two layers: an enclosed space surrounded by columns, atop which is a smaller peristyle.
Civic Fame
On the Municipal Building's roof is Civic Fame, a statue installed in March 1913. The statue is a gilded copper figure, made from about 500 pieces of hammered copper executed by the Manhattan firm of Broschart & Braun. The statue is variously reported to be supported on an iron skeleton and made over a steel frame. Civic Fame has been variously described as the largest or second-largest statue in Manhattan, depending on whether the larger Statue of Liberty is considered as being in Manhattan. It is similar in style to the Statue of Liberty.
The statue was designed by Adolph Alexander Weinman (1870–1952). It was commissioned by the New York City government at a cost of $9,000 () to celebrate the consolidation of the five boroughs into the City of New York. The figure is barefoot and balances upon a globe. She carries various symbolic items: a shield bearing the New York City coat of arms, a branch of leaves, and a mural crown, which she holds aloft. The mural crown has five crenellations or turrets, which evoke city walls and represent the five boroughs. The crown also includes dolphins as a symbol of "New York's maritime setting". Audrey Munson posed for the figure; she had also posed for a very large number of other important allegorical Beaux-Arts sculptures in New York, including those at the Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House, New York Public Library Main Branch, Manhattan Bridge Colonnade, and USS Maine National Monument at Columbus Circle.
The left arm was repaired in 1928 after cracks were detected on that side. After Civic Fame's left arm broke off, fell through a skylight, and landed on the 26th-floor cafeteria in February 1935, the statue was renovated, with metal rods being used to hold up the left arm. The sculpture was refurbished and re-gilded starting in July 1974 at a cost of $294,500, as part of the interior renovations of the Municipal Building; the restoration was completed by the end of the year. In early 1991, while the facade was undergoing renovations, Civic Fame was removed for six months and re-gilded by New Jersey metalwork shop Les Metalliers Champenois. After the restoration was completed at a cost of $900,000, Civic Fame was reinstalled on the roof in October 1991 using a helicopter.
Facade
The building is divided vertically into 25 bays on its western elevation; 25 bays combined across the northeastern, southeastern, and eastern elevations; and three bays on its northern and southern elevations. Each bay contains either one or two windows on each story. The facade is made of ashlar granite, except for the details above the 23rd floor, which are made of terracotta. A three-story colonnade of Corinthian columns runs across the base along Centre Street, with the rest of the building set back behind the colonnade. The colonnade averages tall, including pedestals, and is topped by a carved entablature. The central portion of the colonnade is freestanding and is flanked by 16 three-quarter columns, each measuring about wide and tall. There is also a false colonnade on the facade above the 22nd floor.
Weinman sculpted the rectangular allegorical bas-relief panels at the base of the building, which are located above the side arches. Civic Duty, above the smaller arch to the right (south) of the center arch, shows a female representation of the city alongside a child holding the city seal. Civic Pride, above the smaller arch to the left (north), depicted the city as a woman "receiving tribute from her citizens". These are respectively topped by medallions representing Progress, a nude kneeling man with a torch in one hand and a winged sphere in the other, and Prudence, a half-nude kneeling woman holding a mirror while a serpent is curled around her right arm. The medallions each measure about wide and are placed immediately below the colonnade's architrave. There are heroic-scaled winged figures in the spandrels above the main arch: Guidance, a depiction of a female in the left spandrel, and Executive Power, a depiction of a male in the right spandrel.
The colonnade is topped by a frieze averaging high. The word "Manhattan" is inscribed on the frieze immediately above the three arches; it is flanked by inscriptions reading "New Amsterdam" and "New York". Shields relating to Manhattan's historical and current governance were also placed above the lower-story colonnade and 22nd-floor false colonnade. The shields represent the historical colony of New Amsterdam and the Province of New York, as well as the present-day county, city, and state of New York (the county of New York being coextensive with the borough of Manhattan). The shields on the lower colonnade correspond with the tops of the columns. On the facade itself, the second-story windows are flanked by six pairs of figures in relief, representing the building's original occupants.
Features
Base
A large, arched vaulted corridor is located at the center of the building's base, at the eastern end of Chambers Street, and is flanked by two smaller arched vaults. The arch measures about tall and wide. It is designed in the neoclassical style like the Arch of Constantine. The vault was large enough to accommodate New Chambers Street, which was closed in 1971 to make way for a pedestrian plaza in front of One Police Plaza and the Manhattan Municipal Building. The terracotta vault was modeled on the entrance of the Palazzo Farnese in Rome, and was also called the "Gate of the City" after William Jean Beauley painted an image of the scene. The vault separates the lobby into two sections, each with its own set of elevator banks. The second through fifth stories are also divided into two portions by the vault. When the Municipal Building opened, the vault created a wind tunnel effect, leading employees to nickname it the "Cave of the Winds".
As constructed, the first floor was devoted entirely to public space, with two open loggias and the two portions of the lobby. Underneath each loggia were two massive staircases leading to the mezzanine of the Chambers Street station. The staircase under the south loggia measured wide and could accommodate 1,280 passengers per minute, while that under the north loggia was wide and could accommodate 800 passengers per minute. The loggia under the southern wing still exists, with staircases leading to the subway from both the north and south. It is supported by a set of columns and has a ceiling of white Guastavino tiles. The loggia under the northern wing is no longer extant, having been enclosed.
The Chambers Street subway station, served by the , consists of two levels below the building: the mezzanine (shared with the Brooklyn Bridge–City Hall station, served by the ) and the platform level. The station opened in 1913 and was intended as the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company's main subway terminal in Manhattan, but fell into disrepair after businesses moved uptown in the 1930s. When the Municipal Building was completed, there were also supposed to be new station buildings for the adjacent elevated IRT and BRT stations, designed in the same architectural style. The tracks from the Chambers Street station would have also connected directly to the elevated tracks on the Brooklyn Bridge, but the connection was never opened.
Structural features
While the layer of bedrock under the Municipal Building was quite close to the surface underneath the southern part of the building, the bedrock dropped to a depth of about under the northern portion of the site, where it would be extremely difficult to dig caissons. A layer of sand was present to a depth of , while the average depth of the bedrock under the building was about . The contract for the foundations was the largest to be awarded for a single building in the United States, with being excavated at a cost of $1.5 million. The foundations incorporated of concrete for the piers, as well as 70,000 barrels of cement.
The foundations also include 106 caissons; the southern two-thirds of the site contain 68 caissons extend to the bedrock, while the northern third contains 38 caissons that only extend to the quicksand. The caissons range in size from in diameter to across, extending to an average depth of . The maximum depth of the caissons was below grade; for the northern part of the site, the Foundation Company built larger caissons resting on sand at a depth of . While the caissons under the southern two-thirds of the building carry , the larger caissons under the northern third of the building carry only . Each caisson was positioned so that the columns above did not interfere with the subway station.
The Municipal Building's frame had of steel, which required 20 derricks to erect. The superstructure weighed a total of . The above-ground walls, and half of the beams in the superstructure, were carried by steel-plate girders at the first floor, spanning the subway station. The girders were connected to other steel beams, which distributed the building's entire weight to the caissons. Each of the first-floor girders were about deep and grouped in sets of two or three. The Municipal Building's largest girders, supporting the Chambers Street arch, were long and up to deep; these girders weighed as much as . Above the girders and caissons are 167 columns that rise through the upper stories. The largest column in the superstructure measured long and weighed .
Interior
Except for the fourth story, all of the upper floors were devoted to offices. The elevator banks and stairs were on the eastern side of the building, while the offices were concentrated along the western side and on the north and south wings. There were four staircase shafts that extended the height of the building. In addition, 33 elevators were provided in the initial construction, though this number was later expanded to 37. Of the original elevators, 32 were accessible from the lobby; they were grouped in two banks of 16 cabs each. Most of the elevators from the lobby traveled only to the 25th story, where a separate elevator connected the 25th through 37th floors. During the 1934 elevator replacements, eight of the elevator shafts were shortened to make way for office space.
Because the basement is mostly taken up by the subway station, most of the mechanical equipment is located on the fourth floor. As such, the fourth floor has a much lower ceiling than the other stories. The basement contains some space for boilers, while the elevators are controlled by a dispatching room on the 26th floor. There are also four emergency-exit staircases.
Each story was constructed with either or of rentable office space. The materials in the Municipal Building included of hollow-tile partitions, of cement flooring, of asphalt flooring in the vaults, of plastering, and of Yule marble. Other types of marble, such as Tennessee marble, were used for decorative elements such as the baseboards of the rooms. Steel was painted to resemble wood, while wooden elements were only used for door and window frames. Most of the floors are made of cement, but the fifth floor, originally used for public hearings and the municipal reference library, had of cork flooring to reduce noise. In later years, the hallways and offices were re-clad in plasterboard and sectioned into small cubicles, but the building retained such elements as its ornate marble bathrooms.
History
Previous plans
By the late 19th century, New York City governmental functions had outgrown New York City Hall. At the time, the city government's agencies rented space in various buildings from Downtown Manhattan up to Midtown Manhattan, with the number of such arrangements increasing by the year. In the 1884 annual report of the City of New York, mayor Franklin Edson declared that more space was urgently needed for governmental functions. He also noted that City Hall's "style of architecture was such that without marring its present symmetry, it couldn't be enlarged to the required extent." Edson suggested buying 280 Broadway, at the corner with Chambers Street, for use by the city government.
The government, desiring to cut down the amount of rent paid to private landlords, ultimately held four design competitions for a new, massive building that would be suitable to house many agencies under one roof. As early as 1885, a commission was empowered to look for plots of land where such a structure could be built, and by 1887, authorities were considering erecting a structure adjacent to City Hall itself, in City Hall Park. Mayor Abram Hewitt appointed a commission to study suitable plans and plots of land in 1888, although Hewitt opposed putting such a building anywhere except City Hall Park. The commissioners of the Sinking Fund initially approved a municipal building east of the Tweed Courthouse, at the park's northeastern corner. An architectural design competition was commenced for this new building, and seven architects submitted plans. Charles B. Atwood's winning proposal called for a pair of seven-story pavilions flanking City Hall. The public generally opposed the idea of development in the park, and the plan was voted down by the New York State Senate in February 1890.
The law authorizing the new building was modified in 1890 so that the new structure would be able to house other city agencies as well. Mayor Hugh J. Grant proposed a large municipal office building in early 1890, and that July, a committee of the city government was created to look for alternate sites. The committee published a report in October 1890, outlining three possible sites on Chambers Street. The first option was southwest of Chambers Street and Broadway; the second, northwest of Chambers and Centre Streets; and the third, northeast of Chambers and Centre Streets (at the current building's location). The committee recommended the third option, which would be the cheapest and offer the most floor area, as well as provide an opportunity for redevelopment at that location. However, the city government decided in March 1893 that the municipal building would instead replace City Hall, with two wings extending north to flank the Tweed Courthouse, despite the committee's recommendation and public objections to a City Hall site. The committee ultimately received 134 plans for such a new building, with six of these being selected as finalists. In response to opposition to City Hall's demolition, the New York governor signed a law in 1894 that once again prohibited the municipal building's construction. The six finalist submissions were supposed to receive monetary prizes, but ran into difficulty even collecting their awards, since the city had never formally accepted the committee's report on the finalists.
In 1899, architect George B. Post proposed a municipal office tower to be built at the northeast corner of Chambers and Centre Streets, while preserving City Hall, as part of a greater plan to rearrange Lower Manhattan's streets. The next March, state senator Patrick H. McCarren proposed a bill that would construct the municipal building on the blocks bounded by Broadway and Reade, Centre, and Chambers Streets, north of the Tweed Courthouse and west of the current building's site. The structure would replace 280 Broadway and the old Emigrant Industrial Savings Bank Building, incorporate the then-under-construction Hall of Records, and would also entail destroying the Tweed Courthouse. Several architects submitted proposals, the most elaborate of which was by McKim, Mead & White. Additionally, in 1903, the city's bridge commissioner Gustav Lindenthal hired George Post and Henry Hornbostel l as architects for a planned trolley hub at the foot of the Brooklyn Bridge, just east of City Hall. This plan also involved constructing a 45-story municipal office tower with a campanile at Chambers and Centre Streets. The municipal building and trolley hub plans were deferred by the administration of mayor Seth Low when he left office at the end of 1903.
Planning and construction
Architectural design competition
By early 1907, the Hall of Records had been completed, but there was still not enough space for the city's important files; further, the city was paying large amounts for rent in private buildings. Officials pointed out that the cramped quarters of the city government's departments posed a fire hazard, and legislation had been proposed for a new municipal building. In July 1907, Lindenthal—who had already secured a new plot of land for the Brooklyn Bridge trolley hub—was authorized by the state legislature to host a fourth and final design competition for the municipal building. The Brooklyn loop line, a four-track subway line, was planned to be built under the site as well, passing through a large five-platform station at Chambers Street.
Thirteen architects were invited to compete. They would in turn elect a jury of three architects, whose names would not be published in advance. The Commissioner of Bridges would make a final decision based on the jury's recommendation. The building had to be at least 20 stories; the superstructure could not block train tracks, stairways, or platforms; the route of Chambers Street under the building had to be preserved; and the first floor, to be used for transit and building entrances, had to be completely covered, with a ceiling of at least . The commissioner also recommended that the first story of each level be at ground level, and that an above-ground level be provided for mechanical equipment and building systems. The contestants were otherwise given "considerable freedom" for the building's design. By December 1907, several architects had submitted plans. Twelve architectural firms ultimately entered the competition, while Cass Gilbert withdrew.
The jury selected McKim, Mead & White's proposal in April 1908. The firm's design had been chosen because it provided the most space for the city government, even though it was less elaborate than some of the other submissions, such as the runner-up proposal by Howells & Stokes, inspired by 90 West Street. McKim, Mead & White had entered the contest under the encouragement of mayor George B. McClellan Jr. The firm's senior partners had been noncommittal about participating in the competition, though they named junior partner William Mitchell Kendall as the principal architect of the submission. The firm submitted plans for a building to the New York City Department of Buildings in October 1908. The city had initially intended to erect the Manhattan Municipal Building on a plot immediately to the south of the current site, bounded by Park Row, the Brooklyn Bridge, and North William Street. The final plan called for the building to be located between Park Row, Centre Street, and Duane Street, with Chambers Street running under the Municipal Building's center. The city government planned to occupy 11 of the building's 23 stories.
Construction
By late 1908, the site was being cleared. Bids for foundation work were opened in December 1908, and the contract was awarded to the J. H. Gray Company. The original building plans were rejected by the city's buildings superintendent the same month because he felt that the underlying layer of soil and sand was not strong enough to carry the building. This resulted in delays in the construction of the proposed Brooklyn loop line under the building. Ultimately, the Foundation Company was contracted to dig the foundation with caissons under a very high air pressure of . Work was done in 20 shifts of five men working for forty minutes each day; only two workers developed decompression sickness and neither of them died. In a January 1909 speech, McClellan praised the project as "one of the most important projects the City has ever undertaken". At the time, he predicted that the building would cost $8 million.
Work on the Municipal Building officially started on July 17, 1909. One observer predicted that the building's construction would result in an increase in real-estate values, similar to what the Flatiron Building had done for the Flatiron District. Foundation work was completed in October 1909, when the New York City Art Commission approved the plans. The Board of Estimate approved a revised building plan that November. Bids for the construction of the superstructure were opened on December 21, but an injunction against the awarding of the contract was placed less than an hour after the bidding process started, after a lawsuit was filed over the fireproofing material that was supposed to be used in the building. Furthermore, the presence of the sand posed issues for the superstructure, though McClellan said that he believed it was safe to build on sand. McClellan laid the building's cornerstone on December 28; unlike at other municipal projects, the ceremony was private, and the cornerstone only had the year "1907" inscribed in Roman numerals. The injunction was reversed when the cornerstone was laid.
The Pennsylvania Steel Company was contracted in early 1910 to manufacture of structural steel for the Municipal Building. Construction was interrupted by various incidents. Three workers were buried in June 1910 when temporary bracing in the foundation collapsed, though all survived; another cave-in occurred on Park Row in September 1910. A fire broke out on the 25th floor in 1911, which at the time was the highest fire the New York City Fire Department had fought. Steel frame construction took place between June 1910 and July 1911, followed by the installation of exterior walls between March 1911 and November 1912. There were delays in installing the granite facade because the original materials were found to be inferior. By 1913, the superstructure was topped out with the unveiling of Civic Pride at the top of the Municipal Building's tower.
Use
1910s and 1920s
The first sections of the Municipal Building were occupied in mid-1913. The building had not been ready at the beginning of the year, forcing some city departments to renew the leases at their existing quarters. The building had cost $12 million (), which was not repaid with interest until 1964; the interest was more than twice the original cost. The land alone had cost $6 million. Nevertheless, the structure was expected to save the city from paying $800,000 a year in rent. Upon opening, the Municipal Building housed 4,200 city employees. It was patrolled by a private police force, which monitored the building 24 hours a day, as well as a cleaning crew of 135 people. There were also telephone switchboards for inter-departmental communication, which at the time of completion were described as state-of-the-art. When the building opened, it employed 500 women and 3,700 men.
The structure was supposed to house most city agencies except the Police, Health, and Parks departments, the Aqueduct Commission, and courts. However, the Parks Department moved to the Municipal Building shortly after the structure was completed; by 1916, the building also had a court that only heard cases in which the city government was involved. Mayor John Purroy Mitchel, after taking office in 1914, criticized the usage of space in the Municipal Building as "wasteful". Some of the city departments that were scheduled to move into the building had found space elsewhere, and other city departments had been allotted less space in the building than in their previous quarters; as such, only 28 percent of the space was originally occupied. By 1915, the building was fully occupied. The New York City Board of Estimate commenced an investigation into office vacancies at the Municipal Building in 1916 after the New York Public Service Commission leased floors in other buildings.
A nonprofit organization established a cafeteria on the 26th floor in 1918; although the city provided no subsidies to the cafeteria, the cafeteria also did not have to pay rent. Radio station WNYC (AM) started broadcasting from the 24th floor in 1924, remaining there for 85 years, and a small hospital was established on the third floor in 1929. The Municipal Building's size notwithstanding, various entities had proposed to build an even larger municipal skyscraper to the west by the 1930s, but with no success.
1930s to 1960s
By 1931, Manhattan borough president Samuel Levy had requested $2 million to replace the building's elevators, which were so unreliable that some employees used the emergency stairs instead of the elevators. All of the elevators needed twice-daily inspections, and, since their manufacturer was no longer in business, the city had to make its own replacement parts for the elevators, which were described as "old and wheezy", and acting like "Coney Island roller coasters". After fourteen of the elevators were taken out of service in late 1934, architect Mitchell Bernstein filed plans in January 1935 for a $160,000 renovation of the building's elevators and offices. Work began that June and was funded partially with a $1.8 million grant from the Works Progress Administration. While the elevators were being replaced, city employees worked in three staggered shifts. Some of the shafts above the 14th floor were removed to make way for office space. The first group of seven new elevators was installed in April 1936, and the elevator-replacement project was completed at the end of 1937.
The city government conducted other renovations during the 1930s, cleaning the facade for the first time in 1936. Civic Fame at the top of the Municipal Building was refurbished during the 1930s, and green mercury vapor bulbs were installed in the north lobby. Several Civil Works Administration artists also created paintings for some of the offices. A bronze plaque, memorializing 316 firefighters who died on duty, was dedicated at the building in 1937. The city also planned to add three stories atop the building for $2.037 million; to fund this project, it received a $916,650 grant from the Public Works Administration in 1938. By the next year, the building could no longer accommodate all of the city government's agencies, several of which were located in alternate quarters surrounding Foley Square to the north. The offices in the Municipal Building included radio station WNYC on the 25th floor, the Municipal Reference Library on the 22nd floor, and the Marriage Chapel on the 2nd floor.
In 1949, the city's commissioner of public works announced that four floors would be renovated and modernized in the first phase of a planned multi-stage overhaul. The next year, the city began installing a dial-telephone system at the Municipal Building, replacing the fourteen old telephone switchboards. At the time, the 20 city agencies in the building had a collective 1,264 telephones. The new switchboards were activated in 1951, and every line in the Municipal Building was given the same 10-digit phone number with 1,426 four-digit extensions; the number was changed in 1963 when the city government consolidated about 7,000 phone extensions in Lower Manhattan. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the building as an official city landmark in 1966, and the facade was again cleaned the next year for $400,000.
1970s to present
The Municipal Building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972. The section of Chambers Street under the building was closed to vehicular traffic around the same time, with the construction of One Police Plaza. In 1974, Wank Adams Slavin was hired to undertake a $24 million renovation of the building's interior. As part of the renovation, corridors were to be narrowed, and partitions between offices would be removed, to create more office space; vinyl floor tiles and recessed lighting were to be installed; and the outdated plumbing system was to be replaced. The project was to increase the building's capacity to 6,500 employees. During this time, Civic Fame was also renovated. The building had been cleaned by 1975 at a cost of $300,000; although the interior had not been renovated yet, more funds for the project had also been appropriated. The building still had 5,000 employees by the late 1970s, but Newsday wrote that the building had "peeling walls, musty windows and old filing cabinets". Because the air conditioning rarely worked, many employees typically left the building an hour early during the summer.
A piece of granite fell from the Municipal Building in 1987, landing on a ramp on the Brooklyn Bridge, although no one was injured. A subsequent investigation found other loose rocks on the facade, and netting was placed on the facade as a result. In 1988, workers surrounded the building with scaffolding in preparation for the first large-scale restoration of the facade, which was to begin the next year. The renovation was expected to cost $58 million and required of steel tubes to support the massive scaffolds. By then, the building housed 6,000 employees and contained 11 percent of all the office space owned by the city government. The Municipal Building had become so overcrowded that several agencies, like the Department of Buildings, had been forced to relocate. The facade restoration was undertaken by the architects Wank Adams Slavin. Another restoration of Civic Fame took place during this time, for which Wank Adams Slavin received a preservation award from the city government.
The 23rd and 24th stories were renovated in the early 1990s. The building was renamed after David N. Dinkins, New York City's first African-American mayor, upon his 88th birthday in October 2015.
Agencies
The following New York City public offices are located in the Manhattan Municipal Building:
New York City Department of Citywide Administrative Services
New York City Department of Finance
New York Public Service Commission
Manhattan Borough President
New York City Public Advocate
New York City Comptroller
New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission
New York City Office of Payroll Administration
New York City Tax Commission
New York City Department of Veterans' Services
Field offices of the Office of the Mayor, New York City Department of Information Technology and Telecommunications (DoITT), New York City Department of Buildings, New York State Office of the Inspector General, and New York City Department of Environmental Protection.
The Office of the City Clerk was formerly housed in the Municipal Building; about 16,000 weddings were performed annually at the former Manhattan Marriage Bureau in the Municipal Building, in civil ceremonies lasting about four minutes. The City Clerk's Office relocated to nearby 141 Worth Street in 2009.
Incidents
Numerous accidents have occurred at the Municipal Building. In 1921, an elevator overturned, killing its two occupants. A pile of coal stored in bunkers underneath the building caught fire in 1942, and a 2005 fire slightly injured six firefighters. Additionally, a flood on the fourth floor in 1959 destroyed brand-new machinery that processed the pay checks for the building's workers.
Impact
Critical reception and influence
Lionel Moses, appraising McKim, Mead & White's work in 1922, said that "we have a building of 580 feet to the top of the figure, of superbly monumental character and classic beauty, every part of which attests the architectural knowledge of its designers". In particular, Moses praised the fact that the firm could create a large office building on "a comparatively small plot of irregular shape", which could still accommodate a subway station, a public street, and mechanical equipment. The 1939 WPA Guide to New York City stated that the facade "gains dignity through the bold treatment of the intermediate stories, despite the poorly related tower and the disturbing character of the Corinthian colonnade at the base". In their 2004 book New York Artwalks, Marina Harrison and Lucy D. Rosenfeld described the Civic Fame statue as "a graceful and unusually charming sculpture in the allegorical style of municipal-building decorations".
The building was also noted for its symbolism. A reporter for Newsday wrote in 1987: "It is the city not just as a metaphor—although it is certainly that, from Civic Fame (the name of the statue at the very top) right down to the stressful rumble underneath (six subway tracks where the basement would be). The Municipal Building is where the money is."
The Municipal Building was the first of several ornately-designed civic office buildings, influencing other structures such as the Terminal Tower in Cleveland, the Fisher Building in Detroit, the Wrigley Building in Chicago, and the New York Central Building in Midtown Manhattan. In particular, the base of the Municipal Building above Chambers Street was likened to the base of the New York Central Building, which spanned Park Avenue. The base also inspired the General Motors Building in Detroit, while the tower stories influenced the "Tower of Jewels", designed by Carrère and Hastings for the Panama–Pacific International Exposition. The arches of the Moscow State University's main building and of 550 Madison Avenue in Midtown Manhattan were also inspired by that of the Municipal Building.
In popular culture
The Manhattan Municipal Building appears in several films, such as a key scene of the 1996 film One Fine Day, in which Jack Taylor (George Clooney) spots Manny Feldstein (Joe Grifasi) and chases him to the roof. In "Crocodile" Dundee (1986), muggers inside the Municipal Building entrance to the subway station pull a knife on the title character (Paul Hogan) and his girlfriend Sue (Linda Kozlowski). In Ghostbusters (1984), the team leaves to confront Gozer from the building. In The Professional (1994), antagonist Stansfield, played by actor Gary Oldman, works for the DEA at the building, in office 4602. Newsday wrote in 1987 that the structure was often used for film shoots where characters jumped off the building's roof. Additionally, the music video for the song Not Afraid, rapper Eminem is depicted standing on the edge of the building's roof in multiple shots.
See also
Early skyscrapers
List of New York City borough halls and municipal buildings
List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan below 14th Street
National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan below 14th Street
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
1914 establishments in New York City
City and town halls on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
Civic Center, Manhattan
Government buildings completed in 1914
Government buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan
Government of New York City
McKim, Mead & White buildings
New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan
Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan |
4282799 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8888%20Uprising | 8888 Uprising | The 8888 Uprising (), also known as the People Power Uprising and the 1988 Uprising, was a series of nationwide protests, marches, and riots in Burma (present-day Myanmar) that peaked in August 1988. Key events occurred on 8 August 1988 and therefore it is commonly known as the "8888 Uprising". The protests began as a student movement and were organised largely by university students at the Rangoon Arts and Sciences University and the Rangoon Institute of Technology (RIT).
Since 1962, the Burma Socialist Programme Party had ruled the country as a totalitarian one-party state, headed by General Ne Win. Under the government agenda, called the Burmese Way to Socialism, which involved economic isolation and the strengthening of the military, Burma became one of the world's most impoverished countries. Many firms in the formal sector of the economy were nationalised, and the government combined Soviet-style central planning with Buddhist and traditional beliefs and superstition.
The 8888 uprising was started by students in Yangon (Rangoon) on 8 August 1988. Student protests spread throughout the country. Hundreds of thousands of monks, children, university students, housewives, doctors and common people protested against the government. The uprising ended on 18 September after a bloody military coup by the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). Thousands of deaths have been attributed to the military during this uprising, while authorities in Burma put the figure at around 350 people killed.
During the crisis, Aung San Suu Kyi emerged as a national icon. When the military junta arranged an election in 1990, her party, the National League for Democracy, won 81% of the seats in the government (392 out of 492). However, the military junta refused to recognise the results and continued to rule the country as the State Law and Order Restoration Council. Aung San Suu Kyi was also placed under house arrest. The State Law and Order Restoration Council would be a cosmetic change from the Burma Socialist Programme Party. Suu Kyi's house arrest was lifted in 2010, when worldwide attention for her peaked again during the making of the biographical film The Lady. The Tatmadaw again seized control of the country in the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état, which began with the imprisonment of then State Councillor Aung San Suu Kyi. The coup has led to numerous protests and demonstrations against the military-led government. Activists have compared the current coup resistance movement to the 8888 Uprising.
Background
Economic problems
Before the crisis, Burma had been ruled by the repressive and isolated regime of General Ne Win since 1962. The country had a national debt of $3.5 billion and currency reserves of between $20 million and $35 million, with debt service ratios standing at half of the national budget.
1985 and 1987 demonetisation crises
In the years leading up to the crisis, General Ne Win had imposed two instances of sudden currency demonetisation that declared certain circulated denominations of currency invalid. These instances led to instantaneous loss of savings for many Burmese citizens and economic instability. On 3 November 1985, the Burmese government declared notes of 20, 50, and 100 kyats invalid, without prior warning to the public. Prior to this, circulated denominations were of 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 kyats. The stated reason for the demonetisation was to combat black market activity. The public was given only a short period of time to exchange their 20, 50, and 100 kyat bills, and only 25% of the value of surrendered bills were reimbursed. On 10 November 1985, a week after the initial announcement of demonetisation, new denominations of 25, 35, and 75 kyat bills were announced, with the 75 kyat denomination chosen to commemorate Ne Win's 75th birthday. In November 1985, students gathered and boycotted the government's decision to withdraw Burmese local currency notes. Economic problems coupled with counter-insurgency required continuous involvement in the international market.
On 5 September 1987, Ne Win announced the demonetisation of the 25, 35, and 75 kyat notes, leaving only the 1, 5, and 10 kyat bills valid. This announcement was also with no prior warning, and this time no exchange for valid tender was allowed. Roughly 60–80% of circulated legal tender was declared invalid without warning, and millions of Burmese citizens had their savings eliminated by this action. On 22 September 1987, the Burmese government introduced new denominations of 45 and 90 kyat notes. The 45 and 90 kyat denominations were chosen because the two numbers are divisible by 9, which was considered lucky by Ne Win.
Students in particular were angry at the 1987 demonetisation as savings for tuition fees were wiped out instantly. Students from the Rangoon Institute of Technology (RIT) rioted throughout Rangoon, smashing windows and traffic lights down Insein Road, and universities in Rangoon temporarily closed. The government later allowed for reimbursement of up to 100 kyat so that students could return home instead of rioting in the cities. With the re-opening of schools in late October 1987, underground groups in Rangoon and Mandalay produced dissident leaflets which culminated in bombs exploding in November. Police later received threatening letters from underground groups, who organised small protests around the university campus. Meanwhile, larger protests in Mandalay involved monks and workers, with some burning government buildings and state businesses. Burmese state media reported little on the protests, but information quickly spread through the students.
Early democracy protests
After receiving Least Developed Country status from the United Nations Economic and Social Council in December 1987, government policy requiring farmers to sell produce below market rates to create greater revenue for the government sparked several, violent rural protests. The protests were fanned by public letters to Ne Win by former second in command General Brigadier Aung Gyi from July 1987, reminding him of the 1967 riots and condemning lack of economic reform, describing Burma as "almost a joke" compared to other Southeast Asian nations. He was later arrested.
On 12 March 1988, students from the RIT were arguing with out-of-school youths inside the Sanda Win tea shop about music playing on a sound system. A drunken youth would not return a tape that the RIT students favoured. A brawl followed in which one youth, who was the son of a BSPP official, was arrested and later released for injuring a student. Students protested at a local police department where 500 riot police were mobilised and in the ensuing clash, one student, Phone Maw, was shot and killed. The incident angered pro-democracy groups and the next day more students rallied at the RIT and spread to other campuses. The students, who had never protested before, increasingly saw themselves as activists. There was growing resentment towards military rule and there were no channels to address grievances, further exacerbated by police brutality, economic mismanagement and corruption within the government.
By mid-March, several protests had occurred and there was open dissent in the army. Various demonstrations were broken up by using tear gas canisters to disperse crowds. On 16 March, students demanding an end to one party rule marched towards soldiers at Inya Lake when riot police stormed from the rear, clubbing several students to death and raping others. Several students recalled the police shouting, "Don't let them escape" and "Kill them!".
Ne Win resigns
Following the latest protests, authorities announced the closure of universities for several months. By June 1988, large demonstrations of students and sympathisers were a daily sight. Many students, sympathisers and riot police died throughout the month as the protests spread throughout Burma from Rangoon. Large scale protests were reported in Pegu, Mandalay, Tavoy, Toungoo, Sittwe, Pakokku, Mergui, Minbu and Myitkyina. Demonstrators in larger numbers demanded multi-party democracy, which marked Ne Win's resignation on 23 July 1988. In a valedictory address given that day, Ne Win affirmed that "When the army shoots, it shoots to kill." He also promised a multi-party system, but he had appointed the largely disliked Sein Lwin, known as the "Butcher of Rangoon" to head a new government.
Main protests
1–7 August
Protests reached their peak in August 1988. Students planned for a nationwide demonstration on 8 August 1988, an auspicious date based on numerological significance. News of the protest reached rural areas and four days prior to the national protest, students across the country were denouncing Sein Lwin's regime and Tatmadaw troops were being mobilised. Pamphlets and posters appeared on the streets of Rangoon bearing the fighting peacock insignia of the All-Burma Students Union. Neighbourhood and strike committees were openly formed on the advice of underground activists, many of which were influenced by similar underground movements by workers and monks in the 1980s. Between 2 and 10 August, co-ordinated protests were occurring in most Burmese towns.
In the first few days of the Rangoon protests, activists contacted lawyers and monks in Mandalay to encourage them to take part in the protests. The students were quickly joined by Burmese citizens from all walks of life, including government workers, Buddhist monks, air force and navy personnel, customs officers, teachers and hospital staff. The demonstrations in the streets of Rangoon became a focal point for other demonstrations, which spread to other states' capitals. Upwards of 10,000 protesters demonstrated outside the Sule Pagoda in Rangoon, where demonstrators burned and buried effigies of Ne Win and Sein Lwin in coffins decorated with demonetised bank notes. Further protests took place around the country at stadiums and hospitals. Monks at the Sule Pagoda reported that the Buddha's image had changed shape, with an image in the sky standing on its head. On 3 August, the authorities imposed martial law from 8 pm to 4 am and a ban on gatherings of more than five people.
8–12 August
A general strike, as planned, began on 8 August 1988. Mass demonstrations were held across Burma as ethnic minorities, Buddhists, Christians, Muslims, students, workers and the young and old all demonstrated. The first procession circled Rangoon, stopping for people to speak. A stage was also erected. Demonstrators from the Rangoon neighbourhoods converged in downtown Rangoon. Only one casualty was reported at this point as a frightened traffic policeman fired into the crowd and fled. (Such marches would occur daily until 19 September.) Protesters kissed the shoes of soldiers, in an attempt to persuade them to join the civilian protest, whilst some encircled military officers to protect them from the crowd and earlier violence Over the next four days these demonstrations continued; the government was surprised by the scale of the protests and stated that it promised to heed the demands of the protesters "insofar as possible". Lwin had brought in more soldiers from insurgent areas to deal with the protesters.
In Mandalay Division, a more organised strike committee was headed by lawyers and discussion focused on multi-party democracy and human rights. Many participants in the protests arrived from nearby towns and villages. Farmers who were particularly angry with the government's economic policies joined the protests in Rangoon. In one village, 2,000 of the 5,000 people also went on strike.
A short while later, the authorities opened fire on the protesters. Ne Win ordered that "guns were not to shoot upwards," meaning that he was ordering the military to shoot directly at the demonstrators. Protesters responded by throwing Molotov cocktails, swords, knives, rocks, poisoned darts and bicycle spokes. In one incident, protesters burned a police station and tore apart four fleeing officers. On 10 August, soldiers fired into Rangoon General Hospital, killing nurses and doctors tending to the wounded. State-run Radio Rangoon reported that 1,451 "looters and disturbance makers" had been arrested.
Estimates of the number of casualties surrounding the 8-8-88 demonstrations range from hundreds to 10,000; military authorities put the figures at about 95 people killed and 240 wounded.
13–31 August
Lwin's sudden and unexplained resignation on 12 August left many protestors confused and jubilant. Security forces exercised greater caution with demonstrators, particularly in neighbourhoods that were entirely controlled by demonstrators and committees. On 19 August, under pressure to form a civilian government, Ne Win's biographer, Dr. Maung Maung, was appointed as head of government. Maung was a legal scholar and the only non-military individual to serve in the Burma Socialist Programme Party. The appointment of Maung briefly resulted in a subsidence of the shooting and protests.
Nationwide demonstrations resumed on 22 August 1988. In Mandalay, 100,000 people protested, including Buddhist monks and 50,000 demonstrated in Sittwe. Large marches took places from Taunggyi and Moulmein to distant ethnic states (particularly where military campaigns had previously taken place), where red, the symbolic colour for democracy was displayed on banners. Two days later, doctors, monks, musicians, actors, lawyers, army veterans and government office workers joined the protests. It became difficult for committees to control the protests. During this time, demonstrators became increasingly wary of "suspicious looking" people and police and army officers. On one occasion, a local committee mistakenly beheaded a couple thought to have been carrying a bomb. Incidents like these were not as common in Mandalay, where protests were more peaceful as they were organised by monks and lawyers.
On 26 August, Aung San Suu Kyi, who had watched the demonstrations from her mother's bedside, entered the political arena by addressing half a million people at Shwedagon Pagoda. It was at this point that she became a symbol for the struggle in Burma, particularly in the eyes of the Western world. Kyi, as the daughter of Aung San, who led the independence movement, appeared ready to lead the movement for democracy. Kyi urged the crowd not to turn on the army but find peace through non-violent means. At this point in time for many in Burma, the uprising was seen as similar to that of the People Power Revolution in the Philippines in 1986.
Around this time, former Prime Minister U Nu and retired Brigadier General Aung Gyi also re-emerged onto the political scene in what was described as a "democracy summer" when many former democracy leaders returned. Despite the gains made by the democracy movement, Ne Win remained in the background.
September
During the September congress of 1988, 90% of party delegates (968 out of 1080) voted for a multi-party system of government. The BSPP announced they would be organising an election, but the opposition parties called for their immediate resignation from government, allowing an interim government to organise elections. After the BSPP rejected both demands, protesters again took to the streets on 12 September 1988. Nu promised elections within a month, proclaiming a provisional government. Meanwhile, the police and army began fraternising with the protesters. The movement had reached an impasse relying on three hopes: daily demonstrations to force the regime to respond to their demands, encouraging soldiers to defect and appealing to an international audience in the hope that United Nations or United States troops would arrive. Some Tatmadaw did defect, but only in limited numbers, mostly from the Navy. Stephen Solarz who had experienced the recent democracy protests in the Philippines and South Korea arrived in Burma in September encouraging the regime to reform, which echoed the policy of the United States government towards Burma.
By mid-September, the protests grew more violent and lawless, with soldiers deliberately leading protesters into skirmishes that the army easily won. Protesters demanded more immediate change, and distrusted steps for incremental reform.
SLORC coup and crackdown
On 18 September 1988, the military retook power in the country. General Saw Maung repealed the 1974 constitution and established the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC), "imposing more Draconian measures than Ne Win had imposed." After Maung had imposed martial law, the protests were violently broken up. The government announced on the state-run radio that the military had assumed power in the people's interest, "in order to bring a timely halt to the deteriorating conditions on all sides all over the country." Tatmadaw troops went through cities throughout Burma, indiscriminately firing on protestors.
Although an exact body count has not been determined as bodies were often cremated, it is estimated that within the first week of securing power, 1,000 students, monks, and schoolchildren were killed, and another 500 were killed whilst protesting outside the United States embassy – footage caught by a cameraman nearby who distributed the footage to the world's media. Maung described the dead as "looters". Protestors were also pursued into the jungle and some students took up training on the country's borders with Thailand.
By the end of September, there were around 3,000 estimated deaths and unknown number of injured, with 1,000 deaths in Rangoon alone. At this point in time, Aung San Suu Kyi appealed for help. On 21 September, the government had regained control of the country, with the movement effectively collapsing in October. By the end of 1988, it was estimated that 10,000 people, including protesters and soldiers, had been killed.
Aftermath
Many in Burma believed that the regime would have collapsed if the United Nations and neighbouring countries had refused to recognise the legitimacy of the coup. Western governments and Japan cut aid to the country. Among Burma's neighbours, India was most critical; condemning the suppression, closing borders and setting up refugee camps along its border with Burma. By 1989, 6,000 NLD supporters had been detained and those who fled to the ethnic border areas, such as Kawthoolei, formed groups with those who sought greater self-determination. It was estimated 10,000 had fled to mountains which were controlled by ethnic insurgents such as the Karen National Liberation Army, and many of them later trained to become soldiers.
After the uprising, the SLORC waged a "clumsy propaganda" campaign against those who had organised the protests. Intelligence Chief Khin Nyunt, held English-language press conferences which were aimed at giving foreign diplomats and the media a favourable account of the SLORC's response to the protests. During this period, more restrictions were imposed upon the Burmese media, denying it the relative freedom to report news which it had been able to exercise at the peak of the protests. In the conferences, he detailed a conspiracy in which the right was plotting to overthrow the regime with the assistance of "subversive foreigners" and a conspiracy in which the left was plotting to overthrow the State. Despite the conferences, few believed the government's version of events. While these conferences were going on, the SLORC was secretly negotiating with mutineers.
Between 1988 and 2000, the Burmese government established 20 museums which detailed the military's central role throughout Burma's history and the size of the military increased from 180,000 to 400,000. The Burmese government also kept schools and universities closed in order to prevent future uprisings. Initially, Aung San Suu Kyi, U Tin Oo and Aung Gyi publicly rejected the SLORC's offer to hold elections the following year, claiming that they could not be freely held while Burma was under military rule.
Significance
Today, the uprising is commemorated by Burmese expatriates and citizens. In Thailand, students also commemorate the uprising every 8 August. On the 20th anniversary of the uprising, 48 activists were arrested for commemorating the event in Burma. The event garnered much support for the Burmese people internationally. Poems were written by students who participated in the protests. The 1995 film Beyond Rangoon is a fictionalized drama which is based on the events that took place during the uprising.
The uprising led to the death and imprisonment of thousands of individuals. Many of the deaths occurred inside the prisons, where prisoners of conscience were subjected to inhumane torture and deprived of basic provisions, such as food, water, medicine, and sanitation. From 1988 to 2012, the military and the police illegally detained and imprisoned tens of thousands of leaders of the Burmese pro-democracy movement, as well as intellectuals, artists, students, and human rights activists. Pyone Cho, one of the leaders of the uprising, spent 20 years of his adult life in prison. Ko Ko Gyi, another leader of the uprising, spent 18 years of his life in prison. Min Ko Naing was placed in solitary confinement for nine years for his role as a leader of the uprising. Because the uprising began as a student movement, many of the individuals who were arrested, imprisoned, tortured, and killed by the police and the military were high school and university students.
Many of the student leaders of the uprising became lifelong human rights activists and leaders of the Burmese pro-democracy movement. Nineteen years later, many of these same activists also played a role in the 2007 Saffron Revolution. The 88 Generation Students Group, which is named after the events of 8 August 1988, organised one of the first protests which eventually culminated in the Saffron Revolution. But prior to the outbreak of large-scale demonstrations, its members were arrested and given lengthy prison sentences of up to 65 years. The activists who were arrested included prominent individuals such as Min Ko Naing, Mya Aye, Htay Kywe, Mie Mie, Ko Ko Gyi, Pyone Cho, Min Zeyar, Ant Bwe Kyaw, and Nilar Thein. Though not an 88 Generation Students Group member, a solo protester Ohn Than also joined the demonstration. All of them were released in a general amnesty in 2012. They continue to work as politicians and human rights activists in Myanmar. They also campaigned for the National League for Democracy in the 2015 general election. Pyone Cho, one of the main leaders of the 88 Generation, was elected to the House of Representatives in the 2015 Election.
Gallery
See also
All Burma Students' Democratic Front
Depayin massacre
References
Bibliography
Books and journals
Boudreau, Vincent. (2004). Resisting Dictatorship: Repression and Protest in Southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press. .
Burma Watcher. (1989). Burma in 1988: There Came a Whirlwind. Asian Survey, 29(2). A Survey of Asia in 1988: Part II pp. 174–180.
Callahan, Mary. (1999). Civil-military relations in Burma: Soldiers as state-builders in the postcolonial era. Preparation for the State and the Soldier in Asia Conference.
Callahan, Mary. (2001). Burma: Soldiers as State Builders. ch. 17. cited in Alagappa, Muthiah. (2001). Coercion and Governance: The Declining Political Role of the Military in Asia. Stanford University Press.
Clements, Ann. (1992). Burma: The Next Killing Fields? Odonian Press.
Delang, Claudio. (2000). Suffering in Silence, the Human Rights Nightmare of the Karen People of Burma. Parkland: Universal Press.
Europa Publications Staff. (2002). The Far East and Australasia 2003. Routledge. .
Ferrara, Federico. (2003). Why Regimes Create Disorder: Hobbes's Dilemma during a Rangoon Summer. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 47(3), pp. 302–325.
Fink, Christina. (2001). Living Silence: Burma Under Military Rule. Zed Books.
Fong, Jack. (2008). Revolution as Development: The Karen Self-determination Struggle Against Ethnocracy (1949–2004). Boca Raton, FL:BrownWalker Press.
Ghosh, Amitav. (2001). The Kenyon Review, New Series. Cultures of Creativity: The Centennial Celebration of the Nobel Prizes. 23(2), pp. 158–165.
Hlaing, Kyaw Yin. (1996). Skirting the regime's rules.
Lintner, Bertil. (1989). Outrage: Burma's Struggle for Democracy. Hong Kong: Review Publishing Co.
Lintner, Bertil. (1990). The Rise and Fall of the Communist Party of Burma (CPB). SEAP Publications. .
Lwin, Nyi Nyi. (1992). Refugee Student Interviews. A Burma-India Situation Report.
Maung, Maung. (1999). The 1988 Uprising in Burma. Yale University Southeast Asia Studies.
Silverstein, Josef. (1996). The Idea of Freedom in Burma and the Political Thought of Daw Aung San Suu Kyi. Pacific Affairs, 69(2), pp. 211–228.
Smith, Martin. (1999). Burma – Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity. Zed Books.
Steinberg, David. (2002). Burma: State of Myanmar. Georgetown University Press.
Tucker, Shelby. (2001). Burma: The Curse of Independence. Pluto Press.
Wintle, Justin. (2007). Perfect Hostage: a life of Aung San Suu Kyi, Burma’s prisoner of conscience. New York: Skyhorse Publishing.
Yawnghwe, Chao-Tzang. Burma: Depoliticization of the Political. cited in Alagappa, Muthiah. (1995). Political Legitimacy in Southeast Asia: The Quest for Moral Authority. Stanford University Press.
Yitri, Moksha. (1989). The Crisis in Burma: Back from the Heart of Darkness? University of California Press.
Further reading
AP. (1988). Burma Imposes Martial Law In the Capital After a Protest , The New York Times, 4 August 1988.
AP. (1988). Road To Upheaval In Politics For Burmese , The New York Times, 11 September 1988.
Cumming-Bruce, Nick. (1988). Burma's new leader imposes martial law , The Guardian, 4 August 1988.
Faulder, Dominic. (2008). Memories of 8 August 1988 The Irrawaddy, August 2008.
Kamm, Henry. (1988). Tension Reported High In Burma After Clashes , The New York Times, 2 July 1988.
Mydans, Seth. (1988). A Burmese Power Shift; Though Government Schedules Election, Decision Rests With People in the Streets , The New York Times, 12 September 1988.
Mydans, Seth. (1988). Defections Strain Burmese Military , The New York Times, 10 September 1988.
Mydans, Seth. (1988). Many in Burma Say Ne Win Continues to Pull the Strings , The New York Times, 13 September 1988.
Richburg, Keith. (1988). Youths, Monks Fight Troops in Burma; Post-Coup Deaths Reported in Hundreds. Washington Post, 20 September 1988.
Stewart, William. (1988). Burma The Armed Forces Seize Power, TIME, 26 September 1988.
Protests mark Burma anniversary , BBC News, 8 August 2003.
Burma's 1988 Protests , BBC News, 25 September 2007.
Partial list of 8888 Uprising victims, The Irrawaddy, 1 January 2003.
External links
Voices of '88, Soros.
Video – 8888s anniversary activity in London Burmese' Embassy and Downing street, and Ms Suu Kyi's Birthday, calling for democratic reform in Burma
8888 Photos, Burmese American Democratic Alliance.
Photos of the 8888 Uprising (Blogspot)
Revolutions of 1989
Internal conflict in Myanmar
Conflicts in 1988
1988 protests
Burmese democracy movements
History of Myanmar (1948–present)
Massacres in Myanmar
Politics of Myanmar
Political repression
Rebellions in Asia
1988 in Burma
Protests in Myanmar
20th-century rebellions
Aung San Suu Kyi
Military coups in Myanmar |
4282934 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turn%20on%20red | Turn on red | Turn on red is a principle of law permitting vehicles at a traffic light showing a red signal to turn into the direction of traffic nearer to them (almost always after a complete stop, depending on the jurisdiction) when the way is clear, without having to wait for a green signal. North American traffic engineers first introduced this rule as a fuel savings measure, despite detrimental effects to the safety of pedestrians.
Turns
Right on red
The simplest version is commonly known as a right turn on red (or simply right on red) in countries that drive on the right side of the road, or a left turn on red in countries that drive on the left side of the road.
A right turn requires checking only two nearby crosswalks (at least one of which will show "don't walk") and vehicular traffic moving towards the driver, while a left turn or going straight requires checking two crosswalks and vehicular traffic moving in multiple directions.
When turning right on red, the vehicle typically has to yield to traffic coming from the left, and the crosswalk parallel to that stream if there is one. If turning right at a three-way junction from a major road onto a minor road, the vehicle has to yield only to the crosswalk since there is no road on the left side. Sometimes, the opposing side has a protected left turn, requiring the vehicle to yield to opposing vehicles turning left, but not any crosswalks. In any case, the vehicle turning right on red has to yield only to one stream of vehicles (out of two possible streams) and zero or one crosswalk.
Many jurisdictions that allow right turns on red will allow it to be done in any lane, including the outer lane of a dual or triple right turn.
In some intersections, allowing a right on red would be unsafe, such as when there is a train running parallel to the road on the right side, synchronized to the traffic light timings. In places where right on red is allowed by default, a sign would be placed to disallow it.
Left on red
Another version is commonly known as a left turn on red (left on red) in countries that drive on the right side of the road, and would be a right turn on red in countries that drive on the left side of the road, if any allowed it. These turns are typically restricted to turns onto a one-way. Many jurisdictions also require that this type of turn be from a one-way.
However, although right on red is equivalent to left on red to a one-way, left on red is not typically permitted in countries outside North America. Even in North America, few places allow left on red from two-way to one-way streets.
There are rarely some intersections where a left on red from a two-way to two-way is permitted, but this is due to the expected low amount of traffic, rather than being geometrically equivalent to right on red.
From one-way to one-way
Left turns from a one-way to a one-way are completely geometrically equivalent to a right turn.
Most places in North America allow this type of turn by default. Most places outside of North America disallow this type of turn.
To one-way
Left turns on red from a two-way to a one-way are the same "difficulty" as a right turn on red, although the reasoning is less obvious. If a right turn is possible, the opposing side might have a green light and protected left turn, allowing the driver to get a permissive left turn (flashing yellow arrow). If the opposing side has a red light (which is the case if a right turn is impossible), or there is no opposing side, the driver has to yield only to vehicles from the right, and possibly the nearby crosswalk. In any case, the driver has to yield to only one stream of traffic (out of two possible streams), and zero or one crosswalk.
Only British Columbia, Alaska, Idaho, Michigan, Oregon, and Washington allow this type of turn by default.
Jurisdictions
North America
Right turns on red are permitted in many regions of North America. In the United States, western states have allowed it for more than 50 years, and eastern states amended their traffic laws to allow it in the 1970s as a claimed fuel-saving measure in response to motor fuel shortages in 1973. The Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 required in §362(c)(5) that in order for a state to receive federal assistance in developing mandated conservation programs, they must permit right turns on red lights. All 50 states, the District of Columbia, Guam, and Puerto Rico have allowed right turns on red since 1980, except where prohibited by a sign or where right turns are controlled by dedicated traffic lights. (The last state with a right-on-red ban, Massachusetts, ended its ban on January 1, 1980, but about 90% of the traffic signals in the state were outfitted with "no turn on red" signs in preparation for the change.) The few exceptions include New York City, where right turns on red are prohibited unless a sign indicates otherwise, and in Washington, DC, which will prohibit right turns on red in 2025. Further, Seattle requires that all intersections be equipped with "no turn on red" signs when they are updated or modified.
In Alaska, California, Colorado, Georgia, Idaho, Maine, Minnesota, Nebraska, Nevada, New York, North Carolina, Virginia, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico, a right turn on red is prohibited when a red arrow is displayed.
At intersections where U-turns are permitted and controlled by a U-turn arrow from the left-most lane, motorists turning right on red onto the same road must yield to those making U-turns before turning, as the motorists making U-turns have the right of way and a collision could easily occur. The exception is Pennsylvania where U-turns are allowed unless otherwise specified following the same rule as right on red, drivers making a U-turn are required to yield to all drivers executing legal maneuvers including turning right on red. At intersections where U-turns are prohibited in the same fashion, a green right turn arrow will sometimes appear for those turning right onto the road, allowing only traffic turning right to proceed without having to stop or yield to other vehicles or pedestrians. Some states such as California have "No U-Turn" signs posted at these intersections because of the green right turn arrow.
Most Caribbean countries with right-hand traffic, such as the Dominican Republic, allow right turn on red unless a sign prohibits it. Some vehicles, such as those carrying hazardous materials and school buses, are not allowed to turn on red under any circumstance and must wait for a green light or arrow.
As of 1992, right turn on red is governed federally by (c) ("Each proposed State energy conservation plan to be eligible for Federal assistance under this part shall include: ...(5) a traffic law or regulation which, to the maximum extent practicable consistent with safety, permits the operator of a motor vehicle to turn such vehicle right at a red stop light after stopping, and to turn such vehicle left from a one-way street onto a one-way street at a red light after stopping."). All turns on red are forbidden in New York City unless a sign is posted permitting it.
In Canada, a driver may turn right at a red light after coming to a complete stop unless a sign indicates otherwise. In the province of Quebec, turning right on a red was illegal until a pilot study carried out in 2003 showed that the right turn on red manoeuvre did not result in significantly more accidents. Subsequent to the study, the Province of Quebec now allows right turns on red except where prohibited by a sign. However, like in New York City, it remains illegal to turn right on a red anywhere on the Island of Montreal. Motorists are reminded of this rule by large signs posted at the entrance to all bridges.
In Mexico, right turns on red are generally allowed unless a sign indicates otherwise. Mexico City has implemented a new transit law which prohibits right turns on red.
Left turn on red
In the U.S., 38 states allow left turns on red only if both the origin and destination streets are one way as of December, 2018.
Five states, namely Alaska, Idaho, Michigan, Oregon, and Washington allow left turns on red into a one-way street, even from a two-way.
As of December 2018, the following states and territories ban left turns on red: Connecticut, Maine, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Carolina, Rhode Island, South Dakota (unless permitted by local ordinance), the District of Columbia, and Guam. New York City prohibits left turn on red unless a sign indicates otherwise.
:File:Québec P-115-1.svg "No left on red" sign used in Canada (except Quebec)
In Canada, left turn on red light from a one-way road into a one-way road is permitted except in some areas of Quebec, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. Left turn on red into a one-way road is permitted in British Columbia, even from a two-way road.
Some intersections have signs to indicate that a left turn on red is prohibited. In BC, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Ontario, the sign for "no left turn" is defined with the line in the red circle flipped compared to other prohibitive signs. Although inconsistent, this allows "no left turn" to be a mirror image of "no right turn". However, in Quebec, the diagonal line is the same as in "no right turn".
Central America
In Costa Rica, right turns on red are allowed in general, but a sign can forbid them.
In Panama, right turns on red are not permitted.
South America
In Chile and Brazil, right turns on red are only allowed when a sign permitting it is shown. In Brazil, effective April 14, 2021.
In Paraguay, right turns on red are allowed in some towns.
In Argentina, Colombia, Peru and Uruguay right turns on red are not allowed.
Europe
In European countries in general, it is illegal to turn on a red light, unless it is indicated otherwise, for example by a green arrow on a red light, a flashing amber arrow with a red light or a permanent green board next to the red light.
In Poland, right turns on red are permitted only if an additional green arrow light (apart from the main signal light) is present and lit. However, the regulations require drivers to stop completely, as their paths intersect with other vehicles or pedestrians in at least one direction. Green arrow light can be also directed left (the same regulations apply).
In Germany, right turns on red are only permitted when a sign is present at the traffic light, after a complete stop. This rule was first introduced in 1978 in East Germany. It was derided as the "socialist right turn" in West Germany, which planned to eliminate it after German reunification in 1990. However, a public backlash put an end to the plans, and the practice spread to the rest of Germany in 1994. Half of the 5,000 turn-on-red intersections that existed in 2002 were located in the former West Germany.
In Switzerland, bicycles and small mopeds (Mofas) are allowed to turn right on certain red lights since 2021. One does not have to come to a complete stop, but must yield to crossing pedestrians and traffic. During a pilot experiment preceding this change, wide acceptance and no accident were observed.
In Slovenia, the same sign as in Germany is used, where vehicles can turn right on a red light at all times, but they don't have the right of way. Some intersections also have a green arrow light, that is lit when right turns are allowed. Historically, a different sign with the same meaning was used in the nineteen sixties, a green curved arrow on a small white rectangle board, attached under a traffic light.
In Russia, right turns on red are only permitted if a separate arrow-shaped green light allows it; drivers must give way to any vehicle coming from a different direction. When the arrow is not lit, turns in the arrow direction are prohibited. However, in some cities, they have allowed turns on right provided there is a fixed green arrow with the writing below saying "Give way to everyone, you can turn on right".
In the Netherlands, bicycles are occasionally allowed to turn right on a red light (assuming that the design of the junction is such that the light is even applicable to right turning cyclists, which it often is not in the Netherlands). Wherever this is the case, a sign "" (right turn free for cyclists) or "" (right turn free for cyclists and mopeds) is present.
In France, a right turn on red without stopping is allowed when a separate arrow-shaped amber light flashes, but drivers do not have priority. They must check if any pedestrians are crossing before turning and must give way to vehicles coming from other directions. A sign can also permit cyclists to turn right on red.
In Belgium, road signs that allow cyclists to turn right on a red light have been added to traffic law in 2012. Such roads signs have been placed on intersections in the Brussels Capital Region.
Like in the Netherlands, Belgium and France have a road sign that allows cyclists to turn right on a red light. The French and Belgian signs consist of a yield sign with a yellow bike and arrow inside. Such signs are placed under traffic lights.
In the United Kingdom, which drives on the left, left turns on red are prohibited. At some junctions there is a separate left arrow-shaped green "filter" light which, when lit, allows left-hand turns but conflicting traffic will always have a red signal. Other non conflicting traffic movements may have their own left or right arrow-shaped green light. Sometimes there are specific lanes without signals for turning left, separated from the through traffic signalled traffic by traffic islands, but give way signs are installed.
In the Republic of Ireland, which drives on the left, left turns on red are prohibited, although some lights flash with a yellow arrow which is in effect the same thing - drivers may proceed if the road is clear.
In Lithuania, drivers are allowed to turn right on red when a particular sign with a green arrow on a white background is mounted beside the red light of the traffic signal. However, on 10 November 2014, national traffic rules were altered meaning that this sign will be valid only until 31 December 2019 at the latest, by which time all such signs will have been eliminated. These changes were made for reasons of road safety. The green arrows in Lithuania were eliminated on 1 January 2020. Despite the announcement of the date for the elimination of the green arrows in October 2014, many city administrations were not prepared for alternatives, which led to considerable public outrage in January 2020. The government has allowed the return of the green arrows in response to the situation, but each green arrow must be coordinated with the Transportation Literacy Agency. The agency carries out an assessment of a green arrow with regard to traffic safety and traffic capacity.
In Latvia, you are allowed to turn right/left on red when an additional section is present and lit on a traffic light. If the main signal is red and an additional signal is lit, you may pass to the direction of the arrow in the traffic light but you must give way to all traffic (including pedestrians). If the main signal is green and an additional signal is also lit, you may pass to any direction and you must comply with the standard intersection and junction traffic rules. If the main signal is green and the additional signal is not lit, you must not turn to that direction. Logically, if the main signal is red and the additional signal is unlit - you must not pass.
In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, right turns on red are allowed only when there is a lit green arrow present (called S 5 in Czech Republic and S 10 in Slovakia). Also in this case the car turning on red must give way to ongoing traffic, to pedestrians and other road users. (According to Czech law §70 of decree 30/2001 of Law Codex; and Slovak law §9, part 3g, decree 9/2009 of Law Codex.)
In Romania, right turns on red are only permitted if there is a small green flashing light with a right turn arrow. Drivers must yield to pedestrians and oncoming vehicles from their left. In some one-way junctions, the same rule applies for left on red (such as Cluj-Napoca Avram Iancu Square).
In Bulgaria, right turns on red are prohibited.
In Spain, right turns on red are allowed only if there is either a flashing amber or lit green arrow-shaped traffic light. Flashing amber arrow allows turning without priority (turn must be done exercising caution, giving way to any other vehicles and pedestrians that may cross the path), while a lit green arrow grants priority. If just a regular set of traffic lights is present (no light arrows), then turning on red is prohibited.
In Iceland, right turns on red are allowed only when the "Hægri Kveiktu á Rauðum" sign is displayed at the traffic junction. The driver will have to stop at the red light first and give way to pedestrians and oncoming vehicles from their left before turning.
Asia
Similar to many former United Kingdom British Colonies, Hong Kong drives on the left. Left turns on red are always prohibited in Hong Kong. At some junctions, however, there may be separate sets of signals for left turns, or specific lanes for turning left separating from the through traffic by traffic islands and give way signs are installed.
In China, right turns on red are generally permitted, unless there is a red arrow pointing to the right or otherwise indicated. Proceeding straight on red at T-intersections where the intersecting road went left only used to be legal in Mainland China, with right-hand traffic provided that such movement would not interfere with other traffic, but when the Road Traffic Safety Law of the People's Republic of China took effect on 1 May 2004, such movement was outlawed.
In India, which drives on the left, a "free left turn" is generally prohibited. However, some cities specifically permit turning left on a red signal. An explicit green or blinking orange left signal also permits a turn on red, which usually means that conflicting traffic is not permitted to enter the same road.
In Japan, which drives on the left, left turns on red require either a green left arrow signal along with the red light, or a white road sign with a blue left arrow (not to be confused with the one way sign).
In the Republic of Korea, right turns on red are permitted after stop, unless signed as prohibited.
In Malaysia, which drives on the left, left turn on red can only be observed in Sarawak since the 1960s and Putrajaya since the mid-2000s. The road sign by the traffic lights in Sarawak may state "Turn Left when Exit is Clear", as English, Malay and Chinese are used for road signage. The practice is not implemented nationwide.
In the Philippines, right turns on red are legal unless there is a sign that prohibits doing so.
As in the former United Kingdom British Colony Straits of Singapore Overseas British Territories and which drives on the left, left turns on red are usually prohibited in Singapore. The driver must stop at the red light and wait for green lights to turn left only on green lights on. At most junctions, however, there may be separate sets of signals for left turns, or specific lanes for turning left separating from the through traffic by traffic islands and give way signs are installed. But, unlike other British colonies, there's a sign that permits left turns on red. The driver will have to stop at the red light first and give way to pedestrians and oncoming vehicles from their right before turning.
In Taiwan, right turns on red are always prohibited, except when there is a green arrow along with the red light. However, the right on red fine in Taiwan is lower than red light running fine.
In Thailand, which drives on the left, left turns on red are allowed unless a sign prohibits it.
In Saudi Arabia, right turns on red are generally permitted, unless there is a dedicated slip lane for right turn.
In Lebanon, unless a sign or red arrow prohibits it, right turns on red are permitted after coming to a full stop to give way to oncoming traffic and pedestrians.
Africa
In Mauritius, which drives on the left, left turns on red are prohibited like in the UK, unless there's a sign that permits it.
In South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique, Angola, and Namibia, which drives on the left, left turns on red are prohibited like in the UK.
Oceania
In Australia, which drives on the left, left turns on red are only permitted if a sign exists at the intersection. At such intersections, the sign generally reads "left turn on red permitted after stopping," meaning a vehicle can make a left turn only after coming to a complete stop first and giving way to approaching traffic and any crossing pedestrians or cyclists. Such signs are only in limited locations in the states of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia (six locations as of 2016) as well as the Northern Territory and Australian Capital Territory and are banned in other states. In New South Wales, a number of tests to the intersection must be met before a turn on red will be permitted, including pedestrian volume, bus stop locations, geometry of the intersection, and the amount of lane changing at the intersection. There are conflicting views on the policy of left turns on red, with supporters pointing to lower vehicle emission and time savings, while opponents cite safety concerns.
In New Zealand, which drives on the left, left turns on red are not permitted except if a green arrow is present and lit. If a "slip lane" is present at the intersection (a lane turning left separated from the other lanes by a traffic island), left turns are permitted at any time, though traffic turning left must give way to pedestrians and oncoming traffic. Slip lanes are marked with Give Way signs and are most common at busy intersections in larger cities.
In Samoa, which drives on the left, left turns on red are permitted. Samoa used to drive on the right and basically follow the US rules of American Samoa, and this rule remained after switching to driving on the left on 7 September 2009.
Table
This table shows the legal status of turns on red in various jurisdictions, where no sign is present or traffic signal explicitly prohibits it. If it is normally allowed, a sign or red arrow might prohibit it. If it is normally disallowed, a sign or arrow might allow it, or the intersection may have a separate slip lane controlled by a yield or give way sign. However, a permissive arrow allowing a right turn (or left onto one-way) after yielding to traffic, possibly after a complete stop, is different from a protected arrow that does not require yielding.
Pedestrian and bicyclist safety
A 1981 US Department of Transportation study determined that the frequency of motor vehicle collisions with bicyclists and pedestrians when the vehicle was turning right increased significantly after the adoption of "Western RTOR". According to that study "Estimates of the magnitude of the increases ranged from 43% to 107% for pedestrian accidents and 72% to 123% for bicyclist accidents." These RTOR accidents were between 1% and 3% of all pedestrian and bicycle accidents in the locations that were studied.
A 1984 study found that where RTOR was allowed "all right-turning crashes increase by about 23%, pedestrian crashes by about 60%, and bicyclist crashes by about 100%." A 1993 study also concluded that RTOR increased crashes for pedestrians and cyclists, by 44% and 59% respectively.
For the 1982–1992 period, a National Highway Safety Commission report estimated that total fatal crashes in the U.S. involving vehicles making a right turn on red, were between 0 and 84, and probably toward the lower end of the range.
A February 2002 study published in the ITE Journal concluded that "Prohibiting right turn on red would require drivers to turn on green. This would most likely increase the number of collisions by right turning vehicles."
A 2009 study by The New York City Department of Transportation of injuries before and after right turn on red was allowed at specific intersections concluded that the change had not affected accident rates.
See also
Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals
References
External links
The Safety Impact Of Right Turn On Red: Report To Congress, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Traffic Tech
Transportation Research Record 1674.
Traffic Light Signals and Red Light Cameras: Turning on Red Light (US), by Justin JIH.
Traffic law
Traffic signals |
4282957 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot%20air%20ballooning | Hot air ballooning | Hot air ballooning is the recreational and competitive adventure sport of flying hot air balloons. Attractive aspects of ballooning include the exceptional quiet (except when the propane burners are firing), the lack of a feeling of movement, and the bird's-eye view. Since the balloon moves with the direction of the winds, the passengers feel absolutely no wind, except for brief periods during the flight when the balloon climbs or descends into air currents of different direction or speed.
Hot air ballooning has been recognized by Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) as the safest air sport in aviation, and fatalities in hot air balloon accidents are rare, according to statistics from the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB).
History
First manned flight
The first clearly recorded instance of a balloon carrying passengers used hot air to generate buoyancy and was built by the brothers Joseph-Michel and Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier in Annonay, France. After experimenting with unmanned balloons and flights with animals, the first tethered balloon flight with humans on board took place on October 19, 1783, with the scientist Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, the manufacture manager, Jean-Baptiste Réveillon and Giroud de Villette, at the Folie Titon in Paris. The first free flight with human passengers was on November 21, 1783. King Louis XVI had originally decreed that condemned criminals would be the first pilots, but de Rozier, along with Marquis Francois d'Arlandes, successfully petitioned for the honor.
Modern revival
Modern hot air ballooning was born in 1960, when Ed Yost launched a balloon with a new nylon envelope and propane burner system of his own invention. Yost's first balloon was basketless, with nothing but a seat for him to ride on, but in a few years he and other balloon enthusiasts would develop balloons much like the ones used today.
Today, hot air balloons are used primarily for recreation. According to the FAA's General Aviation Survey data, in 2012, there were about 2,300 personally owned and flown balloons, and about 495 commercial sightseeing ride operators in the United States. Balloon rides are available in many locations around the world and are especially popular in tourist areas. At balloon festivals many balloons will fly at once, with other entertainment available.
Hot air balloons are able to fly to extremely high altitudes. On November 26, 2005, Vijaypat Singhania set the world altitude record for highest hot air balloon flight, reaching . He took off from downtown Mumbai, India and landed south in Panchale. The previous record of had been set by Per Lindstrand on June 6, 1988, in Plano, Texas. However, as with all unpressurised aircraft, oxygen is needed for all crew and passengers on any balloon flight that reaches and exceeds an altitude of .
On January 15, 1991, a balloon called the Pacific Flyer carrying Per Lindstrand (born in Sweden, but resident in the UK) and Richard Branson of the UK flew from Japan to Northern Canada, completing 7,671.91 km. With a volume of , the balloon envelope was the largest ever built for a hot air craft. Designed to fly in the trans-oceanic jetstreams the Pacific Flyer recorded the highest ground speed for a manned balloon of .
The distance record was broken on March 21, 1999, when the Breitling Orbiter 3 carrying Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones touched down in Egypt, having circumnavigated the globe and set records for duration (19 days, 21 hours and 55 minutes) and distance (46,759 km).
Flight techniques
Most hot air balloon launches are made during the cooler hours of the day, at dawn or two to three hours before sunset. At these times of day, the winds are typically light making for easier launch and landing of the balloon. Flying at these times also avoids thermals, which are vertical air currents caused by ground heating that make it more difficult to control the balloon. In the extreme, the downdrafts associated with strong thermals can exceed the ability of a balloon to climb and can thus force a balloon into the ground.
Sequence
Preflight preparation
Before a safe hot air balloon flight can begin, the pilot must check the weather and select a suitable take-off point. The current and forecast weather must have sufficient visibility for the pilot to see and avoid obstructions (little or no fog or low clouds) and sufficiently slow winds to allow take off and landing (less than 5 or 10 mph depending on skill and experience of pilot, passengers, and ground crew).
The take-off point must be large enough to lay out and inflate the envelope and clear of obstructions such as power lines and poles, trees, and buildings to allow lift-off under the predicted wind conditions. Finally, the take-off point must be situated such that the predicted winds will move the balloon in the direction of suitable landing sites. Taking off from a location that is directly up wind of a hazard, such as a large body of water, a large metropolitan area, or a large uninterrupted forest, without sufficient fuel to pass over the hazard is not safe.
Set up
The next step in a hot air balloon flight is unpacking the balloon from its carrying bag, laying it out on the ground, and connecting it to the basket and burner. A fan, often gasoline-powered, is used to blow cold (outside) air into the envelope. The cold air partially inflates the balloon to establish its basic shape before the burner flame is aimed into the mouth heating the air inside. A crew member stationed opposite the mouth, holds a rope (crown line) tied to the apex (crown) of the envelope. Some balloons, AX7 and larger, may have two (or more) crown lines. The "crown-man" role is twofold: one is to prevent the envelope from excessive sway, and two is to prevent the envelope from rising before it is sufficiently buoyant. Once the balloon is upright, pilot and passengers climb into the basket. When the pilot is ready for launch, more heat is directed into the envelope and the balloon lifts off.
The crew then pack up inflation equipment and follow the balloon with the retrieve vehicle (also called a chase vehicle).
Flight
During the flight, the pilot's only ability to steer the balloon is the ability to climb or descend into winds going different directions. Thus, it is important for the pilot to determine what direction the wind is blowing at altitudes other than the balloon's altitude. To do this, the pilot uses a variety of techniques. For example, to determine wind directions beneath the balloon a pilot might simply spit or release a squirt of shaving cream and watch this indicator as it falls to determine where possible turns are (and their speed). Pilots are also looking for other visual clues such as flags on flagpoles, smoke coming from chimneys, etc. To determine wind directions above the balloon, the pilot will obtain a weather forecast prior to the flight which includes upper-level wind forecasts. The pilot will also send up a helium pilot balloon, known as a met-balloon in the UK and pibal in the US, prior to launch to get information about what the wind is actually doing. Another way to determine actual wind directions is to watch other hot air balloons, which are the equivalent of a large met-balloon.
Control
The direction of flight depends on the wind, but the altitude of the balloon can be controlled by changing the temperature of the air inside the envelope. The pilot may open one or more burner blast valves to increase the temperature inside the envelope, thereby increasing lift, and thus ascend or slow or stop a descent. The pilot may also open a vent, if the envelope is so equipped, to let hot air escape, decreasing the temperature inside the envelope, thereby decreasing lift, and thus descend or slow or stop an ascent. Unless the pilot intervenes, the air inside the envelope will slowly cool, by seepage or by contact with cooler outside air, and slowly provide less lift.
Delayed response
One of the tricks involved in flying a balloon is learning to deal with the delayed response. To slow or stop a descent requires the pilot to open a burner blast valve. This sends hot combustion exhaust through the mouth into the envelope where it expands and forces some cooler air out of the mouth. This lightens the total weight of the system and increases its buoyancy, but not immediately. From the time that the burner is lit until the balloon slows or stops its descent can take 30 seconds or more, depending on its rate of descent, how cold it has become, and how powerful the burner. This delay requires a great deal of anticipation on the part of the pilot.
Steerage
The ability to change direction with altitude is called steerage. In the ideal case, in the northern hemisphere, wind direction turns to the right with an increase in altitude. This is due to the Coriolis effect. Winds spiral clockwise, when seen from above, out of a high pressure system and counter clockwise into a low pressure system. However, air travelling close to the ground will tend to move in more of a straight line from high to low pressure due to drag with the ground. Thus, a pilot may hope to find a turn to the left during the descent to landing. In the southern hemisphere, the direction of the spirals is reversed. In reality, interaction with an uneven terrain may lessen or eliminate this phenomenon.
Level flight
The burner is designed to create enough heat to warm up the balloon quickly. It is most efficient only when wide open. There is no good way to maintain the exact temperature required to maintain equilibrium.
Add to that the fact that when a hot air balloon is not actively being heated, it is cooling off. This means that it is in perfect equilibrium only momentarily. The rest of the time it is either too warm or too cool and so either climbing or descending.
These two facts together mean that under most conditions level flight is anything but. The goal of the pilot is to light the burner at the right interval and for the right duration (a few seconds) to keep the balloon slowly drifting up and down about the desired altitude.
An exception is made when flying close to the ground, as in an approach to a landing. Then the burner may be lit for very short bursts at a much higher frequency, thus sacrificing efficiency for accuracy.
Chase
While it is certainly possible to enjoy the sport of hot air ballooning without a chase vehicle, returning from the landing site by foot, bicycle, or hitch hiking, many balloonists opt to be followed by their ground crew in some sort of chase vehicle. Crew at the landing site can aid with the landing itself, by catching a drop line and guiding the balloon into a tight space; with extracting the balloon system from a remote location, such as deep in a farmer's field; and with packing up all the equipment.
Sometimes, a chase vehicle may be equipped with a trailer, which can provide more room at the cost of being more difficult to maneuver. A pickup truck or van by itself can be more maneuverable but at the cost of squeezing all the equipment, crew, pilot, and passengers into a single vehicle. Many chase vehicles are fitted with a cargo liftgate to aid in loading heavy equipment into the cargo space (the envelope itself can weigh 250 lbs or more).
Communication between the balloon and chase vehicle can be accomplished by two-way radio, or even shouting, when they are close enough together. The use of cell phones for this purpose, while the balloon is flying, may violate local telecommunication laws and should therefore be avoided except in an emergency situation.
Landing
Most pilots try to perform as smooth a landing as possible. This becomes difficult if the air at ground level is moving at more than or so. If the balloon is moving at this speed or more when it contacts the ground, the basket (which usually does not have wheels of any kind on the bottom) may drag for a bit or even tip over. Even the presence of ground crew may not help much. The combined weight (for an average passenger-carrying system as calculated above) can easily exceed the weight of a large automobile. (It is best not to be on the downwind side of a landing balloon to avoid being pinned between it and a hard place.) Pilots can improve the situation by landing in a spot protected from the wind, such as behind a line of trees or in a small valley.
Once the balloon has landed, the envelope is deflated and detached from the basket. The envelope is then packed into its carrying bag. The burner and the basket may be separated and all components are packed into the retrieve vehicle.
Competition
In competition, the pilots need to be able to read different wind directions at different altitudes. Balloon competitions are often called "races" but they are most often a test of accuracy, not speed. For most competitive balloon flights, the goal is to fly as close as possible to one or more exact points called "targets". Once a pilot has directed the balloon as close as possible to a target, a weighted marker with an identifying number written on it is dropped. The distance between a pilot's marker and that target determines his or her score. During some competitive flights, pilots will be required to fly to 5 or more targets before landing. To assist with navigation, topographic maps and GPS units are used. Another common form of competition is the "Hare and Hound" race. The Hare balloon takes off a set amount of time before the Hound balloons and typically flies with multiple altitude changes to make it more difficult for the chasing balloons to match its flight path. After a set amount of flight time, the Hare will land and typically lay out a target cross for the Hounds to drop their weighted markers near. As above, the distance between a pilot's marker and the target determines his or her score.
Some experienced pilots are able to take a flight in one direction then rise to a different altitude to catch wind in a returning direction. With experience, luck, and the right conditions, some pilots are able to control a precision landing at the destination. On rare occasions, they may be able to return to the launch site at the end of the flight. This is sometimes called a box effect, when winds at altitude flow in the opposite direction of surface winds.
Hazards
The dangers of the sport include excessive (vertical or horizontal) speed during landing, mid-air collisions that may collapse the balloon, and colliding with high voltage power lines. It is the last of these, contact with power lines, that poses the greatest danger. One of the most common causes of serious ballooning accidents in the US is power line strikes.
One reason for the high frequency of such incidents is the fact that pilots often attempt to land their balloons on or near roads in order to reduce the amount of off-road driving necessary to recover the balloon. However, in most rural areas where balloons fly, roads usually have power lines running along with them.
Of the 11 accidents involving fatalities recorded by the NTSB between 1997 and 2007, 4 involved contact with power lines, 3 involved falling after hanging onto the outside of a rising balloon, 3 involved striking an object on landing (boulder, wall, or tree), and 1 involved an equipment failure (an eyebolt).
Winter flight
The ability to fly hot air balloons in the winter is limited mostly by the ability of the participants to withstand the cold. The balloons themselves fly well in cold air. Because the temperature difference between inside and outside the balloon, not the absolute inside temperature, determines the lift it develops, a much lower internal temperature is sufficient to fly in cold weather.
However, if the liquid propane in the fuel tanks is too cold ( or less) it does not generate sufficient vapor pressure to adequately feed the burner(s). This can be overcome by charging the fuel tanks with inert gas such as nitrogen or by warming them, with electric heat tapes for example, and insulating them against the cold.
Tethering
Sometimes, especially at balloon festivals or other special events, balloons are flown while tied to the ground with ropes (tethers). This enables quick rides to many passengers, instead of long rides drifting with the wind away from the event with one load of passengers. Tethering techniques depend on the balloon manufacturer's instructions and wind conditions. Tethers can be attached to the basket, burner support, or the top of the envelope. A "night glow" is a tethered flight in darkness to enhance visual effects. While typical day flights use the main valve, using an efficient blue flame, at night tethered pilots use the liquid valve "whisper burner" ("cow burner", as it does not startle livestock), creating a spectacular bright orange flame.
Though tethered, a balloon is considered a registered flying aircraft when it leaves the ground.
Events
There are many regular gatherings of balloons and balloonists around the world. Most of these events are held on an annual basis. The festivities provide both a place for balloonists to interact as well as a venue for entertaining spectators. Events range in size from a few balloons and no spectators to hundreds of balloons with hundreds of thousands of spectators. The largest such event in the world is the Albuquerque International Balloon Fiesta, held every October in Albuquerque, New Mexico, followed by the Grand Est Mondial Air in France. The Bristol International Balloon Fiesta is another notable European event of this nature.
Gallery
Ballooning in the world
See also
Fédération Aéronautique Internationale
List of balloon uses
References
Notes
Bibliography
The Science and Art of Hot Air Ballooning by Jackson and Diehtl, Garland Publishing Inc, 1977
How to Fly a Balloon by Stockwell and Kalakuka, Balloon Publishing Company, 1999
Balloon Ground School Home Study Manual by Stockwell, and Kalakuka, and Grady, Balloon Publishing Company, 1997
The Balloonist: The Story of T. S. C. Lowe – Inventor, Scientist, Magician, and Father of the U.S. Air Force, by Stephen Poleskie, Frederic C. Beil, Publisher, 2007.
External links
FAI International Balloon Committee
Balloon Federation of America
International Aeronauts League
Possible prehistoric Nazca hot air balloon
Balloon quotations
Articles containing video clips |
4283029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duty%20of%20care%20in%20English%20law | Duty of care in English law | In English tort law, an individual may owe a duty of care to another, in order to ensure that they do not suffer any unreasonable harm or loss. If such a duty is found to be breached, a legal liability will be imposed upon the tortfeasor to compensate the victim for any losses they incur. The idea of individuals owing strangers a duty of care – where beforehand such duties were only found from contractual arrangements – developed at common law, throughout the 20th century. The doctrine was significantly developed in the case of Donoghue v Stevenson, where a woman succeeded in establishing a manufacturer of ginger beer owed her a duty of care, where it had been negligently produced. Following this, the duty concept has expanded into a coherent judicial test, which must be satisfied in order to claim in negligence.
Generally, a duty of care arises where one individual or group undertakes an activity which could reasonably harm another (or themselves), either physically, mentally, or economically. This includes common activities such as driving (where physical injury may occur), as well as specialised activities such as dispensing reliant economic advice (where economic loss may occur). Where an individual has not created a situation which may cause harm, no duty of care exists to warn others of dangerous situations or prevent harm occurring to them; such acts are known as pure omissions, and liability may only arise where a prior special relationship exists to necessitate them.
Duty of care
The first element of negligence is the legal duty of care. This concerns the relationship between the defendant and the claimant, which must be such that there is an obligation upon the defendant to take proper care to avoid causing injury to the plaintiff in all the circumstances of the case. There are two ways in which a duty of care may be established:
the defendant and claimant are within one of the recognised relationships where a duty of care is established by precedent; or
outside these relationships, according to the principles developed by case law.
The principles delineated in Caparo v Dickman specify a tripartite test:
Was the harm reasonably foreseeable?
Was there a requisite degree of proximity between the claimant and the defendant?
Is it fair, just and reasonable to impose a duty of care; are there precluding public policy concerns?
There are a number of distinct and recognisable situations in which the courts recognise the existence of a duty of care. Examples include
one road-user to another
employer to employee
manufacturer to consumer
doctor to patient
solicitor to client
teacher to student
The common law position regarding negligence recognised strict categories of negligence. In 1932, the duty of a care applied despite no prior relationship or interaction and was not constrained by privity of contract. Here, a duty of care was found to be owed by a manufacturer to an end consumer, for negligence in the production of his goods. Mrs Donoghue's claim for damages for gastroenteritis and nervous shock were allowed, where a ginger beer manufacturer had negligently allowed a snail into a bottle, which she had consumed. Lord Atkin established liability on the basis that a neighbour principle existed between the two parties, to ensure reasonable care was taken in the production of the ginger beer, so as not to cause Mrs Donoghue any unreasonable harm:
Lord Atkin's speech established a neighbour principle, or a general duty that individuals must take reasonable care in their actions or omissions, so as not to cause harm to others proximate to them. It did not matter that Mrs Donoghue was unidentified or unknown to the manufacturer; as the type of harm which occurred was foreseeable through the negligence of the ginger beer manufacturer.
The Anns test
Following the firm establishment of the neighbour principle in negligence, it became clear in subsequent years that it did not represent an easily applicable approach to new forms of duty, or to unprecedented situations of negligence. As such, new categories of negligence evolved, as in Hedley Byrne & Co Ltd v Heller & Partners Ltd, to cover different types of negligent acts, rather than a coherent doctrine or ratio being taken from Donoghue v Stevenson. Some thirty years after Donoghue was decided, in Home Office v Dorset Yacht Co Ltd, Lord Reid stated judicially that: "the time has come when we can and should say that it ought to apply unless there is some justification or valid explanation for its exclusion." It was not until the case of Anns v Merton London Borough Council however, that the neighbour principle was adopted in a formal test for negligence. The case involved the negligent construction of a block of maisonettes, commissioned by the Merton London Borough Council. The flats, finished in 1972, had poorly constructed foundations, resulting in sloping of floors, and cracks in the walls. The lessees of the maisonettes sued the council in negligence, alleging a duty of care existed for the building to be properly constructed and in a usable state.
In rejecting the previous evolution of duty of care, a categorical approach where a claim would have to fit under previous situations a duty had been found, the House of Lords unanimously found a duty to exist. The test established by Lord Wilberforce – known as the Anns test – imposed a prima facie duty of care where:
A sufficient relationship of proximity or neighbourhood exists between the alleged wrongdoer and the person who has suffered damage, such that carelessness on the part of the former is likely to cause damage to the latter;
There are no considerations relevant which may reduce or limit the scope of any imposed duty.
The three stage test
Following the establishment of the two stage test for a duty of care, there was a marked judicial retreat from the test, which was widely seen as being too inclusive, and being too easily applicable to cases which might be contrary to public policy. The test was formally overruled in Murphy v Brentwood District Council, where the House of Lords invoked the Practice Statement to depart from the Anns test. The resultant test for a duty of care - which remains good law today - can be found in the judgments of Caparo Industries plc v Dickman. A large criticism of the Anns test had been that it combined the test for proximity of relationship with foreseeability of harm. Whereas Lord Atkin's neighbour principle emphasised a need for both a proximate relationship, as well as a foreseeability of harm, the Anns test did not make such a clear distinction. Richard Kidner has stated that this led the courts to sometimes ignore relevant policy considerations, and to encourage "lazy thinking and woolly analysis". The resounding test attempts to reconcile the need for a control device, proximity of relationship, with foreseeability of harm. Lord Oliver's speech in Caparo Industries plc v Dickman summarises the test for a duty of care:
The harm which occurred must be a reasonable foreseeable result of the defendant's conduct;
A sufficient relationship of proximity or neighbourhood exists between the alleged wrongdoer and the person who has suffered damage;
It is fair, just and reasonable to impose liability.
In reintroducing the need for proximity as a central control device, it has been stated that these three stages are 'ingredients' of liability, rather than tests in their own right. For example, liability can arise between complete strangers, where positive acts involving foreseeable physical harm occur; where negligent omissions and misstatements occur however, it is necessary to show a proximate relationship, as well as a foreseeability of harm.
Status of the claimant
The status of the claimant in an act of negligence can result in a duty of care arising where it would not normally – as is the case with rescuers – or prevent a duty of care existing altogether. Claims that a doctor may owe a mother a duty of care to advise against child birth, and claims that police may owe an individual involved in criminal behavior a duty of care, have been barred. In McKay v Essex Area Health Authority, a child's claim that a doctor should have advised his mother to seek an abortion was struck out; Whilst the Congenital Disabilities (Civil Liability) Act allows a course of action where negligence is the cause of a disability, wrongful life has remained barred for policy reasons. Similarly, where a criminal attempted to escape police capture in Vellino v Chief Constable of the Greater Manchester Police, his claim that they owed him a duty of care not to let him escape after they had arrested him was branded 'absurd'.
Rescuers
It has been established at common law that those who attempt rescue are owed a duty of care by those who create dangerous situations, in which it is foreseeable rescuers may intervene. This duty can apply to professional rescuers – such as doctors or lifeguards – as much as ordinary individuals, and may even apply where the rescuer engages in a careless or reckless rescue attempt. The basis for this liability was first recognised in Haynes v Harwood. Here, a child who threw a stone at a horse, causing it to bolt, was liable to a policeman who attempted to stop it subsequently, and was injured. The duty was confirmed in the later case of Baker v T E Hopkins & Son Ltd, with Wilmer LJ stating that:
Assuming the rescuer not to have acted unreasonably, therefore, it seems to me that he must normally belong to the class of persons who ought to be within the contemplation of the wrongdoer as being closely and directly affected by the latter's act.
The duty of care owed to a rescuer is separate from that owed to those he is rescuing. Where individuals trespassed onto a railway line, putting themselves in danger, they were not owed a duty of care; however, the stationmaster who attempted rescue and was fatally injured was owed a duty of care, as it was foreseeable he would attempt a rescue. Equally, a duty of care may arise where an individual imperils himself, and a rescuer is injured, despite the individual clearly owing himself no duty of care.
Duty of care for omissions
Generally, no duty of care may arise in relation to pure omissions; acts which if taken would minimise or prevent harm to another individual. However, where an individual creates a dangerous situation - even if blamelessly - a duty of care may arise to protect others from being harmed. Where an individual left his car without lights on at the side of a carriageway, he owed a duty of care to other drivers, despite the road being well lit, and was thus jointly liable when another driver collided with his car.
There are however certain circumstances in which an individual may be liable for omissions, where a prior special relationship exists. Such a relationship may be imposed by statute; the Occupiers' Liability acts for example impose a duty of care upon occupiers of land and properties to protect – in as far as is reasonable – others from harm. In other cases, a relationship may be inferred or imposed based on the need to protect an individual from third parties. In Stansbie v Troman a decorator failed to secure a household he was decorating, resulting in a burglary while he was absent; it was found he owed a duty to the household owner to adequately secure the premises in his absence. An authority or service may equally owe a duty of care to individuals to protect them from harm. In Reeves v Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis, the police were found to have owed a duty to a prisoner – who was known to be a suicide risk – to ensure he did not commit suicide in their custody. Authorities have also been found liable for failing to protect against the risks of third parties, in certain circumstances. An education authority was found to owe a duty of care to motorists to protect against the risk of a young children in a public road; a driver was injured when forced to swerve, after a four-year-old child escaped and ran into the path of oncoming traffic.
A duty of care will also apply to an omission if a dangerous act was committed by a third party on the defendant's property which he knew about or should have known about, and he did not take reasonable steps to avert damage to neighbouring properties.
Special types of harm
Psychiatric harm
The duty of care owed to protect others from psychiatric harm is different from that owed for physical harm, with additional control devices and distinctions present in order to limit liability. A successful claim for psychiatric harm must result from a sudden shock (caused by a traumatising event), and the victim must be of ordinary fortitude and mental strength, and not especially susceptible to the harm in question. Whilst a prima facie duty of care is imposed for physical harm where the criteria of proximity, foreseeability, and policy are fulfilled, liability for psychiatric harm rests upon an individual's connection to a traumatising event; those not physically endangered may not be owed a duty of care unless they can fulfil several relational criteria.
The decision of Page v Smith establishes liability for psychiatric harm where an individual is endangered physically. Victims in this category are known as primary victims, and are automatically owed a duty of care, as explained by Lord Lloyd:
Further individuals are classed as secondary victims, and must meet several criteria in order to establish a duty of care is owed to them. There are several types of victims whom the court have recognised; employees who suffer excessive stress at work, individuals witnessing the destruction of their property, while those witnessing especially traumatising scenes involving others are secondary victims. Case law surrounding psychiatric harm focuses primarily on secondary victims; recovery for witnessing the injury and harm of others has been limited primarily by the decision of Alcock v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire, which establishes several boundaries and criteria for imposing liability. There must be a close tie of 'love and affection' between the primary victim, and the secondary victim witnessing the traumatic event. Additionally, the cause of the harm must be close and proximate to the shocking event in question, and it must be witnessed by the means of the victim's senses, and not via some form of communication.
Pure economic loss
Negligence which causes no physical or psychiatric harm, but causes economic loss to an individual or organisation, is termed pure economic loss. The idea that a duty of care may be owed to protect against the economic loss of others has been seen as problematic, as the bounds of such liability are potentially unforeseeable, and difficult to establish. Thus, there are several limits in place on the recovery of pure economic loss, with some categories of economic loss being totally unrecoverable altogether. Those affected by damage caused to the property of another company or individual, or who suffer loss due to the purchase of a defective product, for example, cannot ordinarily recover any losses incurred as a result. Instances where a duty of care is recognised generally involve the negligent performance of a service, or the negligent misstatements of professionals, which are then relied upon by others.
The development of pure economic loss stems from the case of Hedley Byrne & Co Ltd v Heller & Partners Ltd, where it was first recognised that a duty of care may arise not to cause economic loss to others through negligent misstatements. In this case, Hedley Byrne, an advertising agency, approached Heller & Partners for a credit check on a third company, Easipower Ltd, before carrying out advertising orders on their behalf. Heller & Partners reported that Easipower Ltd was credit-worthy, and in reliance on this statement, Hedley Byrne placed advertising orders for them. When subsequently Easipower Ltd was declared bankrupt, Hedley Byrne took legal action against Heller & Partners, alleging they had been owed a duty of care when consulting for a credit reference. Whilst Hedley Byrne did not succeed in their claim, the House of Lords recognised that such a duty may be owed, where a relationship of reliance exists between two parties.
Liability of public bodies
An organisation or public body may be found to have committed a negligent act in the same way that an individual may; however, for policy reasons, the duty of care which a public body may owe is different from that of private individuals or organisations. Generally, it is where the type of harm involved is not of a physical kind, or a negligent omission is committed, that the formulation of a duty of care differs.
Traditionally, courts have rejected claims that the police owe a duty of care to victims of crime. In Hill v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire, no duty of care was found to exist between the police and Jacqueline Hill, one of the victims of the Yorkshire Ripper. This lack of duty of care has been affirmed in a number of other cases both on the grounds of lack of proximity (a test required in all formulations of the doctrine of duty of care) and on the grounds of it being poor public policy.
In 2018, the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom found that the failure to properly investigate allegations of sexual assault against two women by John Worboys amounted to a breach of Article 3 of the European Convention of Human Rights, and that conspicuous or substantial errors in investigating serious crimes would give rise to similar breaches of human rights law. While this does not establish a duty of care under tort law, it does provide an alternative route to compensation for victims.
Notes
See also
English tort law
Floodgates principle
References
Bibliography
English tort law |
4283186 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sho%20Sakurai | Sho Sakurai | (born January 25, 1982) is a Japanese singer, songwriter, rapper, actor, news anchor, host and former radio host. He is a member of the boy band Arashi.
Sakurai began his career in the entertainment industry when he joined the Japanese talent agency Johnny & Associates in 1995 at the age of 13. About seven years after his debut as a singer with Arashi in 1999, he became a newscaster in 2006, appearing in the news program News Zero every Monday. In 2008, he was appointed the official newscaster for the news coverage of the Olympic Games in Beijing on NTV. For his work as an actor, singer and newscaster, Sakurai became one of the recipients of GQ Japan's Men of the Year award in 2009. His father is Shun Sakurai, former vice-minister of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications.
Early life
Sakurai was born in Maebashi, Gunma Prefecture, and grew up in Minato, Tokyo, the oldest of three children. His father, , is a former government official who served as Vice Minister of Internal Affairs and Communications, and Vice President of Dentsu Group. Sakurai has a younger sister, (b. 1986), who is a journalist for Nippon TV, and a younger brother, (b. 1994).
Sakurai attended Keio Yochisha Elementary School, an affiliated elementary school of Keio University. From age three to ten, he did many extracurricular activities, including kendo, swimming, football, oil painting, calligraphy, and scouting. He began music lessons in early childhood, starting with the electric organ at age three and switching to piano in fourth grade. From fourth grade to sixth grade, he played trombone for his school's brass band. He also played trumpet and attended cram school. He joined a local football club after developing a strong interest in football during the J.League boom in 1993. He wanted to play for a professional team and at one point considered studying abroad in Brazil to become a professional footballer. He played football until his second year of junior high school.
In 1995, when Sakurai was thirteen years old, he sent an application to the talent agency, Johnny & Associates, and started activities as a Johnny's Jr. Despite already having an established career with Arashi by the time he graduated from high school, Sakurai went on to attend Keio University, graduating with a Bachelor of Economics in March 2004.
Music career
Sakurai is the designated rapper of Arashi and, although he had written rap lyrics (known to fans as Sakurap) for some of the group's earlier releases under the pen name "Show", his first major contribution was for the A-side song "Kotoba Yori Taisetsu na Mono". While not the first artist from Johnny's to take on rapping, his breakthrough made it easier for his juniors to rap as well, despite being idols. According to Taichi Kokubun of Tokio, ex-KAT-TUN member began to rap because of him.
He became the first member in Arashi to hold a solo concert called The Show in 2006. Sakurai was also a part of a special group with his Kisarazu Cat's Eye World Series co-stars that same year. Specially formed to promote the movie, they released the movie's theme song as a single on October 25, 2006.
Sakurai co-wrote the lyrics of six songs on the August 2010 Arashi album Boku no Miteiru Fūkei. These songs are "Movin' On," "Mada Ue o", "Taboo" (Sho Sakurai solo), "Let Me Down," "Sora Takaku", and "Summer Splash!".
Acting career
Drama
Unlike the other members, who made their major acting debut on stage, Sakurai made his debut on television in Arashi's volleyball-centered short drama in 1999. With bandmate Kazunari Ninomiya, he co-starred in the manga-based comedy drama Yamada Tarō Monogatari in 2007. Sakurai had a small guest appearance on the final episode of the drama My Girl in 2009, which was bandmate Masaki Aiba's first starring role in a serial drama. That year, he also had a brief appearance on bandmate Satoshi Ohno's comedy drama series Uta no oniisan, as himself. On January 9, 2010, Sakurai co-starred with the other members of Arashi in the human suspense drama special Saigo no Yakusoku.
In 2001, he took part in his first drama series called with Masahiro Matsuoka as his teacher. His role as a student with two conflicting characters won him Best Newcomer in the 5th Nikkan Sports Drama Grand Prix Awards.
In 2003, Sakurai was given his first lead role in the drama . He portrayed , a man who strives to prove himself capable of being a nursery school teacher. After Yoiko no Mikata, Sakurai took up many drama specials and mini-dramas until 2005. He even acted in a NHK late-night drama series called Tokio, in which each episode lasted for fifteen minutes each.
Although there was no release of dramas, movies or stageplays from Sakurai in 2008 due to his involvement with the Olympic Games in Beijing and Arashi's concert tours, 2009 saw his first lead role in a drama series since Yoiko no Mikata in 2003.
In 2009, in the drama The Quiz Show 2 with You Yokoyama, he portrayed an amnesic host of a live TV quiz program. He portrayed , a 28-year-old life insurance salesman who is caught up in a building hijack. Sakurai appeared in the docudrama special on January 16, 2010. He portrayed , a real photo reporter who worked for the Kobe Shimbun and helped keep the newspaper running without interruption despite the damage inflicted from the Kobe earthquake.
On January 17, 2010, TBS aired the first episode of Sakurai and Maki Horikita's comedy drama .
On August 18, 2011, it was announced that Sakurai would be starring in a Fuji TV drama in the Fall season. The drama is based on a bestselling novel published in 2010 by author Higashigawa Tokuya. Sakurai co-starred with actress Keiko Kitagawa. The drama aired starting in October. On January 26, 2012, it was announced that Fuji TV would produce a drama special for Nazotoki... to be aired on March 27. Sakurai played the lead role of Kageyama again, while Kitagawa reprised her role of Reiko Hosho. The drama special was filmed at Okinawa. A second special and a movie were released in August 2013
On January 25, 2012, TBS announced a three-night drama special Blackboard – Teachers Waging The Battles of Their Times, which aired in early April. Sakurai starred on the first night as a junior high school teacher who lost his right arm by war and struggled the change of moral after the war. His co-star was Yuko Oshima of AKB48.
In January 2023, Sakurai appears in his 5th drama with NTV, after Yoiko no Mikata (2003), The Quiz Show 2 (2009), Saki ni Umareta Dake no Boku (2017) and Nemesis (2021). Dai byōin senkyo is about a hospital suddenly occupied by an armed group wearing demon masks. Sakurai plays a detective, currently on leave of absence, who confronts the criminals, in the action-packed suspense drama.
Film
In 2002, Sakurai made his motion picture debut in Arashi's first movie together, . He portrayed Chu, a yankee who dropped out of high school after an incident involving his teacher and the girl he had a crush on. In 2004, he reprised his role for the sequel of Pikanchi Life Is Hard Dakedo Happy, . In 2007, all the members of Arashi co-starred in their third movie together, , with Sakurai playing the role of an aspiring writer. In 2014, in a third installment of the Pikanchi movies, called , Sakurai reprises his role, now as an adult Chu, who has settled down and started a family.
In 2002, in the drama Kisarazu Cat's Eye, he took on the role of Bambi, a college student who becomes part of a burglar ring at the beckoning of his cancer-stricken friend Bussan (played by Junichi Okada) to make his final days worthwhile. The drama would eventually span into two movie sequels entitled Kisarazu Cat's Eye: Nihon Series and Kisarazu Cat's Eye: World Series in 2003 and 2006 respectively.
While training for a rowing competition with the rest of Arashi on their variety show Mago Mago Arashi in 2005, Sakurai filmed his first starring movie role in the manga-based live-action film Honey and Clover. He portrayed the mellow .
By the end of 2007, it was announced that he would star as Gan-chan in the Takashi Miike movie Yatterman, which was not released in theaters until the beginning of 2009.
It was announced on June 8, 2010 that Sakurai would co-star with Aoi Miyazaki in the novel-based movie , released in theaters in 2011. It would be the first time Sakurai portrayed a doctor. A sequel for the movie, hit theaters in 2014. In the first movie, Dr. Ichito Kurihara (Sakurai) was struggling with work life in a countryside hospital on the alert 365 days a year. In the sequel, his struggles between family life and work life are accentuated when Ichito's friend from college, also a physician, Tatsuya Shindo (portrayed by Tatsuya Fujiwara), comes to Ichito's hospital from Tokyo.
On June 4, 2012 the movie version of the popular drama was announced. Sakurai once again portrayed the sharp-tongued mysteries-solving butler Kageyama, co-starring with Kitagawa Keiko. The plot of the movie is a murder case that happens on a luxurious cruise ship. Besides set filming, the production team also filmed overseas in Singapore where they boarded the luxurious cruise ship SuperStar Virgo for onsite filming. The movie completed filming by end of July 2012 and is scheduled for release on August 3, 2013 in Japan. The International Gala Premiere was held in Singapore on July 27, 2013 at Marina Bay Sands, where about 2,000 fans from Singapore, Thailand and other countries in the region were treated to face-to-face interactions with the main cast of Sakurai and his fellow cast members, Keiko Kitagawa and Shinai Kippei. Director Masato Hijikata also graced the occasion. Selected fans got to watch the movie premiere with the cast and director in the Sands Theatre, and were treated to a 20-minute Q&A session with the actors and director after the movie screening. The Singapore premiere of the movie was scheduled for August 22, 2013, with a special Fans' Screening by Golden Village cinemas on August 14, 2013.
Other ventures
Radio
From October 5, 2002 to March 30, 2008, Sakurai hosted his own radio show called Sho Beat on FM Fuji.
Commercials
Able Inc. real estate company (2008-2011)
Aflac Japan (2011- )
Ajinomoto Frozen Foods (2011- )
Asahi Group Holdings, Ltd.
Asahi Soft Drinks "Mitsuya Cider" (2009-2010, 2020-) In 2020, with Arashi as a group, including a video of himself with audio from Satoshi Ohno. In 2021-2023, together with fellow Arashi member Masaki Aiba, and including Hey! Say! JUMP member Ryosuke Yamada, Snow Man members Ryohei Abe and Ren Meguro and Johnny's Jr. group Bishounen in a series of commercials for Spring and Summer.
Asahi Breweries "New Clear Asahi" beer (2019)
Benesse Corporation Shinkenzemi Junior High School Seminar (2011-2013)
Japanese Cabinet Office 2050 Low-carbon economy (2008)
House Foods Vermont Curry (2023- )
House Wellness Foods Co., Ltd. () "C1000" (beverage) (2006-2007)
Japan Airlines (2021-) With fellow Arashi member Jun Matsumoto
Japan Post Co., Ltd. New Year's postcard campaign (2008 - 2009), also with Arashi (2019)
JINS Co., Ltd. chain stores and shopping centers (2012-2014)
Johnan Academic Preparatory Institute () (2005)
JustSystems Smile Seminar (2021-)
Kao Corporation
"Essential" hair product (2014-2016, 2019-)
"MegRhythm" heat patches and eye masks (2016- )
Lawson Inc. (2014-2015)
Menicon Lactive contact lenses (2022-)
Mitsui Fudosan real estate (2018- )
Morinaga & Company
Morinaga Confectionaries and Health Foods Industry
"in" (formerly Weider's in) jelly drink (2015- )
Morinaga Cocoa (2017-)
Morinaga Milk Industry "pino" brand ice cream (2010-2016)
Otsuka Pharmaceutical "Oronamin C" drink (2011-2015)
Shiseido's "Uno" brand "W Design Fiber" hair product x Kisarazu Cat's Eye collaboration (2006)
Taisho Pharmaceutical "Claritin EX" (2020- )
Toyota Financial Services Financing Plan (2007)
Variety TV Show
Sakurai hosts, starting in January 2021, a new variety program, substituting Arashi's signature program Arashi ni Shiyagare, ended in December 2020.
TBS Ima, ko no kao ga sugoi ! (今、この顔がスゴい!) – MC (4/11/2013 – March 20, 2014)
TBS Sakurai Ariyoshi The Dangerous Night (櫻井有吉アブナイ夜会) – Sakurai Ariyoshi The Night (櫻井・有吉 THE夜会) – MC (4/17/2014–present)
NTV 1 oku 3000 man nin no shō channeru (1億3000万人のSHOWチャンネル) – MC (January, 2021-present)
Newscasts, documentary and informative series
In 2006, he became a newscaster for the NTV news program News Zero with newscaster and actress Mao Kobayashi. He continues co-hosting Monday's edition, now with main newscaster Yumiko Udo
On June 7, 2009, Sakurai was one of the main newscasters for a special program titled Touch! Eco 2009, which focused on environmental issues.
In 2007, he was chosen to help host , a special program which focused the 2007 House of Councillors elections. Sakurai became the first pop idol to host such a program. On August 30, 2009, he was appointed the official caster for the second part of , which covered Japan's 2009 general elections. On July 11, 2010, he took on the role of a navigator for the second half of , which focused on the 2010 House of Councillors elections. He has continued to co-host the special program until the 2022 elections.
In 2007, he was chosen as the main caster for Fuji TV's broadcast of the 2007 Volleyball World Cup, marking it the first time in eight years that he has been involved with the Volleyball World Cup. In 2008, Sakurai was a newscaster for the 2008 FIVB Women's World Olympic Qualification Tournament and the main newscaster for the news coverage of the Olympic Games in Beijing on NTV. Sakurai was the special newscaster for the 2010 Winter Olympics news coverage on NTV with Shizuka Arakawa as the main newscaster. On May 13, 2012, NTV announced the appointment of Sakurai as the main caster for their coverage of the 2012 London Summer Olympics, which runs from July 27 to August 12, 2012. It is Sakurai's third consecutive Olympic main caster appointment for NTV after 2008 Beijing and 2010 Vancouver. He was chosen, alongside his Arashi co-member Masaki Aiba, to host the NHK special program coverage for the Tokyo Olympics and Paralympics, celebrated from July 23, 2021.
In July 2010, Sakurai traveled to Romania, Germany, and Russia to do a special report on world poverty for 24-Hour Television, which was broadcast on August 29, 2010. He interviewed former Soviet Union General Secretary and Nobel Peace Prize winner Mikhail Gorbachev about nuclear disarmament and poverty.
Sakurai was chosen by Nippon Television Network (NTV) of Japan as the main MC of their royal wedding special, "British Royal Family Prince William and Princess Kate". The special was aired on April 29, 2011, featuring video footage from the British Broadcasting Channel that covered the joyous occasion for the British royal family.
Sakurai co-hosted the special program 復興テレビ_みんなのチカラ aired on March 11, 2012, a special program to remember the 9.0 magnitude earthquake that hit North-eastern Japan in 2011.
On August 4, 2015 Sakurai and Akira Ikegami hosted the first episode of an NTV series called . This first installment dealt with a look at the war 70 years after Japan's surrender, and the Japanese peoples understanding of it. A second episode aired on March 1, 2016. This one dealt with a historical look of the Great Eastern Japan Earthquake 5 years after, primarily, and other disasters around the world such as eruptions, landslides, floods and typhoons, and how to deal with them and prepare in order to save lives. A new episode aired two years later, February 6, 2018. On this one, Sakurai and Ikegami talked about "Unexpected Japan", dealing with politics and its relationship to the Olympic Games, North Korea and the Imperial Family. A fourth installment of the series aired on May 4, 2020, where they talked about the "ultra difficult problems" facing Japan, like the coronavirus and all that happened around the pandemic, such as the closing of schools, delays in services and postponement of big events, like the Tokyo Olympics and Paralympics. On May 31, 2021, a 5th installment of the program aired. With the theme "clear and present danger", Ikegami and Sakurai, together with guests, talked about the ongoing investigation on coronavirus, its sequelae and the fight against it and new viruses. It also included a talk about new AI technology and the risk of it being misused and abused, like in drones, which could be used as weapons, and the so called "Deepfake", in which false images are used to replace someone else in order to commit crimes, like fraud.
On March 17, 2019, Sakurai and NHK announcer Mayuko Wakuda hosted the first episode of the 4-part documentary "NHK Special 'Space Spectacle'", about the latest achievements in space exploration. The pair hosted all the series, which included topics like the Hayabusa2 mission, the search for Extraterrestrial life, black holes, and the mysteries of the origin of life on Earth and it's possible start in outer space, with the last episode airing September 8, 2019.
On December 10, 2022, an NHK documentary called Design Museum Japan, hosted by Sakurai, takes a look at "design treasures" from regions all over Japan.
Music Event
Nippon TV Best Artist (日テレ系音楽の祭典 ベストアーティスト) Main Host (2009–2022)
Nippon TV Music Festival – The Power of Music (日テレ系音楽の祭典 音楽のちから2012) Main Host (2012)
Nippon TV The Music Day Main Host (2013–2023)
NHK Kōhaku Uta Gassen White team host (solo, 2018, 2019; as part of Arashi, 2010 – 2014), special navigator (2022)
Telethon
Sakurai appears as main personality in NTV's 24-Hr TV for 6th time, 5 with Arashi (2004, 2008, 2012, 2013, 2019) (24時間テレビ) and 1 by himself (2017)
Personal exhibition
"Sho Sakurai: Words for the Future", is Sakurai's first exhibition centered in his words, both as part of Arashi and as an individual, thought of since 2018, to convey his feelings and words expressed in different ways, like in the reinterpretation of his "Sakurap" and words shared in various media (like narrated excepts from the 2019 Newsweek Japan special feature "Sho Sakurai and the Memory of War"). It will be held from April 14 to May 5, 2023, at the Roppongi Museum in Tokyo.
Personal life
On September 28, 2021, Sakurai announced his marriage through a letter he released in their fan club website.
Sakurai announced the birth of their first child on February 15, 2023 through official site. Date of birth and child's gender were not revealed.
Contributions
Rap lyrics
Filmography
Television
Film
Theatre
Awards and nominations
Footnotes
References
External links
J Storm Profile
Sho Sakurai | Johnny's Net Profile
1982 births
Living people
People from Maebashi
People from Minato
Arashi members
Japanese male pop singers
Japanese rappers
Keio University alumni
Japanese male film actors
Japanese male stage actors
Japanese male television actors
Japanese male idols
Singers from Tokyo
20th-century Japanese male actors
21st-century Japanese male actors |
4283435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dusky%20shark | Dusky shark | The dusky shark (Carcharhinus obscurus) is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, occurring in tropical and warm-temperate continental seas worldwide. A generalist apex predator, the dusky shark can be found from the coast to the outer continental shelf and adjacent pelagic waters, and has been recorded from a depth of 400 m (1,300 ft). Populations migrate seasonally towards the poles in the summer and towards the equator in the winter, traveling hundreds to thousands of kilometers. One of the largest members of its genus, the dusky shark reaches more than in length and in weight. It has a slender, streamlined body and can be identified by its short round snout, long sickle-shaped pectoral fins, ridge between the first and second dorsal fins, and faintly marked fins.
Adult dusky sharks have a broad and varied diet, consisting mostly of bony fishes, sharks and rays, and cephalopods, but also occasionally crustaceans, sea stars, bryozoans, sea turtles, marine mammals, carrion, and garbage. This species is viviparous with a three-year reproductive cycle; females bear litters of 3–14 young after a gestation period of 22–24 months, after which there is a year of rest before they become pregnant again. This shark, tied with the Spiny dogfish as a result is the animal with the longest gestation period. Females are capable of storing sperm for long periods, as their encounters with suitable mates may be few and far between due to their nomadic lifestyle and low overall abundance. Dusky sharks are one of the slowest-growing and latest-maturing sharks, not reaching adulthood until around 20 years of age.
Because of its slow reproductive rate, the dusky shark is very vulnerable to human-caused population depletion. This species is highly valued by commercial fisheries for its fins, used in shark fin soup, and for its meat, skin, and liver oil. It is also esteemed by recreational fishers. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed this species as Endangered worldwide and Vulnerable off the eastern United States, where populations have dropped to 15–20% of 1970s levels. The dusky shark is regarded as potentially dangerous to humans due to its large size, but there are few attacks attributable to it.
Taxonomy
French naturalist Charles Alexandre Lesueur published the first scientific description of the dusky shark in an 1818 issue of Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. He placed it in the genus Squalus and gave it the specific epithet obscurus (Latin for "dark" or "dim"), referring to its coloration. Subsequent authors have recognized this species as belonging to the genus Carcharhinus. Lesueur did not designate a type specimen, though he was presumably working from a shark caught in North American waters.
Many early sources gave the scientific name of the dusky shark as Carcharias (later Carcharhinus) lamiella, which originated from an 1882 account by David Starr Jordan and Charles Henry Gilbert. Although Jordan and Gilbert referred to a set of jaws that came from a dusky shark, the type specimen they designated was later discovered to be a copper shark (C. brachyurus). Therefore, C. lamiella is not considered a synonym of C. obscurus but rather of C. brachyurus. Other common names for this species include bay shark, black whaler, brown common gray shark, brown dusky shark, brown shark, common whaler, dusky ground shark, dusky whaler, river whaler, shovelnose, and slender whaler shark.
Phylogeny and evolution
Teeth belonging to the dusky shark are fairly well represented in the fossil record, though assigning Carcharhinus teeth to species can be problematic. Dusky shark teeth dating to the Miocene (23-5.3 Ma) have been recovered from the Kendeace and Grand Bay formations in Carriacou, the Grenadines, the Moghra Formation in Egypt, Polk County, Florida, and possibly Cerro La Cruz in northern Venezuela. Teeth dating to the Late Miocene or Early Pliocene (11.6-3.6 Ma) are abundant in the Yorktown Formation and the Pungo River, North Carolina, and from the Chesapeake Bay region; these teeth differ slightly from the modern dusky shark, and have often been misidentified as belonging to the oceanic whitetip shark (C. longimanus). Dusky shark teeth have also been recovered from the vicinity of two baleen whales in North Carolina, one preserved in Goose Creek Limestone dating to the Late Pliocene (c. 3.5 Ma), and the other in mud dating to the Pleistocene-Holocene (c. 12,000 years ago).
In 1982, Jack Garrick published a phylogenetic analysis of Carcharhinus based on morphology, in which he placed the dusky shark and the Galapagos shark (C. galapagensis) at the center of the "obscurus group". The group consisted of large, triangular-toothed sharks with a ridge between the dorsal fins, and also included the bignose shark (C. altimus), the Caribbean reef shark (C. perezi), the sandbar shark (C. plumbeus), and the oceanic whitetip shark. This interpretation was largely upheld by Leonard Compagno in his 1988 phenetic study, and by Gavin Naylor in his 1992 allozyme sequence study. Naylor was able to further resolve the interrelationships of the "ridge-backed" branch of Carcharhinus, finding that the dusky shark, Galapagos shark, oceanic whitetip shark, and blue shark (Prionace glauca) comprise its most derived clade.
Distribution and habitat
The range of the dusky shark extends worldwide, albeit discontinuously, in tropical and warm-temperate waters. In the western Atlantic Ocean, it is found from Massachusetts and the Georges Bank to southern Brazil, including the Bahamas and Cuba. In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, it has been reported from the western and central Mediterranean Sea, the Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and possibly elsewhere including Portugal, Spain, Morocco, and Madeira. In the Indian Ocean, it is found off South Africa, Mozambique, and Madagascar, with sporadic records in the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and perhaps the Red Sea. In the Pacific Ocean, it occurs off Japan, mainland China and Taiwan, Vietnam, Australia, and New Caledonia in the west, and from southern California to the Gulf of California, around Revillagigedo, and possibly off northern Chile in the east. Records of dusky sharks from the northeastern and eastern central Atlantic, and around tropical islands, may in fact be of Galapagos sharks. Mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite evidence suggest that Indonesian and Australian sharks represent distinct populations.
Residing off continental coastlines from the surf zone to the outer continental shelf and adjacent oceanic waters, the dusky shark occupies an intermediate habitat that overlaps with its more specialized relatives, such as the inshore sandbar shark, the pelagic silky shark (C. falciformis) and oceanic whitetip shark, the deepwater bignose shark, and the islandic Galapagos shark and silvertip shark (C. albimarginatus). One tracking study in the northern Gulf of Mexico found that it spends most of its time at depths of , while making occasional forays below ; this species has been known to dive as deep as . It prefers water temperatures of , and avoids areas of low salinity such as estuaries.
The dusky shark is nomadic and strongly migratory, undertaking recorded movements of up to ; adults generally move longer distances than juveniles. Sharks along both coasts of North America shift northward with warmer summer temperatures, and retreat back towards the equator in winter. Off South Africa, young males and females over long disperse southward and northward respectively (with some overlap) from the nursery area off KwaZulu-Natal; they join the adults several years later by a yet-unidentified route. In addition, juveniles spend spring and summer in the surf zone and fall and winter in offshore waters, and as they approach in length begin to conduct a north-south migration between KwaZulu-Natal in the winter and the Western Cape in summer. Still-larger sharks, over long, migrate as far as southern Mozambique. Off Western Australia, adult and juvenile dusky sharks migrate towards the coast in summer and fall, though not to the inshore nurseries occupied by newborns.
Description
One of the largest members of its genus, the dusky shark commonly reaches a length of and a weight of ; the maximum recorded length and weight are and respectively. However, the maximum reported size of the species is , while the maximum weight is reported to reach up to . Females grow larger than males. This shark has a slender, streamlined body with a broadly rounded snout no longer than the width of the mouth. The nostrils are preceded by barely developed flaps of skin. The medium-sized, circular eyes are equipped with nictitating membranes (protective third eyelids). The mouth has very short, subtle furrows at the corners and contains 13-15 (typically 14) tooth rows on either side of both jaws. The upper teeth are distinctively broad, triangular, and slightly oblique with strong, coarse serrations, while the lower teeth are narrower and upright, with finer serrations. The five pairs of gill slits are fairly long.
The large pectoral fins measure around one-fifth as long as the body, and have a falcate (sickle-like) shape tapering to a point. The first dorsal fin is of moderate size and somewhat falcate, with a pointed apex and a strongly concave rear margin; its origin lies over the pectoral fin free rear tips. The second dorsal fin is much smaller and is positioned about opposite the anal fin. A low dorsal ridge is present between the dorsal fins. The caudal fin is large and high, with a well-developed lower lobe and a ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe. The dermal denticles are diamond-shaped and closely set, each bearing five horizontal ridges leading to teeth on the posterior margin. This species is bronzy to bluish gray above and white below, which extends onto the flanks as a faint lighter stripe. The fins, particularly the underside of the pectoral fins and the lower caudal fin lobe) darken towards the tips; this is more obvious in juveniles. Dusky sharks can be found at Redondo Beach, southern California to the Gulf of California, and to Ecuador. But sometimes rarely off southern California; common in tropics. Dusky sharks have a total length of at least 3.6 m (11.8 ft) or possibly to 4.2 m (13.8 ft). At birth, dusky sharks are about a length of 70–100 cm (27.6-39.3 in). In the surf zone, dusky sharks swim to a depth of 573 m (1,879 ft). Dusky sharks have a color of Gray or beige.
Biology and ecology
As an apex predator positioned at the highest level of the trophic web, the dusky shark is generally less abundant than other sharks that share its range. However, high concentrations of individuals, especially juveniles, can be found at particular locations. Adults are often found following ships far from land, such as in the Agulhas Current. A tracking study off the mouth of the Cape Fear River in North Carolina reported an average swimming speed of . The dusky shark is one of the hosts of the sharksucker (Echeneis naucrates). Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Anthobothrium laciniatum, Dasyrhynchus pacificus, Platybothrium kirstenae, Floriceps saccatus, Tentacularia coryphaenae, and Triloculatum triloculatum, the monogeneans Dermophthirius carcharhini and Loimos salpinggoides, the leech Stibarobdella macrothela, the copepods Alebion sp., Pandarus cranchii, P. sinuatus, and P. smithii, the praniza larvae of gnathiid isopods, and the sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus).
Full-grown dusky sharks have no significant natural predators. Major predators of young sharks include the ragged tooth shark (Carcharias taurus), the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), the bull shark (C. leucas), and the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier). Off KwaZulu-Natal, the use of shark nets to protect beaches has reduced the populations of these large predators, leading to a dramatic increase in the number of juvenile dusky sharks (a phenomenon called "predator release"). In turn, the juvenile sharks have decimated populations of small bony fishes, with negative consequences for the biodiversity of the local ecosystem.
Feeding
The dusky shark is a generalist that takes a wide variety of prey from all levels of the water column, though it favors hunting near the bottom. A large individual can consume over a tenth of its body weight at a single sitting. The bite force exerted by a long dusky shark has been measured at over the area at the tip of a tooth. This is the highest figure thus far measured from any shark, though it also reflects the concentration of force at the tooth tip. Dense aggregations of young sharks, forming in response to feeding opportunities, have been documented in the Indian Ocean.
The known diet of the dusky shark encompasses pelagic fishes, including herring and anchovies, tuna and mackerel, billfish, jacks, needlefish and flyingfish, threadfins, hairtails, lancetfish, and lanternfish; demersal fishes, including mullets, porgies, grunts, and flatheads, eels, lizardfish, cusk eels, gurnards, and flatfish; reef fishes, including barracudas, goatfish, spadefish, groupers, scorpionfish, and porcupinefish; cartilaginous fishes, including dogfish, sawsharks, angel sharks, catsharks, thresher sharks, smoothhounds, smaller requiem sharks, sawfish, guitarfish, skates, stingrays, and butterfly rays; and invertebrates, including gastropods, cephalopods, decapod crustaceans, barnacles, and sea stars. Very rarely, the largest dusky sharks may also consume sea turtles, marine mammals (mainly as carrion), and human refuse.
In the northwestern Atlantic, around 60% of the dusky shark's diet consists of bony fishes, from over ten families with bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) and summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus) being especially important. Cartilaginous fishes, mainly skates and their egg cases, are the second-most important dietary component, while the lady crab (Ovalipes ocellatus) is also a relatively significant food source. In South African and Australian waters, bony fishes are again the most important prey type. Newborn and juvenile sharks subsist mainly on small pelagic prey such as sardines and squid; older sharks over long broaden their diets to include larger bony and cartilaginous fishes. The run of the southern African pilchard (Sardinops sagax), occurring off the eastern coast of South Africa every winter, is attended by medium and large-sized dusky sharks. Pregnant and post-partum females do not join, possibly because the energy cost of gestation leaves them unable to pursue such swift prey. One South African study reported that 0.2% of the sharks examined had preyed upon bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus).
Life history
Like other requiem sharks, the dusky shark is viviparous: the developing embryos are initially nourished by a yolk sac, which is converted into a placental connection to the mother once the yolk supply is exhausted. Mating occurs during spring in the northwestern Atlantic, while there appears to be no reproductive seasonality in other regions such as off South Africa. Females are capable of storing masses of sperm, possibly from multiple males, for months to years within their nidamental glands (an organ that secretes egg cases). This would be advantageous given the sharks' itinerant natures and low natural abundance, which would make encounters with suitable mates infrequent and unpredictable.
With a gestation period estimated at up to 22–24 months and a one-year resting period between pregnancies, female dusky sharks bear at most one litter of young every three years. Litter size ranges from 3 to 16, with 6 to 12 being typical, and does not correlate with female size. Sharks in the western Atlantic tend to produce slightly smaller litters than those from the southeastern Atlantic (averaging 8 versus 10 pups per litter). Depending on region, birthing may occur throughout the year or over a span of several months: newborn sharks have been reported from late winter to summer in the northwestern Atlantic, in summer and fall off Western Australia, and throughout the year with a peak in fall off southern Africa. Females move into shallow inshore habitats such as lagoons to give birth, as such areas offer their pups rich food supplies and shelter from predation (including from their own species), and leave immediately afterward. These nursery areas are known along the coasts of KwaZulu-Natal, southwestern Australia, western Baja California, and the eastern United States from New Jersey to North Carolina.
Newborn dusky sharks measure long; pup size increases with female size, and decreases with litter size. There is evidence that females can determine the size at which their pups are born, so as to improve their chances of survival across better or worse environmental conditions. Females also provision their young with energy reserves, stored in a liver that comprises one-fifth of the pup's weight, which sustains the newborn until it learns to hunt for itself. The dusky shark is one of the slowest-growing shark species, reaching sexual maturity only at a substantial size and age (see table). Various studies have found growth rates to be largely similar across geographical regions and between sexes. The annual growth rate is over the first five years of life. The maximum lifespan is believed to be 40–50 years or more.
Human interactions
Danger to humans
The dusky shark is considered to be potentially dangerous to humans because of its large size, though little is known of how it behaves towards people underwater. As of 2009, the International Shark Attack File lists it as responsible for six attacks on people and boats, three of them unprovoked and one fatal. However, attacks attributed to this species off Bermuda and other islands were probably in reality caused by Galapagos sharks.
Shark nets
Shark nets used to protect beaches in South Africa and Australia entangle adult and larger juvenile dusky sharks in some numbers. From 1978 to 1999, an average of 256 individuals were caught annually in nets off KwaZulu-Natal; species-specific data is not available for nets off Australia.
In aquariums
Young dusky sharks adapt well to display in public aquariums.
Fishing
The dusky shark is one of the most sought-after species for shark fin trade, as its fins are large and contain a high number of internal rays (ceratotrichia). In addition, the meat is sold fresh, frozen, dried and salted, or smoked, the skin is made into leather, and the liver oil is processed for vitamins. Dusky sharks are taken by targeted commercial fisheries operating off eastern North America, southwestern Australia, and eastern South Africa using multi-species longlines and gillnets. The southwestern Australian fishery began in the 1940s and expanded in the 1970s to yield 500–600 tons per year. The fishery utilizes selective demersal gillnets that take almost exclusively young sharks under three years old, with 18–28% of all newborns captured in their first year. Demographic models suggest that the fishery is sustainable, provided that the mortality rate of sharks under 2 m (6.6 ft) long is under 4%.
In addition to commercial shark fisheries, dusky sharks are also caught as bycatch on longlines meant for tuna and swordfish (and usually kept for its valuable fins), and by recreational fishers. Large numbers of dusky sharks, mostly juveniles, are caught by sport fishers off South Africa and eastern Australia. This shark was once one of the most important species in the Florida trophy shark tournaments, before the population collapsed.
Conservation
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed this species as Endangered worldwide. The American Fisheries Society has assessed North American dusky shark populations as Vulnerable. Its very low reproductive rate renders the dusky shark extremely susceptible to overfishing.
Stocks off the eastern United States are severely overfished; a 2006 stock assessment survey by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) showed that its population had dropped to 15–20% of 1970s levels. In 1997, the dusky shark was identified as a Species of Concern by the NMFS, meaning that it warranted conservation concern but there was insufficient information for listing on the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). Commercial and recreational retention of dusky sharks was prohibited in 1998, but this has been of limited effectiveness due to high bycatch mortality on multi-species gear. In addition, some 2,000 dusky sharks were caught by recreational fishers in 2003 despite the ban. In 2005, North Carolina implemented a time/area closure to reduce the impact of recreational fishing. To aid conservation efforts, molecular techniques using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) have been developed that can identify whether marketed shark parts (e.g. fins) are from prohibited species like the dusky shark, versus similar allowed species such as the sandbar shark.
The New Zealand Department of Conservation has classified the dusky shark as "Migrant" with the qualifier "Secure Overseas" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System.
References
External links
Youtube video of Dusky Sharks at Shelly Beach in Sydney
Carcharhinus obscurus, Dusky shark at FishBase
Biological Profiles: Dusky Shark at Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department
dusky shark
Fish of the Eastern United States
Fish of the Mediterranean Sea
Fish of South Africa
Fish of the Dominican Republic
Pantropical fish
Vulnerable fish
Vulnerable biota of Africa
Vulnerable fauna of Asia
Vulnerable biota of Europe
Vulnerable fauna of Oceania
Vulnerable biota of South America
dusky shark |
4283690 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian%20resistance%20during%20World%20War%20II | Belarusian resistance during World War II | The Belarusian resistance during World War II opposed Nazi Germany from 1941 until 1944. Belarus was one of the Soviet republics occupied during Operation Barbarossa. The term Belarusian partisans may refer to Soviet-formed irregular military groups fighting Germany, but has also been used to refer to the disparate independent groups who also fought as guerrillas at the time, including Jewish groups (such as the Bielski partisans and Fareynikte Partizaner Organisatsye), Polish groups (such as the Home Army), and nationalist Belarusian forces opposed to Germany.
Pro-Soviet resistance
After the victories of the Wehrmacht against the Red Army in 1941, Belarus was one of the Soviet republics that came under control of Nazi Germany (Operation Barbarossa). The official government of the occupation forces was established on August 23, 1941, under the direction of Wilhelm Kube, the German administrator of the Generalbezirk Weißruthenien. The German pacification operations were able to curb partisan activity significantly throughout the summer and fall of 1941. The Belarusian Auxiliary Police was established by the Nazis in July 1941 and deployed to murder operations particularly in February–March 1942. The resistance movement first consisted of cut-off Soviet soldiers, some civilians began joining them around the summer of 1942. From that time until the end of the year, the Central Committee of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Byelorussia formed courses and offices helping those wishing to fight the Nazi Government.
Already in July 1941, an underground group in the Vesnitsky village council of the Ushachsky district was created by the head of the Lesinsky outpost of the 13th Berezinsky border detachment (), Lieutenant Kudryavtsev. Underground workers established relations with the population, conducted oral campaigns among them, calling for a struggle against the invaders, and helped unite the locals. Soon it was decided to create a partisan detachment and begin an open armed struggle. The Nazis tracked down Kudryavtsev and one night surrounded the house where he was resting and killed him.
The first partisan detachments were composed mostly of Red Army personnel, but also included local people. They were commanded by officers of the Red Army, the Soviet secret police NKVD or local Soviet or Communist apparatchiks. These detachments dated back to the early days of World War II: the detachment Starasyel'ski of major Dorodnykh in Zhabinka district (June 23, 1941), the detachment of Vasily Korzh in Pinsk on June 26, 1941 and others. The first awards to the partisans with order of Hero of the Soviet Union occurred on August 6, 1941; they were given to detachment commanders Pavlovsky and Bumazhkov.
Throughout 1941, the core of the partisan movement consisted of the straggling remains of the Red Army units destroyed in Operation Barbarossa, personnel of the destruction battalions, and local Communist Komsomol and Soviet apparatchiks. The most common unit of the period was the detachment. The "seed" partisan detachments, diversionist and organizational groups were actively formed and inserted into German-occupied territories beginning in the summer of 1941. Urban underground groups were formed as a force complementing the activities of partisan units, which operated in rural terrains.
Organization
As a controlling body, a network of underground Communist structures was actively developed on German-occupied territories, and it received an influx of specially picked Communist activists. By the end of 1941, more than two thousand partisan detachments (with more than 90,000 personnel) operated in German-occupied territories. However, the activities of the partisan forces weren't centrally coordinated or logistically provided for until spring of 1942. In order to coordinate partisan operations, the Central Headquarters of the Partisan Movement, headed by Panteleimon Ponomarenko, the Russian-born former head of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, was organised on May 30, 1942. The Staff had its liaisons in the Military Councils of the fronts and armies. The territorial Staffs were subsequently created, dealing with the partisan movement in the respective Soviet Republics and in the occupied provinces of the Soviet Russia.
Later, the NKVD, SMERSH and GRU began to train special groups of future partisans (effectively special forces units) in the rear and dropping them in the occupied territories. The candidates for these groups were chosen among volunteers from regular Red Army, the NKVD's Internal Troops, and Soviet sportsmen. When dropped behind German lines, the groups were to organize and guide the local self-established partisan units. Radio operators and intelligence gathering officers were the essential members of each group since amateur fighters could not be trusted with these tasks. Some commanders of these special units (like Dmitry Medvedev) later became well-known partisan leaders.
Logistics difficulties
The Soviet authorities considered Belarus to be of the utmost importance to the development of the Soviet partisan war from the very beginning. The main factors were its geography, with many dense forests and swamps, and its strategic position on the communications going from West to Moscow. In fact, Belorussian Communist bodies in the Eastern provinces of Belarus began to organize and facilitate organization of the partisan units on the day after the first directive issuing (directives No.1 of 1941-07-30 and No.2 of 1941-07-01). By the Soviet estimates, in August 1941 about 231 detachments were operating already. The "seed" units, formed and inserted into Belarus, totalled 437 by the end of the 1941, comprising more than 7.2 thousand personnel. However, as the frontline moved further away, the logistical conditions steadily worsened for the partisan units, as the resources ran out, and there was no wide-scale support from over the frontline until March 1942.
One outstanding difficulty was the lack of radio communication, which wasn't addressed until April 1942. The support of the local people was also insufficient. So, for several months, partisan units in Belarus were virtually left to themselves. Especially difficult for the partisans was the winter of 1941–1942, with severe shortages in ammunition, medicine and supplies. The actions of partisans were generally uncoordinated. In the circumstances, the German pacification operations in Summer and Fall 1941 were able to curb the partisan activity significantly. Many units went underground, and generally, in the late Fall 1941—early 1942, the partisan units weren't undertaking the significant military operations, limiting themselves to sorting out the organizational problems, building up the logistics support and gaining influence with the local people. By the incomplete data, in the end of the 1941, 99 partisan detachments and about 100 partisan groups operated in Belarus. In Winter 1941–1942, 50 partisan detachments and about 50 underground organization and groups operated in Belarus. By the incomplete Russian data, in the end of the 1941, 99 partisan detachments and about 100 partisan groups operated in Soviet Belarus. In Winter 1941–1942, 50 partisan detachments and about 50 underground organisations and groups operated there. In the period (1941-12-01), the German guard forces in the Army Group "Centre" rear comprised 4 security divisions, 2 SS brigades, 260 companies of different branches of service. In August 1941, about 231 partisan detachments were operating in the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. The units totalled 437 by the end of the 1941, comprising more than 7,200 personnel.
In the period of December 1941, the German guard forces in the Army Group "Centre" rear comprised 4 security divisions, 2 SS brigades, 260 companies of different branches of service.
The Moscow Battle turned the tide in the morale of the partisans and of the local people in general. However, the real turning point in the development of the partisan movement in Belarus, and, in fact, on the German-occupied territories in general, came in the course of the Soviet Winter 1942 offensive.
1942, Vitebsk Gate
The Germans treated the local population abysmally (with the notable exception of the fraction of the civil administration headed by Wilhelm Kube), maintained kolkhozes in East and restored land possessions in West, collecting heavy food taxes, rounded up and sent young people to work in Germany. Overwhelmingly, Jews and even small-scale Soviet activists would feel more secure in the partisan ranks. The direct boost to the partisan numbers were the Red Army POWs of the local origin, who were let out "to the homes" in Fall 1941, but ordered by Germans to return to the concentration camps in March 1942.
In the Spring 1942, the aggregation of the smaller partisan units into brigades began, prompted by the experience of the first year of war. The coordination, numerical buildup, structural rework and now established logistical feed all translated to the greatly increased partisan units military capability, which showed, e.g., in the increased number of diversions on the railroads, reaching hundreds of engines and thousands of cars destroyed by the end of the year.
In 1942, the terror campaign against the territorial administration, which was manned by the local people ("collaborators and traitors") was additionally emphasized. This resulted, however, in the definite split of the local people's sympathies, resulting in the beginning of the organisation of the anti-partisan units with native personnel in 1942. By the November 1942, Soviet partisan units in Belarus numbered about 47,000 personnel.
The turning point in the development of the Soviet partisan movement came with the opening of the Vitsyebsk gate in February 1942. The partisan units were included in the overall Soviet strategical developments shortly after that, and the centralized organizational and logistical support had been organized, with Gate's existence being the very important facilitating factor.
See also: Central Headquarters of Partisan Movement, Special Belarusian courses.
By the November 1942, Soviet partisan units in Belarus numbered about 47.3 thousand personnel.
1943
In January 1943, out of 56,000 partisan personnel, 11,000 were operating in the West Belarus, which was 3.5 less per 10 thousand local people than in the East, and even more so (up to 5–6 factor) if accounting for the much more efficient evacuation measures in the East in 1941. This discrepancy wouldn't be sufficiently explained by the German treatment of local people, nor by the quick German advance in 1941, nor by the social circumstances then existing in these regions. There is strong evidence, that this was decision of the central Soviet authorities, who abstained from the greater buildup of the Partisan forces in West Belarus, and let Polish underground military structures to grow unopposed in these lands in 1941–1942, in the context of relations with the Polish government in exile of Sikorsky. Certain level of military cooperation, imposed by the respective commands, was noted between Soviet partisans and the Home Army; the people of Polish nationality were, to a degree, exempted from the terror campaign in 1942. After the break of diplomatic relations between USSR and Polish government in exile in April 1943, the situation changed radically. From this moment on, AK was treated as hostile military force.
The build-up of the Soviet partisan force in the Western Belarus was ordered and implemented during 1943, with 9 brigades, 10 detachments and 15 operational groups transferred from the Eastern to Western lands, effectively tripling the Partisan force there (to 36.8 thousand in December 1943). It is estimated that c. 10–12 thousand personnel were transferred, and about same number came from the local volunteers. The build-up of the military force was complemented by the ensuing build-up of the underground Communist Party structures and propaganda activity.
Soviet victory at the Battle of Stalingrad, certain curbing of the terror campaign (actually since December 1942, formally in February 1943) and amnesty promised to repenting collaborators were a significant factors in the 1943 growth of the Soviet partisan forces. Desertions from the ranks of the German-controlled Hilfspolizei and military formations strengthened, with sometimes whole units coming over to Soviet partisan side – Volga Tartars battalion (900 personnel, February 1943), Gil-Rodionov 1st Russian People's brigade of the SS (2500 personnel, August 1943). Summarily, about 7 thousand people of miscellaneous anti-Soviet formations joined the Soviet partisan force. About 1.9 thousand specialists and commanders were inserted in the Belarusian lands in 1943. However, the local people comprised the core of the personnel influx in the Soviet partisan force.
In late May 1943, Uderzeniowe Bataliony Kadrowe, with permission of the headquarters of the Home Army, concentrated its forces (200 men) around Wyszkow. The Germans soon found out about it and surrounded the Poles. A skirmish ensued, in which 4 Poles were killed and 8 wounded. German losses were estimated at 15 killed and 22 wounded. Those who were not caught, divided themselves into two groups and headed north, to Bezirk Bialystok. On June 11, 1943, the UBK forces under Major Stanislaw Pieciul (Radecki) of the 4th Battalion engaged the Germans near the village of Pawly (Bielsk Podlaski County). 25 Poles and approximately 40 Germans died.
In July 1943 the Uderzeniowe Bataliony Kadrowe units, active in Bezirk Bialystok, consisted of five Battalions. Altogether, there were 200 fighters, and during a number of skirmishes with the Germans (including the 1943 Polish underground raid on East Prussia), 138 of them were killed. These heavy losses were criticized by the headquarters of the Home Army, who claimed that the UBK was profusely using lives of young Polish soldiers. On August 17, 1943, upon the order of General Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski, the UBK was included into the Home Army. Soon afterwards, all battalions were transferred to the area of Novogrudok.
By autumn 1943, the partisan force in BSSR totalled about 153,700, and by the end 1943 about 122,000, with about 30,800 put behind the frontline in the course of liberation of eastern parts of BSSR (in the end of 1943). After the liberation of BSSR, about 180,000 partisans joined the Soviet Army in 1944.
During the 1941—1944 period, the turnaround in the Soviet partisan force in Belarus was about 374,000, about 70,000 in urban underground, and about 400,000 in the reserve of the partisan force.
Among Soviet partisans in Belarus were people of 45 different ethnic backgrounds and 4,000 foreigners (including 3,000 Poles, 400 Czechs and Slovaks, 300 Yugoslavians, etc.). Around 65% of Belarusian partisans were local people.
On September 22, 1943, Kube was assassinated in his Minsk home by a bomb as part of Operation Blow-Up; the bomb was placed by a Soviet partisan Yelena Mazanik, a Belarusian woman who had managed to find employment in Kube's household as a maid and presumably became his mistress in order to assassinate him.
1943–1944
The partisan movement was so strong that by 1943–44 there were entire regions in occupied Belarus, where Soviet authority was re-established deep inside the German held territories. There were even partisan kolkhozes that were raising crops and livestock to produce food for the partisans. During the battles for liberation of Belarus, partisans were considered the fourth Belarusian front. As early as the spring of 1942 the Soviet partisans were able to effectively harass German troops and significantly hamper their operations in the region.
The build-up of the Soviet partisan force in the West Belarus was ordered and implemented during 1943, with nine brigades, 10 detachments and 15 operational groups transferred from the Eastern to Western lands, effectively tripling the Partisan force there (to 36,000 in December 1943). It is estimated that c. 10,000–12,000 personnel were transferred, and about same number came from the local volunteers. The build-up of the military force was complemented by the ensuing reconstruction of underground Communist Party structures and propaganda activity.
The Soviet victory in the Battle of Stalingrad, certain curbing of the terror campaign (actually since December 1942, formally in February 1943) and amnesty promised to repenting collaborators were a significant factors in the 1943 growth of the Soviet partisan forces. Desertions from the ranks of the German-controlled police and military formations strengthened, with sometimes whole units coming over to Soviet partisan side, including the Volga Tatars battalion (900 personnel, February 1943), and the Gil-Rodionov's 1st Russian People's brigade of the SS (2,500 personnel, August 1943). Summarily, about 7,000 people of miscellaneous anti-Soviet formations joined the Soviet partisan force, while about 1,900 specialists and commanders were inserted in the Belarusian lands in 1943. However, the local people comprised the core of the personnel influx in the Soviet partisan force.
Yitzhak Arad was active in the Vilna Ghetto underground movement from 1942 to 1944. In February 1943, he joined the Belarusian partisans in the Vilna Battalion of the Markov Brigade, a primarily non-Jewish unit in which he had to contend with antisemitism. Apart from a foray infiltrating the Vilna Ghetto in April 1943 to meet with underground leader Abba Kovner, he stayed with the partisans until the end of the war, fighting the Germans and their collaborators near Lake Narach.
In the Fall 1943, the partisan force in BSSR totalled about 153,000, and by the end 1943 about 122,000, with about 30,000 put behind the front line in the course of liberation of eastern parts of BSSR (end 1943). The partisan movement was so strong that by 1943–1944 there were entire regions in occupied Belarus, where Soviet authority was re-established deep inside the German held territories. There were even partisan kolkhozes that were raising crops and livestock to produce food for the partisans.
The Bielski partisans' activities were aimed at the Nazis and their collaborators, such as Belarusian volunteer policemen or local inhabitants who had betrayed or killed Jews. They also conducted sabotage missions. The Nazi regime offered a reward of 100,000 Reichsmarks for assistance in the capture of Tuvia Bielski, and in 1943, led major clearing operations against all partisan groups in the area. Some of these groups suffered major casualties, but the Bielski partisans fled safely to a more remote part of the forest, and continued to offer protection to the non-combatants among their band.
During the process of reorganization of the Novogrudok area of the Home Army, the Uderzeniowe Bataliony Kadrowe units created a battalion, which became part of the 77th Infantry Regiment of the Home Army, under Boleslaw Piasecki. In February 1944 the battalion had around 700 soldiers (some sources put the number at around 500). The unit took part in the Operation Tempest, fighting the Germans around Lida and Vilnius (see: Wilno Uprising), where it suffered heavy losses.
The 5th Wileńska Brigade of the Home Army, commanded by Zygmunt Szendzielarz (Łupaszko), fought against the German army and SS units in the area of southern Wilno Voivodeship, but was also frequently attacked by the Soviet Partisans paradropped in the area by the Red Army. In April 1944, Zygmunt Szendzielarz was arrested by Lithuanian police and handed over to the German Gestapo. Łupaszko escaped or was released in unknown circumstances at the end of April. In reprisal actions his brigade captured several dozen German officials and sent several threatening letters to Gestapo but it remains unknown if and how these contributed to his release.
On June 12, 1944, General Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski, Commander-in-Chief of the Home Army, issued an order to prepare a plan of liberating Vilnius from German hands. The Home Army districts of Vilnius and Novogrudok planned to take control of the city before Soviet forces could reach it. The Commander of the Home Army district in Vilnius, General Aleksander Krzyżanowski "Wilk", decided to regroup all the partisan units in the north-eastern part of Poland for the assault, both from inside the city and from the outside.
On June 23, two squads of the 5th Wileńska Brigade, commanded by "Maks" and "Rakoczy", attacked the Lithuanian policemen in Dubingiai.
The starting date was set to July 7. Approximately 12,500 Home Army soldiers attacked the German garrison and managed to seize most of the city centre. Heavy street fighting in the outskirts lasted until July 14. In Wilno's eastern suburbs, the Home Army units cooperated with reconnaissance groups of the Soviet 3rd Belorussian Front.
Soviets enter
General Krzyżanowski wanted to group all of the partisan units into a re-created Polish 19th Infantry Division. However, the advancing Red Army entered the city on July 15, and the NKVD started to intern all Polish soldiers.
In August the commander of all Home Army units in the Wilno area, Gen. Aleksander Krzyżanowski "Wilk" ordered all six brigades under his command to prepare for the Operation Tempest – a plan for an all-national uprising against the German forces occupying Poland. In what became known as the Operation Ostra Brama, the V Brigade was to attack the Wilno suburb of Zwierzyniec in cooperation with the advancing units of the 3rd Belorussian Front. However, for fear of being arrested with his units by the NKVD and killed on the spot, Zygmunt Szendzielarz – Łupaszko – decided to disobey the orders and instead moved his unit to central Poland. The Operation Ostra Brama was a success and the city was liberated by Polish soldiers, but the Polish commander was then arrested by the Soviets and the majority of his soldiers were sent to Gulags and sites of detention in the Soviet Union.
It is uncertain why Szendzielarz was not court-martialled for desertion. It is highly probable that in fact his unit was moved out of the battlefield by Gen. "Wilk" himself, due to the fact that Łupaszka's unit has been long involved in fights with the Soviet partisans and he did not want to provoke the Red Army. Regardless, after crossing into Podlaskie and Białystok area in October, the brigade continued the struggle against withdrawing Germans in the ranks of the "Białystok Home Army Area". After the region was overrun by the Soviets, Łupaszka's unit remained in the forests and Łupaszka decided to wait for the outcome of Russo-Polish talks held by the Polish Government in Exile. At the same time the unit was reorganized and captured enough equipment to fully arm 600 men with machine guns and machine pistols.
After the governments of the United Kingdom and United States broke the pacts with Poland and accepted the Polish Committee of National Liberation as the provisional government of Poland, Łupaszka restarted the hostilities – this time against a new oppressor, in the ranks of Wolność i Niezawisłość organization. However, after several successful actions against the NKVD units in the area of Białowieża Forest, it became apparent that such actions would result in a total destruction of his unit.
During the battles for liberation of Belarus, partisans considered the fourth Byelorussian front. After the liberation of BSSR, about 180,000 partisans joined the Soviet Army in 1944.
During the 1941–1944 period, the turnaround in the Soviet partisan force in Belarus was about 374,000, about 70,000 in urban underground, and about 400,000 in the reserve of the partisan force. Among Soviet partisans in Belarus were people of 45 different ethnic backgrounds and 4,000 foreigners (including 3,000 Poles, 400 Czechs and Slovaks, 300 Yugoslavians, etc.). Around 65% of Belarusian partisans were local people.
As part of the Nazis' effort to combat the enormous Belarusian resistance during World War II, special units of local collaborationists were trained by the SS's Otto Skorzeny to infiltrate the Soviet rear. In 1944 thirty Belarusians, known as "Čorny Kot" ("Black Cat") and led by Michał Vituška, were airdropped by the Luftwaffe behind the lines of the Red Army, which had already liberated Belarus during Operation Bagration. They experienced some initial success due to disorganization in the rear of the Red Army, and some other German-trained Belarusian nationalist units also slipped through the Białowieża Forest in 1945. According to most accounts, Vituška was hanged by Soviet forces during the war, though others claim he escaped along with several other collaborationist leaders.
Partisan operations
Vasiliy Korzh raid, Autumn 1941 – March 23, 1942. 1000 km raid of a partisan formation in the Mińsk and Pińsk Woblast of Belarus.
Battle of Briańsk forests, May 1942. Partisan battle against the Nazi punitive expedition that included 5 infantry divisions, military police, 120 tanks and aviation.
The destruction of the German garrison in Lenin, September 12, 1942.
Raid of Sydor Kowpak, October 26 – November 29, 1942. Raid in Briańsk forests and Eastern Ukraine.
Battle of Briańsk forests, May–June 1943. Partisan battle in the Briańsk forests with German punitive expeditions.
Operation Rails War, August 3 – September 15, 1943. A major operation of partisan formations against the railroad transportation and communications intended to disrupt the German reinforcements and supplies for the Battle of Kursk and later the Battle of Smolensk. It involved concentrated actions by more than 100,000 partisan fighters from Belarus, the Leningrad Oblast, the Kalinin Oblast, the Smolensk Oblast, the Oryol Oblast and Ukraine within an area 1000 km along the front and 750 km wide. Reportedly, more than 230,000 rails were destroyed, along with many bridges, trains and other railroad infrastructure. The operation seriously incapacitated German logistics and was instrumental in the Soviet victory in Kursk battle.
Operation Concert, September 19 – November 1, 1943. "Concerto" was a major operation of partisan formations against the railroad communications intended to disrupt the German reinforcements and supplies for the Battle of the Dnieper and on the direction of the Soviet offensive in the Smolensk and Homel directions. Partisans from Belarus, Karelia, the Kalinin Oblast, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and the Crimea participated in the operations. The area of the operation was 900 km along the front (excluding Karelia and Crimea) and 400 km wide. Despite bad weather that only permitted the airlift of less than a half of the planned supplies, the operation lead to a 35–40% decrease in the railroad capacity in the area of operations. This was critical for the success of Soviet military operations in the autumn of 1943. In Belarus alone the partisans claimed the destruction of more than 90,000 rails along with 1,061 trains, 72 railroad bridges and 58 Axis garrisons. According to the Soviet historiography, Axis losses totaled more than 53,000 soldiers.
Battle of Połock-Lepel, April 1944. Major battle between Belarusian partisans and German punitive expeditions.
Battle of Borysów-Begoml, April 22 – May 15, 1944. Major battle between Belarusian partisans and German punitive expeditions.
Operation Bagration, June 22 – August 19, 1944. Belarusian partisans took major part in the Operation Bagration. They were often considered the fifth front (along with the 1st Baltic Front, 1st Belorussian Front, 2nd Belorussian Front and 3rd Belorussian Front). Upwards of 300,000 partisans took part in the operation.
Pro-independence resistance
In 1941, a significant part of the Belarusian pro-independence movement chose to collaborate with the Nazis following mass Soviet repressions in Belarus and discrimination of Belarusians in the Second Polish Republic throughout the preceding decades. However, as the war progressed, parts of the collaboration movement became less loyal to the Germans.
Germans reacted with repressions. The Catholic priest Vincent Hadleŭski, who was the leader of the Belarusian Independence Party, was arrested by the German police on December 24, 1942, and executed in the Maly Trostenets extermination camp.
Jewish forces
During the same period, Jewish residents of Belarus also took part in partisan activities. The units, based on family camps, was devised by Tuvia Bielski with his brothers in Western Belarus. Based from the forests near the Neman River, the family units was home to mostly women, children and elderly. The men who were able to carry weapons either guarded the camps or took part in partisan activities. While the main purpose of the camps was to shelter Belarusian Jews and create villages to survive, there were some camps that were set up to militarily combat the occupation government. One group, from 1941 until 1944, attacked or destroyed bridges, factories, railroad tracks and killed police and Nazi officials. The family camps also prevented the deportation of residents to either labour or concentration camps.
Polish forces
The Polish underground operated over the whole pre-war territory of Poland, including the Polish territories annexed by the Soviet Union. As non-communist Poles tended to consider the Soviets as occupiers even after the German invasion of the Soviet Union there was some conflict between Polish and Soviet partisans.
June 22, 1943, Central Committee of the Belarusian Communist Party received orders in Moscow to destroy the Home Army in Belarus. From then, the number of conflicts between Soviet and non-communist Polish partisans intensified. One Polish unit was arrested December 1, 1943, some Polish officers were executed, the commander major Wacław Pełka transported to Moscow.
Resistance fighters
Soviet
Ales Adamovich
Yitzhak Arad
Masha Bruskina
Janka Bryl
Vassili Kononov
Pyotr Masherov
Kirill Mazurov
Panteleimon Ponomarenko
Zinaida Portnova
Ivan Sergeychik
Petr Shelokhonov
Arturs Sproģis
Polish
Zygmunt Andruszkiewicz
Stanisław Bułak-Bałachowicz
Maria Fedecka
Henryk Krajewski
Aleksander Krzyżanowski
Władysław Liniarski
Sergiusz Piasecki
Janusz Szlaski
Zygmunt Szendzielarz
Jewish
Asael Bielski
Tuvia Bielski
Alexander Zeisal Bielski
Abba Kovner
Shalom Yoran
Simcha Zorin
Resistance units
19th Infantry Division (Poland)
29th Infantry Division (Poland)
Anti-Fascist Military Organisation
Home Army in Belarus
Bataliony Chłopskie
Bielski partisans
Fareynikte Partizaner Organizatsye
Leśni
National Armed Forces
Polish 30th Infantry Division
Soviet partisan regiment 1941–1944
Soviet partisan united formation 1941–1944
Szare Szeregi
Uderzeniowe Bataliony Kadrowe
In popular culture
The Belarusian partisans had a large impact on the culture of Belarus. Many partisans, such as Ales Adamovich and Vasil Bykaŭ, later went on to become prolific writers as well as active members of the pro-independence Belarusian Popular Front. Pyotr Masherov, in his position as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Byelorussia, also sought to increase public awareness of Belarusian partisan activities across the Soviet Union.
The Belarusian partisan movement was depicted in the film Come and See, which was written by Adamovich alongside Elem Klimov, and got through Soviet censors with the assistance of Masherov.
In the post-Soviet period, the partisan movement has been evoked both by the government of Alexander Lukashenko and the Belarusian opposition. Lukashenko has drawn comparisons between the opposition and Byelorussian collaborators, who also used pro-independence symbolism. Likewise, the opposition has sought to compare themselves to the partisan movement while comparing pro-government forces to collaborators and German military forces. Most significantly has been the hacktivist group Cyber Partisans, who took their name from the wartime partisans.
Multiple locations in Belarus have been named after the partisans, including Partyzanski District in Minsk and the village of Partizansky in Vileyka District.
See also
Anti-fascism
Białowieża Forest
German occupation of Byelorussia during World War II
Byelorussian collaboration with Nazi Germany
The Holocaust in Belarus
Resistance during World War II
Notes
References
External links
Partisan Resistance in Belarus during World War II
Interviews from the Underground: Eyewitness accounts of Russia's Jewish resistance during World War II' documentary film and website
Belarus in World War II
Generalbezirk Weißruthenien
Irregular military |
4283766 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tzav | Tzav | Tzav, Tsav, Zav, Sav, or Ṣaw (—Hebrew for "command," the sixth word, and the first distinctive word, in the parashah) is the 25th weekly Torah portion (, parashah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the second in the Book of Leviticus. The parashah teaches how the priests performed the sacrifices and describes the ordination of Aaron and his sons. The parashah constitutes Leviticus 6:1–8:36. The parashah is made up of 5,096 Hebrew letters, 1,353 Hebrew words, 97 verses, and 170 lines in a Torah scroll (, Sefer Torah). Jews read it the 24th or 25th Sabbath after Simchat Torah, generally in the second half of March or the first half of April.
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , aliyot.
First reading—Leviticus 6:1–11
In the first reading, God told Moses to command Aaron and the priests about the rituals of the sacrifices (, karbanot).
The burnt offering (, olah) was to burn on the altar until morning, when the priest was to clear the ashes to a place outside the camp. The priests were to keep the fire burning, every morning feeding it wood.
The meal offering (, minchah) was to be presented before the altar, a handful of it burned on the altar, and the balance eaten by the priests as unleavened cakes in the Tent of Meeting.
Second reading—Leviticus 6:12–7:10
In the second reading, on the occasion of the High Priest's anointment, the meal offering was to be prepared with oil on a griddle and then entirely burned on the altar.
The sin offering (, chatat) was to be slaughtered at the same place as the burnt offering, and the priest who offered it was to eat it in the Tent of Meeting. If the sin offering was cooked in an earthen vessel, that vessel was to be broken afterward. A copper vessel could be rinsed with water and reused. If blood of the sin offering was brought into the Tent of Meeting for expiation, the entire offering was to be burned on the altar.
The guilt offering (, asham) was to be slaughtered at the same place as the burnt offering, the priest was to dash its blood on the altar, burn its fat, broad tail, kidneys, and protuberance on the liver on the altar, and the priest who offered it was to eat the balance of its meat in the Tent of Meeting.
The priest who offered a burnt offering kept the skin. The priest who offered it was to eat any baked or grilled meal offering, but every other meal offering was to be shared among all the priests.
Third reading—Leviticus 7:11–38
In the third reading, the peace offering (, shelamim), if offered for thanksgiving, was to be offered with unleavened cakes or wafers with oil, which would go to the priest who dashed the blood of the peace offering. All the meat of the peace offering had to be eaten on the day that it was offered. If offered as a votive or a freewill offering, it could be eaten for two days, and what was then left on the third day was to be burned.
Meat that touched anything unclean could not be eaten; it had to be burned. And only a person who was unclean could not eat meat from peace offerings, at pain of exile. One could eat no fat or blood, at pain of exile.
The person offering the peace offering had to present the offering and its fat himself, the priest would burn the fat on the altar, the breast would go to the priests, and the right thigh would go to the priest who offered the sacrifice.
Fourth reading—Leviticus 8:1–13
In the fourth reading, God instructed Moses to assemble the whole community at the entrance of the Tent of Meeting for the priests' ordination. Moses brought Aaron and his sons forward, washed them, and dressed Aaron in his vestments. Moses anointed and consecrated the Tabernacle and all that was in it, and then anointed and consecrated Aaron and his sons.
Fifth reading—Leviticus 8:14–21
In the fifth reading, Moses led forward a bull for a sin offering, Aaron and his sons laid their hands on the bull's head, and it was slaughtered. Moses put the bull's blood on the horns and the base of the altar, burned the fat, the protuberance of the liver, and the kidneys on the altar, and burned the rest of the bull outside the camp. Moses then brought forward a ram for a burnt offering, Aaron and his sons laid their hands on the ram's head, and it was slaughtered. Moses dashed the blood against the altar and burned all of the ram on the altar.
Sixth reading—Leviticus 8:22–29
In the sixth reading, Moses then brought forward a second ram for ordination, Aaron and his sons laid their hands on the ram's head, and it was slaughtered. Moses put some of its blood on Aaron and his sons, on the ridges of their right ears, on the thumbs of their right hands, and on the big toes of their right feet. Moses then burned the animal's fat, broad tail, protuberance of the liver, kidneys, and right thigh on the altar with a cake of unleavened bread, a cake of oil bread, and a wafer as an ordination offering. Moses raised the breast before God and then took it as his portion.
Seventh reading—Leviticus 8:30–36
In the seventh reading, Moses sprinkled oil and blood on Aaron and his sons and their vestments. And Moses told Aaron and his sons to boil the meat at the entrance of the Tent of Meeting and eat it there, and remain at the Tent of Meeting for seven days to complete their ordination, and they did all the things that God had commanded through Moses.
Readings according to the triennial cycle
Jews who read the Torah according to the triennial cycle of Torah reading read the parashah according to the following schedule:
In inner-Biblical interpretation
This parashah and the preceding one (Vayikra) have parallels or are discussed in these Biblical sources:
Leviticus chapters 1–7
In Psalm 50, God clarifies the purpose of sacrifices. God states that correct sacrifice was not the taking of a bull out of the sacrificer's house, nor the taking of a goat out of the sacrificer's fold, to convey to God, for every animal was already God's possession. The sacrificer was not to think of the sacrifice as food for God, for God neither hungers nor eats. Rather, the worshiper was to offer to God the sacrifice of thanksgiving and call upon God in times of trouble, and thus God would deliver the worshiper and the worshiper would honor God.
And Psalm 107 enumerates four occasions on which a thank-offering (, zivchei todah), as described in Leviticus 7:12–15 (referring to a , zevach todah) would be appropriate: (1) passage through the desert, (2) release from prison, (3) recovery from serious disease, and (4) surviving a storm at sea.
The Hebrew Bible reports several instances of sacrifices before God explicitly called for them in Leviticus 1–7. While Leviticus 1:3–17 and Leviticus 6:1–6 set out the procedure for the burnt offering (, olah), before then, Genesis 8:20 reports that Noah offered burnt-offerings (, olot) of every clean beast and bird on an altar after the waters of the Flood subsided. The story of the Binding of Isaac includes three references to the burnt offering (, olah). In Genesis 22:2, God told Abraham to take Isaac and offer him as a burnt-offering (, olah). Genesis 22:3 then reports that Abraham rose early in the morning and split the wood for the burnt-offering (, olah). And after the angel of the Lord averted Isaac's sacrifice, Genesis 22:13 reports that Abraham lifted up his eyes and saw a ram caught in a thicket, and Abraham then offered the ram as a burnt-offering (, olah) instead of his son. Exodus 10:25 reports that Moses pressed Pharaoh for Pharaoh to give the Israelites "sacrifices and burnt-offerings" (, zevachim v'olot) to offer to God. And Exodus 18:12 reports that after Jethro heard all that God did to Pharaoh and the Egyptians, Jethro offered a burnt-offering and sacrifices (, olah uzevachim) to God.
While Leviticus 2 and Leviticus 6:7–16 set out the procedure for the meal-offering (, minchah), before then, in Genesis 4:3, Cain brought an offering (, minchah) of the fruit of the ground. And then Genesis 4:4–5 reports that God had respect for Abel and his offering (, minchato), but for Cain and his offering (, minchato), God had no respect.
And while Numbers 15:4–9 indicates that one bringing an animal sacrifice needed also to bring a drink-offering (, nesech), before then, in Genesis 35:14, Jacob poured out a drink-offering (, nesech) at Bethel.
More generally, the Hebrew Bible addressed "sacrifices" (, zevachim) generically in connection with Jacob and Moses. After Jacob and Laban reconciled, Genesis 31:54 reports that Jacob offered a sacrifice (, zevach) on the mountain and shared a meal with his kinsmen. And after Jacob learned that Joseph was still alive in Egypt, Genesis 46:1 reports that Jacob journeyed to Beersheba and offered sacrifices (, zevachim) to the God of his father Isaac. And Moses and Aaron argued repeatedly with Pharaoh over their request to go three days' journey into the wilderness and sacrifice (, venizbechah) to God.
The Hebrew Bible also includes several ambiguous reports in which Abraham or Isaac built or returned to an altar and "called upon the name of the Lord." In these cases, the text implies but does not explicitly state that the Patriarch offered a sacrifice. And at God's request, Abraham conducted an unusual sacrifice at the Covenant between the Pieces () in Genesis 15:9–21.
Leviticus chapter 8
This is the pattern of instruction and construction of the Tabernacle and its furnishings:
Gordon Wenham noted that the phrase "as the Lord commanded Moses" or a similar phrase "recurs with remarkable frequency" in Leviticus 8–10, appearing in Leviticus 8:4, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 29, 34, 36; 9:6, 7, 10, 21; 10:7, 13, and 15.
The Hebrew Bible refers to the Urim and Thummim in Exodus 28:30; Leviticus 8:8; Numbers 27:21; Deuteronomy 33:8; 1 Samuel 14:41 ("Thammim") and 28:6; Ezra 2:63; and Nehemiah 7:65; and may refer to them in references to "sacred utensils" in Numbers 31:6 and the Ephod in 1 Samuel 14:3 and 19; 23:6 and 9; and 30:7–8; and Hosea 3:4.
The Torah mentions the combination of ear, thumb, and toe in three places. In Exodus 29:20, God instructed Moses how to initiate the priests, telling him to kill a ram, take some of its blood, and put it on the tip of the right ear of Aaron and his sons, on the thumb of their right hand, and on the great toe of their right foot, and dash the remaining blood against the altar round about. And then Leviticus 8:23–24 reports that Moses followed God's instructions to initiate Aaron and his sons. Then, Leviticus 14:14, 17, 25, and 28 set forth a similar procedure for the cleansing of a person with skin disease (, tzara'at). In Leviticus 14:14, God instructed the priest on the day of the person's cleansing to take some of the blood of a guilt-offering and put it upon the tip of the right ear, the thumb of the right hand, and the great toe of the right foot of the one to be cleansed. And then in Leviticus 14:17, God instructed the priest to put oil on the tip of the right ear, the thumb of the right hand, and the great toe of the right foot of the one to be cleansed, on top of the blood of the guilt-offering. And finally, in Leviticus 14:25 and 28, God instructed the priest to repeat the procedure on the eighth day to complete the person's cleansing.
In early nonrabbinic interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these early nonrabbinic sources:
Leviticus chapter 8
Reading Leviticus 8:23–24, Philo noted that Moses took some blood from the sacrificed ram, holding a vial under it to catch it, and with it he anointed three parts of the body of the initiated priests—the tip of the ear, the extremity of the hand, and the extremity of the foot, all on the right side. Philo taught that this signified that the perfect person must be pure in every word and action, and in all of life. For it is the hearing that judges a person's words, the hand is the symbol of action, and the foot of the way in which a person walks in life. Philo taught that since each of these parts is an extremity of the body, and on the right side, this indicates that improvement in everything is to be arrived at by dexterity, being a portion of felicity, and being the true aim in life, which a person must necessarily labor to attain, and to which a person ought to refer all actions, aiming at them in life as an archer aims at a target.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these rabbinic sources from the era of the Mishnah and the Talmud:
Leviticus chapter 6
Tractate Zevachim in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the law of animal sacrifices in Leviticus 1–5. The Mishnah taught that a sacrifice was slaughtered for the sake of six things: (1) for the sake of the sacrifice for which it was consecrated, (2) for the sake of the offerer, (3) for the sake of the Divine Name, (4) for the sake of the altar fires, (5) for the sake of an aroma, and (6) for the sake of pleasing God, and a sin-offering and a guilt-offering for the sake of sin. Rabbi Jose taught that even if the offerer did not have any of these purposes at heart, the offering was valid, because it was a regulation of the court, since the intention was determined only by the priest who performed the service. The Mishnah taught that the intention of the priest conducting the sacrifice determined whether the offering would prove valid.
Rabbi Simeon taught that, generally speaking, the Torah required a burnt offering only as expiation for sinful meditation of the heart.
A Midrash taught that if people repent, it is accounted as if they had gone up to Jerusalem, built the Temple and the altars, and offered all the sacrifices ordained in the Torah. Rabbi Aha said in the name of Rabbi Hanina ben Pappa that God accounts studying the sacrifices as equivalent to offering them. Rav Huna taught that God said that engaging in the study of Mishnah is as if one were offering up sacrifices. Samuel taught that God said that engaging in the study of the law is as if one were building the Temple. And the Avot of Rabbi Natan taught that God loves Torah study more than sacrifice.
Rabbi Ammi taught that Abraham asked God if Israel would come to sin, would God punish them as God punished the generation of the Flood and the generation of the Tower of Babel. God answered that God would not. Abraham then asked God in Genesis 15:8: "How shall I know?" God replied in Genesis 15:9: "Take Me a heifer of three years old . . ." (indicating that Israel would obtain forgiveness through sacrifices). Abraham then asked God what Israel would do when the Temple would no longer exist. God replied that whenever Jews read the Biblical text dealing with sacrifices, God would reckon it as if they were bringing an offering, and forgive all their iniquities.
The Gemara taught that when Rav Sheshet fasted, on concluding his prayer, he added a prayer that God knew that when the Temple still stood, if people sinned, they used to bring sacrifices (pursuant to Leviticus 4:27–35 and 7:2–5), and though they offered only the animal's fat and blood, atonement was granted. Rav Sheshet continued that he had fasted and his fat and blood had diminished, so he asked that it be God's will to account Rav Sheshet fat and blood that had been diminished as if he had offered them on the Altar.
Rabbi Isaac declared that prayer is greater than sacrifice.
The Avot of Rabbi Natan taught that as Rabban Joḥanan ben Zakai and Rabbi Joshua were leaving Jerusalem, Rabbi Joshua expressed sorrow that the place where the Israelites had atoned for their iniquities had been destroyed. But Rabban Joḥanan ben Zakai told him not to grieve, for we have in acts of loving-kindness another atonement as effective as sacrifice at the Temple, as Hosea 6:6 says, "For I desire mercy, and not sacrifice."
Rabbi Mani of Sheab and Rabbi Joshua of Siknin in the name of Rabbi Levi explained the origin of Leviticus 6:1. Moses prayed on Aaron's behalf, noting that the beginning of Leviticus repeatedly referred to Aaron's sons, barely mentioning Aaron himself. Moses asked whether God could love well water but hate the well. Moses noted that God honored the olive tree and the vine for the sake of their offspring, teaching that the priests could use all trees' wood for the altar fire except that of the olive and vine. Moses thus asked God whether God might honor Aaron for the sake of his sons, and God replied that God would reinstate Aaron and honor him above his sons. And thus God said to Moses the words of Leviticus 6:1, "Command Aaron and his sons."
Rabbi Abin deduced from Leviticus 6:1 that burnt offerings were wholly given over to the flames.
The School of Rabbi Ishmael taught that whenever Scripture uses the word "command" (, tzav) (as Leviticus 6:2 does), it denotes exhortation to obedience immediately and for all time. A Baraita deduced exhortation to immediate obedience from the use of the word "command" in Deuteronomy 3:28, which says, "charge Joshua, and encourage him, and strengthen him." And the Baraita deduced exhortation to obedience for all time from the use of the word "command" in Numbers 15:23, which says, "even all that the Lord has commanded you by the hand of Moses, from the day that the Lord gave the commandment, and onward throughout your generations."
Rabbi Joshua of Siknin said in Rabbi Levi's name that the wording of Leviticus 6:2 supports the argument of Rabbi Jose bar Hanina (on which he differed with Rabbi Eleazar) that the descendants of Noah offered only burnt-offerings (and not peace-offerings, as before the Revelation at Mount Sinai, people were unworthy to consume any part of an animal consecrated to God). Rabbi Joshua of Siknin noted that Leviticus 6:2 says, "This is the law of the burnt-offering: that is the burnt-offering," which Rabbi Joshua of Siknin read to mean "that is the burnt-offering" that the Noahides used to offer. But when Leviticus 7:11 addresses peace-offerings, it says, "And this is the law of the sacrifice of peace-offerings," and does not say, "that they offered" (which would indicate that they offered it in the past, before Revelation). Rabbi Joshua of Siknin thus read Leviticus 7:11 to teach that they would offer the peace-offering only after the events of Leviticus 7:11.
Reading the words of Leviticus 6:2, "This is the law of the burnt-offering: it is that which goes up on its firewood upon the altar all night to the morning," the Mishnah concluded that the altar sanctified whatever was eligible for it. Rabbi Joshua taught that whatever was eligible for the altar fire did not descend once it had ascended. Thus, just as the burnt-offering, which was eligible for the altar fire, did not descend once it had ascended, so whatever was eligible for the altar fire did not descend once it ascended.
The Gemara interpreted the words in Leviticus 6:2, "This is the law of the burnt-offering: It is that which goes up on its firewood upon the altar all night into the morning." From the passage, "which goes up on its firewood upon the altar all night," the Rabbis deduced that once a thing had been placed upon the altar, it could not be taken down all night. Rabbi Judah taught that the words "This . . . goes up on . . . the altar all night" exclude three things. According to Rabbi Judah, they exclude (1) an animal slaughtered at night, (2) an animal whose blood was spilled, and (3) an animal whose blood was carried out beyond the curtains. Rabbi Judah taught that if any of these things had been placed on the altar, it was brought down. Rabbi Simeon noted that Leviticus 6:2 says "burnt-offering." From this, Rabbi Simeon taught that one can only know that a fit burnt-offering remained on the altar. But Rabbi Simeon taught that the phrase "the law of the burnt-offering" intimates one law for all burnt-offerings, namely, that if they were placed on the altar, they were not removed. Rabbi Simeon taught that this law applied to animals that were slaughtered at night, or whose blood was spilt, or whose blood passed out of the curtains, or whose flesh spent the night away from the altar, or whose flesh went out, or were unclean, or were slaughtered with the intention of burning its flesh after time or out of bounds, or whose blood was received and sprinkled by unfit priests, or whose blood was applied below the scarlet line when it should have been applied above, or whose blood was applied above when it should have been applied below, or whose blood was applied outside when it should have been applied within, or whose blood was applied within when it should have been applied outside, or a Passover-offering or a sin-offering that one slaughtered for a different purpose. Rabbi Simeon suggested that one might think that law would also include an animal used for bestiality, set aside for an idolatrous sacrifice or worshipped, a harlot's hire or the price of a dog (as referred to in Deuteronomy 23:19), or a mixed breed, or a trefah (a torn or otherwise disqualified animal), or an animal calved through a cesarean section. But Rabbi Simeon taught that the word "This" serves to exclude these. Rabbi Simeon explained that he included the former in the general rule because their disqualification arose in the sanctuary, while he excluded the latter because their disqualification did not arise in the sanctuary.
The Gemara taught that it is from the words of Leviticus 6:2, "upon the altar all night into the morning," that the Mishnah concludes that "the whole of the night is proper time for ... burning fat and limbs (on the altar)." And the Mishnah then set forth as a general rule: "Any commandment which is to be performed by night may be performed during the whole of the night."
The Rabbis taught a story reflecting the importance of the regular offering required by Leviticus 6:2: When the Hasmonean brothers Hyrcanus and Aristobulus were contending with one another, and one was within Jerusalem's city wall and the other was outside, those within would let down a basket of money to their besiegers every day, and in return the besiegers would send up kosher animals for the regular sacrifices. But an old man among the besiegers argued that as long as those within were allowed to continue to perform sacrifices, they could not be defeated. So on the next day, when those inside sent down the basket of money, the besiegers sent up a pig. When the pig reached the center of the wall, it stuck its hooves into the wall, and an earthquake shook the entire Land of Israel. On that occasion, the Rabbis proclaimed a curse on those who bred pigs.
It was taught in the name of Rabbi Nehemiah that in obedience to Leviticus 6:2, the Israelites kept the fire burning in the altar for about 116 years, yet the wood of the altar did not burn, and the brass of the altar did not melt, even though it was taught in the name of Rabbi Hoshaiah that the metal was only as thick as a coin.
Rabbi Levi read Leviticus 6:2 homiletically to mean: "This is the law regarding a person striving to be high: It is that it goes up on its burning-place." Thus Rabbi Levi read the verse to teach that a person who behaves boastfully should be punished by fire.
A Midrash deduced the importance of peace from the way that the listing of the individual sacrifices in Leviticus 6–7 concludes with the peace offering. Leviticus 6:2–6 gives "the law of the burnt-offering," Leviticus 6:7–11 gives "the law of the meal-offering," Leviticus 6:18–23 gives "the law of the sin-offering," Leviticus 7:1–7 gives "the law of the guilt-offering," and Leviticus 7:11–21 gives "the law of the sacrifice of peace-offerings." Similarly, the Midrash found evidence for the importance of peace in the summary of Leviticus 7:37, which concludes with "the sacrifice of the peace-offering."
Rabbi Judah the Levite, the son of Rabbi Shalom, taught that God's arrangements are not like those of mortals. For example, the cook of a human master dons fair apparel when going out, but puts on ragged things and an apron when working in the kitchen. Moreover, when sweeping the stove or oven, the cook puts on even worse clothing. But in God's presence, when the priest swept the altar and removed the ashes from it, he donned fine garments, as Leviticus 6:3 says: "And the priest shall put on his linen garment," so that "he shall take up the ashes." This is to teach that pride has no place with the Omnipresent.
A Baraita interpreted the term "his fitted linen garment" (, mido) in Leviticus 6:3 to teach that the each priestly garment in Exodus 28 had to be fitted to the particular priest, and had to be neither too short nor too long.
The Gemara interpreted the words "upon his body" in Leviticus 6:3 to teach that there was to be nothing between the priest's body and his priestly garment.
Elaborating on the procedure in Leviticus 6:3–4 for removing ash from the altar, the Mishnah taught that the priests would get up early and cast lots for the right to remove the ashes. The priest who won the right to clear the ashes would prepare to do so. They warned him to take care not to touch any vessel until he had washed his hands and feet. No one entered with him. He did not carry any light, but proceeded by the light of the altar fire. No one saw him or heard a sound from him until they heard the noise of the wooden wheel that Ben Katin made for the laver. When they told him that the time had come, he washed his hands and feet with water from the laver, took the silver fire-pan, went to the top of the altar, cleared away the cinders on either side, and scooped up the ashes in the center. He then came down, and when he reached the floor, he turned to the north (toward the altar) and went along the east side of the ramp for about ten cubits, and he then piled the cinders on the pavement three handbreadths away from the ramp, in the place where they used to put the crop of the birds, the ashes from the inner altar, and the ash from the menorah.
Rabbi Joḥanan called his garments "my honor." Rabbi Aha bar Abba said in Rabbi Joḥanan's name that Leviticus 6:4, "And he shall put off his garments, and put on other garments," teaches that a change of garments is an act of honor in the Torah. And the School of Rabbi Ishmael taught that the Torah teaches us manners: In the garments in which one cooked a dish for one's master, one should not pour a cup of wine for one's master. Rabbi Hiyya bar Abba said in Rabbi Joḥanan's name that it is a disgrace for a scholar to go out into the marketplace with patched shoes. The Gemara objected that Rabbi Aha bar Hanina went out that way; Rabbi Aha son of Rav Naḥman clarified that the prohibition is of patches upon patches. Rabbi Hiyya bar Abba also said in Rabbi Joḥanan's name that any scholar who has a grease stain on a garment is worthy of death, for Wisdom says in Proverbs 8:36, "All they that hate me (, mesanne'ai) love (merit) death," and we should read not , mesanne'ai, but , masni'ai (that make me hated, that is, despised). Thus a scholar who has no pride in personal appearance brings contempt upon learning. Ravina taught that this was stated about a thick patch (or others say, a bloodstain). The Gemara harmonized the two opinions by teaching that one referred to an outer garment, the other to an undergarment. Rabbi Hiyya bar Abba also said in Rabbi Joḥanan's name that in Isaiah 20:3, "As my servant Isaiah walked naked and barefoot," "naked" means in worn-out garments, and "barefoot" means in patched shoes.
Tractate Menachot in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the law of meal offerings in Leviticus 6:7–16.
The Rabbis taught that through the word "this," Aaron became degraded, as it is said in Exodus 32:22–24, "And Aaron said: '. . . I cast it into the fire, and there came out this calf,'" and through the word "this," Aaron was also elevated, as it is said in Leviticus 6:13, "This is the offering of Aaron and of his sons, which they shall offer to the Lord on the day when he is anointed" to become High Priest.
And noting the similarity of language between "This is the sacrifice of Aaron" in Leviticus 6:13 and "This is the sacrifice of Nahshon the son of Amminadab" and each of the other princes of the 12 tribes in Numbers 7:17–83, the Rabbis concluded that Aaron's sacrifice was as beloved to God as the sacrifices of the princes of the 12 tribes.
A Midrash noted that the commandment of Leviticus 6:13 that Aaron offer sacrifices paralleled Samson's riddle "out of the eater came forth food", for Aaron was to eat the sacrifices, and by virtue of Leviticus 6:13, a sacrifice was to come from him.
Leviticus chapter 7
A Midrash read the words of Psalm 50:23, "Whoso offers the sacrifice of thanksgiving honors Me," to teach that the thanksgiving offerings of Leviticus 7:12 honored God more than sin offerings or guilt offerings. Rabbi Huna said in the name of Rabbi Aha that Psalm 50:23 taught that one who gave a thanksgiving offering gave God honor upon honor. Rabbi Berekiah said in the name of Rabbi Abba bar Kahana that the donor honored God in this world and will honor God in the World to Come. And the continuation of Psalm 50:23, "to him who sets right the way," referred to those who clear stones from roads. Alternatively, the Midrash taught that it refers to teachers of Scripture and the Oral Law who instruct the young with sincerity. Alternatively, Rabbi Jose the son of Rabbi Judah said in the name of Rabbi Menahem the son of Rabbi Jose that it refers to shopkeepers who sell produce that has already been tithed. Alternatively, the Midrash taught that it refers to people who light lamps to provide light for the public.
Rabbi Phinehas compared the thanksgiving offerings of Leviticus 7:12 to the case of a king whose tenants and intimates came to pay him honor. From his tenants and entourage, the king merely collected their tribute. But when another who was neither a tenant nor a member of the king's entourage came to offer him homage, the king offered him a seat. Thus Rabbi Phinehas read Leviticus 7:12 homiletically to mean: "If it be for a thanks giving, He [God] will bring him [the offerer] near [to God]." Rabbi Phinehas and Rabbi Levi and Rabbi Joḥanan said in the name of Rabbi Menahem of Gallia that in the Time to Come, all sacrifices will be annulled, but the thanksgiving sacrifice of Leviticus 7:12 will not be annulled, and all prayers will be annulled, but the Thanksgiving (, Modim) prayer will not be annulled.
In reading the requirement of Leviticus 7:12 for the loaves of the thanksgiving sacrifice, the Mishnah interpreted that if one made them for oneself, then they were exempt from the requirement to separate challah, but if one made them to sell in the market, then they were subject to the requirement to separate challah.
The Mishnah taught that a vow-offering, as in Leviticus 7:16, was when one said, "It is incumbent upon me to bring a burnt-offering" (without specifying a particular animal). And a freewill-offering was when one said, "This animal shall serve as a burnt-offering" (specifying a particular animal). In the case of vow offerings, one was responsible for replacement of the animal if the animal died or was stolen; but in the case of freewill obligations, one was not held responsible for the animal's replacement if the specified animal died or was stolen.
Rabbi Eliezer taught that the prohibition of eating the meat of a peace-offering on the third day in Leviticus 7:18 also applied to invalidate the sacrifice of one who merely intended to eat sacrificial meat on the third day.
The Sages taught that one may trust butchers to remove chelev, the fat that Leviticus 3:17 and 7:23 forbid.
Rabbi Berekiah said in the name of Rabbi Isaac that in the Time to Come, God will make a banquet for God's righteous servants, and whoever had not eaten meat from an animal that died other than through ritual slaughtering (, neveilah, prohibited by Leviticus 17:1–4) in this world will have the privilege of enjoying it in the World to Come. This is indicated by Leviticus 7:24, which says, "And the fat of that which dies of itself (, neveilah) and the fat of that which is torn by beasts (, tereifah), may be used for any other service, but you shall not eat it," so that one might eat it in the Time to Come. (By one's present self-restraint one might merit to partake of the banquet in the Hereafter.) For this reason Moses admonished the Israelites in Leviticus 11:2, "This is the animal that you shall eat."
A Baraita explained how the priests performed the waiving. A priest placed the sacrificial portions on the palm of his hand, the breast and thigh on top of the sacrificial portions, and whenever there was a bread offering, the bread on top of the breast and thigh. Rav Papa found authority for the Baraita's teaching in Leviticus 8:26–27, which states that they placed the bread on top of the thigh. And the Gemara noted that Leviticus 10:15 implies that the breast and thigh were on top of the offerings of fat. But the Gemara noted that Leviticus 7:30 says that the priest "shall bring the fat upon the breast." Abaye reconciled the verses by explaining that Leviticus 7:30 refers to the way that the priest brought the parts from the slaughtering place. The priest then turned them over and placed them into the hands of a second priest, who waived them. Noting further that Leviticus 9:20 says that "they put the fat upon the breasts," the Gemara deduced that this second priest then handed the parts over to a third priest, who burned them. The Gemara thus concluded that these verses taught that three priests were required for this part of the service, giving effect to the teaching of Proverbs 14:28, "In the multitude of people is the king's glory."
Rabbi Aha compared the listing of Leviticus 7:37 to a ruler who entered a province escorting many bands of robbers as captives. Upon seeing the scene, one citizen expressed his fear of the ruler. A second citizen answered that as long as their conduct was good, they had no reason to fear. Similarly, when the Israelites heard the section of the Torah dealing with sacrifices, they became afraid. But Moses told them not to be afraid; if they occupied themselves with the Torah, they would have no reason to fear.
A Midrash asked why Leviticus 7:37 mentions peace-offerings last in its list of sacrifices, and suggested that it was because there are many kinds of peace-offerings. Rabbi Simon said that assorted desserts always come last, because they consist of many kinds of things.
Noting that Leviticus 7:37–38 says that "This is the law . . . that the Lord commanded Moses in mount Sinai," Rabbi Judah ben Bathyra counted Leviticus 7:38 among 13 limiting phrases recorded in the Torah to inform us that God spoke not to Aaron but to Moses with instruction that he should tell Aaron. Rabbi Judah ben Bathyra taught that these 13 limiting phrases correspond to and limit 13 Divine communications recorded in the Torah as having been made to both Moses and Aaron.
Leviticus chapter 8
Rabbi Samuel bar Naḥman taught that Moses first incurred his fate to die in the wilderness from his conduct at the Burning Bush, for there God tried for seven days to persuade Moses to go on his errand to Egypt, as Exodus 4:10 says, “And Moses said to the Lord: ‘Oh Lord, I am not a man of words, neither yesterday, nor the day before, nor since you have spoken to your servant’” (which the Midrash interpreted to indicate seven days of conversation). And in the end, Moses told God in Exodus 4:13, "Send, I pray, by the hand of him whom You will send." God replied that God would keep this in store for Moses. Rabbi Berekiah in Rabbi Levi's name and Rabbi Helbo give different answers on when God repaid Moses. One said that all the seven days of the consecration of the priesthood in Leviticus 8, Moses functioned as High Priest, and he came to think that the office belonged to him. But in the end, God told Moses that the job was not his, but his brother's, as Leviticus 9:1 says, “And it came to pass on the eighth day, that Moses called Aaron.” The other taught that all the first seven days of Adar of the fortieth year, Moses beseeched God to enter the Promised Land, but in the end, God told him in Deuteronomy 3:27, “You shall not go over this Jordan.”
Rabbi Jose noted that even though Exodus 27:18 reported that the Tabernacle's courtyard was just 100 cubits by 50 cubits (about 150 feet by 75 feet), a little space held a lot, as Leviticus 8:3 implied that the space miraculously held the entire Israelite people.
The Tosefta deduced from the congregation's placement in Leviticus 8:4 that in a synagogue, as well, the people face toward the sanctuary.
The Mishnah taught that the High Priest inquired of the Urim and Thummim noted in Leviticus 8:8 only for the king, for the court, or for one whom the community needed.
A Baraita explained why the Urim and Thummim noted in Leviticus 8:8 were called by those names: The term "Urim" is like the Hebrew word for "lights," and thus it was called "Urim" because it enlightened. The term "Thummim" is like the Hebrew word tam meaning "to be complete," and thus it was called "Thummim" because its predictions were fulfilled. The Gemara discussed how they used the Urim and Thummim: Rabbi Joḥanan said that the letters of the stones in the breastplate stood out to spell out the answer. Resh Lakish said that the letters joined each other to spell words. But the Gemara noted that the Hebrew letter , tsade, was missing from the list of the 12 tribes of Israel. Rabbi Samuel bar Isaac said that the stones of the breastplate also contained the names of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. But the Gemara noted that the Hebrew letter , teth, was also missing. Rav Aha bar Jacob said that they also contained the words: "The tribes of Jeshurun." The Gemara taught that although the decree of a prophet could be revoked, the decree of the Urim and Thummim could not be revoked, as Numbers 27:21 says, "By the judgment of the Urim."
The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer taught that when Israel sinned in the matter of the devoted things, as reported in Joshua 7:11, Joshua looked at the 12 stones corresponding to the 12 tribes that were upon the High Priest's breastplate. For every tribe that had sinned, the light of its stone became dim, and Joshua saw that the light of the stone for the tribe of Judah had become dim. So Joshua knew that the tribe of Judah had transgressed in the matter of the devoted things. Similarly, the Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer taught that Saul saw the Philistines turning against Israel, and he knew that Israel had sinned in the matter of the ban. Saul looked at the 12 stones, and for each tribe that had followed the law, its stone (on the High Priest's breastplate) shined with its light, and for each tribe that had transgressed, the light of its stone was dim. So Saul knew that the tribe of Benjamin had trespassed in the matter of the ban.
The Mishnah reported that with the death of the former prophets, the Urim and Thummim ceased. In this connection, the Gemara reported differing views of who the former prophets were. Rav Huna said they were David, Samuel, and Solomon. Rav Naḥman said that during the days of David, they were sometimes successful and sometimes not (getting an answer from the Urim and Thummim), for Zadok consulted it and succeeded, while Abiathar consulted it and was not successful, as 2 Samuel 15:24 reports, "And Abiathar went up." (He retired from the priesthood because the Urim and Thummim gave him no reply.) Rabbah bar Samuel asked whether the report of 2 Chronicles 26:5, "And he (King Uzziah of Judah) set himself to seek God all the days of Zechariah, who had understanding in the vision of God," did not refer to the Urim and Thummim. But the Gemara answered that Uzziah did so through Zechariah's prophecy. A Baraita told that when the first Temple was destroyed, the Urim and Thummim ceased, and explained Ezra 2:63 (reporting events after the Jews returned from the Babylonian Captivity), "And the governor said to them that they should not eat of the most holy things till there stood up a priest with Urim and Thummim," as a reference to the remote future, as when one speaks of the time of the Messiah. Rav Naḥman concluded that the term "former prophets" referred to a period before Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, who were latter prophets. And the Jerusalem Talmud taught that the "former prophets" referred to Samuel and David, and thus the Urim and Thummim did not function in the period of the First Temple, either.
The Gemara taught that the early scholars were called soferim (related to the original sense of its root safar, "to count") because they used to count all the letters of the Torah (to ensure the correctness of the text). They used to say the vav () in , gachon ("belly"), in Leviticus 11:42 marks the half-way point of the letters in the Torah. (And in a Torah Scroll, scribes write that vav () larger than the surrounding letters.) They used to say the words , darosh darash ("diligently inquired"), in Leviticus 10:16 mark the half-way point of the words in the Torah. And they used to say Leviticus 13:33 marks the half-way point of the verses in the Torah. Rav Joseph asked whether the vav () in , gachon ("belly"), in Leviticus 11:42 belonged to the first half or the second half of the Torah. (Rav Joseph presumed that the Torah contains an even number of letters.) The scholars replied that they could bring a Torah Scroll and count, for Rabbah bar bar Hanah said on a similar occasion that they did not stir from where they were until a Torah Scroll was brought and they counted. Rav Joseph replied that they (in Rabbah bar bar Hanah's time) were thoroughly versed in the proper defective and full spellings of words (that could be spelled in variant ways), but they (in Rav Joseph's time) were not. Similarly, Rav Joseph asked whether Leviticus 13:33 belongs to the first half or the second half of verses. Abaye replied that for verses, at least, we can bring a Scroll and count them. But Rav Joseph replied that even with verses, they could no longer be certain. For when Rav Aha bar Adda came (from the Land of Israel to Babylon), he said that in the West (in the Land of Israel), they divided Exodus 19:9 into three verses. Nonetheless, the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that there are 5,888 verses in the Torah. (Note that others say the middle letter in our current Torah text is the aleph () in , hu ("he") in Leviticus 8:28; the middle two words are , el yesod ("at the base of") in Leviticus 8:15; the half-way point of the verses in the Torah is Leviticus 8:7; and there are 5,846 verses in the Torah text we have today.)
The Sifra taught that the words "and put it upon the tip of Aaron's right ear" in Leviticus 8:23 refer to the middle ridge of the ear. And the Sifra taught that the words "and upon the thumb of his right hand" in Leviticus 8:23 refer to the middle knuckle.
A Master said in a Baraita that the use of the thumb for service in Leviticus 8:23–24 and 14:14, 17, 25, and 28 showed that every finger has its own unique purpose.
Rabbi Jacob bar Acha taught in the name of Rabbi Zorah that the command to Aaron in Leviticus 8:35, "at the door of the tent of meeting shall you abide day and night seven days, and keep the charge of the Lord," served as a source for the law of seven days of mourning for the death of a relative (, shivah). Rabbi Jacob bar Acha interpreted Moses to tell Aaron that just as God observed seven days of mourning for the then-upcoming destruction of the world at the time of the Flood of Noah, so too Aaron would observe seven days of mourning for the upcoming death of his sons Nadab and Abihu. And we know that God observed seven days of mourning for the destruction of the world by the Flood from Genesis 7:10, which says, "And it came to pass after the seven days, that the waters of the Flood were upon the earth." The Gemara asked whether one mourns before a death, as Jacob bar Acha appears to argue happened in these two cases. In reply, the Gemara distinguished between the mourning of God and people: People, who do not know what will happen until it happens, do not mourn until the deceased dies. But God, who knows what will happen in the future, mourned for the world before its destruction. The Gemara noted, however, that there are those who say that the seven days before the Flood were days of mourning for Methuselah (who died just before the Flood).
Similarly, reading in Leviticus 9:1 that "it came to pass on the eighth day," a Midrash recounted how Moses told Aaron in Leviticus 8:33, "you shall not go out from the door of the tent of meeting seven days." The Midrash interpreted this to mean that Moses thereby told Aaron and his sons to observe the laws of mourning for seven days, before those laws would affect them. Moses told them in Leviticus 8:35 that they were to "keep the charge of the Lord," for so God had kept seven days of mourning before God brought the Flood, as Genesis 7:10 reports, "And it came to pass after the seven days, that the waters of the Flood were upon the earth." The Midrash deduced that God was mourning by noting that Genesis 6:6 reports, "And it repented the Lord that He had made man on the earth, and it grieved Him (, vayitatzeiv) at His heart." And 2 Samuel 19:3 uses the same word to express mourning when it says, "The king grieves (, ne'etzav) for his son." After God told Moses in Exodus 29:43, "And there I will meet with the children of Israel; and [the Tabernacle] shall be sanctified by My glory," Moses administered the service for seven days in fear, fearing that God would strike him down. And it was for that reason that Moses told Aaron to observe the laws of mourning. When Aaron asked Moses why, Moses replied (in the words of Leviticus 8:35) "so I am commanded." Then, as reported in Leviticus 10:2, God struck Nadab and Abihu instead. And thus in Leviticus 10:3, Moses told Aaron that he finally understood, "This is what the Lord meant when He said: ‘Through those near to Me I show Myself holy, and gain glory before all the people.'"
In medieval Jewish interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these medieval Jewish sources:
Leviticus chapters 1–7
Maimonides and Naḥmanides differed about the reason for the sacrificial system. Maimonides wrote that the reason for the offerings was because when the Israelites lived in Egypt and Chaldea, the Egyptians worshipped sheep and the Chaldeans worshipped demons in the form of goats. And people in India never slaughter cattle. Thus God commanded the Israelites to slaughter cattle, sheep, and goats to God, so that worshipers of the other lands would know that God required the very act that they considered to be the utmost sin, and through that act God would forgive Israel's sins. God thus intended to cure the people of the other nations of false beliefs, which Maimonides characterized as diseases of the soul, for diseases are healed by medicines that are antithetical to the diseases.
Maimonides taught that God instituted the practice of sacrifices as a transitional step to wean the Israelites off of the worship of the times and move them toward prayer as the primary means of worship. Maimonides noted that in nature, God created animals that develop gradually. For example, when a mammal is born, it is extremely tender, and cannot eat dry food, so God provided breasts that yield milk to feed the young animal, until it can eat dry food. Similarly, Maimonides taught, God instituted many laws as temporary measures, as it would have been impossible for the Israelites suddenly to discontinue everything to which they had become accustomed. So God sent Moses to make the Israelites (in the words of Exodus 19:6) "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation." But the general custom of worship in those days was sacrificing animals in temples that contained idols. So God did not command the Israelites to give up those manners of service, but allowed them to continue. God transferred to God's service what had formerly served as a worship of idols, and commanded the Israelites to serve God in the same manner—namely, to build to a Sanctuary (Exodus 25:8), to erect the altar to God's name (Exodus 20:21), to offer sacrifices to God (Leviticus 1:2), to bow down to God, and to burn incense before God. God forbad doing any of these things to any other being and selected priests for the service in the temple in Exodus 28:41. By this Divine plan, God blotted out the traces of idolatry, and established the great principle of the Existence and Unity of God. But the sacrificial service, Maimonides taught, was not the primary object of God's commandments about sacrifice; rather, supplications, prayers, and similar kinds of worship are nearer to the primary object. Thus God limited sacrifice to only one temple (see Deuteronomy 12:26) and the priesthood to only the members of a particular family. These restrictions, Maimonides taught, served to limit sacrificial worship, and kept it within such bounds that God did not feel it necessary to abolish sacrificial service altogether. But in the Divine plan, prayer and supplication can be offered everywhere and by every person, as can be the wearing of tzitzit (Numbers 15:38) and tefillin (Exodus 13:9, 16) and similar kinds of service.
Naḥmanides noted that Leviticus 3:16 mentioned a reason for the offerings—that they are "a fire-offering, of a pleasing odor to the Eternal." Naḥmanides rejected the argument that the offerings were meant to eliminate the foreigners' foolish ideas, for the sacrifices would not have that effect, as the foreigners' intention was to worship the constellations of the sheep and the ox, and if Jews slaughtered sheep and oxen to God, it would show respect and honor to those constellations. Naḥmanides further noted that when Noah came out of the ark, there were as yet no Chaldeans or Egyptians in the world, yet Noah brought an offering that pleased God so much that Genesis 8:21 reports that on its account God said, "I will not again curse the ground anymore for man's sake." Similarly, Abel brought of the first-born of his flock and Genesis 4:4 reports that "the Eternal had regard to Abel and to his offering," but there had not yet been a trace of idol worship in the world. In Numbers 23:4, Balaam said, "I have prepared the seven altars, and I have offered up a bullock and a ram on every altar," but his intent was not to eradicate evil beliefs from Balak's mind, but rather to approach God so that God's communication would reach Balaam. Naḥmanides argued that the reason for the offerings was more likely that since people's deeds are accomplished through thought, speech, and action, therefore God commanded that when people sin and bring an offering, they should lay their hands on it in contrast to the evil deed that they committed. Offerers would confess their sin verbally to contrast with their evil speech. They would burn parts of the animal in fire that were seen as the instruments of thought and desire in human beings. The offerers would burn the legs of the animal because they corresponded to the limbs with which the offerer acted. The offerer sprinkled blood on the altar, which is analogous to the blood in the offerer's body. Naḥmanides argued that offerers performed these acts so that the offerers should realize that the offerers had sinned against God with their bodies. And the offerer's soul and blood should have been spilled and the offerer's body burned, were it not for God's loving-kindness in taking a substitute and a ransom—the offering—so that the offering's blood should be in place of the offerer's blood, its life in place of the offerer's life, and that the limbs of the offering in place of the parts of the offerer's body.
Leviticus chapter 8
The Zohar taught that Aaron had to purge himself during the seven sacred days of Leviticus 8:33 and after that by means of the calf that Leviticus 9:2 directed. The Zohar observed that Aaron had to purge himself, for but for him the Golden Calf would not have emerged.
In modern interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:
Leviticus chapters 6–7
James Kugel reported that ancient texts offered several explanations for why peoples of the ancient Near East sacrificed animals: to provide the deity food (see Numbers 28:2); to offer the life of the slaughtered animal as a substitute for the offerer's; to give a costly possession as a sign of fealty or in the hope of receiving still more generous compensation from the deity. Kugel reported that more recent explanations saw the sacrifice as establishing a tangible connection between the sacrificer and the deity, while others stress the connection of the sacred with violence or see the function of religion as defusing violence that would otherwise be directed at people. Kugel argued that the Israelites conceived of animal sacrifices as the principal channel of communication between the people and God. William Hallo described sacrifice as a sacred-making of the human consumption of animal meat that followed.
Jacob Milgrom read the sacrificial system in the parashah to describe the forces of life and death pitted against each other in a cosmic struggle, set loose by people through their obedience to or defiance of God's commandments. Milgrom taught that Leviticus treats impurity as the opposite of holiness, identifying impurity with death and holiness with life. Milgrom interpreted Leviticus to teach that people could drive God out of the sanctuary by polluting it with their moral and ritual sins. But the priests could periodically purge the sanctuary of its impurities and influence the people to atone. The blood of the purification offerings symbolically purged the sanctuary by symbolically absorbing its impurities, in a victory for life over death.
Similarly, Wenham noted that the sacrificial system regularly associates sacrifices with cleansing and sanctification. Wenham read Leviticus to teach that sacrificial blood was necessary to cleanse and sanctify. Sacrifice could undo the effects of sin and human infirmity. Sin and disease profaned the holy and polluted the clean, whereas sacrifice could reverse this process. Wenham illustrated with the chart at right. Wenham concluded that contact between the holy and the unclean resulted in death. Sacrifice, by cleansing the unclean, made such contact possible. Sacrifice thus allowed the holy God to meet with sinful man.
Mary Douglas wrote that to find the underlying logic of the first chapters of Leviticus about how to make a sacrifice and how to lay out the animal sections on the altar, one needs to look carefully at what Leviticus says about bodies and parts of bodies, what is inner and outer, and what is on top and underneath. Douglas suggested this alignment of the three levels of Mount Sinai, the animal sacrifice, and the Tabernacle:
Douglas argued that the tabernacle ran horizontally toward the most sacred area, Mount Sinai went up vertically to the summit, and the sacrificial pile started with the head underneath and went up to the entrails, and one can interpret each by reference to the others. Douglas noted that in mystical thought, “upper” and “inner” can be equivalent. The pattern is always there throughout creation, with God in the depths or on the heights of everything. Likening the tabernacle to a body, the innards corresponded to the Holy of Holies, for the Bible locates the emotions and thought in the innermost parts of the body; the loins are wrung with remorse or grief; God scrutinizes the innermost part; compassion resides in the bowels. The Tabernacle was associated with creation, and creation with fertility, implying that the innermost part of the Tabernacle was a Divine nuptial chamber, depicting the union between God and Israel. Douglas concluded that the summit of the mountain was the abode of God, below was the cloudy region that only Moses could enter, and the lower slopes were where the priests and congregation waited, and analogously, the order of placing the parts of the animal on the altar marked out three zones on the carcass, the suet set around and below the diaphragm corresponding to the cloud girdling the middle of the mountain.
Milgrom noted that Leviticus 6:1–7:21 sets forth some of the few laws (along with Leviticus 10:8–15 and 16:2–28) reserved for the Priests alone, while most of Leviticus is addressed to all the Israelite people.
Bernard Bamberger noted that while the Rabbis introduced into the synagogue a number of practices formerly associated with the Temple, they made no provision for "interim” sacrifices, even though they could have found precedents for sacrifice outside Jerusalem. When the Roman Empire destroyed the Jerusalem Temple, the Rabbis did not choose to follow those precedents for sacrifice elsewhere, but instead set up a substitute, declaring the study of the sacrificial laws as acceptable to God as sacrifices. Bamberger suggested that some scholars may have felt that the day of sacrifice had passed.
Leviticus chapter 8
Reading Leviticus 8:23, Milgrom noted that abundant attestation exists of ritual daubing in the ancient Near East. The incantations recited during the ritual smearing of persons, gods' statues, and buildings testify to a purificatory and apotropaic purpose—to wipe off and ward off menacing demonic forces. These ancient Near East applications always smear the vulnerable parts of bodies (extremities) and structures (corners, entrances) with magical substances. Milgrom concluded that the blood daubing of the altar's extremities—its horns—closely resembles the blood daubing of the extremities of the priests in Leviticus 8:23–24. Milgrom also noted the correspondence of the dedicatory rite of Ezekiel's altar to the daubing of the priests, for in Ezekiel 43:20, the purificatory blood is daubed not only on the altar's horns but also on the corners of its two gutters, located at its middle and bottom. Milgrom argued that these points correspond to a person's earlobe, thumb, and big toe. Milgrom concluded that these two rites shared the same purpose, which in the case of Ezekiel's altar Ezekiel 43:20 made explicit: "And you shall decontaminate it and thus purge it." Similarly, Ezekiel 43:26 says that through it "they shall purge the altar and thus purify it." Therefore, Milgrom concluded that the daubing of the priest at points of his body and the daubing of comparable points on the altar possessed a similar goal of purging.
In critical analysis
Scholars who follow the Documentary Hypothesis attribute the parashah to the Priestly source who wrote in the 6th or 5th century BCE.
Commandments
According to the Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are 9 positive and 9 negative commandments in the parashah:
To remove the ashes from the altar every day
To light a fire on the altar every day
Not to extinguish this fire
The priests must eat the remains of the meal offerings.
Not to bake a meal offering as leavened bread
The High Priest must bring a meal offering every day.
Not to eat the meal offering of the High Priest
To carry out the procedure of the sin offering
Not to eat the meat of the inner sin offering
To carry out the procedure of the guilt offering
To follow the procedure of the peace offering
Not to allow any of the thanksgiving offering to remain until the morning
To burn the leftover korbanot
Not to eat from korbanot offered with improper intentions
Not to eat from korbanot that became impure
To burn all impure korbanot
Not to eat fat that can be used for korbanot, (chelev)
Not to eat blood
In the liturgy
Many Jews read excerpts from and allusions to the instructions in the parashah as part of the readings on the offerings after the Sabbath morning blessings. Specifically, Jews read the instructions for the taking of the ashes in Leviticus 6:1–6, read the instructions for the offerings in Leviticus 6:5, and allude to the thanksgiving offerings of Leviticus 7:12.
The prohibition in Leviticus 7:19–20 of eating of sacrificial meat by anyone ritually contaminated provides an application of the eighth of the Thirteen Rules for interpreting the Torah in the Baraita of Rabbi Ishmael that many Jews read as part of the readings before the Pesukei d'Zimrah prayer service. The rule provides that an item included in a generalization that is then singled out to teach something is singled out not to teach only about that particular item but about the generalization in its entirety. Leviticus 7:19 prohibits the eating of sacrificial meat by anyone ritually contaminated, and Leviticus 7:20 then singles out the peace offering and states that a contaminated person who eats the peace offering is subject to excision (, kareit). Applying the eighth rule teaches that the punishment of excision applies to a contaminated person who eats any of the offerings.
The role of Moses as a priest in Leviticus 8:14–30 is reflected in Psalm 99:6, which is in turn one of the six Psalms recited at the beginning of the Kabbalat Shabbat prayer service.
Haftarah
Generally
The haftarah for the parashah is Jeremiah 7:21–8:3 and 9:22–23.
Connection to the Parashah
Both the parashah and the haftarah refer to the burnt offering (, olah) and sacrifice (, zevach). In the haftarah, Jeremiah spoke of the priority of obedience to God's law over ritual sacrifice alone.
On Shabbat HaGadol
When the parashah coincides with Shabbat HaGadol (the special Sabbath immediately before Passover—as it does in 2025, 2026, 2028, and 2029), the haftarah is Malachi 3:4–24. Shabbat HaGadol means "the Great Sabbath," and the haftarah for the special Sabbath refers to a great day that God is preparing.
On Shabbat Parah
When the parashah coincides with Shabbat Parah (the special Sabbath preceding Shabbat HaChodesh—as it does in 2024, 2027, and 2030), the haftarah is Ezekiel 36:16–38.
On Shabbat Zachor
When the parashah coincides with Shabbat Zachor (the special Sabbath immediately preceding Purim—as it did in 2014), the haftarah is:
for Ashkenazi Jews: 1 Samuel 15:2–34;
for Sephardi Jews: 1 Samuel 15:1–34.
Connection to the Special Sabbath
On Shabbat Zachor, the Sabbath just before Purim, Jews read Deuteronomy 25:17–19, which instructs Jews: "Remember (zachor) what Amalek did" in attacking the Israelites. The haftarah for Shabbat Zachor, 1 Samuel 15:2–34 or 1–34, describes Saul's encounter with Amalek and Saul's and Samuel's treatment of the Amalekite king Agag. Purim, in turn, commemorates the story of Esther and the Jewish people's victory over Haman's plan to kill the Jews, told in the Book of Esther. Esther 3:1 identifies Haman as an Agagite, and thus a descendant of Amalek. Numbers 24:7 identifies the Agagites with the Amalekites. Alternatively, a Midrash tells the story that between King Agag's capture by Saul and his killing by Samuel, Agag fathered a child, from whom Haman in turn descended.
Notes
Further reading
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:
Biblical
Leviticus 14:14 (right ear, thumb of right hand, and great toe of right foot).
Jeremiah 7:22–23 (preferring obedience to sacrifices).
Hosea 14:3 (the offering of our lips instead of bulls).
Psalm 20:4 (burnt offerings); 26:6 (washing before the altar); 40:7 (sacrifices); 50:3–23 (sacrifices of thanksgiving); 51:16–19 (sacrifices); 66:13–15 (burnt offerings); 93:5 (God's holy place); 107:22 (sacrifices of thanksgiving); 116:17 (sacrifices of thanksgiving); 133:2 (anointing Aaron).
Early nonrabbinic
Philo. Allegorical Interpretation 3:45:129, 46:133, 50:147; On the Migration of Abraham 12:67; Who Is the Heir of Divine Things? 36:174; On the Life of Moses 2:29:150; The Special Laws 1:41:225, 43:240, 46:254, 52:285. Alexandria, Egypt, early 1st Century C.E. In, e.g., The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by Charles Duke Yonge, pages 65, 67, 259, 290, 504, 555, 557–58, 561. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1993.
Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 3:9:1–4, 11:2; 4:8:9, 11:1; 8:8:4. Circa 93–94. In, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston, pages 94–95. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
Classical rabbinic
Mishnah: Challah 1:6; Orlah 2:16–17; Bikkurim 2:7–10; Shekalim 1:4, 7:6; Yoma 7:5; Megillah 2:6; Sotah 9:12; Zevachim 1:1–14:10; Menachot 1:1–13:11; Chullin 7:1, 10:1; Keritot 1:1; Tamid 1:2, 4; 2:3; Kinnim 1:1. Land of Israel, circa 200 C.E. In, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 149, 164, 171, 252, 263, 277, 320, 464, 699–765, 779, 784, 836, 863–65. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
Tosefta: Demai 2:7–8; Challah 2:7–8; Pisha (Pesachim) 8:9; Megillah 3:21; Sotah 13:7; Bava Kamma 10:13; Shevuot 2:10; 3:1, 6; Zevachim 1:1–13:20; Menachot 1:1–13:23; Oktzin 3:3. Land of Israel, circa 250 C.E. In, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 85–86, 339, 511, 650, 886; volume 2, pages 1012, 1227, 1229, 1231, 1307–70, 1407–68, 1925. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002.
Sifra 70:1–98:9. Land of Israel, 4th Century C.E. In, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 2, pages 1–119. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988.
Jerusalem Talmud: Orlah 33b, 34b; Bikkurim 12b, 25a; Shabbat 18b; Pesachim 13a–14a, 36b–37a, 44a, 56b–57a, 63b, 64b, 78a; Yoma 1a, 2a, 3a–b, 6a, 11a–b, 12a, 21b, 30b–31a, 32a, 39a, 49b; Sukkah 14a; Megillah 16a–b, 18b, 26a; Moed Katan 17a; Chagigah 23a; Yevamot 1a, 48b, 49b; Nazir 26b; Sotah 14b, 18b–19a, 24b, 26a, 39a, 42b. Tiberias, Land of Israel, circa 400 C.E. In, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 12–13, 18–19, 21–22, 26–30, 35–37. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2007–2017. And in, e.g., The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009.
Leviticus Rabbah 7:1–10:9. Land of Israel, 5th Century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 4, pages 89–134. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 17a; Shabbat 111a, 114a, 132a; Pesachim 3a, 16a–b, 19a, 23a–24b, 26a, 27b, 35a, 37a, 38b, 43b, 45a, 58a–59b, 63b, 65b, 71b, 79a, 82a–83a, 95b–96a; Yoma 2a–b, 4a, 5a–b, 7a, 12b, 20a, 21a, 23b–24a, 25a, 28a, 33a–34a, 45a–b, 46b–47a, 59b–60a, 74a–b; Sukkah 43a, 47b, 55b–56a; Beitzah 19b, 21a; Rosh Hashanah 5b–6a; Taanit 11b; Megillah 9b, 20b, 23b; Moed Katan 9a, 15b; Chagigah 7b, 10b, 24a, 26b; Yevamot 7a, 39b–40a, 68b, 72b, 74b, 81a, 82a, 87a, 100a; Ketubot 5b, 25a, 106b; Nedarim 10b, 12a–b, 25a, 36a; Nazir 37b–38a; Sotah 14b–15a, 19a, 23a–b, 29a–b; Kiddushin 29a, 30a, 36b, 51a, 53a, 55b; Bava Kamma 5a, 13a, 41a, 82b, 110b, 111a; Bava Metzia 3b, 55a; Bava Batra 106b; Sanhedrin 34a, 42b, 61b; Makkot 13a, 14b, 17a–b, 18b; Shevuot 6b–7a, 11a, 15a–b, 29a, 38a; Avodah Zarah 34a–b, 76a; Horayot 3a, 9a, 11b–12a; Zevachim 2a–120b; Menachot 2a–110a; Chullin 22a, 23b, 36b–37a, 39a, 45a, 74b–75a, 81b, 99a, 101a, 117a–b, 120a, 130a, 131b, 132b–33b, 134b; Bekhorot 15a, 30b, 33b, 39a; Arakhin 3b–4a; Temurah 14a, 18a–b, 23a, 32b; Keritot 2a, 4a–b, 5a–6a, 20b–21b, 22b, 23b, 27a; Meilah 2a, 5a–6b, 9a, 10a, 11b–12a; Tamid 28a–29a, 30a; Niddah 6b, 40a–41a. Sasanian Empire, 6th Century. In, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006.
Medieval
Rashi. Commentary. Leviticus 6–8. Troyes, France, late 11th Century. In, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 3, pages 59–92. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994.
Rashbam. Commentary on the Torah. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., Rashbam's Commentary on Leviticus and Numbers: An Annotated Translation. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 35–46. Providence: Brown Judaic Studies, 2001.
Judah Halevi. Kuzari. 2:80. Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, page 133. New York: Schocken, 1964.
Abraham ibn Ezra. Commentary on the Torah. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Leviticus (Va-yikra). Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, volume 3, pages 29–55. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 2004.
Hezekiah ben Manoah. Hizkuni. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. Chizkuni: Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 679–93. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013.
Naḥmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 3, pages 59–101. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1974.
Zohar 2:236b, 238b; 3:27a–35b, 37a, 87a, 107b, 213a. Spain, late 13th Century. In, e.g., The Zohar. Translated by Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 volumes. London: Soncino Press, 1934.
Bahya ben Asher. Commentary on the Torah. Spain, early 14th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbeinu Bachya: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Bachya ben Asher. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 5, pages 1528–72. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2003.
Jacob ben Asher (Baal Ha-Turim). Rimze Ba'al ha-Turim. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Baal Haturim Chumash: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, edited, elucidated, and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 3, pages 1055–77. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2000.
Jacob ben Asher. Perush Al ha-Torah. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Yaakov ben Asher. Tur on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 806–26. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2005.
Isaac ben Moses Arama. Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac). Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 558–67. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001.
Modern
Isaac Abravanel. Commentary on the Torah. Italy, between 1492 and 1509. In, e.g., Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 3: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 59–80. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015. Excerpted in, e.g., Abarbanel on the Torah: Selected Themes. Translated by Avner Tomaschoff, pages 360–81. Jerusalem: Jewish Agency for Israel, 2007.
Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. Commentary on the Torah. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., Sforno: Commentary on the Torah. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 514–25. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Moshe Alshich. Commentary on the Torah. Safed, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 634–43. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000.
Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Commentaries on the Torah. Cracow, Poland, mid 17th century. Compiled as Chanukat HaTorah. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 207–10. Southfield, Michigan: Targum Press/Feldheim Publishers, 2004.
Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, part 3, chapters 40, 42. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, pages 503–04, 572. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982.
Shabbethai Bass. Sifsei Chachamim. Amsterdam, 1680. In, e.g., Sefer Vayikro: From the Five Books of the Torah: Chumash: Targum Okelos: Rashi: Sifsei Chachamim: Yalkut: Haftaros, translated by Avrohom Y. Davis, pages 85–139. Lakewood Township, New Jersey: Metsudah Publications, 2012.
Chaim ibn Attar. Ohr ha-Chaim. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 986–1019. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999.
Yitzchak Magriso. Me'am Lo'ez. Constantinople, 1753. In Yitzchak Magriso. The Torah Anthology: MeAm Lo'ez. Translated by Aryeh Kaplan, volume 11, pages 119–86. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1989.
Naḥman of Breslov. Teachings. Bratslav, Ukraine, before 1811. In Rebbe Nachman's Torah: Breslov Insights into the Weekly Torah Reading: Exodus-Leviticus. Compiled by Chaim Kramer, edited by Y. Hall, pages 314–20. Jerusalem: Breslov Research Institute, 2011.
Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). Commentary on the Torah. Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 916–23. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012.
Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. Sefat Emet. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, before 1906. Excerpted in The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 153–58. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Reprinted 2012.
Louis Ginzberg. Legends of the Jews, volume 3 , pages 179–81. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1911.
George Buchanan Gray. Sacrifice in the Old Testament: Its Theory and Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1925. Reprinted by Ktav Publishing House, 1971.
Alexander Alan Steinbach. Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch, pages 78–81. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
Isaac Mendelsohn. "Urim and Thummim." In The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, volume 4, pages 739–40. Nashville, Tennessee: Abingdon Press, 1962.
Roland De Vaux. Studies in Old Testament Sacrifice. University of Wales Press, 1964.
Moshe Greenberg. "Urim and Thummim." In Encyclopaedia Judaica, volume 16, pages 8–9. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, 1972.
Carol L. Meyers. The Tabernacle Menorah. Missoula, Montana: Scholars Press, 1976.
Jacob Milgrom. "Sacrifices and Offerings, OT," and "Wave offering." In The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible. Supp. volume, pages 763–71, 944–46. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon, 1976.
Gordon J. Wenham. The Book of Leviticus, pages 112–45. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1979.
Pinchas H. Peli. Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture, pages 111–14. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987.
David P. Wright. "The Disposal of Impurity: Elimination Rites in the Bible and in Hittite and Mesopotamian Literature." Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Studies. Volume 101 (1987): pages 34–36.
Harvey J. Fields. A Torah Commentary for Our Times: Volume II: Exodus and Leviticus, pages 104–10. New York: UAHC Press, 1991.
Victor Avigdor Hurowitz. “Review Essay: Ancient Israelite Cult in History, Tradition, and Interpretation.” AJS Review, volume 19 (number 2) (1994): pages 213–36.
Walter C. Kaiser Jr., "The Book of Leviticus," in The New Interpreter's Bible, volume 1, pages 1042–63. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994.
Judith S. Antonelli. "The Priesthood." In In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah, pages 247–56. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995.
Ellen Frankel. The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman’s Commentary on the Torah, pages 156–58. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996.
W. Gunther Plaut. The Haftarah Commentary, pages 244–53. New York: UAHC Press, 1996.
Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities, pages 172–76. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
Cornelis Van Dam. The Urim and Thummin: A Means of Revelation in Ancient Israel. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1997.
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus 1–16, volume 3, pages 378–569. New York: Anchor Bible, 1998.
Mary Douglas. Leviticus as Literature, pages 20, 71, 76–77, 83–84, 113, 120, 123, 125–26, 128, 134, 150, 166, 187, 199, 203, 224, 231, 239, 244, 249–51. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Susan Freeman. Teaching Jewish Virtues: Sacred Sources and Arts Activities, pages 165–78. Springfield, New Jersey: A.R.E. Publishing, 1999. (Leviticus 1–7).
Frank H. Gorman Jr. “Leviticus.” In The HarperCollins Bible Commentary. Edited by James L. Mays, pages 150–54. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000.
Claire Magidovitch Green. "Message and Messenger." In The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 191–95. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000.
Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies, pages 382–91. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002.
Michael Fishbane. The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot, pages 155–61. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002.
Robert Alter. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary, pages 564–75. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004.
Elaine Rose Glickman. "Haftarat Tzav: Jeremiah 7:21–8:3; 9:22–23." In The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 116–20. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004.
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus: A Book of Ritual and Ethics: A Continental Commentary, pages 62–87. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004.
Baruch J. Schwartz. "Leviticus." In The Jewish Study Bible. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 217–24. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Antony Cothey. “Ethics and Holiness in the Theology of Leviticus.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 30 (number 2) (December 2005): pages 131–51.
Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 166–67. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005.
Bernard J. Bamberger. "Leviticus." In The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition. Edited by W. Gunther Plaut; revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 686–703. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006.
Suzanne A. Brody. "A Woman's Portion." In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, page 86. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007.
James L. Kugel. How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now, pages 301–03, 358. New York: Free Press, 2007.
Christophe Nihan. From Priestly Torah to Pentateuch: A Study in the Composition of the Book of Leviticus. Coronet Books, 2007.
James W. Watts. Ritual and Rhetoric in Leviticus: From Sacrifice to Scripture. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
The Torah: A Women's Commentary. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, pages 593–614. New York: URJ Press, 2008.
Noach Dzmura. “HaNer Tamid, dos Pintele Yid v’ha Zohar Muzar: The Eternal Flame, the Jewish Spark, and the Flaming Queer: Parashat Tsav (Leviticus 6:1–8:36).” In Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 129–34. New York: New York University Press, 2009.
Reuven Hammer. Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion, pages 147–52. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009.
Roy E. Gane. "Leviticus." In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 296–98. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
Mark Leuchter. “The Politics of Ritual Rhetoric: A Proposed Sociopolitical Context for the Redaction of Leviticus 1–16.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 60 (number 3) (2010): pages 345–65.
Jeffrey Stackert. “Leviticus.” In The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha: An Ecumenical Study Bible. Edited by Michael D. Coogan, Marc Z. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, pages 150–54. New York: Oxford University Press, Revised 4th Edition 2010.
William G. Dever. The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect, page 244. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2012.
Shmuel Herzfeld. "A Response to Catastrophe." In Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons, pages 147–50. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.
David Greenstein. "Urged To Remember: We must remember the heinous crimes of Amalek so that we may avoid the danger of repeating those crimes ourselves." The Jerusalem Report, volume 24 (number 25) (March 24, 2014): page 47.
Annette Yoshiko Reed. "From Sacrifice to the Slaughterhouse: Ancient and Modern Approaches to Meat, Animals, and Civilization." (2015).
Jonathan Sacks. Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Leviticus: The Book of Holiness, pages 99–131. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 129–33. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 159–64. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016.
Shai Held. The Heart of Torah, Volume 2: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, pages 15–25. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary, pages 80–82. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
External links
Texts
Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation
Hear the parashah read in Hebrew
Commentaries
Academy for Jewish Religion, California
Academy for Jewish Religion, New York
Aish.com
American Jewish University—Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies
Chabad.org
Hadar
Jewish Theological Seminary
MyJewishLearning.com
Orthodox Union
Pardes from Jerusalem
Reconstructing Judaism
Union for Reform Judaism
United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism
Yeshiva University
Weekly Torah readings in Adar
Weekly Torah readings in Nisan
Weekly Torah readings from Leviticus |
4284031 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur%20boxing | Amateur boxing | Amateur boxing is a variant of boxing practiced at the collegiate level, at the Olympic Games, Pan American Games and Commonwealth Games, as well as many associations.
Amateur boxing bouts are short in duration, comprising three rounds of three minutes in men, and four rounds of two minutes in women, each with a one-minute interval between rounds. Men's senior bouts changed in format from four two-minute rounds to three three-minute rounds on January 1, 2009. This type of competition prizes point-scoring blows, based on number of clean punches landed, rather than physical power. Also, this short format allows tournaments to feature several bouts over several days, unlike professional boxing, where fighters rest several months between bouts.
A referee monitors the fight to ensure that competitors use only legal blows (a belt worn over the torso represents the lower limit of punches – any boxer repeatedly landing "low blows" is disqualified). Referees also ensure that the boxers do not use holding tactics to prevent the opponent from punching (if this occurs, the referee separates the opponents and orders them to continue boxing. Repeated holding can result in a boxer being penalized, or ultimately, disqualified). Referees have to stop the bout if a boxer is seriously injured, or if one boxer is significantly dominating the other.
Nowadays, amateur boxing is sometimes called Olympic-style boxing (now an official term) though this is not to be confused with Olympic boxing. Olympic boxing, while definitely a part of amateur boxing, could be seen as on the verge of amateur and professional boxing, with the Olympians often being compared to top-ranked professionals in terms of skills, and as a rule receiving a quick start in world professional rankings for granted upon turning pro.
History
Early beginnings
Amateur boxing emerged as a sport during the mid-to-late 19th century, partly as a result of the moral controversies surrounding professional prize-fighting. Originally lampooned as an effort by upper and middle-class gentlemen to co-opt a traditionally working class sport, the safer, "scientific" style of boxing found favour in schools, universities and in the armed forces, although the champions still usually came from among the urban poor.
Development
The Queensberry Amateur Championships continued from 1867 to 1885, and so, unlike their professional counterparts, amateur boxers did not deviate from using gloves once the Queensberry Rules had been published. In England, the Amateur Boxing Association (A.B.A.) was formed in 1880 when twelve clubs affiliated. It held its first championships the following year. Four weight classes were contested: Featherweight (9 stone), Lightweight (10 stone), Middleweight (11 stone, 4 pounds) and Heavyweight (no limit). (A stone is equal to 14 pounds.) By 1902, American boxers were contesting the titles in the A.B.A. Championships, which, therefore, took on an international complexion. By 1924, the A.B.A. had 105 clubs in affiliation.
Boxing first appeared at the Olympic Games in 1904 and, apart from the Games of 1912, has always been part of them. From 1904 to 2020, the United States and Cuba won the most gold medals; 50 for the U.S. (117 overall) and 41 (78 overall) for Cuba. Internationally, amateur boxing spread steadily throughout the first half of the 20th century, but when the first international body, the Fédération Internationale de Boxe Olympique (International Olympic Boxing Federation) was formed in Paris in 1920, there were only five member nations.
In 1946, however, when the International Amateur Boxing Association (A.I.B.A.) was formed in London, twenty-four nations from five continents were represented, and the A.I.B.A. has continued to be the official world federation of amateur boxing ever since. The first World Amateur Boxing Championships were staged in 1974, prior to that only regional championships took place, the only worldwide event apart from the Olympics were World Military Boxing Championships first conducted in 1947 and ever since by the CISM.
Results
The results of amateur boxing match-ups are usually registered, protocolled, and published in a local, regional, national or international press, and broadcast by various media (depending on type, level and importance of the match, and athletes participating,) from the largest international media Associated Press, United Press International, Reuters, covering the major international events, to bulletin-board-type of newspapers covering local events.
Bouts which end this way may be noted in English or in French (which was the AIBA official language.) Amateur boxing does not recognize terms "knockout", and "technical knockout", instead it use the following euphemisms:
All wins, losses, or mismatches except for those achieved by way of a clean knockout, or in absentia, are disputable, and could be contested legally through an appeal to the governing bodies.
Scoring
Amateur boxing to this day have several scoring systems, depending on the tournament regulations and sanctioning authority. Several archaic score systems, that survived to the 1980s (and in some places to this day,) the first of which is a 3-point system, which gave one point for each of three rounds (therefore 3–0 stands for a clean victory by points, 2–1 means that defeated opponent dominated one round, 1–1–1 stands for a draw or ex aequo, which was a very rare occurrence.) It coexisted for a long time with 3-vote decision system, and 5-vote decision system, which resembled professional boxing decision-making system, it took five judges voting either for victory or a draw (in the 5-vote system, 5–0 stands for unanimous decision, 4–1 for majority decision, 3–2 for split decision, 3–1–1 for split decision and one judge ruled a draw. In the 3-vote system, 3–0 stands for unanimous decision, 2–1 for split decision, 0–0–3 for a draw, with no majority decision option.) Depending on the tournament regulations an extra round or rounds could be appointed on the sudden death principle if there was no clear winner. All mentioned systems were practised in combination with each other (i.e. judges were supposed not only to pick up a winner, but also to fill-in scorecards,) creating complexity with points, scorecards, etc. Tournaments and championships usually employed the 5-vote system. International duals usually employed the 3-vote system, with two judges represented the guest nation, and one judge represented the host nation. Both systems lead to a number of controversial and officially contested results, as punch statistics (thrown-to-landed) mostly wasn't accounted for by either one. At the 1960 Rome Olympics preliminaries, after Soviet Oleg Grigoryev was controversially ruled a winner over Great Britain's Francis Taylor, the IOC decided to relieve some 15 of the referees and judges of their duties before the quarterfinals. After the 1988 Seoul Olympics controversy, when the clearly dominant finalist Roy Jones Jr. of the U.S. (whom even the Soviet judges ruled to be a winner, let alone the commentators and his beaten opponent, who himself apologized for the injustice) was virtually robbed of the gold medal, a new system was created and implemented, where only clean punches score, though a controversy still exist as to what is a clean punch in one's personal opinion, leading to another dubious results. The semifinals of the 1996 Atlanta Olympics proved the new points system susceptible to controversy as well, when Kazakhstani Vassiliy Jirov was pronounced a 15–9 score winner over U.S. Antonio Tarver, with many observers were left confused, believing Tarver was dominant through the entire bout.
Computer scoring was introduced to the Olympics in 1992. Each of the five judges had a keypad with a red and a blue button. The judges pressed a button for which ever corner they felt landed a scoring blow. Three out of the five judges had to press the button for the same boxer within a one-second window in order for the point to score. A legal scoring blow was that which is landed cleanly with the knuckle surface of the glove, within the scoring area from the middle of the head, down the sides and between the hips through the belly button. In case of a tied match, each judge would determine a winner.
The AIBA introduced a new scoring system in January 2011. Each judge gives an individual score for each boxer. The score given to each boxer would be taken from 3 out of 5 judges either by similar score or trimmed mean. Scores are no longer tracked in real time and are instead given at the end of each round.
On March 13, 2013, the computer scoring system was abandoned, with amateur boxing instead using the ten point must system, similar to professional boxing. Unlike professional boxing, there is no advantage for a knockdown in scoring. At the end of the match, each judge must determine which boxer won the fight. That will be used in case all scores are tied (there can be no draws in amateur boxing). Furthermore, if a match is stopped early, the match is official and all rounds count towards an official winner, even a partially completed round.
Awards
Amateur boxing awards system in essence duplicates the Olympic awards system with minor differences:
Winner of the final round receives gold medal (1st place)
Other finalist receives silver medal (2nd place)
Semifinalists, who didn't qualify for the finals, receive bronze medal (3rd place)
In some tournaments, where only one third place available (instead of usual two,) or where semifinals produce more than two bronze claimants, 3rd place bouts constitute a separate round.
The United States tournaments and championships, contrary to European equivalent, usually do not award silver medals and bronze medals for 2nd and 3rd place respectively, as they acknowledge only the winners. Hence its colloquial name "Golden Gloves" (implying the winner takes all principle, which they are based upon.) This is a parallel to professional boxing, which also doesn't use such terms as "second place" or "third place", it accepts only "champion" and "challenger".
Protective equipment
In March 2016, protective headgear that had been in use since 1982 was removed from men's competition due to higher concussion rates occurring in fights using headgear than in fights without the headgear. Women's competition was unaffected, as the AIBA announced that there wasn't enough data on its effects on women. This ruling was in place at the 2016 Summer Olympics.
Professional admittance
On several occasions in the 1990s, professional boxers, mostly from the post-Soviet states, resumed their amateur careers, namely: Nikolay Kulpin and Oleg Maskaev in 1993, Nikolai Valuev in 1994, Ruslan Chagaev in 1998.
In June 2016, professional boxers were admitted in the Olympic Games and other tournaments sanctioned by the AIBA. This was done in part to level the playing field and give all of the athletes the same opportunities government-sponsored boxers from socialist countries and post-Soviet republics have. However, professional organizations strongly opposed that decision.
As it is accustomed to in the West, amateur boxers do not compete at the Olympiads consecutively, they turn pro right after they participated in the Games or in other sporting event of international importance, while boxers from Cuba and certain post-Soviet states, which have professional sports there banned today or had it previously, are state-sponsored and frequently stay on in the amateurs, while being arguably professionals de facto, and compete in multiple Olympics.
Competitions
Contrary to professional boxing, which utilizes lineal system, amateur boxing events are different in principle (although professional and amateur cards could appear much similar to each other).
Types of competition
Championships are usually divided into the following age-limited subcategories:
The following ring-experience-oriented divisions are usually represented at tournaments:
There are also specific types of contest for servicemen and jailed people:
In terms of weight classes contests could be either:
Absolute championships without weight limits completely or in two weight classes (over/under 91 kilogram) took place in socialist countries in the absence of professional boxing, allowing to determine country's undisputed champion regardless of weight (over 91: usually contested by light heavyweights and heavyweights; under 91: contested by middleweights with significant other advantages to compensate the weight disparity.) Competitions other than absolute, always had strict weight regulations, weigh-in procedures, etc.
Governing bodies
Essentially, there are three governing bodies in amateur boxing, which rule internationally:
International Amateur Boxing Association (AIBA,) established 1946, responsible for amateur boxing events in general (with World Boxing Championships and Boxing World Cup being the top of it.) National amateur boxing associations and boxing committees are subjected to its decisions, rules, and regulations. Boxing committees of national amateur sports organizations, though not directly subjected to AIBA, abide by its general rules (three rounds, three-minute rounds, protective equipment, standing eight count, three knockdown rule, etc.) with minor locally imposed regulations.
International Olympic Committee (IOC,) established 1894, responsible for boxing events at the Olympic Games. National Olympic boxing selection committees, which undertook national Olympic qualifying tournaments are subjected to IOC decisions (Olympic box-offs, which ultimately qualify athletes for the Olympic Games, held under the auspices of national olympic committees, while Olympic trials, that precede the box-offs, held by national athletic associations.)
International Military Sports Council (CISM,) established 1948, responsible for boxing events at the Military World Games, and World Military Boxing Championships.
Disbanded governing bodies
International Amateur Boxing Federation (FIBA,) established 1920, the AIBA predecessor, disbanded shortly after the World War II.
International Association for Sports and Physical Culture (SASI,) established 1920, the IOC Communist-twin, which was responsible for boxing events at the International Workers' Olympiads (Socialist equivalent to the Olympics at the times when the socialist countries ignored the Western-hosted Olympiads.) Disbanded in 1946 after the USSR decided to join IOC and AIBA.
International University Sports Federation (FISU,) was responsible for boxing events at the Universiades (discontinued.)
Goodwill Games Organizing Committee (consisting partly of the U.S. and Soviet Sports Committee) was responsible for boxing events at the Goodwill Games.
The National Collegiate Athletic Association sanctioned collegiate boxing championships of the U.S. from 1948 to 1960
Collegiate-level boxing competitions in the United States are usually regulated by one of two organizations: the National Collegiate Boxing Association (created in 1978) or the United States Intercollegiate Boxing Association (formed in 2012).
National competitions
United States
There are several different amateur sanctioning bodies in the United States, including the National AAU Boxing Committee, Golden Gloves Association of America and United States Amateur Boxing Federation (presently known as USA Boxing.)
The Golden Gloves is an amateur boxing tournament that is fought at both the national level and the regional level. Although the Golden Gloves typically refers to the National Golden Gloves, it can also refer to the Intercity Golden Gloves, the Chicago Golden Gloves, the New York Golden Gloves, and other regional Golden Gloves tournaments. The winners of the regional tournaments fight in a national competition annually.
USA Boxing also sanctions a national tournament to determine who will compete on the United States national boxing team at the Olympic Games (either directly qualifying for the Olympics or through worldwide or regional qualifying tournaments).
Canada
Since 1969, amateur boxing in Canada has been regulated by the Canadian Amateur Boxing Association (Boxing Canada) and the various member provincial associations.
Some of the main tournaments include Provincial Championships, Golden Gloves, Silver Gloves, Emerald Gloves and Buckskin Gloves.
Current World & Olympic Champions
Men's Youth Division
Celebrity boxing
The late 2010’s and early 2020s saw advent of celebrity boxing matches, when certain media celebrities, usually Internet and TV personalities, YouTubers, etc., challenged one another. The latest of such matches was the KSI vs. Logan Paul, a white-collar amateur boxing match between the British YouTuber, Olajide "JJ" Olatunji (known online as KSI), and American YouTuber, Logan Paul. The fight was promoted as "the biggest internet event in history" and "the biggest amateur boxing match in history". With the result being a draw, KSI retained the Youtube championship belt he got from the KSI vs. Joe Weller fight which he won in the way of TKO 1m 30 sec into the 3rd round. The belt was presented to KSI by professional boxer Derek Chisora at the end of his fight with Weller. The YouTube championship belt is of red colour with gold motifs. Its design features an eagle with its wings fully spread atop a golden globe with a crown at its centre. The rematch took place on 9 November 2019 at the Staples Center, Los Angeles, this time as a professional boxing match. KSI won the rematch by split decision after going the full distance of six three minute rounds.
See also
Professional boxing
References
External links
Encyclopædia Britannica Article on Boxing and Weight Divisions
Amateur Boxing Records Database
Amateur Boxing Association of England
Individual sports |
4284049 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr.%20Wagner%20Jr. | Dr. Wagner Jr. | Juan Manuel González Barrón (born August 12, 1965) is a Mexican luchador (Spanish for "professional wrestler") who is best known under the ring name Dr. Wagner Jr., having used that name since 1987. He is the son of Manuel González Rivera, better known as Dr. Wagner and the brother of the late César Cuauhtémoc González Barrón, who worked primarily under the name Silver King. His son made his lucha libre debut 2009 under the ring name El Hijo de Dr. Wagner Jr. González was once married to professional wrestler María Moreno León, better known as Rossy Moreno.
While he has worked all over the world as Dr. Wagner Jr. he primarily works in Mexico and has worked with both Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) and Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (AAA), Mexico's two largest professional wrestling promotions, on multiple occasions as well as being a regular on the Mexican independent circuit. He was introduced to Lucha Underground at the end of season two and has worked for various Japanese promotions, most notably for New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW).
During his career he has won such notable championships as the AAA Mega Championship on three occasions, been the inaugural AAA Latin American Champion, held the CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship twice, the CMLL World Tag Team Championship on four occasions with four partners, the CMLL World Trios Championship four times, as part of four teams, the NWA World Light Heavyweight Championship and the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship with Kendo Kashin.
González worked under a mask from his debut in 1985 until August 2017, when he was forced to unmask after losing to Psycho Clown in a Lucha de Apuestas at Triplemanía XXV. Following the unmasking, González renamed himself Rey Wagner ("King Wagner").
Personal life
Juan Manuel González Barrón was born on August 12, 1965, son of Magdalena Barrón and her husband Manuel González Rivera, better known as the luchador (professional wrestler) Dr. Wagner. Juan González was the second son born, with his brother Óscar being two years his elder. His parents later had another son, César Cuauhtémoc González Barrón and finally a daughter Mayra. At one point in the late 1980s to 1990s Juan González was married to María del Rocío Moreno León, who is also a professional wrestler under the name Rossy Moreno, and together the couple had at least two sons, El Hijo de Dr. Wagner Jr. and Galeno del Mal. Juan González' sons' names are not a matter of public knowledge as they wrestle as enmascarados, which traditionally means that their personal informations are kept from the general public per lucha libre traditions. Juan González later remarried, although it is unclear if his current wife is directly involved with lucha libre or not. In the early 2000s César González introduced the wrestling world to a son, referred to only as "El Hijo de Silver King", who at the time was training to be a wrestler.
Professional wrestling career
González started out working as a masked wrestler known as El Invasor ("The Invader"). The anonymity of the El Invasor character allowed González to gain in-ring experience without the pressure of the Dr. Wagner name. González only worked as El Invasor for about a year before it was decided to reveal his family relationship.
González was slated to make his in-ring debut as Dr. Wagner Jr. in a match where he would team up with his father, to take on his father's former tag team partner Ángel Blanco and Ángel Blanco Jr. on April 27, 1986. While driving to the show the car, carrying his father, José Vargas (Ángel Blanco), El Solar, Mano Negra and Jungla Negra crashed when one of the tires exploded. Vargas was killed by the crash and González' father suffered severe spinal damage. Manuel González would later use a wheelchair to accompany his son to the ring for some matches.
Universal Wrestling Association (1987–1993)
After adopting his father's name Dr. Wagner Jr. he also began working for the Universal Wrestling Association (UWA), the same promotion where his father worked for most of his career. Promoters played off the rivalry of their famous fathers and often paired Dr. Wagner Jr. against Ángel Blanco Jr. On August 3, 1986 the two rivals were teamed up for a Ruleta de la Muerte ("Roulette of Death") tournament where the losing teams advance and the team that lost the finals would have to wrestle each other in a Lucha de Apuestas, or "bet match", for their masks. The rivals defeated Mano Negra and Aníbal to survive the tournament with their masks intact. On July 22, 1990 Dr. Wagner Jr. defeated Astro de Oro to win the UWA World Junior Heavyweight Championship, his first professional wrestling championship. He held the title for 218 days, until February 25, 1991, when he lost it to Enrique Vega.
Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (1993–2009)
In the early 1990s the UWA's popularity began to dwindle as less and less fans attended their shows. To try and combat the fan departure the UWA began working with long time rival promotion Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL), co-promoting shows and allowing UWA workers to also compete on CMLL shows. On April 2, 1993 the collaboration between the two companies led to Dr. Wagner Jr. defeating Pierroth Jr. to win the CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship. Later that year the two promotions worked together to host a tournament for the newly created CMLL World Tag Team Championship with teams from the UWA and CMLL competing against each other. Dr. Wagner Jr. was teamed up with UWA's top name El Canek for the tournament, defeating the team of Vampiro and Pierroth Jr. in the finals to become the first CMLL World Tag Team Champions. Dr. Wagner Jr.'s first reign as CMLL World Light Heavyweight Champion ended on March 2, 1994 as he was defeated by Atlantis. By early 1994 Dr. Wagner Jr. began teaming with Gran Markus Jr. and El Hijo del Gladiador on a regular basis, forming a team known as La Nueva Ola Blanca ("The New White Wave"), adopting the name of his father's tag team. La Nueva Ola Blanca won the CMLL World Trios Championship on April 22, 1994 when they defeated Los Brazos (El Brazo, Brazo de Oro and Brazo de Plata). In November of that year El Canek stopped working for CMLL, forcing Dr. Wagner Jr. to give up his half of the world tag team championship. In early 1997 Dr. Wagner Jr. and Silver King won the CMLL World Tag Team Championship, but once again Dr. Wagner Jr. was forced to give up his half, this time because Silver King left CMLL to work for the US based World Championship Wrestling (WCW). He later won the championship for a third time, this time with Emilio Charles Jr. as his tag team partner. He later won the CMLL World Trips Championship on three additional occasions, with Black Warrior and Blue Panther, then with Blue Panther and Fuerza Guerrera, and finally with Black Tiger (his brother under a new ring identity) and Universo 2000.
On June 18, 2004, on a CMLL show in Mexico City, Dr. Wagner Jr. defeated long time rival El Canek to win the UWA World Heavyweight Championship, a title still promoted 10 years after the UWA closed. The championship change was part of a long running storyline between the two, a storyline set to culminate in a four-way Lucha de Apuestas match at the CMLL 71st Anniversary Show. In the week prior to the show Manuel González died, which led to a surge of sympathy for Dr. Wagner Jr. This led to the crowd being solidly behind the until-then hated Dr. Wagner Jr. as he put his mask on the line against El Canek, Universo 2000 and Rayo de Jalisco Jr. In the end El Canek defeated Universo 2000 to take his mask. As result of the newfound popularity of Dr. Wagner Jr. CMLL decided to turn El Canek rudo (villain), allowing for the rivalry to continue. Later on when Dr. Wagner Jr. moved on to a feud with Atlantis, the story repeated itself as the crowd turned against Atlantis, forcing CMLL to turn him from técnico (hero or good guy) into one of the bad guys of the storyline. The rivalry continued for several months until Dr. Wagner Jr.'s focus shifted to newcomer L.A. Park, resulting in a series of very violent, out of control matches between the two.
On April 27, 2008, Wagner led a protest march for anyone who believed they were being mistreated by their bosses to join. About 200 people joined the march, including Fuerza Guerrera and wrestlers from IWRG. Wagner claimed he was not being used because he criticized CMLL in the press, and claimed he was in talks with World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). The rivalry between Dr. Wagner Jr. and L.A Park reached its CMLL climax at the CMLL 75th Anniversary Show where Dr. Wagner Jr. and L.A. Park wrestled each other in a match that ended in a disqualification due to excessive brawling outside the ring. A short time later Dr. Wagner Jr. was fired from CMLL, officially for breaking CMLL's strict rule about not bleeding during matches or using weapons.
Japan (1988–2004)
Starting in 1988 Dr. Wagner Jr. began making regular trips to Japan primarily working for New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) through their relationship with the UWA. Later on he would also work for the Japanese Wrestling International New Generations (W*ING) and Big Japan Pro Wrestling (BJW) promotions. During a BJW tour in 1996 Dr. Wagner Jr. lost the CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship to Aquarius and then regained it 8 days later. The title change was not sanctioned by CMLL and not officially recognized in Mexico. In 1997 he participated in Best of the Super Juniors IV, where he defeated Doc Dean and Chavo Guerrero Jr. but lost the remaining four matches and failed to advance. The following year Dr. Wagner Jr. was invited back for the 1998 Best of the Super Juniors tournament. He won his block with a total of four victories, but lost in the finals to Koji Kanemoto.
Later that same year he teamed up with Kendo Kashin to compete for the newly created IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship, losing in the tournament final to Shinjiro Otani and Tatsuhito Takaiwa. When Dr. Wagner Jr. returned to Japan in 1999 Wagner and Kashin won the junior heavyweight tag team championship on January 4 on NJPW's Wrestling World 1999 in the Tokyo Dome. The following month Dr. Wagner Jr. unsuccessfully fought Jyushin Thunder Liger for the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship. The reign with the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship ended after 96 days, with two successful defenses, before losing the belts to The Great Sasuke and Jyushin Thunder Liger on April 10, 1999.
For the third year in a row Dr. Wagner Jr. competed in the annual Best of the Super Juniors tournament, a tournament won by Dr. Wagner Jr.'s former partner Kendo Kashin. In 2003 Dr. Wagner Jr and his brother Silver King toured with All Japan Pro Wrestling (AJPW) instead of NJPW, working primarily as a tag team for the entirety of the tour.
Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (2009–2013)
On March 15, 2009 Dr. Wagner Jr. made a surprise appearance at Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (AAA)'s annual Rey de Reyes ("King of Kings") event. First he chased off La Legión Extranjera before turning around to challenge the AAA Mega Champion El Mesias to a title match. On June 13, 2009, at Triplemania XVII Wagner defeated Mesias to win the AAA Mega Championship. After his title win Wagner went on to form the stable Los Wagnermaniacos with Silver King, Electroshock and Último Gladiador. Dr. Wagner Jr. successfully defended the Mega championship against both El Mesias and Cibernético in a Steel Cage Match at the 2009 Verano de Escandalo ("Summer of Scandal") show. At the subsequent AAA event, Heroes Inmortales III, Dr. Wagner Jr. successfully defended against El Mesias once more. Following two successful defenses against El Mesias, Dr. Wagner Jr. stipulated that if El Mesias lost at the 2009 Guerra de Titanes ("War of the Titans") he would not receive another title match. After holding the title for 181 days Dr. Wagner Jr. lost the title back to El Mesias at Guerra de Titanes. In the aftermath of Wagner's stable partner Electroshock winning the AAA Mega Championship at Rey de Reyes in March 2010, Electroshock, Ultimo Gladiator and even Dr. Wagner's own brother, Silver King, all turned on him and kicked him out of the stable, which they renamed Los Maniacos. At Triplemania XVIII Dr. Wagner Jr. pinned Electroshock to win his second AAA Mega Championship. Following the match El Mesias came to the ring, presented Dr. Wagner Jr. with the championship belt and then shook his hand.
On July 12, 2010, Dr. Wagner Jr. made a surprise appearance for CMLL, coming to the aid of his son El Hijo de Dr. Wagner at an event in Nuevo Laredo. Wagner, whose contract with AAA had recently expired, claimed that he was still on good terms with the company and offered no explanation for his appearance.
On August 15, 2010, at Verano de Escandalo Dr. Wagner Jr. successfully defended the AAA Mega Championship in a three-way match against Silver King and Vampiro. After the match Silver King played an audio tape, claiming it was their late father saying that Silver King was the more talented brother. This revelation led to a match on October 1 at Héroes Inmortales IV, where Wagner Jr. defeated Silver King in a singles match, retaining the AAA Mega Championship. On October 31, 2010, Wagner Jr. formed a new alliance named Potencia Mundial (World Power) with Monster Clown, Murder Clown and Psycho Clown. On December 5 at Guerra de Titanes Wagner Jr. lost the AAA Mega Championship to El Zorro. On June 18, 2011, at Triplemanía XIX, Wagner Jr. defeated Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) performer Rob Van Dam to become the first ever AAA Latin American Champion. Immediately afterwards, Wagner began making challenges towards new AAA Mega Champion Jeff Jarrett. Wagner received his shot at the title on July 31 at Verano de Escándalo in a three-way match, which also included L.A. Park, but was eliminated following a distraction from Karen Jarrett and a low blow from Jarrett. On October 9 at Héroes Inmortales, Dr. Wagner Jr. made his first successful defense of the AAA Latin American Championship by defeating El Hijo del Perro Aguayo in a Bullterrier match. After the match, two of AAA's top técnicos, and Wagner's allies, La Parka and Octagón, both turned on him and joined Aguayo's Los Perros del Mal. On December 16 at Guerra de Titanes, Wagner Jr. lost the AAA Latin American Championship to L.A. Park.
In early 2012, Dr. Wagner Jr. started a rivalry with the invading El Consejo stable. On March 18 at Rey de Reyes, Wagner teamed with Electroshock and Heavy Metal losing to El Consejo members Máscara Año 2000 Jr., El Texano Jr. and Toscano, with Máscara Año 2000 Jr. pinning Wagner following outside interference. The following month, Wagner made peace with Silver King as the two came together to battle El Consejo. On August 5 in the main event of Triplemanía XX, Wagner Jr. defeated Máscara Año 2000 Jr. in a Mask vs. Mask match, forcing his rival to unmask himself. In early 2013, Wagner Jr., claiming dissatisfaction with his position in AAA, left the promotion for a several-month-long stint with El Hijo del Santo's Todo X el Todos promotion, only to return in May in time for Triplemanía XXI. At the event, Dr. Wagner Jr. teamed with Electroshock, La Parka and Octagón to defeat Canek, Máscara Año 2000, Universo 2000 and Villano IV in an eight-man tag team match. Afterwards, the relationship between Wagner and AAA once again broke down with Wagner taking public potshots at the promotion.
Independent circuit (2013–present)
On November 17, 2013, Wagner Jr. returned to CMLL at a small event in Naucalpan, confronting and challenging Mr. Niebla. For the past weeks, Wagner had teased "invading" CMLL and settling his score with the likes of Atlantis and Último Guerrero. In July 2014, Wagner worked a tour of Japan, during which he wrestled for Tokyo Gurentai and women's wrestling promotion World Wonder Ring Stardom.
Return to CMLL (2015)
In August 2015, Wagner made his return to CMLL after an almost 7-year absence. His tenure with CMLL was only brief as CMLL fired Wagner on September 11, after he reportedly told them that taking part in the 82nd Anniversary Show "didn't suit his interests". It was later reported that Wagner decided to not work the anniversary show out of loyalty to L.A. Park, who had been released by the promotion days earlier.
Return to AAA (2014–2020)
A year after leaving AAA, Wagner returned to take part in Triplemanía XXII, putting any past issues behind them. At the event Wagner took part in a four-way elimination main event for the Copa Triplemanía XXII. He was the first man eliminated from the match by Cibernético. Dr. Wagner Jr. did not appear for AAA for the rest of the year, not returning until the 2016 Lucha Libre World Cup tournament in June 2016. Dr. Wagner Jr. teamed up with Rey Mysterio Jr. and Dragon Azteca Jr. as "Team Mexico International" for the tournament, but was eliminated in the second round.
Dr. Wagner Jr. returned to AAA in the fall, shortly after leaving CMLL, as he turned on former tag team partner Rey Mysterio Jr. On August 28, 2016, at Triplemanía XXIV, Wagner fought against El Texano Jr. and Brian Cage for the AAA Mega Championship, but did not win the championship. During the main event of the show, he disrupted a Luchas de Apuestas match between Psycho Clown and Pagano, attacking Psycho Clown. After the match, which Psycho Cown won, Dr. Wagner Jr. challenged Psycho Clown to put his mask on the line in a Lucha de Apuestas at Triplemanía XXV in 2017, a challenge that Psycho Clown accepted. At Héroes Inmortales X Dr. Wagner Jr. defeated Psycho Clown in a match that also included Pagano after Psycho Clown's long time tag team partners, Monster Clown and Murder Clown, turned on him and helped Dr. Wagner Jr. win the match.
On August 26, 2017, Wagner was defeated by Psycho Clown in a Lucha de Apuestas at Triplemanía XXV and was forced to unmask as a result. Afterwards, Wagner continued working for AAA unmasked under the new name "Rey Wagner" ("King Wagner"). On October 4, at Héroes Inmortales XI, Wagner was defeated in a title fight by the AAA Mega Championship against Johnny Mundo. On January 26, in Guerra de Titanes, Wagner defeated Mundo to win his third AAA Mega Championship.
On June 4 at Verano de Escándalo, Wagner was defeated along with Rey Mysterio Jr., thus losing his title to Jeff Jarrett who made his return to the company with the help of Konnan. That same night after the event, Wagner declared himself independent.
On August 3, 2019, at Triplemanía XXVII, Wagner lost a mask vs hair match to Blue Demon Jr. After the match, following his head being shaved, Wagner announced his retirement. However, the next day, Wagner clarified his situation that he is not permanently retired and would have to meet the dates in both AAA and independents. On August 10 in Saltillo, Coahuila, Wagner announced that he finally canceled his retirement to continue his career.
On February 2, 2020, Wagner officially announced his departure from the AAA after appearing at an event in the Naucalpan Arena after six years.
Lucha Underground (2016–2018)
On July 6, 2016, Wagner made his surprise debut for Lucha Underground, making an appearance at Ultima Lucha Dos as a surprise opponent for Son of Havoc. Dr. Wagner Jr. defeated Son of Havoc, with the storyline being that he won a cash prize of $250,000. During season 3 Dr. Wagner Jr. was managed by Famous B and worked a storyline feud with Son of Havoc and Mascarita Sagrada, who had previously been managed by Famous B. He also participated in the "Battle of the Bulls" tournament, but was eliminated by Cage. At Ultima Lucha Tres, Wagner returned and teamed with Famous B to defeat Texano forcing him to become Famous B's new client. However, Wagner would not appear in the fourth season and the series was discontinued after season finale, Ultima Lucha Cuatro.
In other media
In June 2010, Dr. Wagner Jr. won a four-way match to become the wrestler to be featured on the cover of the video game Lucha Libre AAA: Héroes del Ring, which was released on August 9, 2010, in North America. Dr. Wagner Jr. is one of the playable characters in the game.
Championships and accomplishments
Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre
CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
CMLL World Tag Team Championship (4 times) – with Canek (1), Silver King (1), Emilio Charles Jr. (1) and Último Guerrero (1)
CMLL World Trios Championship (4 times) – with Gran Markus Jr. and El Hijo del Gladiador (1), Black Warrior and Blue Panther (1), Blue Panther and Fuerza Guerrera (1), and Universo 2000 and Black Tiger III (1)
NWA World Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
International Gran Prix (2003)
International Wrestling League
IWL World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Kaoz Lucha Libre
Kaoz Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Llaves y Candados
LyC Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Silver King
Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide
AAA Mega Championship (3 times)
AAA Latin American Championship (1 time)
Lucha Libre Premier (2009)
New Japan Pro-Wrestling
IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Kendo Kashin
Pro Wrestling Revolution
PWR World Heavyweight Championship (1 time, current)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Ranked No. 16 of the 500 best singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 1999 and 2010
Ranked No. 82 of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the "PWI Years" in 2003
Universal Wrestling Association
UWA World Heavyweight Championship (1 time, last)
UWA World Junior Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
World Wrestling Association
WWA World Junior Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 2019)
Luchas de Apuestas record
Footnotes
References
General
Specific
External links
1965 births
Living people
Masked wrestlers
Mexican male professional wrestlers
Sportspeople from Torreón
Professional wrestlers from Coahuila
Expatriate professional wrestlers in Japan
AAA Mega Champions
IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Champions
20th-century professional wrestlers
21st-century professional wrestlers
AAA Latin American Champions
CMLL World Light Heavyweight Champions
CMLL World Tag Team Champions
CMLL World Trios Champions
NWA World Light Heavyweight Champions
UWA World Heavyweight Champions
UWA World Junior Heavyweight Champions |
4284638 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism%20in%20Israel | Tourism in Israel | Tourism in Israel is one of the country's major sources of income, with a record 4.55 million tourist arrivals in 2019. Tourism contributed NIS 20 billion to the Israeli economy in 2017, making it an all-time record. Israel offers a plethora of historical and religious sites, beach resorts, natural sites, archaeological tourism, heritage tourism, adventure tourism, and ecotourism. For practical reasons, this article also covers tourism in the Israeli-occupied West Bank and the occupied Golan Heights, since it is closely interconnected with the mass tourism in Israel.
In 2017, the most popular paid tourist attraction is Masada. The most visited city was Jerusalem and the most visited site was the Western Wall. The largest percentage of tourists came from the United States accounting for 19% of all tourists, followed by Russia, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, China, Italy, Poland, and Canada.
Religious tourism is very popular in Israel and in the West Bank. As of 2007, the two most visited Jewish religious sites were the Western Wall and the grave of Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai; The most visited Christian holy sites are the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, the Church of the Nativity in the West Bank town of Bethlehem, and the Basilica of the Annunciation in Nazareth, Israel.
The most visited Islamic religious places are the Masjid Al-Aqsa (the Temple Mount) in Jerusalem, and the Ibrahimi Mosque at the Tomb of the Patriarchs in the West Bank town of Hebron.
Most-visited cities
Jerusalem
Jerusalem is the most-visited city with 3.5 million tourist arrivals annually as of 2017. One of the oldest cities in the world, it is the proclaimed capital of, and largest city of Israel, if the area and population of Israeli-occupied East Jerusalem are included. It is a holy city to the three major Abrahamic religions – Judaism, Christianity, and Islam – and hosts many historical, archaeological, religious and other attractions.
West Jerusalem was built starting in the 1800s with the expansion beyond the Old City walls, gradually expanded throughout the British Mandate, and continued after the creation of Israel in 1948. Selected tourist attractions in this area are:
The German Colony, a Temple Society settlement, with a colorful mix of architectural styles.
Mea Shearim, established in the nineteenth century and inhabited largely by ultra-Orthodox Haredi Jews, retains the flavor of an Eastern European shtetl.
Yad Vashem Holocaust memorial museum.
Ein Karem, the traditional birthplace of John the Baptist, is one of the four most-visited Christian pilgrimage sites in Israel.
Mount Zion, the traditional resting place of King David.
Mount Scopus, site of the Hebrew University and standing at 2710 feet or 826 meters above sea level, offers a panoramic view of the city. Both the Temple Mount and the Dead Sea are visible from this location.
East Jerusalem was captured by Israel in the 1967 Six-day War and considered by the international community as Palestinian territory held under Israeli occupation, although it was effectively unilaterally annexed in 1980 under the Jerusalem Law. It is the location of:
The Old City of Jerusalem, traditionally divided into four quarters: the Armenian Quarter, Christian Quarter, Muslim Quarter and Jewish Quarter. Most importantly, the Temple Mount (known in Arabic as Haram ash-sharīf, the Noble Sanctuary), site of the ancient Temple in Jerusalem with only the Western Wall at its foot remaining, and now with the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque.
The Mount of Olives and Kidron Valley: with its lookout point, Tomb of Absalom, and other Jewish tombs and burial grounds dating back 3000 years, and churches, Gethsemane, church of all nations, Dominus Flevit, and the Church of Maria Magdalene (Russian orthodox church). Various locations have been proposed as the Tomb of Jesus and/or as Golgotha, the nearby hill where he was crucified. Traditionally both have been believed to be in the vicinity where the Church of the Holy Sepulchre stands. Immediately south of the Jewish Quarter lies the City of David with archaeological digs including the Siloam Tunnel.
The controversial status of East Jerusalem has been an issue when attempting to market Jerusalem to international tourists. In 2009, 2010, and again in 2015, the UK Advertising Standards Authority ruled against a series of Israeli Ministry of Tourism advertising campaigns that displayed images and information about tourist sites located in East Jerusalem. The Authority wrote in its ruling that "the status of the occupied territory of the West Bank was the subject of much international dispute, and because we considered that the ad implied that the part of East Jerusalem featured in the image was part of the state of Israel, we concluded that the ad was likely to mislead." Israel rejected the ruling, with the Ministry of Tourism releasing a statement that said the ad provided "basic, accurate information to a prospective UK visitor". The ruling from 2009 also included criticism about Gaza, the West Bank and the Golan Heights being shown as part of Israel.
Tel Aviv
With 2.3 million tourist visits in 2013, Tel Aviv is Israel's second-largest city and a cosmopolitan, cultural and financial global city. The city's greater area is the largest with 3 million inhabitants. Tel Aviv exhibits a UNESCO world heritage area of Bauhaus architecture. The nearby historical city of Jaffa is experiencing a tourism boom. In 2010, National Geographic ranked Tel Aviv as one of the world's ten best beach cities.
Tel Aviv is called the "city that never sleeps" by the locals because of its vibrant nightlife scene. Tel Aviv was named "the gay capital of the Middle East" by the Out magazine.
Safed
Safed is one of the four holy cities in Judaism, where much of the Jerusalem Talmud was written and the study of kabbalah (Jewish mysticism) developed. Famous for its artisans. The grave of Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai is in nearby Meron.
Around the city, there are many nature reserves and archaeological sites notably the ancient synagogues.
Acre (Akko)
Old City and its Knights Hall
Al-Jazzar Mosque
(Baháʼí) Shrine of Bahá'u'lláh, resting place of Bahá'u'lláh as well as a Unesco world heritage historical town.
Haifa
Carmel
(Baháʼí) Shrine of the Báb, its terraces, and the Baháʼí World Centre and the buildings (a Unesco world heritage).
Stella Maris Monastery
Tel Shikmona
Cave of Elijah
Mahmood Mosque
Tiberias
Tiberias is one of the four holy cities in Judaism, overlooking the Sea of Galilee.
Saint Peter's house at Capernaum, Tabgha and the Mount of Beatitudes.
Nazareth
Nazareth is known as the 'Arab capital of Israel'.
Visit Nazareth's old city and historical sites around the city
Jesus's hometown and the site of many of his reported acts and miracles.
Many churches, including The Church of the Annunciation, the largest church building in the Middle East. In Roman Catholic tradition, it marks the site where the Archangel Gabriel announced the future birth of Jesus to the Virgin Mary (Luke 1:26–31).
Starting point for the Jesus Trail, a network of hiking routes connecting many sites from Jesus's life and ministry.
Beersheba
Settlement of Beersheba attributed to the patriarch Abraham. Regional capital of the Negev desert. It serves as a starting point for exploring such sites as the Ramon Crater or the UNESCO world heritage Nabataean Incense Route (Shivta, Avdat, Mamshit).
Eilat
Eilat, Israel's southernmost city, located on the Red Sea coast, is a hot, sunny year-round travel destination. Popular destination for skin and scuba diving, with equipment for hire on or near all major beaches, the Eilat Mountains are similar to those in Sinai and there are trail roads for hiking, where one can also find animals like dorcas gazelle, rock hyrax, striped hyena and Nubian ibex. Eilat has big hotels and various attractions such as camel riding, and the Eilat's Underwater Observatory Marine Park.
Ramon Airport opened in 2019 replacing the previous Eilat Airport and Ovda Airport. It is Israel's second busiest airport and served by a number of direct flights to and from Europe.
Ashkelon
Ashkelon is a city between Gaza City in the Gaza Strip and Ashdod. The city offers many hotels and Mizrahi Jewish restaurants. Local drink Arak Ashkelon is also popular among tourists.
Tel Ashkelon is a big archaeological site, includes ruins from many different periods such as Canaanites, Philistines, Persians, Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Muslims and Crusaders.
Ashkelon has no active pilgrimage site but it was one of the places where the head of Husayn ibn Ali before transferred to Cairo was located, the mosque was destroyed in 1950 but in 2001 a small compound built on the site for Shia Islam pilgrims from India who visiting the site, there is also a well believed by Muslims and Christians alike which is one of Abraham's wells.
The sand dunes between Ashkelon to Ashdod and between Ashkelon to the Gaza Strip are popular attractions on this area of the sea coast.
Landmarks outside cities
Masada
Masada is an ancient fortification in the Southern District of Israel situated on top of an isolated rock plateau (akin to a mesa) on the eastern edge of the Judaean Desert, overlooking the Dead Sea. Herod the Great built palaces for himself on the mountain and fortified Masada between 37 and 31 BCE. According to Josephus, the Siege of Masada by troops of the Roman Empire towards the end of the First Jewish–Roman War ended in the mass suicide of the 960 Jewish rebels and their families hiding there. Masada is located east of Arad. Masada is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and Israel's most popular tourist attraction only second to Jerusalem.
Caesarea
Caesarea's ancient city includes Roman and Crusader ruins, such as the amphitheater and hippodrome, where live concerts of classical and popular music are frequently held, as well as the harbor from which St. Paul was taken as a prisoner to Rome.
It is one of Israel's biggest archaeological sites.
Beit She'an
Beit She'an (Scythopolis) was a Roman Decapolis city. One of the largest archaeological sites in the Middle East.
Beit She'arim
Beit She'arim National Park was an ancient Jewish Necropolis, it is having many tombs of Jews with many significant signs like animals and menorah, it is also includes a Jewish city and an ancient synagogue ruins.
Biblical tells
There are around 200 biblical Tells in Israel. Tel is an archaeological site that is not created by nature but by ruined human settlements. The biblical tells are from the Bronze Age and located on ancient cities that are mentioned in old testament. the chosen cities are Tel Hazor, Tel Megiddo and Tel Be'er Sheva which are also UNESCO World Heritage Sites. These tels also have some of the most ancient water systems in the world. Other biblical tells around Israel include Jerusalem, Tel Arad, Tel Gezer and Tel Lachish.
Mount Carmel prehistoric caves
Sites of human evolution at Mount Carmel – Nahal Me'arot Nature Reserve is a site of human evolution at Mount Carmel in Haifa, Northern Israel. It has four caves such as Me’arat HaTanur (the Oven Cave; also known as Tabun Cave), Me’arat HaGamal (the Camel Cave), Me’arat HaNahal (the Stream Cave) and Me’arat HaGedi (the Young Goat Cave). The site was proclaimed as universal value by UNESCO in 2012.The site indicates the prehistoric man's settlements and unique evidence of a first burial.
Negev Incense Route
Incense Route – Desert Cities in the Negev – The Negev incense route located between Jordan's Petra and Palestine's Gaza, the Nabataeans have built many fortresses, caravanserai but especially known for their four important cities of Avdat, Mamshit, Shivta, and Haluza that located on this important trade route, the Negev Incense Route is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Ancient synagogues
Israel is the birthplace of Judaism and cradle of Jewish history includes many ancient synagogues from the Second Temple Period and Byzantine-Muslim periods from Northern to Southern Israel.
Among the more impressive synagogue remains are those from Capernaum, Magdala, Masada, Anim, Bar'am, Gush Halav, Beit Alpha, Hukok, Nabratein, Ein Gedi, Caesarea, and Hamat Tiberias.
Additional synagogues can be found in the Israeli-occupied territories of the West Bank, for example Susya and Herodium, and the Golan Heights, such as Gamla and Umm el Kanatir.
Muslim shrines
Next to the ancient city of Arsuf stands the Sidna Ali Mosque, which is still in use and holds the tomb of Muslim holy man. The Nabi Musa shrine, believed to be the tomb of Musa (Moses) according to a local Muslim tradition, is located near the West Bank city of Jericho.
Avshalom Stalactites Cave
Avshalom Cave, also known as Soreq Cave or Stalactites Cave, is a 5,000 m2 cave on the western side of Mt.Ye'ela, in the Judean hills, in Israel, unique for its dense concentration of stalactites
Some of the stalactites found in the cave are four meters long, and some have been dated as 300,000 years old. Some meet stalagmites to form stone pillars
Mount Karkom
Har Karkom ("Mountain of Saffron" in Hebrew), or Jabal Ideid in Arabic is a mountain in the southwest Negev desert in Israel, halfway between Petra and Kadesh Barnea. On the basis that the Israelites travelled across the Sinai peninsula towards Petra in a fairly straight line, a number of scholars have contemplated the possibility of Har Karkom being the Biblical Mount Sinai. Following this theory, Emmanuel Anati excavated at the mountain, and discovered that it was a major paleolithic cult centre, with the surrounding plateau covered with shrines, altars, stone circles, stone pillars, and over 40,000 rock engravings.
Although, on the basis of his findings, Anati advocates the identification of Har Karkom with Mount Sinai,[1][2] the peak of religious activity at the site may date to 2350–2000 BC, and the mountain appears to have been abandoned perhaps between 1950 and 1000 BC; the exodus is sometimes dated between 1600 and 1200 BC. However, no archaeological evidence has been supported by scholars to maintain a date of 1600–1200 BC. Anati instead places the Exodus, based on other archaeological evidence at around 2300 BC
Ancient Ashkelon
Tel Ashkelon is a big archaeological site, includes ruins from many different periods such as Canaanites, Philistines, Persians, Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Muslims and Crusaders.
Ancient Beit Guvrin and Maresha
Beit Guvrin-Maresha National Park is a national park in central Israel, 13 kilometers from Kiryat Gat, encompassing the ruins of Maresha, one of the important towns of Judah during the time of the First Temple, and Beit Guvrin, an important town in the Roman era, when it was known as Eleutheropolis.
There are many Muslim saints which are buried in the area, the most known of them is Prophet Muhammad's companion Tamim al-Dari
In 2014 UNESCO has recognized it as a World Heritage Site.
Crusader castles
Israel's territory corresponds in part to the Crusader kingdom of Jerusalem and boasts many castles and city fortifications from that time, although none were left intact by conquerors and the tooth of time. Most of them were built by the Crusaders and some by their Muslim enemies, and the most well-known of them are the cities of Acre and Caesarea, and the castles of Belvoir, Montfort, Arsuf, Sepphoris.
Israel also currently has control over the Arab-built Nimrod Castle in the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights.
Sea of Galilee
Sea of Galilee is home to many Christian and Jewish holy shrines, the Jewish holy shrines are in Tiberias (click for taking a look of the sites), and the Christian sites are outside Tiberias, some of them are archaeological sites, the sites are – Magdala, Capernaum, Tabgha and the Mount of Beatitudes, there are also another archaeological sites such as Kursi, Hippos, Hamat Tiberias, Tel Bet Yerah, Khirbat al-Minya and Chorazin.
it is also have a collection of fauna and flora.
Mount Arbel and the Horns of Hattin
Mount Arbel lies near the Sea of Galilee and is a national park with a fortress and synagogue and cliff hiking.
The fortress was built by Jewish zealots and then in the Ottoman era by Fakhreddine II on the cliffs of the mountains, the ancient synagogue was built in the 5th century and survived little bit after the Islamic period started.
The nearby area is the site of Horns of Hattin famous for his Islamic victory of Saladin at the Battle of Hattin and nearby this is the shrine of prophet shuaib, Maqam al-Nabi Shu'ayb is the holiest shrine for Druze faith; the Druze are making a big Ziyarat every year in April.
Rosh Hanikra grottoes
The Rosh HaNikra grottoes are cavernous tunnels formed by sea action on the soft chalk rock. The total length is some 200 metres. They branch off in various directions with some interconnecting segments. In the past, the only access to them was from the sea and experienced divers were the only ones capable of visiting. Today a cable car takes visitors down to see the grottos. A kibbutz, also named Rosh HaNikra, is located nearby. The Israeli city Nahariya is located about 10 km (6 miles) south of Rosh HaNikra.
you must take a cable car to get into the grottoes.
The Cable car is situated very close to the Lebanese border.
Makhtesh craters of the Negev desert
A makhtesh is a geological landform considered unique to the Negev desert of Israel. A makhtesh has steep walls of resistant rock surrounding a deep closed valley which is usually drained by a single wadi. The valleys have limited vegetation and soil, containing a variety of different colored rocks and diverse fauna and flora. The best known and largest makhtesh is Makhtesh Ramon. Other makhteshim are Makhtesh Gadol, Makhtesh Katan and Mount Arif.
Ancient city of Sepphoris
Sepphoris was an ancient Jewish city with synagogue, villas, baths, water tunnels, a Crusader fortress and more. An old Christian tradition places there the house of Saints Anne and Joachim, the parents of the Virgin Mary.
Timna
Hula Valley
Hula Lake Park, known in Hebrew as Agamon HaHula, is located in the southern part of the Hula Valley, north of the nature reserve. It was established as part of a JNF rehabilitation project. In the early 1990s part of the valley was flooded again in the wake of heavy rains. It was decided to develop the surrounding area and leave the flooded area intact. The new site has become the second home for thousands of migrating birds in the autumn and spring. The lake covers an area of one square kilometer, interspersed with islands that serve as protected bird nesting sites. It has become a major stopover for migrating birds flying from Europe to Africa and back, and also a major birdwatching site. In 2011, Israeli ornithologists confirmed that Lake Hula is the stopover point for tens of thousands of cranes migrating from Finland to Ethiopia every winter. In Israel, farmers set out food for them to keep them from damaging crops near the lake.
Tel Dan
Ein Gedi
Ein Gedi is a special nature reserve, known for its big number of friendly Nubian ibex and rock hyrax, waterfalls, and there are some archaeological finds on the trail.
Ein Gedi is an oasis in the desert which is good for relaxing and for those who want to take refuge from the hot Judean Desert, located near the Dead Sea
Keshet Cave
A big natural arch in Israel's Upper Galilee, which was a cave that was destroyed due to geological reasons over the years. Today only the arch remains and is a popular attraction for professional hiking.
Nahal Ayun
Ein Avdat
Bird watching
Israel is among the world's leading destinations for birdwatching, with birders and ornithologists heading especially for the annual migrations that funnel through Eilat and the Hula Valley.
National parks and nature reserves
Israel has 67 national parks and 190 nature reserves. Some of them are located at archaeological sites. Beit Guvrin-Maresha is a large archaeological complex in the Judean Mountains. Sepphoris is an ancient Roman town with elaborate mosaics and a historic synagogue. Ein Gedi, a desert spring, is a starting point for tours to Masada and the Dead Sea.
Hiking trails
Israel National Trail – a hiking path that crosses the entire country of Israel. Its northern end is at Dan, near the international Syrian and Lebanese borders in the far north of the country, and it extends to Eilat at the southernmost tip of Israel on the Red Sea, a length of approximately 940 km (580 mi). The trail takes about 30–70 days to finish if hiked continuously.
Jerusalem Trail – trail, connects the Israel National Trail with Jerusalem and the area of the Old City.
Jesus Trail – a hiking and pilgrimage route in the Galilee region of Israel that traces routes Jesus may have walked, connecting many sites from his life and ministry. The trail begins in Nazareth, and passes through Sepphoris, Cana (Kafr Kanna), the Horns of Hattin, Mount Arbel Cliffs, the Sea of Galilee, Capernaum, Tabgha, the Mount of Beatitudes, Tiberias, the Jordan River, Mount Tabor, and Mount Precipice.
Golan Trail – a route from the slopes of Mt. Hermon to the southern Golan Heights. It passes many towns and settlements including Majdal Shams, Nimrod, Masade, Buq'ata, Odem, Merom Golan, and Ein Zivan.
Valley of Springs Trail – a route in and around the Jordan Valley, terminating in Beit She'an and on Mount Gilboa near Kibbutz Meirav. The trail connects numerous springs (for which the area is famous) and other historical and natural attractions.
Sea to sea trail – an hiking trail in Northern Israel that goes from the Mediterranean Sea to the Sea of Galilee.
Kibbutzim
A network of kibbutzim dot the countryside, some offering guesthouses and country lodging. They are undergoing a process of modernization and re-organization. Well known in Israel for great contributions to Israeli history, politics, the army, and Zionism. Long-term visitors, both Jewish and non-Jewish, can volunteer on Kibbutzim in exchange for food and lodging.
Museums
With over 200 museums, Israel has the highest number of museums per capita in the world, with millions of visitors annually.
Israel Museum in Jerusalem, Israel's national museum, attracts 800,000 visitors a year.
Tower of David Museum of the History of Jerusalem
Yad Vashem, Israel's Holocaust memorial
Tel Aviv Museum of Art
Diaspora Museum
Haifa Museum of Science and Technology
Restaurant culture
As part of its hospitality industry, including hotels, restaurants and wineries, one of the most vibrant restaurant cultures in the Mediterranean region has developed in Israel since the 1990s, catering to both tourists and citizens. Professional training for Israeli chefs, hotel owners, sommeliers and vintners is of a high standard, and top hotel chefs have international education and experience.
There are thousands of restaurants, casual eateries, cafés and bars in Israel, offering a wide range of choices in food and culinary styles. In addition to Middle Eastern specialties, there are restaurants offering a wide selection of ethnic food, including Italian, French, Greek, Russian, Ethiopian, Balkan, Thai, Chinese, American and fusion cuisine.
Places to eat out that are typically Israeli include falafel stands or kiosks, which also offer extras like French fries, fried eggplant, salads and pickles with the falafel, and the hummusia, which specializes in hummus, and offers only a limited selection of extras. The Misada Mizrahit (literally, "Eastern restaurant") is an inexpensively priced restaurant that serves a basic selection of meze salads followed by grilled meat with French fries, fried kibbeh and simple desserts, while Steakiyot are restaurants which serve a meze of salads, followed by skewered grilled meats, particularly meorav yerushalmi and kebabs or sometimes by kibbeh stew like kibbeh in okra and tomato stew, beet stew.
Cafés are common in urban areas and function as meeting places both for socializing and conducting business. They commonly serve coffee, tea, fruit juice and soft drinks and almost all serve baked goods and sandwiches; many also serve light meals. Most have outdoor seating to take advantage of Israel's temperate weather, and Tel Aviv is particularly well known for its café culture. Tea is also served in cafés, from plain brewed Russian-style with sugar, to tea with lemon or milk, and Middle Eastern-style with mint (nana). There is also a strong coffee drinking culture in Israel and coffee is prepared in many ways, such as instant (nes), iced, latte (hafuḥ), Italian-style espresso, or Turkish coffee.
Wineries
Enotourism is a growing part of the tourism sector in Israel. In early 2008, it was announced that a wine park would be created on the slopes between Zichron Ya'akov and Binyamina in order to promote tourism in the area and enotourism in Israel in general.
Hot springs
Hamat Gader
Tiberias hot springs
Yoav hot springs (Hamei Yoav)
Israeli-occupied territories
In March 2021, the Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations published a report that stated: "tour operators across Europe and North America are deceptively offering unsuspecting consumers misleading package tours to Israel and Palestine. These tours are labelled as destined to ‘Israel’ but actually include locations in the occupied Palestinian territory (OPT), and in the occupied Syrian Golan. Many include illegal Israeli settlements, which are the source of a wide range of serious human rights violations suffered by Palestinian communities and the Palestinian people as a whole."
West Bank tourism
West Bank tourism has been controlled by Israel since the territory was occupied in 1967. Territory that had been off-limits to Israeli citizens was now made available for tourism, and Israel established numerous amenities in these territories and East Jerusalem to make it more appealing to Israeli and foreign tourists. Despite that, Israeli citizens are generally restricted from traveling to parts of the West Bank under Palestinian Authority control. Today, The Palestinian Authority and Israeli tourism ministries work together on tourism in the Palestinian territories in a Joint Committee on Tourism.
Bethlehem - Burial place of the matriarch Rachel and birthplace of King David and of Jesus. Around 1.3 million tourists visited the city in 2008. Popular sites in the city and around include: The Church of the Nativity, a church built over the cave that tradition marks as the birthplace of Jesus of Nazareth; The Manger Square; Shepherd's Field in Beit Sahour; Solomon's Pools; and the Salesian Cremisan Monastery.
Herodium - A fortress built by Herod the Great. It is administered by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority.
Hebron – The second-holiest city in Judaism and the place where the Tomb of the Patriarchs and Matriarchs is located, according to Jewish and Islamic tradition. It was also the capital of the Kingdom of Judah before David moved it to Jerusalem.
Jericho – Tourism increased by nearly 42.3% in the first three-quarters of 2008 as crossing between areas under PA control and Israel became less restricted.
Qumran – An ancient Jewish site where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered. It is administered by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority.
Nablus – Also known as Shechem, where Joseph's Tomb and Jacob's Well can be found.
Golan Heights tourism
The Golan Heights were captured by Israel from Syria in the 1967 Six-Day War and are recognized by the international community as Syrian territory held by Israel under military occupation. However, in 2019 the United States recognized Israeli sovereignty of the area. In an act ruled null and void by the United Nations Security Council, Israel applied civilian law to the territory in 1981.
For ease of touring, the Golan can be divided into the north with most of its popular destinations and the south where the administrative capital is located. Travel guides recommend renting a car or joining an organized tour. Although it is slower, some travelers chose to hitchhike throughout the region. Accommodations are typically through bed and breakfasts or cabins called zimmers.
The first Israeli ski resort was established in the Golan. Nature trails and other attractions were established by Israel in order to further entrench its presence in the territory and to attract tourists. As much of the Golan's land is not arable, many of the Israeli settlements established focused on tourism as a way of generating income.
The Golan has national parks which provide extensive hiking options. Most of these are maintained by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority. Land mines from previous wars pose a risk when clearly marked and fenced off areas are disregarded.
The Mount Hermon ski resort is popular during the winter months. This is the first Israeli ski resort in the Golan.
The area produces wine and the Golan Heights Winery is a large producer. The winery has a visitor's center and tours.
Archaeology in Katzrin, Gamla, Nimrod Fortress, Rujm el-Hiri, Umm el Kanatir
Seas and lakes
Mediterranean coastal strip
Sunny beaches and hotel resorts
Dead sea
The lowest point on the Earth's surface and the deepest hypersaline lake in the world, famous for its buoyancy and medicinal qualities
Red Sea
Sunny beaches and hotel resorts, popular destination for SCUBA diving and water sports
Sea of Galilee
Sunny beaches and hotel resorts
Important Christian and Jewish holy sites
Many archaeological sites.
Dive tourism
Eilat is located in the Gulf of Aqaba, one of the most popular diving destinations in the world. The coral reefs along Eilat's coast remain relatively pristine and the area is recognized as one of the prime diving locations in the world. About 250,000 dives are performed annually off Eilat's 11 km coastline, and diving represents 10% of the tourism income of this area. In addition, given the proximity of many of these reefs to the shore, non-divers can encounter the Red Sea's reefs with relative ease. Water conditions for SCUBA divers are good all year round, with water temperatures around 21–25 °C, little or no currents and clear waters with an average of 20–30 meters visibility.
Medical tourism
Israel is emerging as a popular destination for medical tourists. In 2006, 15,000 foreign visitors travelled to the country for medical procedures, bringing in $40 million of revenue. The advantages of Israel for health tourism include good natural resources; stable, comfortable climate all year round; a progressive medical systems, and scenic locations which have a calming effect on patients. Medical tourists choose Israel for several reasons. Some come from European nations such as Romania where certain procedures are not available. Others come to Israel, most commonly from the United States, because they can receive quality health care at a fraction of the cost it would be at home, for both surgeries and in-vitro fertilization treatments. Other medical tourists come to Israel to visit the Dead Sea, a world-famous therapeutic resort. The Israel Ministry of Tourism and several professional medical services providers have set out to generate awareness of Israel's medical capabilities.
Tourist demographics and economic contribution
According to the Israeli Ministry of Tourism, in 2009 54% of the 2.7 million visitors to Israel were Christian. Jewish tourists accounted for 39%. Revenue from tourism in 2009 totalled $3.3 billion. In 2010, tourism constituted 6.4% of the country's GDP. The World Travel and Tourism Council estimates that real GDP growth for tourism in Israel is expected to average 5.0% per annum over the years 2010–2020. The contribution of tourism to Gross Domestic Product is expected by WTTC to rise from 6.4% (US$12.0 billion) in 2010 to 7.2% ($22.1 billion) by 2020. The contribution of the industry to employment is 223,000 jobs in 2010, 7.9% of total employment. Export earnings from international visitors and tourism goods are expected to generate 6.5% of total exports (US$4.8 billion) in 2010. Investment in tourism is estimated at US$2.3 billion or 7.6% of total investment in 2010. The Israel Travel & Tourism economy is ranked number 51 in absolute size worldwide, of the 181 countries estimated by the WTTC.
Tourism abroad by Israelis
Offsetting the economic contribution by tourists visiting Israel is the larger number of Israelis touring abroad. In 1993, for example, "tourism brought $750 million into the country, but Israeli tourists spent $2 billion abroad." Statistics published a decade later reported "some 2 million Israelis touring the world."
International recognition and awards
In 2005, Ernst & Young conducted a comprehensive research study on Israeli tourism. The report, entitled "A New Market Strategy for Israeli Tourism" was published in November 2006. The researchers felt that increasing the number of international tourists by 2011 from 1.9 million to 4–5 million was a feasible goal. The report stated that Israel's most attractive feature for international markets was its religious culture and history and the great diversity it offers within a very small country. According to the researchers, Israel's different cultures and religions, its diverse landscapes, the contrasts between cities (Jerusalem, Tel Aviv), and combination of European, North African and Middle Eastern culture produced a "very high density of experience." The report recommended that Israel adopt appropriate marketing strategies to counter any perceived negative imagery associated with political developments.
In 2010, Israel won the title of "most outstanding stand" in all categories at the world's largest tourism fair, ITB, held in Berlin. The Israeli stand won the title of "best presenter" in the Near East and Middle East for the third time in a row.
Most visited sites
Free
In 2009, the most visited Jewish religious site in Israel were the Western Wall, and the second-most visited Jewish religious site in Israel was the grave of Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai at Mount Meron.
Paid
The most popular paid tourist attraction is the Jerusalem Biblical Zoo. The top paid sites of 2012 were listed by Dun & Bradstreet Israel were as follows"
Foreign visitor arrivals
Total number of tourists in Israel in 2018 was 4,113,100. This was an increase of 14% over the previous year.
See also
Visa policy of Israel
List of caves in Israel
Culture of Israel
Economy of Israel
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Official website of the Israeli Ministry of Tourism
Israel.travel
Israel |
4284860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar%20Allan%20Poe%20and%20music | Edgar Allan Poe and music | The influence of Edgar Allan Poe on the art of music has been considerable and long-standing, with the works, life and image of the horror fiction writer and poet inspiring composers and musicians from diverse genres for more than a century.
Classical music
In 1907, American composer Grace Chadbourne set Poe's text to music with her "Hymn for Solo Voice: At Morn, at Noon, at Twilight Dim."
André Caplet's Conte fantastique for harp and strings, published in 1924 but begun at least as early as 1909, is a musical retelling of "The Masque of the Red Death".
In 1913, Sergei Rachmaninoff set his choral symphony The Bells to a Russian translation of Poe's poem of the same name.
The American conductor and composer Leonard Slatkin composed a setting of The Raven for narrator and symphony orchestra in 1971. A lesser-known American composer, Edgar Stillman Kelley (1857–1944) wrote a piece for orchestra entitled The Pit and the Pendulum.
The American composer Philip Glass wrote the 1978 The Fall of the House of Usher to a libretto by Arthur Yorinks.
The Russian composer Nikita Koshkin wrote the 1984 piece Usher Valse (Usher Waltz) for solo guitar, depicting Usher's frenzied guitar performance in the short story "The Fall of the House of Usher". The Usher Waltz has been recorded by John Williams and Elena Papandreou.
The American composer James Poulsen composed "Five Poems of Edgar Allan Poe" for medium high voice and piano in 1986. The song cycle was orchestrated in 1998 with a commission from Jack and Dawn Taylor of Des Moines, Iowa. The Des Moines Symphony premiered the work in 1999 with Robin Roewe, tenor. The poems in the set are: 'Alone', 'Evening Star', Hymn', 'A Dream', and 'To One in Paradise.' Poulsen has also set a letter of Poe, a letter of Maria Clemm, and the valentine poem of Virginia Poe to music.
The Finnish composer Einojuhani Rautavaara based his 1997 choral fantasy "On the Last Frontier" on the final two paragraphs of Poe's novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket.
Other operas based on stories by Poe are Ligeia, a 1994 opera by Augusta Read Thomas, and The Tell-Tale Heart by Bruce Adolphe. A ballet based on a story by Poe is Hop-Frog, a 2009 ballet by Terry Brown.
The American composer Dominick Argento wrote an opera, based on the death of Poe.
Leon Botstein, conductor of the American Symphony Orchestra—which presented a program of "Tales From Edgar Allan Poe" in 1999—noted that in the realm of classical music, as in literature, Poe's influence was felt more deeply in Europe than in America.
The American composer Emma Lou Diemer set "A Dream Within A Dream" and "Eldorado" for mixed chorus and piano. These works were published by Hinshaw Music, Inc. in 2001. Daron Hagen included settings of "A Dream Within a Dream" and "Thou Wouldst Be Loved" in the 1983 song cycle "Echo's Songs", published by E.C. Schirmer. Leonard Bernstein set "Israfel" as part of his song cycle for voices and orchestra, Songfest.
Greek composer Dionysis Boukouvalas set Poe's sonnet To Zante to music in 2001. Zante (or Zakynthos) is Boukouvalas's native island. After a revision of the work in 2012, it was premiered at the very same island with the composer at the piano, sung by soprano Andriana Lykouresi.
The British and American composer Tarik O'Regan uses portions of Poe's poem Israfel as the basis of his 2006 composition The Ecstasies Above for voices and string quartet.
The American composer Christopher Rouse based his 2011 symphonic poem Prospero's Rooms on the castle of Prince Prospero in "The Masque of the Red Death."
The American conductor and composer Adam Stern wrote a setting of Poe's early poem "Spirits of the Dead", subtitled "rhapsody for narrator and orchestra." The work received its world premiere in Seattle in October, 2014. Edmund Stone was the narrator, and the composer led the Seattle Philharmonic Orchestra.
American composer Daniel Steven Crafts Gothic Hauntings, for tenor and orchestra, setting Annabel Lee and Dream-Land Recorded by tenor Brian Cheney.
Classically trained American organist/composer/vocalist Kristen Lawrence created a musical setting to mirror Poe's rhythm and mood for the 18 verses of "The Raven" in her 2012 album, Edgar Allan Poe's "The Raven." This music was used during the National Endowment for the Arts THE BIG READ: Shades of Poe in San Diego and Burbank, California, during events designed to encourage and inspire the community through stories, music, authors, art, poetry, film, actors and dance to read the works of Edgar Allan Poe.
In 2018, American composer/violinist Edward W. Hardy composed three pieces inspired by Edgar Allan Poe: "Nevermore" for solo violin, "Evil Eye" for string quartet and "A Fantasy" for string quartet. "Nevermore" was inspired by The Raven, "Evil Eye" inspired by "The Tale-Tell Heart" and "A Fantasy" inspired by The Masque of the Red Death.
Popular music
Pop music
Frankie Laine recorded a version of Annabel Lee in 1957, which was adapted from Poe's poem by Vic Corpora and Albert Lerner.
When the Beatles compiled images for the cover of Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band in 1967, one of the most recognizable faces was that of Poe, in the center of the top row. In the same year, John Lennon wrote his famous nonsensical work "I Am the Walrus", which contained the lines, "Elementary penguin singing Hari Krishna/Man, you should have seen them kicking Edgar Allan Poe."
In 1985 synth-pop band Propaganda (ZTT label, Trevor Horn, Steve Lipson) used Poe’s poem ‘A Dream Within A Dream’ for the 1st track on their debut album ‘A Secret Wish’ with the same song title as Poe’s poem itself. The poem is used as spoken word text (by Propaganda’s Suzanne Freytag) on top of the majesticly composed track.
Pop singer Britney Spears named her 2001-2002 concert tour the Dream Within a Dream Tour, incorporating lines from that poem (and other Poe works) into her show.
Chamber pop band Antony and the Johnsons released a three-track EP titled The Lake in 2004 via Secretly Canadian Records. The eponymous title track is a musical rendition of Poe's poem of the same name.
Scarlet's Well's fifth album Black Tulip Wings (2006) features musical settings of "To One In Paradise" and "Evening Star".
Hikaru Utada wrote her 2014 song "Kremlin Dusk" about Poe's poem "The Raven".
In 2017, French pop/celtic singer Nolwenn Leroy has set Poe's poems "A Dream" and "The Lake" to music, released on her album Gemme.
In the Eurovision Song Contest 2023, Poe is referenced heavily in the lyrics of Austria's song "Who the Hell Is Edgar?" by duo Teya and Salena.
Folk, country, and blues
The American folk and protest singer Phil Ochs set Poe's poem "The Bells" to music on his 1964 debut album, All the News That's Fit to Sing.
The American folk group "the 3 D's" recorded a version of "Annabel Lee" in 1964 and included it on their New Dimensions in Folk Songs album.
Bob Dylan's 1965 song "Just Like Tom Thumb's Blues" makes reference to "Rue Morgue Avenue".
Poe's final poem "Annabel Lee" was set to music by composer Don Dilworth, and was recorded by Joan Baez as part of her 1967 album Joan, as well as by Spanish pop band Radio Futura.
The blues/rock band, The Yardbirds, adapted The second stanza (and a portion of the first) of Poe's "Dream within a Dream" to music.
The Irish singer-songwriter Fionn Regan, in his song, "Lord Helpy My Poor Soul", sings the lines "Lord help my poor soul, I'm down like Edgar Poe".
Rock, punk, and alternative
In 1974, English glam rock band Queen recorded the song "Nevermore" based on "The Raven" for their second album Queen II. The song appears on the Black Side of the vinyl (side 2, entirely written by Freddie Mercury).
In 1974 British band Ross released an album on RSO Records based on The Pit & The Pendulum. The lyrics of the closing track Oh, I'm Happy Now are an extract of the poem Bridal Ballad.
In 1976, the British art rock group the Alan Parsons Project released a full album, Tales of Mystery and Imagination, based on Poe's stories and poems. Opening with an instrumental named for Poe's poem "A Dream Within a Dream", the album features songs based on "The Raven", "The Cask of Amontillado", "The System of Doctor Tarr and Professor Fether" (which was a Top 40 hit) and "To One in Paradise", as well as a five-part rock symphony called "The Fall of the House of Usher". Producer and engineer Alan Parsons released a remixed version of the album in 1987, featuring narration by Orson Welles; executive producer Eric Woolfson revisited the concept in a 2003 stage musical [Poe: More Tales of Mystery and Imagination].Also, in their 1980 album The Turn of a Friendly Card, there is an instrumental song called "The Gold Bug".
The American rock band The Smithereens released a song called "William Wilson", based on the Poe story of the same name, on their 1989 album 11.
American ska punk band the Cherry Poppin' Daddies released a song called "Teenage Brainsurgeon" which referenced A Descent into the Maelström and The Imp of the Perverse among other works of horror on their 1990 album Ferociously Stoned.
Peter Hammill of Van der Graaf Generator released an operatic version of "The Fall of the House of Usher" in 1991. A remixed and re-recorded version was released in 1999.
Blues Traveler featured the lyrics, "Once upon a midnight dreary", (from "The Raven") in their 1994 hit "Run-Around".
Québécois artist Jean Leloup has a song "Edgar" depicting, in a somewhat humorous way, the last times of Edgar Allan Poe, on his landmark album Le Dôme (1996).
Pop-punk band then known as A New Found Glory featured a song named "Tell-Tale Heart" on their 1999 album Nothing Gold Can Stay.
The post-hardcore band Thrice has a song "The Red Death" on their album The Illusion of Safety (2002) which in style and plot refers to the short story "The Masque of the Red Death".
Five Iron Frenzy's song "That's How The Story Ends" has several quotes from "The Raven" incorporated into it. It was released on their album The End Is Near (2003).
Poe is mentioned in the song "St. Jimmy" by Green Day on the album American Idiot (2004). The lyric says, "I am the son of a bitch and Edgar Allan Poe, raised in the city in the halo of lights."
The electronic alternative rock solo music project Latent Anxiety by Ilja Rosendahl based the song Red Death from the album Sensation (2007) upon Poe's "The Masque of the Red Death".
The White Stripes, a garage rock duo from Detroit, reference Poe's short story, "The Masque of the Red Death", with their single titled "Red Death at 6:14".
Swedish neo-glam rock band The Ark's album Prayer for the Weekend′s fourth track, "Little Disfunk You," claims the singer will be the "Murder in the Rue Morgue you're trying to solve," among other auspicious roles, including "mother" and "savior," that he hopes to play for the song's apparently emotionally repressed and sexually confused target.
The post-hardcore band Chiodos cites Poe as one of their inspirations for lyrics from their third CD, entitled Bone Pallace Ballet.
Italian rocknoir band Belladonna regards Poe as their main inspiration and have included a line from Ligeia in the booklet of their debut album, entitled Metaphysical Attraction.
The Argentinian band Soda Stereo made a song called "Corazón Delator" from Poe's short story "The Tell-Tale Heart".
The band Glass Wave included a song on their 2010 album entitled Annabel Lee, in reference to Poe's last complete poem.
The album Dying Is Your Latest Fashion by Escape the Fate makes many references to Poe's short stories, specifically in the song "When I Go Out I Want to Go Out in a Chariot of Fire" the singer, Ronnie Radke, says "your heart beats under the floor" in reference to Poe's short story "The Tell-Tale Heart".
The video for the Thirty Seconds to Mars song "Hurricane" ends with the lines from Poe's poem "Raven": "Deep into that darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing, doubting, dreaming dreams no mortal ever dared to dream before".
In 2010, American Rock band Black Rebel Motorcycle Club recorded "Annabel Lee" as a Bonus track for their album Beat The Devil's Tattoo.
In late 2010, German Krautrock group Tangerine Dream recorded an album titled The Island of the Fay, which was released via online shops on March 18, 2011. The album was recorded by Edgar Froese and Thorsten Quaeschning, and introduces a guest electric violinist. The short story which the album is based upon, "The Island of the Fay", will be included in the album's liner notes.
Trevor Tanner, via Emperor Penguin Recordings, released an Apple iTunes, Digital 45, entitled "The Ballad Of Edgar Allan Poe" on July 13, 2011.
Stevie Nicks recorded Annabel Lee on her 2011 album In Your Dreams. Music by Stevie Nicks and Waddy Wachtel.
Los Angeles band, Edgar Allan Poets, is creating rock music inspired by Edgar Allan Poe and Alfred Hitchcock. The Band wrote in 2012 the song "Crow Girl" inspired by "The Tell Tale Heart".
The 2019 album "Phantoms", from Canadian pop rock band Marianas Trench, contains multiple references to Poe's work throughout, including "Eleonora", referencing Poe's short story of the same title, and "Echoes of You", referencing "The Tell-Tale Heart".
The Starcrawler track ""Bet My Brains", off their 2019 album Devour You, was inspired by Poe's short story "Never Bet the Devil Your Head".
Metal
Iron Maiden recorded a song titled "Murders in the Rue Morgue" for their second album, 1981's Killers.
The thrash metal band Annihilator dedicated one song to Poe's short tale "Ligeia" in their debut album Alice in Hell (1989)
Tool featured the lyrics "seems like I'm slipping into a dream within a dream" in the song "Sweat" on their 1992 album Opiate.
Avant-garde metal band Arcturus have a song on the album La Masquerade Infernale (1997) called "Alone" incorporating the full, unaltered text of Poe's poem "Alone".
The band Odes Of Ecstasy on their second album Deceitful Melody (2000) incorporates the full text of "The Conqueror Worm" under the title of "Abstract Thoughts."
Grave Digger's 2001 album The Grave Digger is dedicated to Poe, and some of Poe's works, including "The Raven" and "Fall of the House of Usher" are the basis of a number of songs.
Gothic metal band Tristania have a song called "My Lost Lenore." The song refers to "her raven eyes" and ends similarly to the poem "The Raven", still mourning his lost Lenore.
The song "The Poet and the Pendulum" by Finnish symphonic metal band Nightwish is partly inspired by Poe's short story "The Pit and the Pendulum." Poe is one of the favorite writers of the band's leader, Tuomas Holopainen.
Michael Romeo from Symphony X recorded an instrumental album called The Dark Chapter where has several songs inspired from Edgar Allan Poe including "The Cask of Amontillado", "The Premature Burial", and "The Masque of the Red Death". Symphony X would later include a reference to Poe's A Dream Within A Dream in the song "Through the Looking Glass" from the album Twilight in Olympus. Also the song "King of Terrors" from the album The Odyssey is based on and features quotes from Poe's story The Pit and the Pendulum.
The Christian heavy metal band Tourniquet wrote their song "Tell-Tale Heart" entirely as a tribute to Poe and have said that his works have inspired them throughout their tenure. The band also used a line from the story, "The Masque of the Red Death" in their song "Vanishing Lessons", from the album of the same title.
German Ambient Doomrock band The Ocean used "The City in the Sea" as lyrics, only swapping a few lines to fit rhythmical patterns of the song. It was used both due to the band's love of Poe, and the themes common to both poem and band.
The American death metal band Conducting from the Grave based the lyrics to its song "Nevermore" off of Poe's poem "The Raven".
The song "From Childhood's Hour" from Norwegian progressive metal band Circus Maximus is based on Poe's poem "Alone". Most parts of the lyrics are nearly identical to the poem itself.
German funeral doom metal band Ahab has set Poe's poem "Evening Star" to music. It is present in the deluxe re-release of their 2012 album The Giant.
The 2019 album "The Heretics", from Greek black metal band Rotting Christ, contains song named "The Raven" which quotes verses from Edgar Allan Poe's poem "The Raven".
Several heavy metal bands have made reference to Poe in their recordings. Progressive/thrash metal band Nevermore takes its name from "The Raven". Other metal bands that have written songs inspired by Poe are: Agathodaimon, Annihilator, Crimson Glory, Ra's Dawn, Manilla Road, Donor, Hawaii, Rage, Metal Church, Stormwitch and Turbo.
"A Dream of Poe" is a gothic doom metal band that is heavily inspired by Poe's work
Rap and Hip-Hop
MC Lars heavily refers to "The Raven" in his song "Mr. Raven" on his album The Laptop EP (2004). The song includes the words, "We got EAP in the house tonight, Edgar Allan Poe. America's favorite anti-transcendentalist." He continues to refer to "The Raven" throughout.
Edgar Allan Poe was pitted against Stephen King in 2013 in Epic Rap Battles of History's Season 3 episode "Stephen King vs Edgar Allan Poe."
Musicals and scores
In the West End musical, Snoopy!!! The Musical, a musical number in act one is titled "Edgar Allan Poe". In the song, some characters are worried that their teacher is going to ask them something about Edgar Allan Poe, who they know nothing about, while other characters list facts and titles by Poe.
Spoken word
Jim Reeves recorded "Annabel Lee" in 1963 for an album of poems called Talkin' To Your Heart.
The tribute album Closed on Account of Rabies produced by Hal Willner was released in 1997, with musicians and actors such as Jeff Buckley and Christopher Walken reading Poe's works with background music.
Lou Reed released a double CD concept album called The Raven in 2003 that featured a number of musical and spoken-word interpretations of Poe, with guest appearances from various actors, including Steve Buscemi and Willem Dafoe.
Other genres
Noël Coward's parody version (Las Vegas, 1955) of Cole Porter's "Let's Do It, Let's Fall in Love" (1928) includes the lines: “E. Allan Poe, ho ho ho, did it / But he did it in verse / H. Beecher Stowe did it / But she had to rehearse”.
Buddy Morrow and His Orchestra recorded an album of songs based on Poe's work. The album, Poe for Moderns, was recorded by the jazz ensemble at Webster Hall in New York in 1960 and includes the following tracks: "The Murders In The Rue Morgue", "Annabel Lee", "The Gold Bug", "A Descent Into The Maelstrom", "The Bells", "The Fall Of The House Of Usher", "The Pit And The Pendulum", "Ulalume", "The Black Cat", "The Raven", and "Quoth The Raven/The Tell-Tale Heart."
In 1972, Israeli singer Shlomo Artzi recorded his own setting of the famous Hebrew translation, by Ze'ev (Vladimir) Jabotinsky, of "Annabel Lee". This extraordinary translation manages to mimic the internal rhythms and complex rhyming patterns of the original English poem, and, together with Ze'ev Jabotinsky's Russian translation of "Annabel Lee", sets a very high bar in sensitive translations of poetry. This setting was released in an album "Songs of Ze'ev Jabotinsky", or, in Hebrew, משירי זאב ז"בוטינסקי (Mi'shirei Ze'ev Jabotinsky).
In 1984, the group Propaganda recited the poem A Dream Within A Dream as the designated lyrics for a song by the same name.
The song "Allan" by French singer Mylène Farmer from her album Ainsi Soit Je... (1988) is dedicated to Edgar Allan Poe.
Cuban musician Silvio Rodríguez has several songs on Poe, including "Trova de Edgardo" (1992), on the album Silvio.
Nox Arcana, an American gothic instrumental duo, pays homage to all of Poe's literary works with their 2007 album Shadow of the Raven.
The neocelt band Omnia has set "The Raven" to music on their 2007 CD Alive!.
The steampunk band Abney Park refer briefly to Poe in "The Secret Life of Dr. Calgori" on their 2008 album Lost Horizons.
Voltaire's song "Graveyard Picnic" is dedicated to Poe, and includes in the lyrics references to Poe's works, such as The Conqueror Worm, Lenore, Annabel Lee, and The Tell-Tale Heart, as well as mentioning Poe by name. He would also set Poe's poem "The Conqueror Worm" to music in his 2014 album Raised by Bats.
Greek-Cypriot songwriter and singer Alkinoos Ioannidis has written a song entitled "Edgar Allan Poe", recorded in the album O Dromos, O Hronos Kai O Ponos.
Creature Feature's first album "The Greatest Show Unearthed", features the song "Buried Alive", which is full of references to Poe's works.
Other bands or musicians that have recorded songs inspired by Poe or using lyrics by Poe include Bright Eyes, Green Carnation (in the song "Alone"), Good Charlotte, Mr. Bungle, The Crüxshadows, Roses Never Fade, Cradle of Filth, Team Sleep, Elysian Fields, The Smithereens, Symphony X, Rozz Williams, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Tiger Army, Sopor Aeternus & The Ensemble of Shadows, Overlord, Insane Clown Posse, Antony and the Johnsons, Marissa Nadler, Lloyd Cole, Panic! at the Disco, Michael Hurley, AFI, and Dredg.
In May 2023 singers Teya and Salena represented Austria in the Eurovision Song Contest 2023 in Liverpool, United Kingdom, with the song "Who the Hell Is Edgar?". The song title being a reference Poe and the song a satire of the music industry and the difficulties of being a lyricist, who are usually paid very little.
See also
For his influence on other media:
Edgar Allan Poe in television and film
For his appearances as a fictional character:
Edgar Allan Poe in popular culture
References
External links
American Symphony Orchestra: "Tales of Edgar Allan Poe"
Music with Poe Themes @ HouseOfUsher.net
Ballet with Poe Themes
Music
Romanticism
Musical culture
Music |
4285202 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasha%20Niva | Nasha Niva | Nasha Niva (, lit. "Our field") is one of the oldest Belarusian weekly newspapers, founded in 1906 and re-established in 1991. Nasha Niva became a cultural symbol, due to the newspaper's importance as a publisher of Belarusian literature and as a pioneer of Belarusian language journalism, the years before the October Revolution are often referred to as the 'Nasha Niva Period'.
In the period between 1906 and 1915 the newspaper was published on a weekly basis. From 1991 to 1995 it appeared once a month, reverting to weekly publication in 1996 and then fortnightly in 1997–1999. In 1999 the paper became a weekly again.
Nasha Niva Online (nn.by) was set up in 1997. By 2017 it became the most frequently visited website in the Belarusian language.
According to Media IQ estimation, Nasha Niva remains free of state propaganda and keeps one of the highest ratings in journalism ethics among Belarusian media. Being in open opposition to Alexander Lukashenko's regime, the newspaper was cracked down by the government numerous times, received huge fines and was excluded from state circulation. The editors and journalists were arrested, questioned and beaten by the police and KGB officers.
As of 2020 the editor-in-chief is Jahor Marcinovič, who succeeded Andrej Dyńko.
On July 8, 2021, the newspaper's website was blocked by the authorities. The editor-in-chief Yahor Martsinovich and editor Andrej Skurko were detained, their homes and the office being searched. On July 13 the publication announced its closure in Belarus due to growing pressure from the authorities. The employees were advised to move abroad. The editor's office claimed that they would try to re-launch the newspaper outside Belarus. The new website was launched on July 29, 2021; the content was uploaded from the publication's social networks and Telegram channel.
On January 27, 2022, the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Belarus declared Nasha Niva 'an extremist formation'. On March 15, 2022, Marcinovič and Skurko were sentenced to 2.5 years in prison for estimated material damage of 10,000 Belarusian rubles ($3000).
On August 15, 2022, Naša Niva launched a Ukrainian-language Telegram channel, so that Ukrainians could obtain independent and objective information from Belarus.
On the occasion of the International Mother Language Day (February 21) in 2023, a machine-converted website edition of Naša Niva in Łacinka (that is, the Belarusian Latin alphabet) was launched.
History
1906–1915
Nasha Niva was inspired by Iskra, a political newspaper, published by the RSDLP since 1901. At the BSA conference in June 1906 Belarusian journalist Anton Łuckevič announced his intention to create a party newspaper. The co-founders were his brother Ivan and Alaksandar Ułasaŭ, a landowner from the Mihaŭka estate near Minsk, who was for many years the newspaper's publisher and editor. The name for the publication was taken from a poem by Janka Lučyna "Роднай старонцы" ("To Fatherland"). The first issue was published on 23 November 1906, under the editorship of titular counselor Zigmund Volsky. Since the fifth issue from 8 December 1906, the chief editor was Alexander Vlasov.
In the first three years, the newspaper published 960 reports from 489 areas, 246 poems by 61 authors, and 91 articles by 36 special reporters. Only in 1910 "Nasha Niva" published 666 various correspondence from 427 people. "Nasha Niva" covered a wide range of political, economic, and cultural issues. Every issue included the following sections: government actions, political review, life of the countryside, life of the city, feuilletons, the newest literary works in Belarusian, correspondence, news from Russia and Lithuania, book digest, history notes, notes on agriculture, applied mechanics, personal ad.
The newspaper saw as its main task the consolidation of a Belarusian political nation. It was also – as was observed at the time – the first source of information to be free of government interference. The editors office also strived to preserve and promote Belarusian culture. National civil society rallied around the newspaper; numerous agricultural initiatives, youth groups and publishing houses used it as a voice to promote their activities. In 1911 its circulation was about 3,000. Up to October 1912, the newspaper was printed both in Cyrillic and Latin scripts. From the 43 issue of 24 October 1912, the publication completely switched to the Cyrillic alphabet. A subscription for a year cost 5 roubles, the price for one issue was 5 kopecks.
The newspaper's defence of national interests provoked attacks by the Russian censorship throughout its existence. Even a discussion on agrarian topics organised in 1907 – including an article entitled 'The Land Question in New Zealand' – was found 'seditious' and 'disrespectful of the government'. The editor, Alaksandar Ułasaŭ, was tried and imprisoned. On several occasions, the entire run of a particular issue was confiscated and the editors were compelled to pay fines.
Editors office
Subscribers and correspondents of the newspaper became central figures of national political and intellectual life, e.g. Ciška Hartny (pseudonym of Źmicier Žyłunovič), one of the first leaders of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic, or Branisłaŭ Taraškievič, political leader in the Western Belarus and author of the first printed grammar of the Belarusian language.
One of the major figures behind the formulation of the newspaper's political goals was Ivan Łuckevič from Minsk, founder of the famous Belarusian Museum in Vilnius and sponsor of numerous political and cultural projects. Working alongside him was his brother, Anton Łuckevič, whose ideas were decisive in the formation of the programme of the Belarusian Socialist Party (Hramada). He would eventually become the Prime Minister of the Belarusian People's Republic. Vacłaŭ Łastoŭski, another future Prime Minister of the Belarusian People's Republic, became secretary of the newspaper in 1909 and in the years 1912—1913 acted as its de facto editor. He was in charge of the historical agenda, which was one of the main topics in Nasha Niva. Janka Kupała, a famous poet, became the newspaper's editor in March 1914. The editors office located on , 14. Kupała continued in this role until the Autumn of 1915 when Vilnius was occupied by the Germans and normal life in Belarus came to a standstill.
By early 1909 the editors office included six permanent employees – Łuckevič brothers, Alaksandar Ułasaŭ, Vacłaŭ Łastoŭski, Janka Kupała and . In the Summer of 1909 they were joined by . However, the group was divided into two parts. Łuckevič brothers and Ułasaŭ were the so-called 'Upper House of Parliament', they used the separated room and communicated to others by notes that were put through a slot under the door. The 'Upper Parliament' strived to keep the publication alive and receive fees, while the 'Lower Chamber' performed all the everyday tasks. Their articles were published under pseudonyms, all their decisions could be overridden by the 'Upper House' veto. The tense relations between the collaborators are presumably the main reason of Siarhiej Pałujan's suicide in 1910. According to the archives, in 1909 the newspaper had subscribers even in Prague, Paris, Lviv and USA.
Anton Łuckevič, Alaksandar Ułasaŭ, Branisłaŭ Taraškievič, Źmicier Žyłunovič and Vacłaŭ Łastoŭski all fell victims of the Soviet repressions in the 1930s.
Belarusian Language
According to some research, in the early 20th century the Belarusian language was mostly used by the peasantry and neglected by intelligence and upper classes. "Nasha Niva" introduced standards of usage into the Belarusian literary language. It was actively involved in both the creation of classical Belarusian literature and the evolution of the idea of Belarusian statehood. One of the newspaper's characteristic features was the strong interactive relationship that it built with readers. There were more than three thousand permanent and temporary correspondents who submitted information to the editor. A large number of contributors from various regions of Belarus were involved in the publication of both journalistic pieces and literary works. This provided a unique opportunity to re-establish the literary language by establishing norms of usage that were the most widespread throughout the country as a whole. The newspaper thereby played an invaluable role in fixing the orthography, grammar and word-formation patterns of the modern Belarusian language. Jakub Kołas, a classic of Belarusian literature, was an active contributor to "Nasha Niva". It was also "Nasha Niva" that discovered the works of Maksim Bahdanovič and Źmitrok Biadula. It published the writings of many prominent intellectual figures, including Janka Kupała, Anton Łuckevič, Maksim Bahdanovič and Vacłaŭ Łastoŭski.
Nasha Niva realised the unpopularity of the Belarusian language among rural populations. As the main step to improve the issue it promoted education in Belarusian and advocated people's right to use their native language in schools and in church.
Issues from 1906 to 1912 used both Cyrillic and Latin alphabets simultaneously (with the subheading: Printed weekly in Russian and in Polish letters (in Latin script: Wychodzić szto tydzień ruskimi i polskimi literami)).
Publishing
The newspaper became the centre of intellectual life, it acted as the focal point for the independent cultural and social projects that grew up around it. Since 1907 the editors office has been engaged in book publishing. "Nasha Niva" performed the coordinating function of a publishing centre. Especially popular were the annual Belarusian Calendars, almanacs in which readers could find not only the usual kind of day-to-day information but also literary works. The publishing centre also published books, both original and in translation. A satirical magazine 'Krapiva' (Nettles) was published in Vilnia in 1912, and the agricultural department of Nasha Niva grew into the independent 'Sacha' (Wooden Plough) magazine published in Minsk from the end of 1913.
Under the newspaper's auspices one of "Nasha Niva" founders, Ivan Łuckevič, began to collect artefacts for the future Belarusian National Museum. Most of it is currently stored in the National History Museum of Lithuania. Staff of the newspaper helped Ihnat Bujnicki form the first Belarusian theatre company. More than 1 mln copies of the newspaper were published between 1906 and 1915. The scale of the work accomplished by "Nasha Niva" has allowed historians and researchers of culture to define early 20th century Belarusian culture as the 'Nasha Niva period' when referring to the quantitative and qualitative changes in the development of modern culture and society.
First World War
In 1914 Nasha Niva could no longer criticize the government that was at war because such opposition could be perceived as unloyalty to the state. The newspaper published articles and reports on patriotic actions of ordinary Belarusians, but its editorial position didn't demonstrate any support to the Russian military. The Russian army was described as alien as the German one.
With the outbreak of war Nasha Niva issues halved in volume. Since the Autumn of 1914, the blank spaces appeared on its pages, left by the state censors. The last issue was published in the Summer of 1915 when the majority of the staff were called to active military service.
Revival Attempt in 1920
The first attempt to revive the newspaper was made by Maksim Harecki in Vilnia in 1920. The first issue of the revived Nasha Niva, now described as a socio-political and literature daily newspaper, appeared on 28 October 1920, soon after the beginning of Żeligowski's Mutiny. From the 4th issue, the editor-in-chief was Viačasłaŭ Znamiaroǔski. In December 1920 the newspaper was banned again, this time by the Polish military censorship.
1991 Revival in Vilnius
The dissolution of the Soviet Union and the rapid growth of the independence movement in Belarus made it possible for the newspaper to be re-established. The publication of Nasha Niva was relaunched by journalist Siarhiej Dubaviec in Vilnius in May 1991.
The revived newspaper came to occupy a special place among other Belarusian periodicals. "Nasha Niva" abandoned the 'defensive strategy' and self-imposed isolation inherent to much of the Belarusian-language media of the Soviet times. The newspaper opened its pages to discussions on universal topics and published numerous translations of foreign literature. The paper discussed two topics in particular: the heritage of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and a possible model of relations between Belarus and other nations of the region. In 2000 Siarhiej Dubaviec resigned, Andrej Dyńko became the new editor-in-chief.
In 1996, the newspaper's editorial office relocated to Minsk, Belarus. The topics covered by "Nasha Niva" shifted from literature and culture towards political and social issues. In 1999 the newspaper became a weekly once more. In 2002 the volume increased from 12 to 16 pages weekly, and in 2005 to 24. At its peak the print run reached 8,000. Following pressure from the state and denial of access to the national press distribution system, "Nasha Niva" changed to a pocket format and increased the number of pages to 48. The circulation decreased to 2,200 copies.
In 2006 "Nasha Niva" decided to expand its online version, Andrej Skurko headed the web department, Andrej Dyńko became the new chief of the paper edition. In the 1990s work began on the production of a facsimile edition of the issues of the newspaper that appeared in the years between 1906 and 1915. At the same time material has been collected for the compilation of a dictionary of the language used in those early years of "Nasha Niva".
On July 31, 2023, the European Parliament passed a resolution in which it asks the European Commission and the Member States, to strengthen Belarusian media outlets, including Nasha Niva.
State pressure
Since 1995 and especially in the 2000s, "Nasha Niva" has faced pressure from the authoritarian regime of Alexander Lukashenko. The paper was persecuted for using the traditional Belarusian orthography (Taraškievica). In 1998 the newspaper won a trial in court and got permission to continue using the classical orthography. "Nasha Niva" used the classical spelling until 2008; it then shifted to the spelling taught in schools in order to 'improve communication between intellectuals and the public', as an editorial on the topic made clear at the time.
In 2005 the authorities banned distribution of the newspaper through the Belarusian postal system and the official distribution agency which delivered the paper to shops and newsstands. The circulation dropped from 3500 to 2000 copies. Only in 2006 the publication received four official warnings for not indicating the legal address. In fact, four different leaseholders broke the contracts with the editors office without any notification or explanation as soon as "Nasha Niva" notified the Information Ministry about their agreements.
Between 2006 and 2008 the newspaper had to be distributed by volunteers. For this reason, the newspaper switched to A4 format, so it would be easier to put into bags and envelopes.
"Nasha Niva" has been tried in court and fined on many occasions, with the KGB conducting searches both in the newspaper's office and the journalists personally. In 2006 the newspaper's Chief Editor, Andrej Dyńko was arrested and spent 10 days in prison. After his arrest Minsk authorities issued an official statement that the distribution of Nasha Niva in the city 'was inappropriate'. On 29 April 2006, 300 activists organized a rally in support of Nasha Niva at the Oktyabrskaya square, 10 people were arrested. In March 2008 the police attacked and arrested journalists Syamyon Pechanko and Andrei Lyankevich, while they were reporting from a rally in Minsk. Pechanko was accused for organization of the rally and received 15 days in prison.
In 2008 the Belarusian government took a course on the liberalization of the media, following requirements of European Union. At the end of 2008 "Nasha Niva" and "Narodnaya Volya" were allowed back to the state subscription and retail via newsstands. Soon "Nasha Niva" switched from bw to colour print, its circulation grew to 6000. However, as soon as in 2010 almost half of the July print run was confiscated and destroyed by the government. The censored issue had an article on Russian NTV documentary 'The Godfather' about Alexander Lukashenko which was considered a 'propaganda strike' against the Belarusian president. In December 2010 the editors office was searched by the KGB, all office equipment had been confiscated. The searches were also done in Andrej Skurko apartment.
2010s
By 2010 the web-portal Nasha Niva became the most popular internet resource in the Belarusian language. According to statistics drawn up by Google Analytics, in 2017 monthly visitors of NN.by exceeded 600,000, more than 7,000,000 pages were viewed. Approximately 84% of the visits were from Belarus, 49% are from Minsk.
In 2011, Źmicier Pankaviec was appointed editor of the weekly paper edition. "Nasha Niva" had circulation around 8000, 50% were distributed by subscription. On 11 April 2011, the terrorist bombing took place at a Minsk Underground. "Nasha Niva" covered the events and the aftermath. Later the publication was accused of making false statements by the Information Ministry. The editors office, private apartments of the staff were searched, the journalists were questioned the general prosecutor's office, and the Belarusian security service, known as the KGB. "Nasha Niva" wrote that one of the victims was left in the station up to late evening, the authorities considered that information to be false and compromising. On 27 April 2011, the Ministry of Information instituted legal proceedings to close "Nasha Niva" and Narodnaya Volya newspapers. The International resonance forces the authorities to close the cases in early June. The Ministry initiated claims on administrative offences against the newspapers, both investigations ended with 14 mln Belarusian roubles fines to the publications. According to BAJ deputy director Andrej Bastuniec, since 2012 the situation with freedom of speech and media in Belarus stagnated on a very low level.
In 2012 Andrej Dyńko was banned from travelling abroad, only after six formal complaints to the authorities he was excluded from the blacklist.
In 2017 "Nasha Niva" became the third among most popular media in Belarus and launched Nasha Nina web project for female audiences (the title is based on a wordplay – Nina is a female name). On 1 March 2017, chief editor Andrej Skurko resigned, his position was taken by Jahor Marcinovič. Skurko remained deputy editor-in-chief. By 2018, the editors office included 12 journalists. Nasha Niva on paper was published monthly in 3000 print runs. The price of one newspaper was 2.5 Belarusian roubles.
2020s
The newspaper extensively covered the months of nationwide protests after the 2020 Belarusian presidential election. On July 8, 2021, the newspaper's website was blocked by the authorities. The editor-in-chief Yahor Martsinovich and editor Andrey Skurko were detained, their homes and the office were searched. Martsinovich was beaten during the arrest, he suffered head injury. In a few days, Martsinovich and Skurko were charged in a criminal case on July 14. In jail Skurko, who has achrestic diabetes, was left without medication for 13 days. There he came in contact with SARS-CoV-2 and was diagnosed with COVID-19.
In November 2021, Nasha Niva's Telegram channel and its social networks were declared extremist materials. In January 2022, the KGB declared Nasha Niva an extremist formation. Creation of an extremist formation or participation in it is a criminal offence in Belarus.
Online newspaper
On 11 May 2016, the editors office announced that Nasha Niva will concentrate on the Internet version, while the paper one will keep publishing on a monthly basis. However, the fundraising to support the paper edition didn't succeed. On 6 June 2018, the editors office announced the closure of paper runs and complete transfer to the web. According to "Nasha Niva" statistics, in May 2018 its web portal was visited by 475,000 unique users, 7.1 mln of pages were read. The audience mostly consisted of people of age 25–35, 60% of NN.by visitors were male.
In February 2018 the website was attacked by bots, in March 2019 "Nasha Niva" social media accounts were attacked from Belarusian IP address. In June 2020 "Nasha Niva" lost its domain name nn.by to the delay in payment. According to the state's law, the unpaid domains go up for auction on the next day after payment expiry. The newspaper continued operating at Nashaniva.by web address. The original domain was restored on 30 June 2020.
Like many other independent media websites, NN.by was shut down on 8 August 2020, when the presidential elections in Belarus took place. During the anti-Lukashenko riots in Minsk "Nasha Niva" journalist Natalla Łubnieǔskaja was shot with a rubber bullet by the police. Jahor Marcinovič was arrested on 11 August on his way home from the protests rally in Minsk. During the questioning he was severely beaten by law enforcement officers.
As of September 9, 2021, Yahor Martsinovich was imprisoned and faced criminal charges under the article 216 part 2 (Asset Damage without Stealing). On January 27, 2022, Nasha Niva was declared 'an extremist formation' by the state Ministry of Internal Affairs. On March 15, 2022, Marcinovič and Skurko were sentenced to 2.5 years in prison for estimated material damage of 10,000 Belarusian rubles ($3000). According to the investigators, in May 2017 they opened offices in Skurko's apartment but kept paying for electricity as individuals, while Belarusian law obliges legal persons to pay increased rates.
Editors in chief
Alaksandar Ułasaŭ (founder, editor in 1906–1912);
Vacłaŭ Łastoŭski (1912–1913);
Janka Kupała (1914–1915);
Siarhiej Dubaviec (1991–1999);
Andrej Dyńko (2000–2006);
Andrej Skurko (2006–2017);
Jahor Marcinovič (Martsinovich), recipient of the national award for investigative journalism several years in succession, became chief editor in 2017.
Awards
Chief editor Andrej Dyńko received International Award "Freedom of Speech" and Lorenzo Natali Prize in 2006;
Gerd Bucerius Press Prize (2007)
I Love Belarus (2010)
Andrej Dyńko got first prize in 'Belarus in Focus' journalist contest (2013);.
Egor Martinovich received 'Press Freedom' award by Reporters Without Borders (2015);
Egor Martinovich and Dmitry Pankaviec received BAJ 'Volnaye Slova' Award (2015);
Natallia Lubneuskaya got the Free Media Award (2021).
Gallery
References
Sources
External links
Nasha Niva Online
Interview with Andrey Dynko
The Prague Society for International Cooperation
The History of Naša Niva from 1906 to the Present Day
Newspapers published in Belarus
Newspapers published in the Russian Empire
Newspapers established in 1906
Publications disestablished in 1915
Newspapers established in 1991
Belarusian-language newspapers
Belarusian news websites
Mass media in Minsk
1906 establishments in the Russian Empire
Censorship in Belarus
Free Media Awards winners |
4285595 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Antarctic%20expeditions | List of Antarctic expeditions | This list of Antarctic expeditions is a chronological list of expeditions involving Antarctica. Although the existence of a southern continent had been hypothesized as early as the writings of Ptolemy in the 1st century AD, the South Pole was not reached until 1911.
Pre-exploration theories
600 BC – 300 BC – Greek Philosophers theorize Spherical Earth with North and South Polar regions.
150 AD – Ptolemy published Geographia, which notes Terra Australis Incognita.
Pre-19th century
7th century – Ui-te-Rangiora is claimed to have sighted southern ice fields.
13th century – Polynesians settle Auckland Islands (50° S)
1501–1502 – Gonçalo Coelho and Amerigo Vespucci potentially sail to (52° S)
1522 – Juan Sebastián de El Cano – first circumnavigation Fernando de Magallanes discovers Strait of Magellan (54° S)
1526 – Francisco de Hoces reportedly blown south from Strait of Magellan to (56° S). He discovers the Drake passage or Mar de Hoces.
1578 – Francis Drake claims to have discovered an ocean south of South America and "Elizabeth Island" (57° S)
1599 – Dirk Gerritsz – potentially sails to (64° S)
1603 – Gabriel de Castilla – potentially sails to (64° S)
1615 – Jacob le Maire and Willem Schouten first to sail around Cape Horn cross (56° S)
1619 – Garcia de Nodal expedition – circumnavigate Tierra del Fuego and discover Diego Ramírez Islands ()
1643 – Dutch expedition to Valdivia – northerly winds push the expedition as far south as 61°59 S where icebergs were abundant. The expedition disproves beliefs that Isla de los Estados was part of Terra Australis.
1675 – Anthony de la Roché discovers South Georgia (), the first ever land discovered south of the Antarctic Convergence
1698–1699 – Edmond Halley sails to (52° S)
1720 – George Shelvocke – sails to (61° 30′ S)
1739 – Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier – discovers Bouvet Island ()
1771 – James Cook – HM Bark Endeavour expedition
1771–1772 – Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen-Trémarec discovers Kerguelen Islands ()
1772–1775 – James Cook – sails crossing Antarctic Circle in January 1773 and December 1773. On 30 January 1774 he reaches 71° 10′ S, his Farthest South, coming within about of the Antarctic mainland without seeing it.
19th century
1780s to 1839 – American and British whalers and sealers make incidental discoveries.
1819 – William Smith discovers South Shetland Islands (), the first land discovered south of 60° south latitude.
1819 – San Telmo is wrecked in the Drake Passage off Livingston Island.
1819–1821 – Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev, future Admirals of Russian Imperial Navy, during Russian circumnavigation expedition, on 27 January 1820 were stopped by impassable ice in of Princess Martha Coast that later became known as the floating fragments of Fimbul Ice Shelf (). Bellingshausen and Lazarev became the first explorers to see and officially discover Alexander Island and Peter I Island in Antarctica in 21–28 January 1821.
1820 – Edward Bransfield with William Smith as his pilot – on 30 January 1820, sight Trinity Peninsula ().
1820 – Nathaniel Palmer sights Antarctica on 17 November 1820
1821 – George Powell, a British sealer, and Nathaniel B. Palmer, an American sealer, discover the South Orkney Islands. Powell annexes them for the British.
1821 – John Davis – on 7 February 1821 disputed claim of setting foot on Antarctica at Hughes Bay ()
1823–1824 – James Weddell discovers the Weddell Sea; – on 20 February 1823 his ship Jane (160 tons) reached a new Farthest South of 74° 15′ S ()
1830–1833 – Southern Ocean Expedition led by John Biscoe, an English sealer; circumnavigates the continent, sets foot on Anvers Island, names and annexes Graham Land, discovers Biscoe Islands, Queen Adelaide Island () and sights Enderby Land ()
1837–1840 – First French Antarctic Expedition – led by Jules Dumont d'Urville; discovers Adelie Land and sets foot on an islet of Géologie Archipelago () 4 km from the mainland to take mineral and animal samples (66° S)
1838–1839 – John Balleny discovers Balleny Islands ()
1838–1842 – United States Exploring Expedition – led by Charles Wilkes to Antarctic Peninsula () and eastern Antarctica; discovers "Termination Barrier" ("Shackleton Ice Shelf")
1839–1843 – James Clark Ross's expedition of 1839 to 1843 discovered the Ross Ice Shelf, Ross Sea, Mount Erebus, Mount Terror and Victoria Land; extended his Farthest South to 78° 10′ S on 23 January 1842
1851–1853 – Mercator Cooper landed on what is now known as Oates Coast in what is probably the first adequately documented landing on the mainland of Antarctica.
1872–1876 – under Capt. George S. Nares, becomes the first steamship to cross the Antarctic Circle; reopens the study of oceanography in the region after a 30-year gap.
1892–1893 – Carl Anton Larsen led the first Norwegian expedition to Antarctica aboard the ship Jason. Larsen became the first person to ski in Antarctica where the Larsen Ice Shelf was named after him.
1892–1893 – Dundee Whaling Expedition discover Dundee Island ()
1893–1894 – Carl Anton Larsen led the second Norwegian expedition to Antarctica
1893–1895 – Henryk Bull, Carstens Borchgrevink and Alexander von Tunzelmann – set foot on Antarctica at Cape Adare
1897–1899 – Belgian Antarctic Expedition – led by Adrien de Gerlache; first to winter South of the Antarctic Circle.
1898–1900 – Southern Cross Expedition, Carsten Borchgrevink – sails to Cape Adare, winters on Antarctica and takes Farthest South on 16 February 1900 at 78° 50′ S
20th century
1901–1904 – Discovery Expedition – led by Robert Falcon Scott, on 30 December 1903, reached (82° 17′S)
1902 - First ballon flight over Antarctica by Robert Falcon Scott
1901–1903 – Gauss expedition (or First German Antarctic Expedition) – led by Erich von Drygalski
1901–1903 – Swedish Antarctic Expedition – led by Otto Nordenskjöld with captain Carl Anton Larsen
1902–1904 – Scottish National Antarctic Expedition – led by William Speirs Bruce
1903–1905 – Second French Antarctic Expedition – led by Jean-Baptiste Charcot
1907–1909 – Nimrod Expedition – On 9 January 1909, Ernest Shackleton reached 88° 23 ′S (Farthest South), and on 16 January 1909, Professor Edgeworth David reached the South Magnetic Pole at () (mean position)
1908–1910 – Third French Antarctic Expedition – led by Jean-Baptiste Charcot
1910–1912 – Japanese Antarctic Expedition – led by Nobu Shirase
1910–1912 – Roald Amundsen's South Pole expedition – On 14 December 1911, reached the South Pole (90° S)
1910–1913 – Terra Nova Expedition – On 17 January 1912, Robert Falcon Scott, reached the South Pole (90° S)
1911–1913 – Second German Antarctic Expedition – led by Wilhelm Filchner
1911–1914 – Australasian Antarctic Expedition – led by Douglas Mawson
1914–1916 – Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition – led by Ernest Shackleton
1914–1917 – Ross Sea Party – led by Aeneas Mackintosh
1920–1922 – British Graham Land Expedition – a British expedition to Graham Land led by John Lachlan Cope
1921–1922 – Shackleton-Rowett Expedition – led by Ernest Shackleton – the last expedition of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration
1924–1951 – Discovery Investigations
1928 - First aeroplane flight over Antarctica by Hubert Wilkins and Carl Ben Eielson
1929–1931 – British Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE) – led by Douglas Mawson
1928–1930 – Richard Evelyn Byrd – First expedition
1931 – H. Halvorsen – discovered Princess Astrid Coast
1931 – Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen – flew over Antarctica, discovered Kronprins Olav Kyst
1933–1935 – Richard Evelyn Byrd – Second expedition
1933–1939 – Lincoln Ellsworth – Aircraft expedition
1934–1937 – British Graham Land Expedition (BGLE) – led by John Riddoch Rymill
1936 – Lars Christensen – dropped Norwegian flag over Prince Harald Coast
1938 – German Antarctic Expedition (1938–1939), (New Swabia claimed for Nazi Germany) – led by Capt. Alfred Ritscher
1939–1941 – United States Antarctic Service Expedition – led by Richard Evelyn Byrd (Byrd's third expedition)
1943–1945 – Operation Tabarin – led by Lieutenant James Marr
1946–1947 – Operation Highjump – led by Richard Evelyn Byrd (Byrd's fourth expedition)
1947 – First Chilean Antarctic Expedition
1947–1948 – Operation Windmill – led by Commander Gerald Ketchum
1947–1948 – Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition – led by Finn Ronne
1948–1949 – Fourth French Antarctic Expedition (ship Commandant Charcot) – led by André-Frank Liotard
1949–1951 – Fifth French Antarctic Expedition : Port Martin Station established in Adélie Land – led by André-Frank Liotard
1949–1952 – Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition – led by John Giaever
1950–1952 – Sixth French Antarctic Expedition – led by Michel Barré
1951-1953 – Seventh French Antarctic Expedition : Petrel Island Station established in Adélie Land – led by Mario Marret
1953 – Esperanza Base established
1954 – Mawson Station established
1955–1956 – Operation Deep Freeze – led by Richard Evelyn Byrd (Byrd's fifth expedition)
1955–1957 – Falkland Island Dependency Aerial Survey led by P G Mott
1955–1957 – 1st Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by Mikhail Somov
1956 – Dumont d'Urville Station established
1956 – Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station established
1956 - McMurdo Station established
1956–1958 – Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition – led by Vivian Fuchs
1956–1958 – 2nd Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by Aleksei Treshnikov
1957–1958 – International Geophysical Year
1957–1958 – New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition
1957 – Scott Base established
1957–1958 – Luncke Expedition
1957–1959 – 3rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by Yevgeny Tolstikov
1958–1959 – New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition
1958–1960 – 4th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by Aleksandr Dralkin
1959–1961 – 5th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by Yevgeny Korotkevich
1960 – South African National Antarctic Expedition
1960–1962 – 6th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by V. Driatsky
1961–1963 – 7th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by Aleksandr Dralkin
1962–1962 – Vostok traverse – led by Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE)
1962–1963 – New Zealand Federated Mountain Clubs Antarctic Expedition – Led by John M. Millen
1962–1964 – 8th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by Mikhail Somov
1963–1965 – 9th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by Mikhail Somov and Pavel Senko
1964–1965 – South Pole—Queen Maud Land Traverse I
1964–1966 – 10th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by M. Ostrekin, I. Petrov
1965–1966 – South Pole—Queen Maud Land Traverse II
1965–1967 – 11th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by D. Maksutov, Leonid Dubrovin
1965–1965 – Operación 90 – Terrestrial Argentine Expedition to the South Pole Led by Coronel D. Jorge Leal.
1966–1968 – 12th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by Pavel Senko and Vladislav Gerbovich
1966–1967 – New Zealand Antarctic Research Programme Mariner Glacier Northern Party Expedition – led by John E S Lawrence
1967–1968 – South Pole—Queen Maud Land Traverse III
1967–1969 – 13th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by Aleksei Treshnikov
1968–1970 – 14th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by D. Maksutov, Ernst Krenkel
1969 – Base Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva established
1969–1970 – New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition
1969–1971 – 15th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by Pavel Senko and Vladislav Gerbovich
1970–1972 – 16th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by I. Petrov and Yury Tarbeyev
1971–1973 – 17th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by Yevgeny Korotkevich, V. Averyanov
1972–1974 – 18th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by Pavel Senko
1973–1975 – 19th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by D. Maksutov, V. Ignatov
1974–1976 – 20th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by V. Serdyukov, N. Kornilov
1975–1977 – 21st Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by O. Sedov, G. Bardin
1976–1978 – 22nd Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by N. Tyabin, Leonid Dubrovin
1977–1979 – 23rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by V. Serdyukov, O. Sedov
1978 – Fortín Sargento Cabral established
1978–1980 – 24th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by A. Artemyev, O. Sedov
1979 – Air New Zealand Flight 901 – airplane crash
1979–1980 – 25th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by N. Kornilov, N. Tyabin
1980–1981 – Transglobe Expedition – led by Ranulph Fiennes
1980–1982 – 26th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by V. Serdyukov, V. Shamontyev
1981–1983 – 27th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by D. Maksutov, R. Galkin
1981–1982 – First Indian Expedition to Antarctica – led by Dr. Sayed Zahoor Qasim
1982 – Falkland Islands War
1982–1983 – First Brazilian Expedition to Antarctica –
1982–1983 – Second Indian Expedition to Antarctica – led by V. K. Raina
1982–1984 – 28th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by N. Kornilov, A. Artemyev
1984 – Villa Las Estrellas established
1983–1985 – 29th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by N. Tyabin, L. Bulatov
1983–1985 – Third Indian Expedition to Antarctica
1984–1987 – In the Footsteps of Scott – led by Robert Swan
1984–1985 – 1st Uruguayan Antarctic Expedition – Antarkos I Led by Lt. Col. Omar Porciúncula
1984–1986 – 30th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by D. Maksutov, R. Galkin
1985–1987 – 31st Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by N. Tyabin, V. Dubovtsev
1986–1988 – 32nd Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by V. Klokov, V. Vovk
1987 – Iceberg B-9 calves and carries away Little Americas I – III
1987–1989 – 33rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by N.A. Kornilov, Yu.A. Khabarov
1987–1988 – First Bulgarian Antarctic Expedition – St. Kliment Ohridski Base established
1988–1990 – 34th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by S.M. Pryamikov, L.V. Bulatov
1988–1989 – South Pole Overland. Patriot Hills to South Pole. First commercial Ski expedition to South Pole. 1200 km, 50 days – led by Martyn Williams
1989–1990 – Antarctic crossing on foot by Reinhold Messner and Arved Fuchs. 2800 km. 92 days
1989–1990 – 1990 International Trans-Antarctica Expedition – led by American Will Steger and Frenchman Jean-Louis Étienne, first un-mechanized crossing – 6,021 km, 220-days
1989–1991 – 35th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by V.M. Piguzov
1990 – 1st North Korean Antarctic Expedition
1990 – Snotsicle Traverse Ski expedition – South Pole to Ross Sea inland edge via Scott Glacier. 9 611 km in 35 days– led by Martyn Williams
1990–1991 – 2nd North Korean Antarctic Expedition
1991 – Serap Z. Tilav, a US Antarctic Program field team member, became the first Turkish woman at the South Pole.
1991–1992 – 36th Soviet Antarctic Expedition – led by Lev Savatyugin
1992–1993 – American Women's Antarctic Expedition- AWE. First team of women to ski to the South Pole: Ann Bancroft, Sunniva Sorby, Anne DalVera, Sue Giller- 67 days
1992–1993 – British Polar Plod – led by Ranulph Fiennes with Mike Stroud (physician), first unassisted expedition crossing the continent by ski, (2,173 km in 95 days)
1992–1993 – Erling Kagge (Norway), first unassisted, and first solo expedition to the South Pole by ski, (1,310 km in 53 days)
1992–1993 – Antarctic Environmental Research Expedition – led by Kenji Yoshikawa
1994 – Liv Arnesen (Norway), first unassisted woman to the South Pole by ski, (1,200 km in 50 days)
1994 – Cato Zahl Pedersen (Norway) becomes the first person with no arms to ski to the South Pole (1400 km from Berkner Island), together with Lars Ebbesen and Odd Harald Hauge
1995 – "A Pole at the Poles" – Marek Kamiński solo expedition to the South Pole from Berkner Island (1,400 km in 53 days);
1995–1996 – Bernard Voyer and Thierry Pétry unassisted expedition to the South Pole by ski
1996 – Lake Vostok discovered
1996–1997 – "Solo TransAntarctica" – Marek Kamiński attempted solo crossing of Antarctica (1,450 km);
1996–1997 – Børge Ousland (Norway) first person to travel across Antarctica solo. The crossing went from coast to coast, from Berkner Island to the Ross Sea, and was unsupported (without resupplies). He used a kite as traction for parts of the expedition. 63 days, 3,000 km
1997–1998 – Peter Treseder, Keith Williams & Ian Brown become the first Australians to ski unsupported (no sail) to the South Geographic Pole, 1317 km in 59 days from Berkner Island, 2Nov-31Dec, flown out by ANI.
1998–1999 – Eric Philips, Jon Muir and Peter Hillary pioneer a new route from Ross Island to the South Pole through the Transantarctic Mountains via the Shackleton then Zaneveld glaciers. The expedition covers 1425 km in 84 days setting off 4 November 1998 and arriving 26 January 1999. The team were not able to complete their original objective of completing the first unassisted return journey to the South Pole.
21st century
2000–2001– Norwegian Liv Arnesen and the American Ann Bancroft crossed Antarctica on ski-sail from Blue 1 Runaway 13 November reaching after 94 days of expedition McMurdo Station, passing through the South Pole.
2001–2002 – First and longest sea kayak expedition by New Zealanders Graham Charles, Marcus Waters and Mark Jones paddle unsupported from Hope Bay to Adelaide Island in 35 days.
2004 – Scot100 First ever Scottish Expedition to South Pole began in October 2004 – a century after a historic expedition led by William Speirs Bruce, Edinburgh's "unknown" explorer, who Craig Mathieson views as "truly the greatest polar explorer of all time".
2004 – Together to the Pole – a Polish four-man expedition led by Marek Kamiński, with Jan Mela (a teenage double amputee, who in the same year reached also the North Pole)
2004–2005 – Chilean South Pole Expedition.
2004–2005 – Tangra 2004/05 created Camp Academia.
2005 – Ice Challenger Expedition travelled to the South Pole in a six-wheeled vehicle.
2005–2006 – Spanish Trans-Antarctic Expedition, led by Ramon Larramendi, reached the Southern Pole of Inaccessibility using kite-sleds.
2005-2006 – Construction of the South Pole Traverse completed
2006 – Hannah McKeand sets coast-to-pole solo/unsupported record of 39 days, 9 hours and 33 minutes
2006–2007 – Jenny and Ray Jardine 57-day ski trek to South Pole
2007 – Pat Falvey leads an Irish team to reach the South Pole, skiing 1140 km only weeks after completing an unsupported Ski traverse of the Greenland Ice Cap in August 2007 in honour of Irish Polar Explorers such as Ernest Shackleton and Tom Crean. Clare O'Leary becomes the first Irish female to reach the South Pole.
2007-2008 - First African unsupported and unassisted walk to the South Pole. South Africans Alex Harris and Sibusiso Vilane spent 65 days walking from Hercules Inlet.
2007–2008 – Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica.
2007–2008 – British Army Antarctic Expedition 2007–2008
2007–2008 – Verden Vakreste Skitur. Randi Skaug, Kristin Moe-Krohn and Anne-Mette Nørregaard skied unsupported from Patriot Hills across The Sentinel range to Vinson Massif to climb Mount Vinson
2008 – Todd Carmichael sets coast-to-pole solo/unsupported record of 39 days, 7 hours and 49 minutes
2008 – First Venezuelan Scientific Expedition to Antarctica.
2008–2009 – The Antarctica Challenge – Canada-US International Polar Year documentary film production expedition led by Mark Terry.
2008–2009 – Impossible 2 Possible (i2P) unsupported South Pole quest by Ray Zahab, Kevin Vallely and Richard Weber.
2009 – Azerbaijan Scientific Expedition
2009 – Kaspersky Commonwealth Antarctic Expedition, largest and most international group of women to ski to South Pole.
2009 – Second Venezuelan Scientific Expedition to Antarctica.
2009–2010 – Unsupported/Unassisted Antarctica Ski Traverse from Berkner Island to South Pole to Ross Sea by Cecilie Skog and Ryan Waters.
2010 – Moon Regan Transantarctic Crossing, first wheeled transantarctic crossing and first bio-fuelled vehicle to travel to the South Pole.
2010 – Third Venezuelan Scientific Expedition to Antarctica.
2011 – Fourth Venezuelan Scientific Expedition to Antarctica.
2011–2012 – From Novolazarevskaya to Pole of Inaccessibility to South Pole to Hercules inlet by Sebastian Copeland and Eric McNair Landry by kites and skis.
2011–2012 – Scott Amundsen Centenary Race – Henry Worsley and Louis Rudd ski unsupported along the original route of Amundsen from the Bay of Whales up the Axel Heiberg to the SP racing against Mark Langridge, Vic Vicary and Kev Johnson completing Capt Scott's original route.
2011–2012 – British Services Antarctic Expedition 2012
2011–2012 – Expedition by Ramon Hernando de Larramendi, by Inuit WindSled.
2012 – Felicity Aston becomes the first person to ski alone across Antarctica using only personal muscle power, as well as the first woman to cross Antarctica alone. Her journey began on 25 November 2011, at the Leverett Glacier, and continued for 59 days and a distance of .
2012 – Fifth Venezuelan Scientific Expedition to Antarctica.
2012–2013 – Aaron Linsdau becomes the second American to ski solo from the Hercules Inlet to the South Pole. His original plan was to make a round trip but through a series of problems, like all other expeditions this year, was unable to make the return journey.
2012 – Eric Larsen attempts a bicycle ride from coast to South Pole. Completes a quarter of the distance.
2012 – Grant Korgan becomes the first person with a spinal cord injury to literally "push" himself to the geographic South Pole!
2012–2013 – Shackleton's centenary re-enactment expedition of the journey of the James Caird aboard the replica Alexandra Shackleton. Six British and Australian Explorers completed the "double journey" on 10 February 2013 after the journey from Elephant Island to South Georgia and the mountain crossing.
2013 – Sixth Venezuelan Scientific Expedition to Antarctica.
2013–2014 – Ben Saunders and Tarka L'Herpiniere make the first ever completion of the Terra Nova Expedition first taken by Robert Falcon Scott in January 1912. Their , 105-day return journey to the South Pole is the longest ever polar journey on foot.
2013 – Parker Liautaud and Douglas Stoup attempt in December 2013 the Willis Resilience Expedition to set a "coast to Pole" speed record by reaching the geographical South Pole on skis in the fastest journey ever recorded from an interior of continent start while being followed by a support vehicle.
2013 – Antony Jinman will walk to the South Pole solo for the 2013 ETE Teachers South Pole Mission, during which he will be in daily contact with schoolchildren from across the United Kingdom and will make films using the world's first drone flights at the South Pole.
2013 – Maria Leijerstam becomes the first person to cycle from the Antarctic coast to South Pole. She also set the human powered speed record in 10 days, 14 hours and 56 minutes.
2013–2014 – Lewis Clarke (aged 16 years and 61 days) guided by Carl Alvey (aged 30) became the youngest person to trek from the Antarctic coast at Hercules Inlet to the South Pole. His expedition was in support of the Prince's Trust and his achievement is recognised by Guinness World Records.
2013–2014 – Married couple Christine (Chris) Fagan and Marty Fagan became the first American married couple (and second married couple in history) to complete a full unguided, unsupported, unassisted ski from the Antarctic coast to the South Pole. They join just over 100 people in history who have traveled to the South Pole in this manner. Their expedition took 48 days. Their achievement is recognized by Guinness World Records.
2013–2014 – Daniel P. Burton completes the first bicycle ride from coast to the South Pole.
2013–2014 – Chris Turney led an expedition, entitled "Spirit of Mawson", aimed at highlighting the decline in sea ice due to climate change. The expedition was abandoned when its Russian ship became stuck in unusually large amounts of sea ice.
2013 – In December 2013 the Expeditions 7 Team led by Scott Brady made a successful east-to-west crossing in four-wheel drive vehicles from Novolazarevskaya to the Ross Ice Shelf via the Scott-Amundsen South Pole Station. Expeditions 7's logistic plan included providing assistance to the Walking With The Wounded expedition, which was required at latitude 88°S. From the Ross Ice Shelf the Expeditions 7 team returned to Novolazarevskaya via the same route.
2014 – Turkish scientist Yakup Çelik became the first citizen representing Türkiye to reach the South Pole.
2015–2016 – Luke Robertson (UK) becomes the first Scot – and the first person with an artificial pacemaker – to ski solo, unsupported (no resupply) and unassisted (no kiting) from the coast of Antarctica (Hercules Inlet) to the South Pole.
2015–2016 – Henry Worsley died while attempting to complete the first solo and unaided crossing of the Antarctic.
2016 – First Homeward Bound expedition, then the largest all-women expedition to Antarctica.
2016–2017 – Malgorzata Wojtaczka – 52 years old Polish, after 69 days completes solo-unaided-unsupported expedition from Hercules Inlet to the South Pole.
2016–2017 – Spear17, a six-man team from the British Army Reserves successfully completed a full traverse of Antarctica. They set off on 16 November from Hercules Inlet, arrived at the South Pole on Christmas Day, and completed a full traverse reaching Ross Ice Shelf on 20 January 2017. The aim of the expedition was to raise the profile of the army reservists, and to honour the memory of fellow explorer Henry Worsley. The team was led by Captain Louis Rudd, MBE
2016–2017 – Eric Philips (guide), Keith Tuffley and Rob Smith ski a new route to the South Pole from the Ross Ice Shelf through the Transantarctic Mountains following the Reedy Glacier. The expedition covers 605 km in 33 days setting off 8 December 2017 and arriving 10 January 2017.
2016–2017 – On 7 February Mike Horn completes first ever solo, unsupported north-to-south traverse of Antarctica from the Princess Astrid Coast (lat −70.1015 lon 9.8249) to the Dumont D'urville Station (lat −66.6833 lon 139.9167) via the South Pole. He arrived at the pole on 7 February 2017. A total distance of 5100 km was covered utilizing kites and skis in 57 days.
2016–2017 – Eric Philips (guide), Heath Jamieson (guide), Jade Hameister, Paul Hameister and Ming D'Arcy ski a new route to the South Pole from the Ross Ice Shelf through the Transantarctic Mountains following the Reedy Glacier then Kansas Glacier. The expedition covers 605 km in 33 days, setting off 6 December 2017 and arriving 11 January 2018.
2017–2018 – Astrid Forhold (Norway), supported by Jan Sverre Sivertsen, skies the longest part of the original Roald Amundsen route from Bay of Whales to the South Pole.
2018 – Colin O'Brady (USA) completed an unsupported (no resupplies or supply drops) solo crossing of Antarctica (not including the ice shelves). He started inland at the end of the Ronne Ice Shelf on 3 November 2018, passed through the South Pole and arrived inland at the start of the Ross Ice Shelf on 26 December 2018. Louis Rudd (UK), who started on the same day as Brady and took a similar route, completed his unsupported solo trek two days later, arriving at Ross Ice Shelf on 28 December 2018
2018–2019 – On 13 January, Matthieu Tordeur (France) becomes the first French and youngest in the world (27 years and 40 days) to ski solo, unsupported (no resupply) and unassisted (no kiting) from the coast of Antarctica (Hercules Inlet) to the South Pole.
2019 – SD 1020, an unmanned surface vehicle (USV) designed by British engineer Richard Jenkins of Saildrone, Inc. in Alameda, CA, completed the first autonomous circumnavigation of Antarctica, sailing through the Southern Ocean in 196 days, from 19 January 2019 to 3 August 2019. The vehicle was deployed and retrieved from Bluff, New Zealand.
2019 – The first human-powered transit (by rowing) across the Drake Passage was accomplished on 25 December 2019, by captain Fiann Paul (Iceland), first mate Colin O'Brady (US), Andrew Towne (US), Cameron Bellamy (South Africa), Jamie Douglas-Hamilton (UK) and John Petersen (US).
2019–2020 – Anja Blacha completes the longest solo, unsupported, unassisted polar expedition by a woman, skiing from Berkner Island to the South Pole
2019-2020 Wendy Searle becomes the seventh woman to ski solo unsupported from the Hercules Inlet to the pole
2019–2020 – Mollie Hughes skied from Hercules Inlet to the pole, travelling .
2021–2022 – Preet Chandi, a British Sikh army officer, became the first woman of colour to reach the south pole unassisted.
Agreements
1959 – Antarctic Treaty System
1964 – Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora
1978 – Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals
1982 – Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
1988 – Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities
1998 – Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty
See also
European and American voyages of scientific exploration
Farthest South
Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration
List of Antarctic exploration ships from the Heroic Age, 1897–1922
History of Antarctica
History of research ships
List of Arctic expeditions
List of polar explorers
List of Russian explorers
Research stations in Antarctica
Notes
References
'Extreme South' Struggles & triumph of the first Australian team to the Pole by Ian Brown, Published by Australian Geographic 1999. .
Further reading
Headland, Robert K. (2009). A Chronology of Antarctic Expeditions. A synopsis of events and activities from the earliest times until the International Polar Years, 2007-09. Bernard Quaritch Ltd.
Landis, Marilyn J. (2003). Antarctica: Exploring the Extreme: 400 Years of Adventure. Chicago Review Press.
External links
Fram.museum.no, map of Antarctic Expeditions 1772 – 1931 at The Fram Museum (Frammuseet)
SPRI.cam.ac.uk, index to Antarctic Expeditions at the Scott Polar Research Institute's website
Antarctic Expeditions, information about some of them from the British Antarctic Survey
Antarctic-circle.org, Chronologies and Timelines of Antarctic Exploration
Antarctic Exploration Timeline, animated map of Antarctic exploration and settlement
Listen to Ernest Shackleton describing his 1908 South Pole Expedition, and read more about the recording on [australianscreen online].
The recording describing Shackleton's 1908 South Pole Expedition was added to the National Film and Sound Archive's Sounds of Australia Registry in 2007
Before she’s lost to decay on the West Coast, former Antarctica researchers in Maine want to save their storied 'Hero'. Portland Magazine. 8 November 2012
Expeditions
Antarctic expeditions |
4285830 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet%20censorship%20in%20Pakistan | Internet censorship in Pakistan | Internet censorship in Pakistan is government control of information sent and received using the Internet in Pakistan. There have been significant instances of website access restriction in Pakistan, most notably when YouTube was banned from 2012–2016. Pakistan has asked a number of social media organisations to set up local offices within the country, but this is yet to happen.
Pakistan made global headlines in 2010 for blocking Facebook and other Web sites in response to a contest popularized on the social networking site to draw images of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. In general, Internet filtering in Pakistan remains both inconsistent and intermittent, with filtering primarily targeted at content deemed to be a threat to national security, pornography, homosexuality and at religious content considered blasphemous.
In 2019, the National Assembly Standing Committee on Information Technology and Telecom was informed by Pakistan Telecommunication Authority (PTA) that 900,000 URLs were blocked in Pakistan for "reasons such as carrying blasphemous and pornographic content and/or sentiments against the state, judiciary or the armed forces." In February 2023, Wikipedia was banned by the PTA for two days over alleged blasphemous content.
Overview
In mid-2012 Pakistanis had relatively free access to a wide range of content, including most sexual, political, social, and religious sites on the Internet. The OpenNet Initiative listed Internet filtering in Pakistan as substantial in the conflict/security area, and as selective in the political, social, and Internet tools areas in August 2012. Additionally, Freedom House rated Pakistan's "Freedom on the Net Status" as "Not Free" in its Freedom on the Net 2022 report. This is still true as of 2022.
Internet filtering in Pakistan is regulated by the Pakistan Telecommunications Authority (PTA) and the Federal Investigation Agency (FIA) under the direction of the government, the Supreme Court of Pakistan, and the Ministry of Information Technology (MoIT). Although the majority of filtering in Pakistan is intermittent—such as the occasional block on a major Web site like Blogspot or YouTube—the PTA continues to block sites containing content it considers to be blasphemous, anti-Islamic, or threatening to internal security. Online civil society activism that began in order to protect free expression in the country continues to expand as citizens utilize new media to disseminate information and organize.
Pakistan has blocked access to websites critical of the government or the military. Blocking of websites is often carried out under the rubric of restricting access to "blasphemous" content, pornography, or religious immorality. At the end of 2011, the PTA had officially banned more than 1,000 pornographic websites in Pakistan.
Pakistan Internet Exchange
The Pakistan Internet Exchange (PIE), operated by the state-owned Pakistan Telecommunication Company Ltd (PTCL), was created to facilitate the exchange of Internet traffic between ISPs within and outside of Pakistan. Because the majority of Pakistan's Internet traffic is routed through the PIE (98% of Pakistani ISPs used the PIE in 2004), it provides a means to monitor and possibly block incoming and outgoing Internet traffic as the government deems fit.
Internet surveillance in Pakistan is primarily conducted by the PIE under the auspices of the PTA. The PIE monitors all incoming and outgoing Internet traffic from Pakistan, as well as e-mail and keywords, and stores data for a specified amount of time. Law enforcement agencies such as the FIA can be asked by the government to conduct surveillance and monitor content. Under the Prevention of Electronic Crimes Ordinance (PECO), ISPs are required to retain traffic data for a minimum of 90 days and may also be required to collect real-time data and record information while keeping their involvement with the government confidential. The ordinance does not specify what kinds of actions constitute grounds for data collection and surveillance.
Pakistan Telecommunication Company
In April 2003, the PTCL announced that it would be stepping up monitoring of pornographic websites. "Anti-Islamic" and "blasphemous" sites were also monitored. In early March 2004, the Federal Investigation Agency (FIA) ordered Internet service providers (ISPs) to monitor access to all pornographic content. The ISPs, however, lacked the technical know-how, and felt that the PTCL was in a better position to carry out FIA's order. A Malaysian firm was then hired to provide a filtering system, but failed to deliver a working system.
National URL filtering and blocking system
In March 2012, the Pakistan government took the unusual step of touting for firms that could help build it a nationwide content-filtering service. The Pakistan Telecommunications Authority published a request for proposals for the "deployment and operation of a national level URL Filtering and Blocking System" which would operate on similar lines to China's Golden Shield, or "Great Firewall". Academic and research institutions as well as private commercial entities had until 16 March to submit their proposals, according to the request's detailed 35-point system requirements list. Key among these is the following: "Each box should be able to handle a block list of up to 50 million URLs (concurrent unidirectional filtering capacity) with processing delay of not more than 1 milliseconds".
Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons
The Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy began after 12 editorial cartoons, most of which depicted the Islamic prophet Muhammad, were published in the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten on 30 September 2005. This led to protests across the Muslim world, some of which escalated into violence with instances of firing on crowds of protestors, resulting in more than 100 reported deaths, and included the bombing of the Danish embassy in Pakistan, setting fire to the Danish Embassies in Syria, Lebanon and Iran, storming of European buildings, and the burning of the Danish, Dutch, Norwegian, French, and German flags in Gaza City. The posting of the cartoons online added to the controversy.
On 1 March 2006 the Supreme Court of Pakistan directed the government to keep tabs on Internet sites displaying the cartoons and called for an explanation from authorities as to why these sites had not been blocked earlier. On 2 March 2006, pursuant to a petition filed under Article 184(3) of the Constitution of Pakistan, the Supreme Court sitting en banc ordered the Pakistan Telecommunications Authority (PTA) and other government departments to adopt measures for blocking websites showing blasphemous content. The Court also ordered Attorney General Makhdoom Ali Khan to explore laws which would enable blocking of objectionable websites. In announcing the decision, Chief Justice Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry, said, "We will not accept any excuse or technical objection on this issue because it relates to the sentiments of the entire Muslim world. All authorities concerned will have to appear in the Court on the next hearing with reports of concrete measures taken to implement our order".
Consequently, the government kept tabs on a number of websites hosting the cartoons deemed to be sacrilegious. This ban included all the weblogs hosted at the popular blogging service blogger.com, as some bloggers had put up copies of the cartoons – particularly many non-Pakistani blogs.
A three-member bench headed by Chief Justice Chaudhry, summoned the country's Attorney General as well as senior communication ministry officials to give a report of "concrete measures for implementation of the court's order". At the hearing on 14 March 2006, the PTA informed the Supreme Court that all websites displaying the Muhammad cartoons had been blocked. The bench issued directions to the Attorney General of Pakistan, Makhdoom Ali Khan, to assist the court on how it could exercise jurisdiction to prevent the availability of blasphemous material on websites the world over.
The blanket ban on the blogspot.com blogs was lifted on 2 May 2006. Shortly thereafter the blanket ban was reimposed and extended to Typepad blogs. The blanket ban on the blogspot.com blogs was later lifted again.
Allegations of suppressing vote-rigging videos by the Musharraf administration were also leveled by Pakistani bloggers, newspapers, media, and Pakistani anti-Musharraf opposition parties. The ban was lifted on 26 February 2008.
Social media and platform blocking
YouTube was blocked in Pakistan following a decision taken by the Pakistan Telecommunication Authority on 22 February 2008 because of the number of "non-Islamic objectionable videos." One report specifically named Fitna, a controversial Dutch film, as the basis for the block. Pakistan, an Islamic republic, ordered its ISPs to block access to YouTube "for containing blasphemous web content/movies." The action effectively blocked YouTube access worldwide for several hours on 24 February. Defaming Muhammad under § 295-C of the Blasphemy law in Pakistan requires a death sentence. This followed increasing unrest in Pakistan by over the reprinting of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons which depict satirical criticism of Islam. Router misconfiguration by one Pakistani ISP on 24 February 2008 effectively blocked YouTube access worldwide for several hours. On 26 February 2008, the ban was lifted after the website had removed the objectionable content from its servers at the demand of the Government of Pakistan.
On 19 and 20 May 2010, Pakistan's Telecommunication Authority PTA imposed a ban on Wikipedia, YouTube, Flickr, and Facebook in response to a competition entitled Everybody Draw Mohammed Day on Facebook, in a bid to contain "blasphemous" material. The ban imposed on Facebook was the result of a ruling by the Lahore High Court, while the ban on the other websites was imposed arbitrarily by the PTA on the grounds of "objectionable content", a different response from earlier requests, such as pages created to promote peaceful demonstrations in Pakistani cities being removed because they were "inciting violence". The sitewide ban on Facebook was lifted on 27 May 2010, after Facebook filtered content so that users in Pakistan could not access the "blasphemous" content. However, individual videos deemed offensive to Muslims that are posted on YouTube will continue to be blocked.
In September 2012, the PTA blocked the video-sharing website YouTube for not removing an anti-Islamic film made in the United States, Innocence of Muslims, which mocks Muhammed. The website would remain suspended, it was stated, until the film was removed. In a related move, the PTA announced that it had blocked about 20,000 websites due to "objectionable" content.
On 25 July 2013, the government announced that it is mulling over reopening YouTube during the second week of August. A special 12-member committee was working under the Minister of IT and Telecommunication, Anusha Rahman, to see if objectionable content can be removed. The Pakistan Telecommunications Authority, the telecom watchdog in the country, has already expressed its inability to filter out select content.
On 21 April 2014, Pakistan's Senate Standing Committee on Human Rights requested the Federal Government remove the ban on YouTube.
On 8 February 2015, the government announced that YouTube will remain blocked 'indefinitely' because no tool or solution had been found which can totally block offensive content. As of June 2015 — 1,000 days on — the ban was still in effect, and YouTube cannot be accessed from either desktop or mobile devices.
The ban was lifted due to technical glitch on 6 December 2015 according to ISPs in Pakistan. As September 2016, the ban has been lifted officially, as YouTube launched a local version for Pakistan.
On 25 November 2017, the NetBlocks internet shutdown observatory and Digital Rights Foundation identified mass-scale blocking of social media and content-sharing websites including YouTube, Twitter and Facebook throughout Pakistan imposed by the government in response to the violent Tehreek-e-Labaik protests. The technical investigation found that all major Pakistani fixed-line and mobile service providers were affected by the restrictions, which were lifted by the PTA the next day when protests abated following the resignation of Minister for Law and Justice Zahid Hamid.
In 2019, The National Assembly Standing Committee on Information Technology and Telecom was informed by the PTA that 900,000 URLs were blocked in Pakistan for "reasons such as carrying blasphemous and pornographic content and/or sentiments against the state, judiciary or the armed forces."
On 9 October 2020, TikTok was banned by the PTA for "immoral content"
On 16 April 2021, various social media applications were banned. The Ministry of Interior ordered the PTA to restrict access of Pakistani users to Twitter, Facebook, WhatsApp, YouTube, and Telegram. It was issued to block these social media websites from 11:00 AM to 03:00 PM on Friday with an immediate effect. The reason to put a temporary ban on these social media platforms was not mentioned on the official notice. Later on, PTA explained the ban by putting forward the statement, "In order to maintain public order and safety, access to certain social media applications has been restricted temporarily." There was a severe condition in Pakistan due to Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan anti-France protests. The condition became more intense after Pakistan announced to ban Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan under Anti-Terror Law.
On Sunday 5 February 2023, Wikipedia was banned due to not removing purportedly blasphemous materials but it could still be accessed using the app. The ban was lifted on Tuesday 7 February 2023, with the PM Office stating, "Blocking the site in its entirety was not a suitable measure to restrict access to some objectionable contents and sacrilegious matter on it."
Netsweeper usage
In June 2013, the Citizen Lab interdisciplinary research laboratory uncovered that Canadian internet-filtering product Netsweeper to be in use at the national level in Pakistan. The system has categorized billions of URLs and is adding 10 million new URLs every day. The lab also confirmed that ISPs in Pakistan are using methods of DNS tampering to block websites at the behest of Pakistan Telecommunication Authority.
According to the report published by the lab, "Netsweeper technology is being implemented in Pakistan for purposes of political and social filtering, including websites of secessionist movements, sensitive religious topics, and independent media."
On 6 September 2022, YouTube was temporarily blocked coinciding with the duration of a livestream of a political protest by the PTI calling for a General Election after the ouster of Imran Khan in April.
2020 rules
In October 2020 Government of Pakistan issued new policy rules called Citizens Protection (Against Online Harm) Rules 2020 or the Removal and Blocking of Unlawful Content (Procedure, Oversight and Safeguards) under 2016 Prevention of Electronic Crimes Act (PECA).
The government of Pakistan intends to access internet user data and control and remove objectionable content. The companies would be required to remove or block any asked content from their websites within 24 hours after being reported by Pakistani authorities, social media companies or internet service providers face may be fined of up to $3.14 million (€2.57 million) for failure to curb the sharing of content deemed to be defamatory of Islam, promoting terrorism, hate speech, pornography or any content viewed as problematic to Pakistan's national security.
Rights activists complain that new rules are compromising user privacy at mercy of Pakistani establishment sans judicial oversight, likely to erode media freedom and freedom of expression further there by erode political freedoms and result in increased censorship.
Since then, dating apps like Tinder are banned in Pakistan, video sharing app named TikTok faced a temporary ban til removed content; issued notices to U.S.A. based Ahmadiyya community web portal TrueIslam.com, Google and Wikipedia for returning search results displaying Ahmadiyya community and their leadership, Mirza Masroor Ahmad, 's claims of Muslimness.
Blocked by Pakistan Telecommunication Authority
Video games ban
PUBG ban
In July 2020, PTA banned the online game PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds, Many social media activists like Waqar Zaka uploaded videos on YouTube urging Pakistanis to speak up against this ban. Millions of social media users of Pakistan have flooded sites like Facebook, Twitter and have shown overwhelming support for PUBG (PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds). In response, PTA lifted ban on the popular online game.
Pornography ban
Other notable bans
Richard Dawkins's website and the Internet Movie Database (IMDb) were blocked for brief periods in 2013.
Xbox Live and GameRanger were blocked accidentally on 7 February 2013 by the Pakistan Telecom Authority.
Major Torrenting Websites. In July 2013, Pakistani ISPs banned 6 of the top 10 public Torrent sites in Pakistan. These sites include Piratebay, Kickass torrents, Torrentz, Bitsnoop, Extra Torrent and Torrent Reactor. They also banned the similar site Mininova. However proxies for these torrent sites are still active and P2P connections are working normally. This move lead to a massive public backlash, especially from the Twitter and Facebook communities of Pakistan. In the aftermath of such critique, the IT Minister of Pakistan, Anusha Rahman, deactivated her Twitter account. Popular BitTorrent client μTorrent is also banned in Pakistan, it gives an "ERR_SSL_PROTOCOL_ERROR", but with a virtual private network (VPN), the site works, users are facing this issue from few years, still facing in 2022.
Pouet, a website about demoscene was banned as of 19 June 2015.
Imgur, a website about image sharing/hosting was banned in December 2015. Reddit (NSFW content only) was also banned in 2019. No reason have been given for these bans.
An extreme form of word censorship is effective on all website's URLs. URLs containing words like sex, porn are blocked, this includes pages on medical information sites like WebMD, MedicineNet about sexual health and couples therapy. This is similar to word censorship in effect for SMS and text messages.
See also
Censorship in Pakistan
Censorship in South Asia
Constitution of Pakistan
Freedom of speech in Pakistan
Freedom of the press in Pakistan
Information technology in Pakistan
Internet in Pakistan
Pornography in Pakistan
References
External links
"Ban on the web in the national interest" (Urdu), Reba Shahid, BBC Urdu.com, 29 July 2006, (English translation)
Karachi Union of Journalists, website
Mass media in Pakistan
Law of Pakistan
Pakistan
Pakistan
Censorship in Pakistan
Censorship
History of mass media in Pakistan |
4285967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20Laurel%20doctrine | Mount Laurel doctrine | The Mount Laurel doctrine is a significant judicial doctrine of the New Jersey State Constitution. The doctrine requires that municipalities use their zoning powers in an affirmative manner to provide a realistic opportunity for the production of housing affordable to low- and moderate-income households.
The doctrine takes its name from the lead case in which it was first pronounced by the New Jersey Supreme Court in 1975: Southern Burlington County N.A.A.C.P. v. Mount Laurel Township (commonly called Mount Laurel I), in which the plaintiffs challenged the zoning ordinance of Mount Laurel Township, New Jersey, on the grounds that it operated to exclude low and moderate income persons from obtaining housing in the municipality.
History
Initial development
Ethel Lawrence, a sixth-generation resident of Mt. Laurel Township, was the lead plaintiff in the original Mt. Laurel case after officials in Mt. Laurel Township declared their intention of condemning and tearing down the low-income housing in her community. With no realistic alternative other than moving to the slums of Camden or Philadelphia, many residents grew increasingly concerned about the rising pressure to leave. Lawrence contacted Carl S. Bisgaier, director of Camden Regional Legal Services who, together with attorneys Kenneth E. Meiser, Thomas J. Oravetz and Peter J. O'Connor, filed the lawsuit commonly known as Mt. Laurel I. After the decision in Mount Laurel I, suits were filed against numerous municipalities. The plaintiffs in such suits fell into three classes: lower income persons who actually sought housing and advocacy organizations on their behalf; the New Jersey Public Advocate; and builders who sought to construct developments containing affordable housing.
These early exclusionary zoning suits were beset by numerous difficulties and little, if any, affordable housing resulted. In 1983 appeals in several of these cases (of which Southern Burlington County N.A.A.C.P. v. Mount Laurel Township was again the lead case), gave the New Jersey Supreme Court the opportunity to reaffirm and tweak the Mount Laurel Doctrine and provide several mechanisms and remedies to make the doctrine more effective.
1980s legislative reaction
The New Jersey Supreme Court was aware that the Mount Laurel II decision would be controversial and would engender debate about the proper role of the courts. The opinion invited legislative action to implement what the court defined as the constitutional obligation.
In 1985 the New Jersey Legislature responded by passing the Fair Housing Act. Accepting the premise that there was some constitutional obligation for municipalities to foster some degree of affordable housing, this legislation created an administrative agency, the Council on Affordable Housing (COAH), to establish regulations whereby the obligation of each municipality in terms of the number of units and how the obligation could be satisfied.
A municipality which elected to participate in COAH's administrative process prior to being sued was provided with protection from litigation and especially the builder's remedy. As a transitional provision, the act provided that municipalities involved in litigation when the act was passed were to be able to transfer the litigation to COAH unless manifest injustice would result.
COAH developed regulations under which the specific number of affordable units that each municipality would be required to provide (its "pre-credited need") could be determined. Participating municipalities developed compliance plans to address this need by such means as the application of credits (e.g. filtering, spontaneous rehabilitation, extra credit for rental units), the use of regional contribution agreements (transferring part of the obligation to a willing municipality, usually an urban center, in the same region along with payment in an amount agreed by the municipalities) and zoning for affordable housing (usually involving increased density and mandatory set-asides). When COAH approved a municipality's compliance plan it would grant "substantive certification" which was designed to provide the municipality with protection from exclusionary zoning litigation.
From the municipal point of view, the advantages of COAH's administrative process included the use of a formula to calculate fair share that might produce a lower obligation than the court would impose, the availability of the regional contribution agreement to reduce the number of units and the ability to determine where in the municipality that affordable housing ought to be developed rather than being forced to permit a development as a reward to a successful builder-plaintiff. Those municipalities that chose not to participate in COAH's administrative process remained vulnerable to exclusionary zoning lawsuits and the prospect of the builder's remedy. The disadvantage would be that a participating municipality might be required to zone some land in a manner that extra housing would be produced. Some municipalities, believing that the likelihood of facing an actual exclusionary zoning lawsuit was low enough, took their chances in not participating.
Criticism of the decision
While the Mount Laurel decision mandates a state constitutional obligation for every municipality in a "growth area" to provide a fair share of its region's present and prospective housing needs for low and moderate income families, there is no funding source specified for low or very-low income families, in a state that already has some of the nation's highest property taxes. Some have accused the decision for being an example of judicial activism.
1980s judicial response to the Fair Housing Act
The New Jersey Supreme Court welcomed the legislature's adoption of the Fair Housing Act. A number of trial court decisions had denied transfer of pending cases to COAH under the manifest injustice standard, but the Supreme Court read that term very narrowly and ordered the cases transferred. The trial courts were directed to conform their rulings with regard to calculation of each municipality's obligation and how to meet it to COAH's regulations and the statute was found facially constitutional and interpreted to grant COAH ample authority, such as restraining the use of scarce resources (sewer capacity, potable water, land) for other than providing affordable housing, to assure that affordable housing might actually be built.
The Council on Affordable Housing (COAH)
COAH is a currently defunct government agency created in the 1980s to administer Mt. Laurel requirements. Some have argued it needs reinvigoration.
The Fair Share Housing Center
The Fair Share Housing Center, or FSHC, is a Cherry Hill-based nonprofit organization founded in 1975 that litigates against towns in enforcement of fair housing development.
Builder's remedy lawsuits
A "builder's remedy lawsuit" is a New Jersey lawsuit filed by a real estate developer in an attempt to force a New Jersey town to allow the construction of a large, multi-family housing complex that includes some affordable housing alongside ordinary apartments
Usually, the developer's court papers will make specific mention of the Mt. Laurel doctrine, which holds municipalities responsible for providing affordable housing to low and moderate income households. Some have argued that developers exploit the Mount Laurel doctrine with the builder's remedy and prevent town efforts to combat overdevelopment and sprawl. Some recent "builder's remedy" lawsuits or related concerns include:
Annandale.
Bridgewater.
Cranford. The developers Samuel and Peter Hekemian sued the Township of Cranford to allow a mass-density development. One Cranford local opined that the builder's remedy "takes the power from our township engineers, public safety officials, board of education members and budget offices and gives it to the S. Hekemian Group, a Paramus-based builder of apartment complexes. And there is nothing anyone can do about it. It is a court order based on what they refer to as builder remedy litigation. Apparently, progress is only found in concrete."
Emerson. Local officials expressed concerns over impact of Mount Laurel on development of a 19-acre patch of woods that town officials have been trying to turn into a park.
Livingston. Despite the efforts of the Livingston-Short Hills Coalition, affiliates of the Kushner Companies filed an affordable housing suit to build developments in the town.
Millburn. Residents of Millburn, New Jersey objected to a proposed land development by Canoe Brook, which would create a 250-room hotel, 200 residential units and a multi-deck parking structure adjacent to the Mall at Short Hills.
Montvale. The S. Hekemian Group filed to intervene in Montvale's affordable-housing litigation to build 1,000 units, arguing the borough "is in violation of its constitutional duty to create sufficient realistic opportunities" for affordable housing. In June 2017, Mayor Mike Ghassali stated, "Now we are on a path to spend untold amounts of time, money and borough resources to defend our town from a monstrous development that would change our community forever" regarding the lawsuit.
New Milford. Despite objections from a community group, "Stop Overdevelopment New Milford", the developer S.Hekemian Group (SHG), led by Robert S. Hekemian and Peter Hekemian, brought a Mount Laurel builder's remedy suit against New Milford, New Jersey. "I certainly do feel I have a gun to my head" said New Milford's mayor, Ann Subrizi at the close of 2016. The township ultimately settled, causing development of one of the last undeveloped tracts of land in the area.
West Orange. The Fair Share Housing Center, and Garden Homes, an affiliate of the Wilf family, owners of the Minnesota Vikings, have brought legal action to create more affordable housing units in West Orange, New Jersey.
Regional Contribution Agreements (RCAs)
In 1985, the Fair Housing Act created the now-repealed Regional Contribution Agreement system. The RCAs meant that towns could pay to get out of up to half of their affordable housing obligation by funding affordable housing elsewhere as required by the New Jersey Supreme Court's Mt. Laurel decision.
In 2008, at the behest of the Fair Share Housing Center's Peter O' Connor and over the objections of some suburban Democrats, Governor Corzine signed a law barring RCAs. A500. He signed A-500 into law during a ceremony at Fair Share Housing Development's Ethel R. Lawrence Homes. Some have demanded that RCAs be returned to cut down on sprawl.
Environmental concerns
In 1983, the NJ Supreme Court cautioned that, in requiring affordable housing, our State Constitution "does not require bad planning. It does not require suburban spread. It does not require rural municipalities to encourage large scale housing developments. It does not require wasteful extension of roads and needless construction of sewer and water facilities for the out-migration of people from the cities and the suburbs. There is nothing in our Constitution that says that we cannot satisfy our constitutional obligation to provide lower income housing and, at the same time, plan the future of the state intelligently."
One Parsippany resident stated, "I'm very frustrated that this significant tract of undeveloped land is being razed for development when so much property in Parsippany lies vacant," said Dave Kaplan, of the Stop the Overdevelopment at Waterview opposition group.
Sierra Club
The New Jersey chapter of the Sierra Club applauded Christie's efforts to reform affordable housing law in 2010:
The current COAH law has had a bigger impact on land use and development than any other law in New Jersey's history. The Sierra Club strongly supports a requirement for affordable housing. As towns grow, they must provide a fair share of it. But the need for affordable housing should not undermine the environmental protections given to wetlands, flood plains, steep slopes, stream buffers that protect water supplies, ocean-fronts, and endangered species habitat. And no homes should be built where water supply is at critically low levels. Furthermore, new housing should be located where jobs are, to reduce the carbon footprints and pollution associated with automobile commuting.
Present-day demands for legislative reform
Some believe the NJ Supreme Court seeks legislative action to implement the Mount Laurel doctrine based on recent rulings, as of mid-2017:
January 2017 NJ Supreme Court decision
In January 2017, the NJ Supreme Court issued a ruling stating that towns had to consider any historic failure to provide affordable housing. As one commentator put it,
This case resolved affordable housing regulation debates that have been ongoing since 1999. However, the Court provided no guidance on the method of implementation of affordable housing accommodations that it now requires of municipalities. This decision leaves numerous unanswered questions and it will depend heavily on the Legislature to issue reform of affordable housing requirements. This decision requires implementation of affordable housing accommodations into township plans that have not otherwise considered them since 1999. It is likely that the open spaces in towns will now be filled with affordable housing units, which will bring an influx of population to municipalities. ... We will need to watch the Legislature to see how and if it will alter the current affordable housing regulations to comply with the Court's recent ruling.
In its January 2017 opinion, the NJ Supreme Court welcomed the legislature to re-approach the affordable housing issue: "We recognize, as we have before, that the Legislature is not foreclosed from considering alternative methods for calculating and assigning a municipal fair share of affordable housing, and to that end, we welcome legislative attention to this important social and economic constitutional matter," Justice LaVecchia wrote.
Legislator criticism
A Morris County Freeholder candidate, Harding Committeeman Nicolas Platt, proposed in May 2017 that all mayors state-wide conduct a sit-in in Trenton and refuse to leave the statehouse until legislators acted to reduce the overdevelopment impact of the builder's remedy issue.
Bergen and Passaic County Assemblywoman Holly Schepisi argued in a July 2017 opinion piece that reform was urgently needed: "If built, the number of new homes alone would far exceed all the homes in the entire borough of Manhattan," she stated, calling the issue one of overdevelopment "madness."
In the summer of 2017, Schepisi held the first of several planned public hearing in Paramus with various civic leaders on mandated affordable housing with local mayors and other state assembly members.
"It is long past time for the Legislature to act, and block [the nonprofit group Fair Share Housing Center] from their objective of destroying our suburban communities," said one mayor at the hearing according to the press. "We really need action. Nobody has done what they need to do."
Schepisi stated she invited the Fair Share Housing Center to attend but received a letter declining an appearance.
In Somerset County, Montgomery Township Mayor Ed Trzaska said the influx of apartment complex development would ruin the rural character of the area, "overwhelm the township's infrastructure, greatly increase property taxes and burden the school system and negatively impact the quality of life in the township."
In Union County, in the summer of 2017, the Clark town council issued a unanimous resolution demanding for the state legislature to take action to reform the affordable housing issue; the mayor stated that otherwise, "Union County will look like Queens in 25 years."
In Berkeley Heights in Union County in June 2017, council president Marc Faecher said he considered the legislature's failure to act on overdevelopment to be an "abject failure by our state government."
Public criticism
In June 2018, NJ 101.5 radio host Bill Spadea advocated for a constitutional amendment to revoke the doctrine, arguing the imposition of unnecessary development increased tax burdens unfairly.
Regional town partnership approaches
In the summer of 2017, the mayors of five Bergen County towns announced they were "teaming up to take a regional perspective on affordable housing, in an effort to find reasonable solutions that will protect the integrity of their communities."
Case Study: Chatham, NJ
As of October 2019, no affordable housing units are listed as available in Chatham Township, NJ. In Morris County as a whole, between 2010 and 2014, there were only 39 units of affordable housing for every 100 renters classified as having extremely low income (ELI). This is a 6% decrease in the number of units since 2000. The suburban town has acquired COAH-certified credits associated with previous iterations of the third round of affordable housing, which reduced the town's affordable housing obligation (16). To address the current lack of affordable housing, Chatham Township is in the process of building the third round of affordable housing units in compliance with the Mount Laurel Doctrine. Sterling Sun Homes Developers will be constructing 25 affordable housing on the 3.6-acre site of the current skate park on Southern Boulevard.
Objections:
The Chatham Township community has raised several objections to the new affordable housing units consistent historical and regional objections to the Mount Laurel Doctrine. Many citizens have raised concerns about the impact fees that will be imposed on the residents to help fund the new affordable housing units. A Chatham Township resident, speaking at the Township Committee meeting on September 12, 2019, suggested this “punitive fee...can… be passed and simply not implemented”. This suggestion mirrors the open refusal to comply with the Mount Laurel Doctrine I, which requires the municipality to provide housing for people of multiple income brackets, which was common between 1975 and 1981. The Mount Laurel Doctrine requires municipalities to add fair share housing via municipal zoning. Aside from the monetary cost, residents have raised concerns about the loss of open space and trees. This development will require the removal of 18 trees on the skate park property and is slated to exceed the allowed building height in the township by 2.98 feet. The conflict over open space is one that is occurring in many municipalities, such as those in the "Builder’s remedy lawsuit cases". A group of teens raised concerns about the loss of the community's skate park, for which there are no current plans to rebuild. As this area is suburban, a resident said “I’m not averse to affordable housing in itself,” but he is “averse to is an expanded population” as the town is characterized by low-density housing. Another resident noted that the location of the development is in a high traffic area near the elementary school, and the new residents will lead to reduced parking and pedestrian safety. Concerns about the changing suburban form come up frequently in "legislator outcry" in connection to concerns that New Jersey suburban communities will begin to look like cities.
New Jersey mayors have traditionally opposed affordable housing. The stance of town leadership on fair land use policies is unclear as the public has been excluded from many of these discussions surrounding inclusionary inclusionary zoning via the Open Public Records Act (N.J.S.A 10:4-12 ) are taking place in executive session, rather than the public session.
Vacant and abandoned properties
Some have argued that the deluge of abandoned and vacant properties in New Jersey should be taken into account before forced building occurs in less crowded areas. They have also suggested that the state step up funding for code enforcement to reduce burdens of urban blight on attractive home development, including enforcement on absentee landlords. The City of Newark is "working with the Urban League to identify vacant or abandoned properties that can be sold to small developers to then sell at cost to residents. About 16 percent of Newark's housing is vacant and the city has a high eviction and foreclosure rate according to a Rutgers report.
See also
Abbott district, a similarly controversial legal doctrine resulting from a series of New Jersey Supreme Court cases holding that the education of children in poor communities was unconstitutionally inadequate.
Frederick Wilson Hall, who wrote the initial decision
Latino Action Network v. New Jersey, a lawsuit filed in 2018 to desegregate the public schools.
References
External links
Rutgers School of Law-Newark's Mount Laurel Archive
McHose Says 'Fair Housing' Bill Misses the Mark; Doesn't Address Why Housing is Unaffordable in New Jersey | Politics NJ
What We Know About Mortgage Lending Discrimination in America
Affordable housing
New Jersey law
Mount Laurel, New Jersey
Zoning in the United States
Real property law in the United States
Supreme Court of New Jersey
Legal doctrines and principles
Law articles needing an infobox |
4286037 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish%20National%20Antarctic%20Expedition | Scottish National Antarctic Expedition | The Scottish National Antarctic Expedition (SNAE), 1902–1904, was organised and led by William Speirs Bruce, a natural scientist and former medical student from the University of Edinburgh. Although overshadowed in terms of prestige by Robert Falcon Scott's concurrent Discovery Expedition, the SNAE completed a full programme of exploration and scientific work. Its achievements included the establishment of a staffed meteorological station, the first in Antarctic territory, and the discovery of new land to the east of the Weddell Sea. Its large collection of biological and geological specimens, together with those from Bruce's earlier travels, led to the establishment of the Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory in 1906.
Bruce had spent most of the 1890s engaged on expeditions to the Antarctic and Arctic regions, and by 1899 was Britain's most experienced polar scientist. In March of that year, he applied to join the Discovery Expedition; however, his proposal to extend that expedition's field of work into the Weddell Sea quadrant, using a second ship, was dismissed as "mischievous rivalry" by Royal Geographical Society (RGS) president Sir Clements Markham. Bruce reacted by obtaining independent finance; his venture was supported and promoted by the Royal Scottish Geographical Society.
The expedition has been described as "by far the most cost-effective and carefully planned scientific expedition of the Heroic Age." Despite this, Bruce received no formal honour or recognition from the British Government, and the expedition's members were denied the prestigious Polar Medal despite vigorous lobbying. After the SNAE, Bruce led no more Antarctic expeditions, although he made regular Arctic trips. His focus on serious scientific exploration was out of fashion with his times, and his achievements, unlike those of the polar adventurers Scott, Shackleton and Amundsen, soon faded from public awareness. The SNAE's permanent memorial is the Orcadas weather station, which was set up in 1903 as "Omond House" on Laurie Island, South Orkneys, and has been in continuous operation ever since.
Background to the expedition
During his student yearsthe 1880s and early 1890sWilliam Speirs Bruce built up his knowledge of the natural sciences and oceanography, by studying at summer courses under distinguished tutors such as Patrick Geddes and John Arthur Thomson. He also spent time working voluntarily under the oceanographer Dr John Murray, helping to classify specimens collected during the Challenger expedition. In 1892 Bruce gave up his medical studies altogether, and embarked on a voyage to the Antarctic in the whaler Balaena, as part of the 1892–1893 Dundee Whaling Expedition. On his return, he began organising an expedition of his own to South Georgia, claiming that "the taste I have had has made me ravenous", but he could not obtain funding. He then worked at a meteorological station on the summit of Ben Nevis, before joining the Jackson–Harmsworth Arctic Expedition to Franz Josef Land as a scientific assistant. Between 1897 and 1899 he made further Arctic trips, to Spitsbergen and to Novaya Zemlya, first on a private trip organised by Major Andrew Coats, later as a scientist on the Arctic survey vessel Princess Alice. This vessel was owned by Prince Albert of Monaco, a renowned oceanographer who became a friend and supporter of Bruce.
After returning from the Arctic in 1899, Bruce sent a lengthy letter to the Royal Geographical Society in London, applying for a scientific post on the major Antarctic expedition (later to be known as the Discovery Expedition), which the RGS was then organising. His recent experiences made it "unlikely that there was any other person in the British Isles at that time better qualified". Bruce's letter, which detailed all his relevant qualifications, was acknowledged but not properly answered until more than a year had passed. By then, Bruce's ideas had progressed away from his original expectation of a junior post on the scientific staff. He now proposed a second ship for the expedition, separately financed from Scottish sources, which would work in the Weddell Sea quadrant while the main ship was based in the Ross Sea. This proposal was denounced by RGS president Sir Clements Markham as "mischievous" and, after some heated correspondence, Bruce resolved to proceed independently. In this way the idea of a distinctive Scottish National Antarctic expedition was born. Bruce was supported by the wealthy Coats family, who were prepared to give whole-hearted financial backing to a Scottish expedition under his leadership. However, as a result, he had acquired the lasting enmity of Markham.
Preparations
Scotia
In late 1901, Bruce purchased a Norwegian whaler, , at a cost of £2,620 (approximately £ as of ). During the following months, the ship was completely rebuilt as an Antarctic research vessel, with two laboratories, a darkroom, and extensive specialist equipment. Two huge revolving cylinders, each carrying of cable, were fitted to the deck to enable deep-sea trawling for marine specimens. Other equipment was installed for making depth soundings, for the collection of sea water and sea-bottom samples, and for meteorological and magnetic observations. The hull was reinforced to withstand the pressures of Antarctic ice, and the ship was re-rigged as a barque with auxiliary engines. This work increased the cost of the ship to £16,700 (approximately £ as of ), which was met by the Coats family who altogether donated £30,000 towards the total expedition costs of £36,000. Renamed Scotia, the ship was ready for her sea trials in August 1902.
Personnel
The expedition's scientific staff consisted of six persons, including Bruce. The zoologist was David Wilton who, like Bruce, had been a member of the Jackson-Harmsworth Expedition. He had acquired skiing and sledging skills during several years living in northern Russia. Robert Rudmose-Brown, of University College, Dundee, and formerly an assistant in the Botany Department at the British Museum, was the party's botanist. Dr James Harvie Pirie, who had worked in the Challenger office under John Murray, was geologist, bacteriologist, and the expedition's medical officer. Robert Mossman directed meteorological and magnetic work, and Alastair Ross, a medical student, was taxidermist.
Bruce appointed Thomas Robertson as Scotia'''s captain. Robertson was an experienced Antarctic and Arctic sailor who had commanded the whaling ship Active on the Dundee Whaling Expedition. The rest of the 25 officers and men, who signed for three-year engagements, were all Scotsmen, many used to sailing in icy waters on whaling voyages.
Objectives
The objectives of the expedition were published in the Scottish Geographical Magazine and in the RGS Geographical Journal, in October 1902. They included the establishment of a winter station "as near to the South Pole as is practicable", deep sea and other research of the Antarctic Ocean, and systematic observations and research of meteorology, geology, biology, topography and terrestrial physics. The essentially Scottish character of the expedition was expressed in The Scotsman shortly before departure: "The leader and all the scientific and nautical members of the expedition are Scots; the funds have been collected for the most part on this side of the Border; it is a product of voluntary effort, and unlike the expedition which will be simultaneously employed in the exploration of the Antarctic, it owes nothing to Government help".
As the work of the expedition would be mainly at sea, or within the confines of the winter station, only a few dogs were taken, to facilitate the occasional sledge journey. Rudmose Brown records that of the original eight dogs, four survived the expedition; they "pulled well in harness, their only weak point being their paws which... were apt to be cut when on rough ice".
Expedition
First voyage, 1902–1903 Scotia left Troon, Scotland, on 2 November 1902. On her way southward she called at the Irish port of Kingstown (now Dún Laoghaire), at Funchal in Madeira, and then the Cape Verde Isles before an unsuccessful attempt was made to land at the tiny, isolated equatorial archipelago known as St Paul's Rocks. This attempt almost cost the life of the expedition's geologist and medical officer, James Harvie Pirie, who was fortunate to escape from the shark-infested seas after misjudging his leap ashore. Scotia reached Port Stanley in the Falkland Islands on 6 January 1903, where she re-provisioned for the Antarctic journey ahead.
On 26 January, Scotia set sail for Antarctic waters. The crew had to manoeuvre round heavy pack ice on 3 February, north of the South Orkney Islands. Next day, Scotia was able to move southward again and land a small party on Saddle Island, South Orkney Islands, where a large number of botanical and geological specimens were gathered. Ice conditions prevented any further progress until 10 February, after which Scotia continued southward, "scudding along at seven knots under sail". On 17 February the position was 64°18′S, and five days later they passed 70°S, deep within the Weddell Sea. Shortly after this, with new ice forming and threatening the ship, Robertson turned northward, having reached 70°25′S.
Having failed to find land, the expedition had to decide where to winter. The matter was of some urgency, since the sea would soon be freezing over, with the risk of the ship becoming trapped. Bruce decided to head back to the South Orkneys and find an anchorage there. In contrast to his stated object, to winter as far south as possible, the South Orkneys were more than from the South Pole, but the northerly location had advantages. The relatively brief period during which the ship would be frozen in would allow more time for trawling and dredging operations early in the year. Also, the islands were well-situated as a site for a meteorological stationtheir relative proximity to the South American mainland opened the prospect of establishing a permanent station.
It took a month of hard sailing before Scotia reached the islands. After several foiled attempts to locate a suitable anchorage, and with its rudder seriously damaged by ice, the ship finally found a sheltered bay on the southern shore of Laurie Island, the most easterly of the South Orkneys chain. On 25 March the ship safely anchored, settling into the ice from shore. She was then rapidly converted to winter quarters, with engines dismantled, boilers emptied, and a canvas canopy enclosing the deck. Bruce instituted a comprehensive programme of work, involving meteorological readings, trawling for marine samples, botanical excursions, and the collection of biological and geological specimens. The major task completed during this time was the construction of living accommodations for those who would remain on Laurie Island to operate the proposed meteorological laboratory. The buildingits walls built from local materials using the dry stone method, and roof improvised from wood and canvas sheetinghad two windows and was fitted for six people. It was christened "Omond House" after Robert Omond, director of the Edinburgh Observatory and a supporter of the expedition. Rudmose Brown wrote: "Considering that we had no mortar and no masons' tools it is a wonderfully fine house and very lasting. I should think it will be standing a century hence ..."
In general, the party maintained excellent health. The exception was the ship's engineer, Allan Ramsay, who had been taken ill with a heart condition in the Falklands during the outward voyage. He chose to remain with the expedition, but he grew steadily weaker as winter progressed. He died on 6 August, and was buried on the island.
As winter turned to spring the level of activity increased, and there were numerous sledge journeys, including some to neighbouring islands. Near Omond House, a wooden hut was constructed for magnetic observations and a cairn was built, high, on top of which the Union Flag and the Saltire were displayed. Scotia was made seaworthy again, but remained icebound throughout September and October; it was not until 23 November that strong winds broke up the bay ice, allowing her to float free. Four days later she departed for Port Stanley, leaving a party of six under Robert Mossman at Omond House.
Buenos Aires, 1903–1904
On 2 December 1903, the expedition reached Port Stanley, where they received their first news from the outside world since leaving the Cape Verde Islands. After a week's rest, Scotia departed for Buenos Aires, where she was to be repaired and provisioned for another season's work. Bruce had further business in the city; he intended to persuade the Argentine government to assume responsibility for the Laurie Island meteorological station after the expedition's departure. During the voyage to Buenos Aires, Scotia ran aground in the Río de la Plata estuary, and was stranded for several days before floating free and being assisted into port by a tug, on 24 December.
During the following four weeks, while the ship was dry-docked, Bruce negotiated with the Argentine government over the future of the weather station. He was assisted by the British resident minister, the British Consul, and Dr W. G. Davis who was director of the Argentine Meteorological Office. When contacted by cable, the British Foreign Office registered no objection to this scheme. On 20 January 1904, Bruce confirmed an agreement whereby three scientific assistants of the Argentine government would travel back to Laurie Island to work for a year, under Robert Mossman, as the first stage of an annual arrangement. He then formally handed over the Omond House building, its furnishings and provisions, and all magnetic and meteorological instruments, to the Argentine government. The station, renamed Orcadas Base, has remained operational ever since, having been rebuilt and extended several times.
Several of the original crew left during the Buenos Aires interlude, some through illness and one discharged for misconduct, and replacements were recruited locally. Scotia left for Laurie Island on 21 January, arriving on 14 February. A week later, having settled the meteorological party, who were to be relieved a year later by the Argentine gunboat Uruguay, Scotia set sail for her second voyage to the Weddell Sea.
Second voyage, 1904 Scotia headed south-east, towards the eastern waters of the Weddell Sea, in calm weather. No pack ice was encountered before they were south of the Antarctic Circle, and they were able to proceed smoothly until, on 3 March, heavy pack ice stopped the ship at 72°18'S, 17°59'W. A sounding was taken, revealing a sea-depth of , compared to the which had been the general measurement up to that date. This suggested that they were approaching land. A few hours later, they reached an ice barrier, which blocked progress towards the south-east. Over the following days, they tracked the edge of this barrier southwards for some . A sounding from the barrier edge gave a depth of only , which strongly indicated the presence of land behind the barrier. The outlines of this land soon became faintly visible, and Bruce named it Coats Land after his chief sponsors. This was the first positive indicator of the eastern limits of the Weddell Sea at high latitude, and suggested that the sea might be considerably smaller than had been previously supposed. A projected visit to Coats Land by a sledging party was abandoned by Bruce because of the state of the sea ice.
On 9 March 1904, Scotia reached its most southerly latitude of 74°01'S. At this point, the ship was held fast in the pack ice, and the prospect loomed of becoming trapped for the winter. It was during this period of inactivity that bagpiper Gilbert Kerr was photographed serenading a penguin. On 13 March the ship broke free and began to move slowly north-eastward under steam. Throughout this part of the voyage a regular programme of depth soundings, trawls, and sea-bottom samples provided a comprehensive record of the oceanography and marine life of the Weddell Sea.Scotia headed for Cape Town by a route that took it to Gough Island, an isolated mid-Atlantic volcanic projection that had never been visited by a scientific party. On 21 April, Bruce and five others spent a day ashore, collecting specimens. The ship arrived in Cape Town on 6 May. After carrying out further research work in the Saldanha Bay area, Scotia sailed for home on 21 May.
On the voyage home the party called at Saint Helena and visited Napoleon's exile home which they found neglected and in disrepair. On 7 June the ship reached Ascension Island where they were impressed by the sight of giant turtles, some of them across. The final port of call was at Horta in the Azores, where they stopped briefly on 5 July before heading for home.
Homecoming and after
The expedition was warmly received on its return to the Clyde on 21 July 1904. A formal reception for 400 people was held at the Marine Biological Station, Millport, at which John Murray read a telegram of congratulation from King Edward VII. Bruce was presented with the Royal Scottish Geographical Society's gold medal, and Captain Robertson with the silver medal.
Following the expedition, more than 1,100 species of animal life, 212 of them previously unknown to science, were catalogued; there was no official acknowledgement from London, where under the influence of Markham the work of the SNAE tended to be ignored or denigrated. Its members were not awarded the prestigious RGS Polar Medals, which were bestowed on members of the Discovery Expedition when it returned home two months after Scotia. Polar Medals would also be awarded after each of Sir Ernest Shackleton's later expeditions, and after Douglas Mawson's Australasian expedition. Bruce fought unavailingly for years to right what he considered a grave injustice, a slight on his country and on his expedition. Some of the aversion of the London geographical establishment may have arisen from Bruce's overt Scottish nationalism, reflected in his own prefatory note to Rudmose Brown's expedition history, in which he said: "While Science was the talisman of the Expedition, Scotland was emblazoned on its flag; and it may be that, in endeavouring to serve humanity by adding another link to the golden chain of science, we have also shown that the nationality of Scotland is a power that must be reckoned with".
A significant consequence of the expedition was the establishment by Bruce, in Edinburgh, of the Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory, which was formally opened by Prince Albert of Monaco in 1906. The Laboratory served as a repository for the large collection of biological, zoological and geological specimens amassed during the Scotia voyages, and also during Bruce's earlier Arctic and Antarctic travels. It was also a base from which the scientific reports of the SNAE could be prepared, and it served as general headquarters where polar explorers could meet – Nansen, Amundsen and Shackleton all visited – and where other Scottish polar ventures could be planned and organised.
Although Bruce continued to visit the Arctic for scientific and commercial purposes, he never led another Antarctic expedition, his plans for a transcontinental crossing being stifled through lack of funding. The SNAE scientific reports took many years to complete; most were published between 1907 and 1920, but one volume was delayed until 1992. A proposal to convert the Laboratory into a permanent Scottish National Oceanographic Institute failed to come to fruition and, because of difficulties with funding, Bruce was forced to close it down in 1919. He died two years later, aged 54.
By this time, the Scotia expedition was barely remembered, even in Scotland, and it has remained overshadowed in polar histories by the more glamorous adventures of Scott and Shackleton. In these histories it is usually confined to a brief mention or footnote, with little attention given to its achievements. Bruce lacked charisma, had no public relations skills ("...as prickly as the Scottish thistle itself", according to a lifelong friend), and tended to make powerful enemies. In the words of oceanographer Professor Tony Rice, his expedition fulfilled "a more comprehensive programme than that of any previous or contemporary Antarctic expedition".
The expedition ship Scotia was requisitioned during the Great War, and saw service as a freighter. On 18 January 1916 she caught fire, and was burned out on a sandbank in the Bristol Channel. One hundred years after Bruce, a 2003 expedition, in a modern version of Scotia'', used information collected by the SNAE as a basis for examining climate change in South Georgia during the past century. This expedition asserted that its contribution to the international debate on global warming would be a fitting testament to the SNAE's pioneering research.
See also
Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration
List of Antarctic expeditions
Notes and references
Notes
References
Sources
Books
Online
External links
1902 in Scotland
1902 in Antarctica
1903 in Antarctica
1904 in Antarctica
National Antarctic Expedition
United Kingdom and the Antarctic
Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration
Antarctic expeditions
Expeditions from the United Kingdom
1902 in science
1903 in science
1904 in science |
4286207 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998%20NASCAR%20Busch%20Series | 1998 NASCAR Busch Series | The 1998 NASCAR Busch Series began on Saturday, February 14 and ended on Sunday, November 15. Dale Earnhardt Jr. of Dale Earnhardt, Inc. was crowned champion at season's end.
Teams and drivers
List of full-time teams at the start of 1998.
Races
NAPA Auto Parts 300
The NAPA Auto Parts 300 was held February 14 at Daytona International Speedway. Mike McLaughlin won the pole. The race was broadcast on CBS.
Top ten results
87-Joe Nemechek
4-Jeff Purvis
60-Mark Martin
00-Buckshot Jones
74-Randy LaJoie
17-Matt Kenseth
21-Michael Waltrip
88-Kevin Schwantz
12-Jimmy Spencer
10-Phil Parsons
Failed to qualify: Hank Parker Jr. (#78), Lyndon Amick (#35), Patty Moise (#14), Larry Pearson (#55), Ron Barfield Jr. (#2), Jimmy Foster (#50), Derrike Cope (#92), Blaise Alexander (#20), Doug Reid III (#97), Dale Shaw (#48), Lance Hooper (#23), Chris Diamond (#68), Mark Day (#16)
Dale Earnhardt Jr. had a blowover with Dick Trickle after Trickle turned him.
GM Goodwrench Service Plus 200
The GM Goodwrench Service Plus 200 was held February 21 at North Carolina Speedway. Tony Stewart won the pole. The race was broadcast on TNN.
Top ten results
17-Matt Kenseth
44-Tony Stewart
60-Mark Martin
9-Jeff Burton
34-Mike McLaughlin
66-Elliott Sadler
74-Randy LaJoie
72-Mike Dillon
37-Mark Green
57-Jason Keller
Failed to qualify: Patty Moise (#14), Jimmy Foster (#50), Dale Shaw (#48), Lance Hooper (#23), Ed Berrier (#77), J. D. Gibbs (#42), Kevin Cywinski (#11), Stanton Barrett (#89), Bobby Hillin Jr. (#8), Rick Fuller (#40), Michael Ritch (#58)
This was Kenseth's first career Busch Series victory.
Sam's Town Las Vegas 300
The Sam's Town Las Vegas 300 was held February 28 at Las Vegas Motor Speedway. Mark Martin won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
12-Jimmy Spencer
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
87-Joe Nemechek
9-Jeff Burton
32-Dale Jarrett
60-Mark Martin
72-Mike Dillon
00-Buckshot Jones
29-Hermie Sadler
77-Ed Berrier
Failed to qualify: Hank Parker Jr. (#78), Lyndon Amick (#35), Ron Barfield Jr. (#2), Chris Diamond (#68), Bobby Hillin Jr. (#8), Rick Fuller (#04), Dale Fischlein (#70), Brendan Gaughan (#31)
Randy LaJoie flipped on the final lap of the race.
BellSouth Mobility / Opryland 320
The BellSouth Mobility / Opryland 320 was held March 15 at Nashville Speedway USA. Casey Atwood won the pole, becoming the youngest pole winner in NASCAR Busch Series history. The race was broadcast on TNN.
Top ten results
34-Mike McLaughlin
28-Casey Atwood
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
74-Randy LaJoie
57-Jason Keller
87-Joe Nemechek
1-Sterling Marlin
33-Tim Fedewa
64-Dick Trickle
38-Elton Sawyer
Failed to qualify: Hank Parker Jr. (#78), Chris Diamond (#68), Mark Day (#16), Brad Loney (#45), Mike Stefanik (#96), Jeff Krogh (#56), Mark Krogh (#80), Derek Gilcrest (#12)
Diamond Hill Plywood 200
The Diamond Hill Plywood 200 was held March 21 at Darlington Raceway. Jeff Burton won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
44-Bobby Labonte
9-Jeff Burton
64-Dick Trickle
17-Matt Kenseth
66-Elliott Sadler
72-Mike Dillon
29-Hermie Sadler
34-Mike McLaughlin
59-Robert Pressley
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
Failed to qualify: Ron Barfield Jr. (#2), Jeff Fuller (#7), Patty Moise (#14), Jimmy Foster (#50), Dave Blaney (#93), Mike Stefanik (#96)
Moore's Snacks 250
The Moore's Snacks 250 was held March 28 at Bristol Motor Speedway. Dale Earnhardt Jr. won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
66-Elliott Sadler
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
17-Matt Kenseth
38-Elton Sawyer
57-Jason Keller
34-Mike McLaughlin
10-Phil Parsons
89-Stanton Barrett
99-Glenn Allen Jr.
14-Patty Moise
Failed to qualify: Robert Pressley (#59), Hank Parker Jr. (#78), Derrike Cope (#92), Kevin Schwantz (#88), Lyndon Amick (#35)
Coca-Cola 300
The Coca-Cola 300 was held April 4 at Texas Motor Speedway. Elliott Sadler won the pole. The race was broadcast on CBS.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
66-Elliott Sadler
87-Joe Nemechek
10-Phil Parsons
56-Jeff Krogh
74-Randy LaJoie
37-Mark Green
17-Matt Kenseth
2-Jeff Green
9-Jeff Burton
Failed to qualify: Robert Pressley (#59), Hank Parker Jr. (#78), Dick Trickle (#64), Kevin Schwantz (#88), Mark Day (#16), Bobby Hillin Jr. (#8), Tom Lorenz (#62), Ted Smokstad (#48)
This was Dale Earnhardt Jr.'s first career Busch Series win.
Galaxy Food Centers 300
The final Galaxy Food Centers 300 was held April 11 at Hickory Motor Speedway. Robert Pressley won the pole. The race was broadcast on TNN.
Top ten results
77-Ed Berrier
29-Hermie Sadler
33-Tim Fedewa
72-Mike Dillon
17-Matt Kenseth
59-Robert Pressley
30-Mike Cope
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
85-Shane Hall
57-Jason Keller
Failed to qualify: Hank Parker Jr. (#78), Kevin Lepage (#40), Blaise Alexander (#20), Patty Moise (#14), Chris Diamond (#68), Johnny Chapman (#21), Johnny Rumley (#96), Shane Jenkins (#49), Randy Porter (#48), Eddie Beahr (#39)
This would be the first and only NASCAR victory of Berrier's career.
Touchstone Energy 300
The Touchstone Energy 300 was held April 25 at Talladega Superspeedway. Joe Nemechek won the pole. During the race, Dave Blaney
got spun around and flipped onto its side and slammed the wall with his roof.
He walked away. The race was broadcast on ABC.
Top ten results
87-Joe Nemechek
10-Phil Parsons
34-Mike McLaughlin
00-Buckshot Jones
64-Dick Trickle
99-Glenn Allen Jr.
78-Loy Allen Jr.
17-Matt Kenseth
36-Matt Hutter
38-Elton Sawyer
Failed to qualify: Patty Moise (#14), Doug Reid III (#7), Robert Pressley (#59), Mark Day (#16), Rick Wilson (#50)
Gumout Long Life Formula 200
The Gumout Long Life Formula 200 was held May 9 at New Hampshire International Speedway. Joe Bessey won the pole. The race was broadcast on TNN.
Top ten results
00-Buckshot Jones
44-Tony Stewart
40-Kevin Lepage
4-Jeff Purvis
74-Randy LaJoie
99-Glenn Allen Jr.
34-Mike McLaughlin
52-Kevin Grubb
59-Robert Pressley
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
Failed to qualify: Mike Olsen (#61), Joey McCarthy (#41), Tom Bolles (#76), Brian Simo (#03)
First Union 200
The First Union 200 was held May 17 at Nazareth Speedway. Dale Earnhardt Jr. won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
33-Tim Fedewa
4-Jeff Purvis
34-Mike McLaughlin
17-Matt Kenseth
6-Joe Bessey
77-Ed Berrier
57-Jason Keller
66-Elliott Sadler
99-Glenn Allen Jr.
13-Ted Christopher
Failed to qualify: none
Carquest Auto Parts 300
The Carquest Auto Parts 300 was held May 23 at Lowe's Motor Speedway. Bobby Labonte won the pole. The race was broadcast on TBS.
Top ten results
60-Mark Martin
87-Joe Nemechek
12-Jimmy Spencer
21-Michael Waltrip
17-Matt Kenseth
44-Bobby Labonte
34-Mike McLaughlin
38-Elton Sawyer
8-Bobby Hillin Jr.
29-Hermie Sadler
Failed to qualify: Derrike Cope (#92), Loy Allen Jr. (#78), Lyndon Amick (#35), Matt Hutter (#36), Blaise Alexander (#20), Mike Cope (#30), Kenny Irwin Jr. (#48), Kelly Denton (#75), Mark Krogh (#80), Andy Santerre (#47), Gary Laton (#46)
MBNA Platinum 200
The MBNA Platinum 200 was held May 30 at Dover International Speedway. Kevin Lepage won the pole. The race was broadcast on TNN.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
8-Bobby Hillin Jr.
44-Tony Stewart
32-Dale Jarrett
34-Mike McLaughlin
59-Robert Pressley
10-Phil Parsons
38-Elton Sawyer
57-Jason Keller
21-Michael Waltrip
Failed to qualify: Bryan Wall (#73), Hal Browning (#46)
Hardee's 250
The Hardee's 250 was held June 5 at Richmond International Raceway. Wayne Grubb won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN2.
Top ten results
9-Jeff Burton
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
17-Matt Kenseth
83-Wayne Grubb
60-Mark Martin
57-Jason Keller
40-Kevin Lepage
64-Dick Trickle
52-Kevin Grubb
59-Robert Pressley
Failed to qualify: Dale Jarrett (#32), Jeff Krogh (#56), J. D. Gibbs (#42), Blaise Alexander (#20), Ted Christopher (#13), Derrike Cope (#92), Patty Moise (#14), Joey McCarthy (#41), Mike Laughlin Jr. (#45), Mike Olsen (#61), Derek Gilcrest (#12)
Lycos.com 250
The inaugural Lycos.com 250 was held June 14 at Pikes Peak International Raceway. Matt Kenseth won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
17-Matt Kenseth
10-Phil Parsons
74-Randy LaJoie
38-Elton Sawyer
4-Jeff Purvis
63-Curtis Markham
37-Mark Green
59-Ron Hornaday Jr.
30-Mike Cope
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
Failed to qualify: none
Lysol 200
The Lysol 200 was held June 28 at Watkins Glen International. Boris Said won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
87-Ron Fellows
34-Mike McLaughlin
9-Ashton Lewis
36-David Green
72-Mike Dillon
40-Jack Sprague
33-Tim Fedewa
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
2-Ricky Craven
57-Jason Keller
Failed to qualify: Mark Krogh (#80), John Preston (#55), Rick Bell (#78), Kat Teasdale (#54), Patty Moise (#14), Dale Quarterley (#32N)
With his victory, Fellows became the first Non-American winner in the NASCAR Busch series.
DieHard 250
The DieHard 250 was held July 5 at The Milwaukee Mile. Jeff Purvis won the pole. The race was broadcast on TNN.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
38-Elton Sawyer
4-Jeff Purvis
36-David Green
17-Matt Kenseth
34-Mike McLaughlin
00-Buckshot Jones
33-Tim Fedewa
6-Joe Bessey
74-Randy LaJoie
Failed to qualify: none
Myrtle Beach 250
The Myrtle Beach 250 was held July 11 at Myrtle Beach Speedway. Tim Fedewa won the pole. The race was broadcast on TNN.
Top ten results
74-Randy LaJoie
36-David Green
34-Mike McLaughlin
35-Lyndon Amick
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
33-Tim Fedewa
6-Joe Bessey
17-Matt Kenseth
37-Mark Green
66-Elliott Sadler
Failed to qualify: Bobby Hillin Jr. (#8), Kevin Prince (#90), Johnny Chapman (#73), Blaise Alexander (#20), Patty Moise (#14), Jimmy Foster (#50), Mark Krogh (#80), Eddie Beahr (#39)
Kenwood Home & Car Audio 300
The Kenwood Home & Car Audio 300 was held July 19 at California Speedway. Robert Pressley won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
40-Kevin Lepage
17-Matt Kenseth
10-Phil Parsons
36-David Green
4-Jeff Purvis
66-Elliott Sadler
56-Mark Krogh
6-Joe Bessey
72-Mike Dillon
Failed to qualify: none
Lycos.com 300 Presented by Valleydale Foods
The Lycos.com 300 Presented by Valleydale Foods was held July 25 at South Boston Speedway. Dale Earnhardt Jr. won the pole. The race was broadcast on TNN.
Top ten results
33-Tim Fedewa
74-Randy LaJoie
34-Mike McLaughlin
36-David Green
30-Todd Bodine
63-Curtis Markham
66-Elliott Sadler
85-Shane Hall
35-Lyndon Amick
59-Kevin Lepage
Failed to qualify: Kevin Prince (#90), Ashton Lewis (#89), Mark Krogh (#80), Jeff Krogh (#56), Jim Bown (#78), Toby Robertson (#12), Patty Moise (#14), Kelly Denton (#75), Johnny Chapman (#73), Casey Atwood (#27)
Kroger 200
The Kroger 200 was held July 31 at Indianapolis Raceway Park. Buckshot Jones won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
66-Elliott Sadler
00-Buckshot Jones
74-Randy LaJoie
36-David Green
17-Matt Kenseth
21-Mike Bliss
38-Elton Sawyer
15-Mike Wallace
8-Bobby Hillin Jr.
Failed to qualify: Brad Noffsinger (#43), Mark McFarland (#82), Mark Day (#16), Stevie Reeves (#54), Kenneth Nichols (#94)
This race marked the debut of Jimmie Johnson in NASCAR.
Pepsi 200 presented by Devilbiss
The Pepsi 200 presented by Devilbiss was held August 15 at Michigan International Speedway. Jeff Burton won the pole. This would be the last time that all drivers were still running at the end of the race until the Sparks 300 at Talladega Superspeedway in 2022. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
9-Jeff Burton
44-Bobby Labonte
17-Matt Kenseth
40-Kevin Lepage
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
60-Mark Martin
8-Bobby Hillin Jr.
38-Elton Sawyer
21-Michael Waltrip
12-Rick Mast
Failed to qualify: Dave Blaney (#93), Dale Fischlein (#70), J. D. Gibbs (#42), Kevin Schwantz (#88), Lyndon Amick (#35), Gary Laton (#46), Casey Atwood (#27)
Food City 250
The Food City 250 was held August 21 at Bristol Motor Speedway. Steve Grissom won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
40-Kevin Lepage
10-Phil Parsons
32-Dale Jarrett
30-Todd Bodine
33-Tim Fedewa
15-Ken Schrader
83-Wayne Grubb
00-Buckshot Jones
4-Nathan Buttke
36-David Green
Failed to qualify: Michael Waltrip (#21), Lyndon Amick (#35), Greg Marlowe (#78), Mark Day (#16)
Dura-Lube 200 Presented by BI-LO
The Dura-Lube 200 presented by BI-LO was held September 5 at Darlington Raceway. Mike McLaughlin won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
64-Dick Trickle
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
34-Mike McLaughlin
40-Kevin Lepage
30-Todd Bodine
17-Matt Kenseth
32-Dale Jarrett
60-Mark Martin
59-Robert Pressley
15-Ken Schrader
Failed to qualify: Jeff Green (#92), Kelly Denton (#75), Ron Barfield Jr. (#2)
With his victory, Trickle became the oldest winner in Busch Series history, at the age of 56 years, 1 month, and 32 days.
Autolite Platinum 250
The Autolite Platinum 250 was held September 11 at Richmond International Raceway. Andy Santerre won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
9-Jeff Burton
12-Jimmy Spencer
17-Matt Kenseth
30-Todd Bodine
4-Jeff Purvis
40-Kevin Lepage
64-Dick Trickle
99-Glenn Allen Jr.
47-Andy Santerre
Failed to qualify: Bobby Hamilton Jr. (#95), Dave Rezendes (#78), Casey Atwood (#50), Kevin Schwantz (#88), Ward Burton (#14), Mark Krogh (#80), Mario Gosselin (#71), Ted Christopher (#13), Mark McFarland (#82), J. D. Gibbs (#42)
Steve Grissom qualified for Jimmy Spencer.
MBNA Gold 200
The MBNA Gold 200 was held September 19 at Dover International Speedway. Kevin Grubb won the pole. The race was broadcast on TNN.
Top ten results
17-Matt Kenseth
52-Kevin Grubb
38-Elton Sawyer
34-Mike McLaughlin
30-Todd Bodine
93-Dave Blaney
4-Jeff Purvis
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
2-Ricky Craven
21-Michael Waltrip
Failed to qualify: none
Tracy Leslie replaced Hal Browning in the #46 in the race.
All Pro Bumper to Bumper 300
The All Pro Bumper to Bumper 300 was held October 3 at Charlotte Motor Speedway. Dave Blaney won the pole. The race was broadcast on TBS.
Top ten results
34-Mike McLaughlin
17-Matt Kenseth
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
12-Jimmy Spencer
00-Buckshot Jones
9-Jeff Burton
40-Kevin Lepage
92-Todd Bodine
4-Jeff Purvis
1-Sterling Marlin
Failed to qualify: Bobby Hillin Jr. (#8), Patty Moise (#14), Toby Porter (#91), Ashton Lewis (#89), Kelly Denton (#75), Jeff Green (#92), Lance Hooper (#23), Jim Bown (#51), Jason Jarrett (#11), Lyndon Amick (#35), Kevin Grubb (#43), Kerry Earnhardt (#04), Matt Hutter (#24), Wayne Grubb (#83), Andy Santerre (#47), Hank Parker Jr. (#53)
Carquest Auto Parts 250
The Carquest Auto Parts 250 was held October 17 at Gateway International Raceway. Shane Hall won the pole. The race was broadcast on CBS.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
17-Matt Kenseth
4-Jeff Purvis
47-Andy Santerre
44-Tony Stewart
93-Dave Blaney
74-Randy LaJoie
85-Shane Hall
30-Todd Bodine
40-Kevin Lepage
Failed to qualify: Tracy Leslie (#2), Joey McCarthy (#41), Eric Bodine (#1), Melvin Walen (#58), J. D. Gibbs (#42)
AC Delco 200
The AC Delco 200 was held October 31 at North Carolina Speedway. Tony Stewart won the pole. The race was broadcast on TNN.
Top ten results
66-Elliott Sadler
40-Kevin Lepage
29-Hermie Sadler
52-Kevin Grubb
84-Philip Morris
53-Hank Parker Jr.
72-Mike Dillon
8-Bobby Hillin Jr.
33-Tim Fedewa
63-Curtis Markham
Failed to qualify: Tracy Leslie (#97), J. D. Gibbs (#42), Jeff Green (#92), Mike Wallace (#50), Bryan Wall (#73), Scott Hansen (#09), Lyndon Amick (#35), Matt Hutter (#55), Ted Christopher (#13), Chuck Bown (#51), Jeff Finley (#79), Mark Day (#16)
Stihl 300
The Stihl 300 was originally scheduled for March 1998 but was held November 7 at Atlanta Motor Speedway after it and the Winston Cup Series Primestar 500 were both rained out. Dick Trickle won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
60-Mark Martin
3-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
44-Tony Stewart
17-Matt Kenseth
00-Buckshot Jones
52-Kevin Grubb
87-Joe Nemechek
10-Phil Parsons
21-Michael Waltrip
15-Ken Schrader
Failed to qualify: Tracy Leslie (#97), Lyndon Amick (#35), Hut Stricklin (#92), Gary Bradberry (#86), Curtis Markham (#89), Randy MacDonald (#7), Nathan Buttke (#78), Ken Bouchard (#50), Jeff Finley (#79), Morgan Shepherd (#07)
Jiffy Lube Miami 300
The Jiffy Lube Miami 300 was held November 15 at Homestead-Miami Speedway. Casey Atwood won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
9-Jeff Burton
12-Jimmy Spencer
60-Mark Martin
17-Matt Kenseth
36-David Green
93-Dave Blaney
26-Johnny Benson
99-Glenn Allen Jr.
74-Randy LaJoie
33-Tim Fedewa
Failed to qualify: Chuck Bown (#92), Ted Christopher (#13), Jeff Krogh (#56), Patty Moise (#14), John Preston (#89), Nathan Buttke (#78), Kevin Schwantz (#88), Morgan Shepherd (#07), Philip Morris (#84), Hank Parker Jr. (#53), Lyndon Amick (#35), Freddie Query (#7), Gus Wasson (#49), Mark Krogh (#80)
Full Drivers' Championship
(key) Bold – Pole position awarded by time. Italics – Pole position set by owner's points. * – Most laps led.
Rookie of the Year
Andy Santerre, being the only full-time candidate for Rookie of the Year, walked away with the title after finishing 20th in points. 2nd-place-finisher Dave Blaney made his Busch Series debut in 1998, posting three sixth-place finishes over a 20-race stretch. He would be followed by Blaise Alexander, then Wayne and Kevin Grubb, both of whom grabbed their first career pole positions during the season. 18-year-old Casey Atwood ran a part-time schedule in an undeclared season but finished 38th in points. The next two competitors were Mike Cope and Matt Hutter, teammates at Cicci-Welliver Racing but released after a lack of performance. Part-time drivers Lance Hooper, Jason Jarrett, and MotoGP legend Kevin Schwantz rounded out the rookie class of 1998.
See also
1998 NASCAR Winston Cup Series
1998 NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series
External links
Busch Series standings and statistics for 1998
NASCAR Xfinity Series seasons |
4286336 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIBW-TV | WIBW-TV | WIBW-TV (channel 13) is a television station in Topeka, Kansas, United States, affiliated with CBS and owned by Gray Television. The station's studios are located on Commerce Place (next to the interchange of I-70, I-470, US 40, US 75 and K-4) in west-southwestern Topeka, and its transmitter is located on Windy Hill Road in Maple Hill.
To serve portions of the market that cannot adequately receive the main signal, WIBW-TV operates a digital fill-in translator in Topeka, which broadcasts on channel 33.
History
Multi-affiliate
The station first signed on the air on November 15, 1953. WIBW-TV was the first television station to sign on in the Topeka market, and the third to sign on in the state of Kansas (after KCTY in Kansas City, which operated a transmitter in Overland Park, which signed on in June 1953. Channel 13 signed on the same day as KTVH (now sister station KWCH-DT) in Wichita; it is the second-oldest surviving television station in Kansas (behind KWCH, as KCTY ceased operations in February 1954). The television station originally operated from studio facilities located on 6th Street and Wanamaker Road in west Topeka, near the Menninger Clinic, where it shared the facility with co-owned WIBW radio (AM 580). The facility, which was later abandoned, was severely damaged by fire on January 5, 2012.
Channel 13 was originally owned by the family of the late Kansas Senator Arthur Capper, and was co-owned with the Topeka Daily Capital and WIBW radio. The station originally also carried programming from all four other major networks of the time (CBS, NBC, ABC and the DuMont Television Network), but has always been a primary CBS affiliate. On the day of its sign-on, following an introductory program presented by the station's staff, WIBW-TV aired its first program, a DuMont network broadcast of an NFL game between the San Francisco 49ers and the Cleveland Browns.
WIBW-TV was the only commercial television station in the Topeka market for fifteen years. This was largely because the only other VHF frequency in the Topeka area, channel 11, had been designated for non-commercial broadcasting use; that allocation eventually was occupied by KTWU, which signed on the air in October 1965. However, area residents did not have to worry about missing their favorite network programs since the Kansas City stations all provided decent signal coverage within Topeka; they have been available on the area's local cable providers since the 1960s. Although Topeka was originally part of the Kansas City market, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) made Topeka a separate market in 1963. While the city itself and its close-in suburbs receive strong signals from the Kansas City stations, some parts of northeastern Kansas to the west of the city only get a marginal signal at best.
In September 1954, the station relocated its transmitter facilities to a broadcast tower located west of the original tower (the tower was later leased to Washburn University when KTWU signed on). In 1961, WIBW-AM-TV were joined by a second radio sister, WIBW-FM (94.5 FM). The station lost the DuMont affiliation when that network ceased operations in August 1956.
WIBW-TV is one of the few television stations located west of the Mississippi River that utilizes a call sign that begins with the letter "W". WIBW radio began in Logansport, Indiana, in 1925 and was briefly a portable station for much of 1926 before moving to Topeka in 1927 under Capper's sponsorship. Capper bought the station later in 1927. However, Kansas was located on the eastern side of the original call divide, so it would have been acceptable to have a "W" in Kansas in any event.
In 1957, Capper Publications merged with Stauffer Publications, owner of Topeka's other newspaper, the Topeka State Journal. In 1966, WIBW-TV became the first television station in Topeka to broadcast in color. The station lost its NBC affiliation when KTSB (channel 27, now KSNT) signed on in December 1967.
CBS-only affiliate
WIBW-TV and KSNT continued to split the local rights to ABC programming for 16 years, until KLDH (channel 49, now KTKA) signed on the air as the market's third television outlet in June 1983.
The Daily Capital and State Journal, which later merged as the Topeka Capital-Journal in 1981, and WIBW-AM-FM-TV remained the flagships of Stauffer Publications (later renamed Stauffer Communications) until 1995, when Stauffer merged with Augusta, Georgia-based Morris Communications. Because the FCC's "one to a market" rule barred companies from owning newspapers and broadcast outlets in the same market, as a condition of the sale, Morris had to sell Stauffer's television holdings, including channel 13. However, Morris would have likely had to sell off channel 13 in any event. When the "one to a market" rule went into effect in 1968, the combination of the Daily Capital, State Journal, and WIBW-AM-FM-TV were protected by a grandfather clause that allowed existing newspaper and broadcasting combinations. This protection was ended when Stauffer merged with Morris. Most of Stauffer's television stations, including WIBW-TV, were sold to Benedek Broadcasting in 1996. Morris retained the Capital Journal and the WIBW radio stations, though it has since sold the WIBW radio stations to Alpha Media.
In 2001, WIBW-TV relocated from its original studios on Southwest 6th Avenue into a new state-of-the-art facility on Commerce Place in southwest Topeka (WIBW radio subsequently relocated to studio facilities located on Executive Drive in southwest Topeka's Huntoon Hill neighborhood).
Gray Television ownership
Benedek—which was already financially challenged—filed a Chapter 7 bankruptcy declaration in 2002, due to debt incurred by the company's all-cash purchases of ABC affiliate KAKE in Wichita and NBC affiliate WOWT-TV in Omaha, Nebraska, in exchange for NBC affiliate WWLP in Springfield, Massachusetts, the previous year; the company then sold most of its stations, including WIBW-TV, to Atlanta-based Gray Television.
After KSQA signed on in September 2011, WIBW-TV began experiencing signal issues on Cox Communications channel 12, due to the over-the-air signal of KSQA (which broadcasts on channel 12 over-the-air) causing electromagnetic interference with the analog frequency on WIBW's cable slot. On June 13, 2012, KSQA, LLC filed a complaint with the FCC to invoke a must-carry request for Cox to carry it on channel 12, which would have displaced WIBW to a newly assigned channel slot. Although KSQA, LLC had its request denied by the FCC on the basis its cable placement should be determined by its PSIP channel (KSQA was mapped as virtual channel 22) and Cox previously informed that it preferred not to move WIBW-TV off its existing channel slot to replace it with KSQA, Cox eventually moved WIBW-TV to channel 13 on March 14, 2013, after the FCC granted a waiver by KSQA to move its PSIP channel to virtual channel 12, with that station being placed on WIBW's former cable slot on channel 12.
On May 23, 2012, a man broke into the WIBW studio lobby, stabbed two station employees and bit another employee. The station's sales manager Roger Brokke and sales associate Greg Palmer received non-life-threatening leg injuries in the attack. The attacker, identified as 48-year-old Ray Miles, was upset because WIBW news director Jon Janes was unable to help him with a problem involving the Department of Veterans Affairs. Miles was arrested on suspicion of six counts, including aggravated battery and burglary.
WIBW-DT2
WIBW-DT2 is the primary MeTV and secondary MyNetworkTV-affiliated second digital subchannel of WIBW-TV, broadcasting in standard definition on channel 13.2. The subchannel is officially branded as "My Topeka TV" (formerly My Network Topeka) for general purposes (both during time periods occupied by MyNetworkTV programming as well as for promotions for the programming service), and alternately branded as "MeTV Topeka" during MeTV programming hours.
History
On February 22, 2006, News Corporation (which would later spin-off its American television properties into 21st Century Fox in July 2013) announced the launch of MyNetworkTV, a new network that would be operated by two of its divisions, Fox Television Stations and 20th Television. MyNetworkTV was created to compete against another upstart network that would launch at the same time that September, The CW—a network created through a partnership between CBS Corporation and Time Warner, which had announced one month earlier on January 24 that the two companies would respectively shut down UPN and The WB, which originally consisted primarily of the higher-rated programs from its two predecessors; MyNetworkTV was also formed to give UPN- and WB-affiliated stations that were not named as The CW's charter affiliates another option besides converting into independent stations. Prior to the CW announcement, WIBW station management had considered launching a digital subchannel affiliated with UPN (which had previously been affiliated with Fox affiliate KTMJ-CA (channel 43) from the network's launch in 1995 until 2003, with its programming airing in late-evening timeslots).
On March 13, 2006, WIBW was named as MyNetworkTV's Topeka affiliate through a 13-station affiliation agreement with owner Gray Television. One month later on April 10, 2006, Montecito Broadcast Group announced that NBC affiliate KSNT (channel 27) would serve as The CW's Topeka affiliate (through its national feed for smaller markets, The CW Plus), carrying the network on its second digital subchannel.
WIBW-TV first signed its second digital subchannel on the air on September 5, 2006 as a primary affiliate of MyNetworkTV and a secondary affiliate of the multicultural television network Colours TV. In September 2009, WIBW-DT2 became a secondary affiliate of This TV, carrying a mix of syndicated programming to fill select evening time periods otherwise occupied by feature film content from the network.
The subchannel disaffiliated from This TV on September 10, 2012, and switched its secondary affiliation to MeTV (both networks were owned at the time by Weigel Broadcasting). MeTV programming airs on WIBW-DT2 during the late morning, afternoon and overnight hours as well as much of the weekend schedule outside of late afternoon and evening timeslots. In a September 5 interview with The Topeka Capital-Journal, then-WIBW-TV general manager Jim Ogle cited that the station chose to switch 13.2's secondary affiliation to allow leverage in scheduling local newscasts and sports programs onto the subchannel, as the vast majority of MeTV programs run either 30 minutes or an hour in length, in comparison to the feature-length movies aired by This TV. Most of the syndicated programming aired on the subchannel was dropped by September 2014, when WIBW-DT2 began clearing most of the MeTV schedule outside of the first two hours of prime time on weeknights that are occupied by MyNetworkTV content. As of 2021, MyNetworkTV programming now airs in the late night slot at 1:00 a.m CT.
Programming
WIBW-DT2 primarily carries MeTV programming. As of September 2019, MyNetworkTV programming was moved from prime time to overnight hours.
News operation
WIBW-TV presently broadcasts 28½ hours of locally produced newscasts each week. The station's Sunday 5:00 p.m. newscast is subject to preemption due to network sports coverage; as such, the station broadcasts live half-hour editions of that newscast on WIBW-DT2 on certain weeks in which a CBS Sports telecast (usually golf tournaments sanctioned by the PGA Tour and National Football League games with kickoff times of 3:05 p.m. or 3:25 p.m.) is scheduled to air past their scheduled end-time on the station's main channel.
WIBW-TV has been the far-and-away market leader in Topeka for as long as viewership records have been kept. This was mainly due to being the only station in town for 14 years. It has maintained a solid ratings lead even after gaining competitors in KSNT when that station signed on as KTSB in 1967, and KTKA-TV (the perennial third-place finisher among the market's newscasts for most of its history, except during its four-year tenure without a news department from 2002 to 2006) after that station signed on in 1983 as KLDH. In 1972, WIBW-TV acquired the first live weather radar in the Topeka market for broadcasting use. The station was also the first to bring several news-gathering and technical innovations in the market: it was the first television station to use microwave LNC live trucks (in 1982), and is the only Topeka station with a live truck for electronic news-gathering (having acquired such a vehicle in 1989).
The station is noted for its coverage of a destructive EF5 tornado that killed 16 people and injured 450 others as it tracked northeast across Topeka on the early evening of June 8, 1966. A then-unknown Bill Kurtis – at the time, a 26-year-old balancing duties as a reporter for WIBW-TV while also a law student at Washburn University – wanted to get a message across to viewers watching the station's storm coverage to take shelter from the impending twister before it struck their particular area; ultimately, he advised viewers to get to safety by urging in a calm but stern manner, "for God's sake, take cover!" Channel 13 provided 24 consecutive hours of coverage beginning when the tornado struck Topeka, later transitioning to coverage of the storm's aftermath. In the days after the tornado hit the city, the station was flooded with viewer letters thanking Kurtis and channel 13 for the urgent warning.
On November 11, 1998, WIBW announced that it would cancel its noon newscast (known for most of its history as Midday in Kansas) due to unspecified economic conditions, replacing the program with Martha Stewart Living; the move to cancel the program (at the time and presently, the only midday newscast among the Topeka market's television stations) after the November 25 broadcast, which would have resulted in the layoffs of 12 staffers, resulted in viewer letters protesting the move to convince then-WIBW vice president/general manager Gary Sotir "get creative" to save the highly rated program, which received its highest viewership among farmers and senior citizens, leading the station to reverse course on the decision.
WIBW (along with former ABC-affiliated sister station KAKE-TV in Wichita) was one of two partners in Kansas Now 22, a cable channel available on fellow partner Cox Communications' systems throughout Kansas. WIBW and KAKE each produced five-minute pre-recorded news segments that ran on the channel in 15-minute intervals as well as an additional three-minute weather segment that was also taped. The two stations alternated time slots for both news and weather segments. Live news or weather bulletins from KAKE in Wichita would interrupt the channel's regular taped programming schedule. Kansas Now 22 ceased operations on January 2, 2009, before relaunching four weeks later on January 28 as Kansas 22, with content originating from the respective NBC affiliates in Wichita and Topeka, KSNW and KSNT (then both owned by LIN Media).
In September 2007, WIBW began producing local newscasts for its second digital subchannel, in the form of a one-hour extension of its weekday morning newscast 13 News This Morning (initially running from 7:00 to 8:00 a.m., with a rebroadcast immediately afterward; before expanding to a full two-hour broadcast in September 2009) and a half-hour prime time newscast at 9:00 p.m. each weeknight, in addition to simulcasts of the 5:00 to 7:00 a.m. block of the weekday morning newscast seen on WIBW's main channel; these newscasts pre-empted classic television series and children's programming broadcast by WIBW-DT2's secondary This TV, and later MeTV affiliations, during those time periods. The morning and prime time newscasts on WIBW-DT2 competed with those produced by NBC affiliate KSNT seen on that station's Fox-affiliated sister KTMJ-CD (channel 43).
The subchannel also began airing simulcasts of the Saturday evening 6:00 p.m., Sunday evening 5:30 p.m. and weekend 10:00 p.m. newscasts (mainly due to preemptions incurred by CBS Sports broadcasts that run into those programs' timeslots on the station's main channel). The morning and 9:00 p.m. newscasts were cancelled in September 2014, with their former time periods replaced by classic television series provided by the subchannel's secondary MeTV affiliation; as such, WIBW-DT2 airs very little programming other than that provided by MeTV and MyNetworkTV or through sports syndication services.
On February 23, 2012, beginning with its 6:00 p.m. newscast, WIBW-TV became the first television station in the Topeka market to being broadcasting its local newscasts in high definition.
Notable former on-air staff
Gary Bender – former play-by-play announcer for the NFL on CBS and NBA on CBS
Kevin Harlan – summer sports intern (1979); now at CBS Sports and Westwood One radio
Mike Jerrick – anchor/reporter; now at Fox News Channel
Gordon Jump – later actor, known for his role in WKRP in Cincinnati
Bill Kurtis – reported on 1966 Topeka tornado, more well-known as journalist and news personality later
Steve Physioc – sports anchor; later served as play-by-play announcer for Kansas City Royals radio and television broadcasts
Russ Ptacek – morning anchor/reporter (1988–1993); now at VNI Television and documentary filmmaker.
Devin Scillian – anchor/reporter; now at WDIV-TV in Detroit, and a children's author and country singer
Fred White – sports anchor; also former broadcaster for Kansas City Royals baseball games
Awards
WIBW-TV has won numerous awards for numerous newscasts and reporting throughout its history:
Technical information
Subchannels
The station's digital signal is multiplexed:
Analog-to-digital conversion
WIBW-TV signed on its digital signal on UHF channel 44 in 2002. The station shut down its analog signal, over VHF channel 13, on February 16, 2009, the day prior to the original date on which full-power television stations in the United States were set to transition from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate (which was later rescheduled for June 12, 2009). The station's digital signal relocated from its pre-transition UHF channel 44 to VHF channel 13. However, since the transition, some viewers in urban areas of the Topeka market have experienced difficulty receiving the station's channel 13 signal over-the-air. On December 7, 2009, the FCC granted WIBW a construction permit to build transmitter facilities for a fill-in digital translator on the station's pre-transition UHF digital channel 44.
Notes
References
External links
Television stations in Topeka, Kansas
CBS network affiliates
MeTV affiliates
Heroes & Icons affiliates
Start TV affiliates
Circle (TV network) affiliates
Grit (TV network) affiliates
Gray Television
Television channels and stations established in 1953
Wabaunsee County, Kansas
1953 establishments in Kansas |
4286689 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucky%20Pup | Mucky Pup | Mucky Pup were an American hardcore and crossover thrash band formed in Bergenfield, New Jersey, in 1986, when brothers Chris (vocals) and John (drums) Milnes joined up with Scott Dottino (bass) and Dan Nastasi (guitar) as the cover band, Predator. The band soon began writing original material and changed the band name to Mucky Pup. Over the years, the band went through several lineup changes and musical style changes while gaining minor success in both the USA and Europe. Their breakthrough moment occurred when they won second place in a Bloom County comic strip contest, resulting in the band performing a song featured on a flexi disc packaged with a 1987 Bloom County comic strip compilation. However, their European success, based on strong tours and charting for the 1989 A Boy in a Man's World album, surpassed all recognition achieved in their home country. The band split up in 1995 but reunited from 2009 through 2014 with a rotating lineup of both former and new members with vocalist Chris Milnes being the only constant.
History
Early years
The band initially started as a cover band named Predator. It was not long before the band started writing original material and changed their name to Mucky Pup. They released two demo tapes in 1987. The first demo, Live and Mucky, was recorded live. After its release, bassist Scott Dottino left the band. A second demo, Greatest Hits, featuring former Hades member Scott LePage on bass, followed. Together, the two demos sold a combined amount of over 1,200 copies. That same year, the band was featured on a flexi disc in the Bloom County book, Billy and the Boingers Bootleg. This was the result of the band taking second place in a contest held for the Bloom County comic strip. The band, performing as the comic strip characters Billy and the Boingers, recorded "U-Stink-But-I-♥-U," to be featured as one of the two songs featured on the flexi disc.
Torrid Records
The band went on to play "battle of the bands" competitions in and around New Jersey. It was during one such event, while playing with the band Trixter at the Paramus, New Jersey roller rink, that a representative from Torrid Records first saw the band. The band was offered a record contract and several weeks later, they signed their first record deal with the independent label. Signing with Torrid brought a distribution deal in Europe with Roadrunner Records' sister label, Roadracer Records. The band's first album, Can't You Take a Joke?, was released in 1988.
In 1989, the band released their second album, A Boy in a Man's World. The album featured a re-recorded version of "U-Stink-But-I-♥-U", for which the band shot their first music video. MTV played the video two times. A Boy In A Man's World also featured cover art by friend and future DC and Marvel comic book artist, Nelson DeCastro, who had previously created T-shirt art for the band as well.
Before the recording of A Boy In A Man's World, LePage, who had never been considered an official member of the band, left due to touring conflicts. He was replaced by Dave Neabore. Shortly after the album was released, the band found themselves on their first tour of Europe. Although Mucky Pup never had a hit in the U.S., their European distribution deal, combined with this tour, helped the band attain success in Europe. When the band returned home, Nastasi resigned and helped co-found the band Non-Fiction with former members of Hades. Nastasi stayed with Non-Fiction for a short time before leaving to join Murphy's Law. Nastasi's position in Mucky Pup was filled by band friend Sean Kilkenny. After a year or so, Neabore and Kilkenny left to form the band that would become Dog Eat Dog and Nastasi returned to record with Mucky Pup while simultaneously joining Dog Eat Dog as well.
The band's third album, Now, was released in 1990. Now introduced new bass player Marc DeBacker, of Belgium, to the lineup and featured guest appearances by Evan Seinfeld and Billy Graziadei of the band Biohazard, whom Mucky Pup had befriended and regularly used as an opening act. In the past, various clubs had refused to let Biohazard play, thinking that their performances could lead to violence, but Mucky Pup sneaked the band on stage for a few songs before their own set. The band shot a second video, "Hippies Hate Water," which MTV never played.
The band began playing shows with bands such as Primus, Gwar, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Murphy's Law, Bad Brains, 24-7 Spyz, and Scatterbrain. While Nastasi had returned to record Now, he no longer toured with the band, as he was performing with Dog Eat Dog at the same time Mucky Pup was touring. As a result, new guitarist Splatter became the band's live guitarist. Splatter's time with band was brief and he was replaced by Terry, who remained their live guitarist until 1992.
After the release of Now, Mucky Pup ended their association with Torrid and Roadrunner Records.
Century Media Records
In 1991, the band signed with Century Media Records and released Act Of Faith in the following year. Once again, the lineup shuffled with DeBacker being replaced by Christopher "Junior" LaPlante, and the addition of Kevin Powers as a keyboard player. Powers had previously played in the local New Jersey band, Articulate Violence. Videos were shot for the songs "Freakin' at the Peepshow" and "Mr. Hand", which only received airplay in Europe.
Shortly after the recording of the album, Nastasi stepped down from both Mucky Pup and Dog Eat Dog. He re-joined the original lineup of Non-Fiction, now calling themselves #9. #9 was in the process of recording their debut when Nastasi accepted a solo record deal with SPV Records. Nastasi named the band Nastasee and recorded two albums, featuring collaborations with members of both Mucky Pup and Dog Eat Dog. Trim The Fat and Ule Tide were only intended for European release and as a result, the band embarked on four tours of the continent. Before Ule Tide could officially be released, Nastasee was dropped from the label and the album was never officially released outside of promotional and mail order copies. As a result, Nastasi disbanded his band.
1993 saw Mucky Pup take a turn away from humorous pop songs to focus on more aggressive, emotional and angry songs with their fifth release, Lemonade. The album brought yet another lineup change, as John Milnes moved to guitar and Kevin Powers took the drummer's position. It also saw the return of Marc DeBacker on bass. Since his previous run with Mucky Pup, DeBacker had moved on to replace Nastasi on guitar in Dog Eat Dog and had taken part in the recording of the band's second full-length album, Play Games as well as the European tour that preceded it. Once again, Mucky Pup returned to Europe, appearing frequently with Carter the Unstoppable Sex Machine with whom the band became good friends.
After releasing two albums in as many years with Century Media Records, Mucky Pup ended their association with the label.
Mucky Records / SPV Music
In 1993, the band released the album Alive & Well under their own imprint, Mucky Records, through SPV Music exclusively in Europe. The album was primarily a collection of live tracks recorded during their 1993 tour of Europe. It also contains a demo version of "The Skinheads Broke My Walkman" from the Act of Faith album, as well as cover versions of Prince's "Darling Nikki" and Sade's "Nothing Can Come Between Us". New additions to the lineup were Eric "EVS" VanSteenbergh and Glen Cummings, both on guitar. Cummings had previously been a member of both Ludichrist and Scatterbrain and toured Europe with Mucky Pup, on two occasions, as a part-time member of the band.
The band's final album, Five Guys In A Really Hot Garage, was released in Germany in 1995. The final lineup saw John Milnes return to the drums and also featured the additions of Jack "Hinge" Pitzer, formerly of New Jersey thrash metal band, The Beast, on guitar and Joe Mama on bass. DeBacker had already left the band a second time to return to Belgium and form the band 10,000 Women Man. Bass player Bill Bergmann appeared on two of the songs and was pictured on the album cover. Bergmann remained as the bass player for what was the last several months of the band's original existence.
Post-Mucky Pup
In 1998, Chris and John Milnes formed a band named Bully with Bill Bergmann and Kevin Powers. Bully was an attempt to continue recording together without the Mucky Pup name which they felt, at the time, had run its course. This lineup recorded a five-song demo consisting of the final original Mucky Pup material but no album ever materialized. The songs were retroactively made Mucky Pup songs when included on the 2012 re-release of Five Guys In A Really Hot Garage and referred to as the Straight Outta' Jersey EP.
Also in 1998, Dan Nastasi and John Milnes joined forces with former Mucky Pup and Dog Eat Dog bandmates Dave Neabore and Sean Kilkenny, to become All Boro Kings. The project was a throwback to the early days of Dog Eat Dog, as it focused on the hardcore style that Dog Eat Dog had originally displayed on their first two releases. The band quickly signed with Century Media Records who released their debut album Just For The Fun Of It in 2002. The album was released exclusively in Europe due to the strong European fan base the members had in their other bands. The band would also appear on several compilation albums. The band played most of their shows in and around New Jersey before embarking on one European tour with Biohazard, Agnostic Front, Hatebreed, Discipline, Death Threat and Born From Pain, as part of the Eastpak Resistance Tour. In 2004, All Boro Kings quietly disbanded.
In 2005, Kevin Powers co-directed the music video for the Bloodhound Gang's song "Uhn Tiss Uhn Tiss Uhn Tiss", the second single from their Hefty Fine album.
In 2013 Bill Bergmann along with Dylan Gadino and Derek Gadino formed Robots and Monsters. Soon after their debut album Down to Ash was recorded, they enlisted former bandmate Kevin Powers for drumming duties.
Robots and Monsters went on to release the follow-up Nothing to Fear, Nothing to Fight in 2016.
Reunions
After their breakup in 1996, Mucky Pup reunited for one night performances on several occasions, each time featuring a different incarnation or combination of previous lineups. In 1999, they reunited as an opening act for their first show ever with Dog Eat Dog. This was followed by five more one-off headlining reunion shows in 2000, 2002 and 2003.
In October 2008, the band updated their website for the first time in several years. As part of the update, the band announced that they would embark on a European mini-tour in the summer of 2009. The reunited band, consisting of Chris Milnes, John Milnes, Dan Nastasi, Dave Neabore and Kevin Powers, made a United States appearance at Mexicali Live in Teaneck, New Jersey, on April 11, 2009, performing to a sold out crowd. In July 2009, the band performed at the Rock for People and With Full Force festivals. The band made a second trip to Europe in late August to play a handful of festival dates with bands such as Municipal Waste, Gorefest, Flotsam and Jetsam, Sodom and Martyr, before ending the tour with a string of dates with Superbutt. The European tour dates featured the lineup of Chris Milnes, Dan Nastasi, Mark DeBacker and Kevin Powers performing songs voted on, via the internet, by their fans. The band returned to Mexicali Live on December 11 to perform their final show of 2009. The show was a release party for Live At Mexicali 2009, a DVD and CD recording of the show held at the same location, the previous April. Towards the end of Mucky Pup's set, the original lineup of Dog Eat Dog reunited onstage to perform two songs.
Mucky Pup continued to perform in 2010 starting with a performance at The Saint, a nightclub located in Asbury Park, New Jersey, on January 16. On May 1, 2010, the band performed at a small benefit show held in honor of Marc DiNardo, a Jersey City Emergency Services Unit Police Officer, and longtime fan of the band, who was killed in the line of duty in July 2009. Mucky Pup made its return to Europe during the summer of 2010 for several festival and club dates. The most notable appearance of the tour was on June 27 at the Graspop Metal Meeting in Dessel, Belgium where the band appeared alongside acts such as Killswitch Engage, Amon Amarth and Kiss. The band returned for a third performance at Mexicali Live in Teaneck, New Jersey on November 24, 2010, with Murphy's Law as an opening act.
On February 27, 2011, Mucky Pup appeared as an opening act for D.R.I. at Starland Ballroom in Sayreville, New Jersey. A short tour of the Netherlands and Belgium followed in the first week of June 2011 and featured the lineup of Chris Milnes, Kevin Powers, Mark DeBacker and Sean Kilkenny. On June 24, 2011, Mucky Pup performed on the first day of the three-day East Coast Tsunami Fest in Reading, Pennsylvania where they shared the stage with several bands such as Skarhead, Murphy's Law and Leftöver Crack. The band returned to Mexicali Live on November 25, 2011, as an opening act for Assault, a band featuring John Connor of Dog Eat Dog and Nelson Decastro within its lineup.
Mucky Pup performed its first show of 2012 at The Blue Room in Secaucus, New Jersey on February 10 and featured the line up of Chris Milnes, Dave Neabore, Kevin Powers and Sean Kilkenny. The show served as a warm-up show for a tour of Europe scheduled to run from mid-February through early March and featuring the previous year's European lineup of Chris Milnes, Kevin Powers, Mark DeBacker and Sean Kilkenny. The band returned to The Blue Room on November 27, 2013, with the five-piece lineup of Chris Milnes, Dave Neabore, Dan Nastasi, Sean Kilkenny and Matt DeSomma.
On March 14, 2014, Mucky Pup performed with D.R.I. once again at the Studio at Webster Hall in New York City. Both bands performed the following night as well at Mexical Live in Teaneck, New Jersey. Both nights featured the five-piece lineup of Chris Milnes, Dave Neabore, Dan Nastasi, Sean Kilkenny and John Milnes. The band ceased performing again after these two 2014 shows and their official website shut down.
Band members
Original lineup
Chris Milnes – lead vocalist (all releases and tours)
John Milnes – drummer, guitarist (all releases and tours)
Dan Nastasi – guitarist (Live and Mucky demo – Act of Faith)
Scott Dottino – bassist (Live and Mucky demo)
Later members
Scott LePage – bassist (Greatest Hits demo and Can't You Take A Joke) (not considered a full-time member)
Dave Neabore – bassist (A Boy In A Man's World)
Sean Kilkenny – guitarist (live during the A Boy In A Man's World tours)
Marc DeBacker – bassist (Now and Lemonade)
Christopher "Junior" LaPlante – bassist (Act Of Faith)
Eric VanSteenbergh – guitarist (Alive & Well)
Joe "Mama" Savino – bassist (Five Guys In A Really Hot Garage)
Splatter – guitarist (live during the Now tour)
Terry Torino – guitarist (live during the Now and Act Of Faith tours)
Glenn Cummings – guitarist (Alive & Well) (not considered a full-time member)
Final lineup
Chris Milnes – lead vocalist
John Milnes – drummer
Jack "Hinge" Pitzer – guitarist (Five Guys In A Really Hot Garage)
Bill Bergmann – bassist (live after Five Guys In A Really Hot Garage)
Kevin Powers – keyboardist (Act Of Faith and Five Guys In A Really Hot Garage) / drummer (Lemonade and Alive & Well)
Reunion lineups
After the band's initial 2009 reunion, it featured several lineup variations with Chris Milnes being the only consistent member.
Chris Milnes – lead vocalist (all dates)
John Milnes – drummer (all but one USA date 2009–2012, 2014 / Europe dates in 2010)
Dan Nastasi – guitarist (all but one USA date) / (Europe dates 2009–2010)
Kevin Powers – keyboardist (2009–2011); drummer (one USA date in 2012) / drummer (Europe dates in 2009, 2011 & 2012)
Marc DeBacker – bassist (Europe dates) / (one USA date in 2011)
Dave Neabore – bassist (all but one USA date)
Sean Kilkenny – guitarist (Europe dates in 2011 & 2012) / (various USA dates 2012–2014)
Matt DeSomma – drummer (Europe dates in 2012/USA dates in 2013)
Jack "Hinge" Pitzer – live sound (2009 & 2010)
Discography
Studio albumsCan't You Take a Joke? (1988)A Boy in a Man's World (1989)Now (1990)Act of Faith (1992)Lemonade (1993)Five Guys in a Really Hot Garage (1995)
Singles
"U-Stink-But-I-♥-U" (1987) (included as a flexi disc in the Bloom County book, Billy and the Boingers Bootleg ())
"Short Attention Span" (1996)
LiveAlive & Well (1993) (Europe only release)Live At Mexicali 2009 (2009) (CD & DVD)
Demo tapesLive and Mucky (1987)Greatest Hits'' (1987)
References
External links
[ Mucky Pup] on Allmusic
Bloom County
Musical groups established in 1986
Hardcore punk groups from New Jersey
Heavy metal musical groups from New Jersey
Punk rock groups from New Jersey
People from Bergenfield, New Jersey
Musical groups reestablished in 2009
1986 establishments in New Jersey
American thrash metal musical groups
Crossover thrash groups |
4286809 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overthrow%20of%20the%20Hawaiian%20Kingdom | Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom | The overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom was a coup d'état against Queen Liliʻuokalani, which took place on January 17, 1893, on the island of Oahu and led by the Committee of Safety, composed of seven foreign residents and six Hawaiian Kingdom subjects of American descent in Honolulu. The Committee prevailed upon American minister John L. Stevens to call in the U.S. Marines to protect the national interest of the United States of America. The insurgents established the Republic of Hawaii, but their ultimate goal was the annexation of the islands to the United States, which occurred in 1898.
The 1993 Apology Resolution by the U.S. Congress concedes that "the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii occurred with the active participation of agents and citizens of the United States and [...] the Native Hawaiian people never directly relinquished to the United States their claims to their inherent sovereignty as a people over their national lands, either through the Kingdom of Hawaii or through a plebiscite or referendum". Debates regarding the event play an important role in the Hawaiian sovereignty movement.
Background
The Kamehameha Dynasty was the reigning monarchy of the Hawaiian Kingdom, beginning with its founding by Kamehameha I in 1795, until the death of Kamehameha V in 1872 and Lunalilo in 1874. On July 6, 1846, U.S. Secretary of State John C. Calhoun, on behalf of President Tyler, formally recognized Hawaii's independence under the reign of Kamehameha III. As a result of the recognition of Hawaiian independence, the Hawaiian Kingdom entered into treaties with the major nations of the world and established over ninety legations and consulates in multiple seaports and cities. The kingdom would continue for another 21 years until its overthrow in 1893 with the fall of the House of Kalākaua.
Sugar reciprocity
Sugar had been a major export from Hawaii since Captain James Cook arrived in 1778. The first permanent plantation in the islands was on Kauai in 1835. William Hooper leased 980 acres (4 km2) of land from Kamehameha III and began growing sugar cane. Within thirty years there would be plantations on four of the main islands. Sugar had completely altered Hawaii's economy.
The influence of the United States in Hawaiian government began with American-born plantation owners advocating for fair representation in the Kingdom's politics, owing to the significant tax contributions made from the plantations to both the Royal family and national economy. This was driven by missionary religion and the economics of the sugar industry. Pressure from these foreign-born politicians was being felt by the King and chiefs with demands of land tenure. The 1839 Hawaiian Bill of Rights, also known as the 1839 Constitution of Hawaii, was an attempt by Kamehameha III and his chiefs to guarantee that the Hawaiian people would not lose their tenured land, and provided the groundwork for a free enterprise system. After a five-month occupation by George Paulet in 1843, Kamehameha III relented to the foreign advisors to private land demands with the Great Māhele, distributing the lands as pushed on heavily by the missionaries, including Gerrit P. Judd. During the 1850s, the U.S. import tariff on sugar from Hawaii was much higher than the import tariffs Hawaiians were charging the U.S., and Kamehameha III sought reciprocity. The monarch wished to lower the tariffs being paid out to the U.S. while still maintaining the Kingdom's sovereignty and making Hawaiian sugar competitive with other foreign markets. In 1854 Kamehameha III proposed a policy of reciprocity between the countries but the proposal died in the U.S. Senate.
As early as 1873, a United States military commission recommended attempting to obtain Ford Island in exchange for the tax-free importation of sugar to the U.S. Major General John Schofield, U.S. commander of the military division of the Pacific, and Brevet Brigadier General Burton S. Alexander arrived in Hawaii to ascertain its defensive capabilities. United States control of Hawaii was considered vital for the defense of the west coast of the United States, and they were especially interested in Pu'uloa, Pearl Harbor. The sale of one of Hawaii's harbors was proposed by Charles Reed Bishop, a foreigner who had married into the Kamehameha family, had risen in the government to be Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs, and owned a country home near Pu'uloa. He showed the two U.S. officers around the lochs, although his wife, Bernice Pauahi Bishop, privately disapproved of selling Hawaiian lands. As monarch, William Charles Lunalilo, was content to let Bishop run almost all business affairs but the ceding of lands would become unpopular with the native Hawaiians. Many islanders thought that all the islands, rather than just Pearl Harbor, might be lost and opposed any cession of land. By November 1873, Lunalilo canceled negotiations and returned to drinking, against his doctor's advice; his health declined swiftly, and he died on February 3, 1874.
Lunalilo left no heirs. The legislature was empowered by the constitution to elect the monarch in these instances and chose David Kalākaua as the next monarch. The new ruler was pressured by the U.S. government to surrender Pearl Harbor to the Navy. Kalākaua was concerned that this would lead to annexation by the U.S. and to the contravention of the traditions of the Hawaiian people, who believed that the land ('Āina) was fertile, sacred, and not for sale to anyone. In 1874 through 1875, Kalākaua traveled to the United States for a state visit to Washington, DC to help gain support for a new treaty. Congress agreed to the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 for seven years in exchange for Ford Island. After the treaty, sugar production expanded from of farm land to in 1891. At the end of the seven-year reciprocity agreement, the United States showed little interest in renewal.
Rebellion of 1887 and the Bayonet Constitution
On January 20, 1887, the United States began leasing Pearl Harbor. Shortly afterwards, a group of mostly non-Hawaiians calling themselves the Hawaiian Patriotic League began the Rebellion of 1887. They drafted their own constitution on July 6, 1887. The new constitution was written by Lorrin Thurston, the Hawaiian Minister of the Interior who used the Hawaiian militia as threat against Kalākaua. Kalākaua was forced under threat of assassination to dismiss his cabinet ministers and sign a new constitution which greatly lessened his power. It would become known as the "Bayonet Constitution" because of the threat of force used.
The Bayonet Constitution allowed the monarch to appoint cabinet ministers, but had stripped him of the power to dismiss them without approval from the Legislature. Eligibility to vote for the House of Nobles was also altered, stipulating that both candidates and voters were now required to own property valuing at least three thousand dollars, or have an annual income of no less than six hundred dollars. This resulted in disenfranchising two-thirds of the native Hawaiians as well as other ethnic groups who had previously held the right to vote but were no longer able to meet the new voting requirements. This new constitution benefited the white, foreign plantation owners. With the legislature now responsible for naturalizing citizens, Americans and Europeans could retain their home country citizenship and vote as citizens of the kingdom. Along with voting privileges, Americans could now run for office and still retain their United States citizenship, something not afforded in any other nation of the world and even allowed Americans to vote without becoming naturalized. Asian immigrants were completely shut out and were no longer able to acquire citizenship or vote at all.
At the time of the Bayonet Constitution Grover Cleveland was president, and his secretary of state Thomas F. Bayard sent written instructions to the American minister George W. Merrill that in the event of another revolution in Hawaii, it was a priority to protect American commerce, lives and property. Bayard specified, "the assistance of the officers of our Government vessels, if found necessary, will therefore be promptly afforded to promote the reign of law and respect for orderly government in Hawaii." In July 1889, there was a small scale rebellion, and Minister Merrill landed Marines to protect Americans; the State Department explicitly approved his action. Merrill's replacement, minister John L. Stevens, read those official instructions, and followed them in his controversial actions of 1893.
Wilcox Rebellion of 1888
The Wilcox Rebellion of 1888 was a plot to overthrow King David Kalākaua, king of Hawaii, and replace him with his sister in a coup d'état in response to increased political tension between the legislature and the king after the 1887 constitution. Kalākaua's sister, Princess Liliʻuokalani and his wife, Queen Kapiolani, returned from Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee immediately after news reached them in Great Britain.
In October 1887, Robert William Wilcox, a native Hawaiian officer and veteran of the Italian military, returned to Hawaii. The funding had stopped for his study program when the new constitution was signed. They had 300 Hawaiian conspirators hidden in ʻIolani Barracks and an alliance with the Royal Guard, but the plot was accidentally discovered in January 1888, less than 48 hours before the revolt would have been initiated. No one was prosecuted but Wilcox was exiled. So on February 11, 1888, Wilcox left Hawaii for San Francisco, intending to return to Italy with his wife.
Princess Liliʻuokalani was offered the throne several times by the Missionary Party who had forced the Bayonet Constitution on her brother, but she believed she would become a powerless figurehead like her brother and rejected the offers outright.
Liliʻuokalani attempts to re-write Constitution
In November 1889, Kalākaua traveled to San Francisco for his health, staying at the Palace Hotel. He died there on January 20, 1891. His sister Liliʻuokalani assumed the throne in the middle of an economic crisis. The McKinley Act had crippled the Hawaiian sugar industry by removing the duties on sugar imports from other countries into the US, eliminating the previous Hawaiian advantage gained via the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875. Many Hawaii businesses and citizens felt pressure from the loss of revenue; in response Liliʻuokalani proposed a lottery system to raise money for her government. Also proposed was a controversial opium licensing bill. Her ministers, and closest friends, were all opposed to this plan; they unsuccessfully tried to dissuade her from pursuing these initiatives, both of which came to be used against her in the brewing constitutional crisis.
Liliʻuokalani's chief desire was to restore power to the monarch by abrogating the 1887 Bayonet Constitution and promulgating a new one, an idea that seems to have been broadly supported by the Hawaiian population. The 1893 Constitution would have increased suffrage by reducing some property requirements, and eliminated the voting privileges extended to European and American residents. It would have disenfranchised many resident European and American businessmen who were not citizens of Hawaii. The Queen toured several of the islands on horseback, talking to the people about her ideas and receiving overwhelming support, including a lengthy petition in support of a new constitution. However, when the Queen informed her cabinet of her plans, they withheld their support due to an understanding of what her opponents' likely response to these plans would be.
Though there were threats to Hawaii's sovereignty throughout the Kingdom's history, it was not until the signing of the Bayonet Constitution in 1887 that this threat began to be realized. The precipitating event leading to the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom on January 17, 1893, was the attempt by Queen Liliʻuokalani to promulgate a new constitution that would have strengthened the power of the monarch relative to the legislature, where Euro-American business elites held disproportionate power. The stated goals of the conspirators, who were non-native Hawaiian Kingdom subjects (five United States nationals, one English national, and one German national) were to depose the queen, overthrow the monarchy, and seek Hawaii's annexation to the United States.
1893 Hawaiian coup d'état and overthrow of the kingdom
The overthrow of the monarchy was started by newspaper publisher Lorrin Thurston, a Hawaiian subject and former Minister of the Interior who was the grandson of American missionaries, and formally led by the Chairman of the Committee of Safety, Henry E. Cooper, an American lawyer. They derived their support primarily from the American and European business class residing in Hawaii and other supporters of the Reform Party of the Hawaiian Kingdom. Most of the leaders of the Committee of Safety that deposed the queen were United States and European citizens who were also Kingdom subjects. They included legislators, government officers, and a Supreme Court Justice of the Hawaiian Kingdom.
On January 16, the Marshal of the Kingdom, Charles B. Wilson, was tipped off by detectives to the imminent planned overthrow. Wilson requested warrants to arrest the 13-member council of the Committee of Safety, and put the Kingdom under martial law. Because the members had strong political ties with United States Government Minister John L. Stevens, the requests were repeatedly denied by Attorney General Arthur P. Peterson and the Queen's cabinet, fearing if approved, the arrests would escalate the situation. After a failed negotiation with Thurston, Wilson began to collect his men for the confrontation. Wilson and Captain of the Royal Household Guard, Samuel Nowlein, had rallied a force of 496 men who were kept at hand to protect the Queen.
The events began on January 17, 1893, when John Good, a revolutionist, shot Leialoha, a native policeman who was trying to stop a wagon carrying weapons to the Committee of Safety led by Lorrin Thurston. The Committee of Safety feared the shooting would bring government forces to rout out the conspirators and stop the overthrow before it could begin. The Committee of Safety initiated the overthrow by organizing armed non-native men, under their leadership, intending to depose Queen Liliʻuokalani. The forces garrisoned Ali'iolani Hale across the street from ʻIolani Palace and waited for the Queen's response.
As these events were unfolding, the Committee of Safety expressed concern for the safety and property of American residents in Honolulu.
On January 17, 1893, the Chairman of the Committee of Safety, Henry E. Cooper, addressed a crowd assembled in front of ʻIolani Palace (the official royal residence) and read aloud a proclamation that formally deposed Queen Liliʻuokalani, abolished the Hawaiian monarchy, and established a Provisional Government of Hawaii under President Sanford B. Dole.
United States involvement
President Harrison's Secretary of State John W. Foster from June 1892 to February 1893 actively worked for the annexation of the independent Republic of Hawaii. Pro-American business interests had overthrown the Queen when she rejected constitutional limits on her powers. The new government realized that Hawaii was too small and militarily weak to survive in a world of aggressive imperialism, especially on the part of Japan. It was eager for American annexation. Foster believed Hawaii was vital to American interests in the Pacific.
The annexation program was coordinated by the chief American diplomat on the scene, John L. Stevens. He decided to send in a U.S. military detachment after the Queen was deposed to support the new government and prevent a vacuum that might open the way for Japan. Advised about supposed threats to non-combatant American lives and property by the Committee of Safety, Stevens obliged their request and summoned 162 U.S. sailors and Marines from the USS Boston to land on Oahu under orders of neutrality and take up positions at the U.S. Legation, Consulate, and Arion Hall on the afternoon of January 16, 1893.
The deposed Queen was kept in ʻIolani Palace under house arrest. The American sailors and Marines did not enter the Palace grounds or take over any buildings, and never fired a shot, but their presence served effectively. The Queen never had an army, the local police did not support her, and no one mobilized any pro-royalist forces. Historian William Russ states, "the injunction to prevent fighting of any kind made it impossible for the monarchy to protect itself." Due to the Queen's desire "to avoid any collision of armed forces, and perhaps the loss of life" for her subjects and after some deliberation, at the urging of advisers and friends, the Queen ordered her forces to surrender. The Honolulu Rifles took over government buildings, disarmed the Royal Guard, and declared a provisional government.
According to the Queen's Book, her friend and minister J.S. Walker "came and told me that he had come on a painful duty, that the opposition party had requested that I should abdicate." After consulting with her ministers, including Walker, the Queen concluded that "since the troops of the United States had been landed to support the revolutionists, by the order of the American minister, it would be impossible for us to make any resistance." Despite repeated claims that the overthrow was "bloodless", the Queen's Book notes that Liliʻuokalani received "friends [who] expressed their sympathy in person; amongst these Mrs. J. S. Walker, who had lost her husband by the treatment he received from the hands of the insurgents. He was one of many who from persecution had succumbed to death."
Immediate annexation was prevented by President Grover Cleveland who told Congress:
... the military demonstration upon the soil of Honolulu was of itself an act of war; unless made either with the consent of the government of Hawaii or for the bona fide purpose of protecting the imperiled lives and property of citizens of the United States. But there is no pretense of any such consent on the part of the government of the queen ... the existing government, instead of requesting the presence of an armed force, protested against it. There is as little basis for the pretense that forces were landed for the security of American life and property. If so, they would have been stationed in the vicinity of such property and so as to protect it, instead of at a distance and so as to command the Hawaiian Government Building and palace ... When these armed men were landed, the city of Honolulu was in its customary orderly and peaceful condition ...
The Republic of Hawaii was nonetheless declared in 1894 by the same parties which had established the provisional government. Among them was Lorrin A. Thurston, a drafter of the Bayonet Constitution. The Committee of Safety asked Sanford Dole to become President of the forcibly instated Republic. He agreed, and became president on July 4, 1894.
Aftermath
A provisional government was set up with the strong support of the Honolulu Rifles, a militia group which had defended the system of government promulgated by the Bayonet Constitution against the Wilcox rebellion of 1889.
The Queen's statement yielding authority, on January 17, 1893, protested against the overthrow:
On December 19, 1898, the queen would amend the declaration with the "Memorial of Queen Liliuokalani in relation to the Crown lands of Hawaii", further protesting the overthrow and loss of property.
Response
United States
Newly inaugurated President Grover Cleveland called for an investigation into the overthrow. This investigation was conducted by former Congressman James Henderson Blount. Blount concluded in his report on July 17, 1893, "United States diplomatic and military representatives had abused their authority and were responsible for the change in government." Minister Stevens was recalled, and the military commander of forces in Hawaiʻi was forced to resign his commission. President Cleveland stated, "Substantial wrong has thus been done which a due regard for our national character as well as the rights of the injured people requires we should endeavor to repair the monarchy." Cleveland further stated in his 1893 State of the Union Address that, "Upon the facts developed it seemed to me the only honorable course for our Government to pursue was to undo the wrong that had been done by those representing us and to restore as far as practicable the status existing at the time of our forcible intervention." The matter was referred by Cleveland to Congress on December 18, 1893, after the Queen refused to accept amnesty for the traitors as a condition of reinstatement.
The Senate Foreign Relations Committee, chaired by Senator John Tyler Morgan (D-Alabama) and composed mostly of senators in favor of annexation, initiated their own investigation to discredit Blount's earlier report, using pro-annexationist affidavits from Hawaii, and testimony provided to the U.S. Senate in Washington, D.C. The Morgan Report contradicted the Blount Report, and exonerated Minister Stevens and the U.S. military troops finding them "not guilty" of involvement in the overthrow. Cleveland became stalled with his earlier efforts to restore the queen and adopted a position of recognition of the so-called Provisional Government and the Republic of Hawaii which followed.
The Native Hawaiian Study Commission of the United States Congress in its 1983 final report found no historical, legal, or moral obligation for the U.S. government to provide reparations, assistance, or group rights to Native Hawaiians.
In 1993, the 100th anniversary of the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Congress passed a resolution, which President Bill Clinton signed into law, offering an apology to Native Hawaiians on behalf of the United States for its involvement in the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom. The law is known as the Apology Resolution, and represents one of the few times that the United States government has formally apologized for its actions.
International
Every government with a diplomatic presence in Hawaii, except for the United Kingdom, recognized the Provisional Government within 48 hours of the overthrow via their consulates. Countries recognizing the new Provisional Government included Chile, Austria-Hungary, Mexico, Russia, the Netherlands, Imperial Germany, Sweden, Spain, Imperial Japan, Italy, Portugal, Denmark, Belgium, China, Peru, and France. When the Republic of Hawaii was declared on July 4, 1894, immediate de facto recognition was given by every nation with diplomatic relations with Hawaii, except for Britain, whose response came in November 1894.
Hawaiian counter-revolution
A four-day uprising between January 6–9, 1895, began with an attempted coup d'état to restore the monarchy, and included battles between royalists and the republican rebels. Later, after a weapons cache was found on the palace grounds after the attempted rebellion in 1895, Queen Lili'uokalani was placed under arrest, tried by a military tribunal of the Republic of Hawaiʻi, convicted of misprision of treason and imprisoned in her own home. On January 24, Lili'uokalani abdicated, formally ending the Hawaiian monarchy.
Republic, United States annexation, United States Territory
The Committee of Safety declared Sanford Dole President of the new Provisional Government of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi on January 17, 1893, only removing the queen, her cabinet, and her marshal from office. On July 4, 1894, the Republic of Hawaiʻi was proclaimed. Dole was president of both governments. As a republic, it was the government's intention to campaign for Hawaii's annexation to the United States. The rationale behind the annexation of Hawaii included a strong economic component—Hawaiian goods and services which were exported to the mainland would not be subjected to United States tariffs, and the United States and Hawaii would both benefit from each other's domestic bounties, if Hawaii was part of the United States.
In 1897, William McKinley succeeded Cleveland as United States president. In his first year in office, the U.S. Senate failed twice to ratify a Treaty to Annex the Hawaiian Islands. A year later, he signed the Newlands Resolution, which stated that the annexation of Hawaii would occur on July 7, 1898. The formal ceremony which marked the annexation of Hawaii to the United States was held at the Iolani Palace on August 12, 1898. Almost no Native Hawaiians attended the annexation ceremony, and those few Hawaiians who were on the streets wore royalist ilima blossoms in their hats or hair, and on their breasts, they wore Hawaiian flags which were emblazoned with the motto: Kuu Hae Aloha ('my beloved flag'). Most of the 40,000 Native Hawaiians, including Lili'uokalani and the Hawaiian royal family, protested against the action by shuttering themselves in their homes. "When the news of the Annexation came, it was bitterer than death to me", Lili'uokalani's niece, Princess Kaʻiulani, told the San Francisco Chronicle. "It was bad enough to lose the throne, but it was infinitely worse to have the flag go down." The Hawaiian flag was lowered for the last time while the Royal Hawaiian Band played the Hawaiian national anthem, Hawaiʻi Ponoʻī.
The Hawaiian Islands, together with the distant Palmyra Island and the Stewart Islands, became the Territory of Hawaii, a United States organized incorporated territory, with a new government which was established on February 22, 1900. Sanford Dole was appointed the territory's first governor. The Iolani Palace served as the capitol building of the Hawaiian government until 1969.
See also
Aliʻi
Democratic Revolution of 1954
Hawaii – historical novel by James Michener has fictionalized account of the Overthrow in Chapter IV "From the Starving Village"
Hawaiian home land
Hawaiian sovereignty movement
Hawaiian Kingdom–United States relations
Kalākaua Dynasty
Legal Status of Hawaii
List of bilateral treaties signed by the Hawaiian Kingdom
Paulet Affair
Unfamiliar Fishes by Sarah Vowell
United States involvement in regime change
Notes
References
Sources
External links
morganreport.org Online images and transcriptions of the entire 1894 Morgan Report
United States Marine Corps in the 18th and 19th centuries
1890s coups d'état and coup attempts
1893 in Hawaii
Conflicts in 1893
Battles and conflicts without fatalities
January 1893 events
United States involvement in regime change |
4286852 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20George%20Illawarra%20Dragons | St. George Illawarra Dragons | The St. George Illawarra Dragons are an Australian professional rugby league football club, representing both the Illawarra and St George regions of New South Wales. The club has competed in the National Rugby League (NRL) since 1999 after a joint-venture was formed between the St. George Dragons (est. 1921) and the Illawarra Steelers (est. 1982). The club officially formed as the game's first joint-venture club on 23 September 1998 and remains the only inter-city team in the NRL. The team has its headquarters and leagues clubs in both Wollongong and the Sydney suburb of Kogarah, and trains and plays games regularly at WIN Stadium in Wollongong, as well as at Jubilee Oval in Kogarah. From 1999 to 2006 the club was jointly owned by the St. George Dragons 50% and Illawarra Steelers 50%. In 2006 WIN Corporation purchased 50% of the Illawarra Steelers stake in the club before purchasing the rest of the Illawarra Steelers' share in August 2018.
The Dragons reached the grand final in their first season in 1999, losing to the Melbourne Storm. St. George Illawarra is one of only two clubs (the other being the Sydney Roosters in 1908) to finish runner-up in its inaugural season. St. George Illawarra also fields teams in local competitions within the St. George and Illawarra regions. In 2010, the Dragons won their second successive minor premiership and became the first team to be awarded the J. J. Giltinan Shield in consecutive years since the National Rugby League was formed in 1998.
The Dragons won the 2010 NRL Grand Final against the Sydney Roosters 32–8 at Stadium Australia, Sydney. They then won the 2011 World Club Challenge, defeating the Wigan Warriors 21–15 at DW Stadium in the UK. With its World Club Challenge victory, the club became the first Australian team since the Brisbane Broncos in 1992–3 to win the minor premiership, premiership and World Club Challenge simultaneously.
History
In the wake of the Super League war of the mid-1990s, and the resulting split competition of 1997, the Illawarra Steelers found themselves struggling financially and seemed unlikely to survive past 1999. The St. George Dragons largely financed a proposal for a joint venture which would see the St George Illawarra Dragons playing in both Kogarah and Wollongong. Essentially, St George would provide the money while Illawarra would provide a broader junior and fan base. With the NRL's intention to rationalise the competition from 20 teams down to 14 teams and with a $4M incentive and a relaxing of salary cap requirements for a joint venture, the Dragons and the Steelers ensured their survival by forming the League's first joint venture on 23 September 1998.
David Waite and Andrew Farrar (1999–2002)
A joint venture entity being a new concept in Australian rugby league, the public watched closely in anticipation of success or failure. No-one was certain how the top players sourced from the two clubs would perform when they ran out onto the field. They were unsuccessful in their first outing, losing to the Parramatta Eels 20–10, but by the 4th round they had started to form some cohesion and would go on to achieve a top eight position on the competition ladder by the end of the regular season. In the semi-finals the Dragons won against the Melbourne Storm at Olympic Park, before returning to Sydney to dispose of the Sydney Roosters and the Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks to reach the Grand Final.
In the 1999 Grand Final, the club were leading by 14–0 at the break in front of a world record crowd of 107,999. A fairytale of a title in their first year as a joint venture seemed destined to come true; something of an advertisement to any other clubs considering the option of a joint venture, but Melbourne recovered from their poor start and went into the final minutes of the game with St. George Illawarra leading by 18–12. The Dragons were forced to perform a drop kick from their own goal line, and on the fifth tackle Brett Kimmorley kicked high towards St. George Illawarra's corner of the field. As Melbourne's winger Craig Smith caught the ball over the goal-line he was knocked unconscious in a tackle by Jamie Ainscough and lost the ball. Referee Bill Harrigan deferred to the video referee who ruled a penalty try on the grounds that contact had been made with the head, giving Melbourne a 20–18 lead and the premiership title.
In the 2000 NRL season though they had a rough start, and in Round 5, St. George Illawarra recorded their worst defeat for the club, losing 70–10 against the Melbourne Storm. This was the first game these two teams played against each other since the 1999 grand final, and was played at the MCG. On 3 May to the surprise and shock of fans and club officials, Anthony Mundine announced his retirement from the club and rugby league in general with immediate effect to pursue a career in boxing. The Dragons were not going well in the first half of the 2000 season, and the main coach David Waite was replaced with assistant coach, Andrew Farrar. Soon after the replacement of coaches, St. George Illawarra recorded their best ever win. They defeated the New Zealand Warriors 54–0 in round 14 at WIN Stadium, with debutant Amos Roberts scoring a record 22 points (one try and nine goals) for any first grade player on debut. St. George Illawarra, however, missed out of the finals series, and came 9th. Despite their poor season, Trent Barrett was awarded with the Dally M Medal.
Nathan Brown (2003–2008)
In 2003, Nathan Brown, the joint venture's first number 9 achieved the position of coach, becoming the youngest non-playing coach in premiership history at the age of 29. St. George Illawarra finished the season 10th. Nathan Brown was also involved in a sideline incident when he had slapped Trent Barrett in Wollongong during a game against Manly, and was issued a $5000 fine.
2004 saw the final season of the try scoring talent Nathan Blacklock. An extraordinary scoreline was seen in the round 25 clash with Manly. Trailing 34–10 after 53 minutes the club came back to win the match 36–34. This was the second biggest comeback in Australian Rugby League history. Finishing 5th, the club were eliminated in the first round of the finals after losing in a thrilling game 30–31 to 4th placed Penrith.
In 2005, after their worst start to a season yet (losing 5 of their first 6 games), the St. George Illawarra side finished second in a close season on the ladder at completion of the 2005 NRL season, just behind minor premiers the Parramatta Eels on points difference. After progressing to the finals they defeated local rivals the Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks 28–22 in the quarter-final of the finals series though the Dragons eventually fell 12–20 to eventual champions the Wests Tigers in the Preliminary Final. The club broke the ground record at WIN Stadium twice in the 2005 season. First against rivals the Sydney Roosters and then at their home quarter final game against the Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks.
In early 2006, WIN Television Network bought a 25% stake in the Illawarra Steelers Club for $6.5 million, erasing most of the debt Illawarra had to St. George. This formalised the strong support the network has shown for the Steelers in years gone by and ensured that Wollongong continued to host world class rugby league matches.
After a bad start to the 2006 NRL season, the club put on a midseason seven/game winning streak. This was followed by a form slump, with a record five consecutive losses, only to return to form with a victory over the Wests Tigers, and continue this positive form leading into the finals. The club ended the regular season in sixth position.
In the finals campaign, St George Illawarra faced the Brisbane Broncos at Suncorp Stadium in the first round, St. George Illawarra won the game 20–4. In the second round, they met the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles at the Sydney Football Stadium winning 28–0. In the grand final qualifier, they played the Melbourne Storm, where the club went down 24–10 bowing out of season 2006.
St. George Illawarra could take solace from the fact that they did defeat the eventual premiers, Brisbane, three times during the 2006 season – 26–12 at Wollongong in Round 4, 18–16 at Suncorp Stadium in Round 15 and the aforementioned qualifying final match.
Season 2007 saw an early injury to Mark Gasnier in the Charity Shield match against South Sydney Rabbitohs creating another poor start for the Dragons. Combined with the loss of key players such as Luke Bailey, Trent Barrett and Shaun Timmins in the off-season, the Dragons faced NRL newcomers, the Gold Coast Titans, in Round 1. The joint-venture club won the historic match 20–18, however lost 6 more matches after that leaving the Saints sitting in 15th place on the NRL Ladder. This was a very inexperienced Dragons team that seemed destined for a poor injury plagued season. However, in Round 17 (vs Canberra Raiders at WIN Stadium), the Saints scored four times more points than their previous game average, winning the match 58–16, equalling their highest ever score and their largest victory in three years. The club's season ended with a 28–24 loss to the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles at Brookvale Oval, finishing in 13th place, their lowest finish to date.
2008 saw the end of an era, with coach Nathan Brown's contract not renewed after yet another poor start to the season, winning one of their first six matches. The club received a boost in May when former dual-code international player Wendell Sailor joined the team. Several notable players departed at the end of the year including Jason Ryles and captain Mark Gasnier. The club finished the season in 7th place, however they lost in the first round of the finals to eventual premiers Manly (whom they defeated 20–18 in round 11) 34–6 at Brookvale Oval ending yet another disappointing season. The era under Brown was one of frustration for Dragons fans, as there were high expectations for the strong side, but ultimately no premierships.
Wayne Bennett (2009–2011)
2009, a new season a new coach and ground sponsor WIN at Jubilee Oval. Several new faces joined the club, including Jeremy Smith, Darius Boyd, Neville Costigan, Michael Weyman and Luke Priddis. The season opener against the Storm ended in a thrilling golden point extra time loss (17–16). Round 3 set a new crowd record with the victorious return to WIN Jubilee against Cronulla.
They were consistently placed first on the competition ladder in 2009, contributed by a continuous winning streak of seven games since their win against the North Queensland Cowboys on 14 June. They lost first position after a three-game losing streak while the Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs won all games in that period, but remain in the top three. However, in the final round of the 2009 regular season, St. George Illawarra defeated in-form Parramatta Eels 37–0, a game in which winger Brett Morris obtained a hat-trick and man of the match honours, while Canterbury lost 34–12 to the Wests Tigers. In the same game, St. George Illawarra five-eighth Jamie Soward surpassed Harry Bath's record for most points in a season by a St. George player. As a result, St. George Illawarra won the minor premiership for the 2009 and Wayne Bennett's first season at the club, but the team was eliminated from the finals after losing both their finals matches, therefore becoming the first minor premiers since 1993. In the first match they were humbled in front of a packed Jubilee Stadium, before traveling to face Bennett's former team. Brisbane defeated the Saints.
Season 2010 saw the club lose seven matches – the same tally as in the 2009 home-and-away season, against eventual wooden spooners the Melbourne Storm, 2008 premiers the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles, their perennial bogey team the Canberra Raiders, 2003 premiers the Penrith Panthers in round 17, the Gold Coast Titans in extra time in round 20, Bennett's old team the Brisbane Broncos in round 21 and a second time to the Canberra Raiders in round 24. The team has been placed first since round five.
The team won its second minor premiership in succession (the first NRL team to do so since the inception of the NRL in 1998) with victory against the Newcastle Knights in the penultimate round of the 2010 NRL season. The joint-venture club had led the competition from round five right through to the final round, spending 21 consecutive weeks on top of the ladder and therefore spending the longest period of time on top of the ladder in NRL history (not including the Melbourne Storm).
St George Illawarra met Manly in the first week of the 2010 finals and produced a 28–0 victory. St. George Illawarra then defeated Wests Tigers 13–12 with Jamie Soward kicking the winning field goal for a place in the 2010 NRL Grand Final.
In the 2010 NRL Grand Final, St. George Illawarra defeated the Sydney Roosters 32–8, to secure the club's first grand final victory. The club overcame a poor first half performance to pull a thrilling victory out of the hat. This victory made Wayne Bennett's grand final record at 7 wins from 8 and thus continuing Brian Smith's poor grand final record of 4 losses from 4. Darius Boyd won a premiership with Bennett and the Brisbane Broncos in 2006, won the Clive Churchill Medal for best on ground in the match. The Grand Final victory also ended 31 years of hurt for St. George fans as the club had lost previous finals in 1985, 1992, 1993, 1996 and 1999.
St George Illawarra began their 2011 Season with pre-season wins in trials over Canterbury and South Sydney in the Charity Shield. The club also claimed its first World Club Challenge Championship, defeating Wigan Warriors 21–15 at DW Stadium. As of Round 14 2011, the Dragons have won 10 straight (excluding a 14–14 draw against Parramatta in Round 13).
It was announced in March 2011 that Bennett would leave St. George Illawarra after the 2011 NRL season, signing a four-year deal with the Newcastle Knights from the 2012 season onwards. Steve Price was named as his successor.
Steve Price and Paul McGregor (2012 – 2020)
2012 saw the club with a new coach. St. George Illawarra narrowly missed out on a Finals spot, finishing up in 9th position. Several notable players departed from the club at the end of the season, including Ben Hornby and Dean Young, who both retired from the sport. The start of the 2013 NRL season saw the arrival of few key acquisitions, namely Gerard Beale from the Broncos and Tyson Frizell from the Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks.
The season was plagued by inconsistent form, alongside injuries and speculation regarding Price's future at the club. After winning three straight matches on the lead up to the annual Anzac Day clash with the Sydney Roosters, it was announced that Price would be signed for another year with an option for a second at the clubs disposal. Despite the clubs faith in Price as well as the arrival of star fullback Josh Dugan from Canberra – in a mid-season transfer, the club was unable to string together consistent performances and finished the year at 14th position.
Star five-eighth Gareth Widdop joined the club for 2014, but by late May 2014, just after the star signing of Benji Marshall, the board sacked Price as coach due to some embarrassing defeats to start the season. Assistant coach Paul McGregor was named as his replacement until the end of the season, and was eventually employed full-time following improved results. This culminated in the club returning to the finals in 2015 and enjoying a successful year.
In the 2017 NRL season, St George Illawarra lead the competition after the first eight rounds before a dramatic slide which saw the club record only six wins for the rest of the season. In the final match of the regular season, St George Illawarra played against Canterbury with a win guaranteeing them a finals spot and jumping ahead of North Queensland. With under ten minutes to play, St George Illawarra were ahead on the scoreboard before two quick tries gave Canterbury a 26–20 victory.
The 2018 NRL season saw the arrival of two star signings, English international James Graham and the Australian and Queensland halfback Ben Hunt. These signings and a successful season culminated in the club returning to the finals in 2018 and enjoyed a successful year. On 9 September 2018, St. George Illawarra Dragons won their first qualifying final in 8 years, defeating the Brisbane Broncos 48–18 at Suncorp Stadium. The following week, St George Illawarra played against South Sydney in week 2 of the finals series and were defeated 13–12 in a tight game. The match was also the first time since 1984 that the two clubs had played each other in the finals.
The Intrust Super Premiership NSW St. George Illawarra also had a strong year finishing second at the end of the regular season were they made the preliminary final but were defeated 28–26 by Canterbury.
In August 2018 WIN Corporation purchased the Illawarra Steelers remaining 25% stake in the club for a "commercially in confidence" sum. The St George Dragons and WIN Corporation now have a 50% stake each. WIN Corporation has paid off the $6 million debt the St. George Illawarra Dragons owed the NRL. The club's home venues will continue to be WIN Stadium and Jubilee Stadium.
Before the start of the 2019 NRL season, St. George Illawarra were expected by many to reach the finals and continue their good form from the previous year. A few weeks out from the club's first match, Jack de Belin was stood down indefinitely by the NRL in relation to an incident which happened in December 2018. On 18 April 2019, McGregor was granted a two-year contract extension by St. George Illawarra, keeping him at the club as the head coach until the end of the 2021 NRL season after the side had won four of their first six games.
St. George Illawarra would then go to only win three of their next 17 matches which left them second last on the table above the last placed Gold Coast. On 2 September 2019, it was revealed that McGregor's position at head coach would be coming under review following the conclusion of the season. St. George Illawarra finished 15th on the ladder and did not qualify for the finals after having a horror season.
On 13 August 2020, McGregor was terminated as head coach of St. George Illawarra after a poor start to the season left the club with four wins in thirteen games, he was subsequently replaced by Dean Young. At the end of the 2020 NRL season, the club finished a disappointing 12th on the table and missed out on the finals.
Anthony Griffin (2021–2023)
On 7 September 2020, Anthony Griffin was appointed the coach for 2021 NRL season on a two-year deal.
On 1 June 2021, it was announced that Jack de Belin would return from his 987-day hiatus after charges against him were dropped.
On 5 July 2021, the NRL handed out a total of $305,000 in fines to 13 players of the club after they attended Paul Vaughan's property for a party in the midst of Covid-19 restrictions which were in breach of the code's bio security protocols.
The season finished with the club finishing in 11th place, missing out on finals for the third consecutive year. The season started with four wins from the first five games, however over the next 19 games, the club only obtained another four victories, with the club losing eight matches in a row to close out the season after the infamous barbeque. It capped off a mediocre first year under Griffin's reign.
St. George Illawarra finished the 2022 NRL season in 10th place and missed the finals. Between round 17 to round 22, the club managed to win only one match which saw them go from 8th to 11th on the table. St. George Illawarra would win their last three matches of the season to finish in 10th position.
Before the start of the 2023 NRL season, many experts and pundits predicted St. George Illawarra to finish with the Wooden Spoon. After having a bye in the first round, the club defeated the Gold Coast in round 2 by a score of 32–18. In March 2023, it was revealed that Griffin had been told by club officials that they were looking for a potential coaching replacement in 2024 and that Griffin would have to re-apply for his position.
On 16 May 2023, it was announced that St. George Illawarra had terminated Griffin's contract effective immediately. Griffin was informed of the decision at 8AM just before the players training session.
On 14 June 2023, it was announced that former Cronulla head coach Shane Flanagan had signed a three-year deal to be St. George Illawarra's new coach starting in 2024.
In late June 2023, star player Ben Hunt requested an immediate release from his St. George Illawarra contract. It was reported that Hunt, became unhappy after head coach, Anthony Griffin, was sacked by the club. On 26 June, Hunt's request to be released by St. George Illawarra was denied by the club.
St. George Illawarra would finish the 2023 NRL season in 16th place, just two points above wooden spooners the Wests Tigers.
Season summaries
Finals appearances
12 (1999, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2015, 2018)
Colours and jerseys
Name and emblem
The team colours of the St. George Illawarra Dragons are red and white, colours shared by both the St. George Dragons and Illawarra Steelers. The merged entity's logo was taken directly from that of St George, with the addition of "Illawarra" to the bottom of the emblem. The emblem reflected the rich history of the St George Dragons, including an unprecedented and unmatched 11 consecutive premierships from 1956 to 1966, and the future strength of the club with the Illawarra.
The club name Dragons, is a shortened version of "Dragonslayers", the original nickname of St George. The emblem features a red shield with a silhouette of St. George, overlaid with a white stylised Dragon, with the words "ST. GEORGE" and "ILLAWARRA" above and below the shield respectively. It was originally intended for St George to face right and the Dragon to face left.
Jerseys
When the St George Illawarra Dragons were formed in 1998, it was decided that the jersey of St George (first used in 1945), the famous "Red V" on white, would become the main jersey for the new club. The red used was changed to the scarlet tone used by the Steelers.
The alternate jersey initially used by the club was red and white horizontal stripes, similar to the 1921 St George Jersey known as the "blood and bandages". Since 2006, this Jersey has been reserved for use as the St George Illawarra Heritage Jersey for special occasions. This Jersey is worn during Heritage Round, when the Dragons confront fierce local rivals the Bulldogs RLFC.
In 2004 and 2005, the club used a jersey similar to the Steelers main jersey for Heritage matches, acknowledging the rugby league history of the Illawarra region, though not as a full-time alternate strip. This jersey was predominantly red with white stripes on the sleeves. With Adidas producing the club's official merchandise from 2006, a generic Adidas design – predominantly red with three white stripes down the sleeves – was adopted as the full-time alternate strip; before another re-design in 2008, which better reflected the old Steelers jersey.
Reebok produced supporter and team kits from the 2010 season until 2013. Again the Red V was the Main jersey and the Alternate jersey was a red design with white slash marks. ISC became St George Illawarra's apparel partner in 2014 until 2017. XBlades became the main supplier for the 2018 season and ended their contract in 2020. Classic Sportswear currently produce the club's team kits and supporter gear.
Home grounds
The Dragons have two home grounds, reflecting the joint nature of the club:
WIN Stadium (1999–present)
Jubilee Oval (1999, 2003–07, 2009–present)
Half of the Dragons home matches are played at WIN Stadium (previously the home ground of the Illawarra Steelers) and the half at Jubilee Oval (previously the home of the St George Dragons).
The club has previously played Sydney home games out of the Sydney Football Stadium (2000–2002) and Stadium Australia (2008), as well as the Sydney Cricket Ground on special occasions.
The club has taken their home ground advantage away from their usual home grounds to the Sydney Football Stadium for the Club ANZAC Game against the Sydney Roosters in the 2004, 2006, 2010, 2012, 2014, 2016 and 2018 seasons. In 2002 when the match was first held, the Sydney Football Stadium was, at the time, one of the Dragons' main home grounds, whilst in 2008 the match was played at ANZ Stadium, a very unpopular move amongst supporters.
Right Game Right Venue Strategy
In 2013, the club entered into a four-year agreement with the NRL to move 4 of their 12 home games to one of the major Sydney stadiums (Allianz Stadium, Sydney Cricket Ground, ANZ Stadium).
The strategic intent was to replicate the success of the annual game played against Sydney Roosters on ANZAC day. As part of this initiative, the club and the NRL sought to introduce an annual Heritage Round game against South Sydney at the Sydney Cricket Ground.
In 2017, the club announced that the NRL had only provided three appropriate games to support this initiative for the 2017 season.
It was announced that from the 2018 NRL season that all games (except for the ANZAC clash Vs the Sydney Roosters and one other round) would be shared equally between Kogarah and Wollongong.
Stadium records
Highest Attendances at WIN Jubilee Oval
Highest attendances at WIN Stadium
Current squad
Coaches
David Waite 1999–2000
Andrew Farrar 1999–2002
Nathan Brown 2003–2008
Wayne Bennett 2009–2011
Steve Price 2012–2014
Paul McGregor 2014–2020
Dean Young 2020
Anthony Griffin 2021–2023
Ryan Carr 2023
Leagues clubs
As well as having two administrative offices, St. George Illawarra are supported by two separate Leagues clubs – one in each of the St. George and Illawarra areas.
St. George Dragons
The St. George Leagues Club is located on the Princes Highway at Beverley Park close to the northern home ground of Jubilee Oval at Carlton. Established in 1963, St. George was one of the first Super Leagues clubs developed in the 60s and was commonly referred to as the Taj Mahal because of the use of white marble in the original building.
Very little of the original building is still there today after extensive refurbishing and redesigning the entire club to make it one of the most superbly fitting clubs in Australia.
Illawarra Steelers
Situated in the middle of the City Beach precinct, the Steelers Club is located adjacent to WIN Entertainment Centre and WIN Stadium. It is directly across the road from the grounds Western Grandstand. Established in 1990, the club has struggled financially against much larger and more popular leagues clubs in Wollongong, such as Collegians, Dapto Leagues Club, Wests Illawarra Leagues Club, and Shellharbour Workers Club in Shellharbour. However, after a major restructure of its operations, the Steelers Club traded profitably. Twenty percent of the club premises were sold to Bermuda-based Billionaire and owner of WIN Corp, Bruce Gordon. The sale fetched $2.6 million.
Supporters
Many supporters of the Dragons mainly come from the club's local areas, the suburbs of the St. George district in Sydney (the Bayside and Georges River Council regions), and the Illawarra on the south-coast of NSW. The St. George Illawarra Dragons also have a huge following in south-east Queensland, as a significant number of the club's 'Red V' memberships are from people in this area. The Dragons also have a large number of supporters from all over NSW, with the club receiving record crowds at away games at Stadium Australia at Sydney Olympic Park.
A fan run podcast, called the Red V Podcast was launched in January 2020. Discussing the latest news, match previews and reviews, talking with current and former players and giving fans a voice. The podcast is hosted by life long dragons fan Jack Clifton and Curtis Woodward
Notable Supporters
Rivalries
Due to St. George enjoying great success over the years, St. George Illawarra have inherited several fierce rivalries, while also creating a few new ones since forming the joint venture.
Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs
St. George Illawarra has a fierce rivalry with neighbour the Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs. Canterbury-Bankstown were founded in 1935, 14 years after St. George. St. George inflicted a RL record 91–6 defeat of Canterbury in 1935 but Canterbury enjoyed premiership success first, however St. George recorded 11 straight premierships in the years following (1956–1966).
In the 1942 NSWRFL season, the two clubs met in the 1942 grand final with Canterbury-Bankstown defeating St. George 11–9 in a low-scoring affair at the Sydney Cricket Ground.
It was also Canterbury-Bankstown who put an end to their Premiership run in 1967, when Canterbury beat them by one point in the preliminary final to face South Sydney in the Grand Final. Since then, both clubs have inflicted Premiership defeats on the other, St George defeating Canterbury-Bankstown in 1979, Canterbury returning the favour in 1985.
The two teams subsequently met in the 1993 preliminary final which St. George won 27–12. They would meet again in the 1995 and 1998 finals series with Canterbury running out winners on both occasions. The elimination final in 1998 was also St. George's final game as a stand-alone entity as the club elected to form a joint venture with Illawarra for the 1999 NRL season.
Since St. George formed a joint venture with Illawarra, the two clubs have met each other in the 2001 finals series which St. George Illawarra defeated Canterbury 23-22 and in the 2015 finals series which Canterbury won 11–10 at ANZ Stadium. In the 2017 NRL season, St. George Illawarra needed to beat Canterbury in the final game of the regular season to qualify for the finals. Canterbury who were already out of contention for the finals defeated St. George 26–20 which allowed North Queensland to get the last finals spot and finish 8th. North Queensland would then go on to reach the 2017 NRL Grand Final as a result.
The two sides are rivals in the NRL Heritage Round. Canterbury and St. George Illawarra also unofficially have a territorial rivalry, with fans from both teams coming in large amounts around Arncliffe, Earlwood, Kingsgrove, Marrickville, and Panania.
Parramatta Eels
The St. George Illawarra Dragons and Parramatta Eels rivalry stretches back to 1977, when the St. George Dragons and Parramatta played out the first ever drawn Grand Final result. Parramatta, seeking their first minor premiership after they finished the season on the top of the ladder at the end of the regular season, were beaten 22–0 in the Grand Final Rematch by St. George, who won their first Grand Final since 1966.
There were many controversial matches between St. George Illawarra and Parramatta. Firstly, in Round 18 2005, Parramatta won 40–14 in a match which saw Trent Barrett and PJ Marsh trade blows after Marsh's crude charge-down attempt at Barrett, sparking an all-in brawl whilst Parramatta's Wade McKinnon sprinted to score a match-turning 80 metre try.
A less memorable match saw no points scored between the two teams in Round 13 2006 in the first 70 minutes of play before Parramatta slotted a field goal with nine minutes remaining, before the Dragons struck back with two one-pointers to take a 2–1 lead. St. George Illawarra then scored a try through Matt Cooper with mere seconds remaining on the clock to claim an 8–1 victory.
In the 2009 NRL Finals Series, St. George Illawarra finished as the Minor Premiership and faced the Parramatta Eels who finished 8th on the ladder. A week earlier at the same venue, St. George Illawarra had defeated Parramatta 37–0 but in the finals game, Parramatta won 25–12 with Parramatta player Jarryd Hayne scoring a brilliant solo try. As of the 2022 NRL season, this has been the last time where St. George Illawarra and Parramatta have met in a finals series.
In 2020 NRL season on the 14/6/2020, St. George Illawarra played their last games under former coach Paul McGregor, at CommBank Stadium. The Saints showed a lot of emotion as they won 14–12 unexpectedly against the Parramatta Eels. With Mikaele Ravalawa scoring a double. But Zac Lomax sealed the games with slotting a Penalty goal in the 65th minute.
Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks
St. George Illawarra's fiercest rivalries is with their Southern neighbor, Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks. Cronulla-Sutherland originally were part of the St. George juniors area, and Cronulla are often referred to as St George's "little brother".
In Cronulla's foundation year, the club was coached by Ken Kearney who won several premierships with St. George as a player-coach in the 1950s and early 1960s. Cronulla's inaugural captain was also a former St. George premiership winning player in Monty Porter. In 1978, former St. George player and rugby league immortal Norm Provan coached Cronulla to the grand final and replay that season against Manly.
St. George Illawarra have had the same amount of success as the Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks, who have also won one premiership. In fact, since St. George Illawarra entered the competition in 1999, both the Saints and Cronulla have finished higher than the other six times apiece.
Cronulla finished the 1999 season as minor premiers, but St. George Illawarra beat them 26–8 in the preliminary final to progress to the 1999 NRL Grand Final at the Sharks' expense. The Saints trailed 0–8 at halftime.
Both clubs have been accused of poaching players from the other, and compete for fans in the same region. In 1999, the Cronulla CEO infamously cut up a St. George Jersey after a match at Toyota Stadium. During the Super League war, Cronulla-Sutherland was one of only three Sydney teams to join the rival competition, entrenching further spite from both the St. George Dragons and the Illawarra Steelers were loyal to the ARL during the Super League War.
In the 2002 finals series, both teams met in the semi-final which Cronulla won 40–24 at the Sydney Football Stadium. The rivalry increased further in 2005 when they met in a qualifying final at a sold out WIN Stadium with the Dragons winning 28–22. As of the 2022 NRL season, this is the last time the two club's have played each other in a finals game.
In 2009, former Dragons captain Trent Barrett switched to Cronulla-Sutherland after two years in the Super League. In his return match to Kogarah in round 3, 2009, Barrett was injured and with him went any hopes Cronulla had of winning the premiership (in the preceding year, the Cronulla club had finished equal-first) that year. Other players to have switched clubs include Lance Thompson and Jeremy Smith (St. George Illawarra to Cronulla), Beau Scott, Sam Isemonger and Matt Bickerstaff (Cronulla to St. George Illawarra) and Colin Best (Cronulla to St. George Illawarra) and then back again, as of 2011. In another match in 2009, Cronulla captain Paul Gallen was found guilty of a racial slur involving then Dragons forward Mickey Paea. In round 18 of the 2023 NRL season, St. George Illawarra recorded their worst ever loss to Cronulla as either St. George or St. George Illawarra with the match finishing 52-16.
South Sydney Rabbitohs
St. George won 15 premierships before forming a joint-venture with Illawarra. In 2010, they won their first NRL premiership as a joint-venture. South Sydney have won the most premierships with 21, the Sydney Roosters next on 15 premierships. South Sydney and St. George have met several times in grand finals prior to the joint-venture and being the north-eastern neighbours of St. George, had many fierce encounters. One of the biggest matches in this rivalry is the Charity Shield, a pre-season fixture between the two sides that was abandoned after the 1999 match but was revived after Souths were re-admitted to the NRL in 2002.
In 2001, South Sydney chairman and club legend George Piggins said there would be no chance of the Charity Shield being revived if Souths were to be included back into the NRL saying "The Dragons: They sold us out". This was in reference to St. George signing an affidavit at the time which included that it would be detrimental if Souths were returned to the competition.
In 2018, both sides met for the first time in a finals match since 1984. After 80 tense minutes of absorbing action, Souths won a close semi-final 13–12.
Sydney Roosters
St. George has another fierce rivalry with the Sydney Roosters. St. George's first premiership was a 31–14 victory over Easts in the 1941 NSWRFL season Grand Final.
In 1960 Eastern Suburbs reached their first grand final since 1945 where they faced St. George but were beaten 31–6.
In 1975 Eastern Suburbs defeated St. George 38–0 in the grand final which until the 2008 NRL season was the biggest winning margin in a grand final.
During 1995, in the midst of the Super League War, Eastern Suburbs had secret discussions to merge with the St. George club, with St. George's jersey and emblem to disappear. Fans of both clubs were outraged, and the attempt aborted. St. George Illawarra annually contests the Club ANZAC Game against the Sydney Roosters, a tradition dating back to the 1970s, and contested annually since 2002.
After St. George formed a joint venture with the Illawarra Steelers in 1999 to form St. George Illawarra the two clubs have met each other twice in finals matches, the first coming in 1999 which St. George Illawarra won and in the 2010 NRL Grand Final where St. George Illawarra won its first premiership as a joint venture defeating the Sydney Roosters 32–8 at ANZ Stadium.
Encounters with other teams
Brisbane Broncos
Prior to the joint-venture, both St George and Illawarra had memorable matches with Brisbane in the early 1990s. St. George and Brisbane Broncos contested the 1992 and 1993 Grand Finals, creating a competitive rivalry (see New South Wales Rugby League season 1993). Also, Illawarra had produced some memorable performances against Brisbane, including the infamous 1989 Panasonic Cup Final (which Brisbane won) and the 1992 Tooheys Challenge Cup Final (won by Illawarra).
The St. George Illawarra Dragons had the longest winning streak against the Brisbane Broncos than any other club (eight, from round 23, 2005 to round 4, 2009 inclusive, including one final in 2006), across five years. With former Brisbane Broncos coach Wayne Bennett at the helm of St George Illawarra, and Wendell Sailor, a popular face in the NRL and a former Bronco, the rivalry only increased. In 2009, the Dragons defeated the Broncos at Suncorp Stadium early, and were then beaten in Wollongong by the Broncos later on in the season. One game a piece, the two sides met up in Brisbane in the finals, where they lost to the Broncos 24–10, thus ending the Dragons season and also that of Wendell Sailor's career. Ironically, his first and last games for the Dragons were both against the Brisbane side.
Some memorable matches between the Dragons and Brisbane have included:
Round 11, 2002: Brisbane were at the top of the ladder undefeated at the time until they ran into the Dragons at Aussie Stadium on a sunny Sunday afternoon. The Dragons won 28–20 to inflict Brisbane's first defeat of the season, but in round 17 the Broncos got them back with a 34–22 victory at ANZ Stadium.
Round 26, 2003: St. George Illawarra were out of finals contention and the Broncos the previous week had lost a then club-record breaking sixth straight loss when the two teams came together at Suncorp Stadium in the final round of the 2003 season. The second-string Dragons side, without more than half of its first grade side stunned the Broncos 26–25 with hooker Mark Riddell kicking an improbable penalty goal with just over 90 seconds remaining. This condemned Brisbane to their seventh loss in succession and gave Dragons fans some hope for the 2004 season.
Round 12, 2004: Not even an early try from Mark Gasnier (who was dropped from the New South Wales State of Origin team for disciplinary issues) could inspire St. George Illawarra as they lost by just two points, 24–22.
Round 23, 2005: In a potential Grand Final preview, scores were locked at 0–0 for the majority of the first half before the Dragons broke away in the second half to record a 24–4 win and instigate Brisbane's then-traditional late-season poor form.
Round 15, 2006: With the Dragons trailing 16–12 with two minutes remaining, Saints winger Brett Morris scored his first-ever first grade try in the corner in the dying minutes after catching a Mathew Head bomb. The try was allowed, leaving St. George Illawarra hooker Aaron Gorrell (in a twist of irony, he later went on to play for the Broncos) with the sideline conversion to win the game. Gorrell nailed it and Saints won the match 18–16.
2nd Qualifying Final, 2006: The Red V upset Brisbane 20–4, the third time St. George Illawarra defeated Brisbane in that year. Brisbane ultimately went on to win the premiership.
Round 13, 2008: Wendell Sailor played his first game for the Dragons against the Brisbane club, but was rested just before halftime following a jaw injury suffered in the first half. Saints won the game 34–16.
Round 23, 2008: Sailor marked his return to Suncorp Stadium with his first try since coming back to rugby league in a win to St. George Illawarra, 24–20.
Round 4, 2009: Wayne Bennett, Darius Boyd and a host of others opposed the Broncos for the first time in their lives. Despite conceding an early try to Israel Folau, the Dragons won 25–12 with Wendell Sailor appropriately scoring the match winning try.
2nd Semi-Final, 2009: The Brisbane club ended St. George Illawarra's season with a 24–10 win, and the Dragons became the first minor premiers in 16 years to be eliminated in just the 2nd round of the Finals.
2nd Semi-Final, 2011: Brisbane beat St. George Illawarra 13–12 field goal kicked by Darren Lockyer in overtime, Darren won the game with a fractured cheekbone that he received late in the game, this also turned out to be Darren Lockyer's last game for the Broncos and Wayne Bennett (coaching) and Mark Gasnier's last for the Dragons.
Round 1, 2018: In the season opener, Ben Hunt played his first game for St. George Illawarra after leaving Brisbane the year before, the Red V beat Brisbane 34–12 with Hunt scoring an intercept try off a poor pass from Broncos recruit Matt Lodge.
2nd Elimination Final, 2018: In their first finals meeting in seven years, Brisbane were widely tipped to beat St. George Illawarra, after an arm wrestle for most of the 1st half, the Dragons inspired by a Tariq Sims hat trick went on to hand the Broncos their worst finals loss at Suncorp winning 48–18 and eliminating Brisbane in the process. It was also Ben Hunt's first game in Brisbane since leaving Brisbane for St George Illawarra.
Round 3, 2019: In their only meeting for 2019, both sides struggled to get the upper hand until former Brisbane player Corey Norman slotted a field goal right on full time to give the Red V a 25–24 win after Jamayne Isaako missed a field goal attempt only moments earlier.
Round 25, 2022: St. George Illawarra were out of finals contention while Brisbane had to win to play finals. The Red V won the game 22–12 condemning the Brisbane club to a third consecutive year without a finals appearance which allowed the Canberra Raiders to advance into the finals at the expense of Brisbane.
Players who played for the Dragons who have won premierships with Brisbane include Darius Boyd and Luke Priddis, who also won a premiership with Penrith in 2003. Others of note include Nick Emmett who was brought to the club by Wayne Bennett, and Neville Costigan, who was sacked just before the Broncos' 2006 success.
Melbourne Storm
These two teams played against each other in the 1999 NRL Grand Final. It is remembered for the penalty try conceded by St. George Illawarra winger Jamie Ainscough that cost the club the premiership. It was the club's first NRL Grand Final appearance as a joint-venture and Melbourne's first Grand Final appearance in just its second year in existence. St. George Illawarra had led 14–0 at halftime only for Melbourne to come back and claim a controversial 20–18 win following the penalty try two minutes from time.
The two teams have also had some memorable, not to mention controversial matches in the decade that followed, none more so than the Grand Final rematch in 2000 which saw Melbourne beat St. George Illawarra 70–10 at the MCG (this remains St George Illawarra's biggest defeat as a joint-venture to date).
In the lead up to that match, then-Saints five-eighth Anthony Mundine had claimed that the Melbourne club were not worthy premiers, sparking anger from Melbourne's fans and players, thus the catalyst for the huge win. St. George Illawarra however did claim revenge later that year with a 50–4 win at WIN Stadium (that also remains Melbourne's worst ever defeat to date).
The 2009 season opened with these two teams going head-to-head in another much talked about match. St. George Illawarra five-eighth Jamie Soward was labelled a 'rag doll' in defence whilst trying to stop Melbourne's Greg Inglis scoring a try, however ever since that match Soward's game has matured. The club lost 17–16 in extra time, with Inglis scoring the match winning field goal. In the return match, Soward was also the centre of attention as he used his foot to prevent Inglis again from scoring, resulting in an eight-point try and Soward being put on report (he was reprimanded for this). St. George Illawarra won this match 26–12. In round 4, 2010, St. George Illawarra were the last team to lose premiership points to Melbourne before their salary cap scandal was revealed.
St. George Illawarra were also involved in a controversial loss to Melbourne at the start of the 2014 season. In their round 6 game at AAMI Park, a refereeing and timekeeping error resulted in Melbourne scoring a try after the siren had gone, to win them the match. In the 80th minute, St. George Illawarra were ahead 24–22. The full-time siren sounded in the 80th minute, prior to a Melbourne player in possession being tackled. After the tackle was completed, the referees allowed play to continue, rather than ending the match, which gave Melbourne the chance to spread the ball in an elongated play, which resulted in a try and conversion in the 81st minute, giving them the win, 28–24.
Club records
(As of the end of the 2023 season)
Player records
Most Games for the Dragons
Most Points in a Season
Most Points for the Dragons (300+ )
Top 10 Try Scorers
Top 10 Goal Kickers
Most Tries in a Season
Top 10 Most Points in a Match
Bold – Active
Head-to-head records
Since the foundation of the St. George Illawarra Dragons, the club has achieved the following Win/Loss Record:
Biggest winning margins
Most consecutive wins
9 – (27 March 2011 – 29 May 2011)
8 – (17 July 2005 – 10 September 2005)
7 – (17 May 2008 – 5 July 2008)
7 – (14 June 2009 – 7 August 2009)
Biggest comeback
24-points – Trailed Manly Sea Eagles 34–10 after 57 minutes to win 36–34 at Jubilee Stadium (19 August 2004)
Biggest losing margins
Most consecutive losses
8 – (16 July 2021 – 4 September 2021)
7 – (8 June 2015 – 2 August 2015)
6 - (9 April 2023 - 13 May 2023)
6 - (29 July 2023 - 2 September 2023)
6 – (27 July 2013 – 2 September 2013)
5 - (4 July 2019 - 4 August 2019)
5 – (5 September 2004 – 2 April 2005)
5 – (14 July – 13 August 2006)
5 – (23 March – 30 April 2007)
Worst collapse
20-points – Led South Sydney Rabbitohs 20–0 after 35 minutes to lose 34–24 at WIN Stadium (31 July 2011)
Honours
Women's team
In December 2017, the St. George Illawarra Dragons expressed their interest in applying for a licence to participate in the inaugural NRL Women's season. In March 2018, they were awarded one of four licences for the league's inaugural season, to commence in September of the same year. Daniel Lacey was appointed to coach the side.
In June 2018, Sam Bremner, Kezie Apps and Talesha Quinn were unveiled as the club's first three signings.
Current squad
Season summaries
See also
Illawarra Steelers
St. George Dragons
References
External links
Supporter sites
Dragons Lair – St George Illawarra Dragons Fan Discussion Forum
National Rugby League clubs
Rugby league teams in Sydney
Rugby league teams in Wollongong
Rugby clubs established in 1998
Fan-owned football clubs |
4286871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W.%20D.%20Jones | W. D. Jones | William Daniel ("W.D.", "Bud", "Deacon") Jones (May 12, 1916 – August 20, 1974) was a member of the Barrow Gang, whose crime spree throughout the southern Midwest in the early years of the Great Depression became part of American criminal folklore. Jones ran with Clyde Barrow and Bonnie Parker for eight and a half months, from Christmas Eve 1932 to early September 1933. He and another gang member named Henry Methvin were consolidated into the "C.W. Moss" character in the film Bonnie and Clyde (1967). "Moss was a dumb kid who run errands and done what Clyde told him," Jones later said, "That was me, all right."
Early life
James Zeberdie Jones (1883–1923) and Tookie (née Garrison) Jones (1884–1971) were sharecroppers in Henderson County, Texas with six children: five sons and a daughter. William was their second youngest child. After postwar cotton prices collapsed they gave up trying to farm, and circa 1921–22 the Joneses settled in the industrial slum of West Dallas, in the same wave that brought the Barrow family and hundreds of other poor families from the country to the unwelcoming city. It was a maze of tent cities and shacks without running water, gas or electricity, set on dirt streets amid smokestacks, oil refineries, "plants, quarries, lagoons, tank farms and burrow pits" on the Trinity River floodplain. It was while his family was living in the squatters' camp under the Oak Cliff Viaduct that William, then about five, first met Clyde Barrow, then age 11 or 12.
When William was six years old his entire family was stricken by what was probably Spanish flu, which lingered after the 1918 pandemic in pockets of the United States where unhealthy conditions prevailed. His father and sister died in the same hour, his oldest brother two nights later, all of pneumonia, which was frequently the coup de grâce delivered by that strain of flu. Tookie Jones and four of her sons survived.
Jones grew up illiterate. Before or after the illness that devastated his family, he got partly through the first grade. He recalled that he left school to sell newspapers. He had been friends with LC Barrow, the youngest son of his mother's friend Cumie, since their families' first days in West Dallas. The Joneses and the Barrows were close: when Marvin “Buck” Barrow was to stand trial in San Antonio for car theft, Tookie and her two youngest boys accompanied the Barrows and their two youngest children as they traveled by horse and wagon, 300 miles south, to attend.
Both boys had big brothers named Clyde. William's brother Clyde drove his wife and Marvin Barrow's girlfriend Blanche across the country to Tennessee in the summer of 1930 to see Marvin while he was on the lam. The Barrows, too, had been hit by disease in the West Dallas camp: Clyde, his father and his younger sister Marie were hospitalized by something so severe that years later Clyde was rejected by the Navy due to its lingering effects.
Barrow Gang
By age 15 or 16 W.D. Jones was known to the local police. He hung around the Barrows' service station on Eagle Ford Road, "entertained" older men, and collected license plates for LC Barrow's brothers Clyde and Marvin “Buck” Barrow to use on cars they stole. He was picked up in Dallas at least once "on suspicion" of car theft and was arrested with LC in Beaumont, Texas for car theft. On Christmas Eve 1932, Clyde Barrow and his friend Bonnie — already on the run, and glamorous outlaws to W.D. — stopped by home. Barrow was between assistants, and he and Parker brought Jones along with them when they left.
The next afternoon in Temple, Texas, in a botched attempt at stealing a car, Jones or Barrow shot and killed the car's owner, grocery clerk Doyle Johnson, a 27-year-old new father. Newspaper accounts reported that the fatal shots came from the passenger side of the car. According to Jones, Barrow used this report to make sure Jones didn't leave the gang. Jones was indicted for Johnson's murder by a Bell County grand jury, but was not tried.
On the night of January 6, 1933 in Dallas, the three stumbled into a trap set for another criminal. Barrow killed Tarrant County Deputy Malcolm Davis, shooting him point-blank in the chest with a 16-gauge shotgun. Jones and Parker were waiting in the car for Barrow and were as startled as the neighbors were when gunfire broke out. Jones "grabbed a gun and began blasting the landscape." Parker shouted to him to stop, that he might hit someone, and she circled the car around the block to catch up with Barrow.
In his confession to police, Jones said that he was starting the motor while Parker fired her pistol out the passenger window. Thirty-five years later, he told Playboy magazine, "As far as I know, Bonnie never packed a gun.... during the five big gun battles I was with them, she never fired a gun." In October 1934 Jones was tried and convicted as an accessory to Deputy Davis's murder as part of an arrangement with Dallas County Sheriff R.A."Smoot" Schmid.
After the murder of Malcolm Davis, Barrow, Parker and Jones lay low. They drove through the hills of Missouri and Arkansas and may have wandered as far east as Tennessee. They made news only on the night of January 26, when they kidnapped Springfield, Missouri police officer Thomas Persell. Twice in early spring they dressed up and photographed each other and their gun collection beside the road. They saw how their pictures came out at the same time as thousands of newspaper readers: in April the rolls of film were captured by police, developed, and published. The playful pictures brought unintended consequences, particularly one of Bonnie Parker squinting defiantly at the camera, her foot planted on the bumper of a stolen car, a gun at her outthrust hip and a cigar hanging from her mouth. Dallas County Deputy Sheriff Ted Hinton recalled that the "brazen pride" displayed in the pictures made law enforcement officers that much more determined to catch them.
The three returned to Dallas on March 24 or 25 and learned that on March 23, Clyde's older brother Buck had been pardoned from Huntsville penitentiary. On the night of March 25 they surprised Buck and his wife Blanche at Blanche's mother's home and persuaded Buck to vacation with them in strategically located Joplin, Missouri.
Joplin, Missouri
Jones was a combatant in the April 13, 1933 Joplin shootout with law officers in which Constable Wes Harryman and motor detective Harry McGinnis were killed by shotgun. Police estimated that this shootout lasted about one minute, from first shot to last. The most serious injury to the Barrows was to W.D. Jones. He was struck in the left side, possibly by a shot fired through the garage's glass window by Detective McGinnis or through the still-open garage door by Officer Harryman's only fired round, though Officer Kahler of the Missouri State Highway Patrol, recalling the battle in 1980, said that he shot Jones below the right shoulder blade, many seconds after the two fatally wounded officers were down.
The Barrows fled westward. They stopped once at a gas station for aspirin and rubbing alcohol. They moved Jones into the front seat and wrapped him in the blanket that usually covered the guns. Parker pried open his wound with knitting needles and poured rubbing alcohol into it. In the Texas Panhandle, somewhere near Shamrock or Amarillo, they pulled over to examine their wounds. "Clyde wrapped an elm branch in gauze and pushed it through the hole in my side and out my back. The bullet had gone clean through me so we knew it would heal."
The unexpected viciousness of the apartment dwellers' response, the haul of weaponry recovered, and especially the rolls of film they left behind made the Barrow Gang suddenly wanted and recognizable far beyond Texas. In their immediate descriptions of the gun battle the police officers remembered only two shooters, whom they named as Clyde and Buck Barrow. No witness remembered a third man. Jones was never correctly identified while he was with Clyde Barrow. When he had to introduce himself during his time with the Barrows he used the name "Jack Sherman." From the Joplin photos police variously identified him as Buck Barrow, Pretty Boy Floyd and Hubert Bleigh.
Ruston, Louisiana
Two weeks later on April 27, in the middle of a car theft in Ruston, Louisiana, still not recovered from his Joplin wounds and perhaps tired of the constant bickering in the car as well as afraid for his life, Jones disappeared from the gang. A fictionalized version of the Ruston car theft and subsequent kidnapping is the Gene Wilder-Evans Evans segment in Bonnie and Clyde. According to his statement to Dallas police November 18, "[T]hey [the Barrow brothers] put me out of the car to steal a Chevrolet automobile for them. I saw this was my chance to escape and I jumped in this car and made my getaway and came back to Dallas, Texas." The car he stole in Ruston was found 130 miles away, at the edge of the Mississippi River, in the eastern Arkansas railroad town of McGehee.
Clyde didn't want to believe that the docile W.D. had deliberately abandoned the gang, but to Buck it was obvious, and a relief, that "the kid" had. Jones made his way back to Dallas and spoke with Mrs. Barrow at least once while he was there. In late May the gang sent Blanche to Dallas to bring money and news to the families. Barrow instructed her to bring Jones with her to their rendezvous. When Blanche passed this request on, both mothers were polite, but demurred. Mrs. Barrow told Blanche faintly that "she did not know if he wanted to go with Clyde or not". LC and Mrs. Parker at least pretended to try to find him. Barrow arranged at least one more meeting, expressly asking his mother to find and return Jones then, but to no avail. He and Parker drove into Dallas and picked him up themselves, on June 8 or 9.
In his statement to Dallas police Jones said, "[A]bout two o'clock in the afternoon.... I was walking along the road intending to go down to the lake and to go to a dance at the Five Point Dancehall that night. Bonnie Parker and Clyde Barrow drove up from behind me and stopped. They were in a V8 Coupe....They spoke to me and told me to get in the car and I got in. They asked me if I wanted to go with them, and I told them I did not, and Clyde said I was going anyway, and I did." After this, even when the five-person gang had two cars, "Clyde always wanted W.D. to be in the car with him."
Wellington, Texas
On the night of June 10, racing to meet Buck and Blanche in Oklahoma, Barrow was traveling too fast to notice a detour sign at the bridge over the Salt Fork of the Red River outside Wellington, Texas. "Suddenly the road disappeared." The car sailed into the air, turning over as it went, and crashed into the dry riverbed, rolling several times and coming to rest on its side. Battery acid poured onto Bonnie Parker, eating away the flesh of her right leg as she screamed and struggled. A farm family came to their aid, but quickly contacted police; "Bonnie told me I fired a shotgun there which wounded a woman in the hand." Barrow and Jones kidnapped the responding officers, Sheriff George Corry and Marshal Paul Hardy, to make their escape.
"Bonnie never got over that burn. Even after it healed over, her leg was drawn under her. She had to just hop or hobble along." Barrow, who limped himself, accommodated the new delays, expenses and detours her disability created in his life without hesitation, and while she healed he or Jones carried her wherever she needed to go.
The gang holed up in a tourist cabin in Fort Smith, Arkansas, tending Parker, unable to move on until she recovered — or died — from her catastrophic injury. "She'd been burned so bad none of us thought she was gonna live. The hide on her right leg was gone, from her hip down to her ankle. I could see the bone at places." During this time Barrow's love for Parker drove him to put his own life on the line several times to try to help her.
Fayetteville, Arkansas
With Barrow's attention focused on Parker, the problem of acquiring food and rent money fell to Buck and Jones. On June 23, as the two were fleeing the scene of a clumsy grocery store robbery fifty miles away in Fayetteville, they crested a hill on Highway 71 and smashed into the back of a slower moving vehicle. The driver climbed out of his car and grabbed two rocks; the Barrows jumped out of their car, Buck with a shotgun and Jones with a BAR.
Town Marshal Henry Humphrey of Alma and Crawford County Deputy Sheriff Ansel M. "Red" Salyers were also on Highway 71, driving toward Fayetteville to investigate the grocery store robbery. In the opposite lane the first car passed them — they waved to the driver, whom they knew — then seconds later came the speeding V-8. They heard the crash and turned around, and at the scene they recognized the V-8's Kansas plate. As Marshal Humphrey drew his gun and got out of the car, Buck shot him in the chest.
Jones fired a round from the BAR at Salyers. Salyers ducked behind his car and fired back with a rifle, then as Jones fumbled to reload he dashed toward a farmhouse. Buck's shotgun had jammed. He ran to Salyers's car, yelling to Jones to get Humphrey's pistol. From the farmhouse a hundred yards away, Salyers took aim and managed to shoot off two of Jones's fingertips as the robbers careened away in his automobile. A few miles from Fort Smith, Buck and Jones hijacked a couple's car at gunpoint, then realized the roads into Fort Smith were blocked. The car was found abandoned in the mountains. They staggered in the door of the tourist cabin ten hours after they had left. The Barrow Gang packed up what they could and decamped.
The next month, Deputy Salyers drove 500 miles to a hospital in Perry, Iowa, to get a final statement from the dying Buck Barrow. Barrow admitted to Salyers that he had murdered Marshal Humphrey, and that he and the man with him — who he finally confessed was "Jack Sherman"— had been shooting to kill them both. Officer Humphrey's pistol was found in the Barrows' debris at Dexfield Park. In November, Jones told police that he had been stunned in the car crash and his memory of any ensuing action was hazy, but he was confident that only Buck was shooting. He remembered standing in the highway looking for a gold ring he had lost. However, the following February at the harboring trial, Jones read a statement in which he said both he and Buck had killed Humphrey.
Platte City and Dexfield Park
On July 20 around 1:00 a.m, thirteen lawmen led by Sheriff Holt Coffey, protecting themselves from expected machine gun fire with metal shields, advanced on the double cabin at the Red Crown Tourist Court in Platte City, Missouri. In the ensuing firefight Buck Barrow was shot in the head as he and Blanche ran to get inside the garage. Jones had started the V8's engine but was afraid to open the garage door, then was afraid to help Blanche drag Buck inside. As they flew toward the highway Blanche was partly blinded by shards of glass from the car's exploding windows.
Clyde drove them north two hundred miles, running for a long time on flats, then rims, the floor of the car sloshing with Buck's blood. State and federal agents tracked them north following reports of blood-soaked and burned clothes and bandages in fields and on the sides of the road. The Barrow Gang hid in a brake of trees at the edge of an abandoned amusement park outside Dexter, Iowa. They attempted to leave the park the next day but, helplessly, returned: Buck's injuries were too severe.
During the night of July 24, 1933 nearly one hundred law officers, National Guardsmen and interested, armed, mostly deputized citizens — some with dates — crept up to the edges of the field, and as the sun rose a new shootout began. Parker, Barrow and Jones were badly wounded. Buck, unable to run, was shot six more times, and he and Blanche, who would not leave him, were captured. "Half stumbling, half swimming," Jones dragged and carried Parker a mile and a half while Barrow fought away the last of the posse. Bonnie told her sister that as she and W.D. hid in the brush, their wounds dripping blood, they heard distant gunfire and then a long silence.
Bonnie began to weep and to wish they had a gun with them, so she could die with Clyde. Eventually, Barrow crawled out of the woods. Gesturing with an empty pistol he commandeered a car from a farmer and the trio escaped.
They kept driving. Throughout August they plied the back roads from Nebraska to Minnesota to Mississippi, pausing in only the smallest towns to steal fresh cars and money for gas and food. They slept in the cars, and parked in remote fields or woods or in ravines. The following winter, Barrow observed that he had not slept in a bed or even changed his clothes since his brother Buck was killed. Near the end of the month Barrow and Jones rebuilt the gang's security by robbing the armory at Plattville, Illinois of more BARs, handguns and ammunition.
Jones was as loyal a subordinate as Clyde and Bonnie could have hoped for, but he did not want to accompany them into death or even any farther into pain and fear. They were aware that Jones wanted to leave them. Nevertheless, Jones stayed until Barrow and Parker were well enough to take care of themselves without help before leaving. "I left Clyde and Bonnie after they was healed up enough to get by without me.... I'd had enough blood and hell."
According to Barrow family members, the three made their way back to West Dallas and split up there on September 7. This may have been the story Clyde and Bonnie told. According to W.D. Jones, they were forty miles outside of Clarksdale, Mississippi on the night in early September when he saw a way to escape. They had just stolen a new car and Barrow had given him $2.12 to fill its tank. Jones put in a few gallons, then drove ahead as if to find a secluded place to stop and change cars. But when he was out of Barrow's sight he turned down a country road, turned off the car's headlights, and sped up. After a few miles he left the car and fled for his mother's home in Houston.
Arrest and sentence
Jones kept a low profile after his return to Houston, picking cotton and digging vegetables on area farms to support himself. On November 16, 1933, he was arrested without incident in Houston by Dallas County deputies Bob Alcorn and Ed Caster, who drove him to the Dallas County jail. An acquaintance in Houston had identified him to police as the mystery Barrow accomplice.
It is possible that Barrow coached Jones on what to say if he was ever arrested, or that the two of them agreed on a basic theme for Jones's official story: that Clyde, Bonnie and Buck had done all the shooting and robbing and that W.D., a minor child, was an unwilling member of the gang, forced to ride with them at gunpoint, unconscious with fear or trauma most of the time, and chained to trees and car bumpers at night. Jones may or may not have had Barrow's blessing to blame every serious transgression on those who had nothing to lose, but on November 18, 1933, he relayed to Dallas police just such a story.
Dallas county possession of an important Barrow Gang member was an ace up the sleeve for the politically ambitious Sheriff Schmid, who kept Jones a secret for ten days, perhaps hoping Clyde Barrow would try to storm the jail and break Jones out. Jones for his part insisted that he was grateful to be safely behind bars. On the night of November 22 the sheriff and his deputies Alcorn, Caster and Hinton bungled an ambush of Barrow and Parker in Sowers, Texas, on the outskirts of Dallas. The Dallas press jeered loudly — even the newsboys hawked the story as "Sheriff escapes from Clyde Barrow!" — until Schmid put W.D. Jones on display. Wide-eyed and "shaking with fear," Jones met the press. His deal with Sheriff Schmid was apparent in the sensational headline, "Saw Clyde Shoot Deputy."
Jones and the sheriff agreed that he would be tried as an accessory to Clyde Barrow's January 6 murder in Dallas of Deputy Davis, which would protect him against extradition to Arkansas for the June 23 shootout on Highway 71 in which Marshal Humphrey was killed. "They tried me for killing a sheriff's man at Dallas," Jones told Playboy in 1968. "Clyde done it, but I was glad to take the rap. Arkansas wanted to extradite me, and I sure didn't want to go to no Arkansas prison. I figure now that if Arkansas had got me, one of them skeletons they've dug up there might have been me."
Jones was in the Dallas County jail on the morning of May 23, 1934, when Barrow and Parker were ambushed and killed on the Sailes-Gibsland road in north Louisiana. When reporters crowded in to tell him the news, he said, "I admit that I am relieved," and shook his head.
At his trial the following October all state witnesses recommended against the death penalty. Jones was convicted of a crime codified in 1931, "murder without malice." Though the district attorney and the prosecuting attorney recommended a sentence of 99 years, on October 12 the jury handed down a sentence of fifteen years.
In February 1935 Jones and nineteen other family members and associates of Barrow and Parker were defendants in the federal government's test-case trial en masse for "harboring." He received the maximum sentence for harboring, two years, applied to run concurrently with his Texas sentence. After six years in the Huntsville penitentiary he was paroled.
After the Barrow Gang
"There's a bullet in my chest, I think from a machine gun, birdshot in my face and buckshot in my chest and right arm." "When I tried to join the Army in World War Two after I got out of prison, them doctors turned me down because their X-rays showed four buckshot and a bullet in my chest and part of a lung blown away".
Jones lived the rest of his life in Houston, for many years next door to his mother. He married, but his wife died in the mid-1960s. He became addicted to pain-killing drugs. After 1967, the year Arthur Penn's romanticized film ignited a new generation's interest in the Barrow Gang, his arrests made the local news. Jones said of Bonnie and Clyde, "[It] made it all look sort of glamorous, but like I told them teenaged boys sitting near me at the drive-in showing: 'Take it from an old man who was there. It was hell.'" Local TV reporters had brought him to see the film.
In 1968 Jones described his life on the run with Bonnie and Clyde in a colorful interview with Playboy magazine and spoke here and there to young people warning them away from the life of crime. Later in the year he filed a petition against Warner Bros.-Seven Arts, charging that the filmmakers, who had never contacted him, had maligned his character by implying that he had played a role in the betrayal of Barrow and Parker. Nothing came of the filing.
"I've never lived it down," he said of his outlaw days. "I've tried but I guess I never will."
Death
In the early morning hours of August 20, 1974 Jones accompanied an acquaintance to a friend's home where she thought she would be given a place to sleep. The friend did not allow her in, an altercation ensued, and at 3:55 a.m. the friend shot Jones three times with a 12-gauge shotgun. "The man told police that Jones was a 'nice' person when sober but that he knew of Jones' reputation and was afraid of him." He was buried on August 22 at Brookside Memorial Park in Houston.
Date of birth
Marie Barrow, born in 1918, remembered Jones as being the same age as her brother LC, who was born in 1913, and that therefore he was not a minor in 1933. She may have confused Jones's birthday with Ray Hamilton's, May 21, 1913. In 1950 Jones filled out Social Security forms stating that he was born May 12, 1916, the same date he gave Dallas police in his November 1933 confession.
In 1968 he told Playboy he was 16 on Christmas Eve 1932 and that Clyde Barrow was seven years older than he. A news article noting an arrest in September 1973 gives his age as 59. His death certificate gives his age as 58 and lists his birthday as May 15. Since he filled out his Social Security forms himself, while a relative filled out his death certificate, it would be safe to assume that his birthday is May 12 — however, May 15, 1916, is the date on his gravestone. (NOTE added February 2015) — According to the 1920 federal census of Van Zandt County, Texas, J.Z. (James) and Tookie Jones were parents of the following children: Garrison – age 16; Slennie – age 13; Clyde – age 10; Herbert – age 7; and W.D. – age 3.
Another son, Roy Lee, was born in 1920, after the census information was taken. This supports W.D. Jones' claim of 1916 as his year of birth. He was listed as three years old as of January 15, the day the census enumerator visited.
References
Bibliography
Barrow, Blanche Caldwell, edited by John Neal Phillips (2005). My Life with Bonnie and Clyde. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. .
Bonnie and Clyde Joplin Shootout Documents. Joplin, Missouri Police Department
FBI file 26-4114, four volumes of files held by the FBI that document the pursuit of the Barrow Gang. FBI Records and Information
Guinn, Jeff (2009). Go Down Together: The True, Untold Story of Bonnie and Clyde. New York: Simon & Schuster. .
Hinton, Ted, as told to Larry Grove (1979). Ambush: The Real Story of Bonnie and Clyde. Austin, Tex.: Shoal Creek Publishers, Inc. .
Jones confession, November 18, 1933. Transcribed, W.D. Jones account. Dexter, Iowa Community Website The original transcript of the first part of Jones's confession is reproduced at FBI file 26-4114 Section Sub A, pp. 59–62. FBI Records and Information
Jones, W.D. "Riding with Bonnie and Clyde." Playboy November 1968. Transcribed, Cinetropic
Interview with Officer George B. Kahler (ret.), 1980. To Serve and Protect: A Collection of Memories (2006). Missouri State Highway Patrol, pp. 16–25.
Knight, James R. and Jonathan Davis (2003). Bonnie and Clyde: A Twenty-First Century Update. Austin, TX: Eakin Press. .
Methvin v. Oklahoma (selection). The Trial of Henry Methvin
Milner, E.R. (1996). The Lives and Times of Bonnie and Clyde. Carbondale: University of Southern Illinois Press. .
Parker, Emma Krause, Nell Barrow Cowan, and Jan I. Fortune (1968). The True Story of Bonnie and Clyde. New York: New American Library. . Originally published in 1934 as Fugitives.
Phillips, John Neal (2002). Running with Bonnie & Clyde: The Ten Fast Years of Ralph Fults. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. .
Ramsey, Winston G., ed. (2003). On The Trail of Bonnie and Clyde, Then and Now. London: After The Battle Books. .
External links
A few seconds of newsreel footage of the of February 1935.
"Rampage Road: On the Trail of Bonnie and Clyde." The Dallas News
Architectural description, floor plan and photos of the interior and exterior of the Joplin garage apartment: Application for "Bonnie and Clyde Garage Apartment." National Register of Historic Places
W.D.'s grave on video:
1916 births
1974 deaths
Depression-era gangsters
American bank robbers
American outlaws
Deaths by firearm in Texas
People from Henderson County, Texas
Barrow Gang
People from Dallas
American murder victims
People murdered in Texas
Male murder victims
People convicted of murder by Texas |
4287121 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condor%20Ferries | Condor Ferries | Condor Ferries is an operator of passenger and freight ferry services between The United Kingdom, Bailiwick of Guernsey, Bailiwick of Jersey and France.
History
Condor Ferries was formed in 1964 by Channel Island businessmen Peter Dorey and Jack Norman. The company originally operated services only between the Channel Islands and St Malo
Expansion
Condor Ferries established the first high-speed car ferry service to the Channel Islands from Weymouth in 1993 using the 74m Incat catamaran Condor 10. In the winter of 1993/1994, Condor's parent company, Commodore Shipping, took over British Channel Island Ferries (BCIF) which operated conventional ferry services to the Channel Islands from Poole. Upon taking over BCIF, Condor moved all passenger services to Weymouth and the BCIF freight service was transferred to Commodore Shipping. The BCIF vessel Havelet ran a conventional ferry service from Weymouth from 1994 alongside the Condor 10.
New UK bases, purchase of the Havelet and Condor Vitesse
In March 1997, Condor moved its UK port to Poole. The Condor Express suffered technical problems that led to late-running services. As a result, the Channel Island governments put the licence to operate ferry services to the UK out to tender. P&O European Ferries and Hoverspeed submitted bids to run the service but ultimately Condor retained the licence but was forced to purchase the Havelet to act as an all-weather back-up until the delivery of a new conventional vessel in 1999. It also purchased the Condor Vitesse for a new service to St Malo via Guernsey and made Weymouth its primary UK port, though retaining summer sailings from Poole. Commodore Shipping became sole owner of the company around this time.
Introduction of Condor 10, management buy-out, rebranding and sale
Condor 10 returned to the fleet in March 2002 to replace the Condor 9 on the St Malo – Channel Island service and to fully compete with the existing fast car ferry service of Emeraude Lines. Later that year, the Commodore Group, which included Condor Ferries, Commodore Ferries and Commodore Express, was sold to a management buy-out team for a reported £150 million. The deal was backed by ABN AMRO. Shortly after, the Condor Ferries logo was redesigned for the start of the 2003 season using the same font as the logo Brittany Ferries had adopted in 2002. In 2004, the group was rebranded with Commodore Ferries coming under the Condor Ferries name and Commodore Express becoming Condor Logistics. The group was sold once again in 2004 to the Royal Bank of Scotland's venture capital arm for £240 million.
Acquisition by the Macquarie Group
In 2008, the Macquarie European Infrastructure Fund II acquired the Condor Group.
Closure of Condor Logistics
It was announced on 4 October 2012 that Condor Logistics would close its operations with the loss of about 180 jobs (110 in the UK, 50 in Jersey and 20 in Guernsey). The move was blamed on changes to low-value consignment relief affecting the Channel Islands.
Purchase and introduction of Condor Liberation
In 2014, Condor Ferries extended its agreement to run Channel Island services until 2020. Shortly afterwards, Condor began to seek a suitable replacement for both Condor Express and Condor Vitesse. It was then announced that both vessels were to be sold and replaced by the much larger Condor Liberation, then known as Condor 102. After being modified at Austal’s Philippines yard, it entered service with Condor Ferries on 27 March 2015 operating out of Poole on the Dorset coast.
However, due to the size of Condor Liberation, ferry services to Weymouth ended as the vessel was deemed 'too big' to dock into the small port in Weymouth.
Brittany Ferries partnership
In 2001, Condor started operating a Poole – Cherbourg fastcraft service on behalf of Brittany Ferries using the Condor Vitesse which sported a joint livery. The service ran between mid-May and late October, leaving Poole at 07:30 and arriving back from Cherbourg at 12:45. Condor Vitesse then operated the Condor service to St Malo arriving back in Poole by midnight.
In August 2005, Condor Express briefly ran on the Poole – Cherbourg service. The Condor Express had been experiencing technical problems and so the Condor Vitesse was transferred to the more taxing Channel Islands service. Condor Express also operated the Poole-Cherbourg route in 2008.
Since 2022, Condor has operated fast-ferry services between Poole, Portsmouth and Cherbourg using the Condor Liberation during summer months.
Sale and purchase
In June 2019, the UK based UK-based financial website This is Money, reported that Macquarie Group was looking to wind down Condor’s then owner, the Macquarie European Infrastructure Fund 2. Rumors had surfaced for a few years beforehand when Deputy Peter Ferbrache, formerly the President of Guernsey's Committee for Economic Development, said in a Scrutiny hearing that the company was on the market.
It was announced on 14 November 2019 that Columbia Threadneedle Investments had purchased Condor, forming a consortium with Brittany Ferries, who also bought a minority stake in the company.
Operations
Condor Ferries operate the following routes:
Current fleet
The fleet is as follows.
MV Commodore Clipper
In 1999, Commodore Clipper (IMO9201750) was delivered to Commodore Ferries and replaced a freight ferry Island Commodore. The new Commodore Clipper was able to replace Havelet as all-weather back-up for the fast craft as she had space for 500 passengers.
MV Commodore Goodwill
Commodore Goodwill was launched on 6 November 1995, and delivered on 1st March 1996. The ship operates freight only services between Portsmouth and the Channel Islands and occasionally St Malo.
MV Condor Islander
Condor Islander entered service on 23 October 2023. The ship previously sailed for Bornholmstrafikken and StraitNZ. Both passenger and freight services operate between Portsmouth, the Channel Islands and St Malo.
Teething problems
The vessel was scheduled to begin service in early November 2023, however, this was brought forward earlier than planned to October 2023, with freight services starting on 8 October and both passenger and freight services on 15 October. Due to the late installation of vital equipment, this was then pushed back again to 20 October 2023.
Due to the conditions of Storm Babet, Condor Islander's first sailing with passengers on 20 October 2023 was canceled and pushed back by two days.
On 23 October 2023, the service to Jersey from Guernsey was canceled due to technical problems and the ship departed for Portsmouth earlier than scheduled
On 25 October 2023, it was announced that the vessel would be pulled out of service until 2 November of the same year, and all sailings would be canceled until then. This was caused by issues with the front bow thrusters.
HSC Condor Liberation
Condor Liberation entered service between Poole and the Channel Islands on Friday 27 March 2015.
On 30 April 2015 the Jersey-born film star Henry Cavill was allowed to briefly steer Condor Liberation.
Teething problems
Condor Liberation had a number of cancelled sailings in her first weeks of service due to technical problems and adverse weather conditions:
On 28 March 2015, the ferry's second day in service, while attempting to turn in St Peter Port harbour, the ship struck the quay, sustaining minor damage. The ship remained out of service for a week. This prompted the brief return of Condor Express, whilst it was in the process of being sold to Seajets
On its return to service the ship developed an electrical fault in its engines, and was forced to run at reduced speed, resulting in service cancellations.
On 11 April 2015 the ferry was unable to load 24 cars and 60 passengers at Jersey due to a combination of late running and an issue with a section of hoistable deck.
On 9 May 2015 which is the Channel Island's Liberation Day the ship did not sail in the morning (one of two sailings scheduled for the day) due to the failure of one of her bow thrusters.
In May 2015, Condor admitted that 10% of ferry crossings had not run at all, and only 60% of those that had had run to schedule. A review into the suitability of the ship was commissioned.
On 24 August 2015 the ferry was unable to dock in St Peter Port. Condor stated that another vessel was impeding safe access, and the ship continued to Poole.
On 19 and 22 September 2015 the ferry's sailings were cancelled due to repairs being carried out to her exhaust system.
On 29 and 30 October 2015 the ferry's sailings were cancelled due to repair work.
On 23 November 2015 the ferry's sailing was cancelled due to an electrical fault.
On 31 December 2015 the ferry was damaged whilst moored in Poole Harbour and sailings were cancelled. The ferry was taken out of service for two months
On its blog set up to promote the new ferry in the months before it entered service, Condor said that they expected the new ship's 'more stable design' would enable it to sail in considerably higher seas and to significantly reduce the number of weather-related cancellations. The ship is currently permitted to sail in a significant wave height of up to 3.5 metres.
Concerns over suitability for the route
Speculation amongst the public that Condor Liberation was "at risk of capsizing in anything but the calmest weather" resulted in the publishing of an independent report by Houlder Limited which concluded that the maximum level of heel measured during wave rolling could be disconcerting to passengers but posed no threat to the safety of the vessel. The investigators were on board in a near gale when the significant wave height was 3 metres and short waves were breaking directly on the beam. The maximum heel recorded was 15.5° from horizontal. Rolling is less frequent than experienced in the same sea conditions on the earlier catamarans but the angle of heel is greater.
Company press statements indicate issues regarding punctuality of the latest vessel purely relate to procedures regarding loading and unloading, and are not related to stability or the safety of the ship. This view was confirmed in the Houlder report which found that sailing in poor weather had little effect on the journey time.
The BBC reported on 11 June 2015 that Condor said they would "urge the public to refrain from intimidation" due to complaints being circulated on social media regarding members of staff. This has, in turn led to questions being raised in regards to whether or not the company has appropriately investigated these complaints, again highlighted on social media.
Commenting on news that Condor were commissioning an independent report on the suitability of Condor Liberation, Jersey's Minister for Economic Development, Senator Lyndon Farnham welcomed the move, which will be funded by the ferry company. He said: "I hope that this report will help us to draw a line under ill-informed speculation about the ship, which is not only damaging Condor Ferries' business but could potentially impact our Islands' reputation."
On 18 September 2015 Senator Farnham and Deputy Kevin Stewart, chairman of Guernsey's External Transport Group called for an urgent review of the service level agreement between the States and Condor. Senator Farnham subsequently commented that the Condor fleet was "clearly not up to the job" and criticized Condor's contingency plans and customer service.
Houlder Limited's independent report published on 15 October 2015 also considered the reliability and ride comfort of Condor Liberation, concluding that the ship is suitable for operation in the English Channel.
HSC Condor Voyager
Condor Voyager entered service in the early summer of 2021. Previously known as Normandie Express, she came into service as a replacement for Condor Rapide to operate sailings to St Malo. Voyager is currently owned by Brittany Ferries who are leasing it to Condor.
Future fleet
Condor will use the Artemis eFoiler on a route between Belfast and Bangor from 2024. The eFoiler is an electric hydrofoiling boat.
Past fleet
Condors 1 to 7
The initial series of Condor ferries were all hydrofoil passenger ferries, with the exception of Condor 6 which was a passenger only catamaran.
Havelet
Built in 1977 in Norway for Brittany Ferries for their Plymouth to Roscoff route, and originally named Cornouailles, she was transferred to British Channel Island Ferries in 1989 and renamed Havelet. She was powered by two 16 cylinder Pielstick PA6V280 diesels of 5,600bhp each. Condor purchased BCIF in 1994 and Havelet was used to operate a conventional service from Weymouth until 1996 when she was laid up as it was thought that Condor Express would be able to handle the winter weather. Condor was forced to reactivate and purchase the Havelet in 1998 prior to the arrivial of Commodore Clipper to act as back up for the fastcraft.
Sale
Havelet was sold in 2000 to Montenegro Lines where she was renamed the Sveti Stefan and sailed between Bari and Bar until April 2013 when she sailed to Aliağa, Turkey to be broken up.
Condor 8
Passenger only catamaran, built in Singapore by Fairey Marinteknik. Powered by two MTU 16V396 diesels, waterjet propulsion.
Sale
Condor 8 was renamed Waterways 1. She was sold again in January 2000, to SNAV. Her new owner changed her name to SNAV Aries, and introduced her on a route linking Anzio and Ponza, in Italy.
Condor 9
Fast passenger-only catamaran. Built in 1990 in Fareham by Aluminium Shipsbuilders to an Incat design. IMO8906717. She was powered by four 16 cylinder Deutz MWM high speed diesel engines of 2,256bhp each, driving MJP waterjets.
Built for the Weymouth – Channel Islands route but was replaced by Condor 10. Condor 9 saw work on the inter-island routes and between the Channel Islands and St Malo. Summer 1994, she was chartered to Viking Lines on the Helsinki to Tallinn route. From October 1994 to May 1995, she operated as 'Sun Island Jet Express' between Trinidad and Tobago. For the 1995 and 1996 season, Condor 9 operated from Torquay to the Islands. In 1997, she operated between Poole and St Malo via the Channel Islands. In her last years with Condor she was used between St Malo and Jersey until she was again replaced by Condor 10.
Sale
Condor 9 was sold to Stetson Navigation as the Cortez, and used in the Sea of Cortez. After suffering from an engine fire, she was sold in 2004 to a Connecticut-based company Block Island Ferry Services, LLC d/b/a Block Island Express and was renamed the Jessica W. She is now currently used to transport (mostly) tourists to Block Island, a well known New England travel destination 14 miles off the coast of Rhode Island.
In 2014 she was re-engined with four new
12-cyl Caterpillar 3512C diesels.
Condor 10
Condor 10 was built 1993 and was in service with Condor between 1993-1994 and again between 2002 and 2011. She was sold in September 2011 to a South Korean Company and renamed Hanil Blue Narae.
IMO9001526.
Condor 11
Incat 78m catamaran was brought into service in March 1995 and used for less than one season on the Weymouth – Channel Islands route. Between March and May 1995, the Weymouth service was operated by the chartered Seacat Isle of Man. The Condor 11 finally entered service on 18 May 1995. She was used for one season on the route before being redeployed to Cat-Link in Denmark. She is currently known as Fares 2 and sails the Red Sea.
Condor 12
Incat 81m catamaran which operated for the 1996 season between Weymouth and the Channel Islands. She was sent to Holyman Sally Ferries in 1997 as the Holyman Rapide. She briefly returned to Condor as the Rapide to cover for the refit of the Condor Express in early 1998.
Sale
Condor 12 was redeployed to Holyman's new Ramsgate – Ostend service and renamed Holyman Rapide. In June 2006 Rapide left the channel probably for the last time bound for a new career in the Mediterranean with Balearia Ferries, renamed Jaume II.
IMO9116113.
Condor Express
In 1997, Condor 12 and Havelet places on the Channel Island route were taken by another Incat, this time an 86m design which was named Condor Express.
As part of the Condor Liberation purchase, Condor Express was sold to a Greek ferry company Seajets. She remained on standby with Condor Ferries until the successful introduction of Condor Liberation on the Channel Islands-to-UK route. The Express was very reluctantly put back into service with a very limited service after the Liberation'''s accident, and departed for the Greek islands in 2015. Her new name is Champion Jet 2.
IMO9135896.
Condor Vitesse
On 14 January 2015, a deal was announced between Condor Ferries and Greek ferry firm Seajets for the sale of both the Condor Express and Condor Vitesse for an undisclosed sum (internal company rumours are €9 million), with the plan being for both vessels to be replaced by the new Condor Liberation. The company said the Vitesse would be delivered to its new owner at the end of February. Her new name is Champion Jet 1.
IMO9151008.
Condor RapideCondor Rapide was introduced in 2010 to replace the Condor 10.
It was announced on 8 July 2021 that the Rapide had been sold to a Spanish ferry company Transmapi with the Condor Voyager has replaced the RapideRegistration
The vessels of Condor's fleet are all registered in the Bahamas. In the past, some vessels were registered in Cyprus.
Accidents and incidents
Since its founding in 1964, Condor Ferries have been involved in numerous accidents, with some becoming high profile.
Incidents with HD Ferries
On 11 May 2007 HD Ferries' ship HD1 had collided with the Commodore Goodwill in Jersey Harbour.
A more serious incident occurred on 28 July 2007 when HD1, while manoeuvring in Jersey Harbour, collided with Condor Express which was berthed at the time. HD1 was holed above the waterline while Condor Express suffered only minor damage to its paintwork.
Condor issued a press release on 3 August 2007 condemning HD Ferries, which HD responded to with its own press release. HD1 later had its wave height limit reduced from 2.5 metres to 2m (Condor being able to operate its larger fastcraft in seas up to 3.5 metres), and on 19 August 2007 the HD Ferries ramp permit for Jersey and Guernsey was withdrawn, preventing the company from operating. It recommenced operations on 25 August 2007.
In a press release issued on 2 October 2007, HD Ferries stated that it was preparing to take legal action against Condor concerning the statement published by the company on 3 August 2007, but this was not done.
Following HD Ferries' decision to withdraw its service early in September 2008 and not operate a winter service, the States of Jersey indicated that HD Ferries was unlikely to be allowed a ramp licence again.
Condor 11 grounding
On 9 October 1994 Condor 11 was on sea trials off Tasmania and travelling at 36 knots under the command of Incat managing director Robert Clifford when she struck Black Jack Reef some 12 miles off Hobart.
Commodore Goodwill collision with harbour wall
On 10 December 2007, bad weather caused the Commodore Goodwill to strike the entrance to La Collette yacht basin in St Helier harbour. One of the vessel's propellers was damaged and the ship was sent to Falmouth for the damaged part to be removed to return the ship to service as soon as possible in the run-up to Christmas. On 13 December 2007, the Brittany Ferries freight vessel Coutances was chartered to temporarily take the Commodore Goodwill's place.
Commodore Clipper Fire 2010
A fire broke out on the Commodore Clipper's lower vehicle deck in the early hours of 16 June 2010 whilst it was travelling from Jersey to Portsmouth. The fire was the result of an electrical fault in a freight truck loaded with potatoes. Combining factors like the failure to drain water produced by the drenched systems through drains that were blocked by potatoes resulted in the ferry listing to its port side for a large amount of time. 62 passengers were stranded on board the ferry for around 20 hours. Eventually, all passengers safely disembarked the ferry once it arrived in Portsmouth, with the truck pulled out of the ferry and the fire was shortly put out. Significant damage was done to the truck and other freight trailers, as well as heat damage to a small area of the lower vehicle deck and also the failure of some onboard systems.
Condor Vitesse collision with a French fishing boat
At approximately 0645 UTC on 28 March 2011 the Condor Vitesse was in collision with a Granville fishing boat, the 9.3m Les Marquises, in the vicinity of the Minquiers reef south of Jersey while en route from St Malo in foggy conditions. Two of the French fishermen were rescued from the water by the ferry's safety boats. The skipper of Les Marquises, 42-year-old Philippe Claude Lesaulnier, was rescued by another fishing boat Joker and transferred to Jersey's lifeboat, but died later the same day in Jersey's hospital. An inquest in Jersey revealed that Monsieur Lesaulnier died of crush injuries to the upper abdomen, and drowning. He leaves a wife and four children.
An investigation began. The French investigator, Renauld Gaudeul, procureur de la République de Coutances said that the speed of the ferry would be of key importance to the investigation. On 19 October 2011, the BEAmer released its report. In summary, "Condor Vitesse sailed from Saint-Malo in thick fog conditions; the fog horn had been inactivated very early and the visual lookout had not been strengthened. The speed had progressively reached 37 knots. In the wheelhouse almost continuous talks without any link with the watchkeeping, maintained an atmosphere not compatible with the necessary concentration to conduct a HSC in the fog. This behavior, as well as the visibility are the causal factors of the accident. When Condor Vitesse approached the Minquiers waters, both officers did not detect 2 vessel echoes ahead on starboard, the first was a ship that would be passing at a hundred of meters on starboard, the second was Les Marquises. The potter was fishing, with her radar on, without emitting any sound signals. A hand saw the HSC at the last moment but too late to alert the skipper. The collision cut the fishing vessel in two parts, while on board the HSC there was a leak in the starboard bow compartment. The aft part of the potter kept afloat for a time, allowing the two hands to stay on it until they have been rescued by the HSC crew."On 11 September 2013 the court in Coutances found the Vitesse captain Paul Le Romancer and first officer Yves Tournon (both of whom no longer work for Condor) guilty of manslaughter, involuntary injury and failure to respect maritime regulations. Tournon was later exonerated by the Caen appeal court, which quashed his conviction.
Commodore Clipper grounding
On 14 July 2014, Commodore Clipper accidentally grounded off Guernsey. The key findings of an investigation by Marine Accident Investigation Branch were:
There had not been enough planning for the trip – in part because the repetitive nature of the schedule had led to "complacency".
The crew refused to acknowledge that the ship might have grounded, partly because the alarms that could have told them it had been disabled
Insufficient passage planning meant that the bridge team headed into danger without appreciation of the navigational risk. The planning issues not properly considered were: the very low tide, the effect of the ship 'squatting' in shallow water at high speed and the accuracy of the chart data.
The possibility that the vessel had grounded was denied. In the circumstances of a shuddering vibration, it is important that the crew establish the state of their vessel by searching for damage.
The repetitive nature of ferry operations can induce a degree of complacency when planning.
The electronic navigation system was not being utilised effectively because safety settings were not appropriate to the local conditions, warnings were ignored and the audible alarm was disabled.
As the responsible authority, Guernsey Harbours did not have an effective risk assessment or safety management plan for the conduct of navigation in its statutory pilotage area.
Condor Ferries says it entirely accepts the findings of its detailed and thorough report.
Condor Liberation berthing collision
On 28 March 2015, the day after Condor Liberation entered service, she was blown onto the quayside in Guernsey and had to be taken out of service and returned to Poole for repairs. All passengers had to wait in Guernsey for the Commodore Clipper to arrive to take them to Portsmouth instead of Poole.
Commodore Goodwill collision with a fishing boat
On 8 December 2022, the Commodore Goodwill had departed from Guernsey at 04:41 bound for Jersey when at around 05:30 it collided with the L'Ecume II, an fishing trawler. The Jersey registered trawler sank in of water, west of St. Ouen's bay with three fishermen on board. The skipper of the L'Ecume II Michael Michieli and his two Filipino crewmen Larry Simyunn and Jervis Baligat were searched for, unsuccessfully; by 13 December two bodies had been found and were later brought ashore, with the search continuing. After inspection by divers the Commodore Goodwill was cleared to re-enter service. An investigation was started, with a remotely operated underwater vehicle used to survey the shipwreck. As Commodore Goodwill'' is registered in the Bahamas, the Bahamas Maritime Authority is responsible for conducting a safety focused investigation. Plans were made to raise the fishing boat from the seabed to help advance the investigation, however the skipper's body was recovered from the wreck while it was still on the seabed and only part of the wreckage was lifted onto land for investigative purposes.
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Official Condor Ferries website
HSC Jessica W on Vessel Finder
Ferry companies of Guernsey
Ferry companies of Jersey
Ferry companies of England
Ferry companies of France
Connections across the English Channel
Transport in Dorset
Transport in Normandy
Transport in Brittany
Transport companies established in 1964
1964 establishments in Guernsey |
4287216 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jikuu%20Senshi%20Spielban | Jikuu Senshi Spielban | is a Japanese tokusatsu television series, part of the Metal Hero Series franchise created by Toei Co. Ltd. and aired from to . Spielban'''s footage was used for Saban’s live-action series, VR Troopers.
For distribution purposes, Toei Company refers to this television series as Spielvan.
Plot
The Waller Empire destroys the planet Clin in search of water for its deity. Two Clinian children, Spielban and Diana, escape to Earth aboard the Grand Nasca. The two grow up during the long journey and don High Tech Crystal Suits to defeat the Waller who have come to Earth in search of more water. Spielban must avenge his dead mother Anna and his homeworld, and find his missing father Ben and older sister Helen. Unknown to Spielban at the start of the series his father and sister have been made members of the Waller against their will.
Characters
Grand Nasca crew
Spielban's group is based on the super dimensional mothership Grand Nasca, the source of Spielban and Diana's armor and vehicles. Diana also pilots it to see above the battlefield while Spielban is in Gaios. Its projectile weapons are Nasca Missiles and Nasca Rockets. It also transforms into the Big Bang Cannon, a bazooka-type weapon that Spielban can use. It can also go into "Combat Formation", where it becomes a giant robot that performs the "Nasca Hyper Crush" where it stomps General Deathzero's tank vehicles, shoot beams from its eyes (the Excel Beam), and uses "Knuckle Bomber", where it punches General Deathzero's fighter planes in mid-air.
: Anna and Ben's younger son and Helen's younger brother. A 20-year-old man from the planet Clin, he assumed the alias of while on Earth. When he shouts "Kesshou!" ("Crystallize"), the Grand Nasca showers "Clin Metal Super Corpuscles" upon him, which crystallize to form the silver, black and red suit around his body in 10 microseconds. Spielban's primary weapon is a sword which then becomes the Twin Blade, a double-edged laser lance used to destroy the mechanoids and lifeforms with his "Arc Impulse" attack.
: Marine's only daughter. She is 18 years old and Spielban's partner fighting as by performing the same techniques as Spielban to activate her own white and red suit. When she shouts "Kesshou!" ("Crystallize"), the Grand Nasca showers "Clin Metal Super Corpuscles" upon her, which crystallize to form the white red suit around her body in 10 microseconds. Like Spielban, Diana is quite capable in a fight both in and out of uniform and carries with her the Lady Sniper which acts as her own personal weapon. She primarily serves as a backup for Spielban when they battle the mechanoids or when the Waller send out assault vehicles. There have been times when the Waller have turned their attention towards her once they recognized how much of a threat to them she can be. A running gag on the show was that she would use her charm and sex appeal on the Kinclons, distracting them from their duties while she made her move. Another gag is that she sometimes uses her rear end to attack the Kinclons, which apparently knocks them out cold.
: Anna and Ben's daughter and Spielban's older sister is 22 and was captured by the Waller Empire when she was only a child. She was forced to witness Waller turning her father into Dr. Bio. Later, Dr. Bio was instructed to do the very same to her as well, converting her into with a secondary persona that activates via remote control. Helen is constantly kept away from her brother fearing she would turn into Hellvira and kill him. When trying to stop Spielban and Diana from killing Dr. Bio her secret as Hellvira is revealed as well as revealing Dr. Bio's identity as Speilban's father. After Pandora's trap almost kills her, Bio places the comatose Helen in a protective tube. When Diana learns that Helen survived, she and Spielban save her, as Dr. Bio destroys the remote control, deactivating the Hellvira persona. Soon after, Helen joins her brother in the fight against the Waller as . When she shouts "Kesshou!" ("Crystallize"), Helen is equipped with a high-tech crystal armor identical to Diana's and is and armed with the double-sided Helen Cutter.
Arsenal
Super Dimensional Tank Gaios: A small tank-like vehicle piloted by Spielban. Armed with Gaios Rockets, Gaios Missiles and a Gaios Laser, it is also able to remove its cockpit and turn into "Jet Gaios" for aerial combat and "Drill Gaios" for digging underground. The Jet Gaios fires the Gaios Beam.
Hoverian: A hover-craft vehicle piloted by Spielban which turns into a motorcycle and can fire Hoverian Lasers and perform the Hoverian Rush.
Others
Anna: Spielban and Helen's mother chose Spielban and Diana to survive by escaping in the Grand Nasca shortly before the destruction of the Clin mothership. She died but was restored to life in the alternate future timeline in which the Waller Empire never existed.
Marine: Diana's mother who died when the Clin detonated their own mothership but was restored to life in the alternate future timeline in which the Waller Empire never existed.
Space Swordsman Teacher (ep 14 & 31): A hologram generated by the Grand Nasca's computers to train Spielban in swordsmanship. Later trains Helen/Helen Lady in the same capacity.
Daigorou Koyama: Owner of the invention shop "Edison". He claims to be a genius and comes up with various gadgets that never quite work out. Was once tricked into building a robot for the Waller.
Miwa Koyama: Daigorou's younger sister. She helps out at "Edison" but is sick of Daigorou's inventions that never sell.
Waller Empire
The is the antagonistic group in Spielban. From their winged turtle-like mobile fortress called the Waller Castle Gamedeath, they search for water throughout the universe on the notion that they are sustaining the life .
: Originally a giant Starfish that needs vast amounts of water to survive, Pandora is the leader of Waller who conceived the Waller deity to establish her Empire while instilling fear in her subordinates. In the two-part series finale, after her other followers have died, Pandora personally fights Spielban while splitting into the forms of and . Thought to have been destroyed, Pandora endures and reveals herself as Waller's true leader when she reverted Dr. Bio to Ben for his attempted to sabotage the Gamedeath in her absence. Pandora once more splits into her two forms to battle Spielban's group before merging into a more powerful to finish them off. But Ben injects Pandora with a virus that is harming her at a cellular level, allowing Spielban to kill her as she reverts to her natural form.
: He claims to be a descendant of Waller, which therefore makes him a relative of Pandora. He was summoned from the 23rd century, by a talking gerbil created by Dr. Bio's experiments, from the life of a street beggar to help Pandora in the present. The gerbil told him that his life as a beggar was caused by Spielban. Though he treats his followers and allies as somewhat disposable, he remains eternally loyal to his Queen. Guillotine kept the talking gerbil for a pet, who is later left to Pandora, after he is rifted and destroyed. He dislikes Youki from the start, sensing that this new general will betray the Waller. Guillotine is dressed similarly to a rebel biker. He falls into a dimensional rift and returns as a ghost. As a ghostly form he invades the Grand Nasca and attempts to torture Helen. In this form his right arm has been replaced by a small, living, snake-like monster, which he could launch at the heroes. He was eventually destroyed by Spielban with the help of the Grand Nasca's energy. His gerbil was later contained and destroyed by Dr. Ben during the finale.
: Leader of Waller's Battle Mechanoids he is a black-armored android who is programmed with a knowledge of all tactics. He can transform into the Deathzero Torpedo, a black headed missile that is launched from a catapult. He transforms into this form twice during the series (Episodes 24 and 42), which coincidentally were the only two times he battled Spielban himself. It was strongly hinted that Deathzero was attracted to Diana. He later challenges Spielban to a second battle (both inside and outside of his tank), now having become/been promoted to Super General and powered with a 10,000 volt cylinder given to him by Pandora. He is destroyed by Spielban soon afterwards, with Spielban using his Arc Impulse.
: Formerly Spielban's father Doctor Ben, he was captured by Deathzero and converted into an inhuman being to save the Waller Empire as leader of the Biohumans and Battle-Lifeforms he creates with Lifeform Modification Surgery. He was also protective of Helen and constantly watched over her like a father would. Bio can unleash vine-like appendages from his arms and wields a giant sword in battle. In his first and only battle against Spielban he mutated and ended up in a Bioroid monster form, Bioroid Bio (ep 21 & 30). Bioroid Bio's abilities included transforming into plant life and/or slime and summoning small bee-like creatures and tentacles from his body. In this battle Helen tries to protect, and prevent him from fighting, his son Spielban before she was forcibly transformed into Hellvira to fight too. Pandora sets up an explosive trap to kill Bio, Helen, Diana, and Spielban all at once though, unfortunately for her, all four of them survive. Bio uses his slime morphing ability to pull his daughter and himself to safety. After surviving the battle Bio returns to the Empire and transforms into a floating brain with eyeballs and a spinal cord. Dr. Bio breaks Helen's remote control and is attacked by Deathzero under Pandora's orders. Afterwards Pandora takes away his privilege of moving around freely and imprisons him in a water-filled glass tube. He returns to his Dr. Bio form, with Pandora's efforts, and is reverted to his original human form when he attempted to sabotage the Gamedeath. Weakened as a result, killing the gerbil he created when its attempted to stop him, Ben acquires one of the viruses he developed as Bio and uses it on Pandora while killed in the process. But Ben is restored to life in the alternate future timeline in which the Waller Empire never existed.
: Leader of the Waller's all-female spy army. At one point she tricks the owner of the Edison shop, Daigorou Koyama, into building a prototype for a Battle Mechanoid. She often spies and comes up with cruel plans for the Waller, but is not one for combat. After she interferes with Youki's plan, Pandora angrily turns her into a stone statue for Youki to use as his throne. After Youki's death, the talking gerbil was given this throne for his own. During the finale, it disappears though it was presumably destroyed when the Gamedeath exploded.
: Rikki's aides and fellow spies in Waller's all-female Spy Army. They assist Rikki in almost every evil scheme she creates and employs against Spielban and Diana. Spielban manages to destroy them both with a single strike of his sword when they tried to attack him during a vulnerable time per Guillotine's orders. Unfortunately for them he had gained a second wind, shocking the Waller. Even if he had not they would have been destroyed anyway, as the daggers exploded during the battle. Guillotine had tricked them into wielding the daggers, having promised them an increase in rank for killing Spielban. Upon being destroyed, they were revealed to be robots as they leave behind mechanical pieces and chunks of metal.
: A new Waller officer and androgynic entity created from the evil hearts of men by the Waller deity's (Pandora's) power. He gathered key members of Japanese society and brainwashed them into joining his own secret society, Mumumu. He uses these brainwashed characters to attack and terrorize the city, as well as Spielban and the heroes. Spielban was able to save the brainwashed masses. Youki can appear and disappear at will, as well as blast lasers from his mouth in battle which he first demonstrates in a fight against Spielban. Not trusted by many of the other officers Youki eventually decides to take over Waller, creating the Youki Battle Mechanoid from the remains of various Battle Mechanoids. Vacuumer destroys Youki's creation and sucks up most of his powers. Afterwards, Pandora kills the weakened Youki with his corpse given a funeral before being sent into the depths of space.
: Waller's mass-produced Battle Machine Soldiers, garbed in black tights with gold stripes, smiling gold masks with red eye slits, and black and gold capes. Some Kinclones attack with capes, some by kicking their detonating heads at Spielban, and some are equipped with blades on their hands. There was also a Kinclone with a robotic head which was revealed upon being struck by Spielban's Twin Blade. This one seemed stronger than the normal Kinclones, but was destroyed by Spielban just the same.
Waller Vehicles
Waller Battleship Skulljaws: The Waller's transport battleships that resemble giant flying sharks. They are launched from the Gamedeath during battles.
Skulldon: General Deathzero's black tank which splits into the Skulldon Jet (top half) and the Skulldon Cutter (bottom half), a tank armed with a buzzsaw. Skulldon is accompanied by numerous lesser unnamed black tanks and is frequently defeated and knocked around by the Grand Nasca.
Battle Mechanoids
The are under Deathzero's command.
: A Battle Machineman with massive shoulders and hidden weapons such as an electrical laser under its faceplate that was deployed to deal with Spielban and Diana. During the battle Spielban managed to blast off the robot's arms, but the ring on its back remained and was used to bind Spielban. Gathering the strength he had left Spielban broke free and destroyed MechaShoulder with his Arc Impulse.
: A Battle Machineman built following Mecha Shoulder's demise. While investigating the Waller's latest scheme Spielban was lured into a trap/battle against MechaBander. It had multiple arms, including two large hands and an axe-equipped arm. Also included in its arsenal are electrical dischargers in its shoulders. Spielban survived the first encounter against MechaBander, but the two fought once more. This time Spielban had a plan, scanning the robot for a weak spot. He attacked/blasted the device on the robot's head weakening it and disabling the dischargers before ultimately killing it.
: MechaShocker can extend cables from his chest and blast electrical lasers from the cable's tips. MechaShocker has a bazooka hidden in the right hump, next to its face, which he used to blast Spielban. The battle did not last long as Spielban made short of the robot with his Arc Impulse.
: Spielban spotted Helen while out patrolling the city, however his search for her was cut short by the appearance of Mechaputer. Mechaputer had all of Spielban's attacks downloaded into its system. As a result, it could predict Spielban's attacks before he made them, making Mechaputer able to attack, defend and evade as it pleased. Spielban warped the battle to an empty rock quarry when Deathzero's army arrived. Spielban made short work of the jets and retreated from the battle. Helen was then forced to set up a trap for her brother and lured him into another fight with Mechaputer. This time Diana was in battle and Mechaputer had no data on her, so it was brought down and weakened by Diana and Spielban's combined laser attack (the Double Sniper). It was finally destroyed by Spielban's Arc Impulse.
: A small robotic tank that was assigned to guard the Waller's new underwater lab. Daigorou and a friend were fishing nearby and accidentally snagged MechaNautila. The robot then pulled them both into the aquatic base where they were greeted by the bathing suit-clad Rikki, Gasher, and Shadow. Shortly afterwards the men were released after the Waller femmes fatale flirted with them. Daigorou told Spielban about the underwater paradise, which made him suspect that the Waller may be involved. After discovering the lab Spielban was attacked by Waller's jets and MechaNautila. MechaNautila mercilessly drove over Spielban and then transformed into a full humanoid form. Spielban took a heavy beating but was saved thanks to a recharge from Diana. Spielban used his Arc Impulse on MechaNautila and destroyed it. Nautila seems to come from the marine animal "Nautilus".
: A machine gun-themed samurai robot equipped with machine gun blasters concealed under his shoulder pads. This robot could also blast a powerful laser from the sphere-like apparatus in his forehead. The Waller's plan this time was to target Diana. Once Diana was isolated at a dam, MechaMajin appeared with the Kinclones to fight her. Diana held her own as long as she could, but MechaMajin was too strong. It broke her Lady Sniper and threw her off the dam. Injured and bleeding, Diana fled into the woods where she came face to face with Helen. Helen treated Diana's wounds but was forced to flee from the Waller's soldiers when they appeared. Both ladies parted ways and Diana once again faced off with MechaMajin, but Spielban came to the rescue this time. He loaned Diana his Laser Sniper to and destroyed MechaMajin with his Arc Impulse.
: A robot originally created by Daigorou. An attractive businesswoman came into the Edison shop and offered him a great sum of money if he would construct a robot for her. Daigorou, infatuated by the mystery woman, was more than happy to accept the job. The woman was really Rikki in disguise and the Waller's plan was to use the goofy inventor's creation to launch a sneak attack on Spielban. He went to work dreaming about the possibilities of fame, fortune, and women. Daigorou finally finished his robot but knock-out gas filled his shop and the Kinclones added their own secret modifications. A party was held to celebrate the robot's creation, but the robot secretly attacked Spielban with a small deadly needle in its finger. Spielban faked his demise as he was wearing protective body armor under his jacket. The robot discarded its creator's logo and changed into its Battle Mechanoid form. Spielban went into battle with it and destroyed it with his Arc Impulse.
: A robotic sniper armed with a laser rifle and a sword. It was also the first Machine Man with the ability to speak. At the beginning of the episode, Spielban came face to face with a mystery man in a cowboy hat and poncho. MechaGunman and Spielban exchanged gunfire, but MechaGunman left the battle and demanded a showdown for later. This was also the first fight which left Spielban injured. Spielban modified his laser sniper and practiced his target shooting on board Grand Nasca. Meanwhile, the Waller examined the data MechaGunman had managed to collect on Spielban. When the two had their second gunfight MechaGunman had new surprises. MechaGunman generated a radar and a red laser shield to deflect Spielban's fire. Diana joined the fight but did not fare much better against the shield. She was quickly defeated, but her fall gave Spielban the motivation to short out the gunman's shield and destroy the robot once and for all.
: A robot based on a freezer and other household appliances. MechaFreezer could use his right arm like a vacuum to attack, as well as a fan-like apparatus built into his chest to blast Spielban and Diana with fierce winds and ice spray. An average family was given the chance to live their lives in comfort and fortune in a futuristic house with a safe filled with money. The youngest son felt something was not quite right about the house but the boy's parents and older siblings began to let greed set in as they became more and more conceited. The boy was a friend of Spielban's, so Spielban personally took a look at the house only to get booted out by the parents. Diana had a different approach, placing a spy camera there disguised a toy, courtesy of the Edison Shop. One night the appliances began to behave strangely. The two heroes charged in to witness the birth of MechaFreezer. Spielban eventually destroyed MechaFreezer with his Arc Impulse.
: A drill-themed robot. The episode began with Spielban on a high speed chase to rescue a bus full of children and a teacher from the Kinclones, but waiting for him was DrillHander. While Spielban engaged the robot in combat, Hoverian was stolen. Deathzero then announced to Spielban that he had a choice to either recover his bike, or save the children from a bomb. Unable to do both, Spielban retreated to the Grand Nasca to formulate a plan to rescue both the bike and the kids. Throughout the episode a narration recaps all the Spielban arsenal in action as well as the two Metal Heroes' training. After training with a holographic swordsman, Spielban finally has a plan. Diana uses her sex appeal to distract the Kinclone guards while Spielban sneaks into the abandoned warehouse. Meanwhile, Deathzero was trying to dismantle the bike to extract any useful information, but had no luck. Spielban finds the hostages, but is ambushed by DrillHander. The bike suddenly springs to life, breaks free of the restraints and aids its master. Spielban kills DrillHander with his Arc Impulse while riding Hoverian.
: A gorilla-themed robot. Bosskong had spikes on his fists, and could launch his fists like flying maces at Spielban and Diana in battle. The Waller took a local camping site hostage; two men made an attempt to escape but were stopped by the robotic primate. The two men were recaptured, restrained, and tortured by the Kinclones. A young boy also tries to escape and is successful. Spielban finds the child and learns about the hostage situation. As Spielban makes his way to the campsite, BossKong is spying on him. He manages to free everyone, but Spielban finds himself in serious trouble against BossKong. Diana comes to the rescue, but her efforts against BossKong don't fare any better. BossKong takes hold of Spielban's sword with its jaws and, to reclaim it, Spielban hops onto the monkey's back, pounding it repeatedly until BossKong overheats. Spielban used his Arc Impulse to destroy BossKong.
: A powerful white robot equipped with a hook and a large blaster pack on its shoulder. Blocker has the ability to detach its arms to attack its opponents. Spielban's friend, a young boy named Nobuo, was playing a motorcycle arcade game. Nobuo was then approached by a stranger who offered him a chance to try out a new arcade game. The game was a trap and Nobuo's mind became trapped inside a virtual world. Spielban follows and has his mind trapped as well. Inside the virtual world, and unable to transform, Spielban went through endless bizarre events during his quest to find Nobuo. Every time Spielban came close to Nobuo and the mysterious man, his location kept changing from the urban city, to rock quarries, to train yards. With each new setting there were simulated people who looked harmless but attacked him without warning, including a pair of white robotic hands. The hands belonged to the robot Blocker. Meanwhile, his real body was transported to a hospital with Diana watching over him. Every injury Spielban sustained in the virtual world, his body also suffered. His body was also in danger as the surgeon treating it was Blocker in disguise. The surgeon attacked Diana, who pleaded Spielban to wake up. After Diana freed him from Blocker's control, Spielban managed to wake up from his virtual nightmare and transform to battle Blocker. He managed to cut off Blocker's arms and kick off its head, but it made no difference and the robot continued to attack. It was finally defeated for good by Spielban's Arc Impulse. Nobuo was saved as well and was eager to play more video games.
: A fire-breathing kangaroo-like robot with a high-jumping ability. Dorbelar could blast laser spheres from its mouth as well as unleash a tiny airplane-like camera from its chest. The camera had the ability to fire lasers as well as spy on targets through its single lens. Spielban fought with this robot by itself, as well as with Hellvira at the same time. Hellvira at this time having been forced to fight against her will. Once Spielban knocked Hellvira down, this robot was destroyed soon afterwards by his Arc Impulse while he rode Hoverian.
: An electricity-themed robot that can attack with electricity. A robotics professor was visiting the Edison shop with his collection of robots. The robots looked more like oversized toys, except for one that was modeled with the appearance (and strength) of a weightlifter, called Samson. Later that night Denzilar used its electric current to take control of the robots, including the robot strongman. Spielban went to look for the missing robots and found them causing havoc throughout the city. While Spielban battled the robots he tried to reason with Samson, but Denzilar gave it more juice to overpower Spielban. While regrouping at the Edison Shop Daigorou told Spielban and Diana that the professor grew depressed and went to find his beloved robots on his own. Spielban then disguised himself as a robot for the Waller to capture, but his plan was complicated when the Kinclones found the inventor snooping around and captured him. Spielban removed his disguise and battled Denzilar while Diana took on Samson. Diana was saved when the professor snipped the wires in Samson's head, disabling it. Denzilar still remained but Spielban transported the battle to a rock quarry where it was destroyed by his Arc Impulse. The professor was then reunited with all of his stolen robots, including Samson.
: A wheel-themed robot that could launch wheel-themed discs and blast lasers from his eyes in battle. The discs he launched matched the theme of the wheels that were on his body. This robot was used, alongside Shadow, Gasher, and Rikki, to help capture a scientist and his android wife. The android wife was destroyed in battle by Sharinder. Sharinder controlled a humvee-like vehicle of his own which he brought out in battle against Spielban and Diana. First Spielban used the power of Hoverian to destroy the humvee. Then Spielban destroyed this robot with his Arc Impulse whilst riding Hoverian. Afterwards, Spielban and Diana helped the scientist and made sure he would arrive safely to his next destination.
: A shaman-like shark-themed robot that had a humanoid and a robotic form. He managed to brainwash a KISS-like rock group into becoming an assassin group for Waller. This robot fought both Spielban and Diana inside a cave which was set as a trap for them. Later in battle Sartan revealed that he could launch the fin-shaped blade on the top of his head at the heroes, which they managed to destroy. When Sartan was destroyed by Spielban with his Arc Impulse, the spell on everyone he had brainwashed was broken.
: A robot that could roll up into a ball and attack. It also had the strength to toss heavy boulders. While on Demon Mountain, Spielban and Diana confronted Godolar during a search for a researcher that was last seen near the location by his kids. It was later revealed that the researcher had been kidnapped by Deathzero and the female spy team after he had discovered the Waller's new base. Godolar had been created to guard the Waller's newly built base on Demon Mountain by killing anyone who dared to even approach the place with his vicious traps and weapons. Diana managed to locate the base and destroy it, while Spielban went into battle with Godolar. In battle, Godolar managed to throw heavy boulders on Spielban and pin him down, as well as blast lasers from his eyes. Spielban managed to escape from being pinned and destroy Godolar with his Arc Impulse. After Godolar and the base were destroyed, and Deathzero and the spies retreated, Spielban and Diana helped the two children and their father re-unite in a safer place at a safer time.
New Battle Mechanoids
The are a stronger series of Battle Mechanoids.
: Guillotine personally supervised Puncher's construction. After the two kunoichi completed their training, Guillotine presented them with brand new kunai. One of Puncher's abilities was to detach its massive claw on its right arm and launch it at the enemy. The claw could operate separately from the main body and held a tight grasp on Spielban during their battle. After Diana broke free from the Kinclones she joined the fight, but sadly her efforts made no difference. Puncher was powerful, but was eventually destroyed by Spielban.
: This robotic creature has a snake tail instead of legs. She was built by Guillotine and Deathzero, who planned to use her as a part of Guillotine's plan against Spielban. Medor could blast arrows from her one, bow-like arm, as well as crack her tail like a whip and bind enemies (like Spielban) with it in battle. Spielban managed to destroy Medor with his Arc Impulse. Spielban figured out later that Medor was not Helen, and that Helen was still alive and out there somewhere for him to find one day.
: A copper-colored bat-themed robot who was sent, alongside Kinclones, to capture an alien couple who crash landed on Earth. The alien travelers story was much like Spielban and Diana's, which had happened years ago. Spielban managed to rescue the female, while the male was successfully captured by the Waller. Karmilar launched and latched his tentacled tongue onto the spaceman, draining him of his blue-colored blood while storing his robotic bat-like body. The blood was then turned into blue-like stones/pearls that were given to Pandora and used as an offering to the Waller deity. As the alien hostages were being taken back Spielban appeared and rescued them, which lead to him and Diana having a battle with Karmilar, Deathzero, and the Kinclones. After the Kinclones had been taken care of, Spielban fought Karmilar, who attacked by biting him on the neck. Though overwhelming at first, Spielban endured and destroyed this robot with his Arc Impulse.
: A CD player-themed robot. This robot helped in the Waller's plot to use CDs, with Pandora's voice, to hypnotize and lure/trap pregnant women into their clutches. The Waller planned to use the babies for their own evil deeds. Diana disguised herself as one of these women and ended up in the same trap as the others before Spielban came to the rescue. After the pregnant women were saved, Spielban and Diana took on the Waller forces and Disk together. Disk could launch/blast discs from his arm/hand in battle, use a giant disc as a shield to reflect attacks made by Spielban and Diana, as well as reflect sunbeams as lasers to blast the heroes. Like many robots before it Disk was eventually destroyed by Spielban's Arc Impulse.
: This football-themed robot attacked Diana with the help of Hellvira. With an injured leg, Diana could not withstand the combined onslaught of Hellvira and Offside. When Offside removes the football on its head and kicks it towards his opponents, the ball detonates upon impact. Offside used the football on his head and tried to tackle Spielban repeatedly in battle, both to no avail. Offside was destroyed by Spielban, but Diana was left in critical condition.
: A van-themed robot. After Helen failed to harm Spielban, and it was discovered that her transformation remote was no longer working, Kuruman was sent to destroy Spielban and bring back Helen. Kuruman could transform between his Battle Mechanoid form as well as take the form of a regular-looking SUV. In regular form, he can blast lasers from his high beams and could produce a force field-like shield to deflect Spielban's attacks. In battle Spielban managed to blast and destroy this robot's rear-end, which seemed to slow it down long enough to be destroyed by Spielban's Arc Impulse, which Spielban implemented while riding Hoverian.
: A bee-themed robot, Antom can spray acidic liquid from its mouth that could destroy anything it touched. Antom could also release miniature robotic bees that stung and electrocuted Spielban, Diana Lady, and Helen Lady, attempting to fry their armor's circuits in the process. Antom can also drill its tongue into a building's foundation to cause it to quake and crumble to pieces. He was destroyed by Spielban's Arc Impulse.
: A walking tree-like robot. He appeared when the Waller Empire's scheme was to turn people/Earthlings into plants. Tsutarla grew from seedlings that the Kinclones were delivering on unmarked trucks across the city. After he grew he went into battle with Spielban, Diana, and Helen. Tsutarla could launch vines from its mouth and fingers. These vines could bind and shock Spielban and the girls. He was eventually killed by Spielban's Arc Impulse.
: A motorcycle-based robot. Guillotine had infiltrated a biker gang and planned to use them and this robot, to destroy Spielban for him. Biker could transform between his Battle Mechanoid form as well as take the form of a regular-looking motorcycle. Diana's Lady Sniper didn't seem to affect it. Spielban was able to destroy it in battle with his Arc Impulse, which while riding Hoverian.
: A balloon-themed robot. He appeared around Christmas when the Waller Empire's scheme was to use him/his powers to devour the dreams of children. Yumepakkun could release a binding, glowing balloon in battle as well as fire explosive laser spheres. He was eventually destroyed by Spielban's Arc Impulse.
: He was used during the Waller Empire's scheme to give Earthlings magic mirrors on New Year's Eve that were supposed to make the Earthlings look beautiful. In reality, these mirrors turned people into mummies, through the use of magic from the deity Waller. Shishidon first appeared in the guise of a kimono lion, hence the name. Shishidon is a rollerskate-themed robot who wore rollerskates and resembled a giant rollerskate. He threw explosive parasol umbrellas at Spielban in battle. In battle he could also extend his arms and neck to fit his needs and can blast bladed arrows, mini-missiles and fire from his mouth. He was destroyed by Spielban's Arc Impulse.
: A red robot with three yellow eyes and a bazooka-type weapon mounted on his right shoulder. Not fully trusting the Youki's plan, Rikki tried to convince Guillotine and Deathzero to use added measures. After Walther appeared, Youki and the Mumumu pulled back and left Walther to destroy the heroes. Spielban, Diana, and Helen combined their laser blasts in order to weaken him. Spielban then destroyed him with his Arc Impulse.
: A brain-themed robot with its brains on its chest. Youki abducted a couple of scientists and drained their knowledge into the robot so that he could steal a device that the couple had developed for the Empire. The device supposedly contained technology that could boost the Waller's technology, as they had nothing like it at the time. Spielban and Diana combined their laser blasts to destroy the robot's brains, which held the transferred knowledge of the scientists. The scientists gained back their stolen knowledge afterwards. It was destroyed by Spielban's Arc Impulse.
: A scrap-metal robot created by Youki. Its scrapped body seemed to have previously been that of Dreampacker's since it had Dreampacker's right foot, covered with Blocker's head and helmet, Godoilar's body and legs, Sharinder's right arm, Puncher's right arm which was used for a left arm, and Mechaputer's left foot. It attacked only once before it was destroyed by Vacuumer, though it did manage to attack Vacuumer and Deathzero before being reduced back to scrap.
: A heavy-armored fan-themed robot that can suck anyone toward him or blow them away with gusts from his built-in fans. When Youki rebelled against the Waller and took over the Gamedeath, this robot was summoned to deal with him. It sucked up all of Youki's power and destroyed the Youki Battle Mechanoid. Later it was sent to destroy Spielban, Diana, and Helen, with Deathzero and his fleet in tow. Spielban destroyed it with his Arc Impulse, soon after confronting it.
: A green, scaly dragon/lizard-themed robotic creature that was dressed like a samurai warrior. He sought to wield the Legendary Demon Sword. With it, Kumason would become more powerful than Spielban in battle. Eventually, he and Deathzero discovered the "fossilized" sword, but realized it needed electrical energy (lightning) to recharge its power. The granddaughter of the sword's temple keeper used her energy to turn the sword back into a fossil after Spielban saved her. This distraction and the loss of the sword allowed Spielban to destroy the weakened Kumason with his Arc Impulse.
: A movie camera-themed robot, Movieman was used in Deathzero's plan to make a film. In the movie Deathzero would win Diana and defeat Spielban. In battle Movieman could blast powerful lasers from his camera lens eye and teleport in flashes of light. Movieman could also create translucent decoy images of himself and bind his opponents with movie reel tentacles. Movieman confronted and captured Diana first before going into battle with Spielban and Helen. Movieman eventually had to battle Spielban, Helen, and Diana after Helen rescued her, but it was destroyed by Spielban's Arc Impulse.
: This robot resembles a walrus. Blizzer had the ability to freeze water pipes as well as freeze his opponents with built-in ice-blowers. To keep from being frozen Spielban, Diana, and Helen were given anti-freeze defense on their armor. Spielban tried to reflect Blizzer's attacks back to him, but Blizzer was also equipped with a flamethrower and melted through the ice. Eventually it was destroyed by Spielban with the help of Diana in the Grand Nasca, who managed to freeze him with his own laser long enough for Spielban to use his Arc Impulse to destroy him.
Battle Lifeforms
The are Dr. Bio's monsters created out of organic material. Only a few were produced and near the end of the first half of the series Bio would operate on himself and become a Bio Lifeform.
: The first of three Bio Lifeforms. Guja could metamorph itself into green slime for infiltration as well as morph into a flat starfish-like mass to wrap itself around its victims in order to consume them. After eating a human Guja could assume their identity. Guja was used to break into a museum and after eating and impersonating a guard, a diamond was stolen which Pandora used as an offering to the Waller deity. Dr. Bio later upgraded Guja with the ability to shoot deadly gas. Spielban was almost eaten, but he finally killed Guja with his Arc Impulse.
: A floating spore-like organism that emerged from a rose. While conducting his research by the lake Spielban found a sad little girl. She quickly ran off leaving her backpack behind. The backpack had her address and name which revealed that she was the daughter of a renowned scientist. Spielban returned the backpack, but the scientist and his daughter were being held hostage by the Waller. The scientist was forced to conduct experiments for the Waller while his daughter kept him fed and made it appear to the public that everything was alright. Spielban sneaked in to save them, but Deathzero threatened to kill them and forced Spielban to throw down his gun. The scientist mustered his courage and broke free from the Kinclones clutches which allowed Spielban to attack. Wataja had no body and it was difficult for Spielban to land a decent hit. Spielban destroyed it with his Arc Impulse attack.
: An octopus-based monster and Dr. Bio's final lifeform. Umija was covered in tentacled limbs and was colored bluish grey. Umija was unleashed into the ocean where it would spawn from its arms. Dr. Bio's plan was to infect all the Earthlings with small aquatic parasites causing the infected person enter the ocean where they would turn into fish people. Spielban went scuba diving and confronted Umija. He told Diana what was going on and she volunteered herself as bait to lure Umija out of the water. Meanwhile, Spielban stumbled into Bio's hidden mountain lab and demolished it with his land vehicle. Diana, meanwhile, was engaged in battle with Umija, who could spit out a sludge-like material from the large opening on its face and Diana was hit by it. Spielban managed to join in the battle and kill the monster. After Umija was destroyed, the victims of the parasites were freed of their manic need for the ocean.
Episode list
(Original Airdate: April 7, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Makoto Tsuji
(Original Airdate: April 14, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Makoto Tsuji
(Original Airdate: April 21, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Takeshi Ogasawara
(Original Airdate: April 28, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Takeshi Ogasawara
(Original Airdate: May 5, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Makoto Tsuji
(Original Airdate: May 19, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Makoto Tsuji
(Original Airdate: May 26, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Takeshi Ogasawara
(Original Airdate: June 2, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Takeshi Ogasawara
(Original Airdate: June 9, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Michio Konishi
(Original Airdate: June 16, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Michio Konishi
(Original Airdate: June 23, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Takeshi Ogasawara
(Original Airdate: June 30, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Takeshi Ogasawara
(Original Airdate: July 7, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Michio Konishi
(Original Airdate: July 14, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Michio Konishi
(Original Airdate: July 21, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Takeshi Ogasawara
(Original Airdate: July 28, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Takeshi Ogasawara
(Original Airdate: August 4, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Yoshiaki Kobayashi
(Original Airdate: August 11, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara and Yoshiaki Kobayashi, directed by Yoshiaki Kobayashi
(Original Airdate: August 18, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Michio Konishi
(Original Airdate: August 25, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Michio Konishi
(Original Airdate: September 1, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Takeshi Ogasawara
(Original Airdate: September 8, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Takeshi Ogasawara
(Original Airdate: September 15, 1986): written by Shō Aikawa, directed by Michio Konishi
(Original Airdate: September 22, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Michio Konishi
(Original Airdate: October 13, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Takeshi Ogasawara
(Original Airdate: October 20, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Takeshi Ogasawara
(Original Airdate: October 27, 1986): written by Kazuho Takizawa, directed by Michio Konishi
(Original Airdate: November 3, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Michio Konishi
(Original Airdate: November 17, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Takeshi Ogasawara
(Original Airdate: November 24, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Takeshi Ogasawara
(Original Airdate: December 1, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Michio Konishi
(Original Airdate: December 8, 1986): written by Yasushi Ichikawa, directed by Michio Konishi
(Original Airdate: December 15, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Takeshi Ogasawara
(Original Airdate: December 22, 1986): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Takeshi Ogasawara
(Original Airdate: January 5, 1987): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Yoshiharu Tomita
(Original Airdate: January 12, 1987): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Yoshiharu Tomita
(Original Airdate: January 19, 1987): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Takeshi Ogasawara
(Original Airdate: January 26, 1987): written by Noboru Sugimura, directed by Takeshi Ogasawara
(Original Airdate: February 2, 1987): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Yoshiharu Tomita
(Original Airdate: February 9, 1987): written by Noboru Sugimura, directed by Yoshiharu Tomita
(Original Airdate: February 16, 1987): written by Noboru Sugimura, directed by Toshihiro Ito
(Original Airdate: February 23, 1987): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Toshihiro Ito
(Original Airdate: March 2, 1987): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Michio Konishi
(Original Airdate: March 9, 1987): written by Shozo Uehara, directed by Michio Konishi
Cast
Spielban: Hiroshi Watari
Spielban (child): Makoto Tanimoto
Diana: Makoto Sumikawa
Diana (child): Mika Kawada
Helen: Naomi Morinaga
Helen (child): Emi Kamiya
Doctor Ben/Dr. Bio: Ichirou Mizuki
Anna: Rachel Huggett
Marin: Maria Hernandez
Pandora: Machiko Soga
Emperor Guillotine: Mickey Curtis
Rikki: Michiko Nishiwaki
Shadow: Chiemi Terato
Gasher: Mako Yamashina
Deathzero: Shōzō Iizuka (voice)
Youki: Masahiro Sudou
Captain: Satoshi Kurihara
Narrator: Tōru Ōhira
International broadcasts
In France, the series was shown as Spielvan and premiered on March 28, 1988 on TF1 channel being part of the Club Dorothée block lineup with a French dub produced by AB Groupe with dubbing work by SOFRECI. All episodes were dubbed in French with the exception of the fourth episode which was not dubbed.
In Brazil, this series was named Jaspion 2 after the success of Juspion (Jaspion in the dub), much like was done to the Super Sentai series that succeeded Choudenshi Bioman in France. However, the main hero was always called Spielvan'' in the dub.
In the Philippines, Spielban was aired on ABS-CBN from 1989 to 1990, dubbed in English but it re-aired on IBC in the mid-1990's and dubbed into Filipino language.
Songs
Opening theme
Lyrics: Keisuke Yamakawa
Composition & Arrangement: Michiaki Watanabe
Artist: Ichirou Mizuki
Ending themes
Lyrics: Keisuke Yamakawa
Composition & Arrangement: Michiaki Watanabe
Artist: Ichiro Mizuki
Episodes: 1-10
Lyrics:
Composition & Arrangement: Michiaki Watanabe
Artist: Ichiro Mizuki
Episodes: 11-44
References
External links
Metal Hero FAQ
1986 Japanese television series debuts
1987 Japanese television series endings
Extraterrestrial superheroes
Fictional soldiers
Metal Hero Series
Space marines |
4287389 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20image%20synthesis | Human image synthesis | Human image synthesis is technology that can be applied to make believable and even photorealistic renditions of human-likenesses, moving or still. It has effectively existed since the early 2000s. Many films using computer generated imagery have featured synthetic images of human-like characters digitally composited onto the real or other simulated film material. Towards the end of the 2010s deep learning artificial intelligence has been applied to synthesize images and video that look like humans, without need for human assistance, once the training phase has been completed, whereas the old school 7D-route required massive amounts of human work.
Timeline of human image synthesis
In 1971 Henri Gouraud made the first CG geometry capture and representation of a human face. Modeling was his wife Sylvie Gouraud. The 3D model was a simple wire-frame model and he applied the Gouraud shader he is most known for to produce the first known representation of human-likeness on computer (view images).
The 1972 short film A Computer Animated Hand by Edwin Catmull and Fred Parke was the first time that computer-generated imagery was used in film to simulate moving human appearance. The film featured a computer simulated hand and face (watch film here).
The 1976 film Futureworld reused parts of A Computer Animated Hand on the big screen.
The 1983 music video for song Musique Non-Stop by German band Kraftwerk aired in 1986. Created by the artist Rebecca Allen, it features non-realistic looking, but clearly recognizable computer simulations of the band members.
The 1994 film The Crow was the first film production to make use of digital compositing of a computer simulated representation of a face onto scenes filmed using a body double. Necessity was the muse as the actor Brandon Lee portraying the protagonist was tragically killed accidentally on-stage.
In 1999 Paul Debevec et al. of USC captured the reflectance field of a human face with their first version of a light stage. They presented their method at the SIGGRAPH 2000
In 2003 audience debut of photo realistic human-likenesses in the 2003 films The Matrix Reloaded in the burly brawl sequence where up-to-100 Agent Smiths fight Neo and in The Matrix Revolutions where at the start of the end showdown Agent Smith's cheekbone gets punched in by Neo leaving the digital look-alike unnaturally unhurt. The Matrix Revolutions bonus DVD documents and depicts the process in some detail and the techniques used, including facial motion capture and limbal motion capture, and projection onto models.
In 2003 The Animatrix: Final Flight of the Osiris a state-of-the-art want-to-be human likenesses not quite fooling the watcher made by Square Pictures.
In 2003 digital likeness of Tobey Maguire was made for movies Spider-man 2 and Spider-man 3 by Sony Pictures Imageworks.
In 2005 the Face of the Future project was an established. by the University of St Andrews and Perception Lab, funded by the EPSRC. The website contains a "Face Transformer", which enables users to transform their face into any ethnicity and age as well as the ability to transform their face into a painting (in the style of either Sandro Botticelli or Amedeo Modigliani). This process is achieved by combining the user's photograph with an average face.
In 2009 Debevec et al. presented new digital likenesses, made by Image Metrics, this time of actress Emily O'Brien whose reflectance was captured with the USC light stage 5 Motion looks fairly convincing contrasted to the clunky run in the Animatrix: Final Flight of the Osiris which was state-of-the-art in 2003 if photorealism was the intention of the animators.
In 2009 a digital look-alike of a younger Arnold Schwarzenegger was made for the movie Terminator Salvation though the end result was critiqued as unconvincing. Facial geometry was acquired from a 1984 mold of Schwarzenegger.
In 2010 Walt Disney Pictures released a sci-fi sequel entitled Tron: Legacy with a digitally rejuvenated digital look-alike of actor Jeff Bridges playing the antagonist CLU.
In SIGGGRAPH 2013 Activision and USC presented a real time "Digital Ira" a digital face look-alike of Ari Shapiro, an ICT USC research scientist, utilizing the USC light stage X by Ghosh et al. for both reflectance field and motion capture. The end result both precomputed and real-time rendering with the modernest game GPU shown here and looks fairly realistic.
In 2014 The Presidential Portrait by USC ICT in conjunction with the Smithsonian Institution was made using the latest USC mobile light stage wherein President Barack Obama had his geometry, textures and reflectance captured.
In 2014 Ian Goodfellow et al. presented the principles of a generative adversarial network. GANs made the headlines in early 2018 with the deepfakes controversies.
For the 2015 film Furious 7 a digital look-alike of actor Paul Walker who died in an accident during the filming was done by Weta Digital to enable the completion of the film.
In 2016 techniques which allow near real-time counterfeiting of facial expressions in existing 2D video have been believably demonstrated.
In 2016 a digital look-alike of Peter Cushing was made for the Rogue One film where its appearance would appear to be of same age as the actor was during the filming of the original 1977 Star Wars film.
In SIGGRAPH 2017 an audio driven digital look-alike of upper torso of Barack Obama was presented by researchers from University of Washington. (view) It was driven only by a voice track as source data for the animation after the training phase to acquire lip sync and wider facial information from training material consisting 2D videos with audio had been completed.
Late 2017 and early 2018 saw the surfacing of the deepfakes controversy where porn videos were doctored using deep machine learning so that the face of the actress was replaced by the software's opinion of what another persons face would look like in the same pose and lighting.
In 2018 GDC Epic Games and Tencent Games demonstrated "Siren", a digital look-alike of the actress Bingjie Jiang. It was made possible with the following technologies: CubicMotion's computer vision system, 3Lateral's facial rigging system and Vicon's motion capture system. The demonstration ran in near real time at 60 frames per second in the Unreal Engine 4.
In 2018 at the World Internet Conference in Wuzhen the Xinhua News Agency presented two digital look-alikes made to the resemblance of its real news anchors Qiu Hao (Chinese language) and Zhang Zhao (English language). The digital look-alikes were made in conjunction with Sogou. Neither the speech synthesis used nor the gesturing of the digital look-alike anchors were good enough to deceive the watcher to mistake them for real humans imaged with a TV camera.
In September 2018 Google added "involuntary synthetic pornographic imagery" to its ban list, allowing anyone to request the search engine block results that falsely depict them as "nude or in a sexually explicit situation."
In February 2019 Nvidia open sources StyleGAN, a novel generative adversarial network. Right after this Phillip Wang made the website ThisPersonDoesNotExist.com with StyleGAN to demonstrate that unlimited amounts of often photo-realistic looking facial portraits of no-one can be made automatically using a GAN. Nvidia's StyleGAN was presented in a not yet peer reviewed paper in late 2018.
At the June 2019 CVPR the MIT CSAIL presented a system titled "Speech2Face: Learning the Face Behind a Voice" that synthesizes likely faces based on just a recording of a voice. It was trained with massive amounts of video of people speaking.
Since 1 July 2019 Virginia has criminalized the sale and dissemination of unauthorized synthetic pornography, but not the manufacture., as § 18.2–386.2 titled 'Unlawful dissemination or sale of images of another; penalty.' became part of the Code of Virginia. The law text states: "Any person who, with the intent to coerce, harass, or intimidate, maliciously disseminates or sells any videographic or still image created by any means whatsoever that depicts another person who is totally nude, or in a state of undress so as to expose the genitals, pubic area, buttocks, or female breast, where such person knows or has reason to know that he is not licensed or authorized to disseminate or sell such videographic or still image is guilty of a Class 1 misdemeanor.". The identical bills were House Bill 2678 presented by Delegate Marcus Simon to the Virginia House of Delegates on 14 January 2019 and three-day later an identical Senate bill 1736 was introduced to the Senate of Virginia by Senator Adam Ebbin.
Since 1 September 2019 Texas senate bill SB 751 amendments to the election code came into effect, giving candidates in elections a 30-day protection period to the elections during which making and distributing digital look-alikes or synthetic fakes of the candidates is an offense. The law text defines the subject of the law as "a video, created with the intent to deceive, that appears to depict a real person performing an action that did not occur in reality"
In September 2019 Yle, the Finnish public broadcasting company, aired a result of experimental journalism, a deepfake of the President in office Sauli Niinistö in its main news broadcast for the purpose of highlighting the advancing disinformation technology and problems that arise from it.
1 January 2020 California the state law AB-602 came into effect banning the manufacturing and distribution of synthetic pornography without the consent of the people depicted. AB-602 provides victims of synthetic pornography with injunctive relief and poses legal threats of statutory and punitive damages on criminals making or distributing synthetic pornography without consent. The bill AB-602 was signed into law by California Governor Gavin Newsom on 3 October 2019 and was authored by California State Assembly member Marc Berman.
1 January 2020, Chinese law requiring that synthetically faked footage should bear a clear notice about its fakeness came into effect. Failure to comply could be considered a crime the Cyberspace Administration of China stated on its website. China announced this new law in November 2019. The Chinese government seems to be reserving the right to prosecute both users and online video platforms failing to abide by the rules.
Key breakthrough to photorealism: reflectance capture
In 1999 Paul Debevec et al. of USC did the first known reflectance capture over the human face with their extremely simple light stage. They presented their method and results in SIGGRAPH 2000.
The scientific breakthrough required finding the subsurface light component (the simulation models are glowing from within slightly) which can be found using knowledge that light that is reflected from the oil-to-air layer retains its polarization and the subsurface light loses its polarization. So equipped only with a movable light source, movable video camera, 2 polarizers and a computer program doing extremely simple math and the last piece required to reach photorealism was acquired.
For a believable result both light reflected from skin (BRDF) and within the skin (a special case of BTDF) which together make up the BSDF must be captured and simulated.
Capture
The 3D geometry and textures are captured onto a 3D model by a 3D reconstruction method, such as sampling the target by means of 3D scanning with an RGB XYZ scanner such as Arius3d or Cyberware (textures from photos, not pure RGB XYZ scanner), stereophotogrammetrically from synchronized photos or even from enough repeated non-simultaneous photos. Digital sculpting can be used to make up models of the body parts for which data cannot be acquired e.g. parts of the body covered by clothing.
For believable results also the reflectance field must be captured or an approximation must be picked from the libraries to form a 7D reflectance model of the target.
Synthesis
The whole process of making digital look-alikes i.e. characters so lifelike and realistic that they can be passed off as pictures of humans is a very complex task as it requires photorealistically modeling, animating, cross-mapping, and rendering the soft body dynamics of the human appearance.
Synthesis with an actor and suitable algorithms is applied using powerful computers. The actor's part in the synthesis is to take care of mimicking human expressions in still picture synthesizing and also human movement in motion picture synthesizing. Algorithms are needed to simulate laws of physics and physiology and to map the models and their appearance, movements and interaction accordingly.
Often both physics/physiology based (i.e. skeletal animation) and image-based modeling and rendering are employed in the synthesis part. Hybrid models employing both approaches have shown best results in realism and ease-of-use. Morph target animation reduces the workload by giving higher level control, where different facial expressions are defined as deformations of the model, which facial allows expressions to be tuned intuitively. Morph target animation can then morph the model between different defined facial expressions or body poses without much need for human intervention.
Using displacement mapping plays an important part in getting a realistic result with fine detail of skin such as pores and wrinkles as small as 100 µm.
Machine learning approach
In the late 2010s, machine learning, and more precisely generative adversarial networks (GAN), were used by NVIDIA to produce random yet photorealistic human-like portraits. The system, named StyleGAN, was trained on a database of 70,000 images from the images depository website Flickr. The source code was made public on GitHub in 2019. Outputs of the generator network from random input were made publicly available on a number of websites.
Similarly, since 2018, deepfake technology has allowed GANs to swap faces between actors; combined with the ability to fake voices, GANs can thus generate fake videos that seem convincing.
Applications
Main applications fall within the domains of stock photography, synthetic datasets, virtual cinematography, computer and video games and covert disinformation attacks. Some facial-recognition AI use images generated by other AI as synthetic data for training.
Furthermore, some research suggests that it can have therapeutic effects as "psychologists and counselors have also begun using avatars to deliver therapy to clients who have phobias, a history of trauma, addictions, Asperger’s syndrome or social anxiety." The strong memory imprint and brain activation effects caused by watching a digital look-alike avatar of yourself is dubbed the Doppelgänger effect. The doppelgänger effect can heal when covert disinformation attack is exposed as such to the targets of the attack.
Related issues
The speech synthesis has been verging on being completely indistinguishable from a recording of a real human's voice since the 2016 introduction of the voice editing and generation software Adobe Voco, a prototype slated to be a part of the Adobe Creative Suite and DeepMind WaveNet, a prototype from Google.
Ability to steal and manipulate other peoples voices raises obvious ethical concerns.
At the 2018 Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS) researchers from Google presented the work 'Transfer Learning from Speaker Verification to Multispeaker Text-To-Speech Synthesis', which transfers learning from speaker verification to achieve text-to-speech synthesis, that can be made to sound almost like anybody from a speech sample of only 5 seconds (listen).
Sourcing images for AI training raises a question of privacy as people who are used for training didn't consent.
Digital sound-alikes technology found its way to the hands of criminals as in 2019 Symantec researchers knew of 3 cases where technology has been used for crime.
This coupled with the fact that (as of 2016) techniques which allow near real-time counterfeiting of facial expressions in existing 2D video have been believably demonstrated increases the stress on the disinformation situation.
See also
Motion-capture acting
Internet manipulation
Media synthesis
Propaganda techniques
3D data acquisition and object reconstruction
3D reconstruction from multiple images
3D pose estimation in general and articulated body pose estimation especially to do with capturing human likeness.
4D reconstruction
Finger tracking
Gesture recognition
StyleGAN
References
Simulation
Computer graphics
Pornography
Forgery controversies
Propaganda techniques
Special effects
Applications of computer vision |
4287676 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Caretaker | The Caretaker | The Caretaker is a drama in three acts by Harold Pinter. Although it was the sixth of his major works for stage and television, this psychological study of the confluence of power, allegiance, innocence, and corruption among two brothers and a tramp, became Pinter's first significant commercial success. It premiered at the Arts Theatre Club in London's West End on 27 April 1960 and transferred to the Duchess Theatre the following month, where it ran for 444 performances before departing London for Broadway. In 1963, a film version of the play based on Pinter's unpublished screenplay was directed by Clive Donner. The movie starred Alan Bates as Mick and Donald Pleasence as Davies in their original stage roles, while Robert Shaw replaced Peter Woodthorpe as Aston. First published by both Encore Publishing and Eyre Methuen in 1960, The Caretaker remains one of Pinter's most celebrated and oft-performed plays.
Plot summary
Act I
A night in winter
[Scene 1]
Aston has invited Davies, a homeless man, into his flat after rescuing him from a bar fight (7–9). Davies comments on the flat and criticises the fact that it is cluttered and badly kept. Aston attempts to find a pair of shoes for Davies but Davies rejects all the offers. Once he turns down a pair that doesn't fit well enough and another that has the wrong colour laces. Early on, Davies reveals to Aston that his real name is not "Bernard Jenkins", his "assumed name", but really "Mac Davies" (19–20, 25). He claims that his papers validating this fact are in Sidcup and that he must and will return there to retrieve them just as soon as he has a good pair of shoes. Aston and Davies discuss where he will sleep and the problem of the "bucket" attached to the ceiling to catch dripping rain water from the leaky roof (20–21) and Davies "gets into bed" while "ASTON sits, poking his [electrical] plug (21).
[Scene 2]
The LIGHTS FADE OUT. Darkness.
LIGHTS UP. Morning. (21)
As Aston dresses for the day, Davies awakes with a start, and Aston informs Davies that he was kept up all night by Davies muttering in his sleep. Davies denies that he made any noise and blames the racket on the neighbours, revealing his fear of foreigners: "I tell you what, maybe it were them Blacks" (23). Aston informs Davies that he is going out, but invites him to stay if he likes, indicating that he trusts him (23–24), something unexpected by Davies; for, as soon as Aston does leave the room (27), Davies begins rummaging through Aston's "stuff" (27–28) but he is interrupted when Mick, Aston’s brother, unexpectedly arrives, "moves upstage, silently", "slides across the room" and then suddenly "seizes Davies' "arm and forces it up his back", in response to which "DAVIES screams", and they engage in a minutely choreographed struggle, which Mick wins (28–29), ending Act One with the "Curtain" line, "What's the game?" (29).
Act II
[Scene 1]
A few seconds later
Mick demands to know Davies' name, which the latter gives as "Jenkins" (30), interrogates him about how well he slept the night before (30), wonders whether or not Davies is actually "a foreigner"—to which Davies retorts that he "was" indeed (in Mick's phrase) "Born and bred in the British Isles" (33)—going on to accuse Davies of being "an old robber […] an old skate" who is "stinking the place out" (35), and spinning a verbal web full of banking jargon designed to confuse Davies, while stating, hyperbolically, that his brother Aston is "a number one decorator" (36), either an outright lie or self-deceptive wishful thinking on his part. Just as Mick reaches the climactic line of his diatribe geared to put the old tramp off balance—"Who do you bank with?" (36), Aston enters with a "bag" ostensibly for Davies, and the brothers debate how to fix the leaking roof and Davies interrupts to inject the more practical question: "What do you do . . . when that bucket's full?" (37) and Aston simply says, "Empty it" (37). The three battle over the "bag" that Aston has brought Davies, one of the most comic and often-cited Beckettian routines in the play (38–39). After Mick leaves, and Davies recognises him to be "a real joker, that lad" (40), they discuss Mick's work in "the building trade" and Davies ultimately discloses that the bag they have fought over and that he was so determined to hold on to "ain't my bag" at all (41). Aston offers Davies the job of Caretaker, (42–43), leading to Davies' various assorted animadversions about the dangers that he faces for "going under an assumed name" and possibly being found out by anyone who might "ring the bell called Caretaker" (44).
[Scene 2]
THE LIGHTS FADE TO BLACKOUT.
THEN UP TO DIM LIGHT THROUGH THE WINDOW.
A door bangs.
Sound of a key in the door of the room.
DAVIES enters, closes the door, and tries the light switch, on, off, on, off.
It appears to Davies that "the damn light's gone now", but, it becomes clear that Mick has sneaked back into the room in the dark and removed the bulb; he starts up "the electrolux" and scares Davies almost witless before claiming "I was just doing some spring cleaning" and returning the bulb to its socket (45). After a discussion with Davies about the place being his "responsibility" and his ambitions to fix it up, Mick also offers Davies the job of "caretaker" (46–50), but pushes his luck with Mick when he observes negative things about Aston, like the idea that he "doesn't like work" or is "a bit of a funny bloke" for "Not liking work" (Davies' camouflage of what he really is referring to), leading Mick to observe that Davies is "getting hypocritical" and "too glib" (50), and they turn to the absurd details of "a small financial agreement" relating to Davies' possibly doing "a bit of caretaking" or "looking after the place" for Mick (51), and then back to the inevitable call for "references" and the perpetually necessary trip to Sidcup to get Davies' identity "papers" (51–52).
[Scene 3]
Morning
Davies wakes up and complains to Aston about how badly he slept. He blames various aspects of the flat's set up. Aston suggests adjustments but Davies proves to be callous and inflexible. Aston tells the story of how he was checked into a mental hospital and given electric shock therapy, but when he tried to escape from the hospital he was shocked while standing, leaving him with permanent brain damage; he ends by saying, "I've often thought of going back and trying to find the man who did that to me. But I want to do something first. I want to build that shed out in the garden" (54–57). Critics regard Aston's monologue, the longest of the play, as the "climax" of the plot. In dramaturgical terms, what follows is part of the plot's "falling action".
Act III
[Scene 1]
Two weeks later [… ]Afternoon.
Davies and Mick discuss the flat. Mick relates "(ruminatively)" in great detail what he would do to redecorate it (60). When asked who "would live there", Mick's response "My brother and me" leads Davies to complain about Aston's inability to be social and just about every other aspect of Aston's behaviour (61–63). Though initially invited to be a "caretaker", first by Aston and then by Mick, he begins to ingratiate himself with Mick, who acts as if he were an unwitting accomplice in Davies' eventual conspiracy to take over and fix up the flat without Aston's involvement (64) an outright betrayal of the brother who actually took him in and attempted to find his "belongings"; but just then Aston enters and gives Davies yet another pair of shoes which he grudgingly accepts, speaking of "going down to Sidcup" in order "to get" his "papers" again (65–66).
[Scene 2]
That night
Davies brings up his plan when talking to Aston, whom he insults by throwing back in his face the details of his treatment in the mental institution (66–67), leading Aston, in a vast understatement, to respond: "I . . . I think it's about time you found somewhere else. I don't think we're hitting it off" (68). When finally threatened by Davies pointing a knife at him, Aston tells Davies to leave: "Get your stuff" (69). Davies, outraged, claims that Mick will take his side and kick Aston out instead and leaves in a fury, concluding (mistakenly): "Now I know who I can trust" (69).
[Scene 3]
Later
Davies reenters with Mick explaining the fight that occurred earlier and complaining still more bitterly about Mick's brother, Aston (70–71). Eventually, Mick takes Aston's side, beginning with the observation "You get a bit out of your depth sometimes, don't you?" (71). Mick forces Davies to disclose that his "real name" is Davies and his "assumed name" is "Jenkins" and, after Davies calls Aston "nutty", Mick appears to take offence at what he terms Davies' "impertinent thing to say", concludes, "I'm compelled to pay you off for your caretaking work. Here's half a dollar", and stresses his need to turn back to his own "business" affairs (74). When Aston comes back into the apartment, the brothers face each other", "They look at each other. Both are smiling, faintly" (75). Using the excuse of having returned for his "pipe" (given to him earlier through the generosity of Aston), Davies turns to beg Aston to let him stay (75–77). But Aston rebuffs each of Davies' rationalisations of his past complaints (75–76). The play ends with a "Long silence" as Aston, who "remains still, his back to him [Davies], at the window, apparently unrelenting as he gazes at his garden and makes no response at all to Davies' futile plea, which is sprinkled with many dots (". . .") of elliptical hesitations (77–78).
Origins and contexts of the play
According to Pinter's biographer Michael Billington, the playwright frequently discussed details of The Caretakers origins in relation to images from his own life. Billington notes in his authorised biography that Pinter said he had written the play while he and his first wife Vivien Merchant were living in Chiswick:
According to Billington, Pinter described Mick as the most purely invented character of the three. For the tramp, Davies, however, he felt a certain kinship, writing "[The Pinters' life in Chiswick] was a very threadbare existence . . . very . . . I was totally out of work. So I was very close to this old derelict's world, in a way."(Harold Pinter 114–17).
For earlier critics, like Martin Esslin, The Caretaker suggests aspects of the Theatre of the Absurd, described by Esslin in his eponymous book coining that term first published in 1961; according to Esslin, absurdist drama by writers such as Samuel Beckett, Eugène Ionesco, Jean Genet, and Edward Albee, and others was prominent in the late 1950s and early 1960s as a reaction to chaos witnessed in World War II and the state of the world after the war.
Billington observes that "The idea that [Davies] can affirm his identity and recover his papers by journeying to Sidcup is perhaps the greatest delusion of all, although one with its source in reality"; as "Pinter's old Hackney friend Morris Wernick recalls, 'It is undoubtedly true that Harold, with a writer's ear, picked up words and phrases from each of us. He also picked up locales. The Sidcup in The Caretaker comes from the fact that the Royal Artillery HQ was there when I was a National Serviceman and its almost mythical quality as the fount of all permission and record was a source.' To English ears," Billington continues, "Sidcup has faintly comic overtones of suburban respectability. For Davies it is a Kentish Eldorado: the place that can solve all the problems about his unresolved identity and uncertain past, present and future" (122).
About directing a production of The Caretaker at the Roundabout Theatre Company in 2003, David Jones observed:
Hickling writes in this review of a production directed by Mark Babych in March 2009:
Pinter's own comment on the source of three of his major plays is frequently quoted by critics:
Analysis of the characters
Aston
When he was younger he was given electric shock therapy that leaves him permanently brain damaged. His efforts to appease the ever-complaining Davies may be seen as an attempt to reach out to others. He desperately seeks a connection in the wrong place and with the wrong people. His main obstacle is his inability to communicate. He is misunderstood by his closest relative, his brother, and thus is completely isolated in his existence. His good-natured attitude makes him vulnerable to exploitation. His dialogue is sparse and often a direct response to something Mick or Davies has said. Aston has dreams of building a shed. The shed to him may represent all the things his life lacks: accomplishment and structure. The shed represents hope for the future.
Davies
Davies manufactures the story of his life, lying or sidestepping some details to avoid telling the whole truth about himself. A non-sequitur. He adjusts aspects of the story of his life according to the people he is trying to impress, influence, or manipulate. As Billington points out, "When Mick suggests that Davies might have been in the services — and even the colonies, Davies retorts: 'I was over there. I was one of the first over there.' He defines himself according to momentary imperatives and other people's suggestions" (122).
Mick
At times violent and ill-tempered, Mick is ambitious. He talks above Davies' ability to comprehend him. His increasing dissatisfaction with Davies leads to a rapprochement with his brother, Aston; though he appears to have distanced himself from Aston prior to the opening of the play, by the end, they exchange a few words and a faint smile. Early in the play, when he first encounters him, Mick attacks Davies, taking him for an intruder in his brother Aston's abode: an attic room of a run-down house which Mick looks after and in which he enables his brother to live. At first, he is aggressive toward Davies. Later, it may be that by suggesting that Davies could be "caretaker" of both his house and his brother, Mick is attempting to shift responsibility from himself onto Davies, who hardly seems a viable candidate for such tasks. The disparities between the loftiness of Mick's "dreams" and needs for immediate results and the mundane realities of Davies's neediness and shifty non-committal nature creates much of the absurdity of the play.
Style
The language and plot of The Caretaker blends Realism with the Theatre of the Absurd. In the Theatre of the Absurd language is used in a manner that heightens the audience's awareness of the language itself, often through repetition and circumventing dialogue.
The play has often been compared to Waiting for Godot, by Samuel Beckett, and other absurdist plays because of its apparent lack of plot and action.
The fluidity of the characters is explained by Ronald Knowles as follows: "Language, character, and being are here aspects of each other made manifest in speech and silence. Character is no longer the clearly perceived entity underlying clarity of articulation the objectification of a social and moral entelechy but something amorphous and contingent (41).
Language
One of the keys to understanding Pinter's language is not to rely on the words a character says but to look for the meaning behind the text. The Caretaker is filled with long rants and non-sequiturs, the language is either choppy dialogue full of interruptions or long speeches that are a vocalised train of thought. Although the text is presented in a casual way, there is always a message behind its simplicity. Pinter is often concerned with "communication itself, or rather the deliberate evasion of communication" (Knowles 43).
The play's staccato language and rhythms are musically balanced through strategically placed pauses. Pinter toys with silence, where it is used in the play and what emphasis it places on the words when they are at last spoken.
Mode of drama: Tragicomedy
The Caretaker is a drama of mixed modes; both tragic and comic, it is a tragicomedy. Elements of comedy appear in the monologues of Davies and Mick, and the characters' interactions at times even approach farce. For instance, the first scene of Act Two, which critics have compared to the hat and shoe sequences in Beckett's Waiting for Godot, is particularly farcical:
ASTON offers the bag to DAVIES.
MICK grabs it.
ASTON takes it.
MICK grabs it.
DAVIES reaches for it.
ASTON takes it.
MICK reaches for it.
ASTON gives it to DAVIES.
MICK grabs it. Pause. (39)
Davies' confusion, repetitions, and attempts to deceive both brothers and to play each one off against the other are also farcical. Davies has pretended to be someone else and using an assumed name, "Bernard Jenkins". But, in response to separate inquiries by Aston and Mick, it appears that Davies' real name is not really "Bernard Jenkins" but that it is "Mac Davies" (as Pinter designates him "Davies" throughout) and that he is actually Welsh and not English, a fact that he is attempting to conceal throughout the play and that motivates him to "get down to Sidcup", the past location of a British Army Records Office, to get his identity "papers" (13–16).
The elements of tragedy occur in Aston's climactic monologue about his shock treatments in "that place" and at the end of the play, though the ending is still somewhat ambiguous: at the very end, it appears that the brothers are turning Davies, an old homeless man, out of what may be his last chance for shelter, mainly because of his (and their) inabilities to adjust socially to one another, or their respective "anti-social" qualities.
Interpretation
In his 1960 book review of The Caretaker, fellow English playwright John Arden writes: "Taken purely at its face value this play is a study of the unexpected strength of family ties against an intruder." As Arden states, family relationships are one of the main thematic concerns of the play.
Another prevalent theme is the characters' inability to communicate productively with one another. The play depends more on dialogue than on action; however, though there are fleeting moments in which each of them does seem to reach some understanding with the other, more often, they avoid communicating with one another as a result of their own psychological insecurities and self-concerns.
The theme of isolation appears to result from the characters' inability to communicate with one another, and the characters' own insularity seems to exacerbate their difficulty communicating with others.
As the characters also engage in deceiving one another and themselves, deception and self-deception are motifs, and certain deceptive phrases and self-deceptive strategies recur as refrains throughout the dialogue. Davies uses an assumed name and has convinced himself that he is really going to resolve his problems relating to his lack of identity papers, even though he appears too lazy to take any such responsibility for his own actions and blames his inaction on everyone but himself. Aston believes that his dream of building a shed will eventually reach fruition, despite his mental disability. Mick believes that his ambitions for a successful career outweigh his responsibility to care for his mentally damaged brother. In the end however all three men are deceiving themselves. Their lives may continue on beyond the end of the play just as they are at the beginning and throughout it. The deceit and isolation in the play lead to a world where time, place, identity, and language are ambiguous and fluid.
Production history
Premiere
On 27 April 1960, the first production of The Caretaker opened at the Arts Theatre, in London, prior to transferring to the West End's Duchess Theatre on 30 May 1960. It starred Donald Pleasence as Davies, Alan Bates as Mick, and Peter Woodthorpe as Aston. The productions received generally strong reviews.
Other notable productions and major revivals
1961 – Lyceum Theatre, New York City, on 4 October 1961 by Roger L. Stevens, Frederick Brisson, and Gilbert Miller. Directed by Donald McWhinnie. Setting: Bert Currah, Sets Supervised and lighting: Paul Morrison, Production Supervisor: Fred Herbert, Stage Manager/Understudy: Joel Fabiani
Cast: Alan Bates (Mick), Donald Pleasence (Davies), and Robert Shaw (Aston).
1972 – Residenz Theatre, Munich directed by August Everding
Cast: Heinz Rühmann (Davies), Gerd Baltus (Aston) and Michael Schwarzmaier (Mick)
1976 – Virginia Museum Theater (VMT), directed by James Kirkland. Part of the mission of the Virginia Museum at the time was to disseminate the arts, including drama, widely to the people of Virginia. In this regard, it is noteworthy that this was the second Pinter play to be produced by VMT, showing the increasing popularity of his works. This production followed the company's statewide tour of The Homecoming two years previously.
1981 – Royal National Theatre. Directed by Kenneth Ives.
Cast: Jonathan Pryce, Kenneth Cranham, and Warren Mitchell
1983 – Royal Exchange, Manchester directed by Richard Negri
Cast: Charlie Drake (Davies), Jonathan Hackett (Aston) and Tim McInnerny (Mick). Michael Angelis also played one of the two brothers.
1990 – Sherman Theatre, Cardiff (24 October – 10 November)
Cast: Miriam Karlin played Davies – the first time a woman performed the title role – with Mark Lewis Jones (Aston) and Gary Lilburn (Mick). Directed by Annie Castledine.
1991 – Comedy Theatre, London. Directed by Harold Pinter.
Cast: Donald Pleasence, Peter Howitt and Colin Firth
1993 – The Studio Theatre, Washington, D.C. (12 September – 24 October)
Cast: Emery Battis, Richard Thompson, John Tindle.
2000 – Comedy Theatre, London, November 2000 – February 2001. Directed by Patrick Marber. Designer, Rob Howell; lighting, Hugh Vanstone; sound, Simon Baker (for Autograph Sound). Associate Director, Gari Jones
Cast: Michael Gambon (Davies), Rupert Graves (Mick), and Douglas Hodge (Aston)
2003 – Roundabout Theatre Company, New York City. Directed by David Jones. Set design: John Beatty, Costume design: Jane Greenwood, Lighting: Peter Lezorowski. Design: Scott Lehrer.
Cast: Patrick Stewart (Davies), Aidan Gillen (Mick), and Kyle MacLachlan (Aston).
2005 – Zephyr Theatre. Los Angeles. Directed by Matt Gottlieb.
Cast Robert Mandan (Davies), Steve Spiro (Mick) and Jaxon Duff Gwillim (Aston).
2006 – Sheffield Theatres, part of UK tour in 2006–2007 season. Directed by Jamie Lloyd.
Cast Nigel Harman, David Bradley, and Con O'Neill.
2006–2007 – "Le gardien". Théâtre de l'Oeuvre. Transferred to the Théâtre de Paris. Directed by Didier Long.
Cast: Robert Hirsch, Samuel Labarthe and Cyrille Thouvenin.
2007 – The English Theatre of Hamburg. Directed by Clifford Dean.
Cast: Hayward Morse, Steven Lello, and Scott Smith.
2008 – Guthrie Theater, Minneapolis. Directed by Benjamin McGovern.
Cast: Stephen Cartmell, Steven Epp, and Kris L. Nelson.
2009 – Everyman Theatre, Liverpool. Directed by Christopher Morahan.
Cast: Jonathan Pryce (Davies), Peter McDonald (Aston), Tom Brooke (Mick).
2010 – London Classic Theatre (touring production). Directed by Michael Cabot.
Cast: Nicholas Gadd, Nicholas Gasson, and Richard Stemp.
2011 – Writers' Theatre, Glencoe, Illinois. Directed by Ron OJ Parson.
Cast: Kareem Bandealy, Anish Jethmalani and Bill Norris.
Broadcast on BBC Radio 4, 2:30PM Sat, 27 November 2010, repeated 2:30PM Sat, 28 April 2012: Davies read by David Warner, Aston by Tony Bell and Mick by Daniel Mays, directed by Peter Kavanagh.
2016 – The Old Vic Theatre, London. Directed by Matthew Warchus.
Cast: Timothy Spall, Daniel Mays, and George MacKay.
2017 – Bristol Old Vic, Bristol. Directed by Christopher Haydon.
Cast: Patrice Naiambana, David Judge, Jonathan Livingstone.
Film adaptation
The Caretaker (1963)
Notes
Works cited
Arden, John. Book review of The Caretaker, by Harold Pinter. New Theatre Mag. 1.4 (July 1960): 29–30.
Billington, Michael. Harold Pinter. 1996. London: Faber and Faber, 2007. (13). Updated 2nd ed. of The Life and Work of Harold Pinter. 1996. London: Faber and Faber, 1997. (10). Print.
Esslin, Martin. The Theatre of the Absurd. 1961. 3rd ed. New York: Vintage Books, 2004. (10). (13). Print.
Hickling, Alfred. "The Caretaker: Octagon, Bolton". Guardian. Guardian Media Group, 13 March 2009. Web. 28 May 2009. (Rev. of production directed by Mark Babych.)
Jones, David. "Travels with Harold". Front & Center Online. Roundabout Theatre Company, Fall 2003. Web. 12 March 2009. ("Online version of the Roundabout Theatre Company's subscriber magazine.")
Knowles, Roland. The Birthday Party and The Caretaker: Text and Performance. London: Macmillan Education, 1988. 41–43. Print.
Naismith, Bill. Harold Pinter. Faber Critical Guides. London: Faber and Faber, 2000. . Print.
Pinter, Harold. The Caretaker: A Play in Three Acts. London: Encore Publishing Co., 1960. OCLC 10322991. Print.
–––. The Caretaker and The Dumb Waiter: Two Plays by Harold Pinter 1960. New York: Grove Press, 1988. (10). (13). Print.
Powlick, Leonard. " 'What the hell is that all about?' A Peek at Pinter's Dramaturgy." Harold Pinter: Critical Approaches. Ed. Steven H. Gale. Cranbury, NJ: Associated UP, 1986. 30–37. Print.
Richardson, Brian. Performance review of The Caretaker, Studio Theatre (Washington D.C.), 12 September 1993. The Pinter Review: Annual Essays 1994. Ed. Francis Gillen and Steven H. Gale. Tampa: U of Tampa P, 1994. 109–10. Print.
Scott, Michael, ed. Harold Pinter: The Birthday Party, The Caretaker, The Homecoming: A Case Book. London: Macmillan Education, 1986. Print.
External links
"The Caretaker" – From the "Plays" section of HaroldPinter.org: The Official Website of the International Playwright Harold Pinter (Includes details of productions and excerpts from reviews.)
"The Caretaker Summary / Study Guide" – Synopsis and analysis at eNotes.com.
1960 plays
Plays by Harold Pinter
British plays adapted into films
Films with screenplays by Harold Pinter
Methuen Publishing books |
4287721 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Homecoming | The Homecoming | The Homecoming is a two-act play written in 1964 by Harold Pinter and first published in 1965. Its premières in London (1965) and New York (1967) were both directed by Sir Peter Hall. The original Broadway production won the 1967 Tony Award for Best Play. Its 40th-anniversary Broadway production at the Cort Theatre was nominated for a 2008 Tony Award for "Best Revival of a Play".
Set in North London, the play has six characters. Five of these are men who are related to each other: Max, a retired butcher; his brother Sam, a chauffeur; and Max's three sons: Teddy, a philosophy professor in the United States; Lenny, a pimp who only makes discreet references to his "occupation" and his clientele and flats in the city (London); and Joey, a brute training to become a professional boxer and who works in demolition.
There is one woman, Ruth, Teddy's wife. The play concerns Teddy's and Ruth's "homecoming," which has distinctly different symbolic and thematic implications. In the initial productions and the film of the same name, Pinter's first wife, Vivien Merchant, played Ruth.
Characters
Max, "a man of seventy" – The patriarch of the family.
Lenny, "a man in his early thirties" – Max's son, apparently a pimp.
Sam, "a man of sixty-three" – Max's brother, a chauffeur.
Joey, "a man in his middle twenties" – Max's son, in demolition, training to be a boxer.
Teddy, "a man in his middle thirties" – Max's son, a professor of philosophy in America.
Ruth, "a woman in her early thirties" – Teddy's wife.
Setting
The setting is an old house in North London during the summer. All of the scenes take place in the same large room, filled with various pieces of furniture. The shape of a square arch, no longer present, is visible. Beyond the room are a hallway and staircase to the upper floor and the front door.
Plot
After having lived in the United States for six years, Teddy brings his wife, Ruth, home for the first time to meet his working-class family in North London, where he grew up, and which she finds more familiar than their arid academic life in America. The two married in London before moving to the United States.
Much sexual tension occurs as Ruth teases Teddy's brothers and father, and the men taunt one another in a game of one-upmanship, resulting in Ruth's staying behind with Teddy's relatives as "one of the family" and Teddy returning home to their three sons in America without her.
Act one
The play begins in the midst of what becomes an ongoing power struggle between the two more dominant men: the father, Max, and his middle son, Lenny. Max and the other men put down one another, expressing their "feelings of resentment," with Max feminising his brother Sam, whom he intimates is homosexual, while, ironically, himself claiming to have himself "given birth" to his three sons.
Teddy arrives with his wife, Ruth. He reveals that he married Ruth in London six years earlier and that the couple subsequently moved to the U.S. and had three sons prior to this visit to the family home ("homecoming") to introduce her. The couple's mutual discomfort with each other, marked by her restless desire to go out exploring after he has gone to sleep, then followed by her sexually suggestive first-time encounter with her dangerous, and somewhat misogynistic, brother-in-law Lenny, begins to expose problems in the marriage. She strikes a nerve when she calls him "Leonard"; he tells her that no one, aside from his late mother, has ever called him that.
After a sexually charged conversation between Lenny and Ruth, she exits. Awakened by their voices, the patriarch Max comes downstairs. Lenny does not tell Max about Teddy and Ruth's arrival at the house and engages in more verbal sparring with Max. The scene ends in a blackout.
When the lights come up the scene has changed to the following morning. Max comes down to make breakfast. When Teddy and Ruth appear and Max discovers they have been there all night without his knowledge, Max is initially enraged, assuming that Ruth is a prostitute. After being told that Ruth and Teddy have married and that she is his daughter-in-law, Max appears to make some effort to reconcile with Teddy.
Act two
This act opens with the men's ritual of sharing the lighting of cigars, traditionally associated with phallic imagery after lunch. Teddy's cigar goes out prematurely, the symbolism of which is clear.
Max's subsequent sentimental pseudo-reminiscences of family life with his late wife, Jessie, and their "boys" and his experiences as a butcher also end abruptly with a cynical twist.
After Teddy's marriage to Ruth receives Max's blessing, she relaxes and, focusing their attention on her ("Look at me"), she reveals some details about her previous life before meeting Teddy and how she views America (pp. 68–69). After Max and his brother, Sam, exit, Teddy abruptly suggests to Ruth that they return home immediately (p. 70).
Apparently, he knows about her history as "a photographic model for the body" (p. 73) and about which she reminisces when talking to Lenny alone after Teddy has gone upstairs "to pack" for their return trip to the United States. When he returns with the suitcases and Ruth's coat, he expresses concern about what else Lenny may have gotten Ruth to reveal. As Teddy looks on, Lenny initiates dancing "slowly" with Ruth (p. 74).
With Teddy, Max, and Joey all looking on, Lenny kisses Ruth and then turns her over to Joey, who asserts that "she's wide open"; "Old Lenny's got a tart in here" (p. 74).
Joey begins making out with Ruth on the sofa, telling Lenny that she is "Just up my street" (p. 75). Max asks Teddy if he is "going" so soon.
He tells Teddy, "Look, next time you come over, don't forget to let us know beforehand whether you're married or not. I'll always be glad to meet the wife." He says that he knows that Teddy had not told him that he was married because he was "ashamed" that he had "married a woman beneath him" (p. 75), just before peering to look at Ruth, who is literally still lying "under" Joey.
Max adds that Teddy doesn't need to be "ashamed" of Ruth's social status, assuring Teddy that he is a "broadminded man" (75), and "she's a lovely girl. A beautiful woman", as well as "a mother too. A mother of three." Contrary to the concurrent action, even more ironically, Max observes that Teddy has "made a happy woman out of her. It's something to be proud of"; right after Max further asserts that Ruth is "a woman of quality" and "a woman of feeling", clasped in their ongoing embrace, Joey and Ruth literally "roll off the sofa on to the floor" (p. 76).
Suddenly pushing Joey away and standing up, Ruth appears to take command, demanding food and drink, and Joey and Lenny attempt to satisfy her demands (pp. 76–77). After Ruth questions whether or not his family has read Teddy's "critical works" — a seemingly absurdist non sequitur -- or perhaps just a jibe at her academician spouse -- the answer to which, in either event, is a foregone conclusion — Teddy defends his own "intellectual equilibrium" and professional turf (pp. 77–78). Ruth and Joey go upstairs for two hours but Joey, who comes down alone without her, complains that Ruth refused to go "the whole hog" (p. 82).
With Ruth still upstairs, Lenny and the others reminisce about Lenny's and Joey's sexual exploits. Lenny, whom the family considers an expert in sexual matters, labels Ruth a "tease," to which Teddy replies, "Perhaps he hasn't got the right touch" (p. 82). Lenny retorts that Joey has "had more dolly than you've had cream cakes", is "irresistible" to the ladies, "one of the few and far between" (p. 82). Lenny relates anecdotes about Joey's sexual prowess with other "birds" (pp. 82–84).
When Lenny asks Joey, "Don't tell me you're satisfied without going the whole hog?", Joey tentatively replies that "sometimes" a man can be "happy" without "going any hog" (p. 84). Lenny "stares at him". Joey seems to be suggesting that Ruth is so good at "the game" that Lenny ultimately gets the "idea [to] take her up with me to Greek Street" (p. 88).
Max volunteers that Ruth could come to live with the family, suggesting that they "should keep her" while she works for them part-time (as a prostitute). The men discuss this proposal in considerable detail, seemingly half-joking to irritate Teddy and half-serious (pp. 86–89). Sam declares the whole idea "silly" and "rubbish" (p. 86). Teddy adamantly refuses to "put" anything "in the kitty", as Max asks (p. 87), and Lenny suggests that Teddy could hand out business cards and refer Americans he knows to Ruth when they visit London, for "a little percentage" (pp. 89–90). Teddy does not decline outright but neither does he affirmatively agree to the idea. Teddy also says, in the play's only poignant turn of phrase, "She'd get old ... very quickly", which concern Max dismisses, citing the new National Health Service.
Ruth comes downstairs, "dressed". Teddy is still waiting with his coat on and their packed suitcases (p. 90). Teddy informs her of the family's proposal, without going into explicit detail about their intention to engage her in prostitution, saying euphemistically that she will "have to pull [her] weight" financially because they are not "very well off"; then he offers her a choice to stay in London with the family or to return to America with him (pp. 91–92).
Ruth understands exactly what is being proposed and appears very open to the proposal. She inflexibly negotiates her demands, including a three-room flat and a maid as the terms of a "contract" (p. 93) with Lenny, all of which must be finalized in writing with signatures and witnesses, leaving Lenny nonplussed but hapless. Ruth clearly is adept at getting what she wants (pp. 92–94) and Teddy prepares to return to America without her.
Having spoken up a few times earlier to voice his objections, Sam blurts out a long-kept secret about Jessie and Max's friend MacGregor, then "croaks and collapses" and "lies still" on the floor (94). Briefly considering the possibility that Sam has "dropped dead" and become a "corpse" (p. 94), the others ascertain that he is still breathing ("not even dead"), dismiss his revelation as the product of "a diseased imagination", and ignore him thereafter.
After a pause, Ruth accepts their proposal, conditionally: "Yes, it sounds like a very attractive idea" (p. 94). Teddy focuses on the inconvenience that Sam's unavailability poses for him: "I was going to ask him to drive me to London airport" (p. 95). Instead, he gets directions to the Underground, before saying goodbye to the others and leaving to return home to his three sons, alone. As he moves towards the front door, Ruth calls Teddy "Eddie"; after he turns around, she cryptically tells him, "Don't become a stranger" (p. 96). He goes out the front door, leaving his wife with the other four men in the house. The final tableau vivant (pp. 96–98) depicts Ruth sitting, "relaxed in her chair", as if on a throne.
Sam lies motionless on the floor; Joey, who has walked over to Ruth, places his head in her lap, which she gently caresses. Lenny, stands looking on and observing. After repeatedly insisting he is not an old man, and getting no reply from Ruth, who remains, as usual, tactically silent, Max beseeches her, "Kiss me" – the final words of the play. Ruth sits and "continues to touch JOEY's head, lightly," while Lenny "stands, watching" (p. 98). In this "resolution" of the play (its dénouement), what might happen later remains unresolved. Such lack of plot resolution and other ambiguities are features of most of Pinter's dramas.
Symbolism and irony of title
In addition to the play being about Teddy's homecoming on a literal level, critics have suggested that, on a metaphoric level, the homecoming is Ruth's. That, symbolically, Ruth comes "home" to "herself": she rediscovers her previous identity prior to her marriage to Teddy.
Ironically, as she "comes home" to this family which has been for so long woman-less (motherless, wifeless, etc.), she thus abandons her own biological family with Teddy, leaving them now similarly bereft.
By the end of the play, Ruth appears to have assumed the multiple roles of Jessie, the family's absent wife and mother, the missing woman in their household ("mother/wife/whore" in terms used by critics), while putting the American family of Ruth and Teddy in a parallel position, thus ironically reversing the situation at the beginning of the play. In that sense, the play recalls Edward's reversal of roles with the silent Matchseller in Pinter's 1959 play A Slight Ache, initially broadcast on BBC Radio 3, and similarly ironic plot and character role-reversals resulting from power struggles throughout many of Pinter's other plays.
For many critics the missing "back wall" in the "large room" of the house described by Pinter as "removed" (p. 21) and by Teddy as "knocked [...] down to make an open living area" after Jessie's death (p. 37) symbolises the absent female influence.
In October 2007, as quoted by Lahr, Pinter said that he considers The Homecoming his most "muscular" play.
After Teddy comes home and introduces his London family to his wife, Ruth (pp. 35–40), Max invites her to remain with them in London; as Teddy puts it to her euphemistically: "Ruth ... the family have invited you to stay, for a little while longer. As a ... as a kind of guest" (p. 91). Whereas Teddy
must return home to his life and family in America (pp. 91–96) to fulfill his
obligations, Ruth agrees to "come home" (p. 92), by refusing to honor any longer her now defunct obligations as wife and mother, to more than willingly take up her part in the family business (so to speak) as well as succeeding the late Jessie (Max's wife and his sons' mother), filling the gap created by and since the other woman's death (pp. 92–94).
On first seeing Ruth, Max believes that his eldest son, Teddy, has brought a "filthy scrubber" into "my house", adding, "I've never had a whore under this roof before. Ever since your mother died" (pp 57–58). A major irony is that Max's apparently-mistaken first assumption becomes more accurate as the family (and the audience) get to "know" Ruth better (pp. 65–76). The play makes clear to Teddy's family, even if Teddy refuses to acknowledge it, that Ruth has been, to say the least, increasingly unhappy in married life and in the United States.
When her husband insists she is "not well" (p. 85) and simply needs to "rest" (p. 71), Teddy is clearly both downplaying and ignoring the cause and extent of her discontent, even depression, draping his words in almost Victorian modesty. However, he ultimately elects to leave without her rather than fight for her. It has not been Teddy's "homecoming" but that of Ruth.
Critical response
Often considered to be a highly ambiguous, an enigmatic, and for some even a cryptic play, The Homecoming has been the subject of extensive critical debate since it premiered. According to many critics, it exposes issues of sex and power in a realistic yet aesthetically stylised manner.
Surveying Pinter's career on the occasion of the 40-anniversary Broadway production of the play at the Cort Theatre in The New Yorker, the critic John Lahr describes the impact of experiencing it: The Homecoming' changed my life. Before the play, I thought words were just vessels of meaning; after it, I saw them as weapons of defence. Before, I thought theatre was about the spoken; after, I understood the eloquence of the unspoken. The position of a chair, the length of a pause, the choice of a gesture, I realised, could convey volumes."
Like other contemporary critics familiar with The Homecoming, Ben Brantley praises the play's two-act plot structure, referring to its "nigh-perfect form." In the 1960s, when first encountering the play, its earliest critics complained that, like Pinter's other plays as perceived then, The Homecoming seemed, in their words, "plotless," "meaningless," and "emotionless" (lacking character motivation), and they found the play "puzzling" (their word); later critics argue that the play evokes a multiplicity of potential meanings, leading to multiple interpretations.
In "Demolition Man", Lahr considers The Homecoming to be
The Homecoming directly challenges the place of morals in family life and puts their social value "under erasure" (in Derridean terminology). Teddy's profession as an academic philosopher, which, he claims, enables him to "maintain ... intellectual equilibrium" —
ironically raises basic philosophical questions about the nature of so-called family values and the "meaning" of "love" among family members.
Occasionally, one finds critics of the play, aware of Pinter's reputation for ambiguity, questioning even Teddy's and Ruth's references to the fact of their "being married"; e.g., Harold Hobson, as cited by Merritt: "Hobson's interpretation of Teddy as merely pretending to be Ruth's husband and a professor of philosophy enables him to rationalize the man's behavior toward his wife."
Basing her viewpoint on a personal interview with Hobson, Susan Hollis Merritt considers Hobson's review of the first production of the play, entitled "Pinter Minus the Moral", concluding: "although Hobson still describes The Homecoming as Pinter's 'cleverest play,' his judgment against the play's 'moral vacuum,' like his denial of Teddy and Ruth's marriage, suggests his personal distress at the portrayal of marriage and what Pinter has called the characters' misdirected 'love.' "
To deny that Teddy and Ruth are really married is a common refrain in responses to the play. Aside from their behaviour in the play as well as that of Teddy's family, nothing in the text contradicts the ostensible and putative reality that they are legally married and have three sons. The more outrageous, even horrifying, for the play's original audiences, the words and actions taken by Ruth, Max, and Lenny, the more Teddy protests that they are married, leading some critics to believe that the man doth protest too much. A perceptive reader and viewer of the play would wonder why Teddy would have brought his wife and the mother of his children into such a grotesque menagerie in the first place.
Continuing denial of the facts of Teddy's and Ruth's marriage and children may serve critics as a means of expressing their own rejection of what occurs in the play. Knowing Ruth as she slowly reveals herself, it is easier, and likely more comforting, to dismiss the proposition that she had ever been a housewife, much less the mother of three children born during a six-year span whom she appears to have no intention of ever seeing again. The notion of a mother willingly, indeed facilely, abandoning her husband, and, especially, her children, to become a prostitute, must have been, especially at that time, almost unprecedented in "respectable" drama and literature and on the "legitimate" stage up to that time.
Alluding indirectly to this critical pattern, Brantley observes, however, that, in time, the play may appear more realistic and more relevant to the lives of theatre audiences than it may have seemed when they themselves were younger or more naive about the nature of marriage and family life. To those with strong religious values, like Hobson, the play appears, to say the least, immoral or amoral. Yet, to others, its moral value resides in its very questioning of commonly accepted shibboleths about marriage and the family: "People who were originally put off by The Homecoming may now find it too close to home. It's a bit like Picasso's shockingly severe painting of Gertrude Stein from 1906, the one he predicted in time would resemble its subject. We may not have thought we saw ourselves in The Homecoming four decades ago. Now it feels like a mirror", posited critic Ben Brantley. Other critics, like Lahr in Demolition Man, remind their readers of the strong element of comedy in this play, as in many of Pinter's other plays.
Composition history
Pinter wrote The Homecoming in six weeks in 1964 from his home in the Sussex coastal town of Worthing, where, according to theatre critic John Lahr, "the magnificent barrenness of the play's North London setting was imagined as he sat at his writing desk overlooking gardens, within earshot of the sea." According to Lahr, Pinter remarked that "it kind of wrote itself."
Pinter's close friend and former schoolteacher, Joseph Brearley, was visiting Pinter after he had written the play. "I gave him the play to read," Pinter recalled. "I waited in another room. About two hours later, I heard the front door slam. I thought, Well, here we are. He doesn't like it. About an hour later, the doorbell rang. I answered it. He said, 'I had to get some air.' He said, 'It is your best.' "
Production history
Productions of the play have won major theatre awards. The 1967 New York production received four Tony Awards: the Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Play (Paul Rogers), the Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Play (Ian Holm), the Tony Award for Best Direction of a Play (Peter Hall), and the Tony Award for Best Play (Alexander H. Cohen, prod.).
A film of the play, based on Pinter's own screenplay and also entitled The Homecoming and directed by Sir Peter Hall, was released in 1973. It features most of the original 1965 Royal Shakespeare Company cast and became part of the two-season subscription series American Film Theatre in the United States, available on DVD and distributed by Kino Lorber.
List of selected productions
See also Harold Pinter#2001–2008
London première
Royal Shakespeare Company. Dir. Peter Hall. With Paul Rogers (Max), Ian Holm (Lenny), John Normington (Sam), Terence Rigby (Joey), Michael Bryant (Teddy), and Vivien Merchant (Ruth). Aldwych Theatre, London. Opened on 3 June 1965. The pre-London tryouts opened at the New Theatre, Cardiff on 26 March 1965.
New York première
"The first American production opened at The Music Box on 5 January 1967. With the exception of the part of Teddy, which was played by Michael Craig, the cast was as above".
Royal Exchange production
In 2002 the play was produced at the Royal Exchange in Manchester. Directed by Greg Hersov, it starred Pete Postlethwaite as Max. He won the 2002 MEN Award for best actor for his performance.
Radio broadcast
On 18 March 2007, BBC Radio 3 broadcast a new radio production of The Homecoming, directed by Thea Sharrock and produced by Martin J. Smith, with Pinter performing the role of Max (for the first time; he had previously played Lenny on stage in the 1960s), Michael Gambon as Max's brother Sam, Rupert Graves as Teddy, Samuel West as Lenny, James Alexandrou as Joey, and Gina McKee as Ruth (Martin J. Smith; West).
Broadway revival
The Tony Award-nominated 40th-anniversary Broadway revival of The Homecoming, starring James Frain as Teddy, Ian McShane as Max, Raul Esparza as Lenny, Michael McKean as Sam, Eve Best as Ruth, and Gareth Saxe as Joey, directed by Daniel Sullivan, and produced by Buddy Freitag, opened on 16 December 2007, for a "20-week limited engagement" through 13 April 2008, at the Cort Theatre. It received Tony Award nominations for Best Revival of a Play, Best Actress in a Play (Eve Best) and Best Featured Actor in a Play (Raul Esparza). It also received the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Ensemble Performance. Charlie Rose spoke with actor Ian McShane about his portrayal of Max in this revival.
Almeida revival
The Homecoming was revived at the Almeida Theatre, London, from 31 January through 22 March 2008. The cast included Kenneth Cranham, Neil Dudgeon, Danny Dyer, Jenny Jules, and Nigel Lindsay. Dan Wooller photographed the first-night "post-show party at the Almeida, including Harold Pinter, Peter Hall, and several "other first-night guests."
Trafalgar Revival 2015, performed at the Trafalgar Studios, London, starring John Macmillan, Keith Allen, John Simm, Gemma Chan, Ron Cook and Gary Kemp. Directed by Jamie Lloyd. Design by Soutra Gilmour. Lighting by Richard Howell. Sound by George Dennis.
Others
Other productions of The Homecoming have at times been listed on the home page of Pinter's official website and through its lefthand menu of links to the "Calendar" ("Worldwide Calendar").
A film with the same name was made in the UK in 1973, featuring several actors from the London premiere.
The play was chosen by Lusaka Theatre Club as its entry for the 1967 Zambia Drama Festival, and was awarded prizes for best production and best actor (Norman Williams as Lenny). The director was Trevor Eastwood.
See also
Characteristics of Harold Pinter's work
The Homecoming (film), a 1973 film based on Pinter's play
Notes
References
Batty, Mark. About Pinter: The Playwright and the Work. London: Faber and Faber, 2005. (10). (13).
Brantley, Ben. "Theater Review (Cort Theatre): The Homecoming You Can Go Home Again, But You'll Pay the Consequences". The New York Times 17 December 2007, The Arts: E1, 7. Accessed 10 March 2014.
Esslin, Martin. The Peopled Wound: The Work of Harold Pinter. London: Methuen, 1970. (10). (13). [Periodically revised, expanded, and updated editions published as Pinter the Playwright.]
–––. Pinter the Playwright. 1984. 6th (revised) ed. London: Methuen, 2000. (10). (13).
Franzblau, Abraham. "A Psychiatrist Looks at The Homecoming". Saturday Review 8 April 1967: 58.
Gordon, Robert. Harold Pinter: The Theatre of Power. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 2012.
"The Homecoming by Harold Pinter". South Coast Repertory webpage for its 2001–2002 season production of the play. Accessed 26 February 2008. (Includes excerpts from books, articles, reviews, and other features, such as an article entitled "Pinter Comes Home to SCR", by Jerry Patch.)
Lahr, John. "Demolition Man: Harold Pinter and 'The Homecoming' ". The New Yorker 24 December 2007, "Onward and Upward with the Arts". Accessed 16 December 2007. (Advance online version.) (6 pages online; 7 pages in printout.) [Also published online in the section on "Harold Pinter" at johnlahr.com. Accessed 10 March 2014.]
–––, and Anthea Lahr, eds. A Casebook on Harold Pinter's The Homecoming. New York: Grove Press, 1971. (Evergreen Original 3:553-A.) London: Davis-Poynter, 1974. .
Merritt, Susan Hollis. Pinter in Play: Critical Strategies and the Plays of Harold Pinter. 1990. Durham & London: Duke UP, 1995. (10). (13).
Pinter, Harold. The Homecoming. 19–98 in vol. 3 of Harold Pinter: Complete Works. In 4 vols. 1978. New York: Grove Press, 1990. (Rpt. in 1994 and subsequently re-issued.) (10). (13). (Quotations from the play and page numbers within parenthetical references are from this edition.)
External links
HaroldPinter.org – Official site of Harold Pinter. Includes information about The Homecoming in "Plays", "Films", and "Worldwide Calendar" of productions. (Some typographical errors in material posted on the site; e.g., reviews are retyped and in the process sometimes errors occurred.)
The Homecoming at the Almeida Theatre – Official webpage for the 2008 production (from Almeida's "archive"). Hyperlinked sections: "Description"; "Gallery"; "The Cast"; "The Creative Team"; "Articles and Reviews"; "Read More".
The Homecoming on Broadway – Official site of the 2007–2008 Cort Theatre production. Hyperlinked sections of news, reviews, production and playwright information, the story, and other useful features. (If parts of Flash site inaccessible, see versions archived from Oct. 2007.)
"Theater: 'The Homecoming' " – Online audio-visual feature focusing on the 2007–2008 Cort Theatre production, by Ben Brantley, hosted by The New York Times.
1965 plays
Adultery in plays
Broadway plays
Plays by Harold Pinter
Tony Award-winning plays
Plays about British prostitution
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4288212 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Horse%20%28elder%29 | American Horse (elder) | American Horse (Oglala Lakota: Wašíčuŋ Tȟašúŋke in Standard Lakota Orthography) (a/k/a "American Horse the Elder") (1830–September 9, 1876) was an Oglala Lakota warrior chief renowned for courage and honor. American Horse is notable in American history as one of the principal war chiefs allied with Crazy Horse during Red Cloud's War (1866–1868) and the Battle of the Little Bighorn during the Great Sioux War of 1876–1877. Chief American Horse was a son of Old Chief Smoke, an Oglala Lakota head chief and one of the last great Shirt Wearers, a highly prestigious Lakota warrior society. He was a signatory to the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, along with his brothers Chief Red Cloud and Chief Blue Horse. A month or so after the Treaty, American Horse was chosen a "Ogle Tanka Un" (Shirt Wearer, or war leader) along with Crazy Horse, Young-Man-Afraid-of-His-Horses and Man That Owns a Sword. On September 9, 1876, American Horse was mortally wounded in the Battle of Slim Buttes fighting to protect his family and defending against the white invasion of the "Paha Sapa" Black Hills.
The Smoke People
Chief American Horse was a son of Old Chief Smoke. Old Chief Smoke was an Oglala Lakota head chief and one of the last great Shirt Wearers, a highly prestigious Lakota warrior society. The Smoke People were one of the most prominent Lakota families of the 18th and 19th centuries. Old Chief Smoke was one of the first Lakota chiefs to appreciate the power of the whites, their overwhelming numbers and the futility of war. He appreciated the need for association and learned the customs of the whites. Old Chief Smoke had five wives and many children. Old Chief Smoke's sons carried the Smoke People legacy of leadership in Oglala Lakota culture into the early 20th century. The children of Old Chief Smoke were Spotted Horse Woman, Chief Big Mouth (1822-1869), Chief Blue Horse (1822-1908), Chief Red Cloud (1822-1909), Chief American Horse (1830-1876), Chief Bull Bear III, Chief Solomon Smoke II, Chief No Neck and Woman Dress (1846-1920).
Treaty of Ft. Laramie 1868
Chief American Horse was one of the principal war chiefs allied with Crazy Horse and Red Cloud during Red Cloud's War (1866-1868). American Horse was a signatory to the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, along with Chief Red Cloud and Chief Blue Horse, his brothers. The treaty was an agreement between the United States and the Lakota Nation guaranteeing the Lakota ownership of the Black Hills "Paha Sapa" and land and hunting rights in South Dakota, Wyoming and Montana. The Powder River Country was to be henceforth closed to all whites. The Treaty ended Red Cloud's War. A month or so after the Treaty of 1868, four "Ogle Tanka Un" (Shirt Wearers, or war leaders) were chosen: Crazy Horse, American Horse, Young-Man-Afraid-of-His-Horses and Man That Owns a Sword.
Crook's Horsemeat March
Crook's "Horsemeat March" marked the beginning of one of the most grueling marches in American military history. Crook's command consisted of about 2,200 men: 1,500 cavalry, 450 infantry, 240 Indian scouts, and a contingent of civilian employees, including 44 white scouts and packers. Crook's civilian scouts included Frank Grouard, Baptiste “Big Bat” Pourier, Baptiste “Little Bat” Garnier, Captain Jack Crawford and Charles "Buffalo Chips" White. News of the defeat of George Armstrong Custer at the Battle of the Little Big Horn on June 25 and 26, 1876, arrived in the East as the U.S. was observing its centennial. The American public was dismayed and called to punish the Sioux. On August 26, 1876, with his men rationed for fifteen days, a determined General Crook departed from the Powder River and headed east toward the Little Missouri pursuing the Indians. Crook feared that Indians would scatter to seek game rather than meet the soldiers in combat after the fight with Custer. All other commanders had withdrawn from pursuit, but Crook resolved to teach the Indians a lesson. He meant to show that neither distance, bad weather, the loss of horses nor the absence of rations could deter the U.S. Army from following its enemies to the bitter end. War correspondents with national newspapers fought alongside General Crook and reported the campaign by telegraph. Correspondents embedded with Crook were Robert Edmund Strahorn for The New York Times, Chicago Tribune and the Rocky Mountain News; John F. Finerty for the Chicago Times; Reuben Briggs Davenport for the New York Herald and Joe Wasson for the New York Tribune and The Daily Alta California (San Francisco).
Chief American Horse at Slim Buttes
The Battle of Slim Buttes was fought on September 9 and 10, 1876, in the Great Sioux Reservation between the United States Army and the Sioux. The Battle of Slim Buttes was the first U.S. Army victory after Custer's defeat at the Battle of the Little Big Horn on June 25 and 26, 1876, in the Great Sioux War of 1876-1877. Brigadier General George R. Crook, one of the U.S. Army's ablest Indian fighters led the "Horsemeat March", one of the most grueling military expeditions in American history destroying Oglala Chief American Horse's village at Slim Buttes and repelling a counter-attack by Crazy Horse. The American public was fixed on news of the defeat of General George Custer at the Battle of Little Bighorn; and war correspondents with national newspapers fought alongside General Crook and reported the events. The Battle of Slim Buttes signaled a series of punitive blows that ultimately broke Sioux armed resistance to reservation captivity and forced their loss of the Black Hills "Paha Sapa".
The Village
Following the Battle of the Little Big Horn, Lakota leaders split up, each doing what they thought best for their people. Most were heading back to the reservations. On September 9, 1876, Chief American Horse's camp of 37 lodges, about 260 people, of whom 30 to 40 were warriors, was attacked and destroyed by General George Crook at the Battle of Slim Buttes. Chief American Horse's camp was a rich prize. "It was the season when the wild plums ripen. All the agency Sioux were drifting back to the agencies with their packs full of dried meat, buffalo tongues, fresh and dried buffalo berries, wild cherries, plums and all the staples and dainties which tickled the Indian palate." The lodges were full of furs and meat, and it seemed to be a very rich village. Crook destroyed food, seized three or four hundred ponies, arms and ammunition, furs and blankets.
In a dispatch written for the Omaha Daily Bee, Captain Jack Crawford described the cornucopia he encountered: "Tepees full of dried meats, skins, bead work, and all that an Indian's head could wish for." Of significance, troopers recovered items from the Battle of Little Bighorn, including a 7th Cavalry Regiment guidon from Company I, fastened to the lodge of Chief American Horse, and the bloody gauntlets of slain Captain Myles Keogh. "One of the largest of the lodges, called by Grouard the "Brave Night Hearts," supposedly occupied by the guard, contained thirty saddles and equipment. One man found eleven thousand dollars in one of the tipis. Others found three 7th Cavalry horses; letters written to and by 7th Cavalry personnel; officers' clothing; a large amount of cash; jewelry; government-issued guns and ammunition."
Chief American Horse's Defiance
On September 9, 1876, Chief American Horse's village at Slim Buttes was assaulted in a dawn attack by Captain Anson Mills and 150 troopers. At the onset of a stampede of Indian ponies and cavalry charge, Chief American Horse with his family of three warriors and about twenty-five women and children retreated into one of the ravines that crisscrossed the village amongst the tipis. The winding dry gully was nearly 20 feet deep and ran some 200 yards back into a hillside. Trees and brush obstructed the view of the interior. "We found that some of the Indians had got into a cave at one side of the village. One of the men started to go past that spot on the hill, and as he passed the place he and his horse were both shot. This cave or dugout was down in the bed of a dry creek. The Indian children had been playing there, and dug quite a hole in the bank, so that it made more of a cave than anything else, large enough to hold a number of people." Troopers were alerted about the ravine when Private John Wenzel, Company A, Third Cavalry, became the first army fatality at Slim Buttes when he ill-advisedly approached the ravine from the front and a Sioux bullet slammed into his forehead. Wenzel's horse was also shot and killed. An attempt was made to dislodge the Indians and several troopers were wounded. "Grouard and Big Bat Pourier crept close enough to the banks of the ravine to parley with the concealed Indians in endeavors to get them to surrender. But the savages were so confident of succor from Crazy Horse and his much larger force, who were encamped only a dozen miles to the west, and to whom they had sent runners early in the morning, that they were defiant to the last." The Sioux felt no urgent need to surrender, for they defiantly yelled over to the soldiers that more Sioux camps were at hand and their warriors would soon come to free them. Chief American Horse, anticipating relief from other villages, constructed a dirt breastworks in front of the cave and geared for a stout defense.
General Crook at the Ravine
On September 9, 1876, General Crook's relief column endured a forced march of twenty-miles to Slim Buttes in about four and a half hours, arriving at 11:30 a.m. The whole cheering command entered the valley, and the village teemed with activity like an anthill which had just been stirred up. Crook immediately established his headquarters and set up a field hospital in one of the Indian lodges. Crook inventoried the camp and the booty. The camp held thirty-seven lodges. A three- or four-year-old girl was discovered, but no bodies were found. Over 5,000 pounds of dried meat was found and was a "God-send" for the starved troopers. Troopers separated the stores to be saved from the greater number to be destroyed, and the remaining tipis were pulled down. General Crook then turned his full attention to Chief American Horse and his family in the ravine.
"Crook, exasperated by the protracted defense of the hidden Sioux, and annoyed at the casualties inflicted among his men, formed a perfect cordon of infantry and dismounted cavalry around the Indian den. The soldiers opened upon it an incessant fire, which made the surrounding hills echo back a terrible music." "The circumvalleted Indians distributed their shots liberally among the crowding soldiers, but the shower of close-range bullets from the later terrified the unhappy squaws, and they began singing the awful Indian death chant. The papooses wailed so loudly, and so piteously, that even not firing could not quell their voices. General Crook ordered the men to suspend operations immediately, but dozens of angry soldiers surged forward and had to be beat back by officers. "Neither General Crook nor any of his officers or men suspected that any women and children were in the gully until their cries were heard above the volume of fire poured upon the fatal spot." Grouard and Pourier, who spoke Lakota, were ordered by General Crook to offer the women and children quarter. This was accepted by the besieged, and Crook in person went into the mouth of the ravine and handed out one tall, fine looking woman, who had an infant strapped to her back. She trembled all over and refused to liberate the General's hand. Eleven other squaws and six papooses were taken out and crowded around Crook, but the few surviving warriors refused to surrender and savagely re-commenced the fight.
"Rain of Hell"
Chief American Horse refused to leave, and with three warriors, five women and an infant, remained in the cave. Exasperated by the increasing casualties in his ranks, Crook directed some of his infantry and dismounted cavalry to form across the opening of the gorge. On command, the troopers opened steady and withering fire on the ravine which sent an estimated 3,000 bullets among the warriors.
Finerty reported, "Then our troops reopened with a very 'rain of hell' upon the infatuated braves, who, nevertheless, fought it out with Spartan courage, against such desperate odds, for nearly two hours. "Such matchless bravery electrified even our enraged soldiers into a spirit of chivalry, and General Crook, recognizing the fact that the unfortunate savages had fought like fiends, in defense of wives and children, ordered another suspension of hostilities and called upon the dusky heroes to surrender."
Strahorn recalled the horror of the ravine at Slim Buttes. "The yelling of Indians, discharge of guns, cursing of soldiers, crying of children, barking of dogs, the dead crowded in the bottom of the gory, slimy ditch, and the shrieks of the wounded, presented the most agonizing scene that clings in my memory of Sioux warfare."
Surrender of Chief American Horse
When matters quieted down, Frank Grouard and Baptiste “Big Bat” Pourier asked American Horse again if they would come out of the hole before any more were shot, telling them they would be safe if they surrendered. "After a few minutes deliberation, the chief, American Horse, a fine looking, broad-chested Sioux, with a handsome face and a neck like a bull, showed himself at the mouth of the cave, presenting the butt end of his rifle toward the General. He had just been shot in the abdomen, and said in his native language, that he would yield if the lives of the warriors who fought with him were spared. Chief American Horse had been shot through the bowels and was holding his entrails in his hands as he came out and presented the butt end of his rifle to General Crook. Pourier recalled that he first saw American Horse kneeling with a gun in his hand, in a hole on the side of the ravine that he had scooped out with a butcher knife. Two of the squaws were also wounded. Eleven were killed in the hole. Grouard recognized Chief American Horse, "but you would not have thought he was shot from his appearance and his looks, except for the paleness of his face. He came marching out of that death trap as straight as an arrow. Holding out one of his blood-stained hands he shook hands with me." When Chief American Horse presented the butt end of his rifle, General Crook, who took the proffered rifle, instructed Grouard to ask his name. The Indian replied in Lakota, "American Horse." Some of the soldiers who lost their comrades in the skirmish shouted, "No quarter!', but not a man was base enough to attempt shooting down the disabled chief. Crook hesitated for a minute and then said,'Two or three Sioux, more or less, can make no difference. I can yet use them to good advantage. "Tell the chief," he said turning to Grouard, "that neither he nor his young men will be harmed further." "This message having been interpreted to Chief American Horse, he beckoned to his surviving followers, and two strapping Indians, with their long, but quick and graceful stride, followed him out of the gully. The chieftain's intestines protruded from his wound, but a squaw, his wife perhaps, tied her shawl around the injured part, and then the poor, fearless savage, never uttering a complaint, walked slowly to a little camp fire, occupied by his people about 20 yards away, and sat down among the women and children."
Crazy Horse Attacks
Crazy Horse attempted to rescue American Horse and his family. Indians who escaped Mills' early morning assault spread the word to nearby Lakota and Cheyenne camps, and informed Crazy Horse, Sitting Bull and other leaders they were attacked by 100-150 soldiers. Crazy Horse immediately assembled 600-800 warriors and rode about ten miles northward to rescue Chief American Horse and recover ponies and supplies. During the afternoon Chief American Horse and some of the squaws informed Gen. Crook, through the scouts, that Crazy Horse was not far off, and that we would certainly be attacked before nightfall. "In anticipation of that afternoon tea party which was promised to be given by Crazy Horse, Crook deployed his forces to give that chieftain the surprise of his life. Concealing the major portion in the ravine in up-to-the-minute readiness and eagerness for an attack, he deployed just enough of the boys in plain sight to carry out the impression, which the Indian couriers had conveyed to Crazy Horse, that only about a hundred soldiers would be found to oppose his eager and confident large reinforcements." As a grave was being dug for Private Wenzel, and the starved troopers were ready to dine on captured bison meat, rifle shots were heard from the bluffs above and around the camp. Crook immediately ordered the village to be burned. "Then followed the most spectacular and tragically gripping and gratifying drama of the whole Sioux War, enacted with a setting and view for those of us in the ambushing corps that could not be improved upon. The huge amphitheater, leading from our position in the front orchestra row, up over a gradually rising terrain to the rim of the hills which surrounded on three sides, was not unlike the situation which Crazy Horse had chosen for his Battle of the Rosebud." Finerty tells how the Indians attacked. "Like the Napoleonic cuirassiers at Waterloo, they rode along the line looking for a gap to penetrate. They kept up perpetual motion encouraged by a warrior, doubtless Crazy Horse himself, who, mounted on a fleet, white horse, galloped around the array and seemed to possess the power of ubiquity." Strahorn reported, "Suddenly the summits seemed alive with an eager, expectant and gloating host of savages who dashed over and down the slope, whooping and recklessly firing at every jump."
Crazy Horse was surprised to find American Horse's village massed with Crook's main column of over 2,000 infantry, artillery, cavalry and scouts. "Crazy Horse so little dreamed of the heavy reinforcements of Captain Mills' small band that, in the utmost confidence of 'eating us alive' he launched his followers right down upon the front and flanks of our splendid defensive position. They were permitted to approach with blood curdling whoops and in a savage array within easy and sure-fire rifle range before the order to fire was given. They reacted to the deadly shock in a manner that was the real beginning of the end of the Sioux War, so far as any major performance of Crazy Horse was concerned. Bewildered and demoralized by the well-aimed volleys of our two-thousand guns, they dashed for cover in every direction, closely followed by details of our boys who were allotted that much-sought privilege." "Failing to break into that formidable circle, the Indians, after firing several volleys, their original order of battle being completely broken, and recognizing the folly of fighting such an outnumbering force any longer, glided away from our front with all possible speed. As the shadows came down into the valley, the last shots were fired and the affair at Slim Buttes was over."
Casualties
Captain Mills reported the assault: "It is usual for commanding officers to call special attention to acts of distinguished courage, and I trust the extraordinary circumstances of calling on 125 men to attack, in the darkness, and in the wilderness, and on the heels of the late appalling disasters to their comrades, a village of unknown strength, and in the gallant manner in which they executed everything requited of them to my entire satisfaction." U.S. Army casualties were relatively light with a loss of 30 men: 3 killed, 27 wounded, some seriously. Because the Lakota and Cheyenne warriors maintained a distance of five to eight hundred yards, and consistently fired their weapons high, casualties were few. Those who died in the field were Private John Wenzel, Private Edward Kennedy and Scout Charles "Buffalo Chips" White." Private Kennedy, Company C, Fifth Cavalry, had half the calf of his leg blown away in a barrage, and throughout the night medical personnel labored to save his life. Private Kennedy and Chief American Horse died in the surgeons' lodge that evening. Lt. Von Luettwitz had his shattered leg amputated above the knee and Private John M. Stevenson of Company I, Second Cavalry, received a severe ankle wound at the ravine. "The Indians must have lost quite heavily. Several of their ponies, bridled but riderless, were captured during the evening. Indians never abandon their war ponies, unless they happen to be surprised or killed. Pools of blood were found on the ledges of the bluffs, indicating where Crazy Horse's warriors paid the penalty of their valor with their lives." Reports of Indian casualties varied, and many bodies were carried away. Sioux confirmed casualties were at least 10 dead, and an unknown number wounded. About 30 Sioux men, women and children were in the ravine with Chief American Horse when the firefight began, and 20 women and children surrendered to Crook. Ten individuals remained in the ravine during the "Rain of Hell" and five were killed; Iron Shield, three women, one infant and Chief American Horse who died that evening. The rest were made prisoners. Charging Bear resisted most desperately and was finally dragged out of his lair at the bottom of the deep gully with only one cartridge left. Taken prisoner, he soon after enlisted with General Crook, exhibiting great prowess and bravery on behalf of his new leader and against his former comrades."
Death of American Horse
Chief American Horse was examined by the two surgeons. One of them pulled the chief's hands away, and the intestines dropped out. "Tell him he will die before next morning," said the surgeon. The surgeons worked futilely to close his stomach wound, and Chief American Horse refused morphine, preferring to clench a stick between his teeth to hide any sign of pain or emotions, and thus he bravely and stolidly died. Chief American Horse lingered until 6:00 a.m. and confirmed that the tribes were scattering and were becoming discouraged by war. "He appeared satisfied that the lives of his squaws and children were spared." Dr. Valentine McGillycuddy, who attended the dying chief, said that he was cheerful to the last and manifested the utmost affection for his wives and children. American Horse's squaws and children were allowed to remain on the battleground after the dusky hero's death, and subsequently fell into the hands of their own people. Even "Ute John" respected the cold clay of the brave Sioux leader, and his corpse was not subjected to the scalping process." Crook was most gentle in his assurances to all of them that no further harm should come if they went along peacefully, and it only required a day or two of kind treatment to make them feel very much at home.
Two American Horses
There are two Oglala Lakota chiefs named American Horse notable in American history. Historian George E. Hyde distinguished them by referring to "Chief American Horse the Elder" as the son of Old Chief Smoke and the cousin of Red Cloud, and "Chief American Horse the Younger" as the son of Sitting Bear, and son-in-law to Red Cloud. American Horse the Younger (1840 – December 16, 1908) was an Oglala Lakota chief, statesman, educator and historian. American Horse the Younger is notable in American history as a U.S. Army Indian Scout and a progressive Oglala Lakota leader who promoted friendly associations with whites and education for his people. American Horse the Younger opposed Crazy Horse during the Great Sioux War of 1876-1877 and the Ghost Dance Movement of 1890, and was a Lakota delegate to Washington. American Horse the Younger was one of the first Wild Westers with Buffalo Bill's Wild West and a supporter of the Carlisle Indian Industrial School. "His record as a councillor of his people and his policy in the new situation that confronted them was manly and consistent and he was known for his eloquence." American Horse the Younger gained influence during the turbulence of the Great Sioux War of 1876-1877. After news of the death of Chief American Horse the Elder at the Battle of Slim Buttes, Manishnee (Can not walk, or Played out)" seized an opportunity and assumed the name "American Horse." American Horse the Younger was not related to American Horse the Elder, son of Old Chief Smoke. He was the son of Sitting Bear, leader of the True Oglalas, a band of Oglala opposed to the Smoke people The identities and accounts of American Horse the Elder and the American Horse the Younger have been blended by some historians. Like his great friend Crazy Horse, there are no known photographs or drawings of Chief American Horse the Elder. "The Oglalas seem incapable of clearing up the tangle."
References
1830 births
1876 deaths
Military personnel killed in action
Lakota leaders
People of the Great Sioux War of 1876
Native American people of the Indian Wars |
4288313 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixie%20%28X-Men%29 | Pixie (X-Men) | Pixie (Megan Gwynn) is a superheroine appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Pixie belongs to the subspecies of humans called mutants, who are born with superhuman abilities, and to the species of humanoid magical beings named fairies, who are born with supernatural powers. Her hybrid mutation grants her pixie-like eyes, colorful wings that allow her to fly, and "pixie dust" that causes hallucinations.
After a confrontation with the revived former member of the New Mutants, Magik, she gains the ability to use magic and a magical weapon called the "Souldagger." Her main use of magic is a massive teleportation spell, which makes her a key asset to various X-Men missions and teams and places her as one of the titles' primary magic users. She was first introduced as a student on the Paragons training squad at the Xavier Institute in New X-Men: Academy X #5 (November 2004), later joining the New X-Men team, and then graduating to the Uncanny X-Men team.
Pixie has been described as one of Marvel's most notable and powerful female heroes. Since her original introduction in comics, the character has been featured in various other Marvel-licensed products, including video games, animated television series, and merchandise.
Publication history
2010s
Pixie debuted in New X-Men: Academy X #5 (November 2004), created by Nunzio DeFilippis, Christina Weir, and Michael Ryan. She appeared in the 2008 X-Men: Pixies and Demons one-shot, her first solo comic book one-shot. She appeared in the 2010 X-Men: Pixie Strikes Back series, her first solo comic book series. She appeared in the 2010 Avengers vs. X-Men anthology series. She appeared in the 2019 Age of X-Man: Nextgen series.
2020s
Pixie appeared in the 2020 Cable series. She appeared in the 2021 Children of the Atom series. She appeared in the 2022 Legion of X series.
Fictional character biography
Megan Gwynn is a Welsh teenager from a fictional mining town called Abergylid. Her father died in the mine. She developed a fear of it and left Wales owing of his death. She would later discover that he was not her actual father, but the villainous Mastermind. Lady Mastermind and Mastermind II are her half-sisters. In her original inception, Gwynn had short pink hair, pure black eyes and butterfly-like rainbow wings.
After enrolling at Xavier Institute, Gwynn is assigned to be part of the Paragons training squad under the tutelage of former New Mutant member Rahne Sinclair. She wears a bicycle helmet during training sessions, due to her uncertainty with flying. During this time, she develops a crush on the X-Man Cyclops and is considered a cheerful girl who fits in well with other students. Gwynn was voted Friendliest Student.
M-Day
Following the events of House of M, almost all of the Institute's students are depowered, which leads to the dissolution of the school's training squad system. Gwynn is one of only twenty-seven students, including her fellow Paragons Trance, Wolf Cub, and Match, not to have lost her mutant abilities.
She participates in Emma Frost's battle royal, which determines who will train to be an X-Man, but does not make the team. She remains at the school, appearing occasionally as a side character. Later, forty-two of Gwynn's former classmates are killed when their bus is blown up by a missile sent by William Stryker, an anti-mutant crusader. Among the confirmed deaths are Gwynn's fellow Paragon, DJ.
Quest For Magik
Gwynn, alongside Anole, Loa, Wolf Cub, Rockslide, and Match, are told a frightening ghost story by fellow student Blindfold one night at the school. However, they discover that the story is not fictitious, but rather a prophecy. Telling Gwynn that she is "sorry for [her] loss," Blindfold and her classmates are sucked into the realm of Limbo, where they are immediately attacked by a mob of demons.
Gwynn stays by Blindfold's side during the fight, who cautions Gwynn and the others that Gwynn must not "fall to darkness." Gwynn uses her powers on-panel for the first time during the fight, incapacitating several demons with her "pixie dust." After Darkchilde saves the small group, she asks N'astirh to bring Gwynn to her, recognizing that her soul is the most innocent and therefore the most powerful in Limbo. Despite her friends' pleas, Gwynn submits to Magik's request to use her soul to create a Soulsword and Bloodstones, magical stones forged from an innocent soul that grant great power to their owners, but is freed from the process by Anole. His intervention saves her, but leaves the spell unfinished, resulting in the creation of only one Bloodstone and a "Souldagger" instead. Magik then explains that the Souldagger is actually a portion of Gwynn's own soul and that black magic has now filled the hole left behind in the knife's creation, leaving Gwynn no longer an innocent. This is represented graphically by a great portion of her pink hair changing to black.
Magik teaches Gwynn a teleportation spell and she uses it to teleport herself and her friends to Belasco to prevent him from torturing the rest of the students. She saves the students and ultimately kills Belasco by stabbing him with the Souldagger. After defeating Belasco, Magik wants to use more of Gwynn's soul to create more Bloodstones to gain more power, but becomes disgusted with herself when her brother calls out to her. She instead sends Gwynn and the others back to the Xavier Institute and seals all entrances to Limbo. Gwynn and Anole are then made official members of the New X-Men for their bravery in Limbo at the insistence of Rockslide. Gwynn later reveals that Doctor Strange will tutor her in magic when she comes of age and begins receiving additional training.
Messiah Complex
When the first new mutant since M-Day appears, Gwynn joins X-23, Hellion, Anole, Surge, Armor, and Rockslide in attacking the Washington, D.C., base of the ant-mutant Purifiers by teleporting them there. They are confronted by Lady Deathstrike and the Reavers with Hellion receiving a near mortal injury. Outnumbered Gwynn panics and cannot teleport the team out until Rictor, who infiltrated the Purifiers as a spy, helps her concentrate. She manages to cast a hazardous "blind teleport," which scatters the New X-Men between Washington, D.C., and the Xavier Institute. The students are then recovered and taken back to the Institute by Iceman, and the wounded sent to the infirmary. However, Predator X later attacks the Institute, going after the weaker, wounded students in the infirmary. Gwynn, realizing that X-23 had killed this type of creature before, attempts to teleport Predator X to X-23's location. However, she mistakenly takes the majority of the students and Beast alongside her and the creature, dropping them in the middle of the X-Men's fight for the mutant baby with the Marauders on Muir Island. During the fight, Gwynn is brutally beaten by the Malice-possessed Omega Sentinel, who taunts her, until Gwynn manages to defeat her by unexpectedly stabbing her with the Souldagger, exorcising Malice from Omega Sentinel's body.
Pixies and Demons
Gwynn returns to her hometown after the X-Men disband following the conclusion of Messiah Complex. However, she finds the demonic N'Garai are plaguing the town and are kidnapping people to feed Kierrok the Damned, their leader. She calls in the X-Men to help defeat the N'Garai, and Gwynn has to face her fear of the mine in which her father was killed in order to defeat the demons. After defeating Kierrok, Cyclops and the rest of the X-Men take her back to America and she joins the newly reformed X-Men in San Francisco.
Manifest Destiny
After leaving one of Dazzler's gigs, Gwynn is ambushed by a group of masked anti-mutant men calling themselves the Hellfire Cult. She is overpowered by the attackers and is subjected to beatings that leave her incapacitated. She manages to make her way back to the X-Men's new base and is immediately taken care of by Wolverine, Nightcrawler, Karma, and Beast. The attack and the events of the previous year cause her to question whether or not she wants to continue as part of the X-Men, but a discussion with Wolverine causes her to stay and assist them against Empath, whose powers have grown out of control. After beating him up, she stabs him in the head with her Souldagger, leaving him blind and his powers weakened. She decides to remain with the X-Men, assisting them in various other missions, including the Skrull invasion of San Francisco. According to writer Matt Fraction, her role is that of Kitty Pryde and Jubilee when they first joined the X-Men. Her strong magical ability as a teleporter with nearly unlimited distance and capacity also causes Nightcrawler, who is much more limited and traditionally serves as the X-Men's primary teleporter, to question his future usefulness to the team, though he later comes to terms with his own abilities.
X-Infernus
Despite her cheerful persona, Gwynn begins to reveal her anger and bitterness over her initial experience in Limbo and her incomplete soul, feeling that she is less than human. During a training session, Nightcrawler points out that her personality changes when she uses the Souldagger. This causes her to summon it and her personality turns sinister. She stabs him in the chest, causing him to pass out. Upon regaining her senses and removing the dagger, she finds that it has freed the Soulsword housed within Kurt's body. Sensing the Soulsword, Magik teleports to Earth to reclaim it. However, Gwynn engages her in a fight, demanding to have the stolen portion of her soul returned, and refuses to hand over the sword. Magik defeats her and regains her Soulsword, teleporting away and leaving Colossus distraught. The X-Men learn that they are now able to enter Limbo through Gwynn's teleportation spell, and a team consisting of Colossus, Wolverine, Mercury, Rockslide, Gwynn, and Nightcrawler is formed to reclaim Magik. Nightcrawler is put in charge due to Gwynn's and Colossus' personal stakes in the mission.
While the X-Men battle various demons in Limbo, Belasco's daughter, Witchfire defeats Magik and adds Gwynn's Bloodstone to her amulet, causing her to lose control and teleport herself to Belasco's castle. There, Witchfire forces her to become her new apprentice and begins forging a final new Bloodstone from Gwynn's soul, causing her to nightmarishly transform completely into a demon. Witchfire uses the Bloodstones to summon the Elder Gods to her aid. Gwynn is reluctantly forced to work together with Magik to defeat Witchfire. While the X-Men battle the Elder Gods, Illyana fights Witchfire and strips her of the amulet containing the Bloodstones. Illyana and Gwynn use their blades to destroy the amulet, but Witchfire escapes the crumbling castle into the Elder Gods' dimension, claiming to return for her "apprentice." Gwynn is despondent over losing more of her soul and tries to attack Magik with her Souldagger, but the glowing stone in its blade indicates that the additional stolen piece of her soul is inside it. She flies away in tears into the wilds of Limbo, upset over the additional loss of her soul.
Return from Limbo
Gwynn returns to the X-Men, but demonstrating noticeably improved fighting ability and greater anger when she hears about "Proposition X," a piece of anti-mutant legislation seeking to control mutant reproduction. She continues to work with the X-Men, using her abilities to defeat enemies such as Empath and rescue several students and team members, such as when the Sisterhood, a team of mutant villainesses led by a revived Madelyne Pryor, attack the X-Men's headquarters. During the protests between anti-mutant and pro-mutant movements about mutant reproductive rights, Gwynn is injured when a riot breaks out. Later, she teleports Rogue, Gambit and Danger to San Francisco for assistance. She is later made a part of a team to battle Emma Frost's Dark X-Men. After Emma Frost, Namor and Cloak and Dagger betray the Dark X-Men and Norman Osborn and relocate to Utopia, Gwynn and Magik begin teleporting everyone to their new island base. During the final battle, Gwynn joins Armor and X-23 in fighting Daken.
Pixie Strikes Back
Gwynn finds herself and several of her teenage teammates under a spell, causing them to live under the impression that they are ordinary high school girls. However, the illusion begins to fade, with Gwynn finding herself in confrontation with the demon Saturnyne. Meanwhile, a woman arrives on Utopia claiming to be her mother, demanding to see her. Later, her mother shows up in the Wyngarde mansion, where Lady Mastermind is fighting with Martinique. She tells them to stop acting like the babies of the family and that they have been usurped while Gwynn is seen in the next panel, revealing that Jason Wyngarde is her biological father, and the Mastermind sisters are her siblings.
X-Men: Second Coming
When Cable and Hope Summers return from the future, Bastion starts putting his plans into action in taking her out. He first begins by taking out the X-Men's teleporters with Magik the first to fall, sending her to Limbo with a weaponized spell. After Ariel is taken out, Gwynn requests to take her place only to be refused by Cyclops. She is then placed on a rescue team to get Magik back from Limbo where she encounters N'Astirh who tries to convince her to kill Magik and in exchange he will give her back the rest of her soul. After Gwynn turns on him and frees Magik, they assist Anole and Cannonball against Gambit and the corrupted Dazzler and Northstar. After the battle is over the two girls come to understand each other better.
New Mutants
Following the events of Second Coming, like the New Mutants, Gwynn goes for a holiday to relax. Magik comes to request her help in her own personal war but she dismisses her, claiming that the last time she helped Magik, she ripped out a piece of her soul and she just rescued her from Limbo. She is then ambushed and captured by Project Purgatory who steal her Souldagger. After Project Purgatory capture the New Mutants, they use Magik's Soulsword to separate the bloodstone from Gwynn's Souldagger. Escaping with Magik and Karma, Gwynn is returned to Utopia, where she recovers while the rest of the X-Men begin to battle the Elder Gods. Once the Elder Gods and Project Purgatory have been defeated, Magik comes to Gwynn with a golden box containing her Souldagger and both her bloodstones.
Hell To Pay
Gwynn, along with a few other X-Men, is summoned to a town by Danielle Moonstar, where an attack decades earlier by some demons led to them becoming trapped in one of the town's residents to protect them all. Now that she is dying they need to figure out how to deal with the demons. Gwynn demonstrates she has some knowledge in sealing spells and entrapment wards. After the arrival of the new Ghost Rider, the demons are released and a battle ensues. Working together with Ghost Rider, they send the demons back to Hell with Gwynn reciting a spell, sealing them for good.
X-Men: Schism
During the events of Schism, Gwynn has been teleporting various teams of X-Men around the world to combat all the sentinels. During one fight she injures her hands and has to sit out as she can no longer teleport. According to her, without painkillers, it hurts too much to concentrate, and with them, she cannot think straight enough but will still stand by her fellow students to help take on the giant sentinel approaching Utopia.
Regenesis
Recovering from the events of Schism, Gwynn approaches Velocidad at first to get help with her medication but when they start talking, things become quite flirty between them and eventually start kissing. Hope walks in and catches them in the act and storms out. Gwynn then slaps Velocidad and leaves. She is later packing to return to Westchester when Hope approaches and begs her to join her team, as they need a teleporter.
After a training exercise, Hope finds a new light on Cerebra and has Gwynn teleport the group to Pakistan to locate the mutant. The group splits up with Pixie teamed with Velocidad. They are ambushed by soldiers and separated. Gwynn ends up captured by them and after being rescued, teleports the team and an amnesic Sebastian Shaw back to Utopia.
Wolverine and the X-Men
Gwynn graduated from the Jean Grey School for Higher Learning and became an official X-Man in the final issue of Wolverine and the X-Men.
Powers and abilities
Megan Gwynn possesses insect-like wings (depicted of various colors depending on the artist) that allow her to fly. Initially, her wings were broad and multicolored, similar to a butterfly's, but recent depictions show her to have iridescent, translucent wings, more like those of a dragonfly. It has been suggested that her wings' appearance is affected by her psychological state. In addition, her mutation allows her to produce a "pixie dust" that causes hallucinations, often with comedic effects, such as demons seeing bright bubbles and teddy bears, or in one instance, causing Wolverine to see and try to fight a herd of unicorns. In another instance, Gwynn uses her dust seemingly harmlessly to enhance the audience's perceptions of Dazzler's light show during a concert. She states that she has no idea what individuals affected by her dust are seeing.
After Magik takes part of Gwynn's soul in an attempt to create a Soulsword, her appearance changes, reflecting the portion of her soul lost to black magic. Artists' depictions of this change in her personality are inconsistent, but typically depict her pink hair with black streaks. She also has the ability to detect the supernatural, as evidenced when she fought the N'Garai who were under a cloaking spell. When asked how she knows where they are she replies, "there's a sliver of darkness that Magik put inside my soul... And it's like a compass needle for other dark... stuff."
Because the spell to steal Megan Gwynn's soul was interrupted, a new Soulsword could not be formed. Instead, Gwynn can summon a Souldagger, a mystical item that disrupts magical constructs and harms magical beings. Because of her connection with Magik, as Gwynn uses the Souldagger, her personality changes and becomes darker and more disturbing. Her dagger later changes from silver to red after it absorbs Gwynn's Bloodstone. It is unclear if this change is merely cosmetic. Like recent depictions of the Soulsword, Gwynn's Souldagger appears to have physical effects beyond disrupting magic and harming magical creatures. For instance, while the abilities of the mutant Malice are psionic and based on mutation and not magic, the Souldagger is able to exorcise Malice's psyche from Karima Shapandar. It also appears to have physically harmed Empath, disrupting his psychic abilities and leaving him blind after she stabs him in the head with it.
Though untrained in the mystic arts, Megan Gwynn is able to wield magic, largely due to black magic which has filled the missing portions of her soul. She can recite the incantation taught to her by Illyana Rasputin ("Sihal Novarum Chinoth") to teleport over long distances and to the dimension of Limbo. She is capable of teleporting herself and large groups over vast distances and across dimensions with relative ease, though teleporting without focusing ("blind teleporting") can be hazardous, causing those transported to be scattered and potentially causing injury to Pixie herself. Gwynn has also been able to banish demons using magic. She has demonstrated that she is capable of casting a sleeping spell. Following the events of "Quest for Magik," Gwynn is approached by both Doctor Strange and Amanda Sefton to receive formal tutelage in sorcery after she has come of age.
Additionally, she has been trained in hand-to-hand combat at the institute.
Reception
Critical response
Mike Fugere of Comic Book Resources wrote, "Megan Gwynn, the adorably cheerful mutant with rainbow fairy wings known as Pixie, was created by husband and wife writing team Nunzio DeFilippis and Christina Weir along with artist Michael Ryan (Mystique, New Excalibur). Pixie made her first appearance in New X-Men: Academy X #5 back in 2004. Her exuberant attitude towards her fellow classmates at the Xavier Institute earned the title of Xavier's “Friendliest Student.” Considering Pixie’s effervescent attitude and pink haired, iridescent-winged exterior, there's really no better candidate for the superlative. Even Jubilee, at her most jovial, was never as warm and welcoming as Pixie. But don't let her adorable veneer lead you astray. Megan Gwynn packs quite a punch." Deirdre Kaye of Scary Mommy called Pixie a "role model" and a "truly heroic" female character. Chris Condry of Looper stated, "Pixie, whose real name is Megan Gwynn, is just as fun and fascinating as her older, bluer counterpart and has far more potential in the coming decades. Unlike Nightcrawler, Gwynn is far from a one-trick pony. In addition to teleportation, Gwynn's powers include flight, emitting hallucinogenic pixie dust, daggers made from her own soul, and most importantly, spell-casting. As a budding sorcerer, Gwynn's potential is almost limitless. During the "Dark Reign" event, she was even considered as a candidate to replace Doctor Strange as the next Sorcerer Supreme. Both mutant and magic, Pixie has a rare place in multiple Marvel arenas and could slot into the MCU in a few different ways. Though Pixie has mostly been relegated to the kids' table and considered a "Young X-Men" or "New Mutant," her power, personality, and promise are starting to make her too big for her highchair."
Timothy Adams of ComicBook.com called Pixie a "fan-favorite." Robert Mclaughlin of Den of Geek said, "While Cyclops, Storm, Wolverine, Gambit and some of the more popular characters have already made their screen debut, there’s still over one hundred-and-ninety-eight mutants for the filmmakers to play with, and if Riptide and Azazel can be made to look cool, then some more of these more obscure, yet visually exciting mutants can too. Megan Gwynn is a Welsh mutant with a visually fun physical mutation. Sporting pink hair, large fairy wings and pointy ears, her mutant power is the ability to teleport and to sprinkle hallucination-based pixie dust on her opponents. A current fan favourite, she’s a relatively recent addition to the X-Men team, having originally appeared in the continually re-titled X-Men Academy/New X-Men. The addition of a bright, visually appealing and fun character with a jovial light-hearted ‘bubble gum pop’ personality would replace the flying character of Angel from the first movie. And having an upbeat, positive member of the team would make a break from the angst of the rest of the team," while Marc Buxton included her in their "40 X-Men Characters Who Haven’t Appeared in the Movies But Should" list. George Marston of Newsarama included Pixie in their "20 X-Men Characters That Should Make The Jump From Marvel Comics To The MCU" list and said, "Marvel Studios is doubling down on its magical wing as one of the tentpoles of its current era, and there are few better mutants to connect a new X-Men team to that corner of the MCU than the ethereal, effervescent Pixie—whose fae codename is a perfect indicator of her powers, which include a pair of gossamer wings, teleportation, and a natural aptitude for magical skill. And not for nothing, if the MCU needs some youthful mutants for a younger-skewing X-Men team—or even some students in some capacity—Pixie makes for a spot-on addition as an ingenue for a team that always has at least one young, impressionable mutant in its ranks." ComicsAlliance gave Pixie a score of 38 out of 50 in their "100 X-Men: How Do Sunspot, Pixie, Leech, Revanche And Quicksilver Rate As Great X-Men?" list.
Trudy Graham of Zavvi included Pixie in their "10 Characters From Marvel Comics We Want To See In The MCU" list, writing, "There are several X-Men that act as a supportive glue for teams, and she’s one of them. Her powers are also a lot of fun" Andrew Ceco of Sideshow included Pixie in their "Marvel’s Most Masterful Witches" list. John Tibbetts of WhatCulture ranked Pixie 2nd in their "Marvel Phase 4: 10 Mutants Who Should Be MCU X-Men" list and said, "Pixie is one of those characters that you have to actually be dead inside to not absolutely love. She's bubbly, friendly, has boundless optimism, but is also the first one to kick your ass six ways from Sunday if you cause trouble. Her pixie wings give her the ability to fly, almost twice as fast as Angel when she sets her mind to it, she can release "pixie dust" that gives anyone it hits powerful hallucinations, and also she's a witch. Like a straight up candidate for sorcerer supreme should Doctor Strange ever bite it. Sure right now she can just barely conjure up a sleeping spell and the ability to teleport, but all of this alone makes her a natural fit for the X-Men should Marvel be smart enough to realize the money printer Pixie could prove to be in marketing if they pull her off right." Anya Crittenton of Gay Star News ranked Pixie 3rd in their "7 LGBTI Heroes We Want to See in Marvel’s New All-Female TV Series" list. Alyssa Gawaran of MovieWeb ranked Pixie 8th in their "8 LGBTQ+ Marvel Comics Characters That Need to Be in the MCU" list. Matthew Perpetua of BuzzFeed ranked Pixie 41st in their "95 X-Men Members Ranked From Worst To Best" list, saying, "Pixie is basically like a mashup of Magik and Jubilee—she's got the former's teleportation and magical powers, but has the spunky, sarcastic qualities of the latter. For a while it seemed like she was brought into the cast to fill the obligatory "teenage girl" role, but she's developed into a more nuanced character over time despite having an increasingly smaller role in the franchise." Darren Franich of Entertainment Weekly ranked Pixie 64th in their "Let's Rank Every X-Man Ever" list.
Screen Rant ranked Pixie 6th in their "15 Most Powerful X-Men Members Who Joined in the 2000s (Ranked)" list. Comic Book Resources ranked Pixie 9th in their "10 Best Fights From Avengers Vs X-Men" list, 20th in their "20 Most Powerful Supernatural Marvel Characters" list, 20th in their "20 X-Men Who Are Much More Powerful Than They Look" list, and 25th in their "25 Most Powerful Young X-Men" list.
Literary reception
Volumes
X-Men: Pixies and Demons (2008)
According to Diamond Comic Distributors, X-Men: Pixies and Demons #1 was the 123rd best selling comic book in November 2008.
X-Men: Pixie Strikes Back (2010)
Issue 1
According to Diamond Comic Distributors, X-Men: Pixie Strikes Back #1 was the 114th best selling comic book in February 2010.
James Hunt of Comic Book Resources called X-Men: Pixie Strikes Back #1 an "interesting spin on the character," saying, "One of the reasons Pixie has been steadily growing in popularity is that the character's visual is rather more striking than many of her peers. The fairy wings, pink hair and dark eyes make her as iconic as any of the "classic" X-Men, and Sara Pichelli does the character justice with her artwork. Indeed, all the characters. In Immonen and Pichelli, Marvel have managed to find a fantastic creative team (and, letterer aside, an all-female at that) with a distinctive and original take on the X-Men. Compared to the rather dour and homogenous feeling most of the line has at the moment, this can't help but stand out. It might not have an event to piggyback on, but it is, undoubtedly, a worthwhile purchase for all current X-fans." Bryan Joel of IGN gave X-Men: Pixie Strikes Back #1 a grade of 7.2 out of 10, writing, "All signs point to Pixie Strikes Back veering more into traditional territory down the line, but as far as this issue's concerned, it's a welcomed alternate take on the junior team with some unexpected wit from Immonen and more than a few charming qualities. Basically, if you were put off by the idea of a mini-series called Pixie Strikes Back, issue #1 is probably not going to change your tune. If you can get past that, however, it's a cool little X-curio."
Issue 2
According to Diamond Comic Distributors, X-Men: Pixie Strikes Back #2 was the 154th best selling comic book in March 2010.
Greg McElhatton of Comic Book Resources described X-Men: Pixie Strikes Back #2 as an "enticing read," asserting, "X-Men: Pixie Strikes Back! may look like another disposable mutant mini-series, but Immonen's snappy script is strong enough that it's quietly beating the odds. If all mini-series and one-offs were this strong, I think we'd have a lot more happy customers in the store buying them." Dan Iverson of IGN ranked the cover of the comic book X-Men: Pixie Strikes Back #2 78th in their "Top 100 Comic Book Covers of 2010" list, writing, "Our picks for best cover of the year were chosen based on artistic quality, representation of the content within, entertainment value, and our editors' personal leanings."
Other versions
Age of X
An alternate version of Megan Gwynn appears in the "Age of X" reality. She is known as "Nightmare" and her "pixie dust" causes frightening hallucinations. Her appearance is different as well, with her skin tone lavender and her wings having a bat-like appearance. Her personality is also more sassy and unreserved.
Ultimate Marvel
An alternate version of Megan Gwynn appears in the Ultimate Marvel universe. Her wings and hair share a similar rainbow coloration, her main power is her teleportation, which is natural to her rather than a mystical spell. She requires recharging to teleport, and each teleportation confers a natural high to her. She helps Kitty Pryde to make a final stand against Jean Grey and her nation of Tian. Gwynn is knocked unconscious during the destruction of Tian. The X-Men find her and a group of survivors she managed to save in the ruins of Tian. A mutant named Amp, who can amplify others' powers, gives Gwynn a boost and she attempts to teleport everyone back to Utopia, only to accidentally teleport them into a barren dimension filled with the Gah Lak Tus drone swarm. She manages to save an infected Jimmy Hudson by teleporting the individual infected cells out of his body. The X-Men and Rick Jones (Captain Marvel) hold off the swarm until Gwynn can recharge, but she is stabbed by a drone before she can teleport the group away.
Avengers vs X-Men
An alternate version of Megan Gwynn appears in a bonus story of Avengers vs. X-Men: Versus #6. She is depicted competing against Squirrel Girl in a game resembling HeroClix, where the toys are based on various superheroes. Thing walks in, stopping the game to reveal that the figurines actually belong to the Puppet Master and are made out of his Mind Control Clay. The next day, Squirrel Girl and Gwynn read in the Daily Bugle that the clash between the Avengers and X-Men has occurred, and have been mirroring the results from their game, jokingly implying that they were the cause of the feud.
Secret Wars
An alternate version of Megan Gwynn appears in the Secret Wars crossover event. She is a member of the Runaways, and is a high school student at the Victor Von Doom Institute for Gifted Youths. She is best friends and exes with Jubilee, and is established to be bisexual. She is paired up with the other characters for their Institute's final exam. During the Institute's battle examination, Gwynn is killed by a rival team. It was believed by the school's students that the exam was only virtual, and those dead in it were swiftly expelled, but her team discovers her body by accident, and decide to run away from the institute.
In other media
Television
Pixie appears in Wolverine and the X-Men, voiced by Kate Higgins.
Video games
Pixie appears in X-Men: Destiny, voiced by Aileen Ong Casas. This version is an associate of Caliban in rescuing mutants until she is captured by the Purifiers, who seek to acquire her teleportation powers. She attempts to escape them, but is ultimately killed.
Pixie appears as a playable character in Marvel Super War.
References
External links
British superheroes
Characters created by Christina Weir
Characters created by Nunzio DeFilippis
Comics characters introduced in 2004
Fictional bisexual women
Fictional characters with evocation or summoning abilities
Fictional fairies and sprites
Fictional knife-fighters
Fictional Welsh people
Marvel Comics characters who can teleport
Marvel Comics characters who have mental powers
Marvel Comics characters who use magic
Marvel Comics female superheroes
Marvel Comics hybrids
Marvel Comics LGBT superheroes
Marvel Comics mutants |
4288441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Roberts%20%28evangelist%29 | Richard Roberts (evangelist) | Richard Lee Roberts (born November 12, 1948) is an American television evangelist and faith healer who serves as the chairman and chief executive officer of the Oral Roberts Evangelistic Association. He previously served fifteen years as the president of Oral Roberts University.
Early life and education
Richard Lee Roberts was born on November 12, 1948, in Tulsa, Oklahoma, the son of evangelist Granville Oral Roberts and schoolteacher Evelyn Lutman Roberts. The third of four children, Richard had an older sister, Rebecca Ann, who was killed, along with her husband, Marshall Nash, in a plane crash in 1977; and an older brother, Ronald David, who committed suicide in 1982, six months after coming out as homosexual, and five months after entering a drug rehabilitation facility. Robert's younger sister, Roberta Jean Potts, is a practicing attorney in Tulsa.
As a young boy, Roberts watched his father travel the United States and the world conducting healing meetings, where he would preach and pray for the sick. At times, his father and mother were gone for periods as long as six weeks. When school permitted, Roberts accompanied his father on trips and dreamed of having a healing ministry of his own; many times walking by his side as his father prayed for people in the "invalid tent". During the portions of the services where his father prayed for people, Roberts was often standing on his chair, clapping when people were healed.
At age 5, Roberts had his first public performance at an Oral Roberts crusade in Baltimore, Maryland, where he stood on a chair to sing "I Believe." Around the same time, his father began to teach him golf; the first time he swung the club, Roberts sent a ball through the family's living room window. In the book Expect A Miracle: My Life and Ministry, Oral Roberts wrote about the bond he and his son Richard built through playing golf.
Though drawn to ministry, the attention his father drew made Roberts uncomfortable, leading to teasing at school. Roberts wrote, "I came home from school many a day with my shirt torn and my nose bloodied from being in fights with the other kids who made fun of me, my dad and the healing ministry of Jesus Christ." As a teenager, with the negative press his father was receiving and pressure from his father to sing at crusades, he began to pull away from involvement with his father's ministry and began pursuing other talents and interests, such as singing. Roberts learned to play the guitar and performed around Oklahoma, dreaming of a career as a nightclub singer in Las Vegas. In 1966, he played the lead in his high school's production of The Sound of Music and was offered a scholarship to Interlochen.
Graduating from Memorial High School in May 1966 Roberts attended University of Kansas, intending to study music. During the summer of his freshman year, he worked at the famous Starlight Theater in Kansas City, with a number of performers including Shirley Jones. He also had been working in a number of nightclubs and had been offered a contract to sing in Las Vegas.
While at the University of Kansas, Roberts fell ill and had to go to the hospital. When he returned home, he heard a voice telling him that he was in the wrong place and that he belonged at Oral Roberts University instead. The next year, Roberts left Kansas and enrolled at ORU. In 1968 Roberts dedicated his life to Jesus Christ and joined his father’s ministry as a singer.
Roberts holds three degrees from Oral Roberts University: BA in communications in 1985; a master's degree in 1992; and a DMin degree in 2002.
Family
Against the wishes of his family and friends, Roberts married Patricia "Patti" Holcombe on November 27, 1968. In his book, He’s The God of a Second Chance, Roberts wrote that the marriage was "a terrible mistake that I didn't know how to get out of," but that he did not believe in divorce. Together they have two children, Christi (b. 1971) and Juli (b. 1972). Patti filed for divorce in 1978. In 1983, she released a book called Ashes to Gold, discussing her thoughts on Roberts' ministry and university.
Because of his high-profile divorce, Roberts believed it was important to go before the executive staff of the ministry and the university to discuss his desire to remarry and seek their approval. They approved his request. Several weeks later, on January 11, 1980, Roberts married Lindsay Salem at the campus chapel of Rollins College.
Together, Richard and Lindsay had four children. After several miscarriages, their first child, Richard Oral, was born on January 17, 1984. Within hours, complications developed and he died 36 hours after birth. Jordan was born in 1985. Olivia was born in 1987. Chloe was born in 1989. Roberts has 3 grandchildren.
Career
Oral Roberts Evangelistic Association
At 19, Roberts joined his father's ministry and became immediately involved in several areas of the ministry including radio, television and traveling with his father on domestic and international crusades. His first trip was in December of the same year to Haiti singing with the music team, Oral Roberts Collegians. His first area of responsibility was reorganizing and developing the Collegians music group into the World Action Singers. Roberts and this group would be featured in the new Sunday morning television program, taped in Los Angeles and prime-time television specials that were taped in different locations around the world.
Over the next decade Roberts sang on the television programs and produced more than 15 record albums. When not involved in television production Roberts traveled the US and around the world performing in concerts and speaking at ministry sponsored events, as the ministry continued to raise funds to complete the building of the university. In addition, Roberts travelled and sang in numerous healing meetings with Kathryn Kuhlman from 1973-1975.
Roberts’ world falls apart after his wife (Patti) filed for divorce. In the book Expect a Miracle, Oral Roberts remembered his son coming to his office devastated, explaining what had just happened, asking what was to become of him and his work in the ministry. Oral noted that numerous individuals, including close friends and ministers, advised him to remove Richard from the Ministry, send him overseas for a number of years, and even disown him. After prayer, Oral believed that God was not through with Richard, and he was still to be involved in the ministry.
Roberts remarried and continued traveling, doing concerts, and singing on television. The concerts transformed into a combination of music, preaching and ministry events where Roberts prayed for people and people were testifying they had been healed. In 1982, Roberts held the first of many international crusades, starting with South Africa. According to the ministry website, oralroberts.com, Roberts has ministered in over 40 countries on six different continents including: Russia, India, Brazil, Australia, Niger, and Indonesia.
Roberts continued holding domestic meetings and ministering on television programs. In 1984, Roberts begins a live daily one-hour program called Richard Roberts Live that combined ministry, music, and special guests such as Richard Kiel, known for his role as Jaws in the James Bond movies, and Donna Douglas, best known as Elly May Clampett in the television show The Beverly Hillbillies.
In 1985, Oral Roberts stepped down, and Richard Roberts was elected president of Oral Roberts Evangelistic Association (OREA) by its board of directors. In 1986, Roberts worked with his father and helped found the International Charismatic Bible Ministries to support independent churches and ministries and help expand opportunities for student recruitment for ORU.
In 1987, Roberts was elected as the executive vice president of Oral Roberts University, and was involved in all areas of administration, presiding over the ORU chapel services. During the same time period, Roberts continued daily television, domestic crusades with his father, his own international crusades, and speaking at churches and conferences across the country. In 1992, Oral Roberts announced to the board that he was resigning as president of ORU.
Oral Roberts University
Serving dual roles
On January 27, 1993, the board of regents elected Roberts as the second president of the university. Reports showed the university is in debt as much as $52 million, with tuition and fees not keeping up with expenses. Roberts assembled a team from his executive staff to work with him on resolving the financial problems.
Marketing the university for growth
Roberts pushed the team to increase enrollment, tighten budgets and find additional revenue streams. At the same time, he used his television program to promote the university. He started the Adopt A Student scholarship campaign as one of these efforts, and embarked on other efforts to promote Christian education and increase enrollment. Over the next four years, enrollment increased by 1,200 students and the university's debt shrank by 50 percent Roberts used his ministry connections to help with recruitment, specifically in the African American community. Through his speaking at churches and conferences, he was mainly responsible for the 20% African American student body. ORU receives the Racial Harmony Award from the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities in 2002.
In 1993, Roberts made a number of changes in the athletic program, hiring Bill Self as head basketball coach, changed the school mascot from the Titans to the Golden Eagles, and hired Mike Carter as the new director of athletics.
As president of the university, Roberts began incorporating the university and students as part of the crusade/healing rally team, with students and staff from the School of Nursing and the School of Business joining doctors on outreach missions in West Africa.
Controversy
In October 2007, three former professors filed a lawsuit against Oral Roberts University and named the entire ORU Board of Regents, Oral Roberts Evangelistic Association, Roberts, his wife and several university administrators as co-defendants. As a part of the suit, additional allegations were made including: university resources were illegally used by Roberts to help a mayoral candidate's election campaign; Roberts misappropriated university funds for a daughter's trip to the Bahamas; was maintaining a stable of horses at university expense for the exclusive use of his children; used university staff to do his daughters' homework; remodeled his university-owned residence 11 times in 14 years; allowed the university to be billed for damage inflicted by his children to a university-owned golf cart; and personally acquired a Mercedes and a Lexus through ministry donations. Roberts responded by saying, "This lawsuit ...is about intimidation, blackmail and extortion."
A few days later, the suit was amended, alleging the university's financial comptroller had been fired; additionally amended stating "Witnesses have reported voluminous materials and documents were shredded and destroyed, constituting spoliation of evidence." One month later another wrongful termination lawsuit was filed against the university by a former ORU accountant, Trent Huddleston, who was employed for less than one year, claiming he had been ordered to help Roberts and his wife "cook the books" by misclassifying over $120,000 in funds, allegedly spent by the university on remodeling the university home that Roberts lived in.
Resignation
On October 17, 2007 Roberts asked for and was granted an indefinite leave of absence from the school by the university's board of regents, citing the "toll" the lawsuit and attendant allegations have taken on him and his family. In a statement Roberts said, "I don't know how long this leave of absence will last... I pray and believe that in God's timing, and when the Board feels that it is appropriate, I will be back at my post as President." Billy Joe Daugherty of Victory Christian Center was named executive regent of the board of regents and interim president. Chairman of the board of regents George Pearsons noted the temporary resignation was not an admission of guilt.
On November 13, the tenured faculty of Oral Roberts University approved a nonbinding vote of no confidence in Roberts. The vote was nearly unanimous according to a professor in attendance.
Roberts tendered his resignation to the university's board of regents on November 23, 2007, effective immediately. In an emailed statement he said, "I love ORU with all my heart. I love the students, faculty, staff and administration and I want to see God's best for all of them."
On January 14, 2008, the ORU Board of Regents voted unanimously to name Richard Roberts president emeritus in honor of his work during 15 years as president.
Resolution
The Huddleston lawsuit was dismissed, with ORU claiming Huddleston was nothing more than a disgruntled employee. Huddleston's attorney stated there would be an appeal, but this never came to pass.
In a written statement, the university denied "purposely or improperly" destroying documents. Upon review, it was discovered that the shredded documents had nothing to do with any allegations and were a part of normal policy, required by law for the privacy and protection of students and ministry donors.
By October 2008, the original three cases for wrongful discharge had been dismissed or settled.
No evidence regarding the additional allegations made against Roberts or the university was produced. No charges were filed and all other lawsuits were dismissed.
Current
After stepping down as ORU President, Roberts focused on what he calls his "first love", the healing ministry. Roberts moved the ministry from ORU.
On January 24, 2012, the birthday of his deceased father, Roberts was stopped in Tulsa, Oklahoma on U.S. Route 169 going 93 mph in a 65-mph zone in his Mercedes S430. After failing two field sobriety tests, he was arrested on suspicion of driving under the influence and for driving more than 15 miles per hour over the speed limit. He agreed to take a breath test, which measured his blood alcohol content at .11, above the legal limit of .08. On January 30, 2012 Roberts was charged with two misdemeanor counts, including driving under the influence of alcohol. At a May 2012 hearing, Roberts pled guilty to a charge of driving under the influence of alcohol, speeding, receiving 18 months of probation and paying $1,532. He was also ordered to complete 56 hours of community service, undergo a drug and alcohol assessment, and attend DUI classes.
Roberts’ nightly television program continues. Roberts has additional crusades and medical outreaches in Honduras, Guatemala, Kenya, and Ghana. He has also sponsored the construction of a Christian school in Niger and worked with Pete Sumrall of Feed the Hungry. In 2010, Roberts opened the School of Miracles, a free online school.
Bibliography
A Study of the Impact of the Course, "Charismatic Life and the Healing Ministry," on Oral Roberts University Undergraduates. (D.Min, Oral Roberts University, 2002)(ProQuest document ID 305425748)
Are Miracles Real? (Tulsa, Oral Roberts & Richard Roberts, Oral Roberts Evangelistic Assoc, 1996)
Claim Your Inheritance (Tulsa, Oral Roberts Evangelistic Assoc., 2002) OCLC 49848142
Faith to Try Again (Tulsa, Albury Publishing, 1982 )
The Joy of the Lord - How to Get It and Keep It! (Tulsa, Oral Roberts Ministries, 1995)
If You’re Going Through Hell, Don’t Stop (Tulsa, Oral Roberts Evangelistic Assoc., 1998) OCLC 40613311
If You Catch Hell, Don’t Hold It (Tulsa, Oral Roberts Evangelistic Assoc., 1999) OCLC 45089986
The Source, The Seed, The Answer: the Secrets of Seed-Faith (Tulsa, Oral Roberts Evangelistic Association, 1997)
Excelling In Life (Tulsa, Oral Roberts Ministries, 1996)
He's a Healing Jesus (Oral Roberts Ministries, 2010)
He's the God of a Second Chance (Tulsa, Oral Roberts Evangelistic Association, 1985) OCLC 12415666
The Unlimited Power Within You (Tulsa, Oral Roberts Ministries, 1999)
The Good News Is the Bad News Is Wrong! (Tulsa, Oral Roberts Evangelistic Assoc., 1993) OCLC 55895413
When It Seems All Hope is Gone (Tulsa, Harrison House Publishers, 2003)
When All Hell Breaks Loose...Facing Your Fiery Trials With Faith (Tulsa, Oral Roberts Ministries, 2014)
References
External links
Collection of documents regarding Roberts from the Tulsa World
1948 births
Living people
20th-century evangelicals
21st-century evangelicals
21st-century Native Americans
American evangelicals
American faith healers
American Pentecostal pastors
American television evangelists
Christians from Oklahoma
Oral Roberts University alumni
Pentecostals from Oklahoma
Presidents of Oral Roberts University
Religious scandals |
4288521 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace%20of%20Saint-Germain-en-Laye | Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye | The Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye was signed on 8 August 1570 by Charles IX of France, Gaspard II de Coligny and Jeanne d'Albret, and ended the 1568 to 1570 Third Civil War, part of the French Wars of Religion.
The Peace went much further than the March 1568 Peace of Longjumeau by establishing specific rights and responsibilities for French Protestants, generally known as Huguenots. Freedom of worship was permitted in two towns per gouvernment, while the Huguenots were allowed to maintain armed garrisons in four surety towns for a period of two years, after which they had to be returned to Royal control. However, the civil war resumed in 1572 after the targeted assassination of Huguenot leaders assembled in Paris, spiralled into the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre.
The Third Civil War
Following the outbreak of civil war in 1568, the Huguenots under Coligny and Condé opted to defend the south-west by fortifying towns such as Angoulême and Cognac. As they moved south in March 1569, their rear guard was trapped by the Royalists at Jarnac, with Condé cut down after surrendering. However, the bulk of the Huguenot army reached Cognac, with Coligny assuming leadership on behalf of Henry of Navarre and Condé's son Henri.
At Châlus on 11 June, Coligny joined up with 14,000 German mercenaries financed by Elizabeth I of England, originally led by the Duke of Zweibrücken who died shortly before their meeting. This combined army of 25,000 defeated a slightly larger Royalist force at La Roche-l'Abeille on 25th. They then laid siege to Poitiers, which was held by Henry I, Duke of Guise; it was still resisting when the main Royal army under Tavannes invested the nearby Huguenot town of Châtellerault.
Forced to withdraw from Poitiers, on 3 October Coligny was heavily defeated at the Battle of Moncontour, but although his army incurred heavy casualties, the remnants were able to retreat in good order. Rather than pursuing Coligny, Tavannes moved onto Saint-Jean-d'Angély, whose possession would enable him to break the Huguenot hold on Nouvelle-Aquitaine. Although the town surrendered on 2 December, the Royalists lost thousands of men to disease or hunger, while many of its Swiss and German mercenaries mutinied after not being paid.
Coligny and his remaining troops had moved into Languedoc, where he linked up with 4,000 men led by Montgomery. After an unsuccessful siege of Toulouse in January 1570, their combined force marched north through the Rhone valley towards Paris and reached Montbrison in May. Learning that a Royalist force under Brissac was advancing on the nearby Huguenot stronghold of La Charité, Coligny intercepted and defeated him at Arnay le Duc on 25 June 1570. With Paris under threat, the state bankrupt and the Royal army in ruins, this gave him a strong position to negotiate with Charles IX of France.
Negotiations
Early doubts
No sooner had the war begun than moderate Politique voices on the royal council advocated for a return to status quo ante bellum. The bishop Jean de Monluc as early as 2 December 1568 argued for a restoration of the edict of Longjumeau, and the provision of a governorship to Condé, Armand de Gontaut, baron de Biron likewise refused to serve in a war he felt was unjust. Hôpital too advocated for such a settlement, however he had been marginalised from the government by the beginning of the war, and had lost his seals to the chancellorship. The financial difficulties that had forced the crown to conclude the peace of Longjumeau the prior year also played upon the king, who considered in January the possibility of a temporary truce until proper funding for the armies and mercenaries could be arranged.
Jarnac to Poitiers
When the disintegration of the Protestant army did not follow the battle of Jarnac as expected the crown's army began to fall apart itself in the summer, mutinous for lack of pay and suffering from disease. This motivated more serious outreaches of peace, and Catherine broached the idea of a marriage between Margaret of Valois-Angoulême and Henry IV of France to seal away the civil war, whilst the Huguenot army was encamped outside of Poitiers. Coligny was likewise interested in peace at this time, and advocated for full freedom of religion, and the declaration of a war against Spain to take advantage of the situation in the Netherlands. The king rebuffed these attempts, offering amnesty to the leadership if they laid down their arms.
Moncontour to Saint-Jean-de-Angély
With the crushing victory at Moncontour the crown again hoped it represented the end of Huguenot resistance. Tavannes and Cossé wanted to use the opportunity to establish a peace, however the crown pressed on with its attempts on Saint-Jean-d'Angély, hoping for a final victory. The baron de Castlenau offered to negotiate favourable terms for Navarre and the Huguenot subjects, provided they throw down their arms and petition the crown as loyal subjects. Meanwhile, as the siege stretched on with no victory in sight, the moderates on the council again petitioned for peace on 24 November. Charles was more open to the idea than he had been a month ago, with the loss of Blaise de Lasseran-Massencôme, seigneur de Montluc who had been fighting Jeanne d'Albret in the south, the ravaging of the royal army outside Saint-Jean-de-Angély by disease and famine and the comparative growing strength of the Protestant viscounts in Languedoc. Resultingly he sent Cossé and de Losses to negotiate, their delegation meeting with d'Albret and Rochefoucault. The Huguenot nobility, largely tired of war was eager to accept, but on certain conditions. The nobility deputised Teligny to seek assurances from the king and negotiate a full liberty of conscience, restitution of property and office and a rescinding of sentences against the Huguenot leadership (Coligny had forfeited his title and been sentenced to death by the Parliament of Paris.) These terms had been agreed upon by the Princes and approved by Jeanne d'Albret. Albret meanwhile wrote to Catherine, announcing she would rather die than compromise on the issue of public worship.
Toulouse to Arnay-le-Duc
For the moment however the crown felt its position was strong enough to reject such terms, and negotiations ceased until February. A new attempt was made by the Huguenots to push for their terms in February 1570, with La Noue, de Teligny, Bricquemault negotiating for the Huguenots, and the moderates Biron and de Mesmes for the crown. Conscious of the difficult international situation these more serious attempts put her in Catherine wrote to Philip in Madrid, explaining the extreme circumstances that necessitated negotiation with heretics. Charles went further in his letters to the Spanish court, describing the kingdom as being practically in ruin, and negotiation necessary to maintain France as a state. Regardless the crown rebuffed the Huguenots again over their demands regarding worship. In March the Huguenot Princes met at Montreuil to reaffirm their commitment to free exercise of religion being a pre-requisite to peace negotiation.
Biron would plead with the king in March, arguing there was no harm in listening to the demands of the Huguenots. The king relented, and in April talks resumed to tackle the gaps between the sides on matters of surety towns, payments of Coligny's reiters and free exercise of religion. Teligny was instructed not to meet the crown's negotiators in the presence of Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine who was considered by the Huguenot camp to be the head of the most reactionary elements of the Catholic camp. Whilst Teligny would meet king Charles, and Biron would meet Coligny, consensus could still not be reached on the sticking point issues. Rumours in May that Henri de Navarre desired to run away from the rebel camp to court enlivened the interest of Charles in a royal marriage proposal to draw him away, which would extinguish a key source of legitimacy for the rebel forces enabling far more stringent negotiations. For now though the marriage proposal came to nought.
In July Cossé warned the king that the crown's army was on the cusp of disintegration unless peace was signed shortly. Coligny, who had grown weary of the war was also in a mood to compromise on the red lines the Huguenots had drawn regarding exercise of religion, and the leadership of the Huguenots agreed to accept public worship on the lines of the Edict of Saint-Germain. Resultingly the Huguenots offered to accede to worship in 3 towns per gouvernment, amnesty for past actions and the restoration of property. The crown countered with an offer of 2 towns and also insisted on an exclusion zone around Paris in which worship would be prohibited, but offered worship in all cities currently held by the Huguenots to sweeten the deal. The crown demanded the Huguenots pay part of the cost of their reiter's wages, however eventually agreed to shoulder the entire burden. Concerning surety towns the crown offered La Rochelle, Angoulême and Montauban, countering the Huguenot demands for La Charite with offers of Perpignan or Lansac. The crown would later change its offer from Angoulême to Cognac, but relented to the Huguenots on their demand for La Charite.
The Protestant nobility accepted this compromise, which favoured their heartland in the south at the expense of Huguenots in the north and east, and on 8 August 1570 peace was signed at the royal residence of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.
Terms of the peace
Past wrongs
Article 1 of the peace deal concerned crimes and other wrongs committed during the course of the prior three wars of religion. These were to be quenched and forgotten. Article 2 forbade the making of trouble over disputes that had arisen during the wars, the crown beseeched its subjects to live peacefully with one another. The next article mandated that the Catholic religion be restored in all regions where Huguenot ascendency during or prior to the civil war had seen it suppressed in sole favour of Huguenot worship. Article 4 built upon a concept that had been established first in the Edict of July, prohibiting subjects from investigating their neighbours religions.
Parameters of worship
Article 5 allowed all gentleman exercising high justice over their estates to practice the Huguenot faith when present on their estates, likewise their subjects who lived on the estates would be permitted practice of the religion. Article 6 outlined that when high justice was not enjoyed, religious worship was only to be in one's own house, for the members of the household up to ten people, assuming guests were present. Article 8 was a list of the 2 suburbs per gouvernment where Protestant worship would be permitted in churches and other open displays. Article 9 included the compromise worked out in August, allowing worship to also be conducted in those towns that the Huguenots held on 1 August 1570. Article 10 established that outside of the above towns there was to be no preaching or religious teaching elsewhere. Article 10 created a further prohibition, Protestant worship was to be forbidden within two leagues of wherever the court was currently residing, including for members of the court. Article 12 built upon this, Protestant worship was outlawed within 10 leagues of the town/viscounty of Paris, as it had been after Longjumeau, but also the towns of Senlis, Meaux, Melun and Chartres. In keeping with prior edicts however, house searches for Huguenot worship would not be permitted in any of these towns either.
Integration into society
Article 15 broadened the scope of the edict from prior edicts, outlining access to universities schools hospitals and alm houses, which was to be done irrespective of religion. Article 16 concerned itself with the reputation of the leading Huguenot nobles, specifically Jeanne d'Albret and Gaspard de Coligny. They were not to have their reputations impugned by rumours. Article 23 was also a new area for peace edicts, prohibiting the levying of undue taxes upon the Huguenot population, and discharging the Huguenot population if they were currently indebted to such taxes. Article 26 returned to familiar territory for peace edicts, guaranteeing the return of property, title and office, with the exception of those who had been replaced from their position in the high courts, who would be able to receive financial compensation for the loss of their office. Article 32 annulled all sentences, arrests seizures and decrees of the war that concerned matters of religion. This notably included the 50,000 écus bounty on Coligny's head and the Parlements removal of his title of Admiral. Further all monuments and marks erected to commemorate executions during the war were to be razed and removed. Article 34 repeated Longjumeau's demand that Protestants maintain their observance of Catholic holy days and feast days, prohibiting them from working on fasting days or running their butcheries during Lent. Article 35 was also new ground for peace edicts, allowing Protestants to request the removal of 4 judges when cases concerning religion got appealed to the Parlement in future. Article 36, modified this provision for Toulouse, allowing them to have their cases heard by the maîtres des requêtes instead.
Surety
Article 38 in recognition of how much trust had been damaged by this particularly brutal civil war, offered four surety towns (Montauban, La Rochelle, La Charite and Cognac) to the Huguenots as guarantee of the peace, so that they might return to their homes. These towns would be granted for a two-year period, the guarantee of which shall be made by the young princes of Navarre and Condé. Despite being allowed to remain in arms in these towns, Catholic worship must be returned to them in line with article 3.
Registration and enforcement
Registration
As with the edict of Longjumeau, the crown remembered the resistance the Parlement had put up to the Edict of Amboise, and to avoid a laboured several month period of ambiguity, mandated that the Parlements register it immediately, and further that all royal officials swear an oath to uphold its terms. For those who non violently obstructed the edicts implementation the punishment was to be whipping and a fine, for the violent obstruction, death. It was hoped that this would ensure that the edict would be adhered to more closely and promptly. As a result, after the edict was signed on 8 August, it would be registered by the Parlement of Paris (which had jurisdiction over half the country) three days later on 11 August.
Enforcement
In a similar manner to all past religious edicts, enforcement proved far harder to ensure than registration. Alongside the sending out of commissioners to oversee its implementation the crown for the first time sent out financial advisers, whose duty it would be raise and reclaim revenues that had been lost due to the long period of troubles. It would prove challenging for these officials to reacquire the funds. The Catholic representative assigned to La Rochelle complained of the slow nature of enforcement for returning Catholic worship to the city as stipulated by article 3. Churches that had been burned by the Huguenots were agreed to be lightly taxed until they could recover. In more successful developments for the edict, the reiters Coligny and the crown had hired were successfully paid and removed from the kingdom.
Rouen
In Rouen, 500 Calvinists, armed in contravention of the edict, passed by a vicar on the road to their suburban service at Bondeville. A scuffle ensued, and a Catholic militia descended upon the Protestants. After a large fight 40 Protestants were left dead. Five Catholic militia-men were arrested for their role in the violence, and sentenced on 5 April 1571. The following day an angry crowd of militant Catholics descended upon the prison and freed them all. Greatly annoyed at this disorder the council of 24 which administered Rouen called for a commission to restore order. The duke of Montmorency and his troops arrived and calmed the town.
Gastines
There was great disorder in Paris over the enforcement of article 32. A cross had been erected on the site of a razed Huguenot house, the resident of which had been executed during the civil wars. As part of the peace terms, this cross had to be removed from the site of the Gastine's house, and so a team set about preparing to remove it. This greatly angered militant Catholic elements of the Parisian population, who rallied around the cross as a holy and righteous memorial. Several bouts of violence accompanied the various attempts to remove it, the most serious riots in December 1571. Eventually the cross was moved to the cemetery of the innocents as a compromise with the rioters. The violent resistance of elements of the population to the edict would again come to bear in August 1572.
Modification
Militant Catholic pressure was not however confined to acts of mob violence and pressure was brought to bear on the king to modify the peace he had so recently signed. Article 15 was altered to remove Huguenots right of access to university teaching, and the king declared on 8 October there would be no Huguenots in the University of Paris. On 20 November he further prohibited any role in providing education across the country for Huguenots.
Long term consequences
St Bartholomew's day massacre and the resumption of war
Disgrace of Guise
The coming of peace coincided with the disgrace of the Guise family, who had led the war party since 1567. The cardinal of Lorraine, depressed at the peace, was conscious that his position at court was too compromised to continue by the crown having pursued this line, so he retired to his estates. Meanwhile, his nephew, the young Henri duke of Guise found himself more formally disgraced. During the final months of the war he had begun romantically pursuing the king's sister Marguerite. Catherine de' Medici and Charles were by now committed to the policy of marrying her to Henri Navarre as a method to ensure long term peace, and were furious when rumours of Guise's tryst reached their ears. They considered having him assassinated, but settled on exiling him from court.
Marriage plans and Spain
Negotiations for a marriage between Marguerite and Henri were finalised on 4 April 1572 by Jeanne and Catherine, with the marriage to go ahead in August. For much of this period the Protestant leadership had avoided the capital, not keen to trust the king's promise of safety in doing so. In September 1571 Coligny made a tentative return to court, keen to persuade the monarchy of his plans for an invasion of the Spanish Netherlands. He remained unable to convince the crown of his course losing several votes in council. However the crown moved closer to his position, unwilling to fully break with Spain yet happy to allow the rebel Louis of Nassau to hold up in Soissons. Coligny would not however stay at court long, and after 5 weeks, not feeling safe enough to remain, he retired.
The Guise meanwhile petitioned the crown to re-open the investigation into the murder of Francis, Duke of Guise in 1563, still convinced this would allow them a method to attack Coligny, who they accused of involvement. The crown however refused.
Marriage and a massacre
Coligny again returned to court in August, along with much of the other Huguenot nobility who had stayed away, to commemorate the marriage that would seal the peace. Several days after the marriage, an assassin would make an attempt on Coligny's life, wounding him in the shoulder, but non fatally. The Huguenot nobility exploded in anger at what they assumed was the work of the Guise if not Catherine herself. With the nobles threatening bloody retribution on the Guise, a royal council meeting was held, in which it was agreed to liquidate the Huguenot leadership on the pretext that they were about to send their troops into Paris for more extensive reprisals. On the morning of 24 August hit teams fanned out to execute the various Huguenot leaders, killing Coligny in his bedroom. When word of these hits got out, the population joined in against the general Huguenot population of the city, massacring 3–5000. The massacres then spread to other parts of France.
Further edict modification
While the king maintained his support for the peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye during both the assassination attempt on Coligny and the resulting massacre, it was further eroded as the king took the opportunity to ban Protestants from serving in the royal court and suspended assemblies. The Protestant cities in the south, furious at the betrayal of the assassinations and what they took to be a royal ordered nationwide massacre, entered rebellion. This began the fourth war of religion with the failed royal siege of La Rochelle.
Assessment by contemporaries
More militant Catholics regarded the peace terms agreed with abject horror. Monluc despondently remarked that the Huguenots had "won by writing what they lost by fighting." Lorraine too remarked on the peace that the "articles in it are bad and pernicious but what is still more annoying is the despair." The baron de Gordes lieutenant governor of Dauphiné opined that the peace should not have been published until Huguenots were disarmed and removed from their occupation of towns. The Parlement of Toulouse bemoaned to the king in June 1572 that the provision of amnesty in the peace was causing much disorder, due to criminals falsely claiming themselves to be religious prisoners.
The Huguenot aristocracy remained more cautious in their appraisal of the peace, approving many of its terms but fearful that they might be betrayed at any moment. As a result, most Huguenot aristocrats stayed on their estates, where they could be confident of their security, only departing in August 1572 to attend the marriage of Henri and Marguerite.
Assessment by historians
Historians have generally regarded it as the most favourable peace to the Protestants of the early religious wars. Sutherland describes it as "the first pro-Protestant peace" while other authors characterise it as a "Protestant charter." Roelker goes as far as to call it the "apogee of Huguenot power." These historians highlight the specificity of the edict, insofar as it listed the towns to be granted worship as opposed to leaving it up to provincial governors to assign towns as had been the system previously, the inclusion of new provisions regarding taxation and access to education, and the provision of surety towns that gave a military security to the Protestants beyond the goodwill of the king. Other historians are however more guarded in their assessment of the peace such as Roberts who characterises it as largely a reproduction in content and tone of the failed peace of Longjumeau.
See also
French Wars of Religion
List of treaties
References
Sources
History of Catholicism in France
French Wars of Religion
1570 in France
Saint-Germain-en-Laye
1570 in Christianity
1570 treaties
16th-century Catholicism
16th-century military history of France |
4288541 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto%20Rico%20national%20baseball%20team | Puerto Rico national baseball team | The Puerto Rico national baseball team (), also known as Team Rubio is the national baseball team of Puerto Rico. The men's senior team is currently ranked 13th in the world. Puerto Rico is the incumbent Pan American and Central American/Caribbean champion, as well as the World Baseball Classic runner-up. The team will compete against Israel, the Dominican Republic, Venezuela and Nicaragua in the 2023 World Baseball Classic in March 2023 in Miami, Florida.
After debuting in the amateur predecessor to the Baseball World Cup, the team won its first medal by finishing second in 1947, a performance that it repeated the following year. In 1951, Puerto Rico became the world baseball champion by winning the event. The team went on to gather six more medals during the tournament's existence, finishing second twice and third four times.
Puerto Rico was an inaugural member of the World Baseball Classic, making its debut in the first edition. The team has advanced to the second round in all of its appearances, in the process becoming the first team to score mercy rule wins over Cuba and the United States. In the 2013 World Baseball Classic, Puerto Rico became the second team from the Western Hemisphere to advance to the final, eliminating two-time defending world champion Japan in the semifinals before finishing as the event's runner-up. The team has also participated in several other international competitions, such as the Central American and Caribbean Games, the Pan American Games, Americas Baseball Cup, Intercontinental Cup, and Haarlem Baseball Week, winning medals in most.
Baseball World Cup era
Early years of amateur baseball
Puerto Rico made its debut at the Baseball World Cup, then known as the "Amateur World Series" in 1940, only two years after the creation of the Liga de Béisbol Profesional Roberto Clemente (LBPPR), which at the moment was an amateur league. Like all of the other expansion teams, they finished in the bottom half of the table, tied with Mexico with a record of 2–10. The following year the team repeated this performance, finishing tied with El Salvador. Between 1942 and 1943, Puerto Rico did not participate due to the ongoing World War II to which several LBPPR players were drafted. The team returned in 1944, but finished tied with Nicaragua with a record of 1–6. Puerto Rico declined participation in the 1945 Amateur World Series, joining Mexico and Cuba in absence.
World Championship
As the LBPPR expanded and became more organized, the quality of players composing the Puerto Rican national team improved. Returning in 1947, Puerto Rico won the silver medal, having entered the round robin tied with a record of 6–2, defeating Nicaragua to advance before losing to the host, Colombia, in the finals. Puerto Rico went 6–1 in the round-robin but lost 11–1 and 2–1 to the Dominicans in the best-of-3 finals. They won their second straight Silver Medal. M. Ruiz tied for the most doubles (4) and most triples (2). In 1950, the team finished the regular phase of the tournament tied with the Dominican Republic and Cuba for the first place with a record of 9–2, the team defeated Cuba and lost to the Dominican Republic during the round robin phase. However, the Federación Internacional de Béisbol Aficionado (FIBA) ruled that several players that had joined the team were ineligible to play, ruling several key victories "forfeits" and dropping it out of the podium. This incident was the result of the LBPPR from amateur to professional a few years earlier.
In 1951, Puerto Rico earned a record of 7–3 in the regular stage, handing Cuba its only defeat in the first games. After advancing, the team went undefeated with wins over Cuba and Venezuela to secure the gold medal. The team was headlined by Sotero Ortiz who scored more runs (21) and stole more bases (10) than anyone else, while teammate Ramon Maldonado hit 8 doubles to lead the statistic. In 1952, Puerto Rico went 7–3, including 2–2 in the final round to take bronze medal. They were the only team to beat Cuba in the finals. W. Figueredo led in triples (3) while J.R. Garcia led in homers (2) and steals (7). Sotero Ortiz tied for the most doubles (4) and runs (13). Due to the improving quality of its players, Puerto Rico soon began experiencing the loss of its best players to the professional leagues at a very young age, including Roberto Clemente and Orlando Cepeda. In 1953, the team finished 6th with a record of 5–5. However, Félix Torres drove in 15 runs to lead the Series.
By the time that the series resumed in 1963, Major League Baseball had become the primary employer of Puerto Rican talent, making them ineligible to play in the Amateur World Series and the team did not participate in this edition. Back for the tournament in 1965, Puerto Rico won Bronze with a 5–3 record. Andres Cruz led the Series in average (.485), hits (16) and RBI (8). Pitcher Efrain Contreras set an Amateur World Series record by striking out 19 against the Netherlands Antilles. After another hiatus of four years, the event resumed in 1969, which saw Panama, Puerto Rico, Colombia and Nicaragua all tied for 5th with 4–6 records. Luis Mercado led the tournament in doubles (6) and tied for the most triples (3). In 1970, Puerto Rico won the bronze medal with a record of 9–2. Ramón Ortiz hit the most home runs (3) in the competition.
FIBA vs. FEMBA; unique dual medallist
In 1971, Puerto Rico finished tied with Nicaragua in the third place with a record of 6–3, but did not receive the bronze medal due to their individual series. Carlos Lowell led all pitchers with 3 wins. In 1972, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and Chinese Taipei tied for 6th, all with 9–6 marks. The team was managed by Roberto Clemente (only weeks prior to his death) and featured a no-hitter by Sandalio Quinonez against Costa Rica. In 1973, Puerto Rico participated in two versions of the Amateur World Series due to internal conflicts in the sport, in the Federación Internacional de Béisbol Aficionado version, the team won the silver medal with a record of 10–3, with two of those loses coming at the hands of eventual winner, Cuba. J. Fontanez led in average (.432). The team was managed by Vic Power. A splinter cell of the national team won the bronze at the event's Federación Mundial de Béisbol Amateur version with a record of 8–2. Puerto Rico is the only participant to win medals in both of the 1973 events. Eventually the FIBA and FEMBA merged and the event had only one sanctioning body, the International Amateur Baseball Association (IABF). In 1974, Puerto Rico finished tied for fourth place at the Amateur World Series along Canada, Italy, Chinese Taipei and the Dominican Republic. In the 1976 World Amateur Series, Puerto Rico won Silver with an 8–2 round-robin before leaving the tournament prior to the final round. J.L. de Leon led the tournament with a 0.00 ERA. After missing the 1978 edition of the World Amateur Series, the team came back in 1980, but finished tied in the 7th place with Venezuela with a 4–7 record. After missing out another version of the Amateur World Series, the team returned in 1984, finishing behind Panama with a record of 6–7, despite gathering a 54–46 advantage in runs. Mariano Quinones (2–0, 2.48) was their most effective pitcher. The top hitter was 1B Luis Fontanez (.353/.400/.569). Future MLB player Hector Villanueva was part of the roster, but had an unsuccessful tournament going 2 for 13 with a double and no walks. In the 1986 Amateur World Series, Puerto Rico tied for 7th at 5–6, despite outscoring opponents 56–45. Roberto Santana (.369) led the Series with 6 stolen bases. Eddie Rodriguez (1.28) had two saves. By 1988, the Amateur World Series became known as the Baseball World Cup and Puerto Rico beat both No. 3 Taiwan and No. 4 Japan and lost to No. 1 Cuba by just one run. However, losses to Canada, Nicaragua and South Korea kept the team out of the final four. CF Ángel Morales (.395/.490/.737, 14 R, 14 RBI) and DH Helson Rodriguez (.300/.462/.650) guided the offensive charge. Victor L. Martinez was 0–1 with a 1.80 ERA, the lowest on the staff.
Migration of MLB All-Stars and fallout
Beginning during the last years of the 1980s and extending throughout the 1990s, Puerto Rico saw a major increase in its production of high-caliber players, with a crop that included Iván Rodríguez, Roberto Alomar, Bernie Williams, Rubén Sierra, Jorge Posada, Juan González, Carlos Delgado, Edgar Martínez and Carlos Beltrán among several others. This fact severely limited the quantity of talent available for the national baseball team, due to the protective behavior exhibited by the MLB teams that signed these players since their teenage years. In the 1990 Baseball World Cup, Puerto Rico went 7–2 but finished 4th thanks to the format. They were 4th with 52 runs and second in ERA (2.89). 1B Efrain Garcia (.351/.385/.568, 7 RBI), All-Star CF Ángel Morales (.417/.463/.556, 8 R, 10 RBI) and DH Helson Rodriguez (.371/.385/.714, 3 HR, 11 RBI) paced the offense. Headlining a fine staff was Jesus I. Feliciano (1–0, 0.56). In 1994, Puerto Rico finished with a 3–4 record, with two close one-run losses (3–2 to Panama and 4–3 to the Netherlands). They hit .305 as a team, fifth in that tournament. Top performers were 1B Efrain Garcia (.448/.484/.724, 8 RBI in 7 games), C Jose Lorenzana (.400/.455/.500), RF Joel Perez (.318/.348/.682) and P Nelson Sanchez (1–1, 2.25). After being absent from two World Cups, the team returned in 2005 but Puerto Rico Puerto Rico, managed by Bert Peña, went 6–5 despite being outscored overall, 60–56. They finished 8th overall. Randy Ruiz (.346/.452/.654), CF Jesus Feliciano (.378/.410/.649, 10 R, 9 RBI) and Edwards Guzman (.343/.375/.543) led the offense However, former MLB player Angel Echevarria had a weak performance with averages of .083/.241/.125. Orlando Román (2–0, 0.50) was their clear top starter as 4 pitchers had ERAs over 8.
Puerto Rico debuted in the inaugural World Baseball Classic by hosting Pool C on March 7, 2006, and defeating Panama with a score of 2–1. The team followed this by winning their second game over the Netherlands, 8–3. Puerto Rico closed the first round by winning Pool C with a 12–2 mercy rule victory over the defending world champion, Cuba. The team opened the second round by defeating the Dominican Republic 7–1. However, the team lost its next game to Venezuela 6–0. Puerto Rico was eliminated with a 4–3 loss in a rematch with Cuba.
2008–2011
Puerto Rico began this Olympic cycle participating in the 2008 America Baseball Cup. The team debuted on September 26, 2008, defeating Mexico 2:1, this game was won by Josué Matos. Puerto Rico concluded the tournament's first round undefeated, with victories over Brazil (6:3), Aruba (7:0) and Guatemala (8:0). In the first two games, Andy González scored four doubles and Carlos Rivera hit his second home run of the round. In the game against Aruba, Orlando Román threw a perfect game over seven innings. In the second round, Puerto Rico defeated Panama (9:4) to qualify for the 2009 Baseball World Cup. On the second date, the team lost their only game of the tournament to Venezuela (5:4). In the next game, the team defeated Netherlands Antilles by ten runs (14:4). Puerto Rico won the 2008 Americas Baseball Cup on October 5, 2008, defeating Nicaragua in the final.
Puerto Rico hosted Pool D of the 2009 World Baseball Classic, debuting with a 7–0 victory over Panama. In its second game, the team defeated the Netherlands 3–1. Both teams met in an immediate rematch to determine the group winner, which Puerto Rico won with scores of 5–0. The team opened the second round by giving the United States its first mercy rule loss, 11–1. Puerto Rico next played Venezuela, losing 2–0. Facing the United States in an elimination game, Puerto Rico lost 6–5 after losing the lead during the final inning. Iván Rodríguez was selected the All-WBC team catcher.
For the Baseball World Cup, Puerto Rico, once again led by Eduardo Pérez, created a roster composed of mostly professional players, including several Major League Baseball athletes. The final cut included infielders Alex Cintrón, Rubén Gotay, Melvin Falú, Carlos Rivera and Angel Sánchez; catchers Orlando Mercado, Jr., Stephen Morales and Raúl Casanova; pitchers Luis Atilano, Mario Santiago, José Santiago, Orlando Román, Juan Padilla, Angel García, Richard Rodríguez, Miguel Mejía, Alexander Woodson, Nelvin Fuentes, Melvin Pizarro and Efraín Nieves as well as outfielders Miguel Negrón, Luis Matos y Miguel Abreu. José Valentín was selected to perform as both infielder and outfielder. Javier Valentín and Juan González were evaluated, but excluded from the final cut due to previous injuries. The fact that most of the roster was professional received some criticism from the amateur circuit. Journalist Duldin Meléndez of Periodico La Cordillera wrote in a piece that "[Pérez] is not familiar with the [amateur] players and has not even seen them play" expressing a similar concern about the Federation's president, Israel Roldán. Juan Carlos Díaz, infielder of the Bravos de Cidra in Béisbol AA, openly expressed disappointment when he did not receive an invitation, noting that he deserved it after leading the Liga Caribe division with an average of .632 and the league's final in offensive. Making its debut on September 10, 2009, Puerto Rico's first opponent is Cuba.
For the 2010 Central American and Caribbean Games, the number of players per roster was limited to 20. Consequently, players such as Juan González and José Valentín were not included in the final cut. Carlos Delgado was included in the preliminary list, but was unable to compete due to injury. The team was mostly composed of professional players such as Víctor Raúl González, Orlando Mercado, Jorge Jiménez, Philip Cuadrado, Adrián Ortiz, Efraín Nieves, Ricard Rodríguez Nick Ortiz, Armando Ríos, Christopher Amador, Edwards Guzmán and Mario Santiago, but also included three amateurs, Antonio Acevedo, Joycet Feliciano and Manuel Romero. Amateur pitcher Jean Ortega was a last minute addition due to an injury suffered by Acevedo. Puerto Rico debuted with a victory over Guatemala in seven innings. The following night the team recorded its second victory, 3:2, over Venezuela, in a game that extended to one extra inning. Efraín Nieves debuted with a shutout victory over Panama, allowing only one hit. Puerto Rico was the leader in its group, closing the first round with a 6:0 victory over the United States Virgin Islands. However, the team lost a 0–1 game to Mexico in the semifinals and the bronze medal to Nicaragua 6–7.
For the 2010 Americas Baseball Cup, Eduardo Pérez assembled an entirely different roster. Several players from the Minor Leagues who were unable to compete at the Central American and Caribbean Games, because this event was not sanctioned by the IBAF, now joined the pre-selection. Only few players, such as Irving Falú were kept from the CAC team. The most notable addition was González, who was joined by Fernando Cabrera, Kiko Calero, Federico Báez, Saúl Rivera, Ramón Vázquez, Gabriel Martinez, Luis Figueroa, Jorge Padilla, Alex Cora and Christian Colón. Puerto Rico was drafted to Group A, along Argentina, Aruba, Canada, Panama and the Dominican Republic.
Generational shift (2013–2016)
After 2011, the IBAF decided to phase out the Baseball World Cup, with the WBC replacing it as the premier competition in international baseball. During this time frame the team was immersed in a change of the guard, losing MLB All-Stars Iván Rodríguez, Carlos Delgado and Bernie Williams to retirement. As with the previous editions, Puerto Rico hosted the first round of the 2013 Classic. However, this time the team faced different adversaries following an expansion, defeating Spain 3–0 in its debut. Puerto Rico secured classification to the second round by winning a game over Venezuela, 6–3. The team closed the round by losing the seeding game to the Dominican Republic, 4–2. Puerto Rico opened the second round with a 7–1 loss to the United States. The team remained alive by defeating Italy 4–3. In its second consecutive elimination game, Puerto Rico defeated the United States 4–3. Facing the Dominican Republic in another seeding game, the team lost 2–0. Puerto Rico advanced by defeating the defending WBC champion, Japan, with scores of 3–1. In the event finals, the team lost a third contest to the Dominican Republic, 3–0, to finish their participation as the tournament's runner up. Yadier Molina was the All-WBC catcher, while Ángel Pagán and Nelson Figueroa received positions among the outfielders and pitchers.
The date of the 2014 Central American and Caribbean Games has opened the door for Puerto Rico and several other teams to reinforce themselves with MLB players, raising the competitive level of what is usually a low caliber tournament. The team finished fourth.
Regional championships (2017–2021)
Puerto Rico repeated their previous WBC performance in 2017, finishing as the tournament's runner-up.
For secondary competitions, former MLB player Juan González was named as manager making his debut at the 2018 Central American and Caribbean Games. Unable to request athletes contracted to MLB (or active in MiLB), he assembled a team composed by players active in foreign independent leagues, the local Doble A amateur league and veteran free agents with previous professional experience, making the final cut following a preparatory tournament. González made his official debut as manager in a 5:3 victory over Venezuela. In its next outing, Puerto Rico defeated Cuba 8:1 to snap a 36-year (43-game) winning streak at the CACG. This was followed by wins over the Dominican Republic (4:1) and Mexico (7:1). On July 26, 2018, Puerto Rico defeated second-place Colombia 2:1 to clinch the first place of the round robin. This was followed by inconsequential losses to Panama (2:5) and Guatemala (9:10). González closed his first participation as manager by leading Puerto Rico to the Central American and Caribbean gold medal.
Once again managed by González, Puerto Rico won the gold medal of the 2019 Pan American Games, going undefeated and besting Canada 6:1 in the final. The team tried but failed to qualify for the 2020 Olympics at the eight-team Americas Qualifying Event on May 31 through June 5, 2021.
Abridged Olympic circle (2022–2024)
Despite being the defending CACG champion, Puerto Rico had to play in the Caribbean Baseball Cup to qualify for the 2023 tournament. Facing issues with the Liga de Béisbol Profesional Roberto Clemente due to itinerary conflicts, González was able to assemble a team composed by players from the local Béisbol Superior Doble A amateur league, beginning the participation with a 7:1 loss to defending champion Curaçao. Puerto Rico then won consecutive shut out games over Cuba (6:0) and the United States Virgin Islands (6:0). The team advanced in the first place of the global standings by defeating the Bahamas with scores of 14:2. It won a rematch (9:3) in the semifinals to contend for the title and qualify for the CACG. Puerto Rico defeated Cuba in the finals with scores of 9:4 to win the IV Caribbean Baseball Cup.
The team will compete against Israel, the Dominican Republic, Venezuela and Nicaragua in the 2023 World Baseball Classic in March 2023 in Miami, Florida.
Tournament record
World Baseball Classic
Olympic Games
Baseball World Cup
Gold: 1951
Silver: 1947, 1948, 1973, 1976
Bronze: 1952, 1965, 1970, 1973
Intercontinental Cup
Silver: 1973
Bronze: 1989
Americas Baseball Cup
Gold: 2008
Pan American Games
Gold: 2019
Silver: 1959, 1991
Bronze: 1967, 1979, 1987, 1995
Central American and Caribbean Games
Gold: 1959, 2002, 2018
Silver: 1962, 1966, 1990
Bronze: 1974, 1978, 1993
Caribbean Baseball Cup
Gold: 2022
World University Baseball Championship
2006 – 6th place
Haarlem Baseball Week
1992 – 5th place
2012 –
Results and fixtures
The following is a list of professional baseball match results currently active in the latest version of the WBSC World Rankings, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.
Legend
2019
2022
2023
See also
Baseball in Puerto Rico
World Baseball Classic
Olympic baseball
World Cup
Americas Baseball Cup
Pan American Games
Intercontinental Cup
Central American and Caribbean Games
IBAF World Rankings
List of players from Puerto Rico in MLB
Baseball awards
2013 World Baseball Classic rosters
2009 World Baseball Classic rosters
2006 World Baseball Classic rosters
References
External links
Latino Baseball
Series del Caribe, Las (Spanish)
International Baseball Federation Baseball World Cup home page
Official Olympic Reports (digitized copies online)
International Olympic Committee results database
World Baseball Classic
Baseball
National baseball teams
National
1940 establishments in Puerto Rico
Baseball teams established in 1940 |
4288756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostface%20%28identity%29 | Ghostface (identity) | Ghostface (alternatively stylized as Ghost Face or GhostFace) is a fictional identity that is adopted by the primary antagonists of the Scream franchise. The figure was originally created by Kevin Williamson, and is primarily mute in person but voiced over the phone by Roger L. Jackson, regardless of who is behind the mask (as all killers use a voice changer utilizing that exact voice, starting in person with Scream 2). The disguise has been adopted by various characters in the movies and in the third season of the television series.
Ghostface first appeared in Scream (1996) as a disguise used by teenagers Billy Loomis (Skeet Ulrich) and Stu Macher (Matthew Lillard), during their killing spree in the fictional town of Woodsboro. The mask was a popular Halloween costume created and designed by Fun World costume company before being chosen by Marianne Maddalena and Craven for the film. The identity is used primarily as a disguise for the antagonists of each film to conceal their identities while conducting serial murders, and as such has been portrayed by several actors.
In the Scream universe, the costume is not unique and is easily obtainable, allowing others to wear a similar outfit. Ghostface often calls their targets to taunt or threaten them while using a voice changer that hides their true identity. In Scream 3, this is taken further when Ghostface uses a device that enables him to sound like several other characters, in order to manipulate targets. The changing identity of the person beneath the mask means that Ghostface has no definite motivation, ranging from revenge and seeking fame to peer pressure. In the first three movies, each killer shares the common goal of killing Sidney Prescott (Neve Campbell) due to a chain of events that started when Sidney's estranged half-brother, Roman Bridger (Scott Foley), told Billy his father had had an affair with Sidney's mother Maureen (Lynn McRee). In the fourth movie, the killers are jealous of Sidney's notoriety and plan to kill her so they too can become famous. From the fifth film onwards, the focus shifts to Billy's daughter, Samantha "Sam" Carpenter (Melissa Barrera) and her half-sister, Tara (Jenna Ortega), who are targeted due to their connection to Billy. In these later installments, the new Ghostface killers have motives that may sometimes be connected to the in-universe Stab film series, loose adaptations of the tell-all books about previous Ghostface killings by Gale Weathers (Courteney Cox), with Sam also assuming the Ghostface mantle herself in order to kill other Ghostfaces.
The Ghostface persona remains the same throughout the Scream series, featuring a black hood and cloak with a jagged base and a white rubber mask resembling a ghost with an anguish expression. Though each iteration of Ghostface is human, they often exhibit extreme durability against physical harm, high levels of physical strength, and an almost supernatural stealth ability, able to appear and disappear in seemingly impossible situations. The character has become a popular culture icon since its inception, referenced in film and television as well as spawning a series of action figures and merchandise, as well as parodies and titular spoofs.
In the 2015–2016 television series Scream, Ghostface is adapted as the Lakewood Slasher, who appeared in the series for the first two seasons, and the Shallow Grove Slasher, who appeared in the Halloween special episodes of the second season; both are voiced by Mike Vaughn, with a different mask due to copyright issues. The original Ghostface persona returned in Scream: Resurrection, once again voiced by Roger L. Jackson, replacing Vaughn. In the movies, Ghostface has appeared in all entries to date, returning most recently in Scream VI, with Jackson reprising his role, now credited as "The Voice".
Appearances
Films
Ghostface first appears in the opening scene of Scream (1996). The character, voiced by Roger L. Jackson, calls and taunts teenager Casey Becker (Drew Barrymore) with horror clichés and trivia questions, eventually murdering her boyfriend Steve Orth (Kevin Patrick Walls) and then her. The identity has been adopted by the primary antagonists of each successive film to conceal their identities, prior to being revealed in each film's final act.
In the original Scream, the identity is used by a killer stalking the fictional town of Woodsboro, California. After the murder spree begins, Sidney Prescott (Neve Campbell) begins receiving taunting and threatening phone calls from Ghostface, who claims knowledge of her mother Maureen Prescott (Lynn McRee)'s brutal rape and murder, one year prior to the events of the film, a murder that was blamed on Cotton Weary (Liev Schreiber). The Ghostface disguise allows suspicion to fall on many people, including Sidney's boyfriend, Billy Loomis (Skeet Ulrich); her father, Neil Prescott (Lawrence Hecht); her friend, Randy Meeks (Jamie Kennedy); and her schoolmate, Stu Macher (Matthew Lillard). Ghostface is revealed in the finale as both Billy and Stu, who reveal that they murdered Sidney's mother and framed Cotton. Billy cites his motivation as abandonment by his mother, brought about by his father's affair with Maureen, while Stu cites "peer pressure". As the two killers reveal their plan to frame Sidney's father for their killing spree, reporter Gale Weathers (Courteney Cox) suddenly appears and attempts to shoot them with their gun, only for Billy to knock her out and prepare to kill her, only to suddenly realize that while Gale was confronting them, Sidney managed to escape. Sidney ultimately turns the tables against Billy and Stu, temporarily adopting the Ghostface persona herself to taunt them with a phone call, revealing that she called the police on them and thus foiled their plan to get away with their killing spree, leaving the two killers shocked, horrified, and enraged. Briefly dressing up as Ghostface, Sidney attacks and knocks out Billy with an umbrella and then engages in a fight with Stu, ultimately killing him by dropping a television on his head. Gale shoots Billy to stop him from killing Sidney, who then finishes Billy off with a bullet to the head, citing the fact that "They ALWAYS come back," a common horror cliché, and now her catchphrase. This is most likely one of the many tropes taught to her by Randy Meeks, who is obsessed with horror and openly lists these clichés earlier in the film during a party.
Ghostface's second appearance was in Scream 2 (1997) where it was again used as a disguise by the main antagonists. A series of murders occur at Windsor College, Sidney's current location, with the initial victims sharing names with Billy and Stu's victims from Scream. The killers again taunt Sidney and attempt to kill her, and later kill Randy. The Ghostface disguise allows suspicion to fall on several characters, including Cotton again, and Sidney's boyfriend Derek Feldman (Jerry O'Connell). However, Mickey Altieri (Timothy Olyphant), a friend of Derek, reveals himself as the killer, seeking fame for his prolific exploits. Mickey's accomplice is revealed to be Billy's mother (Laurie Metcalf), under the alias Debbie Salt, who is seeking revenge against Sidney for her son's death, while showing unwillingness to accept her own faults as a mother which included abandoning Billy, which Sidney points out during their confrontation. Mrs. Loomis shoots Mickey, claiming to have indulged his desire for fame only to enlist his help in enacting her revenge, and tries to kill Sidney, only for Sidney to fight back. Just as Mrs. Loomis ultimately prepares to kill Sidney, Cotton suddenly arrives, and Mrs. Loomis tries to manipulate him into letting her kill Sidney, but to her shock, she fails to do so and Cotton instead shoots Mrs. Loomis in the neck. Seconds later, Mickey springs to his feet screaming but is quickly shot to death by Gale and Sidney. Sidney then shoots Mrs. Loomis in the head, saying "just in case".
In Scream 3 (2000), a new Ghostface killer murders Cotton and his girlfriend Christine Hamilton (Kelly Rutherford) in an attempt to discover the now-hidden Sidney's location. The killer murders the cast of "Stab 3", the film within a film based on Sidney and her experiences with Ghostface, while leaving images of Maureen at the crime scenes to draw Sidney out of seclusion. Ghostface is revealed as Sidney's half-brother, film director Roman Bridger (Scott Foley), born to their mother Maureen during a two-year period when she moved to Hollywood to become an actress under the name Rina Reynolds. After being gang-raped and impregnated at a party, she gave Roman up for adoption; Roman sought her out years later, only to be rejected, telling him that he's Rina's child. Roman began stalking Maureen and filming her relationships with other men, including Hank Loomis. He used this footage to reveal to Billy why his mother had abandoned him before convincing him to kill Maureen, sparking the chain of events in Scream and Scream 2. As Roman rants on his motive and desire to frame and kill Sidney for "stealing the life she took from him", Sidney shuts him up, saying that she's heard those rants before from other killers and that he simply kills people because he chose to, provoking an enraged Roman into fighting Sidney, which she eventually wins by outsmarting Roman and stabbing him in the back and chest, while Gale and Dewey Riley (David Arquette) arrive shortly after and discover his identity, ruining Roman's plans of framing Sidney for his crimes. A defeated Roman briefly connects with Sidney by holding her hand, but then attempts to attack once more. Dewey manages to ultimately kill Roman with Sidney's help, ending the series of murders based on his revenge against Maureen.
In the director's commentary, the Stab 3 "Sidney Prescott" actress Angelina Tyler (Emily Mortimer) is revealed to have been a second killer and Roman's lover, with the scenes revealing her survival and true allegiances after apparently being killed by Ghostface having been cut; Wes Craven elaborated that an earlier scene in the film where Sidney came across Angelina wearing Ghostface gear in her dressing room, which Angelina had passed off as still wearing due to just having come off of set, was Sidney unknowingly actually having caught Angelina in the act of changing into her Ghostface gear, furthermore leaving it ambiguous as to whether or not Angelina was actually dead or could return; in the subsequent Scream Trilogy box set booklet, Angelina is not listed among the deceased characters after the events of Scream 3. However, this is contradicted in a scene in Scream VI, listing Roman Bridger as the only Ghostface in the Hollywood killings. Ghostface is also voiced by Foley, Schreiber, Lynn McRee, Campbell, Cox, David Arquette, Beth Toussaint, and Ulrich via a voice changer used to impersonate them.
In Scream 4 (2011), another Ghostface killer emerges in Woodsboro on the 15th anniversary of the massacre conducted by Billy and Stu; the new killer recreates events from the incident but also films the murders to create a snuff film. Ghostface kills several teenagers and police officers before being unmasked as Sidney's cousin Jill Roberts (Emma Roberts) and her friend Charlie Walker (Rory Culkin), who intend to kill Sidney, frame Jill's ex-boyfriend Trevor Sheldon (Nico Tortorella), and become the current generation's "Sidney Prescott" and "Randy Meeks" with the accompanying fame of being the "survivors" of the massacre, as Jill was jealous of Sidney's experiences with Ghostface. Jill betrays Charlie and stabs him through the heart, wishing to become the sole survivor, and after admitting to Sidney that she really is a sick, evil woman who was willing to kill her own mother Kate (Mary McDonnell) to get what she wants, declaring that "sick is the new sane", she then seemingly kills Sidney before purposely injuring and stabbing herself to make herself appear a victim of Ghostface. After being taken to the hospital, Jill's plans end up backfiring when Dewey informs her that Sidney has survived. An enraged Jill makes a desperate attempt to kill Sidney, but is stalled by Dewey, Gale, and Judy Hicks (Marley Shelton) long enough for Sidney to electrocute her on the head with a defibrillator, saying that Jill forgot the first rule of remakes, "Don't fuck with the original". An injured Jill attempts to stab Sidney with a piece of broken glass in a last-ditch attempt to finish her off, but Sidney anticipates this and shoots Jill through the heart, finally killing her, while Jill's status as the "sole surviving hero" ultimately becomes short-lived.
In Scream (2022), 25 years after the original Woodsboro massacre, a new Ghostface killer strikes by attacking a young girl named Tara Carpenter (Jenna Ortega) at her house, leaving her hospitalized, while Tara's estranged sister, Sam Carpenter (Melissa Barrera), who is revealed to be the illegitimate daughter of the original Ghostface killer Billy Loomis, arrives at Woodsboro to protect Tara. Immediately after Sam's arrival, Ghostface continues to attack and kill more people, with the initial victims being people related to Billy and Stu's original killing spree, and manages to ultimately kill Dewey, causing Sidney and Gale to join Sam and Tara as they attempt to put an end to the killings to avenge Dewey. Ghostface is later revealed to be both Sam's boyfriend Richie Kirsch (Jack Quaid) and Tara's friend Amber Freeman (Mikey Madison), who are revealed to be two obsessive and toxic fans of the in-universe horror film series Stab. Having been disappointed with recent installments (including one directed by Rian Johnson), they chose to commit a killing spree in the hopes of inspiring a real-life "requel" (half reboot, half sequel) of the franchise, believing they're "real fans" that can save the Stab franchise by "restoring" it to its normal formula, while intending to frame Sam for their crimes. In the ensuing confrontation, Amber fights against Sidney and Gale, who ultimately gain the upper hand, and Gale shoots Amber as she pleads for mercy, causing her to fall straight into a burning kitchen stove and be set on fire. As Richie pursues Sam while gloating that "villains like Sam die at the end", Sam introduces a new rule to Richie, "Never fuck with the daughter of a serial killer", and violently stabs Richie in the exact same manner of Ghostface stabbing a victim. As a wounded and frightened Richie pleads for his life and asks about "his ending", Sam fatally slashes his throat, and then shoots Richie in the head to make sure he doesn't "come back". A horribly-burnt Amber resurfaces to attack the group once more, but is ultimately shot in the head by Tara. It is later revealed in the next movie that in spite of Gale writing a book about the recent events despite her promise not to, a film adaptation of the book is not set to be made, officially destroying Richie and Amber's plan.
In Scream VI (2023), one year later, a new Ghostface killer arrives in New York City, killing two film students, Jason Carvey (Tony Revolori) and his best friend Greg Bruckner (Thom Newell), just as they attempted to start a Ghostface spree of their own to finish "Richie's film". Ghostface then begins to specifically target Sam, who has moved to New York with Tara and their surviving friends and is currently ostracized in public due to an online rumor claiming that Sam was the mastermind of the recent Woodsboro killing spree, and also targets anyone else close to Sam and kills innocent people that stand in Ghostface's way, while leaving other Ghostface masks at the crime scenes. Eventually, Sam and the group, including a survivor of the 2011 killing spree, Kirby Reed (Hayden Panettiere), lure Ghostface to an abandoned cinema containing various pieces of evidence in lockup from past Ghostface killings to make a Ghostface shrine, and in the ensuing confrontation, Ghostface is revealed to be three people, police detective Wayne Bailey (Dermot Mulroney) and two of the group's roommates, Ethan (Jack Champion) and Quinn (Liana Liberato). The three reveal themselves to be Richie's family, who desire to get revenge on the one who killed him, spreading rumors of Sam being the mastermind of the previous murders to assassinate her character, and then killing Sam after framing her for their crimes, while also having killed Jason and Greg to prevent their plans from interfering with their own. As the Bailey family corners Sam and Tara, Bailey angrily declares that anyone who was responsible for his son's death and "messed with the Bailey family" must suffer and die, and tries to force Sam into putting on her father's mask so she can die as a killer like her father Billy. However, Sam and Tara ultimately gain the upper hand after Sam taunts them with the fact that Richie never managed to kill a lot of victims himself (Amber committed the majority of the murders), before having died cowardly and pleading for his life. In the ensuing fight, Tara seriously wounds Ethan by stabbing him in the mouth and Sam kills Quinn by shooting her in the head, while Bailey is knocked unconscious. When he wakes up, Bailey finds himself receiving a phone call from Ghostface, who taunts him over his motives and soon emerges to attack, causing Bailey to immediately become frightened and plead for his life (like Richie) just as Ghostface stabs a screaming Bailey multiple times, before unmasking herself as Sam. Sam considers letting Wayne live, declaring to him that she's better than her father Billy as he was nothing but a selfish murderer, but ultimately throws Bailey's motive onto him by reminding him that he "messed with her family", and ultimately kills Bailey by stabbing him in the eye. Soon after, a wounded Ethan attempts to attack once more, only for Kirby to push a damaged TV (the same one that killed Stu Macher years ago) onto Ethan's head, killing him.
Television series
Ghostface made an appearance in the third season of the anthology television slasher series Scream. The season, titled Scream: Resurrection, premiered on VH1 on July 8, 2019. In this season, the killers are revealed in the episode "Endgame": Beth (Giorgia Whigham) and Jamal "Jay" Elliot (Tyga).
Video games
Ghostface is featured as a killer in the asymmetrical multiplayer survival horror game, Dead by Daylight, voiced by Filip Ivanovic. He was added in the Ghost Face DLC released on June 18, 2019, under the alias "The Ghost Face." In the game, Ghostface's real identity is Danny Johnson, known by the pseudonym Jed Olsen, a narcissistic freelancer newspaper journalist in the fictional town of Roseville, Florida, who covers the Ghostface murders by day and commits them by night. This version of Ghostface is an original character who was created exclusively for the game and has no relation to the Scream franchise. This is because the developers were only able to acquire the license for the Scream mask, which is separate from the one for the character, as the films used a pre-existing mask. Players can access different styles of the mask for Ghostface in Dead by Daylight.
Ghostface appears as a playable operator in Season Six of Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War and Call of Duty: Warzone. Roger L. Jackson reprises his role as the voice of Ghostface.
In April 2022, Ghostface was added in an update as a free playable skin for a limited time in the online multiplayer social deduction game Among Us.
Concept and creation
The Ghostface costume is the outfit worn by the main antagonists of the Scream franchise, consisting of a rubber white mask with black eyes, nose, and mouth and black, cloth-like material; a hooded robe, with faux-tatters draping from the arms; and a spiked trim to the base of the outfit. In the movie, the costume is considered common and easily purchasable, making identifying the buyers difficult and creating the possibility for anyone to be the killer.
The Ghostface mask was first developed for novelty stores during the Halloween season between 1991 and 1992 by Fun World, as part of a series entitled "Fantastic Faces", the mask itself known as "The Peanut-Eyed Ghost", with the final design approved by Fun World vice-President Allan Geller; the design was adapted from a "wailer" ghost mask created by Alterian, Inc. artist Loren Gitthens in 1990 and 1991. Craven claimed to have originally found the mask but later clarified that he had misremembered the event and that it was producer Marianne Maddalena who discovered it. She found it while inside a house during location scouting for the film and brought it to the attention of Craven, who set about trying to obtain the rights to use it. Fun World licensing director R.J. Torbert joined Fun World in 1996 and was given the task of naming the mask prior to its film debut, deciding on "GhostFace" with the blessing of Fun World owners Stanley and Allan Geller. Torbert felt it looked like a "ghost in pain", believing it to be a unique design. The Ghostface design and title are owned by Fun World.
The design of the mask bears reference to Edvard Munch's painting The Scream, the film poster to Pink Floyd's The Wall, the ghostly characters that appeared in the 1930s Betty Boop cartoons, and Season 1 Scooby Doo Where Are You ghosts in the episode “A Night Of Fright Is No Delight”. The mask is stark white and depicts a caricature of someone screaming and crying at the same time. Designer Sleiertin stated that the mask displayed different emotions, "It's a horrible look, it's a sorry look, it's a frantic look". Since the appearance of Ghostface in Scream, the costume has become the most worn and sold costume for Halloween in the United States.
The initial script labeled the main antagonist as "masked killer" with no specifications to its appearance, forcing Craven and his staff to produce the costume eventually worn by Ghostface as they were shooting. Craven asked Greg Nicotero and Howard Berger of design company KNB Effects to produce a mask specifically for the film based on the Fun World design, but did not like the final result. After Fun World and Dimension Films were able to complete an agreement for the use of the Ghostface mask, Craven was able to use the original design as he wanted. The custom mask made by KNB Effects still appears in the scenes involving the murders of Casey Becker and Principal Himbry, as filming of these scenes completed prior to the finalization of the deal between Fun World and Dimension Films.
The 1991–92 "Fantastic Faces" edition of the mask used in Scream is made of thin, white rubber with blackened eyes, nose, and mouth. Despite being fictionally a character in the movie cast, in the first, second, and fourth films, the costume was most often worn by stunt performer Dane Farwell, who gave the character specific characteristics such as cleaning the knife after killing, also giving the stature and a unique movement to the character. In the first film, Craven wore the costume during the opening murder scene, where the character is struck by a phone, and by Ulrich only once during a finale scene, where the character prepares to murder Randy. Despite Stu wearing the costume in the film, actor Lillard never actually wore the outfit. Scream 2 features a slightly redesigned version of the mask from the "Fearsome Faces" line, possessing slightly-altered eyes and an indented chin. Following Scream 2, the Ghostface mask became part of the "Ghostface" line of masks featuring several variations of the design including glow-in-the-dark models. The plain, white version of the Ghostface line mask is used in Scream 3 by Bridger. Another edition of the mask was developed for use by Ghostface in Scream 4, dubbed "The Deluxe Edition Mask"; again, similar to the original Ghostface design, but constructed of thicker rubber with a pearlescent finish.
Following the description in Williamson's script of a "ghost mask", Craven and designers had originally intended to use a white motif, creating a white cloak and hood for the killer's costume. It was the intervention of Maddalena, who felt that the cloak would be scarier if it was black, that resulted in the dark costume shown on screen. The cloak itself had to be custom-made for the film, as the "Father Death" outfit identified in Scream as that of the killers did not really exist; the Fun World mask was sold only as a stand-alone item. The cloak entered into retail markets only following the release of Scream. Each cloak was estimated to cost $700 to hand-produce by a seamstress and was made of a heavy, thick, black material, with reflective threads woven throughout, creating a subtle glimmer. The cloak was created to help conceal the identity of the killers by covering most of their visible bodies, as it was believed that otherwise audiences would be able to guess which character was involved by his or her clothing and body-shape.
The knife used by Ghostface in the films is a custom prop knife based on the Buck 120 Hunting Knife. The knife blades are made of aluminum or chrome-paint-coated plastic with a rubber handle, depending on the scenario for which they are needed. The handle is black with a silver metallic appearance for the tip. The Buck 120 knife was chosen as the model for the Ghostface weapon because of the large blade it features.
Characterization
Ghostface is rarely depicted as speaking while physically on screen in order to aid in concealing the identity of the character behind the mask. Exceptions to this are grunts and groans when injured, which are dubbed into the film during the editing phase by Jackson. Ghostface only speaks physically on-screen on four occasions in the series; on the first two occasions, it is just before his true identity is revealed; the third occasion is the hospital scene in Scream (2022); the fourth occasion is the opening sequence in Scream VI. The voice given to the character, provided by Jackson, is used when talking to another character over the phone or to display the use of the voice changer when the killer reveals himself. Despite being portrayed by different characters in each film, Ghostface displays similar personality and physical attributes regardless of who is wearing the costume or speaking to a target, such as taunting his victims over the telephone, the ritualistic cleaning of his knife after a kill, slashing the throat of his victims before killing them by stabbing, almost superhuman strength and durability, and grunts and groans when injured.
Ghostface is first referred to by that name in the first movie, when character Tatum Riley, played by Rose McGowan, calls the masked killer "Mr. Ghostface", prior to her death.
Ghostface is often shown to taunt his targets, initially representing himself as charming and even flirtatious when speaking. His conversations turn confrontational and intimidating, using his knowledge of other characters or graphically describing his intentions before appearing to the target physically. Craven considers Jackson's voice performance as Ghostface to have "evil sophistication". When confronting his intended victim, Ghostface is portrayed in varying ways, sometimes quick and efficient and other times clumsy, falling, or colliding with objects that hinder his pursuit, a characteristic that varies based upon who is wearing the costume. Whoever inhabits the costume, Ghostface taunts its victims and prolongs a kill when it appears to have an advantage. The Billy/Stu Ghostface would gut its victims after killing them; this was not performed on Tatum Riley who was killed in a mechanical garage door. This Ghostface, in particular, would ask its victim questions about horror films and employ the tropes of the genre in its attacks, displaying a detachment from reality and aligned with the same self-awareness of the film itself which toys with the expectations of the horror genre. The second Ghostface, created by Mickey and Mrs. Loomis, would repeatedly stab its victim to death but often in a public place or with witnesses. The third Ghostface, created by Roman, preferred more clean kills with precise stabbings, and used theatricality and movie props to attack his victims, using a voice changer that allowed him to sound like many other people, casting suspicion and doubt on other characters. In addition, he would use images and the synthesized voice of Maureen to specifically taunt Sidney, even shrouding himself in a bloodied, crime scene cover, alluding to the murder of Maureen, to fool Sidney into believing that she was losing her sanity. The fourth Ghostface, created by Jill and Charlie, filmed each murder on web cameras hidden around the environment and spy cameras in its mask. Charlie mostly repeatedly stabbed his victims to death in a more vicious and brutal fashion and would go further and gut them if he wanted, while Jill mostly stabbed only once. The two killers also made some of the murders public to gain the attention of the world press. The fifth Ghostface, created by Richie and Amber, mainly focused on brutally attacking and injuring victims, while killing most of them in a swift manner. The sixth Ghostface, created by Richie's family, committed violent murders and attacks on either the ones close to Sam Carpenter or anyone standing in the way, while leaving the masks of previous Ghostface killers at the scene of the crime afterwards.
The motivations for Ghostface's killing vary in each film and are respective to each killer wearing the costume. Billy claimed to have been driven to insanity by his mother's abandonment, an incident he blamed on Maureen, and after taking his revenge on her chose to continue his spree, leading towards her daughter Sidney, while Stu lists peer pressure as his motivation. In Scream 2, Mrs. Loomis cites her motivation as simple revenge against the person she holds responsible for her son's death, while Mickey desires the fame that his involvement in the killings will garner when he is caught. In Scream 3, Roman seeks revenge for what he sees as his mother's rejection and abandonment by engineering Maureen's death and trying to kill Sidney, seeing her as having the family-life he was denied. In Scream 4, Jill, jealous of Sidney, wished to obtain similar fame as the sole survivor of a new massacre, while Charlie aided her both for those reasons and his love for Jill. In Scream (2022), Richie and Amber, who are shown to be extremely toxic fans of the Stab franchise, start a huge killing spree in an effort to inspire a ninth Stab film that goes back to the franchise's old formula, having hated the eighth film (which was written and directed by Rian Johnson) for its new storytelling elements that stepped away from the old formula. In Scream VI, Detective Wayne Bailey and his son and daughter, Ethan and Quinn, who are revealed to be Richie's family, desire to get revenge on the one who killed Richie by assassinating her character and framing her for a new killing spree.
In costume, the Ghostfaces share a ritualistic mannerism of gripping the blade of its knife between thumb and forefinger and wiping it clean of any blood following a murder by drawing its hand from handle to the tip of the knife. This characteristic was given to the character by stuntman Dane Farwell who wore the costume for many of its scenes in Scream. Each killer is depicted as possessing effective physical abilities, such as the capabilities of nearly flawless stealth, prowling without being detected, moving silently, and efficiently vanishing from its targets' defense. Additionally, the killer tends to display sufficient strength that allows them to overpower victims, such as in Scream 2, in regards to defeating two trained detectives single-handedly. Ghostface is shown to be able to sustain and even ignore severe levels of physical damage, surviving blunt trauma, stabbing wounds and gunshots. While Stu, Mrs. Loomis, Charlie, Richie, Quinn, and Wayne were all killed instantly in one blow, Billy, Mickey, Roman, Jill, Amber, and Ethan, despite having sustained severe injuries prior, all survived to make one final, desperate attack before finally being killed by the heroes.
Cultural impact
McFarlane Toys produced a 6-inch figurine of Ghostface in 1999 for the "Movie Maniacs II" series of horror and science fiction inspired line of character models. A series of figures were produced by NECA for Scream 4 featuring the standard mask and black cowl plus variations such as "Zombie Ghostface" with a decayed appearance on the mask and "Scarecrow Ghostface" with brown, burlap material used for the mask and clothing.
Ghostface has been parodied and referenced numerous times in media following his appearance in the Scream franchise, most prominently in the parody film Scary Movie (2000) where a killer dressed as Ghostface commits a series of murders. However, unlike the original film, the killer is revealed to be a single person; this parodic version of Ghostface later appears in the June 1, 2016 Erma comic strip, named "Prank Call", wherein the character is making prank calls whilst quoting Scream, alongside the series' titular character. In the parody film Shriek If You Know What I Did Last Friday the 13th (2000), a killer wearing a Jason Voorhees-style hockey mask is set on fire, his mask melting to resemble that of Ghostface. The film Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back (2001) features Ghostface, as Shannen Doherty and Craven provide cameos as themselves making the then non-existent Scream 4, but Doherty objects when Ghostface turns out to be played by the orangutan, Suzann.
As in film, Ghostface has been referenced repeatedly in various television programs and commercials. In the same year as the release of Scream 3, the mask made an appearance on Beverly Hills, 90210 and the Nickelodeon series Cousin Skeeter. It was also used as an ornament in the bedroom of Dawson Leery in Dawson's Creek, a show created by Scream writer, Williamson. The character appears in a 1999 episode of Celebrity Deathmatch entitled "The Unknown Murderer", where he threatens to kill a scream queen every round, murdering Barrymore, Jamie Lee Curtis, and Jennifer Love Hewitt before planting his cell phone on a platypus to frame him, causing Campbell and Sarah Michelle Gellar to fight it. The mask was later used in The Sopranos episode "Fortunate Son" (2001) where it is worn by the character Christopher to commit a robbery.
The costume is referenced in an episode of the television series Boomtown entitled "All Hallow's Eve" (2002) where a police officer uses the costume to frighten a bully who has been terrorizing other kids. In the Japanese anime FLCL episode "Marquis de Cabras" (2003), protagonist Naota's face changes to resemble that of Ghostface frequently during a scene where he and his family are eating spicy curry. The character makes a cameo appearance in Tripping the Rift in the episode "The Devil and a Guy Named Webster" (2004) as the judge when Chode sells his soul to the devil and finds a way to sue him. He also appears in a 2004 advert for Trivial Pursuit: '90s edition; representing iconic characters of the 1990s alongside Dennis Rodman and the character Rose from the 1997 film Titanic. A parody of Ghostface appears in the television series All Grown Up! episode "Interview with a Campfire" (2004) where Lil DeVille is taunted by phone and stalked by a character wearing an Easter Bunny mask.
The character appears briefly in The Simpsons episode "Home Away from Homer" (2005) where Homer Simpson suggests him as a babysitter for his daughter Maggie Simpson. Roger L. Jackson lends his voice to Ghostface in the Robot Chicken episode "That Hurts Me" (2005) alongside other famous film killers in a show that parodies Big Brother, launching a prank war against Pinhead and Freddy Krueger before giving a speech to save himself from elimination from the show. He is referenced by Kenny Powers, the main character of Eastbound & Down who requests to wear the mask while having sex. In Scream XXX: A porn parody, a new Ghostface (wearing a clown variant of the Father Death mask) begins murdering the cast and crew of an in-production pornographic parody of the Stab series. In another porn parody, the gay movie Moan, the version of Ghostface seen in the film does not wear a mask. Instead, he has a hood and facepaint that resembles the mask (presembly, this change was made to help make the movie more erotic).
In his book Going to Pieces: The Rise and Fall of the Slasher Film, Adam Rockoff opined that Ghostface's mask was a "striking, surreal and downright terrifying presence". Calling the mask a "hyperbolic rendering" of Edvard Munch's The Scream, Rockoff wrote that the face is "twisted in an exaggerated, almost mocking grin, as if reflecting the look of terror and surprise on his victims' faces." Tony Magistrale also discussed the similarities between Ghostface's mask and The Scream in his book Abject Terrors: Surveying the Modern and Postmodern Horror Film, stating that the painting, "an apt representation of the degree of alienation from other people, inspires the killers' murderous agenda".
Notes
References
External links
Ghostface.co.uk
HelloSidney
Fictional blackmailers
Fictional murderers of children
Fictional code names
Fictional costumes
Fictional knife-fighters
Fictional mass murderers
Fictional serial killers
Film characters introduced in 1996
Halloween costume
Masks in the Americas
Mortal Kombat guest characters
Scream (franchise) characters
Slasher film antagonists |
4288926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anderson%20%28footballer%2C%20born%201988%29 | Anderson (footballer, born 1988) | Anderson Luís de Abreu Oliveira (born 13 April 1988), commonly known as Anderson, is a Brazilian former professional footballer who works as assistant manager of Adana Demirspor. He played as a midfielder and known best for his tenure with Manchester United from 2007 to 2015.
Born in Porto Alegre, he began his career with Grêmio, joining the youth team before rising through the ranks. His goal against Náutico during the 2005 play-offs earned Grêmio promotion to the Brazilian Série A. In January 2006, Anderson moved to Porto. There, he won the Primeira Liga twice, along with the Taça de Portugal and Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira during the 2005–06 season. After 18 months in Portugal, he joined English club Manchester United, with whom he won the Premier League title four times, as well as the 2007–08 UEFA Champions League, one League Cup, the FIFA Club World Cup and two FA Community Shields. He fell out of favour at Manchester United following the departure of manager Alex Ferguson in 2013, and spent the second half of the 2013–14 season at Fiorentina before returning to Brazil with Internacional in January 2015. He went on loan to Coritiba in 2017, before returning to Europe in 2018 with Turkish side Adana Demirspor. After a year there, Anderson retired from football in September 2020.
Anderson made his Brazil debut in 2007 during the 2007 Copa América, which they went on to win. He also played for the Brazil Olympic football team during the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, helping them secure the bronze medal.
Club career
Grêmio
Born in Porto Alegre, Anderson joined Grêmio as a youth player. He made his first appearance for the team on 23 October 2004 in a 3–1 loss to Internacional in the Brazilian Série A, in which he scored a goal from a free-kick. Grêmio, however, were relegated at the season's conclusion and Anderson followed the team to the Brazilian Série B.
It was reported in June 2005 that Portuguese group GestiFute had paid €5 million for 70% of the economic rights to Anderson. On 18 June 2005, Anderson was reported to have signed a pre-contract with Portuguese side Porto.
Anderson earned himself iconic status by scoring the goal that lifted Grêmio back into Serie A in a promotion playoff against Náutico in November 2005. This goal was particularly memorable because Grêmio only had seven players on the pitch at the time and had just seen the opposition have a penalty saved. The goal, scored 16 minutes into extra time, gave Grêmio a 1–0 victory in the most unlikely of circumstances.
Porto
Three months before his 18th birthday, Anderson joined Porto for a €7 million transfer fee in January 2006. As FIFA prohibits the international transfer of any underage players (subject to the exception that the player is moving to other countries to accompany their parents), Anderson's mother, Doralice de Oliveira, relocated to Portugal to facilitate his move abroad. Porto owned 65% of the economic rights, from which Porto would receive 65% of the future transfer fee of the player.
Anderson made his league debut for Porto on 5 March 2006, playing a part in helping the team seal the 2005–06 Primeira Liga title. In the 2006–07 season, he made his UEFA Champions League debut in Porto's first group game against CSKA Moscow. Anderson, however, was forced to miss five months of the season due to a broken leg, as a result of a tackle by Benfica midfielder Kostas Katsouranis. Despite his injury, he managed to appear in 15 games in the 2006–07 season, scoring two goals, and again picking up a league-winners' medal. In total, he made 21 starts for Porto in all competitions.
Manchester United
2007–08 season
On 30 May 2007, the Manchester United website confirmed that the club had agreed in principle to sign Anderson from Porto for an undisclosed fee. The initial application for a work permit for Anderson was rejected on the ground that he did not have enough international caps. Manchester United subsequently argued that only his youth had prevented him from acquiring more caps and that, given his exceptional talent and the size of the transfer fee, clearance was justified. On 29 June 2007, he was granted a work permit to play in the United Kingdom, and the move was completed on 2 July, with Anderson signing a five-year contract to become United's second Brazilian player after Kléberson. The transfer fee Porto announced was €30 million, which was equivalent to around £20 million as of July 2007.
Anderson was friends with Portuguese-speaking new teammates Cristiano Ronaldo and Nani prior to joining the club. He was handed the number 8 shirt, previously worn by Wayne Rooney, who changed to number 10, and made his Manchester United debut on 3 August 2007, playing 45 minutes of a pre-season friendly against Doncaster Rovers, which United won 2–0.
On 1 September 2007, Anderson made his competitive debut for United against Sunderland, before he was substituted at half-time and replaced by striker Louis Saha, who eventually scored the game winner. Anderson made his Champions League debut against Sporting Clube de Portugal in a 0–1 away win on 19 September, coming on as a substitute for Ryan Giggs in the 76th minute. On 26 September, Anderson made his League Cup debut, playing the full 90 minutes in a 2–0 loss to Coventry City, in a team consisting almost entirely of youth and reserve team players.
In the 2008 Champions League final in Moscow, Anderson was brought on as a substitute in the final minute of extra time to replace Wes Brown, and converted United's sixth attempt in the penalty shootout. United won the game 6–5 on penalties to give Anderson the first European honour of his career.
2008–09 season
On 6 December 2008, Anderson won the 2008 Golden Boy award. On 21 December 2008, Anderson played 88 minutes of the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup final against LDU Quito, which United won courtesy of a single Wayne Rooney goal to claim the world title. On 1 March 2009, Anderson came on in the 56th minute of the 2009 League Cup final against Tottenham Hotspur, replacing Danny Welbeck. He went on to score the winning penalty in the penalty shootout, winning his first League Cup medal. On 18 May, in the penultimate game of the season against Arsenal, United only needed one point to seal their third successive Premier League title and Anderson's second in two years at the club. Anderson was brought on for Wayne Rooney in the final minute, helping United lift the title at home to their fierce rivals.
2009–10 season
Anderson scored his first goal for Manchester United in the Audi Cup friendly tournament against Boca Juniors on 29 July 2009. After United were awarded a free kick on the right side of the penalty area, Anderson stepped up and curled the ball into the far top corner of the goal with his left foot. On 12 September, Anderson went on to score his first competitive goal for Manchester United against Tottenham in his 78th appearance for the club. He latched onto a loose ball at the edge of the area and hammered the ball into the bottom right corner with his left foot, scoring United's second goal of a 1–3 league win at White Hart Lane. In January 2010, Anderson was believed to have returned home to Brazil without manager Sir Alex Ferguson's permission and fined £80,000 by Manchester United.
Anderson returned to the first-team for a match against West Ham United on 23 February, but after just 20 minutes of the match, Anderson ruptured the cruciate ligament in his left knee and had to be substituted by Park Ji-sung. He was later ruled out for the remainder of the season, as well as the 2010 FIFA World Cup, after analysis determined that he would be out for the next six months.
2010–11 season
On 20 August 2010, Sir Alex Ferguson confirmed that Anderson had returned to training after the combination of an injury and being involved in a serious car accident. He made his return to action in the 3–2 home victory over Liverpool as an 88th-minute substitute on 19 September. On 7 December, Anderson scored his first goal at Old Trafford and also first European goal for the club in a 1–1 draw with Valencia.
Anderson signed a new -year contract with United on 15 December, keeping him at the club until June 2015. Anderson doubled his United goal tally in one game as he scored twice in a 4–1 second leg semi-final home win over Schalke 04 in the Champions League. The game's aggregate score ended 6–1 to United and therefore reached the final for the third time in four years. In his next game, he scored only his second league goal for United, equalising against Blackpool on 22 May 2011, the final day of the league season, in a match that United went on to win 4–2.
2011–12 season
Anderson started the season curtain-raiser, the 2011 FA Community Shield, which resulted in a 3–2 win over Manchester City. He also started the first three games, a 2–1 win against West Bromwich Albion, a 3–0 win against Tottenham Hotspur at home, where he scored his first goal of the season, and the 8–2 win against Arsenal, where he assisted on Danny Welbeck's opening goal.
Anderson scored his second goal of the season in a 2–0 home win against Norwich City in the Premier League. He broke the deadlock on 68 minutes, heading in from six yards after a corner had been knocked back across goal. During a match in the Champions League, Anderson injured his knee, ruling him out until February 2012. Anderson made a surprise return earlier than expected on 31 December 2011, coming on as a second-half substitute in a 3–2 home defeat to Blackburn Rovers. Further injuries led to Anderson, however, being sidelined for the remainder of the season.
2012–13 season
Anderson returned in the 2012–13 season, setting an early highlight in the third round League Cup match against Newcastle United on 26 September in 2012, when he scored an excellent opener in a 2–1 victory. He carried his form into the next round of the League Cup on 31 October in a match against Chelsea. He managed to earn three assists in the 80 minutes he played whilst leaving the pitch with United winning 3–2, although they went on to lose 5–4 after extra time. He continued to impress when given the opportunity, and garnered praise for a substitute appearance in the 3–1 win over Queens Park Rangers at Old Trafford. Sir Alex Ferguson stated that "Anderson changed the game".
On 1 December 2012, Anderson scored his first league goal of the season in a 4–3 victory away at Reading. Despite his excellent run of form, Anderson had picked a hamstring injury up in the match and was substituted just before half-time. On 30 January 2013, Anderson played 68 minutes on his return from injury in a 2–1 defeat of Southampton at Old Trafford.
On 19 May 2013, Anderson played the full 90 minutes in Sir Alex Ferguson's final match as Manchester United manager, a 5–5 draw with West Brom at The Hawthorns.
2013–14 season
After falling out of favour under new Manchester United manager David Moyes, playing just eight games in the first half of the 2013–14 season, Anderson joined Italian club Fiorentina on loan on 18 January 2014 for the remainder of the season. During his five-month loan, Anderson only made seven appearances for Fiorentina, three of which were from the bench. At the end of the season, he returned to Manchester United.
2014–15 season
Anderson was not part of the 25-man squad that flew to the US for United's pre-season tour, missing out because of a calf injury he sustained during training. Under new manager Louis van Gaal, Anderson was allocated the number 28 shirt, with Juan Mata having taken the number 8 upon signing in January 2014. His first appearance of the season came in a 4–0 loss at Milton Keynes Dons in the League Cup, where he played the full 90 minutes. After this, Anderson appeared in only one more game for Manchester United, a 0–0 draw with Burnley at Turf Moor. Anderson finally parted with Manchester United by making a switch to Internacional, on a free transfer, during the January transfer window.
Internacional
On 3 February 2015, Anderson ended his -year association with Manchester United by signing with Brazilian side Internacional on a four-year deal. A statement on Internacional's website read, "Sport Club Internacional concluded on Tuesday the procedures to announce the signing of midfielder Anderson. He signs a four-year contract."
On his debut for Internacional, Anderson missed a penalty kick against Cruzeiro in the Campeonato Gaúcho. In his second match, a 3–1 defeat to The Strongest in the Copa Libertadores on 17 February, Anderson was substituted after 36 minutes and required an oxygen mask due to La Paz's Estadio Hernando Siles being 3.68 km above sea level.
On 1 April, Anderson was sent off in Inter's 1–1 draw with Ypiranga de Erechim.
On 10 May, Anderson made his first Campeonato Brasileiro appearance for Internacional in the team's opening game of the 2015 season; a 3–0 loss at Atlético Paranaense. He received his second red card for the club in a 1–3 home defeat to Atlético Mineiro on 5 July.
On 9 August, Anderson was substituted at half-time in a 5–0 defeat to his former club and Inter's Porto Alegre rivals Grêmio. He then received threats and insults from the club's fans at training on the following Monday and was dropped from Inter's starting line-up for their following ten league fixtures. He returned to the team in a 3–1 loss to Santos on 27 September and remained a regular starter as Inter finished fifth in the league.
Adana Demirspor
On 30 July 2018, Anderson joined TFF First League side Adana Demirspor. In his first season there, he made just 14 appearances. He started the first match of the 2019–20 season, but was substituted at half-time; he was on the bench for the next game, but then missed the next two entirely. On 20 September, the Adana Demirspor president announced that Anderson had decided to retire from football.
Anderson announced his retirement from football in September 2020.
International career
In April 2005, Anderson played for Brazil in the South American under-17 Championship. The following October, he featured in the 2005 FIFA U-17 World Championship and he won the Golden Ball as Brazil took second place.
When Brazil were in danger of going out of the tournament after their opening game defeat against Gambia, Anderson helped to turn their fortunes around in the next match against the Netherlands. Anderson played well against the Dutch, contributing crosses and runs that aided his side. Anderson kept up his level of performance after that, scoring one goal and playing a key role in others, notably setting up Ramon for the first strike against Korea DPR in the quarter-final. After helping to lead Brazil into the final after a 4–3 semi-final victory over Turkey, Anderson lasted only 15 minutes of the final with Mexico before being stretchered off.
Anderson made his international debut for the Brazilian senior team on 27 June 2007 in their 2–0 loss against Mexico in the 2007 Copa América, coming on as a second-half substitute. He made his first start for Brazil on 1 July 2007 against Chile in a 3–0 victory.
In July 2008, Brazil coach Dunga named Anderson in the 18-man squad for the 2008 Summer Olympics. He scored Brazil's first goal in their second group match against New Zealand, a match they went on to win 5–0. On 22 August 2008, Brazil won the bronze medal as they defeated Belgium 3–0.
Style of play
Regarded as a talented and highly promising player in the media in his youth, Anderson later struggled to replicate his precocious performances as his career progressed, and has been accused by some pundits – including Marca's Fran Villalobos and The Guardian's Barney Ronay – of failing to live up to his potential. Keith Griffin of Bleacher Report remarked in 2008 that Anderson was "[o]ne of the most impressive young players to grace the Premier League this season," noting that the midfielder was gifted "with blinding pace, hulkish upper body strength, and vision." Alex Ferguson added that Anderson "can tackle, he's lightning quick, he's brave and he can pass the ball."
In 2009, Will Evans of Bleacher Report described him as a player gifted with pace, physical strength, flair, and technical skills, as well noting his range of passing, crossing ability, defensive skills, and accuracy from penalties as some of his key strengths. He also cited that although Anderson was capable of creating chances for teammates, his biggest weaknesses were his shooting accuracy and lack of goals going forward, something which Ferguson had also previously noted. He felt that Anderson's best positions were either as a central midfielder or as a winger, although Evans's colleague Sam Tighe noted in 2013 that the Brazilian was often deployed as an attacking midfielder in his youth, and was also capable of playing in other positions, and was even used as a deep-lying playmaker on occasion; he labelled him as a dangerous free kick taker with good acceleration and dribbling ability. Regarding Anderson's difficulties in living up to his potential during his time at Manchester United, Chris Atkins of Bleacher Report commented: "Before joining Porto, Anderson was touted as the next Ronaldinho. Having emerged through the Gremio academy system as a tricky attacking midfielder, the comparisons were only natural and, prior to his injury in Portugal, the signs were promising. With excellent acceleration, impressive close control and a powerful shot, he certainly appeared to be an important player for Brazil's future." A left-footed player, his other most noticeable trait was his stamina.
Anderson's former Manchester United teammate Michael Owen described the former as "very talented" and surmised that his failure to establish himself at the top level was due to his mentality and poor work-rate, combined with his injuries, health issues, and his struggle to operate in different positions, with Tighe noting that Anderson performed poorly when he was deployed in both a holding and a box-to-box role. Former Brazil midfielder Tostão also criticised Anderson for his static off-the-ball movement when commenting on his performance at the 2005 U17 World Cup, during which he won the Golden Ball after leading Brazil to the final, stating: "He was clearly the best player, but there were times when he just stood around."
Personal life
It was reported that Anderson was hospitalised after a serious car crash in Portugal on 31 July 2010. He had spent the night before at a nightclub before leaving in his Audi R8. The crash occurred at 7 am when the car came off the road and hit a farm wall before entering a field. Anderson was unconscious but was pulled from the car minutes before it exploded. Another man and a woman were also in the car. All three suffered minor injuries and were treated for whiplash, concussion and shock at a hospital. Anderson returned to United to continue his rehabilitation.
Anderson refused to take a breathalyser test during the early hours in his native Porto Alegre and police forced his bodyguard to drive him home a week before his 24th birthday.
Anderson's father died at the age of 41, when Anderson was 14. He has three siblings. Anderson has five children – three daughters and two sons.
Career statistics
Club
International
Honours
Grêmio
Campeonato Brasileiro Série B: 2005
Porto
Primeira Liga: 2005–06, 2006–07
Taça de Portugal: 2005–06
Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira: 2006
Manchester United
Premier League: 2007–08, 2008–09, 2010–11, 2012–13
Football League Cup: 2008–09
FA Community Shield: 2011, 2013
UEFA Champions League: 2007–08
FIFA Club World Cup: 2008
Internacional
Campeonato Gaúcho: 2015
Brazil U17
South American U-17 Championship: 2005
FIFA U-17 World Championship runner-up: 2005
Brazil U23
Olympic Bronze Medal: 2008
Brazil
Copa América: 2007
Individual
FIFA U-17 World Championship Golden Ball: 2005
Golden Boy: 2008
Notes
References
External links
Anderson PortuGOAL profile
1988 births
Living people
Footballers from Porto Alegre
Brazilian men's footballers
Men's association football midfielders
Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense players
FC Porto players
Manchester United F.C. players
ACF Fiorentina players
Sport Club Internacional players
Coritiba Foot Ball Club players
Adana Demirspor footballers
Campeonato Brasileiro Série A players
Campeonato Brasileiro Série B players
Primeira Liga players
Premier League players
Serie A players
TFF First League players
UEFA Champions League winning players
Brazil men's youth international footballers
Olympic footballers for Brazil
Brazil men's international footballers
2007 Copa América players
Copa América-winning players
Footballers at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Olympic medalists in football
Olympic bronze medalists for Brazil
Medalists at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Brazilian expatriate men's footballers
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in England
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in Portugal
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in Italy
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in Turkey
Expatriate men's footballers in England
Expatriate men's footballers in Portugal
Expatriate men's footballers in Italy
Expatriate men's footballers in Turkey
Golden Boy winners |
4289261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation%20and%20restoration%20of%20photographs | Conservation and restoration of photographs | The conservation and restoration of photographs is the study of the physical care and treatment of photographic materials. It covers both efforts undertaken by photograph conservators, librarians, archivists, and museum curators who manage photograph collections at a variety of cultural heritage institutions, as well as steps taken to preserve collections of personal and family photographs. It is an umbrella term that includes both preventative preservation activities such as environmental control and conservation techniques that involve treating individual items. Both preservation and conservation require an in-depth understanding of how photographs are made, and the causes and prevention of deterioration. Conservator-restorers use this knowledge to treat photographic materials, stabilizing them from further deterioration, and sometimes restoring them for aesthetic purposes.
While conservation can improve the appearance of a photograph, image quality is not the primary purpose of conservation. Conservators will try to improve the visual appearance of a photograph as much as possible, while also ensuring its long-term survival and adhering the profession's ethical standards. Photograph conservators also play a role in the field of connoisseurship. Their understanding of the physical object and its structure makes them uniquely suited to a technical examination of the photograph, which can reveal clues about how, when, and where it was made.
Photograph preservation is distinguished from digital or optical restoration, which is concerned with creating and editing a digital copy of the original image rather than treating the original photographic material. Photograph preservation does not normally include moving image materials, which by their nature require a very different approach. Film preservation concerns itself with these materials.
Overview of photographs and photographic processes
Physical photographs usually consist of three components: the final image material (e.g. silver, platinum, dyes, or pigments), the transparent binder layer (e.g. albumen, collodion, or gelatin) in which the final image material is suspended, and the primary support (e.g. paper, glass, metal, or plastic). These components affect the susceptibility of photos to damage and the preservation and conservation methods required. Photograph preservation and conservation are also concerned with the negatives from which photographic prints are made. There are two basic types of negatives: glass plate and film-based.
Significant developments in photographic processes
1816: HeliographyThe first person who succeeded in producing a paper negative of the camera image was Joseph Nicephore Niepce. He coated pewter plates with bitumen (an asphaltic varnish that hardens with exposure to light) and put them in a Camera Obscura. After exposure to sunlight for a long time, the parts that were exposed to light became hard and the parts that were not could be washed off with lavender oil.
1837: DaguerreotypeThe daguerreotype process (named after Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre) produces a unique image, as there is no negative created. After coating a copper plate with light-sensitive silver iodide, the plate is exposed to an image for over 20 minutes and then treated with fumes from heated mercury. The longer the exposure to light, the more mercury fumes are adsorbed by the silver iodide. After the plate is washed with salt water, the image appears, reversed. This was the earliest photographic process to gain popularity in America. It was used until around 1860.
1839: Salt printThis was the dominant form of paper print until Albumen prints were introduced in 1850. Salt prints were made using both paper and glass negatives.
1841: CalotypeWilliam Henry Fox Talbot invented the negative-positive system of photography commonly used today. He first developed the Talbotype, which used silver chloride to sensitize paper. After improving the process by using silver iodide, he renamed it Calotype. The process could produce many positive images, but they were not as sharp because they were printed on fibrous paper rather than glass.
1842: Cyanotype (Ferro-plusiate, Blue process)This process forms blue-colored images through a reaction to iron salts. John Herschel studied it in order to reproduce his complicated math formulas and memos. Other processes that fall into this category include Kallitype, Vandyketype, and Platinum printing.
1850: Albumen printThis process, introduced by Louis Désiré Blanquart-Evrard, was the most common kind of print in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Beautiful sepia gradation images were created by using albumen and silver chloride. The surfaces of prints made with this process were glossy because of the egg whites which were layered heavily to prevent the originally thin prints from curling, cracking, or tearing easily. This type of print was especially common for studio portraits and landscape or stereoviews.
1851: Wet collodion process and AmbrotypeFrederick Scott Archer developed the wet collodion processes, which used a thick glass plate unevenly hand-coated with a collodion-based, light-sensitive emulsion. Collodion, which means ‘glue’ in Greek, is nitrocellulose dissolved in ether and ethanol. The Ambrotype, an adaptation of the wet collodion process, was developed by Archer and Peter W. Fry. It involved placing a dark background behind the glass so that the negative image would look positive, and was popular in America until around 1870.
1855: Gum printing
Orange colored dichromate has photosensitivity when it is mixed with colloids such as gum arabic, albumen, or gelatin. Using that feature, Alphonse Poitevin invented the gum printing process. It gained in popularity after 1898, and again in 1960s and 1970s because of its unique look.
1858: Tintype (also called Ferrotype and Melainotype)
In this photographic process the emulsion was painted directly onto a japanned (varnish finish) iron plate. it was much cheaper and sturdier than the Ambrotype and Daguerreotype.
1861: RGB additive color modelApplied physician James Clerk Maxwell made the first color photo by mixing red, green, and blue light.
1871: Gelatin dry plateRichard L. Maddox discovered that gelatin could be a carrier for silver salts. By 1879, the gelatin dry plate had replaced the collodion wet plate. It was a revolutionary innovation in photography since it needed less light exposure, was usable when dry, meaning photographers no longer needed to pack and carry dangerous liquids, and could be standardized because it could be factory produced.
1873: Platinum printing (Platinotype)William Willis patented platinum printing in Britain. The process rapidly spread and became a dominant method in Europe and America by 1894 since it had a visibly different color tone compared to albumen and gelatin silver prints.
Late 1880s: Gelatin silver printThis has been the major photograph printing process since the late 1880s up to the present. Prints consist of paper coated with an emulsion of silver halide in gelatin. The surface is generally smooth; under magnification, the print appears to sparkle.
1889: KallitypeDr. W. W. J. Nicol invented and refined the Kallitype. Vandyketype, or Single Kalliitype, is the simplest type of Kalltype and creates beautiful brown images.
1889: Film negativesCellulose nitrate film was developed by Eastman Kodak in 1889 and refined in 1903. It is made of silver gelatin on a cellulose nitrate base. The negatives are flammable and therefore can be dangerous. Nitrate sheet film was used widely though the 1930s, while nitrate roll film was used through the 1950s. The nitrate base was replaced with cellulose acetate in 1923. By 1937, Cellulose diacetate was used as the base, and beginning in 1947 Cellulose triacetate was used. Polyester film was introduced around 1960.
1935: Color photographsKodak introduced color film and transparencies in 1935. The first process was called Kodachrome. Ektachrome, introduced in the late 1940s, became equally popular. There are now a variety of color processes that use different materials; most consist of dyes (cyan, magenta, and yellow, each of which have different absorption peaks) suspended in a gelatin layer.
Photograph stability
Photograph stability refers to the ability of prints and film to remain visibly unchanged over periods of time. Different photographic processes yield varying degrees of stability. In addition, different materials may have dark-storage stability which differs from their stability in light. An extreme case with slides was stability under the intense light of projection. For example, when stored in darkness, Kodachrome's long-term stability under suitable conditions is superior to other types of color film. Images on Kodachrome slides over fifty years old retain accurate color and density. Kodachrome film stored in darkness is largely responsible for excellent color footage of World War II, for example. It has been calculated that the yellow dye in Kodachrome, the least stable, would suffer a 20% loss of dye in 185 years. This is because developed Kodachrome does not retain unused color couplers.
However, Kodachrome's color stability under bright light, especially during projection, is inferior to substantive slide films. Kodachrome's fade time under projection is about one hour, compared to Fujichrome's two and a half hours. Thus, old Kodachrome slides should be exposed to light only when copying to another medium.
Silver halideBlack-and-white negatives and prints made by the silver halide process are stable so long as the photographic substrate is stable. Some papers may yellow with age, or the gelatin matrix may yellow and crack with age. If not developed properly, small amounts of silver halide remaining in the gelatin will darken when exposed to light. In some prints, the black silver oxide is reduced to metallic silver with time, and the image takes on a metallic sheen as the dark areas reflect light instead of absorbing it. Silver can also react with sulfur in the air and form silver sulfide. A correctly processed and stored silver print or negative probably has the greatest stability of any photographic medium, as attested by the wealth of surviving historical black-and-white photographs.
ChromogenicChromogenic dye color processes include Type "R" and process RA-4 (also known as "type C prints"), process C-41 color negatives. and process E-6 color reversal (Ektachrome) film. Chromogenic processes yield organic dyes that are less stable than silver, and can also leave unreacted dye couplers behind during developing. Both factors may lead to color changes over time. The three dyes, cyan, magenta, and yellow, which make up the print may fade at different rates, causing a color shift in the print. Modern chromogenic papers such as Kodak Endura have achieved excellent stability, however, and are rated for 100 years in home display.
Dye destructionDye destruction prints are the most archival color prints, at least among the wet chemical processes, and arguably among all processes. The most well-known kind of dye destruction print is the Cibachrome, now known as Ilfochrome.
Ink jetSome ink jet prints are now considered to have excellent stability, while others are not. Ink jet prints using dye-pigment mixtures are now common in photography, and often claim stability on par with chromogenic prints. However, these claims are based on accelerated aging studies rather than historical experience, because the technology is still relatively young.
Types and causes of deterioration
There are two main types of deterioration found in photographic materials. Chemical deterioration occurs when the chemicals in the photograph or negative undergo reactions (either through contact with outside catalysts, or because the chemicals are inherently unstable) that damage the material. Physical or structural deterioration occurs when chemical reactions are not involved, and include abrasion and tearing.
Both types of deterioration are caused by three main factors: environmental storage conditions, inappropriate storage enclosures and repair attempts, and human use and handling. Chemical damage can also be caused by improper chemical processing. Different types of photographic materials are particularly susceptible to different types and causes of deterioration.
Environmental factors
Temperature and humidity interact with one another and cause chemical and physical deterioration. High temperature and relative humidity, along with pollution, can cause fading and discoloration of silver images and color dyes. Higher temperatures cause faster deterioration: the rate of deterioration is approximately doubled with every temperature increase of 10 °C. Fluctuations in temperature and relative humidity are particularly damaging, as they also speed up chemical deterioration and can cause structural damage such as cracked emulsions and warped support layers.
Too-high relative humidity can cause fading, discoloration and silver mirroring, and can cause binders to soften and become sticky, making photographs susceptible to physical damage. It can also cause photographs to adhere to frames and other enclosures.
Too-low relative humidity can cause physical damage including desiccation, embrittlement, and curling.
Pollution can include oxidant and aciding/sulfiding gases that cause chemical deterioration, as well as dust and particulates that can cause abrasion. Sources of indoor pollution that affect photographs include paint fumes, plywood, cardboard, and cleaning supplies.
Exposure to light causes embrittlement, fading, and yellowing. The damage is cumulative and usually irreversible. UV light (including from sunlight and fluorescent light) and visible light in the blue part of the spectrum are especially harmful to photographs, but all forms of light, including incandescent and tungsten, are damaging.
Mold growth is fostered by high temperatures and humidity as well as dust particles. They cause damage to the surface of photographs and help break down binder layers.
The presence of insects and rodents is also fostered by high temperatures and humidity. They eat paper fiber, albumen, and gelatin binders, leaving chew marks and droppings. Species likely to cause problems include cockroaches and silverfish.
Other factors
Inappropriate storage containers and repair attempts: Cabinets made of inferior materials can give off harmful gases, while other reactive materials such as acidic paper sleeves, rubber bands, paper clips, pressure sensitive tape, and glues and adhesives commonly used for storage and repairs in the past can also cause chemical deterioration. Storing items too loosely, too tightly, or in enclosures that do not provide adequate physical protection can all cause physical damage such as curling and breakage.
Human handling and use, including by researchers and staff, can also cause both chemical and physical deterioration. Oils, dirt, lotions, and perspiration transmitted through fingerprints can destroy emulsion and cause bleaching, staining, and silver mirroring. Physical damage caused by human handling includes abrasion, scratches, tears, breakage, and cracks.
Improper chemical processing, including use of exhausted fixer, insufficient length of fixing, and residual fixer left behind by inadequate washing can cause fading and discoloration. Heat, humidity, and light can accelerate such damage. Adherence to ISO standards at the time of processing can help avoid this type of deterioration.
Examples of threats to specific photographic materials
Glass plate negatives and ambrotypes are prone to breakage. Deterioration of film negatives, regardless of type, is humidity and temperature dependent. Nitrate film will first fade, then become brittle and sticky. It will then soften, adhere to paper enclosures, and produce an odor. Finally, it will disintegrate into a brown, acrid powder. Because of its flammability, it must be handled with particular care. Cellulose aetate, diacetate, and triacetate film produce acetic acid, which smells like vinegar. The deterioration process is therefore known as "vinegar syndrome". The negatives become very brittle and, in diacetate and triacetate film, the base shrinks, causing grooves ("channeling").
In addition to fading, silver-based images are prone to silver mirroring, which presents as a bluish metallic sheen on the surface of the photograph or negative and is caused by oxidation, which causes the silver to migrate to the surface of the emulsion.
Color photographs are an inherently unstable medium, and are more susceptible to light and fading than black and white photographic processes. They are composed of various dyes, all of which eventually fade, albeit at different rates (causing discoloration along with fading). Many color photographic processes are also susceptible to fading even in the dark (known as "dark-fading"). There is little that can be done to restore faded images, and even under ideal conditions, most color photographs will not survive undamaged for more than 50 years.
Preservation strategies
Temperature and relative humidity control
Maintenance of a proper environment such as control of temperature and relative humidity (RH; a measure of how saturated the air is with moisture) is extremely important to the preservation of photographic materials.
Temperature should be maintained at or below (the lower the better); an "often-recommended" compromise between preservation needs and human comfort is (storage-only areas should be kept cooler). Temperature is the controlling factor in the stability of contemporary color photographs. For color photographs, storage at low temperatures ( or below) is recommended.
Relative humidity should be maintained at 30–50% without cycling more than +/- 5% a day. The lower part of that range is best for "long term stability of several photographic processes". Not only do relative humidity levels above 60% cause deterioration, but also low and fluctuating humidity may also damage them.
Climate control equipment can be used to control temperatures and humidity. Air conditioners, dehumidifiers, and humidifiers can be helpful, but it is important to make sure they help instead of hurt (for example, air conditioning raises humidity).
Cold storage
Cold storage is recommended for especially vulnerable materials. Original prints, negatives, and transparencies (not glass plates, daguerreotypes, ambrotypes, tintypes, or other images on glass or metal) should be placed in packaging (archival folders in board boxes in double freezer weight Ziplock bags) in cold storage, and temperatures should be maintained at 1.7–4.4 °C (35–40 °F). According to the guideline of National Archives facilities, clear plastic bags such as Zip-locks or flush-cut bags with twist-ties (polyethylene or polypropylene plastic bags) and cotton gloves are needed.
Removing items from cold storage requires letting them acclimate to room conditions. Photographs must be allowed to warm up slowly in a cool, dry place, such as an office or processing area. Original items should be retrieved from the storage only in an emergency and no more than once a year.
Without cold storage, temperature-sensitive materials will deteriorate in a matter of a few decades; with cold storage they can remain unchanged for many centuries.
Light control
Photographs should not be hung near light. Hanging photographs on a wall can cause damage from the exposure to direct sunlight, or to fluorescent lights. Displays of photographs should be changed periodically because most photographs will deteriorate in light over time.
UV-absorbing sleeves can be used to filter out damaging rays from fluorescent tubes and UV- absorbing sheets can be placed over windows or in frames. Low UV-emitting bulbs are available. Light levels should be kept at 50–100 Lux (5–10 footcandles) for most photographs when in use for research as well as exhibit. Exposure of color slides to the light in the projector should be kept to a minimum, and photographs should be stored in dark storage. The best way to preserve a photograph is to display a facsimile.
Pollution control
Controlling air quality is difficult. Ideally, air entering a storage or exhibition area should be filtered and purified. Gaseous pollution should be removed with chemical filters or wet scrubbers. Exterior windows should be kept when possible. Interior sources of harmful gases should be minimized. Metal cabinets are preferable to wooden cabinets, which can produce harmful peroxides.
Air can be filtered to keep out gaseous pollutants and particulates such as nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and ozone. Air filters must be changed regularly to be effective. Air circulation should also be checked periodically.
Handling control
Handling and use policies should be established and staff should be trained in policies and policy enforcement and telling users the policies when they arrive. Policies for processing, handling for loaned or exhibited items, and disaster prevention and recovery should also be created and followed.
Work spaces should be clean and uncluttered. Clean gloves or clean, dry hands should be used whenever photographs are handled. Foods, drink, dirt, cleaning chemicals, and photocopy machines should be kept away from photo storage, exhibit, or work spaces.
For precious materials, users should be provided with duplicates, not originals.
Storage systems control
Proper storage materials are essential for the long-term stability of photographs and negatives. Enclosures keep away dirt and pollutants. All enclosures used to house photographs and those should meet the specifications provided in the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Most photographs can be safely kept in paper enclosures; some can also be safely stored in some types of plastic enclosures.
Paper enclosures protect objects from light, but may result in increased handling for viewing. Paper enclosures must be acid-free, lignin-free, and are available in both buffered (alkaline, pH 8.5) and unbuffered (neutral, pH 7) stock. Storage materials must pass the ANSI Photographic Activity Test (PAT) which is noted in suppliers’ catalogs. Paper enclosures also protects the photographs from the accumulation of moisture and detrimental gases and are relatively inexpensive.
Plastic enclosures include uncoated polyester film, uncoated cellulose triacetate, polyethylene, and polypropylene. Plastic enclosures are transparent. Photographs can be viewed without removal from the enclosure, thus it can reduce handling. However, plastic enclosures can trap moisture and cause ferrotyping (sticking, with a resultant glossy area). Plastic is not suitable for prints with surface damage, glass or metal-based photographs, nor for film-based negatives and transparencies from the 1950s, unless the latter are in cold storage. It should not to be used to store older safety film negatives as this may hasten their deterioration.
Horizontal storage is preferable for many photographic prints and oversize photographs. It provides overall support to the images and prevents mechanical damage such as bending. Vertical storage is often more efficient and may make access to a collection easier. Materials of similar size should be stored together. Boxes and files should not be overcrowded.
Reproduction and digitization
Unlike the born-digital photographs that are widely produced and consumed today, historical photographs such as old slides, films, and printed photos are not easy to preserve. An important component of long-term photograph preservation is making reproductions (by photocopying, photographing, or scanning and digitizing) of photographs for use in exhibitions and by researchers, which reduces the damage caused by non-controlled environments and handling.
Digitizing photographs also allows access by a much wider public, especially where the images have intrinsic historic value. Digital scans, however, are not replacements for the original, as digital file formats may become obsolete. Originals should always be preserved, even if they have been digitized. Born-digital photographs also require preservation, using digital preservation techniques.
Safeguarding European Photographic Images for Access (SEPIA) lists ten principles for digitization of historical photograph. Summarized, they are:
Photographs are an essential part of our cultural heritage, which contain our past, documentary and artistic value and the history of photographic processes;
Digitizing photographs that deteriorate quickly is urgent matter to facilitate access for a large audience;
Since digitization is not an end itself but a tool, selection of photographs to digitize should be based on an understanding of the nature and potential use of the collection;
It's essential to define the aims, priorities, technical requirements, procedures and future use for investments;
The creation of a digital image is a sophisticated activity which requires photographic expertise with ethical judgment;
Digital images need regular maintenance in order to keep pace with changing technologies;
A good digitization project requires teamwork, combining expertise on imaging, collection management, IT, conservation, descriptive methods and preservation strategies;
The input of specialists in every project is essential to integrate preservation measures in the work-flow, handle fragile materials and avoid damage to the originals;
Preservation specialists need to manage of digital assets in line with the overall preservation policy of the organization; and
Museums, archives and libraries actively involve to develop international standards for the preservation of digital collections in the long-term view.
Examples
An example of digitization as part of a photograph preservation strategy is the photographic collection of the Tay Bridge disaster of 1879. These photographs have been digitized and disseminated more widely. Only the positive prints survive, owing to the widespread practice of recycling the original glass negatives to reclaim the silver content. Even when carefully preserved and kept in the dark, damage can occur through intermittent exposure to light, as shown by damage to the image of the intact bridge (at left).
An example of a larger digitization project is the Cased Photographs Project, which provides access to digital images and detailed descriptions of daguerreotypes, ambrotypes, tintypes, and related photographs in the collections of the Bancroft Library and the California State Library.
Digital Photo Restoration
Digital photo restoration is the practice of restoring the appearance of a digital copy of a physical photograph that has been damaged due to natural, man-made or environmental causes, as well as age or negligence. Digital photo restoration utilizes image editing techniques to remove unwanted visible elements such as dirt, scratches, or signs of aging. People use raster graphic editors to restore digital images or to add or replace torn or missing portions of a physical photograph. Unwanted color tones are removed, and the contrast or sharpness of an image can be altered to restore the range of contrast or detail believed to be in the original physical image. Digital image processing techniques included in image enhancement and image restoration software are also used to restore digital photographs.
With the help of artificial intelligence
One of the first functions that neural networks began to successfully handle was the restoration of old photographs. Photo restoration algorithms using artificial intelligence work by analyzing existing flaws in old photos and then applying intelligent image processing techniques to correct and enhance them. These algorithms can automatically detect and fix common problems such as scratches, noise, discoloration, and background blurring.
Handling methods
Fragile or valuable originals are protected when they are replaced by digital surrogates, and severely damaged photographs that are physically impossible to repair are repaired by creating a digital copy. The creation of digital surrogates allows for the preservation of originals. However, the digitization process itself contributes to the deterioration of the object. It is considered important to ensure minimal damage to the original photograph due to environmental changes or careless handling. Preservation efforts have traditionally focused on physical photographs, but the preservation of digital surrogates of photography has become equally important.
Permissible Uses
Courts agree that, by its basic nature, digitization includes reproduction, an act reserved exclusively for copyright owners. Ownership of a work of art does not inherently entail a right of reproduction. Even without copyright permission, museums may copy and digitally restore images for preservation or informational purposes.
Conservation treatments
Photograph conservation involves the physical treatment of individual photographs. As defined by the American Institute for Conservation, treatment is "the deliberate alteration of the chemical and/or physical aspects of cultural property, aimed primarily at prolonging its existence. Treatment may consist of stabilization and/or restoration." Stabilization treatments aim to maintain photographs in their current condition, minimizing further deterioration, while restoration treatments aim to return photographs to their original state.
Conservation treatments range from very simple tear repairs or flattening to more complex treatments such as stain removal. Treatments vary widely depending on the type of photograph and its intended use. Therefore, conservators must by knowledgeable regarding both of these issues. Guides for the preservation of personal and family photograph collections, such as Cornell University's Preserving Your Family Photographs and the AIC's Caring for Your Treasures, recommend that people contact a trained conservator if they have rapidly deteriorating negatives or photographs with active mold growth, staining from pressure sensitive tape, severe tears, adhesion to enclosures, and other types of damage requiring conservation treatment.
Professional organizations
There are a number of international organizations concerned with conservation of photographs along with other subjects, including the International Council on Archives (ICA), the International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (IIC), and the International Council of Museums - Committee for Conservation (ICOM-CC). The Photographic Records Working Group is a specialty group within the ICOM-CC.
In the United States, the national membership organization of conservation professionals is the American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic works (AIC) to which the Photographic Materials Group (PMG) belongs. The Northeast Document Conservation Center (NEDCC) and the Conservation Center for Art and Historic Artifacts (CCAHA) also play an important role in the field of conservation. The Image Permanence Institute (IPI) at Rochester Institute of Technology is one of the leaders in preservation research of images in particular.
Codes and standards
Photograph conservators and preservation managers are guided in their work by codes of ethics and technical standards. The International Council on Archives publishes a Code of Ethics and Guidelines for Practice. Additionally, members of other professions (such as archivists and librarians) who deal with preservation of photographs do so in accordance with their professional organization's codes of ethics. For example, the Society of American Archivists Code of Ethics states that "Archivists protect all documentary materials for which they are responsible and guard them against defacement, physical damage, deterioration, and theft."
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and American National Standards Institute (ANSI) both publish technical standards that govern the materials and procedures used in photograph preservation and conservation. The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions has published a list of ANSI standards pertaining to the care and handling of photographs.
Education and training
Photograph conservators can be found in museums, archives, and libraries, as well as in private practice. Conservators often have earned their master's degrees in art conservation, though many have also been trained through apprenticeship. They often have backgrounds in art history, chemistry, or photography.
Among numerous programs concerned with conservation of photographs around the world are:
University of Amsterdam
University of Melbourne in Australia
The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts
Canadian Conservation Institute
The National School of Conservation, Restoration and Museology in Mexico (ENCRyM)
Royal Institute for the Study and Conservation of Belgium's Artistic Heritage
Institut national du patrimoine
Université Paris 1
Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Berlin (HTW)
Fachhochschule Köln
Staatlichen Akademie der Bildenden Künste Stuttgart
Swiss Conservation-Restoration Campus
Hochschule der Künste Bern
Fratelli Alinari
Studio Art Centers International, Florence (SACI)
Royal College of Art/Victoria and Albert Museum
The International master Program in Conservation of Antique Photographs and Paper Heritage held at the EICAP Faculty of Applied arts-Helwan University
In addition, Getty Conservation Institute (GCI) works internationally to advance conservation practice in the visual arts.
The United States, in particular, has many training or degree programs for photograph conservators offered by graduate schools and organizations such as:
Conservation Center for Art and Historic Artifacts (CCAHA)
Northeast Document Conservation Center (NEDCC)
George Eastman House
Buffalo State College
Institute of Fine Arts, New York University
University of Delaware
Campbell Center for Historic Preservation Studies
Northern States Conservation Center
Smithsonian Center for Materials Research and Education.
There are also photographic conservation teaching courses available online from various providers, for instance:
Conserve Photography online teaching courses
Citaliarestauro.com online teaching course
NEDCC online teaching course
See also
Preservation (library and archival science)
Conservation and restoration of books, manuscripts, documents and ephemera
Collections care
Media preservation
Conservation (cultural heritage)
Conservation and restoration of photographic plates
Notes
Further reading
Clark, Susie, and Franziska Frey. Care of Photographs. Amsterdam: European Commission on Preservation and Access, 2003.
Eaton, George T. Conservation of Photographs. Kodak Publication No. F-40. Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak Co., 1985.
Hayes, Sandra. "Preserving History: Digital Imaging Methods of Selected Mississippi Archivists." Mississippi Archivists 65, no. 4 (Winter 2001): 101–102.
Norris, Debra Hess, and Jennifer Jae Gutierrez, eds. Issues in the Conservation of Photographs. Los Angeles: Getty Conservation Institute, 2010.
Reilly, James. Care and Identification of 19th Century Photographic Prints. Kodak Publication No. G2S. Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak Co., 1986.
Ritzenthaler, Mary Lynn and Diane Voght-O'Connor, et al. Photographs: Archival Care and Management. Chicago: Society of American Archivistis, 2006.
External links
Organizations
The Photographic Materials Group of the American Institute for Conservation
The Advanced Residency Program in Photograph Conservation at the George Eastman House
Notes on Photographs, a Wiki from George Eastman House
The Image Permanence Institute
ICOM-CC Photographic Materials Working Group
Guides
Basics of Photograph Preservation
Preservation and Archives Professionals
Care, Handling, and Storage of Photographs, Library of Congress
The Care and Preservation of Photographic Prints, The Henry Ford Museum
Preservation of Photographs: Select Bibliography, Northeast Document Conservation Center
Caring for Your Photographs, The American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (AIC)
A Consumer Guide to Digital and Print Stability, Image Permanence Institute
Conservation and restoration of cultural heritage
Preservation (library and archival science)
Science of photography |
4289390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20philosophers%20born%20in%20the%2020th%20century | List of philosophers born in the 20th century | Philosophers born in the 20th century (and others important in the history of philosophy) listed alphabetically:
Note: This list has a minimal criterion for inclusion and the relevance to philosophy of some individuals on the list is disputed.
A
Elisa Aaltola (born 1976)
Richard Aaron (1901–1987)
Gholamreza Aavani (born 1943)
Nicola Abbagnano (1901–1990)
Ruth Abbey (born 1961)
Bijan Abdolkarimi (born 1963)
Taha Abdurrahman (born 1944)
Masao Abe (1915–2006)
Henry D. Abelove (born 1945)
Raziel Abelson (1921–2017)
Miguel Abensour (1939–2017)
Arash Abizadeh
William Emmanuel Abraham (born 1934)
David Abram (born 1957)
Gerd B. Achenbach (born 1947)
Peter Achinstein (born 1935)
Hans Achterhuis (born 1942)
Felicia Nimue Ackerman (born 1947)
J. L. Ackrill (1921–2007)
H. B. Acton (1908–1974)
Carol J. Adams (born 1951)
James Luther Adams (1901–1994)
Marilyn McCord Adams (1943–2017)
Maynard Adams (1919–2003)
Robert Merrihew Adams (born 1937)
Peter Adamson (born 1972)
Matthew Adler (born 1962)
Mortimer J. Adler (1902–2001)
Mantas Adomėnas (born 1972)
Theodor Adorno (1903–1969)
Sediq Afghan (born 1958)
Michel Aflaq (1910–1989)
Sylviane Agacinski (born 1945)
Giorgio Agamben (born 1942)
Joseph Agassi (born 1927)
Khurshid Ahmad (born 1932)
Arif Ahmed
Scott Aikin (born 1971)
Timo Airaksinen (born 1947)
Shabbir Akhtar (born 1960)
Lilli Alanen (1941–2021)
David Albert (born 1954)
Hans Albert (1921–2023)
Rogers Albritton (1923–2002)
Linda Martín Alcoff (born 1955)
Virgil Aldrich (1903–1998)
Gerda Alexander (1908–1994)
Aleksandr Danilovich Aleksandrov (1912–1999)
Robert Alexy (born 1945)
Keimpe Algra (born 1959)
Lucy Allais
George James Allan (born 1935)
Trevor Allan (born 1955)
Amy Allen
Anita L. Allen (born 1953)
Diogenes Allen (1932–2013)
William B. Allen (born 1944)
Henry E. Allison (born 1937)
Ferdinand Alquié (1906–1985)
William Alston (1921–2009)
Jimmy Altham (born 1944)
Louis Althusser (1918–1990)
Thomas J. J. Altizer (1927–2018)
Alexander Altmann (1906–1987)
Peter Alward (born 1964)
Alice Ambrose (1906–2001)
Karl Ameriks (born 1947)
Roger T. Ames (born 1947)
Günther Anders (1902–1992)
Alan Ross Anderson (1925–1973)
C. Anthony Anderson (born 1940)
Elizabeth S. Anderson (born 1959)
John Mueller Anderson (1914–1999)
Pamela Sue Anderson (1955–2017)
R. Lanier Anderson
Judith Andre
Kristin Andrews (born 1971)
Antanas Andrijauskas (born 1948)
Irving Anellis (1946–2013)
Ian Angus (born 1949)
Loreta Anilionytė
Julia Annas (born 1946)
G. E. M. Anscombe (1918–2001)
Keith Ansell-Pearson (born 1960)
Dario Antiseri (born 1940)
Maria Rosa Antognazza (born 1964)
John P. Anton (1920–2014)
G. Aldo Antonelli (1962–2015)
Louise Antony
Karl-Otto Apel (1922–2017)
Kwame Anthony Appiah (born 1954)
Richard Appignanesi (born 1940)
Richard Aquila (born 1944)
Lennart Åqvist (born 1932)
István Aranyosi (born 1975)
Reza Davari Ardakani (born 1933)
Hannah Arendt (1906–1975)
Türker Armaner (born 1968)
Leslie Armour (1931–2014)
A. H. Armstrong (1909–1997)
David Malet Armstrong (1926–2014)
John Armstrong (born 1966)
Juan Arnau (born 1968)
Richard Arneson
Rudolf Arnheim (1904–2007)
Raymond Aron (1905–1983)
Robert Arp (born 1970)
Nomy Arpaly (born 1973)
Robert Arrington (1938–2015)
Kenneth Arrow (1921–2017)
Zaki al-Arsuzi (1899–1968)
Sergei N. Artemov (born 1951)
John Arthur (1946–2007)
Mariano Artigas (1938–2006)
Adil Asadov (born 1958)
Molefi Kete Asante (born 1942)
Karl Aschenbrenner (1911–1988)
Pandurang Shastri Athavale (1920–2003)
Margaret Atherton (born 1943)
George N. Atiyeh (1923–2008)
Ronald Field Atkinson (1928–2005)
Henri Atlan (born 1931)
Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas (born 1931)
Robin Attfield (born 1931)
Elspeth Attwooll (born 1943)
Gwenaëlle Aubry (born 1971)
Robert Audi (born 1941)
Lene Auestad (born 1973)
John Langshaw Austin (1911–1960)
Randall Auxier (born 1961)
Armen Avanessian (born 1973)
Jeremy Avigad (born 1968)
Anita Avramides (born 1952)
Kostas Axelos (1924–2010)
Francisco J. Ayala (born 1934)
Alfred Jules Ayer (1910–1989)
Michael R. Ayers (born 1935)
Hiroki Azuma (born 1971)
Joxe Azurmendi (born 1941)
Jody Azzouni (born 1954)
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Harriet Baber (born 1950)
Babette Babich (born 1956)
Kent Bach (born 1943)
Bronisław Baczko (1924–2016)
Alain Badiou (born 1937)
Julian Baggini (born 1968)
Archie J. Bahm (1907–1996)
Annette Baier (1929–2012)
Kurt Baier (1917–2010)
Moya Bailey
Alan Baker
Gordon Park Baker (1938–2002)
Lynne Rudder Baker (1944–2017)
Albena Bakratcheva (born 1961)
Gopal Balakrishnan (born 1966)
Tom Baldwin (born 1947)
Étienne Balibar (born 1942)
Renford Bambrough (1926–1999)
Hassan al-Banna (1906–1949)
Michael Banner (born 1961)
Yehoshua Bar-Hillel (1915–1975)
Dorit Bar-On (born 1955)
Karen Barad (born 1956)
Amiri Baraka (1934–2014)
José Barata-Moura (born 1948)
Renaud Barbaras (born 1955)
Ian Barbour (1923–2013)
Alejandro Bárcenas
Sidi Mohamed Barkat (born 1948)
Jason Barker (born 1971)
Stephen F. Barker (1927–2019)
Elizabeth Barnes
Hazel Barnes (1915–2008)
Jonathan Barnes (born 1942)
Marcia Baron (born 1955)
William Barrett (1913–1992)
Eduardo Barrio
Phillip Barron
Brian Barry (1936–2009)
Christian Barry
Norman P. Barry (1944–2008)
Roland Barthes (1915–1980)
Lauren Swayne Barthold (born 1965)
Sandra Bartky (1935–2016)
Steven James Bartlett (born 1945)
W. W. Bartley III (1934–1990)
Renate Bartsch (born 1939)
Shadi Bartsch (born 1966)
Jon Barwise (1942–2000)
Jacques Barzun (1907–2012)
David Basinger (born 1947)
Diderik Batens (born 1944)
Gregory Bateson (1904–1980)
David Batstone (born 1958)
Jean Baudrillard (1929–2007)
Nancy Bauer (born 1960)
Zygmunt Bauman (1925–2017)
Charles A. Baylis (1902–1975)
Francoise Baylis (born 1961)
Jc Beall (born 1966)
Monroe Beardsley (1915–1985)
Tom Beauchamp (born 1939)
Jean Beaufret (1907–1982)
Emily Beausoleil
Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986)
Anthony Beavers (born 1963)
William Bechtel (born 1951)
Lewis White Beck (1913–1997)
Gerhold K. Becker (born 1943)
Lawrence C. Becker (1939–2018)
Francis J. Beckwith (born 1960)
Hugo Bedau (1926–2012)
Mark Bedau (born 1950)
Helen Beebee (born 1968)
Hasna Begum (1935–2020)
Ernst Behler (1928–1997)
Werner Beierwaltes (1931–2019)
Frederick C. Beiser (born 1949)
Charles Beitz (born 1949)
Daniel Bell (1919–2011)
John Lane Bell (born 1945)
Shannon Bell (born 1955)
Robert N. Bellah (1927–2013)
Kathryn Sophia Belle (born 1978)
Nuel Belnap (born 1930)
Yemima Ben-Menahem (born 1946)
Aaron Ben-Ze'ev (born 1949)
Paul Benacerraf (born 1931)
Linos Benakis (born 1928)
José Benardete (1928–2016)
Seth Benardete (1930–2001)
David Benatar (born 1966)
Seyla Benhabib (born 1950)
Piers Benn (born 1962)
Jonathan Bennett (born 1930)
Geoffrey Bennington (born 1956)
Alain de Benoist (born 1943)
Bruce Ellis Benson (born 1960)
Sergio Benvenuto (born 1948)
Floris van den Berg (born 1973)
Peter L. Berger (1929–2017)
Frithjof Bergmann (1930–2021)
Gustav Bergmann (1906–1987)
Michael Bergmann (born 1964)
Lars Bergström
Arnold Berleant (born 1932)
Isaiah Berlin (1909–1997)
Marshall Berman (1940–2013)
José Benardete (1928–2016)
Seth Benardete (1930–2001)
Robert Bernasconi (born 1950)
Walter Berns (1919–2015)
Andrew Bernstein (born 1949)
Jay Bernstein (born 1947)
Mark H. Bernstein
Richard J. Bernstein (born 1932)
Marcus Berquist (1934–2010)
Wendell Berry (born 1934)
Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901–1972)
Peter Anthony Bertocci (1910–1989)
Steven Best (born 1955)
Gábor Betegh (born 1968)
Richard Bett
Mark Bevir (born 1963)
Jean-Yves Béziau (born 1965)
Homi K. Bhabha (born 1949)
Roy Bhaskar (1944–2014)
Nalini Bhushan
Vladimir Bibikhin (1938–2004)
Cristina Bicchieri (born 1950)
Jacques Bidet (born 1935)
Jean Biès (1933–2014)
Simone Bignall
Anat Biletzki (born 1952)
Akeel Bilgrami (born 1950)
Purushottama Bilimoria
Nikola Biller-Andorno
Katalin Bimbó (born 1963)
Harry Binswanger (born 1944)
Alexander Bird (born 1964)
Garrett Birkhoff (1911–1996)
Peg Birmingham
Jeffrey Bishop (born 1967)
Frode Alfson Bjørdal (born 1944)
Max Black (1909–1988)
Simon Blackburn (born 1944)
Russell Blackford (born 1954)
Oliva Blanchette (1929–2021)
Patricia Blanchette
Maurice Blanchot (1907–2003)
Joseph Leon Blau (1909–1986)
David Blitz
Ned Block (born 1942)
Allan Bloom (1930–1992)
Lawrence Blum (born 1943)
Albert Blumberg (1906–1997)
Hans Blumenberg (1920–1996)
Andy Blunden (born 1945)
Norberto Bobbio (1909–2004)
Chris Bobonich (born 1960)
Susanne Bobzien (born 1960)
Jozef Maria Bochenski (1902–1995)
Remo Bodei (1938–2019)
Margaret Boden (born 1936)
James Bogen
Paul Boghossian (born 1957)
Peter Boghossian
David Bohm (1917–1992)
Gernot Böhme (born 1937)
Hilary Bok (born 1959)
Sissela Bok (born 1934)
Alisa Bokulich
Daniel Bonevac
Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906–1945)
Laurence BonJour (born 1943)
Murray Bookchin (1921–2006)
George Boolos (1940–1996)
William James Booth
Susan Bordo
Michael Bordt (born 1960)
Emma Borg
Albert Borgmann (born 1937)
Eugene Borowitz (1924–2016)
Giovanna Borradori
Lisa Bortolotti (born 1974)
David Bostock (1936–2019)
Inga Bostad (born 1963)
Nick Bostrom (born 1973)
George Botterill (born 1949)
Eileen Hunt Botting (born 1971)
Alain de Botton (born 1969)
Tina Fernandes Botts
Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002)
Jacques Bouveresse (1940–2021)
Luc Bovens
David Frederick Bowers (1906–1945)
Andrew Bowie (born 1952)
Bernard Boxill
Jan Boxill (born 1939)
Richard Boyd (1942–2021)
Joseph A. Bracken (born 1930)
Costica Bradatan
Richard Bradley (born 1964)
Michael Brady (born 1965)
Rémi Brague (born 1947)
Rosi Braidotti (born 1954)
David Braine (1940–2017)
Richard-Bevan Braithwaite (1900–1990)
Theodore Brameld (1904–1987)
Myles Brand (1942–2009)
Robert Brandom (born 1950)
Richard B. Brandt (1910–1997)
Eva Brann (born 1929)
Ray Brassier (born 1965)
Michael Bratman (born 1945)
Stephen E. Braude (born 1945)
David Braybrooke (1924–2013)
Geoffrey Brennan (born 1944)
Jason Brennan (born 1979)
Samantha Brennan
Teresa Brennan (1952–2003)
Bill Brewer
Jean Bricmont (born 1952)
Ingo Brigandt
Harry Brighouse
Liam Kofi Bright
David O. Brink (born 1958)
Susan Brison
Luc Brisson (born 1946)
Charles Francis Brittain
Alexander Broadie
Sarah Broadie (1941–2021)
Dan W. Brock (1937–2020)
May Brodbeck (1917–1983)
Berit Brogaard (born 1970)
Johannes Bronkhorst (born 1946)
Stephen Bronner (born 1949)
Thom Brooks (born 1973)
John Broome (born 1947)
Janet Broughton
Harvey Brown (born 1950)
Wendy Brown (born 1955)
Kimberley Brownlee (born 1978)
Bartosz Brożek (born 1977)
Pascal Bruckner (born 1948)
Robert Brumbaugh (1918–1992)
Fernand Brunner (1920–1991)
Brian Bruya (born 1966)
Edwin Bryant (born 1957)
Levi Bryant
Jeffrey Bub (born 1942)
Allen Buchanan (born 1948)
Ian Buchanan (born 1969)
James M. Buchanan (1919–2013)
Gerd Buchdahl (1914–2001)
Justus Buchler (1914–1991)
Henry Bugbee (1915–1999)
Mario Bunge (1919–2020)
Martin Bunzl (born 1948)
Tyler Burge (born 1946)
Ronna Burger (born 1947)
J. Peter Burgess (born 1961)
John P. Burgess (born 1948)
Teresa Blankmeyer Burke
Arthur Burks (1915–2008)
James Burnham (1905–1987)
John Burnheim (born 1928)
Elizabeth Burns
Myles Burnyeat (1939–2019)
David Burrell (born 1933)
Roderick D. Bush (1945–2013)
Panayot Butchvarov (born 1933)
Judith Butler (born 1956)
Jeremy Butterfield (born 1954)
Victor L. Butterfield (1904–1975)
Stephen Butterfill
Charles Butterworth (born 1938)
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Amílcar Cabral (1924–1973)
Julio Cabrera
Massimo Cacciari (born 1944)
John Cage (1912–1992)
Cheshire Calhoun
Daniel Callahan (1930–2019)
Joan Callahan (1946–2019)
Agnes Callard (born 1976)
Craig Callender (born 1968)
J. Baird Callicott (born 1941)
Elisabeth Camp
Donald T. Campbell (1916–1996)
John Campbell (born 1956)
Joseph Campbell (1904–1987)
Victoria Camps (born 1941)
Albert Camus (1913–1960)
Georges Canguilhem (1904–1995)
Leslie Cannold
Monique Canto-Sperber (born 1954)
Milič Čapek (1909–1997)
Herman Cappelen (born 1967)
John D. Caputo (born 1940)
Josiah S. Carberry (born 1929)
Claudia Card (1940–2015)
Taylor Carman (born 1965)
Walter Carnielli (born 1952)
Eduardo Carrasco (born 1940)
Peter Carravetta (born 1951)
Peter Carruthers (born 1952)
Arturo Carsetti (born 1940)
Rachel Carson (1907–1964)
Alan Carter (born 1952)
Nancy Cartwright (born 1944)
Richard Cartwright (1925–2010)
Olavo de Carvalho (1947–2022)
Edward S. Casey (born 1939)
Quassim Cassam (born 1961)
Barbara Cassin (born 1947)
Pierre Cassou-Noguès (born 1971)
Hector-Neri Castañeda (1924–1991)
Roberto Castillo (1950–2008)
David Castle (born 1967)
Cornelius Castoriadis (1922–1997)
Jean Cavaillès (1903–1944)
Paola Cavalieri (born 1950)
Stanley Cavell (1926–2018)
Christopher Celenza (born 1967)
Michel de Certeau (1925–1986)
Arindam Chakrabarti
Anjan Chakravartty
Alan Chalmers (born 1939)
David Chalmers (born 1966)
Clare Chambers (born 1976)
Timothy Chambers
Wing-tsit Chan (1901–1994)
Hasok Chang (born 1967)
Ruth Chang
Vere Claiborne Chappell (1930–2019)
David Charles
Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya (1918–1993)
Haridas Chaudhuri (1913–1975)
Albert Chernenko (1935–2009)
Harold F. Cherniss (1904–1987)
Mark Cherry
Ronda Chervin (born 1937)
Charles Chihara (1932–2020)
James Childress (born 1940)
Roderick Chisholm (1916–1999)
William Chittick (born 1943)
Kah Kyung Cho (born 1927)
Pema Chödrön (born 1936)
Noam Chomsky (born 1928)
Alonzo Church (1903–1995)
Patricia Churchland (born 1943)
Paul Churchland (born 1942)
C. West Churchman (1913–2004)
Frank Cioffi (1928–2012)
Emil Cioran (1911–1995)
Joanne B. Ciulla (born 1952)
Hélène Cixous (born 1937)
Jean Clam (born 1958)
Andy Clark (born 1957)
Gordon Clark (1902–1985)
Stephen R. L. Clark (born 1945)
Desmond Clarke (1942–2016)
W. Norris Clarke (1915–2008)
Carol Cleland (born 1948)
Justin Clemens (born 1969)
Catherine Clément (born 1939)
Paul Cliteur (born 1955)
Sharyn Clough (born 1965)
C. A. J. Coady (born 1936)
John B. Cobb (born 1925)
David Cockburn (born 1949)
Alan Code (born 1951)
Lorraine Code (born 1937)
Felix S. Cohen (1907–1953)
Gerald Cohen (1941–2009)
Joshua Cohen (born 1951)
L. Jonathan Cohen (1923–2006)
Selma Jeanne Cohen (1920–2005)
Priscilla Cohn (1933–2019)
David R. Cole (born 1967)
Jules Coleman (born 1947)
Lucio Colletti (1924–2001)
Patricia Hill Collins (born 1948)
Robin Collins
Mark Colyvan
John Joseph Compton (1928–2014)
André Comte-Sponville (born 1952)
Marcel Conche (born 1922)
James H. Cone (1938–2018)
Deborah Cook (1954–2020)
Joyce Mitchell Cook (1933–2014)
Ursula Coope (born 1969)
David E. Cooper (born 1942)
John M. Cooper (born 1939)
Rachel Cooper (born 1974)
Jack Copeland (born 1950)
Brian Copenhaver (born 1942)
Irving Copi (1917–2002)
Joan Copjec
Frederick Copleston (1907–1994)
Henry Corbin (1903–1978)
John Corcoran (1937–2021)
Viola Cordova (1937–2002)
Carla Cordua (born 1925)
David Corfield
Drucilla Cornell (born 1950)
Newton da Costa (born 1929)
John Cottingham (born 1943)
William Craig (1918–2016)
William Lane Craig (born 1949)
Tim Crane (born 1962)
Alice Crary (born 1967)
Robert P. Crease (born 1953)
Richard Creath (born 1947)
Max Cresswell (born 1939)
Roger Crisp (born 1961)
Simon Critchley (born 1960)
Helena Cronin (born 1942)
Robert Craigie Cross (1911–2000)
Richard Crossman (1907–1974)
Antonio Cua (1932–2007)
Ann Cudd
Garrett Cullity
Robert Denoon Cumming (1916–2004)
Chris Cuomo
Don Cupitt (born 1934)
Tommy J. Curry
Jean Curthoys (born 1947)
James T. Cushing (1937–2002)
D
François Dagognet (1924–2015)
Robert Dahl (1915–2014)
Daniel O. Dahlstrom (born 1948)
Mary Daly (1928–2010)
Jonathan Dancy (born 1946)
Arthur Danto (1924–2013)
Lindley Darden (born 1945)
Stephen Darwall (born 1946)
Arnold Davidson (born 1955)
Donald Davidson (1917–2003)
Brian Davies (born 1951)
Martin Davies (born 1950)
Stephen Davies
Angela Davis (born 1944)
Diane Davis (born 1963)
Michael Davis (born 1943)
Guy Debord (1931–1994)
Vianney Décarie (1917–2009)
Mario De Caro (born 1963)
Helen De Cruz (born 1978)
John Deely (1942–2017)
Maximilian de Gaynesford (born 1968)
Richard T. De George (born 1933)
John J. DeGioia (born 1957)
David DeGrazia (born 1962)
Charles De Koninck (1906–1965)
Manuel DeLanda (born 1952)
Gilles Deleuze (1925–1995)
Bernard Delfgaauw (1912–1993)
Paul de Man (1919–1983)
Lara Denis (born 1969)
Daniel Dennett (born 1942)
Douglas Den Uyl (born 1950)
Keith DeRose (born 1962)
Jacques Derrida (1930–2004)
Giorgio de Santillana (1902–1974)
Peggy DesAutels
Vincent Descombes (born 1943)
Ronald de Sousa (born 1940)
Michael Detlefsen (1948–2019)
Eliot Deutsch (1931–2020)
Karl Deutsch (1912–1992)
Penelope Deutscher
Philippe Devaux (1902–1979)
Michael Devitt (born 1938)
Hent de Vries (born 1958)
L. Harold DeWolf (1905–1986)
Meena Dhanda
Cora Diamond (born 1937)
Donna Dickenson (born 1946)
George Dickie (1926–2020)
Michael R. Dietrich (born 1963)
Susan Ann Dimock
Zoran Đinđić (1952–2003)
Rosalyn Diprose
Do-ol (born 1948)
Daniel Dombrowski (born 1953)
Alan Donagan (1925–1991)
Sue Donaldson (born 1962)
Keith Donnellan (1931–2015)
Josephine Donovan (born 1941)
Mark Dooley (born 1970)
Jude Patrick Dougherty (1930–2021)
Igor Douven
Bradley Dowden (born 1942)
Lisa Downing (born 1974)
Paul Draper (born 1957)
William Herbert Dray (1921–2009)
Burton Dreben (1927–1999)
Fred Dretske (1932–2013)
James Drever (1910–1991)
Hubert Dreyfus (1929–2017)
Julia Driver
Shadia Drury (born 1950)
Dominique Dubarle (1907–1987)
Aleksandr Dugin (born 1962)
Michael Dummett (1925–2011)
Fernand Dumont (1927–1997)
Raya Dunayevskaya (1910–1987)
Jon Michael Dunn (1941–2021)
John Dupré (born 1952)
Louis Dupré (born 1925)
Denis Dutton (1944–2010)
Divya Dwivedi
Gerald Dworkin (born 1937)
Ronald Dworkin (1931–2013)
Davor Džalto (born 1980)
Miroslaw Dzielski (1941–1989)
E
William A. Earle (1919–1988)
John Earman (born 1942)
Kenny Easwaran
John Eccles (1903–1997)
Umberto Eco (1932–2016)
Abraham Edel (1908–2007)
Gerald Edelman (1929–2014)
Dorothy Edgington (born 1941)
James M. Edie (1927–1998)
Lez Edmond
David Edmonds (born 1964)
Paul Edwards (1923–2004)
Frances Egan
Margaret Elizabeth Egan (1905–1959)
Carolyn Eisele (1902–2000)
Alexandra Elbakyan (born 1988)
Mircea Eliade (1907–1986)
Ignacio Ellacuría (1930–1989)
Carl Elliott (born 1961)
Deni Elliott
Brian David Ellis (born 1929)
Jacques Ellul (1912–1994)
Jean Bethke Elshtain (1941–2013)
Jon Elster (born 1940)
Charles R. Embry
Dorothy Emmet (1904–2000)
Pascal Engel (born 1954)
David Enoch
Erik Erikson (1902–1994)
John Etchemendy (born 1952)
Amitai Etzioni (born 1929)
Jin Eun-young (born 1970)
C. Stephen Evans (born 1948)
Gareth Evans (1946–1980)
Stanley Eveling (1925–2008)
Nir Eyal (born 1970)
Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze (1963–2007)
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Cécile Fabre (born 1971)
Emil Fackenheim (1916–2003)
Anne Fagot-Largeault (born 1938)
Frantz Fanon (1925–1961)
Delia Graff Fara (1969–2017)
Marvin Farber (1901–1980)
Catia Faria (born 1980)
Austin Marsden Farrer (1904–1968)
James E. Faulconer (born 1947)
Joanne Faulkner (born 1972)
Keith W. Faulkner
Silvia Federici (born 1942)
Andrew Feenberg (born 1943)
Solomon Feferman (1928–2016)
Carla Fehr
Herbert Feigl (1902–1988)
Joel Feinberg (1926–2004)
Fred Feldman (born 1941)
Ann Ferguson (born 1938)
Maurizio Ferraris (born 1956)
José Ferrater Mora (1912–1991)
Frederick Ferré (1933–2013)
Luc Ferry (born 1951)
Paul Feyerabend (1924–1994)
Hartry Field (born 1946)
James Fieser
Carrie Figdor
J. N. Findlay (1903–1987)
Arthur Fine (born 1937)
Gail Fine
Kit Fine (born 1946)
Martha Albertson Fineman (born 1943)
Bruno de Finetti (1906–1985)
Herbert Fingarette (1921–2018)
Eugen Fink (1905–1975)
John Finnis (born 1940)
Lawrence Finsen
Susan Finsen
Roderick Firth (1917–1987)
John Martin Fischer (born 1952)
Frederic Fitch (1908–1987)
Branden Fitelson (born 1969)
Owen Flanagan (born 1940)
Kurt Flasch (born 1930)
Richard E. Flathman (1934–2015)
Joseph Fletcher (1905–1991)
Antony Flew (1923–2010)
Katrin Flikschuh
Luciano Floridi (born 1964)
Elizabeth Flower (1914–1995)
Juliet Floyd
Vilém Flusser (1920–1991)
James R. Flynn (1934–2020)
Thomas R. Flynn (born 1936)
Jerry Fodor (1935–2017)
Robert Fogelin (1932–2016)
Dagfinn Føllesdal (born 1932)
William Fontaine (1909–1968)
Philippa Foot (1920–2010)
Graeme R. Forbes
Peter Forrest (born 1948)
John Forrester (1949–2015)
Rainer Forst (born 1964)
Michel Foucault (1926–1984)
Bas van Fraassen (born 1941)
Carlos Fraenkel (born 1971)
Gary L. Francione (born 1954)
Leslie Francis
Manfred Frank (born 1945)
Charles Frankel (1917–1979)
William K. Frankena (1908–1994)
Nancy Frankenberry (born 1947)
Harry Frankfurt (born 1929)
Keith Frankish
Viktor Frankl (1905–1997)
James Franklin (born 1953)
Oliver Shewell Franks (1905–1992)
Nancy Fraser (born 1947)
Michael Frede (1940–2007)
Hans Wilhelm Frei (1922–1988)
Paulo Freire
Anne Fremantle (1909–2002)
Peter A. French (born 1942)
Raymond Frey (1941–2012)
Miranda Fricker (born 1966)
Marilyn Friedman (born 1945)
Michael Friedman (born 1947)
Milton Friedman (1912–2006)
Roman Frigg (born 1972)
Robert Frodeman
Erich Fromm (1900–1980)
Risieri Frondizi (1910–1983)
Marilyn Frye (born 1941)
Northrop Frye (1912–1991)
Lon L. Fuller (1902–1978)
Christopher Fynsk (born 1952)
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Dov Gabbay (born 1945)
Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900–2002)
Raimond Gaita (born 1946)
John Kenneth Galbraith (1908–2006)
Peter Galison (born 1955)
Shaun Gallagher (born 1948)
W. B. Gallie (1912–1998)
Jonardon Ganeri
Pieranna Garavaso
Daniel Garber (born 1949)
Patrick Gardiner (1922–1997)
John Gardner (1965–2019)
Jay L. Garfield (born 1955)
Ann Garry
Richard Gaskin (born 1960)
William H. Gass (1924–2017)
Moira Gatens (born 1954)
Christopher Gauker
Stephen Gaukroger (born 1950)
Gerald Gaus (1952–2020)
David Gauthier (born 1932)
Peter Geach (1916–2013)
Clifford Geertz (1926–2006)
Arnold Gehlen (1904–1976)
Ernest Gellner (1925–1995)
Ken Gemes
Tamar Gendler (born 1965)
Eugene Gendlin (1926–2017)
Gerhard Gentzen (1909–1945)
Alexander George
Robert P. George (born 1955)
Volker Gerhardt (born 1944)
Lloyd P. Gerson (born 1948)
Bernard Gert (1934–2011)
Edmund Gettier (1927–2021)
Raymond Geuss (born 1946)
Alan Gewirth (1912–2004)
Rashid al-Ghannushi (born 1941)
Michael Ghiselin (born 1939)
Allan Gibbard (born 1942)
James J. Gibson (1904–1979)
Roger Gibson (1944–2015)
Margaret Gilbert (born 1942)
Langdon Gilkey (1919–2004)
Mary Louise Gill
Michael Allen Gillespie (born 1951)
Donald A. Gillies (born 1944)
Carol Gilligan (born 1936)
Neil Gillman (1933–2017)
Carl Ginet (born 1932)
Hannah Ginsborg
René Girard (1923–2015)
Valéry Giroux (born 1974)
Kristin Gjesdal
Michael Glanzberg
Ernst von Glasersfeld (1917–2010)
Simon Glendinning (born 1964)
Hans-Johann Glock (born 1960)
Jonathan Glover (born 1941)
Clark Glymour (born 1942)
Paul Gochet (1932–2011)
Kurt Gödel (1906–1978)
Peter Godfrey-Smith (born 1965)
Lydia Goehr (born 1960)
Philip Goff
Erving Goffman (1922–1982)
Warren Goldfarb (born 1949)
Peter Goldie (1946–2011)
Alvin Goldman (born 1938)
Lucien Goldmann (1913–1970)
Victor Goldschmidt (1914–1981)
Bernard R. Goldstein (born 1938)
Rebecca Goldstein (born 1950)
Dan Goldstick
Cornelius Golightly (1917–1976)
Jacob Golomb
Nicolás Gómez Dávila (1913–1994)
Alfonso Gómez-Lobo (1940–2011)
Robert E. Goodin (born 1950)
Robert Gooding-Williams (born 1953)
Nelson Goodman (1906–1998)
Paul Goodman (1911–1972)
Alison Gopnik (born 1955)
Lewis Gordon (born 1962)
André Gorz (1923–2007)
Paul Gottfried (born 1941)
Allan Gotthelf (1942–2013)
Anthony Gottlieb (born 1956)
T. A. Goudge (1910–1999)
Alvin Gouldner (1920–1980)
Trudy Govier (born 1944)
Jorge J. E. Gracia (1942–2021)
James Allen Graff (1937–2005)
L. Gordon Graham (born 1949)
Gérard Granel (1930–2000)
Gilles-Gaston Granger (1920–2016)
George Grant (1918–1988)
Ivor Grattan-Guinness (1941–2014)
Jesse Glenn Gray (1913–1977)
John Gray (born 1948)
A. C. Grayling (born 1949)
Hilary Greaves (born 1978)
John Greco
Celia Green (born 1935)
Karen Green
Leslie Green (born 1956)
Clement Greenberg (1909–1994)
Maxine Greene (1917–2014)
Patricia Greenspan
Mary J. Gregor (1928–1994)
Marjorie Grene (1910–2009)
Herbert Paul Grice (1913–1988)
David Ray Griffin (born 1939)
James Griffin (1933–2019)
Allen Phillips Griffiths (1927–2014)
Paul E. Griffiths (born 1962)
Patrick Grim
Germain Grisez (1929–2018)
Jeroen Groenendijk (born 1949)
Elizabeth Grosz (born 1952)
Lori Gruen
Adolf Grünbaum (1923–2018)
Cynthia M. Grund (born 1956)
Félix Guattari (1930–1992)
Lisa Guenther
María José Guerra Palmero (born 1962)
Charles Guignon (1944–2020)
Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht (born 1948)
Gotthard Günther (1900–1984)
Anil Gupta (born 1949)
Aron Gurwitsch (1901–1973)
David P. Gushee
W. K. C. Guthrie (1906–1981)
Samuel Guttenplan (born 1944)
Gary Gutting (1942–2019)
Paul Guyer (born 1948)
Abimael Guzmán (1934–2021)
Kwame Gyekye (1939–2019)
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Susan Haack (born 1945)
Jürgen Habermas (born 1929)
Peter Hacker (born 1939)
Ian Hacking (born 1936)
John Hadley (born 1966)
Ilsetraut Hadot (born 1928)
Pierre Hadot (1922–2010)
Ruth Hagengruber
Simon Hailwood
Volker Halbach (born 1965)
John Haldane (born 1954)
Bob Hale (1945–2017)
Edward J. Hall
Everett Hall (1901–1960)
Manly Palmer Hall (1901–1990)
Philip Hallie (1922–1994)
Joseph Halpern (born 1953)
Clive Hamilton (born 1953)
Stuart Hampshire (1914–2004)
Jean Elizabeth Hampton (1954–1996)
Byung-Chul Han (born 1959)
Gila Hanna
Alastair Hannay (born 1932)
Norwood Russell Hanson (1922–1967)
Sven Ove Hansson (born 1951)
Donna Haraway (born 1944)
Garrett Hardin (1915–2003)
Russell Hardin (1940–2017)
Sandra Harding (born 1935)
Michael Hardt (born 1960)
John E. Hare (born 1949)
R. M. Hare (1919–2002)
Elizabeth Harman
Gilbert Harman (1938–2021)
Graham Harman (born 1968)
Rom Harré (1927–2019)
Karsten Harries (born 1937)
Michael Harrington (1928–1989)
Errol Harris (1908–2009)
John Harris (born 1945)
Leonard Harris
Sam Harris (born 1967)
Tristan Harris (born 1984)
Zellig Harris (1909–1992)
John Harsanyi (1920–2000)
H. L. A. Hart (1907–1992)
David Bentley Hart (born 1965)
Verity Harte
David Hartman (1931–2013)
Robert S. Hartman (1910–1973)
Stephan Hartmann (born 1968)
Nancy Hartsock (1943–2015)
Van A. Harvey (1923–2021)
Sally Haslanger
Gary Hatfield
Stanley Hauerwas (born 1940)
John Haugeland (1945–2010)
Daniel M. Hausman (born 1947)
David Hawkins (1913–2002)
Katherine Hawley (1971–2021)
John Hawthorne (born 1964)
Matti Häyry (born 1956)
Jane Heal (born 1946)
Donald O. Hebb (1904–1985)
Jennifer Michael Hecht (born 1965)
Patrick Aidan Heelan (1926–2015)
John Heil (born 1943)
Klaus Heinrich (1927–2020)
Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976)
Virginia Held (born 1929)
Ágnes Heller (1929–2019)
Erich Heller (1911–1990)
Michał Heller (born 1936)
Futa Helu (1934–2010)
Carl Gustav Hempel (1905–1997)
Leon Henkin (1921–2006)
Robert J. Henle (1909–2000)
Dieter Henrich (1927–2022)
Michel Henry (1922–2002)
Will Herberg (1901–1977)
Barbara Herman (born 1945)
Jeanne Hersch (1910–2000)
Abraham Joshua Heschel (1907–1972)
Mary Hesse (1924–2016)
Cressida Heyes (born 1970)
John Hick (1922–2012)
Stephen Hicks (born 1960)
Pamela Hieronymi
Alice von Hildebrand (born 1923)
Christopher S. Hill (born 1942)
Claire Ortiz Hill (born 1951)
Alison Hills
Jaakko Hintikka (1929–2015)
Christopher Hitchens (1949–2011)
Sarah Hoagland (born 1945)
Angie Hobbs (born 1961)
Richard Hocking (1906–2001)
Eric Hoffer (1902–1983)
Albert Hofstadter (1910–1989)
Martin Hollis (1938–1998)
Richard Holton
Ted Honderich (born 1933)
Axel Honneth (born 1949)
Sidney Hook (1902–1989)
Brad Hooker (born 1957)
bell hooks (1952–2021)
Jennifer Hornsby (born 1951)
Tamara Horowitz (1950–2000)
Oscar Horta (born 1974)
Paul Horwich (born 1947)
John Hospers (1918–2011)
Paulin J. Hountondji (born 1942)
George Hourani (1913–1984)
Colin Howson (1945–2020)
Hsu Fu-kuan (1903–1982)
Michael Huemer (born 1969)
Fiona Hughes
George Edward Hughes (1918–1994)
David Hull (1935–2010)
Paul Humphreys
Thomas Hurka (born 1952)
Susan Hurley (1954–2007)
Rosalind Hursthouse (born 1943)
Douglas Husak (born 1948)
Robert Maynard Hutchins (1899–1977)
John Hyman (born 1960)
Jean Hyppolite (1907–1968)
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Don Ihde (born 1934)
Ivan Illich (1926–2002)
Evald Vassilievich Ilyenkov (1924–1979)
Claude Imbert (born 1933)
Bernard Ryosuke Inagaki (born 1928)
Peter van Inwagen (born 1942)
Michael Inwood (1944–2021)
Luce Irigaray (born 1930)
Terence Irwin (born 1947)
William Irwin (born 1970)
Jenann Ismael
Veronica Ivy (born 1982)
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Frank Jackson (born 1943)
Jane Jacobs (1916–2006)
Rahel Jaeggi (born 1967)
Harry V. Jaffa (1918–2015)
Alison Jaggar (born 1942)
Pankaj Jain (born 1970)
Joy James (born 1958)
Susan James (born 1951)
Fredric Jameson (born 1934)
Dale Jamieson (born 1947)
Christopher Janaway
Erich Jantsch (1929–1980)
Grace Jantzen (1948–2006)
Nick Jardine (born 1943)
Katarzyna Jaszczolt (born 1963)
David Lyle Jeffrey
Richard C. Jeffrey (1926–2002)
Carrie Ichikawa Jenkins
Fiona Jenkins (born 1965)
Hans Joas (born 1948)
Alejandro Jodorowsky (born 1929)
Kyle Johannsen
Barbara Johnson (1947–2009)
Galen Johnson (born 1948)
Adrian Johnston
Mark Johnston
Hans Jonas (1903–1993)
Dorthe Jørgensen (born 1959)
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Shelly Kagan (born 1954)
Charles H. Kahn (born 1928)
Daniel Kahneman (born 1934)
Frances Kamm
Hans Kamp (born 1940)
Robert Kane (born 1938)
Abraham Kaplan (1918–1993)
David Kaplan (born 1933)
Barrie Karp (1945–2019)
Carol Karp (1926–1972)
Jerrold Katz (1932–2002)
Gordon D. Kaufman (1925–2011)
Walter Kaufmann (1921–1980)
Richard Kearney (born 1954)
Evelyn Fox Keller (born 1936)
David Kelley (born 1949)
Sean Dorrance Kelly
John G. Kemeny (1926–1992)
Andreas Kemmerling (born 1950)
Willmoore Kendall (1909–1967)
Duncan Kennedy (born 1942)
Anthony Kenny (born 1931)
Joseph Kerman (1924–2014)
Serene Khader
Ranjana Khanna
Mahmoud Khatami
Kim Hyung-suk (born 1920)
Jaegwon Kim (1934–2019)
Martin Luther King Jr. (1929–1968)
Elselijn Kingma (born 1981)
Mark Kingwell (born 1963)
Robert Kirk (born 1933)
Richard Kirkham (born 1955)
Elizabeth Kiss (born 1961)
Patricia Kitcher (born 1948)
Philip Kitcher (born 1947)
Eva Kittay
Peter Kivy (1934–2017)
Stephen Cole Kleene (1909–1994)
Martha Klein
Peter D. Klein (born 1940)
Ursula Klein (born 1952)
Raymond Klibansky (1905–2005)
George Kline (1921–2014)
Brian Klug
Martha Kneale (1909–2001)
William Calvert Kneale (1906–1990)
David M. Knight (1936–2018)
Sue Knight
Joshua Knobe (born 1974)
Wilbur Knorr (1945–1997)
Dudley Knowles (1947–2014)
Adrienne Koch (1913–1971)
Hans Köchler (born 1948)
Joseph J. Kockelmans (born 1923)
Peter Koellner
Noretta Koertge
Arthur Koestler (1905–1983)
Sarah Kofman (1934–1994)
Erazim Kohák (1933–2020)
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987)
Alexandre Kojève (1902–1968)
Leszek Kolakowski (1927–2009)
Katerina Kolozova (born 1969)
Milan Komar (1921–2006)
Charles De Koninck (1906–1965)
Milton R. Konvitz (1908–2003)
Robert C. Koons
Mario Kopić (born 1965)
Włodzimierz Julian Korab-Karpowicz (born 1953)
Hilary Kornblith
Stephan Körner (1913–2000)
Christine Korsgaard (born 1952)
Carolyn Korsmeyer (born 1950)
Kathrin Koslicki
Matthew Kramer (born 1959)
Otto Kraushaar (1901–1989)
Michael Krausz (born 1942)
Richard Kraut (born 1944)
Peter Kreeft (born 1937)
Georg Kreisel (1923–2015)
David Farrell Krell (born 1944)
Michael Kremer
Norman Kretzmann (1928–1998)
Saul Kripke (1940–2022)
Paul Oskar Kristeller (1905–1999)
Julia Kristeva (born 1941)
Irving Kristol (1920–2009)
Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn (1909–1999)
Thomas Samuel Kuhn (1922–1996)
Helga Kuhse
Quill Kukla
Bruce Kuklick (born 1941)
Kalevi Kull (born 1952)
İoanna Kuçuradi (born 1936)
Joel J. Kupperman (1936–2020)
Paul Kurtz (1925–2012)
Jonathan Kvanvig (born 1954)
Henry E. Kyburg Jr. (1928–2007)
Will Kymlicka (born 1962)
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Jacques Lacan (1901–1981)
John Lachs (born 1934)
Jennifer Lackey
Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe (1940–2007)
Jean Ladrière (1921–2007)
Cristina Lafont (born 1967)
Kaave Lajevardi (born 1971)
Imre Lakatos (1922–1974)
Karel Lambert (born 1928)
Corliss Lamont (1902–1995)
Mark Lance (born 1959)
Ludwig Landgrebe (1902–1991)
Helen S. Lang (1947–2016)
Rae Langton (born 1961)
François Laruelle (born 1937)
Christopher Lasch (1932–1994)
Serge Latouche (born 1940)
Bruno Latour (1947–2022)
Larry Laudan (born 1941)
Quentin Lauer (1917–1997)
Stephen Laurence
Albert Lautman (1908–1944)
Thelma Z. Lavine (1915–2011)
Stephen Law (born 1960)
Morris Lazerowitz (1907–1987)
Jonathan Lear (born 1948)
Dominique Lecourt (born 1944)
Michèle Le Dœuff (born 1948)
Bruce Lee (1940–1973)
Otis Hamilton Lee (1902–1948)
Henri Lefebvre (1901–1991)
Claude Lefort (1924–2010)
Brian Leftow (born 1956)
Keith Lehrer (born 1936)
Yeshayahu Leibowitz (1903–1994)
Wolfgang Leidhold (born 1950)
Werner Leinfellner (1921–2010)
Brian Leiter (born 1963)
Hannes Leitgeb (born 1972)
John Lemmon (1930–1966)
Mary Leng
James Lenman
Kathleen Lennon
James G. Lennox (born 1948)
Thomas Lepeltier (born 1967)
Robin Le Poidevin (born 1962)
Ernest Lepore (born 1950)
John A. Leslie (born 1940)
Sarah-Jane Leslie
Michael Leunig (born 1945)
Isaac Levi (1930–2018)
Michael Levin (born 1943)
Emmanuel Levinas (1906–1995)
Joseph Levine (born 1952)
Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908–2009)
Bernard-Henri Lévy (born 1948)
Tim Lewens (born 1974)
David Kellogg Lewis (1941–2001)
Hywel Lewis (1910–1992)
Dimitris Liantinis (1942–1998)
S. Matthew Liao (born 1972)
Suzanne Lilar (1901–1992)
Mark Lilla (born 1956)
George Lindbeck (1923–2018)
Hilde Lindemann
Rudolf Lingens (born 1918)
Alphonso Lingis (born 1933)
Øystein Linnebo (born 1971)
Leonard Linsky (1922–2012)
Gilles Lipovetsky (born 1944)
Arthur Lipsett (1936–1986)
Peter Lipton (1954–2007)
Christian List
Elisabeth Lloyd (born 1956)
Genevieve Lloyd (born 1941)
Sharon Lloyd (born 1958)
Barry Loewer (born 1945)
Knud Ejler Løgstrup (1905–1981)
Andrew Loke
Loren Lomasky
Alan Lomax (1915–2002)
Bernard Lonergan (1904–1984)
A. A. Long (born 1937)
R. James Long (born 1938)
Helen Longino (born 1944)
Béatrice Longuenesse (born 1950)
Bernard Loomer (1912–1985)
Beth Lord (born 1976)
Paul Lorenzen (1915–1995)
Jerzy Łoś (1920–1998)
E. J. Lowe (1950–2014)
Hermann Lübbe (born 1926)
John R. Lucas (1929–2020)
Thomas Luckmann (1927–2016)
Maria Lugones (1944–2020)
Peter Ludlow (born 1957)
Niklas Luhmann (1927–1998)
William Lycan (born 1945)
David Lyons (born 1935)
Jean-François Lyotard (1924–1998)
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David Macarthur
William MacAskill (born 1987)
Neil MacCormick (1941–2009)
Dwight Macdonald (1906–1982)
Margaret MacDonald (1907–1956)
John MacFarlane
Peter K. Machamer (born 1942)
Tibor R. Machan (1939–2016)
Edouard Machery
Alasdair MacIntyre (born 1929)
Louis Mackey (1926–2004)
John Leslie Mackie (1917–1981)
Penelope Mackie
Catharine A. MacKinnon (born 1946)
Donald M. MacKinnon (1913–1994)
Fiona Macpherson (born 1971)
John Macquarrie (1919–2007)
Penelope Maddy (born 1950)
Marylin Maeso (born 1988)
Rosa María Rodríguez Magda (born 1957)
Bryan Magee (1930–2019)
Ofra Magidor
Lorenzo Magnani (born 1952)
Jane Maienschein (born 1950)
Catherine Malabou (born 1959)
David Malament (born 1947)
Norman Malcolm (1911–1990)
Malcolm X (1925–1965)
Mostafa Malekian (born 1956)
Merab Mamardashvili (1930–1990)
Maurice Mandelbaum (1908–1987)
Jon Mandle
Pierre Manent (born 1949)
Bonnie Mann (born 1961)
Kate Manne
Erin Manning (born 1969)
Harvey Mansfield (born 1932)
Ruth Barcan Marcus (1921–2012)
Michael Marder (born 1980)
John Marenbon (born 1955)
Henry Margenau (1901–1997)
Joseph Margolis (1924–2021)
Julián Marías (1914–2005)
Jean-Luc Marion (born 1946)
Odo Marquard (1928–2015)
Don Marquis (1935–2022)
Giacomo Marramao (born 1946)
Jill Marsden (born 1964)
Donald A. Martin (born 1940)
Jerry L. Martin
Michael G. F. Martin (born 1962)
Michael Lou Martin (1932–2015)
Richard Milton Martin (1916–1985)
Aloysius Martinich (born 1946)
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)
Michelle Mason
Michela Massimi
Brian Massumi (born 1956)
Margaret Masterman (1910–1986)
Benson Mates (1919–2009)
Alexandre Matheron (1926–2020)
Freya Mathews
Bimal Krishna Matilal (1935–1991)
Wallace Matson (1921–2012)
Gareth Matthews (1929–2011)
Tim Maudlin (born 1958)
Abul A'la Maududi (1903–1979)
George I. Mavrodes (1926–2019)
Rollo May (1909–1994)
Todd May (born 1955)
John Maynard Smith (1920–2004)
Ernst Mayr (1904–2005)
Wolfe Mays (1912–2005)
Noëlle McAfee
Linda López McAlister (1939–2021)
Herbert McCabe (1926–2001)
M. M. McCabe (born 1948)
John McCarthy (1927–2011)
Thomas A. McCarthy (born 1940)
Ron McClamrock
Rachel McCleary
James William McClendon Jr. (1924–2000)
John H. McClendon
Deirdre McCloskey (born 1942)
Sally McConnell-Ginet (born 1938)
John J. McDermott (1932–2018)
John McDowell (born 1942)
Colin McGinn (born 1950)
Marie McGinn
Mary Kate McGowan
Brian McGuinness (1927–2019)
Leemon McHenry
Ralph McInerny (1929–2010)
Alison McIntyre
Terence McKenna (1946–2000)
Robert McKim (born 1952)
Colin McLarty
Marshall McLuhan (1911–1980)
Jeff McMahan (born 1954)
Ernan McMullin (1924–2011)
Sterling M. McMurrin (1914–1996)
John McMurtry
Margaret Mead (1901–1978)
José Medina
Brian Herbert Medlin (1927–2004)
Paul E. Meehl (1920–2003)
Esther Meek
Quentin Meillassoux (born 1967)
Alfred Mele
David Hugh Mellor (1938–2020)
Eduardo Mendieta (born 1963)
Susan Mendus
Christia Mercer
Adèle Mercier (born 1958)
Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908–1961)
Trenton Merricks
Thomas Merton (1915–1968)
Thomas Metzinger (born 1958)
Frank Meyer (1909–1972)
Leonard B. Meyer (1918–2007)
Diana Tietjens Meyers
Vincent Miceli (1915–1991)
Alex Michalos (born 1935)
Geoffrey Midgley (1921–1997)
Mary Midgley (1919–2018)
Stanley Milgram (1933–1984)
Alan Millar (born 1947)
David W. Miller (born 1942)
Fred Miller
George Armitage Miller (1920–2012)
Izchak Miller (1935–1994)
Perry Miller (1905–1963)
Elijah Millgram (born 1958)
Peter Millican (born 1958)
Ruth Millikan (born 1933)
Charles Wade Mills (1951–2021)
Charles Wright Mills (1916–1962)
Roberta Millstein
Jean-Claude Milner (born 1941)
Marvin Minsky (1927–2016)
Cheryl Misak
Christine Mitchell (born 1951)
Sandra Mitchell (born 1951)
Shaj Mohan
Jitendra Nath Mohanty (born 1928)
Annemarie Mol (born 1958)
George Molnar (1934–1999)
Ann M. Mongoven
Ray Monk (born 1957)
Richard Montague (1930–1971)
Alan Montefiore (born 1926)
Ernest Addison Moody (1903–1975)
Michele Moody-Adams
James H. Moor
A. W. Moore (born 1956)
Charles A. Moore (1901–1967)
Michael S. Moore
Dermot Moran
Richard Moran
Julius Moravcsik (1931–2009)
Max More (born 1964)
J. P. Moreland (born 1948)
Sidney Morgenbesser (1921–2004)
Marie-Eve Morin
Charles W. Morris (1901–1979)
Christopher W. Morris (born 1949)
Errol Morris (born 1948)
Herbert Morris (born 1928)
Margaret Morrison (1954–2021)
Adam Morton (1945–2020)
Timothy Morton (born 1968)
Paul Moser (born 1957)
Bob Moses (1935–2021)
Jesús Mosterín (1941–2017)
Mary Mothersill (1923–2008)
Mou Zongsan (1909–1995)
Chantal Mouffe (born 1943)
Richard Mouw (born 1940)
V. Y. Mudimbe (born 1941)
Walter George Muelder (1907–2004)
Stephen Mulhall (born 1962)
Vincent C. Müller
Kevin Mulligan (born 1951)
Stephen Mumford (born 1965)
Véronique Munoz-Dardé
Sachiko Murata (born 1943)
Iris Murdoch (1919–1999)
John E. Murdoch (1927–2010)
Murray Murphey (1928–2018)
Arthur Edward Murphy (1901–1962)
Nancey Murphy (born 1951)
John Courtney Murray (1904–1967)
Pauli Murray (1910–1985)
Alan Musgrave (born 1940)
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Arne Næss (1912–2009)
Yujin Nagasawa (born 1975)
Ernest Nagel (1901–1985)
Jennifer Nagel
Thomas Nagel (born 1937)
Debra Nails (born 1950)
Jean-Luc Nancy (1940–2021)
Meera Nanda (born 1954)
Uma Narayan (born 1958)
Jan Narveson (born 1936)
John Forbes Nash Jr. (1928–2015)
Hossein Nasr (born 1933)
Maurice Natanson (1924–1996)
Anthony Sean Neal
Stephen Neale(born 1958)
Karen Neander (1954–2020)
Antonio Negri (born 1933)
Oskar Negt (born 1934)
Alexander Nehamas (born 1946)
Susan Neiman (born 1955)
Paul Nelson (born 1958)
Nancy J. Nersessian
John von Neumann (1903–1957)
Robert Cummings Neville (born 1939)
Allen Newell (1927–1992)
Glen Newey (1961–2017)
Jay Newman (1948–2007)
William R. Newman (born 1955)
Huey P. Newton (1942–1989)
William Newton-Smith (born 1943)
Shaun Nichols (born 1964)
Eduardo Nicol (1907–1990)
Julian Nida-Rümelin (born 1954)
Martine Nida-Rümelin (born 1957)
Cynthia Nielsen
Kai Nielsen (1926–2021)
Nishitani Keiji (1900–1990)
David Shepherd Nivison (1923–2014)
Paul Nizan (1905–1940)
Kwame Nkrumah (1909–1972)
Linda Nochlin (1931–2017)
Nel Noddings (1929–2022)
Alva Noë (born 1964)
Constantin Noica (1909–1987)
Ernst Nolte (1923–2016)
John T. Noonan Jr. (1926–2017)
Tore Nordenstam (born 1934)
Kathryn Norlock (born 1969)
Calvin Normore (born 1948)
Christopher Norris (born 1947)
David L. Norton (1930–1995)
John D. Norton (born 1953)
Kathleen Nott (1905–1999)
Robert Nozick (1938–2001)
Martha Nussbaum (born 1947)
Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere (1922–1999)
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Lucy O'Brien (born 1964)
Mary O'Brien (1926–1998)
Peg O'Connor
Anthony O'Hear (born 1942)
Brian E. O'Neil (1921–1985)
Onora O'Neill (born 1941)
Michael Oakeshott (1901–1990)
Graham Oddie
David S. Oderberg
Jaishree Odin
Charles Kay Ogden
Ruwen Ogien
Samir Okasha
Susan Moller Okin (1946–2004)
Kelly Oliver (born 1958)
Revilo P. Oliver (1908–1994)
Alan M. Olson (born 1939)
Michel Onfray (born 1959)
Walter Jackson Ong (1912–2003)
Graham Oppy (born 1960)
Toby Ord (born 1979)
Gloria Origgi (born 1967)
Rocío Orsi (1976–2014)
Charles E. Osgood (1916–1991)
Blake Ostler (born 1957)
Konrad Ott (born 1959)
James Otteson (born 1968)
Albert Outler (1908–1989)
Gwilyn Ellis Lane Owen (1922–1982)
Joseph Owens (1908–2005)
Susan Oyama (born 1943)
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Jesús Padilla Gálvez (born 1959)
Peter Pagin (born 1953)
Clare Palmer (born 1967)
Arthur Pap (1921–1959)
David Papineau (born 1947)
George Pappas (born 1942)
Derek Parfit (1942–2017)
Rohit Jivanlal Parikh (born 1936)
Adrian Parr (born 1967)
Charles Parsons (born 1933)
Terence Parsons (born 1939)
Barbara Partee (born 1940)
John Passmore (1914–2004)
Jan Patočka (1907–1977)
Paul R. Patton (born 1950)
L. A. Paul
David L. Paulsen (1936–2020)
Christopher Peacocke (born 1950)
David Pearce
David Pears (1921–2009)
Leonard Peikoff (born 1933)
Jean-Jacques Pelletier (born 1947)
Zbigniew Pełczyński (1925–2021)
Lorenzo Peña (born 1944)
Carlo Penco (born 1948)
Terence Penelhum (1929–2020)
Roger Penrose (born 1931)
Walker Percy (1916–1990)
Derk Pereboom (born 1957)
Carlos Pereda
Chaïm Perelman (1912–1984)
John Perry (born 1943)
Richard Stanley Peters (1919–2011)
Anna L. Peterson (born 1963)
Philip Pettit (born 1945)
Herman Philipse (born 1951)
D. Z. Phillips (1934–2006)
James Andrew Phillips
Giovanni Piana (1940–2019)
Alexander Piatigorsky (1929–2009)
Eva Picardi (1948–2017)
Gualtiero Piccinini (born 1970)
Hanna Pickard (born 1972)
Catherine Pickstock (born 1970)
Josef Pieper (1904–1997)
Jessica Pierce (born 1965)
Massimo Pigliucci (born 1964)
Adrian Piper (born 1948)
Robert B. Pippin (born 1948)
Madsen Pirie (born 1940)
Robert M. Pirsig (1928–2017)
George Pitcher (1925–2018)
Ullin Place (1924–2000)
John Plamenatz (1912–1975)
Alvin Plantinga (born 1932)
Mark de Bretton Platts (born 1947)
Evelyn Pluhar
Val Plumwood (1939–2008)
Deborah C. Poff
Thomas Pogge (born 1953)
Louis P. Pojman (1935–2005)
John L. Pollock (1940–2009)
Leonardo Polo (1926–2013)
Edward Pols (1919–2005)
Richard Polt
Richard Popkin (1923–2005)
K. J. Popma (1903–1986)
Karl Popper (1902–1994)
Richard Posner (born 1939)
Mark Poster (1941–2012)
Carl Posy
Van Rensselaer Potter (1911–2001)
John Poulakos (born 1948)
Vaughan Pratt (born 1944)
Dag Prawitz (born 1936)
Huw Price (born 1953)
Graham Priest (born 1948)
Jesse Prinz
Arthur Prior (1914–1969)
Duncan Pritchard
James Pryor (born 1968)
Harry Prosch (1917–2005)
Alexander Pruss (born 1973)
James Pryor (born 1968)
Stathis Psillos (born 1965)
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Damon Young (born 1975)
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Julian Young (born 1943)
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Jiyuan Yu (1964–2016)
Z
Santiago Zabala (born 1975)
Richard Zach
Naomi Zack
Linda Trinkaus Zagzebski (born 1946)
Dan Zahavi (born 1967)
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María Zambrano (1904–1991)
Marlène Zarader (born 1949)
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Eddy Zemach
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Zhou Guoping (born 1945)
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Dean Zimmerman
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Alexander Zinoviev (1922–2006)
Slavoj Žižek (born 1949)
Elémire Zolla (1926–2002)
Volker Zotz (born 1956)
François Zourabichvili (1965–2006)
Catherine Zuckert (born 1942)
Michael Zuckert (born 1942)
Rachel Zuckert (born 1969)
Estanislao Zuleta (1935–1990)
Alenka Zupančič (born 1965)
Jan Zwicky (born 1955)
See also
20th-century philosophy
List of philosophers born in the centuries BC
List of philosophers born in the 1st through 10th centuries
List of philosophers born in the 11th through 14th centuries
List of philosophers born in the 15th and 16th centuries
List of philosophers born in the 17th century
List of philosophers born in the 18th century
List of philosophers born in the 19th century
Notes
20
Lists of 20th-century people |
4289811 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20abortion | History of abortion | The practice of induced abortion—the deliberate termination of a pregnancy—has been known since ancient times. Various methods have been used to perform or attempt abortion, including the administration of abortifacient herbs, the use of sharpened implements, the application of abdominal pressure, and other techniques. The term abortion, or more precisely spontaneous abortion, is sometimes used to refer to a naturally occurring condition that ends a pregnancy, that is, to what is popularly called a miscarriage. But in what follows the term abortion will always refer to an induced abortion.
Abortion laws and their enforcement have fluctuated through various eras. In much of the Western world during the 20th century, abortion-rights movements were successful in having abortion bans repealed. While abortion remains legal in most of the West, this legality is regularly challenged by anti-abortion groups. The Soviet Union under Vladimir Lenin is recognized as the first modern country to legalize induced elective abortion care. In the twentieth century China used induced abortion as part of a "one-child policy" birth control campaign in an effort to slow population growth.
Premodern era
The Vedic and smrti laws of India reflected a concern with preserving the male seed of the three upper castes; and the religious courts imposed various penances for the woman or excommunication for a priest who provided an abortion. Part of the epic Ramayana describes abortion performed by barber surgeons. The only evidence of the death penalty being mandated for abortion in the ancient laws is found in Assyrian Law, in the Code of Assura, c. 1075 BCE; and this is imposed only on a woman who procures an abortion against her husband's wishes. The first recorded evidence of induced abortion is from the Egyptian Ebers Papyrus in 1550 BCE.
Many of the methods employed in early cultures were non-surgical. Physical activities such as strenuous labor, climbing, paddling, weightlifting, or diving were a common technique. Others included the use of irritant leaves, fasting, bloodletting, pouring hot water onto the abdomen, and lying on a heated coconut shell. In virtually all cultures, abortion techniques developed through observation, adaptation of obstetrical methods, and transculturation. Physical means of inducing abortion, including battery, exercise, and tightening the girdle were still often used as late as the Early Modern Period among English women.
Archaeological discoveries indicate early surgical attempts at the extraction of a fetus; however, such methods are not believed to have been common, given the infrequency with which they are mentioned in ancient medical texts.
An 8th-century Sanskrit text instructs women wishing to induce an abortion to sit over a pot of steam or stewed onions. The technique of massage abortion, involving the application of pressure to the pregnant abdomen, has been practiced in Southeast Asia for centuries. One of the bas reliefs decorating the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia, dated , depicts a demon performing such an abortion upon a woman who has been sent to the underworld.
Japanese documents show records of induced abortion from as early as the 12th century. It became much more prevalent during the Edo period, especially among the peasant class, who were hit hardest by the recurrent famines and high taxation of the age. Statues of the Boddhisattva Jizo, erected in memory of an abortion, miscarriage, stillbirth, or young childhood death, began appearing at least as early as 1710 at a temple in Yokohama (see religion and abortion).
The native Māori people of New Zealand colonisation terminated pregnancies via miscarriage-inducing drugs, ceremonial methods, and girding of the abdomen with a restrictive belt. Another source claims that the Māori people did not practice abortion, for fear of Makutu, but did attempt abortion through the artificial induction of premature labor.
Greco-Roman world
Much of what is known about the methods and practice of abortion in Greek and Roman history comes from early classical texts. Abortion, as a gynecological procedure, was primarily the province of women who were either midwives or well-informed laypeople. In his Theaetetus, Plato mentions a midwife's ability to induce abortion in the early stages of pregnancy. It is thought unlikely that abortion was punished in Ancient Greece. A fragment attributed to the poet Lysias "suggests that abortion was a crime in Athens against the husband, if his wife was pregnant when he died, since his unborn child could have claimed the estate."
The ancient Greeks relied upon the herb silphium as an abortifacient and contraceptive. The plant, as the chief export of Cyrene, was driven to extinction; it is suggested that it might have possessed the same abortive properties, as some of its closest extant relatives in the family Apiaceae. Silphium was so central to the Cyrenian economy that most of its coins were embossed with an image of the plant.
Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) cited the refined oil of common rue as a potent abortifacient. Serenus Sammonicus wrote of a concoction which consisted of rue, egg, and dill. Soranus, Dioscorides, Oribasius also detailed this application of the plant. Modern scientific studies have confirmed that rue indeed contains three abortive compounds.
Birthwort, a herb used to ease childbirth, was also used to induce abortion. Galen included it in a potion formula in de Antidotis, while Dioscorides said it could be administered by mouth, or in the form of a vaginal pessary also containing pepper and myrrh.
The Greek playwright Aristophanes noted the abortifacient property of pennyroyal in 421 BCE, through a humorous reference in his comedy, Peace. Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 370 BCE), the Greek physician, would advise a prostitute who became pregnant to jump up and down, touching her buttocks with her heels at each leap, so as to induce miscarriage. Other writings attributed to him describe instruments fashioned to dilate the cervix and curette inside of the uterus.
Soranus, a 2nd-century Greek physician, prescribed diuretics, emmenagogues, enemas, fasting, and bloodletting as safe abortion methods, although he advised against the use of sharp instruments to induce miscarriage, due to the risk of organ perforation. He also advised women wishing to abort their pregnancies to engage in energetic walking, carrying heavy objects, riding animals, and jumping so that the woman's heels were to touch her buttocks with each jump, which he described as the "Lacedaemonian Leap". He also offered a number of recipes for herbal baths, rubs, and pessaries. In De Materia Medica Libri Quinque, the Greek pharmacologist Dioscorides listed the ingredients of a draught called "abortion wine"– hellebore, squirting cucumber, and scammony– but failed to provide the precise manner in which it was to be prepared. Hellebore, in particular, is known to be abortifacient.
Tertullian, a 2nd- and 3rd-century Christian theologian, described surgical implements which were used in a procedure similar to the modern dilation and evacuation. One tool had a "nicely adjusted flexible frame" used for dilation, an "annular blade" used to curette, and a "blunted or covered hook" used for extraction. The other was a "copper needle or spike". He attributed ownership of such items to Hippocrates, Asclepiades, Erasistratus, Herophilus, and Soranus.
Aulus Cornelius Celsus, a 1st-century Roman encyclopedist, offered an extremely detailed account of a procedure to extract an already-dead fetus in his only surviving work, De Medicina. In Book 9 of Refutation of all Heresies, Hippolytus of Rome, another Christian theologian of the 3rd century, wrote of women tightly binding themselves around the middle so as to "expel what was being conceived".
Natural abortifacients
Botanical preparations reputed to be abortifacient were common in classical literature and folk medicine. Such folk remedies, however, varied in effectiveness and were not without the risk of adverse effects. Some of the herbs used at times to terminate pregnancy are poisonous.
A list of plants which cause abortion was provided in De viribus herbarum, an 11th-century herbal written in the form of a poem, the authorship of which is incorrectly attributed to Aemilius Macer. Among them were rue, Italian catnip, savory, sage, soapwort, cyperus, white and black hellebore, and pennyroyal. Physicians in the Islamic world during the medieval period documented the use of abortifacients, commenting on their effectiveness and prevalence.
Colonial Americans were advised to use careful measurements in a recipe by Benjamin Franklin for an abortifacient. He used the recipe as an example in a book he published to teach mathematics and many useful skills, and calls the recipe a solution to "the misfortune" of an unwanted pregnancy for "unmarry'd women". Franklin was following a tradition that had existed in England and Europe.
King's American Dispensatory of 1898 recommended a mixture of brewer's yeast and pennyroyal tea as "a safe and certain abortive". Pennyroyal has been known to cause complications when used as an abortifacient. In 1978 a pregnant woman from Colorado died after consuming 2 tablespoonfuls of pennyroyal essential oil which is known to be toxic. In 1994 a pregnant woman, unaware of an ectopic pregnancy that needed immediate medical care, drank a tea containing pennyroyal extract to induce abortion without medical help. She later died as a result of the untreated ectopic pregnancy, mistaking the symptoms for the abortifacient working.
For thousands of years, tansy has been taken in early pregnancy to restore menstruation. It was first documented as an emmenagogue in St. Hildegard of Bingen's De simplicis medicinae.
A variety of juniper, known as savin, was mentioned frequently in European writings. In one case in England, a rector from Essex was said to have procured it for a woman he had impregnated in 1574; in another, a man advised his pregnant girlfriend to use black hellebore and savin be boiled together and drunk in milk, or else chopped madder boiled in beer. Other substances reputed to have been used by the English include Spanish fly, opium, watercress seed, iron sulphate, and iron chloride. Another mixture, not abortifacient, but rather intended to relieve missed abortion, contained dittany, hyssop, and hot water.
The root of worm fern, called "prostitute root" in French, was used in France and Germany; it was also recommended by a Greek physician in the 1st century. In German folk medicine, there was also an abortifacient tea, which included marjoram, thyme, parsley, and lavender. Other preparations of unspecified origin included crushed ants, the saliva of camels, and the tail hairs of black-tailed deer dissolved in the fat of bears.
Attitudes towards abortion
The Stoics believed the fetus to be plantlike in nature, and not an animal until the moment of birth, when it finally breathed air. They therefore found abortion morally acceptable.
Aristotle wrote that, "[T]he line between lawful and unlawful abortion will be marked by the fact of having sensation and being alive." Before that point was reached, Aristotle did not regard abortion as the killing of something human. Aristotle considered the embryo to gain a human soul at 40 days if male and 90 days if female; before that, it had vegetable and animal souls.
The Oath, ascribed to Hippocrates, forbade the use of pessaries to induce abortion. Modern scholarship suggests that pessaries were banned because they were reported to cause vaginal ulcers. This specific prohibition has been interpreted by some medical scholars as prohibiting abortion in a broader sense than by pessary.
One such interpretation was by Scribonius Largus, a Roman medical writer: "Hippocrates, who founded our profession, laid the foundation for our discipline by an oath in which it was proscribed not to give a pregnant woman a kind of medicine that expels the embryo or fetus." Other medical scholars disagree, believing that Hippocrates sought to discourage physicians from trying dangerous methods to abort a fetus. This may be born out by the fact that the oath originally also prohibited surgery (at the time, it was far more dangerous, and surgeons were a separate profession from physicians).
Soranus acknowledges two parties among physicians: those who would not perform abortions, citing the Hippocratic Oath, and the other party, his own. Soranus recommended abortion in cases involving health complications as well as emotional immaturity, and provided detailed suggestions in his work Gynecology.
Punishment for abortion in the Roman Republic was generally inflicted as a violation of the father's right to dispose of his offspring. Because of the influence of Stoicism, which did not view the fetus as a person, the Romans did not punish abortion as homicide. Although abortion was commonly accepted in Rome, around 211 AD emperors Septimius Severus and Caracalla banned abortion as infringing on parental rights; temporary exile was the punishment.
The 3rd-century legal compilation Pauli sententiae (attributed to Julius Paulus Prudentissimus) wrote: "Those who give an abortifacient or a love potion, and do not do this deceitfully, nevertheless, [because] this sets a bad example, the humiliores [those of a lower status, e.g., freed slaves] will be banned to a mine, and the honestiores [those of higher status, e.g., patricians] will be banned to an island after having forfeited (part of) their property, and if on account of that a woman or man perishes, then they [Pharr: the giver] will receive the death penalty." This seems to refer more to the killing of the woman who takes the abortifacient rather than to the killing of the fetus itself.
The Roman jurist Ulpian wrote in the Digest: "An unborn child is considered being born, as far as it concerns his profits." Despite this, abortion continued to be practiced "with little or no sense of shame".
Christianity
Exodus 21:22 describes a situation in which two men fight and injure a pregnant woman, causing her unborn child to leave her womb. The Masoretic text uses the Hebrew term "veyats'u yeladeha" (וְיָצְאוּ יְלָדֶיהָ) to refer to the child coming out; different English versions translate this term either as a "premature birth" or as a "miscarriage". The Spanish translation published by the Sociedad Biblica Catolica Internacional (SOBICAIN) uses the term "aborto", clearly indicating the demise of the fetus. If no additional harm follows, then the perpetrator must pay a fine. Only if there is additional harm must the perpetrator be punished with equal harm (i.e. eye for an eye). Commentators such as Bruce Waltke have presented this verse as evidence that God does not value a fetus as a human being, and/or evidence that a fetus has no soul. C. Everett Koop disagreed with this interpretation.
Another Old Testament passage that has been used to argue for divine approval of abortion is Numbers 5:11-31, which describes the test of an unfaithful wife. If a man is suspicious of his wife's fidelity, he would take her to the high priest. The priest would make a substance for the woman to drink made from water and "dust from the tabernacle floor". If she had been unfaithful "her abdomen will swell and her womb will miscarry, and she will become a curse." If she was innocent the drink had no effect.
The early Christian work called the Didache (before 100 AD) says: "do not murder a child by abortion or kill a new-born infant." Tertullian, a 2nd- and 3rd-century Christian theologian argued that abortion should be performed only in cases in which abnormal positioning of the fetus in the womb would endanger the life of the pregnant woman. Saint Augustine, in Enchiridion, makes passing mention of surgical procedures being performed to remove fetuses which have died in utero.
Saint Augustine believed that abortion of a fetus animatus, a fetus with human limbs and shape, was murder. However, his beliefs on earlier-stage abortion were similar to Aristotle's, though he could neither deny nor affirm whether such partially formed fetuses would be resurrected as full people at the time of the Second Coming.
"Now who is there that is not rather disposed to think that unformed abortions perish, like seeds that have never fructified?"
"And therefore the following question may be very carefully inquired into and discussed by learned men, though I do not know whether it is in man's power to resolve it: At what time the infant begins to live in the womb: whether life exists in a latent form before it manifests itself in the motions of the living being. To deny that the young who are cut out limb by limb from the womb, lest if they were left there dead the mother should die too, have never been alive, seems too audacious."
The Leges Henrici Primi, written c. 1115, prescribes compensation for a woman or her relatives if another person causes her to miscarry, and prescribes penance (3 years if the abortion occurs before quickening, 7 years after quickening) if the pregnant woman aborts her pregnancy; the latter punishment applied only to women whose abortion resulted from a desire to conceal illicit sex. "Quickening", a term often used interchangeably with "ensoulment" or "animation", was associated with the first movement of the fetus in utero. This movement is generally felt by women sometime in the third to fifth month of pregnancy. Midwives who performed abortions were accused of committing witchcraft in Malleus Maleficarum (The Hammer of Witches), published in 1487 as a witch-hunting manual in Germany.
Currently, the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches oppose abortion from conception.
Evangelical Protestant and some mainline Protestant churches oppose abortion in varying degrees, while other mainline Protestant churches favoralso in varying degreespermitting the practice.
In Judaism
From a Jewish perspective from biblical times, abortion is considered from a social perspective more than from a theological perspective. The mother's life is considered as a priority.
Modern era
Criminalization
19th-century medicine saw tremendous advances in the fields of surgery, anaesthesia, and sanitation. Social attitudes towards abortion shifted in the context of a backlash against the women's rights movement. Abortion had previously been widely practiced and legal under common law in early pregnancy (until quickening), and it was not until the 19th century that the English-speaking world passed laws against abortion at all stages of pregnancy.
There were a number of factors that contributed to this shift in opinion about abortion in the early 19th century. In the United States, where physicians were the leading advocates of abortion criminalization laws, some of them argued that advances in medical knowledge showed that quickening was neither more nor less crucial in the process of gestation than any other step, and thus if one opposes abortion after quickening, one should oppose it before quickening as well.
Practical reasons also influenced the medical field to impose anti-abortion laws. For one, abortion providers tended to be untrained and not members of medical societies. In an age where the leading doctors in the nation were attempting to standardize the medical profession, these "irregulars" were considered a nuisance to public health. The "irregulars" were also disliked by the more formalized medical profession because they were competition, and often cheap competition. Though the physicians' campaign against abortion began in the early 1800s, little change was made in the United States until after the Civil War.
The English law on abortion was first codified in legislation under sections 1 and 2 of Malicious Shooting or Stabbing Act 1803. The Bill was proposed by the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, Edward Law, 1st Baron Ellenborough to clarify the law relating to abortion and was the first law to explicitly outlaw it. The Act provided that it was an offence for any person to perform or cause an abortion. The punishment for performing or attempting to perform a post quickening abortion was the death penalty (section 1) and otherwise was transportation for fourteen years (section 2). In the 19th-century United States, there was little regulation of abortion, in the tradition of English common law, pre quickening abortions were considered at most a misdemeanor. These cases proved difficult to prosecute as the testimony of the mother was usually the only means to determine when quickening had occurred.
The law was amended in 1828 and 1837 – the latter removed the distinction between women who were quick with child (late pregnancy) and those who were not. It also eliminated the death penalty as a possible punishment. The latter half of the 19th century saw abortion become increasingly punished. One writer justified this by claiming that the number of abortions among married women had increased markedly since 1840. The Offences against the Person Act 1861 created a new preparatory offence of procuring poison or instruments with intent to procure abortion. During the 1860s however abortion services were available in New York, New Orleans, Cincinnati, Louisville, Cleveland, Chicago and Indianapolis; with estimates of one abortion for every 4 live births.
Anti-abortion statutes began to appear in the United States from the 1820s. A Connecticut law in 1821 targeted apothecaries who sold poisons to women for purposes of abortion, and New York made post-quickening abortions a felony and pre-quickening abortions a misdemeanor in 1829. Criminalization accelerated from the late 1860s, through the efforts of concerned legislators, doctors, and the American Medical Association. In 1873, the Comstock Law prohibited any methods of production or publication of information pertaining to the procurement of abortion, the prevention of conception, and the prevention of venereal disease, even to students of medicine. By 1909, the penalty for violating these laws became a $5000 fine and up to five years imprisonment. By 1910, nearly every state had anti-abortion laws; these were unevenly enforced at best.
In contrast, in France social perceptions of abortion started to change. In the first half of the 19th century, abortion was viewed as the last resort for pregnant but unwed women. As writers began to write about abortion in terms of family planning for married women, the practice of abortion was reconceptualized as a logical solution to unwanted pregnancies resulting from ineffectual contraceptives. The formulation of abortion as a form of family planning for married women was made "thinkable" because both medical and non-medical practitioners agreed on the relative safety of the procedure.
19th and 20th century abortion methods
In New York, surgical abortion in 1800s carried a death rate of 30% regardless of hospital setting, and the American Medical Association launched an anti-abortion campaign that resulted in abortion becoming the exclusive domain of doctors. A paper published in 1870 on the abortion services to be found in Syracuse, New York, concluded that the method most often practiced there during this time was to flush inside of the uterus with injected water. The article's author, Ely Van de Warkle, claimed this procedure was affordable even to a maid, as a man in town offered it for $10 on an installment plan. Other prices which 19th-century abortion providers are reported to have charged were much more steep. In Britain, it could cost from 10 to 50 guineas, or 5% of the yearly income of a lower middle class household.
From 1870 there was a steady decline in fertility in England, linked by some commentators not to a rise in the use of artificial contraception but to more traditional methods such as withdrawal and abstinence. This was linked to changes in the perception of the relative costs of childrearing. Of course, women did find themselves with unwanted pregnancies. Abortifacients were discreetly advertised and there was a considerable body of folklore about methods of inducing miscarriages. Amongst working-class women violent purgatives were popular, pennyroyal, aloes and turpentine were all used. Other methods to induce miscarriage were very hot baths and gin, extreme exertion, a controlled fall down a flight of stairs, or veterinary medicines. So-called 'backstreet' abortionists were fairly common, although their bloody efforts could be fatal. Estimates of the number of illegal abortions performed in England varied widely: by one estimate, 100,000 women made efforts to procure a miscarriage in 1914, usually by drugs.
A rash of unexplained miscarriages in Sheffield, England were attributed to lead poisoning caused by the metal pipes which fed the city's water supply. Soon, women began using diachylon, a substance with a high concentration of lead, as an abortifacient. In 1898, a woman confessed to having used diachylon to induce a miscarriage. The use of diachylon became prevalent in the English Midlands up until World War I. Criminal investigation of an abortionist in Calgary, Alberta in 1894 revealed through chemical analysis that the concoction he had supplied to a man seeking an abortifacient contained Spanish fly.
Dr. Evelyn Fisher wrote of how women living in a mining town in Wales during the 1920s used candles intended for Roman Catholic ceremonies to dilate the cervix in an effort to self-induce abortion. Similarly, the use of candles and other objects, such as glass rods, penholders, curling irons, spoons, sticks, knives, and catheters was reported during the 19th century in the United States. Women of Jewish descent in Lower East Side, Manhattan are said to have carried the ancient Indian practice of sitting over a pot of steam into the early 20th century. Some commentators maintained that abortion remained a dangerous procedure into the early 20th century, more dangerous than childbirth until about 1930. But others have said that in the 19th century early abortions under the hygienic conditions in which midwives usually worked were relatively safe.
In addition, some authors have written that, despite improved medical procedures, the period from the 1930s until legalization also saw more zealous enforcement of anti-abortion laws, and concomitantly an increasing control of abortion providers by organized crime.
Advertising for abortifacients and abortion services
Despite bans enacted on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, access to abortion continued, as the disguised advertisement of abortion services, abortion-inducing devices, and abortifacient medicines in the Victorian era would seem to suggest. Apparent print ads of this nature were found in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada. A British Medical Journal writer who replied to newspaper ads peddling relief to women who were "temporarily indisposed" in 1868 found that over half of them were in fact promoting abortion.
A few examples of surreptitiously marketed abortifacients include "Farrer's Catholic Pills", "Hardy's Woman's Friend", "Dr. Peter's French Renovating Pills", "Lydia Pinkham's Vegetable Compound", and "Madame Drunette's Lunar Pills". Patent medicines which claimed to treat "female complaints" often contained such ingredients as pennyroyal, tansy, and savin. Abortifacient products were sold under the promise of "restor[ing] female regularity" and "removing from the system every impurity". In the vernacular of such advertising, "irregularity", "obstruction", "menstrual suppression", and "delayed period" were understood to be euphemistic references to the state of pregnancy. As such, some abortifacients were marketed as menstrual regulatives.
Beecham's Pills were marketed primarily as a laxative from 1842. They were invented by Thomas Beecham from St Helens, Lancashire, England. The pills were a combination of aloe, ginger, and soap, with some other more minor ingredients. The popularity of the pills produced a wide range of testimonials that were used in advertising. The poet William Topaz McGonagall wrote a poem advertising the pills, giving his recommendation in verse. Beecham's expenditure on advertising went from £22,000 to £95,000 in the 1880s. An 1897 advertisement in the Christian Herald edition for Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee said: "Worth a guinea a box. Beecham's Pills for all bilious and nervous disorders such as Sick Headache, Constipation, Weak Stomach, Impaired Digestion, Disordered Liver and Female Ailments. The sale is now 6 million boxes per annum." The text was printed alongside a picture of a young woman at a beach and was captioned "What are the wild waves saying? Try Beecham's Pills."
"Old Dr. Gordon's Pearls of Health", produced by a drug company in Montreal, "cure[d] all suppressions and irregularities" if "used monthly". However, a few ads explicitly warned against the use of their product by women who were expecting, or listed miscarriage as its inevitable side effect. The copy for "Dr. Peter's French Renovating Pills" advised, "... pregnant females should not use them, as they invariably produce a miscarriage ...", and both "Dr. Monroe's French Periodical Pills" and "Dr. Melveau's Portuguese Female Pills" were "sure to produce a miscarriage". F.E. Karn, a man from Toronto, in 1901 cautioned women who thought themselves pregnant not to use the pills he advertised as "Friar's French Female Regulator" because they would "speedily restore menstrual secretions." Historian Ann Hibner Koblitz comments that "Nineteenth-century customers would have understood this 'warning' exactly as the sellers intended: as an advertisement for an abortifacient preparation."
In the mid 1930s abortifacients drugs were marketed in the United States to women by various companies under various names such as Molex Pills and Cote Pills. Since birth control devices and abortifacients were illegal to market and sell at the time, they were offered to women who were "delayed". The recommended dosage constituted seven grains of ergotin a day. These pills generally contained ingredients such as ergotin, aloes, Black Hellebore. The efficacy and safety of these pills are unknown. In 1940 the FTC deemed them unsafe and ineffective and demanded that these companies cease and desist selling these products.
A well-known example of a Victorian-era abortionist was Madame Restell, or Ann Lohman, who over a forty-year period illicitly provided both surgical abortion and abortifacient pills in the northern United States. She began her business in New York during the 1830s, and, by the 1840s, had expanded to include franchises in Boston and Philadelphia. It is estimated that by 1870 her annual expenditure on advertising alone was $60,000. Because of her reputation, Restellism became a synonym for abortion.
One ad for Restell's medical services, printed in the New York Sun, promised that she could offer the "strictest confidence on complaints incidental to the female frame" and that her "experience and knowledge in the treatment of cases of female irregularity, [was] such as to require but a few days to effect a perfect cure". Another, addressed to married women, asked the question, "Is it desirable, then, for parents to increase their families, regardless of consequences to themselves, or the well-being of their offspring, when a simple, easy, healthy, and certain remedy is within our control?" Advertisements for the "Female Monthly Regulating Pills" she also sold vowed to resolve "all cases of suppression, irregularity, or stoppage of the menses, however obdurate". Madame Restell was an object of criticism in both the respectable and penny presses. She was first arrested in 1841, but, it was her final arrest by Anthony Comstock which led to her suicide on the day of her trial April 1, 1878.
Such advertising aroused criticisms of quackery and immorality. The safety of many nostrums was suspect and the efficacy of others non-existent. Horace Greeley, in a New York Herald editorial written in 1871, denounced abortion and its promotion as the "infamous and unfortunately common crime– so common that it affords a lucrative support to a regular guild of professional murderers, so safe that its perpetrators advertise their calling in the newspapers". Although the paper in which Greeley wrote accepted such advertisements, others, such as the New York Tribune, refused to print them. Elizabeth Blackwell, the first woman to obtain a Doctor of Medicine in the United States, also lamented how such ads led to the contemporary synonymity of "female physician" with "abortionist".
Turning point in abortion legislation
Abortifacient advertising was highly effective in the United States, though apparently less so across the Atlantic. Contemporary estimates of mid-19th century abortion rates in the United States suggest between 20% and 25% of all pregnancies in the United States during that era ended in abortion. This era also saw a marked shift in those who were obtaining abortions. Before the start of the 19th century, most abortions were sought by unmarried women who had become pregnant out of wedlock. But, out of 54 abortion cases published in American medical journals between 1839 and 1880, over half were sought by married women, and of the married women well over 60 percent already had at least one child. In the post-Civil War era, much of the blame was placed on the burgeoning women's rights movement.
Many feminists of the era were opposed to abortion.<ref name="Schiff">Schiff, Stacy. "Desperately Seeking Susan". October 13, 2006 The New York Times'.' Retrieved February 5, 2009.</ref> In The Revolution, operated by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, an anonymous contributor signing "A" wrote in 1869 about the subject, arguing that instead of merely attempting to pass a law against abortion, the root cause must also be addressed. Simply passing an anti-abortion law would, the writer stated, "be only mowing off the top of the noxious weed, while the root remains. [...] No matter what the motive, love of ease, or a desire to save from suffering the unborn innocent, the woman is awfully guilty who commits the deed. It will burden her conscience in life, it will burden her soul in death; But oh! thrice guilty is he who drove her to the desperation which impelled her to the crime."Federer, William. American Minute, page 81 (Amerisearch 2003). To many feminists of this era, abortion was regarded as an undesirable necessity forced upon women by thoughtless men. Even the "free love" wing of the feminist movement refused to advocate abortion and treated the practice as an example of the hideous extremes to which modern marriage was driving women. Marital rape and the seduction of unmarried women were societal ills which feminists believed caused the need to abort, as men did not respect women's right to abstinence.
Socialist feminists tended to be more sympathetic to the need for abortion options for the poor, and indeed socialist feminist doctors, such as Marie Equi, Madeleine Pelletier, and William J. Robinson, themselves performed low-cost or free abortions for poor women.
Abortion law reform campaign
The movement to liberalize abortion laws emerged in the 1920s and '30s as part of rising feminist activism that had already resulted in victories in the area of birth control. Campaigners including Marie Stopes in England and Margaret Sanger in the US had succeeded in bringing the issue into the open, and birth control clinics were established which offered family planning advice and contraceptive methods to women in need.
In 1929, the Infant Life Preservation Act was passed in Britain, which amended the law (Offences against the Person Act 1861) so that an abortion carried out in good faith, for the sole purpose of preserving the life of the mother, would not be an offence.
Stella Browne was a leading birth control campaigner, who increasingly began to venture into the more contentious issue of abortion in the 1930s. Browne's beliefs were heavily influenced by the work of Havelock Ellis, Edward Carpenter and other sexologists. She came to strongly believe that working women should have the choice to become pregnant and to terminate their pregnancy while they worked in the horrible circumstances surrounding a pregnant woman who was still required to do hard labour during her pregnancy. In this case she argued that doctors should give free information about birth control to women who wanted to know about it. This would give women agency over their own circumstances and allow them to decide whether they wanted to be mothers or not.
In the late 1920s Browne began a speaking tour around England, providing information about her beliefs on the need for accessibility of information about birth control for women, women's health problems, problems related to puberty and sex education and high maternal morbidity rates among other topics. These talks urged women to take matters of their sexuality and their health into their own hands. She became increasingly interested in her view of the woman's right to terminate their pregnancies, and in 1929 she brought forward her lecture "The Right to Abortion" in front of the World Sexual Reform Congress in London. In 1931 Browne began to develop her argument for women's right to decide to have an abortion. She again began touring, giving lectures on abortion and the negative consequences that followed if women were unable to terminate pregnancies of their own choosing such as: suicide, injury, permanent invalidism, madness and blood-poisoning.
Another prominent feminist to influence abortion law was Emily Stowe. In the 19th century she was one of the first doctors to be tried for attempting an abortion procedure in Canada.
Other prominent feminists, including Frida Laski, Dora Russell, Joan Malleson and Janet Chance began to champion this cause – the cause broke dramatically into the mainstream in July 1932 when the British Medical Association council formed a committee to discuss making changes to the laws on abortion. On 17 February 1936, Janet Chance, Alice Jenkins and Joan Malleson established the Abortion Law Reform Association as the first advocacy organisation for abortion liberalization. The association promoted access to abortion in the United Kingdom and campaigned for the elimination of legal obstacles. In its first year ALRA recruited 35 members, and by 1939 had almost 400 members.
The ALRA was very active between 1936 and 1939 sending speakers around the country to talk about Labour and Equal Citizenship and attempted, though most often unsuccessfully, to have letters and articles published in newspapers. They became the most popular when a member of the ALRA's Medico-Legal Committee received the case of a fourteen-year-old girl who had been raped, and received a termination of this pregnancy from Dr. Joan Malleson, a progenitor of the ALRA. This case gained a lot of publicity. However, once the war began, the case was tucked away and the cause again lost its importance to the public.
In 1938, Joan Malleson precipitated one of the most influential cases in British abortion law when she referred a pregnant fourteen-year-old rape victim to gynaecologist Aleck Bourne. He performed an abortion, then illegal, and was put on trial on charges of procuring abortion. Bourne was eventually acquitted in Rex v Bourne as his actions were "an example of disinterested conduct in consonance with the highest traditions of the profession". This court case set a precedent that doctors could not be prosecuted for performing an abortion in cases where pregnancy would probably cause "mental and physical wreck".
Finally, the Birkett Committee, established in 1937 by the British government "to inquire into the prevalence of abortion, and the law relating thereto", recommended a change to abortion laws two years later. The intervention of World War II meant that all plans were shelved.
Another prominent figure in the reform of abortion laws was Dr. Morgentaler. Although born in Poland he made a name for himself in Canada, opening multiple illegal abortion clinics in Toronto, Ontario.
Liberalization of abortion law
Canada
Prior to 1969, abortion was considered a crime for which the maximum punishment was life imprisonment for the doctor performing the abortion and two years imprisonment for the woman receiving the abortion. Abortion remained illegal until 1988, when the Supreme Court of Canada overruled the criminal punishments for abortion. Abortion remains a hotly debated topic. As of 2008 in Canada only 1-2% of abortions were pharmaceutically induced. After much controversy, starting in 2017 abortion pills could be used legally in Canada.
Russia
The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic was the first government to legalize abortion and make it available on request, often for no cost.Alexandre Avdeev, Alain Blum, and Irina Troitskaya. "The History of Abortion Statistics in Russia and the USSR from 1900 to 1991". Population (English Edition) 7, (1995), 42. The Soviet government hoped to provide access to abortion in a safe environment performed by a trained doctor instead of babki. While this campaign was extremely effective in the urban areas (as much as 75% of abortions in Moscow were performed in hospitals by 1925), it had much less effect on rural regions where there was neither access to doctors, transportation, or both and where women relied on traditional medicine. In the countryside in particular, women continued to see babki, midwives, hairdressers, nurses, and others for the procedure after abortion was legalized in the Soviet Union.
From 1936 until 1955 the Soviet Union made abortion illegal (except for medically recommended cases) again, stemming largely from Joseph Stalin's worries about population growth. Stalin wanted to encourage population growth, as well as place a stronger emphasis on the importance of the family unit to communism.
Spain
During the Spanish Civil War, on 25 December 1936, in Catalonia, free abortion was legalized during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy with a decree signed by Josep Tarradellas, First Minister of the Government of Catalonia, and published on 9 January 1937 (Diari Oficial de la Generalitat de Catalunya, núm.9).Cataluña tuvo durante la República la ley del aborto más progresista de Europa, El País, 13/2/1983
Great Britain
In Britain, the Abortion Law Reform Association continued its campaigning after the War, and this, combined with broad social changes brought the issue of abortion back into the political arena in the 1960s. President of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists John Peel chaired the committee advising the British Government on what became the 1967 Abortion Act. On the grounds of reducing the amount of disease and death associated with illegal abortion, the Abortion Act allowed for legal abortion on a number of grounds, including to prevent grave permanent injury to the woman's physical or mental health, to avoid injury to the physical or mental health of the woman or her existing child(ren) if the pregnancy was still under 28 weeks, or if the child was likely to be severely physically or mentally handicapped. The free provision of abortions was provided through the National Health Service.
United States
In America an abortion reform movement emerged in the 1960s. In 1963, the Society for Humane Abortion was formed, providing women with information on how to obtain and perform abortions. In 1964 Gerri Santoro of Connecticut died trying to obtain an illegal abortion and her photo became the symbol of the abortion rights movement. Some women's rights activist groups developed their own skills to provide abortions to women who could not obtain them elsewhere. As an example, in Chicago, a group known as "Jane" operated a floating abortion clinic throughout much of the 1960s. Women seeking the procedure would call a designated number and be given instructions on how to find "Jane".
In the late 1960s, a number of organizations were formed to mobilize opinion both against and for the legalization of abortion. The forerunner of the NARAL Pro-Choice America was formed in 1969 to oppose restrictions on abortion and expand access to abortion. In late 1973 NARAL became the National Abortion Rights Action League. The American Medical Association, the American Bar Association, the American Academy of Pediatrics, the California Medical Association, the California Bar Association, and numerous other groups announced support behind new laws that would protect doctors from criminal prosecution if they performed abortions under rigid hospital controls. In 1967, Colorado became the first state to decriminalize a doctor performing an abortion in cases of rape, incest, or in which pregnancy would lead to permanent physical disability of the woman.
A bipartisan majority in the California legislature supported a new law introduced by Democratic state senator Anthony Beilenson, the "Therapeutic Abortion Act". Catholic clergy were strongly opposed but Catholic lay people were divided and non-Catholics strongly supported the proposal. Governor Ronald Reagan consulted with his father-in-law, a prominent surgeon who supported the law. He also consulted with James Cardinal McIntyre, the Catholic archbishop of Los Angeles. The archbishop strongly opposed any legalization of abortion and he convinced Reagan to announce he would veto the proposed law since the draft allowed abortions in the case of birth defects. The legislature dropped that provision and Reagan signed the law, which decriminalized abortions when done to protect the health of the mother.Lou Cannon, Ronald Reagan: The Presidential Portfolio: History as Told through the Collection of the Ronald Reagan Library and Museum (2001) p. 51. The expectation was that abortions would not become more numerous but would become much safer under hospital conditions. In 1968 the first full year under the new law there were 5,018 abortions in California. The numbers grew exponentially and stabilized at about 100,000 annually by the 1970s. 99.2% of California women who applied for an abortion were granted one. One out of every three pregnancies was ended by illegal abortion. The key factor was the sudden emergence of a woman's movement that introduced a very new idea—women had a basic right to control their bodies and could choose to have an abortion or not. Reagan by 1980 found his support among anti-abortion religious groups and said he was too new as governor to make a wise decision.
In 1970, Hawaii became the first state to legalize abortions on the request of the woman, and New York repealed its 1830 law and allowed abortions up to the 24th week of pregnancy. Similar laws were soon passed in Alaska and Washington. A law in Washington, D.C., which allowed abortion to protect the life or health of the woman, was challenged in the Supreme Court in 1971 in United States v. Vuitch. The court upheld the law, deeming that "health" meant "psychological and physical well-being", essentially allowing abortion in Washington, DC. By the end of 1972, 13 states had a law similar to that of Colorado, while Mississippi allowed abortion in cases of rape or incest only and Alabama and Massachusetts allowed abortions only in cases where the woman's physical health was endangered.
The landmark judicial ruling of the Supreme Court in Roe v. Wade ruled that a Texas statute forbidding abortion except when necessary to save the life of the mother was unconstitutional. The immediate result was that all state laws to the contrary were null. The Court arrived at its decision by concluding that the issue of abortion and abortion rights falls under the right to privacy. The Court held that a right to privacy existed and included the right to have an abortion. The court found that a mother had a right to abortion until viability, a point to be determined by the abortion doctor. After viability a woman can obtain an abortion for health reasons, which the Court defined broadly to include psychological well-being.
From the 1970s, and the spread of second-wave feminism, abortion and reproductive rights became unifying issues among various women's rights groups in Canada, the United States, the Netherlands, Britain, Norway, France, Germany, and Italy.
On June 24, 2022, Roe v. Wade was overturned by the Supreme Court in a 6-3 decision. The ruling was part of Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization, a decision of the Supreme Court that also overturned Planned Parenthood v. Casey, another case of the Supreme Court regarding abortion.
Development of contemporary abortion methods
Although prototypes of the modern curette are referred to in ancient texts, the instrument which is used today was initially designed in France in 1723, but was not applied specifically to a gynecological purpose until 1842. Dilation and curettage has been practiced since the late 19th century.
The 20th century saw improvements in abortion technology, increasing its safety, and reducing its side-effects. Vacuum devices, first described by the Scottish obstetrician James Young Simpson in the 19th century, allowed for the development of suction-aspiration abortion. The process was improved by the Russian doctor S. G. Bykov in 1927, where the method was used during its period of liberal abortion laws from 1920 to 1936. The technology was also used in China and Japan before being introduced to Britain and the United States in the 1960s. The invention of the Karman cannula, a flexible plastic cannula which replaced earlier metal models in the 1970s, reduced the occurrence of perforation and made suction-aspiration methods possible under local anesthesia.
In 1971, Lorraine Rothman and Carol Downer, founding members of the feminist self-help movement, invented the Del-Em, a safe, cheap suction device that made it possible for people with minimal training to perform early abortions called menstrual extraction. During the mid-1990s in the United States the medical community showed renewed interest in manual vacuum aspiration as a method of early surgical abortion. This resurgence is due to technological advances that permit early pregnancy detection (as soon as a week after conception) and a growing popular demand for safe, effective early abortion options, both surgical and medical. An innovator in the development of early surgical abortion services is Jerry Edwards, a physician, who developed a protocol in which women are offered an abortion using a handheld vacuum syringe as soon as a positive pregnancy test is received. This protocol also allows the early detection of an ectopic pregnancy.
Intact dilation and extraction was developed by Dr. James McMahon in 1983. It resembles a procedure used in the 19th century to save a woman's life in cases of obstructed labor, in which the fetal skull was first punctured with a perforator, then crushed and extracted with a forceps-like instrument, known as a cranioclast.
In 1980, researchers at Roussel Uclaf in France developed mifepristone, a chemical compound which works as an abortifacient by blocking hormone action. It was first marketed in France under the trade name Mifegyne in 1988. In July 2015 Canada approved mifepristone in combination with misoprostol (under the name Mifegymiso).
Abortion around the world
At various times abortion has been banned or restricted in countries around the world. Multiple scholars have noticed that in many cases, this has caused women to seek dangerous, illegal abortions underground or inspired trips abroad for "reproductive tourism".Kligman, Gail. The Politics of Duplicity: Controlling Reproduction in Ceausescu's Romania. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1998. Half of the world's current deaths due to unsafe abortions occur in Asia.
Other authors have written that illegality has not always meant that abortions were unsafe. In the U.S. during the 19th century, early abortions under the hygienic conditions in which midwives usually worked were relatively safe.
China
In the early 1950s, the Chinese government made abortion illegal, with punishments for those who received or performed illegal abortions written into the law. These restrictions were seen as the government's way of emphasizing the importance of population growth.
As the decade went on, the laws were relaxed with the intent of reducing the number of deaths and lifelong injuries women sustained due to illegal abortions, as well as serving as a form of population control when used in conjunction with birth control. In the early 1980s, the state implemented a form of family planning which used abortion as a "back-up method"; and in 2005, there has been legislation trying to curb sex-selective abortion. As of 2009, although China had the highest number of abortions in the world, Russia had the highest rate in the world.
India
India enforced the Indian Penal Code from 1860 to 1971, criminalizing abortion and punishing both the practitioners and the women who sought out the procedure. As a result, women died in an attempt to obtain illegal abortions from unqualified midwives and "doctors". Abortion was made legal under specific circumstances in 1971, but as scholar S. Chandrasekhar notes, lower class women still find themselves at a greater risk of injury or death as a result of a botched abortion.
Iran
In 2023 state reported 500000 abortions performed in the year against 1.5 million births.
Japan
Japan is known today worldwide for its acceptance of abortion.Norgren, Tiana. Abortion before Birth Control: The Politics of Reproduction in Postwar Japan Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001. It is estimated that two-thirds of Japanese women have an abortion by age forty, partially due to former government restrictions on contraceptive pills on 'public hygiene grounds'.
The Eugenics Protection Law of 1948 made elective abortion care legal up to twenty-two weeks' gestation so long as the woman's health was endangered; in 1949, this law was extended to consider the risk the child's birth would place on a woman's economic welfare. Originally, each case would have to be approved by a local eugenics council, but this was removed from the law in 1952, making the decision a private one between a woman and her physician.
In 1964, the creation of the conservative right-wing nationalist political lobbying group called Seicho-no-Ie brought about a strong opposition to the abortion laws. This campaign reached its peak strength in the early 1980s, but ultimately failed in 1983.
Romania
In 1957, Romania legalized abortion, but in 1966, after a decline in the national birthrate, Nicolae Ceauşescu approved Decree 770, which criminalized abortion and encouraged childbirth. As a result of this decree, women in want of abortion turned to illegal procedures that caused the deaths of over 9,000 women and left unwanted children abandoned in orphanages. Abortion remained illegal until 1989, when the decree was overturned.
Thailand
There was intense public debate throughout the 1980s and 1990s over legal abortion reform. These debates portrayed abortion as un-Buddhist and anti-religious; abortion opponents ultimately labeled it as a form of Western corruption that was inherently anti-Thai and threatened the integrity of the nation. Despite this, in 2006, abortions became legal in cases of rape or foetal impairment. Mental health also became a factor in determining the legality of an abortion procedure. The strict regulations involved in qualifying for a legal abortion, however, cause approximately 300,000 women a year to seek illegal avenues according to scholar Andrea Whittaker, with the poorest undergoing the most dangerous of procedures.
See also
Susan B. Anthony abortion dispute
George Lotrell Timanus
Aleck Bourne
Henry Katz
Emily Stowe
Henry Morgentaler
References
Further reading
Lewis, Margaret Brannan. Infanticide and abortion in early modern Germany'' (Routledge, 2016).
External links
Text of the Roe v Wade decision from Findlaw
Human reproduction
Abortion |
4290045 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN%20Wide%20World%20of%20Sports%20Complex | ESPN Wide World of Sports Complex | The ESPN Wide World of Sports Complex is a multi-purpose sports complex located at Walt Disney World in Bay Lake, Florida, United States, near Orlando. The complex allows families to combine tournaments and competition with a visit to vacation destinations in the area. The complex includes nine venues and hosts numerous professional and amateur sporting events throughout the year.
In reference to the weekly ABC Sports television show, Wide World of Sports (Disney bought ABC in 1996), the complex was originally known as Disney's Wide World of Sports Complex from 1997 until 2010, when it was rebranded with the name of the Disney-owned ESPN.
The complex is a part of the sports tourism emerging market. The complex is mainly used for AAU tournaments; however, many prominent professional sporting events have taken place here, including the 2020 NBA Bubble, MLS is Back Tournament, 2016 Invictus Games, Pro Bowl skills competition from 2017 to 2020, 1997 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships, and Atlanta Braves spring training from 1997 to 2019 among other events. The complex hosted the 2022 Special Olympics USA Games.
The Tampa Bay Rays are currently using the complex for 2023 spring training, due to Charlotte Sports Park having been heavily damaged by Hurricane Ian.
History
Disney built the US$100 million facility on former wetlands under the direction of Disney Vice President Reggie Williams. Construction started in July 1995. The complex was built to publicize Walt Disney World, fill hotel rooms, grow sponsorship revenue, and build Walt Disney World's position as a sports destination.
Disney-branded
The venue opened on March 28, 1997, with an exhibition baseball game between the Atlanta Braves and the Cincinnati Reds. On April 21–27, the main tennis courts hosted the U.S. Men's Clay Court Tennis Championships. A grand opening was held May 15, 1997. The initial build out consisted of nine venues with a 10th, the Olympic velodrome, expected in the third quarter 1997. Initial tenants were Braves & its rookie team, the Harlem Globetrotters, NFL Experience, the U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships, Amateur Athletic Union, Official All Star Café and Northeastern University's Center for the Study of Sport in Society.:2 Disney bid for the Florida state high school football finals for 1997 but lost to Gainesville. In June 1999, the complex made a deal with the Florida High School Activities Association to host the state prep volleyball championships at the Disney Fieldhouse for three years. USA Trampoline and Tumbling Championships was held at the complex the weekend of June 7, 1997.
A former baseball umpire and an architect alleged that they approached The Walt Disney Company in 1987 with plans for a sports complex, and that Wide World of Sports, which opened 10 years later, was heavily based on their designs. Disney claimed that, while the designs had some similarities, the complex was also similar to numerous other sporting facilities, and the concept of a sports park was too generic for any one group to claim ownership. The two men, represented in part by noted attorney Johnnie Cochran, sued Disney in Orange County civil court. In August 2000, a jury returned a verdict for the plaintiffs with damages in the amount of $240 million, a fraction of the $1.5 billion sought. Disney appealed the judgment, and settled out of court in September 2002 for undisclosed terms.
With Planet Hollywood just out of bankruptcy, Disney offered to purchase its All Star Café located here in February 2000 and acquired the lease in March 2000. It became What's Next? Cafe in 2007 before being rebranded as ESPN Wide World of Sports Grill in 2010.
In August 2004, 20 acres of additional fields, four baseball diamonds with other multi-use fields, were added under the name of Hess Sports Fields. Plans for a 100 lane bowling stadium with restaurant was announced for the complex by Disney officials in May 2008. This stadium would be built and operated by a third party and was supposed to completed in 18 months. About 13 United States Bowling Congress tournaments were expected for the facility.
ESPN-branded
During an ESPN the Weekend kick off event on February 25, 2010, the complex was rebranded as the ESPN Wide World of Sports Complex. It received a massive upgrade, having installed HD video scoreboards at several venues, a new complex-wide audio system, and a broadcast production facility. New venues and activities at the complex included the PlayStation Pavilion and Custom Tee Center by Champion.
Prior to the rebranding in 2007, Disney announced a 450-acre Flamingo Crossings hotel-and-retail development. It would be located near the area for complex visitors and budget-minded Disney World visitors. Shelved due to economic downturn, the project was revived with the 2013 sale of the property to first phase developer JL Properties Inc. of Alaska. An October 16, 2014, groundbreaking took place for the first phase, consisting of two Marriott International brand hotels which opened in January 2016.
In 2008 and 2009, the Disney Channel Games were held at the complex. From May 9–11, 2014, a WNBA pre-season tournament consisting of four teams was held alongside an AAU girls basketball tournament at the complex, with the Minnesota Lynx winning the tournament over the Chicago Sky 76–69. While the Citrus Bowl was under repairs, the Orlando City Soccer Club played its 2014 home games at the complex.
In July 2015, it was announced that the 2016 Invictus Games would be held at the complex. The Invictus Games were held from May 8 to 12, 2016. Prince Harry, Michelle Obama, and Morgan Freeman all spoke at the Opening and Closing ceremony. Over 500 service members were in attendance, along with other notable public figures, including former United States President George W. Bush and Second Lady Jill Biden.
In early January 2018, The Arena opened at the complex as its third indoor multi-purpose sports and entertainment arena. Also that month, United States Specialty Sports Association left for the Space Coast Complex in Viera, Florida ending its use of ESPN's complex.
Since 2017, the Complex is host of the NFL Pro Bowl activities prior to the game. Besides having open practices for fans, ESPN broadcasts the Pro Bowl Skills Showdown, a series of head-to-head competitions between the players. According to event organizers, over the last four years, the Pro Bowl and festivities surrounding it have generated an estimated $100-million economic impact for Central Florida.
In March 2019, it was announced that Wide World of Sports would host the 2022 Special Olympics USA Games.
Use as a bubble during the COVID-19 pandemic
In May 2020, due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, there were reports that both Major League Soccer and the NBA were in talks with Disney to host the teams to have their respective seasons in the complex.
It was then confirmed that the complex would host both leagues. The 2020 Major League Soccer season held the MLS is Back Tournament, which had three regular season matches for each of the 26 teams as well as a bracket tournament to determine a berth into the 2021 CONCACAF Champions League (for a total of 54 matches), from July 8 to August 11. On August 11, 2020, the Portland Timbers defeated Orlando City SC 2-1 to win the tournament.
Meanwhile, the 2019–20 NBA season was concluded at the AdventHealth Arena, HP Field House, and the Visa Athletic Center. 22 teams were invited: the 16 teams in playoff position at the time of the season being put on hold due to the pandemic, including the host Orlando Magic, and the six teams within six games of the eighth and final playoff spot in either conference. The three chosen arenas hosted scrimmages, eight regular season games for each team invited to the NBA Bubble starting July 30, a play-in mini-series, and the entirety of the NBA Playoffs and Finals. On October 11, 2020, the Los Angeles Lakers defeated the Miami Heat 106-93 to win the best-of-7 series 4-2.
In 2021, the NBA G League reached an agreement to host the 2020–21 season exclusively at the complex. On March 11, 2021, the Lakeland Magic defeated the Delaware Blue Coats 97-78 to win the championship.
Venues
The Stadium at the ESPN Wide World of Sports
A 7,500 seat baseball stadium built in 1997 also has 2,000 more lawn seating. One of the original components of Wide World of Sports, it was formerly known as Champion Stadium, Cracker Jack Stadium and The Ballpark at Disney's Wide World of Sports. It was the spring training home of the Atlanta Braves from 1997 to 2019, and the recurring home for the Gulf Coast Braves. The Braves initially announced that 2017 would be their final year in the complex, but their departure would be delayed to 2019. In 2020, the Atlanta Braves officially moved their spring training site to CoolToday Park located in North Port, FL after 21 years in the ESPN complex. The stadium has hosted two regular season Major League Baseball series in 2007 and 2008 featuring the Tampa Bay Rays as the home team.
State Farm Field House
A 5,000-seat multi-purpose arena, formerly the Milk House, Disney Fieldhouse and HP Field House, sponsored by State Farm It hosts the ESPN Events Invitational college basketball tournament annually. The State Farm Field House has with stadium style seating with the highest row off the floor. It also features a smaller gymnasium behind the main arena with retractable seating. It was formerly sponsored by the California Milk Processor Board, progenitors of the famous Got Milk? campaign. Beginning in 2018, the arena hosts the Jr. NBA Global Championship, a tournament that features both boys' and girls' teams divided into national and international regions (and is thus similar in setup to the Little League World Series). It also hosted the first-ever NBA play-in game between the Portland Trail Blazers and the Memphis Grizzlies in 2020 bubble basketball.
Visa Athletic Center
First announced in March 2007, the complex's 10th anniversary year, the Visa Athletic Center (formerly Jostens Center) is a arena (36% smaller than the HP Field House without the stadium seating) that opened in the fall of 2008. The center features six college-size basketball courts, twelve volleyball courts, or two roller hockey rinks. Its seating capacity is 1,200.
AdventHealth Arena
AdventHealth Arena opened in early January 2018 as the third indoor multi-purpose sports and entertainment arena at the complex. While multipurpose, the venue was designed for cheer and dance events. Its first event was the UCA and UDA College Cheerleading and Dance Team National Championship, January 12 to the 14, 2018. It has 8,000 seats in standard arena configuration, and features a flexible configuration that can accommodate six regulation-sized basketball or volleyball courts. AdventHealth Arena hosted the Eastern and Western Conference Finals of the 2020 NBA Playoffs, along with the 2020 NBA Finals.
Marathon Sports Fields
Marathon Sports Fields, presented by Marathon Petroleum, consists of twelve fields, the Baseball Quadraplex, Softball Quadraplex and four multiple purpose fields.
One of the fields has 500 permanent seats, and another has 1,000 permanent seats, expandable to up to 3,000 with additional grandstands. Field 17, the field with the larger grandstands, hosts the Walt Disney World Pro Soccer Classic, an annual eight-team preseason soccer tournament featuring Major League Soccer teams.
The complex hosted the USL Pro Orlando City Soccer Club during the 2014 season. The team had additional seating added for a total of 5,200 seats.
Complexes
Baseball Quadraplex
Consisting of four professional baseball fields and one practice infield, the quadraplex also includes batting tunnels, pitching mounds, hitting tunnels, masters pitching machines, and ten bullpens. All fields are equipped for night play.
Softball Diamondplex
The first venue to be completed at the facility, it consists of six fields used for softball and youth baseball. Organized with four fields in circle and two adjacent.
Tennis Complex
A 1,000 to 8,500 seat tennis complex with 10-clay courts with center court stadium and was one of the original nine venues.
Track and Field Complex
A 500-seat competition facility for track and field events, designed to International Association of Athletics Federations specifications. This venue was one of the original nine venues.
nine lane track
three shot put rings
two discus/hammer rings
a javelin runway
two high jump areas
two horizontal jump runways
two pole vault runways
wooded cross-country course
Programs and events
Disney created a third of its events while bidding for other tournaments or attracting long term partners such as the Amateur Athletic Union. As of 2006, the union hosted at the complex 30 to 35 tournaments a year. The United States Specialty Sports Association had reserved six weekends at the complex. Disney also hosted more than 180 events involving more than 30 sports at the complex since 2006. In recent years, the complex has been utilized in wide ranges from many youth and collegiate sports activities to even providing alternative measures for some professional sports leagues to complete their seasons in some safer environments. Some of these following programs and events have taken place in various areas at the complex over the years.
Disney Spring Training (1997–present) takes place from mid-February to mid-April in which high school and college teams practice during their spring break at the facility. Until 2005, the program accommodated teams primarily in track and field, lacrosse, and softball.
Pop Warner Super Bowl (1997–present) takes place in December where the top teams in the nation and internationally of youth football have the Pop Warner championships held in the complex. Thousands of players and families come to the event, with ESPN even broadcasting part of these games live on national television.
Disney Soccer Showcase (2000–present) a top youth soccer tournament
Sunshine Showdown, a women's baseball tournament not to be confused with the Florida–Florida State college rivalry
The resumption of the 2019–20 NBA season (July 30 – October 11, 2020): Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the National Basketball Association's 2019–20 season was suspended in March 2020. On June 4, after competing with Las Vegas for hosting rights, the NBA approved a plan to restart the season on July 30 in the NBA Bubble with all games to be played at the AdventHealth Arena (previously named The Arena), the HP Field House, and the Visa Athletic Center with 22 of the league's 30 teams being invited – the 16 clubs that were in playoff position at the time and the six teams (five in the Western Conference, one in the Eastern Conference) within six games of one (primarily a Seed 8 spot). Under this plan, the 22 teams played eight regular-season "seeding" games. A possible play-in tournament for the eighth seed in each conference would then be held if the ninth seed finished the regular season within four games of the eighth seed, which did happen in the Western Conference between the Portland Trail Blazers and the Memphis Grizzlies, ending with Portland overtaking Memphis' initial playoff spot after one game played under it. The NBA Playoffs and Finals were then set to proceed as normal inside the bubble, and the season was successfully completed after the Los Angeles Lakers were victorious over the Miami Heat in six games. Prior to the season officially resuming, the teams also played scrimmages at the venues with 10-minute quarters from July 22 to 28. During the resumption of the season, as part of the bubble format to combat the spread of the virus, the teams were based on the Walt Disney World resort grounds at Disney's Yacht Club Resort, Disney's Grand Floridian Resort and Spa, and the Gran Destino Tower at Disney's Coronado Springs Resort based on seeding, with the teams with the worst records staying at Disney's Yacht Club Resort and those with the best records (including the Lakers and Heat) staying at Disney's Coronado Springs Resort. No players staying at the bubble during that time were infected with COVID-19, though a select few NBA players did violate their quarantine rules at the time and games were briefly paused after the shooting of Jacob Blake came to light.
The MLS is Back Tournament (July 8 – August 11, 2020): Major League Soccer's 2020 season was also suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic, though its season had just begun with each team first playing in only two games in late February and early March. On June 4, 2020, MLS and the MLS Players Association came to an agreement that included a tournament at the sports complex during the summer of 2020 to help restart their season. The tournament started in the group stage on July 8, entered the knockout stage on July 25 and ended in the final on August 11 with the Portland Timbers beating host Orlando City 2–1. They then officially continued the rest of their 2020 Major League Soccer season, including the 2020 Cup Playoffs, soon afterward.
The entire, truncated 2020–21 NBA G League season (February 10 – March 11, 2021): With the 2019–20 NBA G League season cancelled due to the continuing COVID-19 pandemic combined with the National Basketball Association having their next season be played from December 2020 to July 2021, the NBA G League decided they had to do their season under a more truncated format, similar to the 2020 NBA Bubble. While initial plans had the G League's Bubble setting take place in Atlanta, the G League decided to host their entire season on the same grounds the NBA played in during their previous season. To help cover for expenses this season, each participating G League team's parent team had to contribute around $400,000-$500,000 in order for them to stay at the nearby resorts, as well as provide daily medical care, food, and COVID-19 tests. For this season, only 17 of the G League's 28 teams at the time, as well as the newly implemented NBA G League Ignite farm team, were able to compete in a regular season that lasted only 15 games long from February 10 to March 6 before entering a single elimination playoff format lasting from March 8–11. All games aired during that period of time were broadcast onto either ESPN2, ESPNU, or ESPN+. The season ended with the host #6 seed Lakeland Magic upsetting the #4 seed Delaware Blue Coats 97–78 in the championship match.
Prior tenants
Orlando City Soccer Club (2014)
References
External links
Baseball venues in Florida
Buildings and structures in Osceola County, Florida
Cross country running courses in Florida
Defunct NBA G League venues
ESPN
Former Major League Soccer stadiums
Former National Basketball Association venues
Rugby league stadiums in the United States
Rugby league in Florida
Sports venues in Greater Orlando
Tourist attractions in Osceola County, Florida
Disney sports
Walt Disney World
Wide World of Sports (American TV series)
1997 establishments in Florida
Sports venues completed in 1997
USL Championship stadiums
Sports complexes in Florida
Sports in Osceola County, Florida |
4290130 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azendohsaurus | Azendohsaurus | Azendohsaurus is an extinct genus of herbivorous archosauromorph reptile from roughly the late Middle to early Late Triassic Period of Morocco and Madagascar. The type species, Azendohsaurus laaroussii, was described and named by Jean-Michel Dutuit in 1972 based on partial jaw fragments and some teeth from Morocco. A second species from Madagascar, A. madagaskarensis, was first described in 2010 by John J. Flynn and colleagues from a multitude of specimens representing almost the entire skeleton. The generic name "Azendoh lizard" is for the village of Azendoh, a local village near where it was first discovered in the Atlas Mountains. It was a bulky quadruped that unlike other early archosauromorphs had a relatively short tail and robust limbs that were held in an odd mix of sprawled hind limbs and raised forelimbs. It had a long neck and a proportionately small head with remarkably sauropod-like jaws and teeth.
Azendohsaurus used to be classified as a herbivorous dinosaur, at first as an ornithischian but more often as a "prosauropod" sauropodomorph. This was based only on its jaws and teeth, which share derived features typically found in herbivorous dinosaurs. The complete skeletal material from Madagascar, however, revealed more basal characteristics ancestral to Archosauromorpha and that Azendohsaurus was not a dinosaur at all. Instead, Azendohsaurus was actually a more primitive archosauromorph that had convergently evolved many features of the jaws and skeleton shared with the later giant sauropod dinosaurs. It was found to be a member of a newly recognised group of specialised, mostly herbivorous archosauromorphs that was named the Allokotosauria. It is also the namesake and typifier of its own family of allokotosaurs, the Azendohsauridae; initially the only member, the family now includes other similar allokotosaurs, such as the larger, horned azendohsaurid Shringasaurus from India.
Several other groups of archosauromorphs also adapted to herbivory in the Triassic, sometimes with dinosaur-like teeth that also caused confusion in their classification. Azendohsaurus is notable, however, for also convergently evolving a similar body shape to sauropodomorphs in addition to its jaws and teeth. Azendohsaurus and sauropodomorphs likely independently evolved to fill a similar ecological niche as long-necked, relatively high browsing herbivores in their environments. However, Azendohsaurus predates the large Late Triassic sauropodomorphs it resembles by several million years, and did not evolve similar body plans under the same environmental conditions. It may then have been one of the first herbivores to fill the high-browsing role that only large sauropodomorphs were thought to occupy during the Triassic, expanding the known ecological diversity of herbivorous archosauromorphs outside of dinosaurs in the Triassic Period. Azendohsaurus is also significant as it may be one of the earliest endothermic archosauromorphs known, and suggests that a warm-blooded metabolism was ancestral to the later archosaurs, including the dinosaurs.
Description
Azendohsaurus was a stocky mid-sized reptile estimated to be roughly long. It had a small, box-shaped head with a short snout on a long neck that was raised above the shoulders. The body was broad, with a barrel-shaped chest and shoulders much taller than the hips, together with an unusually short tail. Its posture was semi-sprawled, with sprawling hind limbs and slightly elevated forelimbs. The limbs themselves are relatively short and particularly robust, with digits that are shorter and stouter compared to other early archosauromorphs, each with notably large, curved claws on all four feet. Superficially its appearance is comparable to that of sauropodomorph dinosaurs, along with various details of its skeleton, suggesting Azendohsaurus converged on similar traits for a relatively high-browsing, herbivorous lifestyle. A. laaroussii is poorly known compared to A. madagaskarensis, and the two species are only known to differ in minor details of the jaw bones and teeth. Additional skeletal material of A. laaroussii has been reported from the type locality of the original skull fragments, but have yet to be formally described as of 2015.
Skull
The skull of A. madagaskarensis is almost completely known, and is robustly built with a short and boxy shape and a deep snout. The premaxillae are gently curved at the front of the upper jaw, forming a blunt, round snout tip, while the lower jaws have a deep, down-turned tip like those of sauropods. The bony nostrils are fused into a single (confluent) opening that faces forwards at the front of the snout, similar to those of rhynchosaurs.
The skull has a number of traits convergent with sauropodomorphs, including the downward curving dentary, a robust dorsal process of the maxilla, and several features of the teeth. The process on the maxilla usually indicates the presence of an antorbital fenestra in archosauriforms, but in Azendohsaurus this space is occupied by the lacrimal bone in front of the eyes. This is a unique arrangement unknown in other Triassic archosauromorphs, except for the related Shringasaurus. The orbits are almost entirely occupied by the large sclerotic rings, suggesting large eyes. The lower temporal fenestra is open at the bottom, separating the jugal and the quadratojugal bones (a primitive trait for archosauromorphs). Also like other early archosauromorphs, Azendohsaurus has a small (3–5 mm across) parietal foramen ("third eye") on the roof of the skull.
The lower jaw is especially convergent with those of sauropodomorphs, with an articular joint where the jaw hinges positioned below the level of the tooth row and downward curving dentaries, as well as the similarly shaped teeth. These features are variously found in other herbivorous Triassic archosauromorphs, but this combination is only known in Azendohsaurus and sauropodomorphs.
The teeth are all roughly leaf-shaped (lanceolate) with expanded crowns and bulbous bases that are fused to the jaw bones (ankylothecodont). However, the upper and lower teeth are distinctly heterodont, and can be readily distinguished from each other. The upper teeth are relatively short and broad at their base, with 4–6 denticles on each surface, similar to ornithischians; the lower teeth are almost twice as tall and have twice as many denticles, more closely resembling the teeth of sauropodomorphs. The four premaxillary teeth are the longest teeth in the upper jaw, and are more recurved back in shape than the rest.
The palate is unusually covered in numerous fully developed palatal teeth, with up to four sets on the pterygoid and additional rows on the palatine and vomers. Mature Azendohsaurus madagaskarensis have at least 44 pairs of palatal teeth, in addition to the 4 teeth in each premaxilla and 11–13 in the maxilla each, along with a maximum of 17 teeth in the dentary. Palatal teeth are not uncommon in herbivorous reptiles, but in Azendohsaurus they are almost identical in shape to those along the jaw margins, but a bit stouter. Other archosauromorphs with palatal teeth have a much simpler palatal dentition of small, domed teeth. Teraterpeton is the only other archosauromorph with similarly well developed palatal teeth.
The only described material of A. laaroussii are dentaries, maxillae, a premaxilla and several teeth. They broadly resemble A. madagaskarensis in general form but with a few distinguishing differences. The tooth count of A. laaroussii is higher, with 15–16 teeth in the maxilla compared to the 11–13 of A. madagaskarensis. The teeth of A. laaroussii are also taller than those of A. madagaskarensis and have more closely packed denticles. Further distinguishing the two species is the presence of a prominent keel on the inside surface of the maxilla. This keel runs the whole length of the maxilla in A. laaroussii, but is only found along the back half of it in A. madagaskarensis. Any other possible differences between the two species cannot be determined without rest of the skull and skeleton.
Skeleton
All the known post-cranial information for the skeleton of Azendohsaurus comes from A. madagaskarensis. Much of the vertebral column is known in Azendohsaurus, and although incomplete, it is estimated to have 24 presacral vertebrae (including the atlas and axis). The sacrum of the hips has only two vertebrae, and the full number of caudal vertebrae in the tail is unknown, but it is estimated to be only around 45–55 (low for an archosaur).
The cervical vertebrae change shape down the neck, beginning as characteristically elongated with long and low neural spines, and getting progressively shorter in length towards the base of the neck, but with increasingly taller and narrower neural spines. This shortening is seen in the necks of other allokotosaurs like Trilophosaurus, but is not found in other long-necked archosauromorphs (e.g. the middle cervicals are the longest in tanystropheids). The neck would have been held raised up above the body, indicated by the inclined angle of the zygapophyses that connect each vertebra, as well as the front zygapophyses of each vertebra being higher than those at the back. The neck was also likely held in a gentle arc, based on an articulated set of cervicals in this position.
The dorsal vertebrae of the back generally resemble the last cervicals, with tall, vertical neural spines. These vertebrae also decrease in length down the back, but less dramatically than in the neck. The last dorsal is unique, however, as it has a neural spine angled forward. Of the two sacrals, the first vertebra is larger and more robust, with a tall neural spines over its rear half. Both sacrals have large ribs completely fused to the vertebrae that articulate with the ilia (see below).
The caudal vertebrae resemble the other vertebrae, but with backward inclined neural spines. The length of the caudals and the height of the neural spines gradually decreases down the tail, unlike some other archosauromorphs where the vertebrae elongate towards the tip. This implies that the tail was short and not tapering, but the very tip of the tail is unknown. They consistently have chevron facets from the 3rd or 4th vertebrae down to the last known caudals in the series.
The cervical ribs are long and thin, becoming more robust and tapered as they move down the neck. Some of the cervical ribs from bottom half of the neck have a slight facet on the inside surface at their tips that may have held the tip of the preceding rib, forming a rigid cervical rib series (also suggested for the long necked Tanystropheus) that would stiffen the neck. The trunk ribs are long and curve outwards, indicating Azendohsaurus had a broad and deep barrel-shaped chest. The length and curvature of the ribs decreases down the spine, and the last rib is short, fused completely to the final dorsal vertebra, and points directly outwards to the sides. Only a single set of gastralia is known for Azendohsaurus, and their very delicate build and rarity compared to other bones suggests that it did not have a well developed basket of gastralia under the belly like some other archosauromorphs (e.g. Proterosuchus).
Limbs and girdles
The forelimbs and shoulders (pectoral girdle) of Azendohsaurus are well developed and robust. The scapula (shoulder blade) is long, about twice as tall as it is wide, matching the length and curvature of the ribs to accommodate the deep chest. The blade is concave on each side with a slightly expanded tip that is pointed at the back. The interclavicle is large and robust, and shares with Trilophosaurus and some rhynchosaurs a long "paddle-like" posterior process that is flattened and expanded towards the tip. It also has a unique forward-pointing process, a feature it shares only with Protorosaurus and some early diapsids (most other archosauromorphs have a notch instead).
The coracoids are large and rounded, articulating with the scapula to form the glenoid (shoulder socket). The glenoid faces laterally, typical of sprawling reptiles, however, the scapular portion is directed slightly backwards, which could indicate the humerus was held in a more raised posture. The humerus itself is large and broadly expanded at both ends, leaving a relatively narrow "waisted" mid-shaft, with a very well developed deltopectoral crest. The radius is similarly stocky with slightly expanded ends, while the ulna is greatly expanded at both ends, though to a lesser extent distally.
The hips (pelvic girdle) are not as deep as the shoulders, with the three hip bones being roughly equal in size. The ilium is tall and curved along the top surface, with a short rounded process at the front and a longer tapering process behind it. The pubis points down and slightly forwards, and only has a slightly thickened expansion (boot) at the tip. The ischium is relatively short, shorter than the ilium, and roughly triangular in shape with straight edges and a rounded rear tip. The articulation surfaces between each ischia are unusually expanded compared to other archosauromorphs. All three contribute to forming a deep, rounded acetabulum (hip socket). Unlike the open socket of dinosaurs, the internal wall of the acetabulum in Azendohsaurus is solid bone.
The large sacral ribs articulate with the ilium so that it is held almost vertically, although their slight downward angle would have deflected the hip socket to face not only out away from the body but also down by about 10° to 25° from vertical. The femur is long and vaguely S-shaped, with a slightly expanded head that is not turned inwards, unlike those of dinosaurs, indicating it was not held upright. The femur is also twisted along its shaft so that the faces of the head and the knee are offset from each other by about ~75°. The tibia is roughly 75% the length of the femur, slightly bowed out, and is very robust compared those of other archosauromorphs except for the largest rhynchosaurs. The fibula by contrast is slender and more prominently twisted along its length.
The extremities of Azendohsaurus are well represented in the fossils, including both a complete hand (manus) and foot (pes) each in articulation. All of the carpals and tarsal bones are well ossified and distinct, and the complicated tarsus is made up of nine bones. The metacarpals in the hand are notable as they diverge in a smooth arc, with the length of the digits almost symmetrical around the long third digit as well as relatively non-diverged first and fifth digits. This contrasts with the hands of other reptiles where first and fifth digits are spread out from each other and the fourth digit is the longest. The metatarsals and digits of the foot also diverge in a smooth arc, but unlike the hand they are not symmetrical, with a long fourth toe and a short, hooked fifth digit.
All the digits of the hands and feet are unusually short for an archosauromorph, contrasting with the related Trilophosaurus. The claws (or unguals) are all very large, narrow and sharply recurved, and are significantly larger than the preceding finger bone they were attached to. The digits and claws share features with those of dromaeosaurid and troodontid maniraptorans, as well as other reptiles such as the turtle Proganochelys. These shared traits are associated with well developed flexor tendons, and it is suggested to be an adaptation for withstanding forces involved in digging.
History of Discovery
A. laaroussii
Early discoveries
The first fossils of Azendohsaurus laaroussii were discovered in a northern part the Timezgadiouine Formation in Morocco, which is found within the Argana Basin of the High Atlas. The fossil beds consist of sandstones and red clay mudstones, and were excavated by Jean-Michel Dutuit between 1962 and 1969. The fossils of A. laaroussii are known from only a single layer within the formation, in an outcrop numbered XVI by Dutuit at the base of the T5 (or Irohalene) member. The T5 member has traditionally been roughly dated to the early Late Triassic in age using vertebrate biostratigraphy based on the presence of the phytosaur "Paleorhinus" magnoculus, as part of the Carnian dated '"Palaeorhinus" biochron', although this method of correlating and dating global Triassic sequences may be inaccurate and the date for the T5 member remains uncertain.
The first fossils consisted of only a partial tooth-bearing dentary fragment and some associated teeth. This material was discovered by J. M. Dutuit in 1965 and described in 1972, who believed it to belong to a herbivorous ornithischian dinosaur, as well as one of the oldest dinosaurs yet discovered. He named the genus "Azendoh lizard", after the nearby Azendoh village located only 1.5 km to the west of where the fossils were discovered. The specific name, A. laaroussii, is in honour of Laaroussi, the name of a technician from the Moroccan geological mapping service who first discovered the site where Azendohsaurus was found.
Dutuit's description of Azendohsaurus as an ornithischian was soon challenged by palaeontologist Richard Thulborn two years later in 1974, who was the first to suggest that Azendohsaurus was a "prosauropod" instead. The same conclusion was made by José Boneparte after examining the material himself in 1976. This re-identification was favoured by researchers in subsequent publications, and it was variously referred to the "prosauropod" families Anchisauridae and Thecodontosauridae without further explanation. Dutuit himself even agreed that Azendohsaurus was likely to be a "prosauropod" in 1983, although not long before in 1981 he had briefly regarded it as a "pre-ornithischian".
In 1985, palaeontologist Peter Galton suggested that Dutuit's original "Azandohsaurus " material included the jaw of a "prosauropod" and the tooth of a fabrosaurid ornithischian (a now defunct grouping of early ornithischians), based on the differences in the shape of the teeth. This suggestion was refuted by François-Xavier Gauffre in 1993 when he re-described the material, as well describing additional jaw bones and teeth including two maxillae. He correctly concluded that the material belonged to a single taxon, but assigned the genus to "Prosauropoda" incertae sedis based again on the characteristics of the jaws and teeth. However, he could not determine its position within "Prosauropoda" due to the ambiguous distribution of these traits in early herbivorous dinosaurs, as well as a lack of any comparable Triassic reptiles, so he referred it to incertae sedis. His assessment was accepted by many other researchers in the years following up until the description of the new material from the Madagascan species.
Later finds to present
New material from the type locality of A. laaroussii, including parts of the post-cranial skeleton, was reported on in 2002 at the annual conference of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology by Nour-Eddine Jalil and Fabien Knoll. The additional material included presacral vertebrae, limb bones and limb girdles. The material was disarticulated, and was only attributable to A. laaroussii due to its association with recognised fragments of the skull and jaws. The post-cranial material was recognised as non-dinosaurian, but still believed to be an ornithodiran archosaur related to dinosaurs. If correctly associated with the jaws and teeth, this indicated Azendohsaurus was not closely related to any herbivorous dinosaurs, despite their similarities. Similarly, teeth from other purported Triassic ornithischians were later found to belong to previously unrecognised herbivorous reptiles, such as the pseudosuchian Revueltosaurus, highlighting the possibility for mistaken identities in other purported herbivorous Triassic dinosaurs, including Azendohsaurus.
The new post cranial material from A. laaroussii was described as part of a Ph.D thesis by Khaldoune in 2014, but as of 2019 this thesis has not yet been published and the material remains officially undescribed in published literature. However, it has now more confidently been referred to A. laaroussii after the description of the Madagascan material, and was found to share at least two diagnostic post cranial traits with the Madagascan species. All the material from A. laaroussii, including the holotype and unpublished post crania, is housed at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris, France.
A. madagaskarensis
Initial discoveries
In 1997 through to 1999, fossils of a new archosauromorph were discovered by an international expedition in southwestern Madagascar and were recovered over the following decade. The fossils were found in a single bone bed, referred to as M-28, that was only tens of centimetres thick across a 100 metre stretch of outcrop exposed as an uplifted river terrace not far from the east bank of the Malio River, just outside of the Isalo National Park, north-west of the town of Ranohira and to the east of Sakahara. The locality was from the base of the Middle–Late Triassic Makay Formation, also referred to as Isalo II, a part of the Isalo "Group" in the Morondava Basin.
Previously, the formation had been believed to be Early to Middle Jurassic in age, although the earlier discovery of the rhynchosaur Isalorhynchus had revised that estimate to the Middle Triassic. The tetrapod fossils recovered in the 1997–99 expedition confirmed the Isalo II was Triassic in age, but instead suggested a younger Carnian age. The age of the formation has also been correlated to the Santacruzodon Assemblage Zone (AZ) from the Santa Maria Formation in South America based on the shared genera of traversodontid cynodonts, with a similar late Ladinian or early Carnian age. The Santacruzodon AZ has been more reliably dated through radioisotope U—Pb dating, suggesting a maximum depositional age of 237 ±1.5 million years in the early Carnian.
The bone bed contained material from almost "a dozen" individuals of varying ages and size, all from a single species. The material was very well preserved, generally preserving the three-dimensional shape of the bones with very little crushing or distortion in some of the specimens. Based on the state of preservation, some of the bones were believed to have been buried rapidly while others were exposed for longer on the surface, where they were weathered, cracked and possibly trampled on before burial.
As with A. laaroussii, the teeth and jaws were the first material to be recovered and described from the bone bed. These were initially mistaken to belong two different species based on the difference in tooth shape in the upper and lower jaws, but one of them was recognised as closely resembling A. laaroussii, sharing a keel on the inside surface of the maxilla and expanded, leaf-shaped teeth, among other features. Like A. laaroussii, both of these supposed species were also misidentified as "prosauropods"; a species of Azendohsaurus or a related taxon and another, more typical "prosauropod". Further discoveries of associated material clarified that all the jaw material and the rest of the skeletons were from a single, new species of Azendohsaurus.
Reinterpretation
Even preliminary examination of the rest of the skull and skeleton from the Madagascan species confirmed that Azendohsaurus was not a dinosaur, and was instead an aberrant herbivorous archosauromorph that was only distantly related to dinosaurs, let alone sauropodomorphs. A description of the cranial material was published first in May, 2010 by John J. Flynn and colleagues, who also officially named and diagnosed it as a new species of Azendohsaurus, Azendohsaurus madagaskarensis, named for its country of origin. This was also the first time Azendohsaurus was determined to be a non-dinosaur in the published literature.
In December, 2015, the rest of the skeleton of A. madagaskarensis was formally described and published by Sterling J. Nesbitt and colleagues, providing the first detailed examination of the full anatomy of Azendohsaurus from the now almost completely known skeleton. In addition to comparing its anatomy, they were also able to analyse its evolutionary relationships to other Triassic reptiles in a phylogenetic context for the first time.
The preservation of the material was described as "generally excellent" by Nesbitt and colleagues, and the amount of overlapping material made it easier to determine the original morphology from distorted and broken bones. Much of the material was found disarticulated and sometimes isolated, but a number of specific parts of the body were found articulated in life position, including sections of the neck, back, hands and feet. Most of the material was similarly sized, with a range of about 25% between the smallest and largest specimens, although the significance of this is not understood and it could be related to ontogeny, individual variation or sexual dimorphism.
The well preserved nature of much of the material also allowed for reinterpretations of parts of the skeleton of other archosauromorphs, such as the hand of Trilophosaurus. The hands of other archosauromorphs are often poorly known, and so their preservation in Azendohsaurus is considered important for understanding their evolution in early archosauromorphs. All the specimens of A. madagaskarensis are permanently housed in both the University of Antananarivo in Madagascar (including the holotype) and at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, Illinois, including casts of some of the original specimens.
Classification
Initial attempts
Azendohsaurus was first misidentified as an ornithischian dinosaur by Dutuit, based on shared characteristics of its teeth such as the leaf-like shape and the number of denticles. It was later believed to be a sauropodomorph instead by other researchers, assigned to the defunct infraorder "Prosauropoda" (then believed to be a distinct monophyletic group related to sauropods, now known to be a paraphyletic grade) based on the morphology of its lower jaw, maxilla and teeth, such as the downward curving dentary and absence of a predentary bone, one of the characteristic traits of ornithischians. These misidentifications were caused by the convergence in jaw and tooth shape between it and the herbivorous dinosaurs while its true phylogenetic relationships could not be realised due to the absence of other bones of the skull and skeleton.
The non-dinosaurian identity of Azendohsaurus was first hinted at after the discovery of additional skeletal material recovered from the type locality. This was based on the presence of traits such as a solid hip socket (acetabulum), and a proximal fourth trochanter on the femur that also lacked an inward-facing head, which are typical of dinosaur skeletons. While evidently not a dinosaur, it was tentatively interpreted as an ornithodiran archosaur, still closely related to dinosaurs.
The discovery of more complete material from Madagascar prompted the first formal classification Azendohsaurus as non-dinosaurian by Flynn and colleagues in 2010 through a detailed description of its cranial anatomy and were able to clarify its relationships further. They instead recognised it to be a more basal archosauromorph, far removed dinosaurs and closely related to but outside of the clade of Archosauriformes. As well as the derived, sauropodomorph-like features, the skull also had numerous primitive traits for archosauromorphs, including an open-bottomed lower temporal fenestra, extensive palatal teeth, a pineal foramen and no external mandibular or antorbital fenestrae. However, its exact relationships still remained unknown beyond a position as an indeterminate non-archosauriform archosauromorph.
Recognition of Allokotosauria
Azendohsaurus was included in a phylogenetic analysis of Triassic archosauromorphs for the first time in 2015 by Nesbitt and colleagues, utilising all of the new information from the skull and skeleton and a broad sample of various Triassic archosauromorph species, where it was recovered as closely related to other enigmatic herbivorous Triassic reptiles such as Trilophosaurus and Teraterpeton. This newly recognised grouping of archosauromorphs was named Allokotosauria, meaning "strange reptiles", for the unusual qualities of the reptiles that belonged to the group. Azendohsaurus was found to be the sister taxon of the family Trilophosauridae, and was recognised as the sole member of its own family, the Azendohsauridae, due its distinctiveness even amongst other allokotosaurs. A similar result was recovered by another large analysis of archosauromorph phylogeny in 2016 by Martín D. Ezcurra, who found a monophyletic Allokotosauria containing Azendohsaurus and Trilophosaurus.
Allokotosaurs are recognised as often having specialised jaws and teeth, as well as sharing a number of synapomorphies that include several reversals to more plesiomorphic (ancestral) traits of archosauromorphs, as well as at least two derived traits. The clade is considered to be well supported in these analyses. However, although closely related, the craniodental characteristics of allokotosaurs vary dramatically, and among them Azendohsaurus was characterised by having laterally compressed, serrated teeth present throughout the length of the jaws (unlike the 'beaked' jaws of trilophosaurids). Azendohsaurus broadly shares with other azendohsaurids features such as confluent nares, leaf-shaped teeth and a long neck, but Azendohsaurus itself is distinguished by the distinctive groove on the inside surface of the maxilla and tooth crowns that are expanded above the base.
In 2017, another large allokotosaur was described from the Middle Triassic of India by Saradee Sengupta and colleagues, named Shringasaurus indicus. Shringasaurus was very similar to Azendohsaurus, and they were found to be closely related, supporting the existence of Azendohsauridae as a distinct family from the trilophosaurids. The same analysis also recovered Pamelaria, another long necked archosauromorph from India, as a basal azendohsaurid. Similarities between Pamelaria and Azendohsaurus had been noted by Nesbitt and colleagues in 2015, including confluent nares, serrated teeth and low cervical spines, but their analysis favoured a position in Allokotosauria basal to azendohsaurids. The 2017 analysis also confirmed the close relationship between A. laaroussii and A. madagaskarensis within Azendohsauridae, strengthening their shared referral to the genus Azendohsaurus. A 2018 analysis of Triassic archosauromorphs failed to recover Allokotosauria, but still recovered both species of Azendohsaurus within a clade of azendohsaurids. The cladogram below follows the results of Sengupta and colleagues in 2017:
A 2022 phylogenetic analysis supported a monophyletic Allokotosauria and confirmed that Azendohsaurus was a sister taxon of Shringasaurus, and that the clade consisting of the two genera was in turn most closely related to Malerisaurus and Pamelaria.
Evolutionary significance
The number of convergent traits shared between Azendohsaurus and sauropodomorph dinosaurs is remarkably high, especially as all the shared features are interpreted as being homoplastic, meaning that they evolved completely independently of each other. Some of the shared adaptations of the skeleton between Azendohsaurus and sauropodomorphs were previously considered to be unique to sauropodomorphs. However, the convergent evolution of these traits in Azendohsaurus as adaptations towards a herbivorous lifestyle show that they may be more broadly distributed amongst Triassic archosauromorphs, and do not necessarily indicate a close relationship to sauropodomorphs in fossil taxa.
The pattern of convergences in Azendohsaurus is unusual, as they appear to have arisen in only the front half of the animal, while the sprawling back legs and short tail of Azendohsaurus are characteristically primitive of earlier archosauromorphs, very unlike the columnar hind limbs and long tail of sauropodomorphs. This further highlights the non-uniform distribution and acquisition of typically sauropodomorph traits in other herbivorous archosauromorphs.
The age of Azendohsaurus is also significant, as it was roughly coeval with the earliest known sauropodomorphs from Carnian South America, such as the lightweight, bipedal Saturnalia. However, Azendohsaurus resembles the later Norian sauropodomorphs more closely, both in general anatomy and its larger body size. This suggests that azendohsaurids had been the first reptiles to evolve as high browsing herbivores in Triassic ecosystems, prior to the evolution of the larger sauropodomorphs, which had previously been assumed to have been the first high browsing herbivores. It also indicates that the convergence between Azendohsaurus and sauropodomorphs did not occur under the same environmental circumstances, as Azendohsaurus was part of an initial wave of herbivory in archosauromorphs (along with rhynchosaurs, silesaurids and cynodonts) and large sauropodomorphs in a second wave (along with herbivorous pseudosuchians).
Azendohsaurus also demonstrates that archosauromorphs were occupying roles as large herbivores in Triassic ecosystems earlier in their evolutionary history than had been assumed. These roles were previously thought to be dominated by large synapsids such as dicynodonts prior to the radiation of archosaurs in the Late Triassic, but Azendohsaurus suggests that earlier archosauromorphs were also capable of competing with synapsid herbivores.
Palaeobiology
Feeding and diet
The leaf-shaped teeth of Azendohsaurus are clearly suited for a herbivorous lifestyle, and microwear—marks left on the tooth surface during feeding—on the teeth of A. madagaskarensis suggest they were used for browsing on vegetation that was not especially tough or woody, preferring softer (but firm) vegetation. The microwear patterns also show that it used a simple up-and-down motion of the jaw, and did not use complex jaw movement to chew its food like ornithischian dinosaurs or contemporary cynodonts. This microwear has not yet been observed on the teeth of A. laaroussii, but it is unknown if this is a genuine feature relating to a difference in diet and feeding habits between the two species or if it is just a feature of preservation.
The fully developed palatal teeth suggest that it was using them for feeding in a specialised manner. However, no functional studies have been performed on the palatal teeth so it is unknown exactly what they were used for, although their similar shape to the marginal teeth suggests they were used for processing similar food. A pterygoid from a younger individual of A. madagaskarensis has fewer rows of palatal teeth that are smaller in size than those of the larger, mature individuals, indicating that Azendohsaurus increased both the number and size of its palatal teeth as it grew into adulthood. Younger individuals also had fewer dentary teeth than adults, although the difference was much less extreme compared to the palatal teeth (16 compared to the 17 of mature specimens).
Body posture
The body posture inferred for Azendohsaurus is a mixture of sprawled and semi-sprawled. The hind limbs have been interpreted as being completely sprawled outwards from the body, with its femur held straight out and the lower leg bent 90° beneath it at the knee, like a lizard. The forelimbs and shoulder girdle, however, suggest that the front of the body was held more upright than the hind quarters, with a partly downward directed shoulder socket and a humerus more suited for being held partially erect, and was similar in shape to those of sauropodomorphs. This unusual combination suggests that Azendohsaurus stood with its front end raised up off from the ground, which combined with its long, arched neck and small head, allowed it to browse relatively high off the ground, unlike contemporary low-browsing rhynchosaurs and cynodonts. Adapting to high-browsing could possibly explain the convergence between Azendohsaurus and sauropodomorphs, acquiring similar traits of the neck, forelimbs and spine to perform in similar niches. However, the more sprawling posture of Azendohsaurus probably inhibited high-browsing like that of the fully erect sauropodomorphs.
Palaeopathology
Despite the multitude of specimens present in the bone bed that was examined, only a single pathology has been recorded in A. madagaskarensis. Specimen UA 7-16-99-620, one of the three preserved interclavicles, had been malformed so that the long posterior process had been sharply bent to the right, compared to the normal straight posterior processes of the other two interclavicles.
Metabolism and growth
In 2019, thin slices were cut from the humerus, femur and tibia of specimens attributed to A. laaroussii for histological examination of the microscopic bone structure to try and determine the rate of growth in Azendohsaurus. The vascular density (the density of blood vessels in the bone tissue) in all three limb bones was found to be comparable to those of fast-growing birds and mammals, and the types of bone tissue identified—particularly energy-consuming fibrolamellar bone tissue—were interpreted as indicating a high resting metabolic rate that was in the range of living birds and mammals. It was inferred then that, like birds and mammals, Azendohsaurus would also likewise have been endothermic, or "warm-blooded". High resting metabolic rates similar to those of Azendohsaurus had been identified in other more derived archosauromorphs (such as Prolacerta), and analyses suggested that endothermy may then have been ancestrally present in archosauromorphs as far back as their common ancestor with allokotosaurs. This suggests that Azendohsaurus may then have been ancestrally endothermic. By contrast, the related allokotosaur Trilophosaurus was previously found to not have any fibrolamellar bone tissue in its limb bones and so was inferred to have grown slowly.
Palaeoecology
Although the two species of Azendohsaurus are known from disparate locations in North Africa and Madagascar, during the Middle to Late Triassic these regions were connected as part of the supercontinent Pangaea. Because of this, the two regions share broadly similar faunas, as well as sharing some with other regions of the globe at the time. For example, the cynodonts in Madagascar are similar to those also found in South America, and the Moroccan temnospondyls may be related to those found in eastern North America. The climate was hot and dry at this time, but with evidence suggesting higher levels of rainfall during the Carnian, interrupting the increasing aridity trend and creating wetter environments around the globe.
Timezgadiouine Formation, Morocco
Other reptiles from the base of the Irohalene (T5) member of the Timezgadiouine Formation contemporaneous with A. laaroussii include the phytosaur Arganarhinus, the predatory rauisuchid Arganasuchus, the herbivorous silesaurid Diodorus, a paratypothoracisine aetosaur, and procolophonid parareptiles, as well as the stahleckeriid dicynodont Moghreberia, a synapsid. Temnospondyl amphibians are represented by several genera of metoposauroids, including the metoposaurids Arganasaurus and Dutuitosaurus, and the latiscopid Almasaurus. Fish are also known from the T5 member, including various ray-finned actinopterygians such as the locally endemic Dipteronotus gibbosus and Mauritanichthys, as well as other perleidiform and redfieldiiform fishes, alongside lobe-finned actinistians and lungfish such as Asiatoceratodus.
The T5 member is composed of cyclical layers of bioturbated mudstone and sandstone deposited in a broad, semi-humid basin. It has been interpreted as a system of brackish permanent lakes and sandbars, or alternatively sandy meandering rivers on a muddy floodplain. The fluvial or lacustrine sediments of the T5 member contrast with the playa sediments of the preceding T4 member, suggesting that it was deposited during an interval of increased rainfall.
Numerous tracks and trackways from various animals are preserved, typically those of animals known from fossil remains such as phytosaurs, pseudosuchians, dinosauromorphs and basal archosauromorphs. The tracks also appear to indicate the presence of large to very-large dinosauromorphs or paracrocodylomorphs that are currently not yet known from skeletal remains. Additional traces mark the presence of burrowing invertebrates, bivalves, and clam shrimps.
Makay Formation, Madagascar
In Madagascar, Azendohsaurus co-existed with the hyperodapedontine rhynchosaur Isalorhynchus, the herbivorous traversodontid cynodonts Dadadon and Menadon, and the predatory chiniquodontid cynodont Chiniquodon kalanoro, as well as an undescribed kannemeyeriiform dicynodont, a sphenodontian reptile, a procolophonid parareptile, the diminutive lagerpetid Kongonaphon, various other undescribed dinosauromorphs, and an "enigmatic archosaur" of uncertain classification. The faunal composition of the Isalo II is believed to represent a Middle Triassic Ladinian aged assemblage, existing prior to the appearance of dinosaurs and associated Late Triassic faunas, particularly aetosaurs and phytosaurs that are absent from the formation, and also inferred from the dominance of traversodonts in the fauna. However, this age assessment remains uncertain, and the formation is possibly from the younger early Late Triassic during the Carnian, as has been proposed for the T5 member of the Argana Formation.
Fossils of A. madagaskarensis have been exclusively recovered from a deposit of fine grained red mudstone, while other fossil bearing localities in the formation consist of medium grained channel sands, possibly reflecting a habitat preference in the ecosystem distinct from other animals or unique behavioural trait. The absence of any other species in the bone bed may also support this. However, this speculation cannot be confirmed, and it could instead be attributed to preservation bias.
Possible niche partitioning in diet, though, is supported by differences in the tooth microwear of A. madagaskarensis and the contemporary traversodont Dadadon. Dadadon was inferred to be capable of feeding on tough, hardy vegetation by using complex chewing, in contrast to the simpler dentition and processing of Azendohsaurus, which was better suited for eating leaves. This may also be supported by its more elevated body posture and long neck.
References
Allokotosaurs
Prehistoric reptile genera
Middle Triassic reptiles of Africa
Late Triassic reptiles of Africa
Fossils of Morocco
Fossils of Madagascar
Triassic Madagascar
Fossil taxa described in 1972 |
4290527 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996%20NASCAR%20Winston%20Cup%20Series | 1996 NASCAR Winston Cup Series | The 1996 NASCAR Winston Cup Series was the 48th season of professional stock car racing in the United States and the 25th modern-era NASCAR Cup series. The season had been started on February 18 at Daytona International Speedway, and ended on November 10 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. The season would be remembered for Terry Labonte pulling off a massive upset and winning his second Winston Cup Championship over teammate Jeff Gordon.
Pontiac’s struggles in 1995 carried over to 1996, scoring just one win in the Dura Lube 500 with Bobby Hamilton. Hamilton was also the only Pontiac driver to finish in the top ten in points standings, placing ninth.
Teams and drivers
Complete schedule
Limited schedule
Schedule
Races
Busch Clash
The Busch Clash is the exhibition race that honors the drivers who won a pole in the NASCAR Winston Cup Series the previous year. Dale Jarrett won his first Busch Clash. Rick Mast won the random draw for the pole.
Top ten results
88-Dale Jarrett
4-Sterling Marlin
3-Dale Earnhardt
5-Terry Labonte
25-Ken Schrader
10-Ricky Rudd
6-Mark Martin
94-Bill Elliott
24-Jeff Gordon
16-Ted Musgrave
Gatorade Twin 125s
The Gatorade Twin 125s, qualifying races for the Daytona 500, were held on February 15.
Race one top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
4-Sterling Marlin
5-Terry Labonte
88-Dale Jarrett
15-Wally Dallenbach Jr.
21-Michael Waltrip
22-Ward Burton
6-Mark Martin
90-Mike Wallace
23-Jimmy Spencer
Marlin passed Earnhardt on the opening lap but Earnhardt repassed and led the last 22 laps.
Bobby Labonte flipped over on the backstretch after being tagged by Brett Bodine.
Race two top ten results
28-Ernie Irvan
25-Ken Schrader
37-John Andretti
24-Jeff Gordon
10-Ricky Rudd
75-Morgan Shepherd
98-Jeremy Mayfield
99-Jeff Burton
27-Elton Sawyer
16-Ted Musgrave
Irvan led wire-to-wire with Schrader alongside in the final lap.
Daytona 500
Top ten results:
88-Dale Jarrett
3-Dale Earnhardt
25-Ken Schrader
6-Mark Martin
99-Jeff Burton
15-Wally Dallenbach Jr.
16-Ted Musgrave
94-Bill Elliott
10-Ricky Rudd
21-Michael Waltrip
This was Dale Jarrett's second career Daytona 500 victory. He also won the 1996 Busch Clash. Both of those victories saw Dale Earnhardt finish second to Jarrett.
When the white flag was displayed, play-by-play analyst Ken Squier gave the privileges to color analyst Ned Jarrett so he can call the final lap solo and lead his son on to the victory, as he did in 1993.
Goodwrench Service 400
The Goodwrench Service 400 was held on February 25 at North Carolina Speedway. The #5 of Terry Labonte won the pole.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
88-Dale Jarrett
41-Ricky Craven
10-Ricky Rudd
29-Steve Grissom
4-Sterling Marlin
81-Kenny Wallace
12-Derrike Cope, 1 lap down
87-Joe Nemechek, 1 lap down
1-Rick Mast, 2 laps down
On lap 343 Earnhardt and Bobby Hamilton had traded the lead three times in the previous three laps when Earnhardt punted Hamilton in Turn Four; Hamilton scraped the wall and later crashed because of damage from the earlier scrape.
Failed to qualify: 27-Elton Sawyer, 78-Randy MacDonald, 93-Gary Bradberry, 63-Dick Trickle
Pontiac Excitement 400
The Pontiac Excitement 400 was run on March 3 at Richmond International Raceway. Terry Labonte won the pole.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
88-Dale Jarrett
16-Ted Musgrave
99-Jeff Burton
6-Mark Martin
43-Bobby Hamilton
2-Rusty Wallace
5-Terry Labonte
10-Ricky Rudd
94-Bill Elliott
Failed to qualify: 78-Randy MacDonald, 02-Robbie Faggart, 19-Dick Trickle
Coming into this race, Terry Labonte had led the most laps at Daytona and Rockingham but was 30th in the points standings, while Jeff Gordon was 43rd. After this race they were 17th and 27th, respectively.
Purolator 500
The Purolator 500 was run on March 10 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. The No. 30 of Johnny Benson won the pole, but crashed in Happy Hour, forcing him to a backup car (and to the back of the field for the start).
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
5-Terry Labonte
24-Jeff Gordon
28-Ernie Irvan
98-Jeremy Mayfield
25-Ken Schrader
23-Jimmy Spencer, 1 lap down
10-Ricky Rudd, 1 lap down
21-Michael Waltrip, 1 lap down
94-Bill Elliott, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 65-Steve Seligman, 78-Randy MacDonald, 99-Jeff Burton
Jeff Burton failing to qualify sparked a lot of controversy, as he was 2nd in the points standings going into this race. Provisionals for the first 4 races defaulted from 1995 driver and owner points, and he missed the field due to the 99 car being a new team. As a result, he fell from 2nd to 14th in the standings and never found his way back into the top 10 in points the rest of the season.
This race would be the last victory for Dale Earnhardt until the 1998 Daytona 500.
TranSouth Financial 400
The TranSouth Financial 400 was run on March 24 at Darlington Raceway. Ward Burton won the pole.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
18-Bobby Labonte
41-Ricky Craven
2-Rusty Wallace
5-Terry Labonte
6-Mark Martin
16-Ted Musgrave
75-Morgan Shepherd, 1 lap down
10-Ricky Rudd, 1 lap down
99-Jeff Burton, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 95-Chuck Bown, 78-Randy MacDonald, 02-Robbie Faggart, 32-Jimmy Hensley
Food City 500
The Food City 500 was run on March 31 at Bristol International Raceway. Mark Martin won the pole. The race was shortened to 342 laps due to rain.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
5-Terry Labonte
6-Mark Martin
3-Dale Earnhardt
2-Rusty Wallace
88-Dale Jarrett
18-Bobby Labonte, 1 lap down
19-Dick Trickle, 1 lap down
41-Ricky Craven, 1 lap down
21-Michael Waltrip, 2 laps down
Failed to qualify: 90-Mike Wallace, 37-John Andretti, 30-Johnny Benson, 71-Dave Marcis, 77-Bobby Hillin Jr., 95-Chuck Bown
There were 3 red flags during the race. Prior to the first red flag, Bill Elliott crashed on lap 321 prior to the caution for rain. After the race resumed following a 1-hour rain delay, Darrell Waltrip crashed and spilled fuel, which caused another stoppage on lap 335. Moments after the race resumed, more rain came down. With dusk settling in, the rain continued and the race was stopped.
Final race at this track under the name Bristol International Raceway.
First Union 400
The First Union 400 was run on April 14 at North Wilkesboro Speedway. Terry Labonte won the pole.
Top ten results
5-Terry Labonte
24-Jeff Gordon
3-Dale Earnhardt
33-Robert Pressley
4-Sterling Marlin
28-Ernie Irvan, 1 lap down
41-Ricky Craven, 1 lap down
43-Bobby Hamilton, 2 laps down
25-Ken Schrader, 2 laps down
18-Bobby Labonte, 2 laps down
Failed to qualify: 71-Dave Marcis, 78-Randy MacDonald, 90-Mike Wallace, 22-Ward Burton, 77-Bobby Hillin Jr.
This was the first race run at North Wilkesboro following the passing of track president Enoch Staley, which threw the track's NASCAR future into doubt.
Terry Labonte tied Richard Petty's record streak of 513 consecutive Winston Cup Series starts. Labonte's car carried a special silver "Ironman" paint scheme for this race and the following weekend at Martinsville.
Goody's Headache Powder 500
The Goody's Headache Powder 500 was run on April 21 at Martinsville Speedway. The #41 of Ricky Craven won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
28-Ernie Irvan
24-Jeff Gordon
98-Jeremy Mayfield
3-Dale Earnhardt
43-Bobby Hamilton, 1 lap down
25-Ken Schrader, 2 laps down
18-Bobby Labonte, 2 laps down
16-Ted Musgrave, 2 laps down
4-Sterling Marlin, 2 laps down
Failed to qualify: 78-Randy MacDonald, 27-Elton Sawyer, 29-Steve Grissom, 19-Dick Trickle, 77-Bobby Hillin Jr., 15-Wally Dallenbach Jr., 22-Ward Burton
Terry Labonte, by starting this race, broke the record for most consecutive starts with his 514th consecutive start. The previous record, 513, was held by Richard Petty. A special "Iron Man" paint scheme was used to commemorate this feat.
Winston Select 500
The Winston Select 500 was run on April 28 at Talladega Superspeedway. Ernie Irvan won the pole.
Top 10 results
4-Sterling Marlin
88-Dale Jarrett
3-Dale Earnhardt
5-Terry Labonte
21-Michael Waltrip
29-Steve Grissom
33-Robert Pressley
16-Ted Musgrave
37-John Andretti
30-Johnny Benson
Failed to qualify: 73-Phil Barkdoll, 65-Steve Seligman, 77-Bobby Hillin Jr., 0-Delma Cowart, 97-Chad Little
Controversy developed before the race; after winning the pole, Ernie Irvan's Ford was taken to a flatbed-mounted chassis dynamometer and "driven" by Gary Nelson to check horsepower; the engine was over-revved and subsequently damaged beyond repair. Sterling Marlin's Chevrolet was supposed to be tested as well but the chassis dyno failed to produce a horsepower figure and the test was scrapped. Several reporters in the garage area questioned Nelson on the test and crew chief Larry McReynolds got into a heated dispute with Nelson over the test. Irvan struggled in the race and reacted after the Ricky Craven crash where he was buried in midpack, "It's all a result of what happened on Friday when (NASCAR) blew our motor up."
Two major accidents marred the race: Bill Elliott suffered a broken femur after going airborne and landing driver side-first in a single-car crash on lap 77. Then, "The Big One" hit on lap 130, collecting 14 cars and sending the #41 of Ricky Craven flying into the catch fence and nearly over it. The race was red-flagged for clean-up on lap 131 because Craven's car had completely destroyed the catch fence in turn two. Bob Jenkins, ESPN's lap-by-lap announcer, was so shocked by the crash that he said "Oh shit!" over the raw satellite feed when Craven's car was flipping. Craven sustained compression fractures in his back and a concussion, injuries that derailed what had been a successful 1996 campaign. Fourth in points going into the race, Craven fell to twentieth by season’s end.
Sterling Marlin won by passing the entire field on three separate occasions after pit stops.
Save Mart Supermarkets 300
The Save Mart Supermarkets 300 was run on May 5 at Sears Point Raceway. Terry Labonte won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
6-Mark Martin
15-Wally Dallenbach Jr.
3-Dale Earnhardt
5-Terry Labonte
24-Jeff Gordon
10-Ricky Rudd
25-Ken Schrader
18-Bobby Labonte
22-Ward Burton
Failed to qualify: 07-Geoff Bodine, 45-Chad Little, 20-Mark Krogh, 03-Joe Bean, 58-Wayne Jacks, 02-Bill McAnally, 07W-Lance Hooper (Note: Bodine replaced Dave Rezendes in the No. 7 in the race)
Tommy Kendall and Ron Hornaday Jr. served as relief drivers for Bill Elliott and Ricky Craven respectively for this race.
The Winston Select
The Winston is the 2nd exhibition race run each year at Charlotte Motor Speedway. Jimmy Spencer won the Winston Select Open, while Lake Speed, Hut Stricklin, Jeff Burton and Michael Waltrip transferred into the race by finishing in the top 5. Jeff Gordon won the pole.
Top ten results
21-Michael Waltrip
2-Rusty Wallace
3-Dale Earnhardt
6-Mark Martin
5-Terry Labonte
10-Ricky Rudd
28-Ernie Irvan
24-Jeff Gordon
88-Dale Jarrett
4-Sterling Marlin
Harry Gant came out of retirement for this race to sub for Bill Elliott who was recovering from the injuries he suffered at Talladega in April.
Coca-Cola 600
The Coca-Cola 600 was run on May 26 at Charlotte Motor Speedway. Jeff Gordon won the pole.
Top ten results
88-Dale Jarrett
3-Dale Earnhardt
5-Terry Labonte
24-Jeff Gordon
25-Ken Schrader, 1 lap down
4-Sterling Marlin, 1 lap down
6-Mark Martin, 1 lap down
21-Michael Waltrip, 1 lap down
28-Ernie Irvan, 2 laps down
7-Geoff Bodine, 2 laps down
Failed to qualify: 78-Randy MacDonald, 63-Ed Berrier, 26-Hermie Sadler, 49-Mark Gibson, 02-Robbie Faggart, 0-Delma Cowart, 57-Steve Seligman
Johnny Benson was knocked unconscious briefly when his Pontiac hit the turn two wall then slid into the path of Ricky Craven, who blasted through the rear deck of his car at full speed.
Miller 500 (Dover)
The Miller 500 was run on June 2 at Dover Downs International Speedway. Jeff Gordon won the pole.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
5-Terry Labonte
3-Dale Earnhardt
28-Ernie Irvan
18-Bobby Labonte, 1 lap down
23-Jimmy Spencer, 1 lap down
2-Rusty Wallace, 1 lap down
10-Ricky Rudd, 1 lap down
99-Jeff Burton, 1 lap down
25-Ken Schrader, 1 lap down
No DNQ
UAW-GM Teamwork 500
The UAW-GM Teamwork 500 was run on June 16 at Pocono Raceway. Jeff Gordon won the pole.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
10-Ricky Rudd
7-Geoff Bodine
6-Mark Martin
43-Bobby Hamilton
75-Morgan Shepherd
5-Terry Labonte
23-Jimmy Spencer
99-Jeff Burton
94-Todd Bodine*
Failed to qualify: 71-Dave Marcis
Todd Bodine was subbing for Bill Elliott, who was still recovering from his broken femur at Talladega.
It was the first race at Pocono since the track was repaved; the lead changed two to three times a lap on some ten separate laps during the race's first half, primarily between Gordon, Hut Stricklin, and Derrike Cope.
Miller 400 (Michigan)
The Miller 400 was run on June 23 at Michigan Speedway. The #43 of Bobby Hamilton won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
5-Terry Labonte
4-Sterling Marlin
23-Jimmy Spencer
28-Ernie Irvan
24-Jeff Gordon
6-Mark Martin
16-Ted Musgrave
3-Dale Earnhardt
88-Dale Jarrett
No DNQ
Pepsi 400
The Pepsi 400 was run on July 6 at Daytona International Speedway. Jeff Gordon started on the pole. The race was shortened to 117 laps due to rain.
Top ten results
4-Sterling Marlin
5-Terry Labonte
24-Jeff Gordon
3-Dale Earnhardt
28-Ernie Irvan
88-Dale Jarrett
21-Michael Waltrip
25-Ken Schrader
11-Brett Bodine
23-Jimmy Spencer
Failed to qualify: 57-Steve Seligman
Bill Elliott returned in this race from his broken femur suffered back at Talladega.
Morning rain delayed the start for 3 hours. After only 117 of 160 laps, the race was red-flagged and ended for rain once again.
Jiffy Lube 300
The Jiffy Lube 300 was run on July 14 at New Hampshire International Speedway. The #41 of Ricky Craven won the pole.
Top ten results
28-Ernie Irvan
88-Dale Jarrett
10-Ricky Rudd
99-Jeff Burton
33-Robert Pressley
5-Terry Labonte
2-Rusty Wallace
25-Ken Schrader
30-Johnny Benson
21-Michael Waltrip
Failed to qualify: 19-Loy Allen Jr.
This was Ernie Irvan's 1st victory since his comeback from his near-fatal injuries at Michigan in 1994.
Miller 500 (Pocono)
The Miller 500 was run on July 21 at Pocono Raceway. Mark Martin won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
10-Ricky Rudd
88-Dale Jarrett
28-Ernie Irvan
30-Johnny Benson
4-Sterling Marlin
24-Jeff Gordon
9-Lake Speed
6-Mark Martin
12-Derrike Cope
No DNQ
DieHard 500
The DieHard 500 was run on July 28 at Talladega Superspeedway. The #98 of Jeremy Mayfield won the pole. The race was shortened to 129 laps due to darkness.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
88-Dale Jarrett
6-Mark Martin
28-Ernie Irvan
23-Jimmy Spencer
7-Geoff Bodine
99-Jeff Burton
18-Bobby Labonte
17-Darrell Waltrip
2-Rusty Wallace
Failed to qualify: 97-Chad Little
The race started late due to rain delays, and was marred by "The Big One" on lap 117 that injured Dale Earnhardt after he, Ernie Irvan and Sterling Marlin got together, sending Earnhardt and Marlin head-on into the tri-oval wall at approximately 200 miles per hour. Earnhardt flipped onto his roof and collected 11 other cars. Earnhardt took a hit to the roof from Robert Pressley's #33 and another big hit from Derrike Cope's #12. Earnhardt suffered a broken collarbone and sternum in the crash. Marlin suffered several contusions from the hard impact. Due to darkness caused by the rain delay and red flag, the race was shortened to 129 laps.
CBS moved away from its live coverage of the race during the rain delay in order to show the final round of the Senior PGA Tour Ameritech Senior Open. The race aired flag to flag on tape delay the following week (August 4). This is the most recent time a NASCAR points race was televised on tape delay.
The final time that Talladega's second race was run in July, which was run since the inaugural running. For the 1997 schedule, the race was moved to October where temperatures would be cooler and the weather more suitable. Today, the race remains in the October slot on the schedule.
Brickyard 400
The Brickyard 400 was run on August 3 at Indianapolis Motor Speedway. The #24 of Jeff Gordon won the pole.
Top ten results
88-Dale Jarrett
28-Ernie Irvan
5-Terry Labonte
6-Mark Martin
75-Morgan Shepherd
10-Ricky Rudd
2-Rusty Wallace
30-Johnny Benson
1-Rick Mast
94-Bill Elliott
Failed to qualify: 91-Ron Barfield Jr., 27-Jason Keller, 78-Randy MacDonald, 46-Stacy Compton, 02-Robbie Faggart, 50-A. J. Foyt, 57-Steve Seligman, 44-Jeff Purvis, 19-Loy Allen Jr., 49-Erik Smith, 63-Mike Wallace
Jarrett took the lead for good when he passed his teammate Irvan in the south chute with 7 laps to go. The race ended under caution when Robert Pressley crashed in turn 4 with 2 laps left.
Dale Earnhardt had to be relieved by Mike Skinner as a result of the injuries Earnhardt suffered the previous week at Talladega. Skinner took over the car during the first caution and drove the car to a 15th place finish.
A violent crash occurred on lap 38 when Kyle Petty blew his right front tire and hit the turn 4 wall. Petty drifted into the path of Sterling Marlin, who hit Petty on the driver's side. Petty's car bounced into the wall again, just in front of Mark Martin who barely managed to get by, then sped across the track and hard into the inside barrier. Petty escaped with minor injuries.
During the weekend, a fight erupted in the garage area between Ernie Irvan and Sterling Marlin and some crewmen from Morgan-McClure Motorsports over the crash at Talladega the previous weekend. Some of Marlin's crew had posted signs in the garage area deriding Irvan and mocking his eyesight.
The Bud at The Glen
The Bud at The Glen was run on August 11 at Watkins Glen International. Dale Earnhardt won the pole with a new track record of 120.733 mph while driving with the injuries suffered 2 weeks earlier. When asked what he thought of the lap, he was quoted as saying "It hurt so good." 1994 NASCAR Busch Series Champion David Green was standing by to relieve Earnhardt during the race, but Earnhardt decided to drive the full race eventually finishing 6th.
Top ten results
7-Geoff Bodine
5-Terry Labonte
6-Mark Martin
24-Jeff Gordon
18-Bobby Labonte
3-Dale Earnhardt
21-Michael Waltrip
87-Joe Nemechek
75-Morgan Shepherd
15-Wally Dallenbach Jr.
Failed to qualify: 34-Mike McLaughlin
Geoff Bodine from nearby Chemung broke a 55-race winless streak, dating back to October 2 in the 1994 Tyson Holly Farms 400. It was an emotional and very popular victory for Bodine, following a 2-year struggle with his competitiveness and his personal life.
This was the last win for Geoff Bodine.
This was the last pole position for Dale Earnhardt.
Geoff Bodine had won by short pitting - stopping before he needed fuel and tires so that he could stay out and improve track position when everyone else went to the pits.
As of 2022, this is the last time that car number 7 went to victory lane.
In addition to David Green; Dorsey Schroeder replaced an injured Bill Elliott in Elliott's #94 car (Elliott would serve as a guest commentator on ESPN's coverage until lap 54) and Todd Bodine, the youngest brother of eventual race winner Geoff, ended up relieving Kyle Petty after Petty was unable to continue due to the effects of his own injuries from the Brickyard 400 a week prior.
GM Goodwrench Dealer 400
The GM Goodwrench Dealer 400 was run on August 18 at Michigan Speedway. Jeff Burton won the pole.
Top ten results
88-Dale Jarrett
6-Mark Martin
5-Terry Labonte
28-Ernie Irvan
24-Jeff Gordon
18-Bobby Labonte
30-Johnny Benson
10-Ricky Rudd
99-Jeff Burton
23-Jimmy Spencer
Failed to qualify: 14-Ron Hornaday Jr., 27-Elton Sawyer
Goody's Headache Powder 500 (Bristol)
The Goody's Headache Powder 500 was run on August 24 at Bristol Motor Speedway. Mark Martin won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
24-Jeff Gordon
6-Mark Martin
88-Dale Jarrett
5-Terry Labonte
21-Michael Waltrip
23-Jimmy Spencer
22-Ward Burton
10-Ricky Rudd
43-Bobby Hamilton
Failed to qualify: 77-Bobby Hillin Jr.
Mountain Dew Southern 500
The Mountain Dew Southern 500 was run on September 1 at Darlington Raceway. Dale Jarrett won the pole and had the chance to win the Winston Million if he won the race. Jarrett lost his chance at the bonus after hitting oil early in the race.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
8-Hut Stricklin
6-Mark Martin
25-Ken Schrader, 1 lap down
37-John Andretti, 1 lap down
18-Bobby Labonte, 1 lap down
28-Ernie Irvan, 1 lap down
4-Sterling Marlin, 1 lap down
94-Bill Elliott, 1 lap down
9-Lake Speed, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 78-Randy MacDonald, 87-Joe Nemechek, 40-Jay Sauter, 02-Robbie Faggart
Hut Stricklin led the most laps in the race and was in position for his first career Winston Cup victory in his 217th start, but Jeff Gordon started to reel him in. After a long battle, Gordon passed Stricklin for the lead on the backstretch on lap 353 and proceeded to win by over 5 seconds.
Miller 400 (Richmond)
The Miller 400 was run on September 7 at Richmond International Raceway. Mark Martin won the pole.
Top ten results
28-Ernie Irvan
24-Jeff Gordon
99-Jeff Burton
88-Dale Jarrett
5-Terry Labonte
2-Rusty Wallace
43-Bobby Hamilton
12-Derrike Cope
6-Mark Martin
30-Johnny Benson
Failed to qualify: 46-Stacy Compton, 40-Jay Sauter, 95-Gary Bradberry
A driver change happened during the week after Darlington. Kranefuss-Haas Racing's No. 37 and Cale Yarborough Motorsports' No. 98 switched drivers. So John Andretti moved to the No. 98 and Jeremy Mayfield moved to the No. 37.
MBNA 500
The MBNA 500 was run on September 15 at Dover Downs International Speedway. Bobby Labonte won the pole.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
2-Rusty Wallace
88-Dale Jarrett
18-Bobby Labonte
6-Mark Martin
1-Rick Mast
22-Ward Burton
42-Kyle Petty
21-Michael Waltrip
43-Bobby Hamilton
Failed to qualify: 49-Eric Smith
On lap 456, a wreck involving the #23 of Jimmy Spencer, the #16 of Ted Musgrave, the #11 of Brett Bodine and the #15 of Wally Dallenbach Jr. occurred on the front straight. Spencer blamed Dallenbach for the wreck, and after the cars rolled to a stop, Spencer got out of his car, ran over to Dallenbach's, and tried to punch Wally through the window net. Spencer had to be restrained by a Winston Cup official.
Another fight occurred in the garage area when Derrike Cope crashed and was assaulted by crew chief Larry McReynolds over an earlier wreck that eliminated Ernie Irvan.
As the cars stopped on pit road after the race a third fight occurred as Kyle Petty and Michael Waltrip got into an argument.
Hanes 500
The Hanes 500 was run on September 22 at Martinsville Speedway. Bobby Hamilton won the pole.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
5-Terry Labonte
43-Bobby Hamilton
1-Rick Mast
98-John Andretti
75-Morgan Shepherd
7-Geoff Bodine
42-Kyle Petty
6-Mark Martin, 1 lap down
81-Kenny Wallace, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 12-Derrike Cope, 11-Brett Bodine, 29-Chad Little, 22-Ward Burton, 78-Billy Standridge, 95-Gary Bradberry
This is the fastest Martinsville race in NASCAR history, with an average speed of 82.223 mph.
Tyson Holly Farms 400
The Tyson Holly Farms 400 was run on September 29 at North Wilkesboro Speedway. Ted Musgrave won the pole.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
3-Dale Earnhardt
88-Dale Jarrett
99-Jeff Burton
5-Terry Labonte
1-Rick Mast
10-Ricky Rudd
43-Bobby Hamilton
6-Mark Martin
2-Rusty Wallace
Failed to qualify: 22-Ward Burton, 90-Dick Trickle, 95-Gary Bradberry
This was the final NASCAR race at North Wilkesboro Speedway until 2023, which closed down after the race. It was the only track other than Martinsville that NASCAR had been running at since NASCAR's first full season in 1949.
10th and final win of 1996 for Jeff Gordon.
Jeff Gordon became the 1st driver since Rusty Wallace in 1993 to score 10 victories in a single season.
This was the final race until New Hampshire in September 2007 that had every car running at the finish.
Only 37 cars started this race. It was the last Cup Series race in which fewer than 40 cars started until the 2016 Folds of Honor QuikTrip 500, the second race after NASCAR reduced field sizes in the Cup Series from 43 to 40. A total of 39 cars entered that race.
UAW-GM Quality 500
The UAW-GM Quality 500 was run on October 6 at Charlotte Motor Speedway. The #18 of Bobby Labonte won the pole.
Top ten results
5-Terry Labonte
6-Mark Martin
88-Dale Jarrett
4-Sterling Marlin
41-Ricky Craven
3-Dale Earnhardt
22-Ward Burton
2-Rusty Wallace
21-Michael Waltrip
94-Bill Elliott
Ernie Irvan escaped serious injury in a savage melee when he spun in turn two, clipped Robby Gordon, then slid into the path of John Andretti, who annihilated the nose of Irvan's Ford while Gordon hit the inside concrete wall and dislodged it.
With Terry Labonte winning the race, and Jeff Gordon finishing 31st, Gordon went from a 111 point lead to a 1 point lead over Labonte.
Final time in his career that Terry Labonte won multiple races in a season.
Failed to qualify: 87-Joe Nemechek, 95-Gary Bradberry, 71-Dave Marcis, 02-Robbie Faggart, 0-Delma Cowart
AC Delco 400
The AC Delco 400 was run on October 20 at North Carolina Motor Speedway. Dale Jarrett won the pole.
Top ten results
10-Ricky Rudd
88-Dale Jarrett
5-Terry Labonte
28-Ernie Irvan
99-Jeff Burton
18-Bobby Labonte
6-Mark Martin
2-Rusty Wallace
3-Dale Earnhardt
23-Jimmy Spencer
Failed to qualify: 60-Ed Berrier, 79-Norm Benning, 82-Terry Byers
Terry Labonte finished 3rd, and Jeff Gordon would finish 12th. Labonte gained 33 points on Gordon in this race. With that points gain, Labonte would become the new point leader by 32 points over Gordon, and he would hold on to the point lead for the rest of the season.
Dura Lube 500
The Dura Lube 500 was run on October 27 at Phoenix International Raceway. Bobby Labonte won the pole.
Top ten results
43-Bobby Hamilton
6-Mark Martin
5-Terry Labonte
16-Ted Musgrave
24-Jeff Gordon
7-Geoff Bodine
28-Ernie Irvan
88-Dale Jarrett
18-Bobby Labonte
17-Darrell Waltrip
Failed to qualify: 20-Mark Krogh, 00-Scott Gaylord, 35-Larry Gunselman, 38-Rich Woodland, 03-Joe Bean, 02-Bill McAnnally
This was Bobby Hamilton's first career Winston Cup Series win, and the first for the Petty Enterprises team since 1983 (it was the first for the No. 43 car since 1984 when Richard Petty won driving for Mike Curb).
NAPA 500
The NAPA 500 was run on November 10 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. Bobby Labonte won the pole.
Top ten results
18-Bobby Labonte
88-Dale Jarrett
24-Jeff Gordon
3-Dale Earnhardt
5-Terry Labonte
43-Bobby Hamilton
6-Mark Martin
10-Ricky Rudd
99-Jeff Burton
2-Rusty Wallace
Failed to qualify: 12-Derrike Cope, 37-Jeremy Mayfield, 90-Dick Trickle, 81-Kenny Wallace, 27-Ron Barfield Jr., 42-Kyle Petty
This race was most remembered by both of the Labonte brothers having reasons to celebrate. Bobby would win the race, and Terry would win the series championship, and together, both brothers would take a victory lap around the race track. As of 2022, this would be the only time in NASCAR history that in the season finale, one brother would win the race, and the other brother would win the championship.
This was Terry Labonte's second championship. His first one came 12 years earlier in 1984, making this the longest time span between 1st and 2nd championships for any driver in NASCAR history.
All 3 championship contenders (Terry Labonte, Jeff Gordon, and Dale Jarrett) started the race in the top 5 (Gordon 2nd, Labonte 3rd, and Jarrett 5th), and they all finished in the top 5 (Jarrett 2nd, Gordon 3rd, and Labonte 5th). Labonte won the title by 37 points over Gordon, and 89 points over Jarrett.
Terry Labonte's 2 wins gave him the championship over Jeff Gordon's 10 wins. Even though Gordon scored the most wins of 1996, he lacked consistency in the final stretch of the season. Labonte's consistency in the last 4 races of the season was better than Gordon's. Labonte won the title by 37 points. This would be the 3rd and final time in Bob Latford's Winston Cup points system that a driver winning 10 or more races in a season failed to win the championship due to lack of consistency. The 1st time was in 1985 when Bill Elliott won 11 races but lost the title to Darrell Waltrip, who had 3 wins, due to lack of consistency in the final stretch of the season. Waltrip won the title by 101 points. The 2nd time was in 1993 when Rusty Wallace won 10 races, but lost the title to Dale Earnhardt, who had 6 wins, also due to lack of consistency in the final stretch of the season. Earnhardt won the title by 80 points.
Terry Labonte would join the late Alan Kulwicki and win the championship by winning only 2 races in a season. Only Matt Kenseth, who won one race in 2003, has won fewer races while winning a championship.
Ross Perot Jr. was the grand marshal for this race.
Bobby Labonte's victory was also the last victory for Joe Gibbs Racing fielding Chevrolets until 2003, as the following season would see the team switch to the Pontiac Grand Prix.
NASCAR Suzuka Thunder Special
The NASCAR Suzuka Thunder Special was a non-points exhibition race ran on November 23 at Suzuka Circuit - East Circuit. Rusty Wallace won the pole. This was the first ever NASCAR race in Japan.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
3-Dale Earnhardt
24-Jeff Gordon
5-Terry Labonte
15-Wally Dallenbach Jr.
30-Johnny Benson
77-Bobby Hillin Jr.
31-Mike Skinner
61-Rick Carelli
38-Butch Gilliland
NASCAR legend Elmo Langley was intended to drive the pace car for this race, but suffered a massive heart attack 2 days prior in the pace car when trying to get familiar with the course. Langley was 68 when he died in a nearby hospital.
Results and standings
Drivers' championship
(key) Bold – Pole position awarded by time. Italics – Pole position set by owner's points standings. * – Most laps led.
Owners' championship
(key) Bold - Pole position awarded by time. Italics - Pole position set by owner's points standings. * – Most laps led.
Rookie of the Year
Johnny Benson was the only rookie to make a full-time run in the 1996 season, making him the 1996 Rookie of the Year. Benson ended the year with one top 5, six top 10s, and one pole. Randy MacDonald and Stacy Compton made attempts at the award as well, but did not run enough times to catch Benson.
See also
1996 NASCAR Busch Series
1996 NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series
References
External links
Winston Cup Standings and Statistics for 1996
NASCAR Cup Series seasons |
4290903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20rain%20in%20Kerala | Red rain in Kerala | The Kerala red rain phenomenon was a blood rain event that occurred in Wayanad district region of Malabar on Monday, 15 July 1957 and the colour subsequently turned yellow and also 25 July to 23 September 2001, when heavy downpours of red-coloured rain fell sporadically on the southern Indian state of Kerala, staining clothes pink. Yellow, green and black rain was also reported. Coloured rain was also reported in Kerala in 1896 and several times since, most recently in June 2012, and from 15 November 2012 to 27 December 2012 in eastern and north-central provinces of Sri Lanka.
Following a light-microscopy examination in 2001, it was initially thought that the rains were coloured by fallout from a hypothetical meteor burst, but a study commissioned by the Government of India concluded that the rains had been coloured by airborne spores from a locally prolific terrestrial green algae from the genus Trentepohlia.
Occurrence
The coloured rain of Kerala began falling on 25 July 2001, in the districts of Kottayam and Idukki in the southern part of the state. Yellow, green, and black rain was also reported. Many more occurrences of the red rain were reported over the following ten days, and then with diminishing frequency until late September. According to locals, the first coloured rain was preceded by a loud thunderclap and flash of light, and followed by groves of trees shedding shrivelled grey "burnt" leaves. Shriveled leaves and the disappearance and sudden formation of wells were also reported around the same time in the area. It typically fell over small areas, no more than a few square kilometres in size, and was sometimes so localised that normal rain could be falling just a few meters away from the red rain. Red rainfalls typically lasted less than 20 minutes. Each millilitre of rain water contained about 9 million red particles. Extrapolating these figures to the total amount of red rain estimated to have fallen, it was estimated that of red particles had fallen on Kerala.
Description of the particles
The brownish-red solid separated from the red rain consisted of about 90% round red particles and the balance consisted of debris. The particles in suspension in the rain water were responsible for the colour of the rain, which at times was strongly coloured red. A small percentage of particles were white or had light yellow, bluish grey and green tints. The particles were typically 4 to 10 µm across and spherical or oval. Electron microscope images showed the particles as having a depressed centre. At still higher magnification some particles showed internal structures.
Chemical composition
Some water samples were taken to the Centre for Earth Science Studies (CESS) in India, where they separated the suspended particles by filtration. The pH of the water was found to be around 7 (neutral). The electrical conductivity of the rainwater showed the absence of any dissolved salts. Sediment (red particles plus debris) was collected and analysed by the CESS using a combination of ion-coupled plasma mass spectrometry, atomic absorption spectrometry and wet chemical methods. The major elements found are listed below. The CESS analysis also showed significant amounts of heavy metals, including nickel (43 ppm), manganese (59 ppm), titanium (321 ppm), chromium (67ppm) and copper (55 ppm).
Physicists Godfrey Louis and Santhosh Kumar of the Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, used energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis of the red solid and showed that the particles were composed of mostly carbon and oxygen, with trace amounts of silicon and iron. A CHN analyser showed content of 43.03% carbon, 4.43% hydrogen, and 1.84% nitrogen.
J. Thomas Brenna in the Division of Nutritional Sciences at Cornell University conducted carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses using a scanning electron microscope with X-ray micro-analysis, an elemental analyser, and an isotope ratio (IR) mass spectrometer. The red particles collapsed
when dried, which suggested that they were filled with fluid. The amino acids in the particles were analysed and seven were identified (in order of concentration): phenylalanine, glutamic acid/glutamine, serine, aspartic acid, threonine, and arginine. The results were consistent with a marine origin or a terrestrial plant that uses a C4 photosynthetic pathway.
Government report
Initially, the Centre for Earth Science Studies (CESS) stated that the likely cause of the red rain was an exploding meteor, which had dispersed about 1,000 kg (one ton) of material. A few days later, following a basic light microscopy evaluation, the CESS retracted this as they noticed the particles resembled spores, and because debris from a meteor would not have continued to fall from the stratosphere onto the same area while unaffected by wind. A sample was, therefore, handed over to the Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute (TBGRI) for microbiological studies, where the spores were allowed to grow in a medium suitable for growth of algae and fungi. The inoculated petri dishes and conical flasks were incubated for three to seven days and the cultures were observed under a microscope.
In November 2001, commissioned by the Government of India's Department of Science & Technology, the Centre for Earth Science Studies (CESS) and the Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute (TBGRI) issued a joint report, which concluded:
The site was again visited on 16 August 2001 and it was found that almost all the trees, rocks and even lamp posts in the region were covered with Trentepohlia estimated to be in sufficient amounts to generate the quantity of spores seen in the rainwater. Although red or orange, Trentepohlia is a chlorophyte green alga which can grow abundantly on tree bark or damp soil and rocks, but is also the photosynthetic symbiont or photobiont of many lichens, including some of those abundant on the trees in Changanassery area. The strong orange colour of the algae, which masks the green of the chlorophyll, is caused by the presence of large quantities of orange carotenoid pigments. A lichen is not a single organism, but the result of a partnership (symbiosis) between a fungus and an alga or cyanobacterium.
The report also stated that there was no meteoric, volcanic or desert dust origin present in the rainwater and that its colour was not due to any dissolved gases or pollutants. The report concluded that heavy rains in Kerala – in the weeks preceding the red rains – could have caused the widespread growth of lichens, which had given rise to a large quantity of spores into the atmosphere. However, for these lichen to release their spores simultaneously, it is necessary for them to enter their reproductive phase at about the same time. The CESS report noted that while this may be a possibility, it is quite improbable. Also, they could find no satisfactory explanation for the apparently extraordinary dispersal, nor for the apparent uptake of the spores into clouds. CESS scientists noted that "While the cause of the colour in the rainfall has been identified, finding the answers to these questions is a challenge." Attempting to explain the unusual spore proliferation and dispersal, researcher Ian Goddard proposed several local atmospheric models.
Parts of the CESS/TBGRI report were supported by Milton Wainwright at the University of Sheffield, who, together with Chandra Wickramasinghe, has studied stratospheric spores. In March 2006 Wainwright said the particles were similar in appearance to spores of a rust fungus, later saying that he had confirmed the presence of DNA, and reported their similarity to algal spores, and found no evidence to suggest that the rain contained dust, sand, fat globules, or blood. In November 2012, Rajkumar Gangappa and Stuart Hogg from the University of Glamorgan, UK, confirmed that the red rain cells from Kerala contain DNA.
In February 2015, a team of scientists from India and Austria, also supported the identification of the algal spores as Trentepohlia annulata, however, they speculate that the spores from the 2011 incident were carried by winds from Europe to the Indian subcontinent.
Alternative hypotheses
History records many instances of unusual objects falling with the rain – in 2000, in an example of raining animals, a small waterspout in the North Sea sucked up a school of fish a mile off shore, depositing them shortly afterwards on Great Yarmouth in the United Kingdom. Coloured rain is by no means rare, and can often be explained by the airborne transport of rain dust from desert or other dry regions which is washed down by rain. "Red Rains" have been frequently described in southern Europe, with increasing reports in recent years. One such case occurred in England in 1903, when dust was carried from the Sahara and fell with rain in February of that year.
At first, the red rain in Kerala was attributed to the same effect, with dust from the deserts of Arabia initially the suspect. LIDAR observations had detected a cloud of dust in the atmosphere near Kerala in the days preceding the outbreak of the red rain. However, laboratory tests from all involved teams ruled out the particles were desert sand.
K.K. Sasidharan Pillai, a senior scientific assistant in the Indian Meteorological Department, proposed dust and acidic material from an eruption of Mayon Volcano in the Philippines as an explanation for the coloured rain and the "burnt" leaves. The volcano was erupting in June and July 2001 and Pillai calculated that the Eastern or Equatorial jet stream could have transported volcanic material to Kerala in 25–36 hours. The Equatorial jet stream is unusual in that it sometimes flows from east to west at about 10° N, approximately the same latitude as Kerala (8° N) and Mayon Volcano (13° N). This hypothesis was also ruled out as the particles were neither acidic nor of volcanic origin, but were spores.
A study has been published showing a correlation between historic reports of coloured rains and of meteors; the author of the paper, Patrick McCafferty, stated that sixty of these colored rain events, or 36%, were linked to meteoritic or cometary activity, though not always strongly. Sometimes the fall of red rain seems to have occurred after an air-burst, as from a meteor exploding in air; other times the odd rainfall is merely recorded in the same year as the appearance of a comet.
Panspermia hypothesis
In 2003 Godfrey Louis and Santhosh Kumar, physicists at the Mahatma Gandhi University in Kottayam, Kerala, posted an article entitled "Cometary panspermia explains the red rain of Kerala" in the non-peer reviewed arXiv web site. While the CESS report said there was no apparent relationship between the loud sound (possibly a sonic boom) and flash of light which preceded the red rain, to Louis and Kumar it was a key piece of evidence. They proposed that a meteor (from a comet containing the red particles) caused the sound and flash and when it disintegrated over Kerala it released the red particles which slowly fell to the ground. However, they omitted an explanation on how debris from a meteor continued to fall in the same area over a period of two months while unaffected by winds.
Their work indicated that the particles were of biological origin (consistent with the CESS report), however, they invoked the panspermia hypothesis to explain the presence of cells in a supposed fall of meteoric material. Additionally, using ethidium bromide they were unable to detect DNA or RNA in the particles. Two months later they posted another paper on the same web site entitled "New biology of red rain extremophiles prove cometary panspermia" in which they reported that
The microorganism isolated from the red rain of Kerala shows very extraordinary characteristics, like the ability to grow optimally at and the capacity to metabolise a wide range of organic and inorganic materials.
These claims and data have yet to be verified and reported in any peer reviewed publication. In 2006 Louis and Kumar published a paper in Astrophysics and Space Science entitled "The red rain phenomenon of Kerala and its possible extraterrestrial origin" which reiterated their arguments that the red rain was biological matter from an extraterrestrial source but made no mention of their previous claims to having induced the cells to grow. The team also observed the cells using phase contrast fluorescence microscopy, and they concluded that: "The fluorescence behaviour of the red cells is shown to be in remarkable correspondence with the extended red emission observed in the Red Rectangle Nebula and other galactic and extragalactic dust clouds, suggesting, though not proving an extraterrestrial origin." One of their conclusions was that if the red rain particles are biological cells and are of cometary origin, then this phenomenon can be a case of cometary panspermia.
In August 2008 Louis and Kumar again presented their case in an astrobiology conference. The abstract for their paper states that The red cells found in the red rain in Kerala, India are now considered as a possible case of extraterrestrial life form. These cells can undergo rapid replication even at an extreme high temperature of . They can also be cultured in diverse unconventional chemical substrates. The molecular composition of these cells is yet to be identified.
In September 2010 a similar paper was presented at a conference in California, US
Cosmic ancestry
Researcher Chandra Wickramasinghe used Louis and Kumar's "extraterrestrial origin" claim to further support his panspermia hypothesis called cosmic ancestry. This hypothesis postulates that life is neither the product of supernatural creation, nor is it spontaneously generated through abiogenesis, but that it has always existed in the universe. Cosmic ancestry speculates that higher life forms, including intelligent life, descend ultimately from pre-existing life which was at least as advanced as the descendants.
Criticism
Louis and Kumar made their first publication of their finding on a web site in 2003, and have presented papers at conferences and in astrophysics magazines a number of times since. The controversial conclusion of Louis et al. is the only hypothesis suggesting that these organisms are of extraterrestrial origin. Such reports have been popular in the media, with major news agencies like CNN repeating the panspermia theory without critique.
The hypothesis' authors – G. Louis and Kumar – did not explain how debris from a meteor could have continued to fall on the same area over a period of two months, despite the changes in climatic conditions and wind pattern spanning over two months. Samples of the red particles were also sent for analysis to his collaborators Milton Wainwright at the University of Sheffield and Chandra Wickramasinghe at Cardiff University. Louis then incorrectly reported on 29 August 2010 in the non-peer reviewed online physics archive "arxiv.org" that they were able to have these cells "reproduce" when incubated at high pressure saturated steam at 121 °C (autoclaved) for up to two hours. Their conclusion is that these cells reproduced, without DNA, at temperatures higher than any known life form on earth is able to. They claimed that the cells, however, were unable to reproduce at temperatures similar to known organisms.
Regarding the "absence" of DNA, Louis admits he has no training in biology, and has not reported the use of any standard microbiology growth medium to culture and induce germination and growth of the spores, basing his claim of "biological growth" on light absorption measurements following aggregation by supercritical fluids, an inert physical observation. Both his collaborators, Wickramasinghe and Milton Wainwright independently extracted and confirmed the presence of DNA from the spores. The absence of DNA was key to Louis and Kumar's hypothesis that the cells were of extraterrestrial origins.
Louis' only reported attempt to stain the spores' DNA was by the use of malachite green, which is generally used to stain bacterial endospores, not algal spores, whose primary function of their cell wall and their impermeability is to ensure its own survival through periods of environmental stress. They are therefore resistant to ultraviolet and gamma radiation, desiccation, lysozyme, temperature, starvation and chemical disinfectants. Visualizing algal spore DNA under a light microscope can be difficult due to the impermeability of the highly resistant spore wall to dyes and stains used in normal staining procedures. The spores' DNA is tightly packed, encapsulated and desiccated, therefore, the spores must first be cultured in suitable growth medium and temperature to first induce germination, then cell growth followed by reproduction before staining the DNA.
Other researchers have noted recurring instances of red rainfalls in 1818, 1846, 1872, 1880, 1896, and 1950 and several times since then. Most recently, coloured rainfall occurred over Kerala during the summers of 2001, 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2012; since 2001, the botanists have found the same Trentepohlia spores every time. This supports the notion that the red rain is a seasonal local environmental feature caused by algal spores.
In popular culture
The science fiction film Red Rain was loosely based on the red rain in Kerala story. It was directed by Rahul Sadasivan and released in India on 6 December 2013.
See also
References
External links
Sampath, S., Abraham, T. K., Sasi Kumar, V., & Mohanan, C.N. (2001). Colored Rain: A Report on the Phenomenon. CESS-PR-114-2001, Center for Earth Science Studies and Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute.
"When aliens rained over India" by Hazel Muir in New Scientist
"Searching for 'our alien origins'" by Andrew Thompson in BBC News
"Fluorescence Mystery in Red Rain Cells of Kerala, India " Linda Moulton Howe Earthfiles
"Home page of Dr A Santhosh Kumar"
2001 in India
2001 meteorology
Anomalous weather
Environment of Kerala
Panspermia
Weather events in India
Rain
Changanassery
Meteorological hypotheses
Trentepohliaceae |
4291000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Green%20Lanterns | List of Green Lanterns | The Green Lantern Corps, a fictional organization appearing in comics published by DC Comics, consists of a membership of at least 7200 members, with two assigned per sector (originally 3600 members, one per sector). Additionally, there are assorted other members who fulfill roles other than patrolling. While the characters Alan Scott, Hal Jordan, Guy Gardner, John Stewart, Kyle Rayner, Simon Baz, and Jessica Cruz are primarily associated with the name, numerous other members of the Corps have appeared in DC Comics.
Eponymous Green Lanterns
These eight characters are most closely associated with the name "Green Lantern" and have been the title characters of Green Lantern comics.
Alan Scott
Alan Scott was the original Green Lantern character created in the Golden Age of Comic Books. Alan created the mantle and identity of Green Lantern by himself and is not associated with the Green Lantern Corps, since his power ring was de-authorized by the Guardians before he even obtained it. Prior to the Crisis, Scott's ring ran on magic and not the Central Power Battery of Oa. In The New 52, Alan Scott is the modern-day Green Lantern for Earth 2.
Hal Jordan
Hal Jordan was created in 1959 by writer John Broome and artist Gil Kane and first appeared in Showcase #22 (October 1959). Hal Jordan is a reinvention of the Green Lantern concept and is a member, and occasionally leader, of the Green Lantern Corps, as well as a founding member of the Justice League.
Guy Gardner
Guy Gardner is a core member of the Green Lantern family of characters, and, for a time, (late 1980s through mid-1990s) was also a significant member of the Justice League. He was created by John Broome and Gil Kane in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #59 (March 1968), even though the character was changed significantly in the 1980s by Steve Englehart and Joe Staton, who turned him into a jingoistic parody of an ultra-macho "red-blooded American male". Gardner's appearance was originally patterned on actor Martin Milner.
John Stewart
John Stewart was the second African-American superhero to appear in DC Comics. The character was created by Dennis O'Neil and Neal Adams, and first appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #87 (December 1971), when artist Neal Adams came up with the idea of a substitute Green Lantern. Stewart's original design was based on actor Sidney Poitier.
Kyle Rayner
Created by writer Ron Marz and artist Darryl Banks, Rayner first appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 3) #48 (1994), as part of the "Emerald Twilight" storyline, becoming the sole Green Lantern for years until the late 1990s and mid-2000s. During this period, he was also briefly known as Ion.
Simon Baz
Created by writer Geoff Johns and artist Doug Mahnke, Simon first appeared in 2012 following the New 52 as part of the story arc "Rise of the Third Army", replacing Hal Jordan as the Green Lantern of Earth's sector. Prior to this, the character made an unnamed cameo in Free Comic Book Day Special Edition #1. He was later added to the Justice League in 2013.
Jessica Cruz
Created by Geoff Johns, she is a member of the Green Lantern Corps and the Justice League. Jessica Cruz appears briefly in Green Lantern (vol. 5) #20 (July 2013), but did not make her official debut until the last pages of Justice League (vol. 2) #30, when the Ring of Volthoom locates her. She was dubbed "Power Ring" while she was host to the Ring of Volthoom, but is not a member of the Crime Syndicate of America. Cruz became an official member of the Green Lantern Corps at the end of the Darkseid War storyline.
Sojourner Mullein
Created by writer N.K. Jemisin and artist Jamal Campbell as part of the imprint Young Animal, Sojourner “Jo” Mullein is introduced as an Earth rookie Green Lantern sent to the alien metropolis City Enduring at the edge of the universe in the maxi-series Far Sector. She is a member of the Justice League as featured in "Future State."
Other Green Lanterns of Earth's sector
With the exception of Yalan Gur, these characters have also served as the Green Lantern for Sector 2814 (which includes Mars).
Jade
Jade is the daughter of the Green Lantern, Alan Scott, and Rose Canton. Jade has a twin brother named Todd Rice, who is better known by the title Obsidian.
Jade is a founding member of Infinity, Inc. She has worked with the Justice League and the Justice Society of America. She is also a member and leader of the Outsiders. After being given a spare power ring, she joined the newly resurrected Green Lantern Corps. When she joined the corp, she became the first female Green Lantern from Earth.
Vidar
Rond Vidar
Yalan Gur
Yalan Gur is a Green Lantern introduced as part of an effort to reconcile the Golden Age Green Lantern's origin with the later introduction of the Green Lantern Corps. He is a red-scaled, reptilian humanoid, assigned to sector 2814 in the 10th century. He first appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 3) #19 (December 1991). While Alan Scott, along with the rest of the Justice Society of America, is trapped in Limbo, his mystic lantern sends a projection to Hal Jordan, Guy Gardner, and John Stewart. After tracing the projection to Scott's home, the lantern tells the story of its origin (effectively retconning the origin of Alan Scott's power).
Yalan Gur was once one of the greatest of the Green Lantern Corps, and, in the 10th century by Earth reckoning, the Guardians of the Universe chose to remove the customary weakness to the color yellow from his power ring. Without this limitation, however, he was corrupted by power, and he came to Earth and enslaved the people of China. The Guardians of the Universe thwarted Yalan by adding a new weakness of wood to his ring, allowing villagers to overwhelm and mortally wound him. The dying Yalan Gur fled into Earth's upper atmosphere, where he merged with his power battery as he died. His lantern then collided with a fragment of the Starheart and was merged with its magical essence, turning into the Green Flame that becomes the source of Alan Scott's power. The later retcon involving the true reason behind the yellow impurity may mean these events have been retconned out of existence.
In other media
In the film Justice League, the character is present at the battle during the 10th century, aligned with the Amazons, Humans and Atlanteans against Steppenwolf and his armies. Meeting a more noble fate than his comic book counterpart, Yalan Gur is killed opposing Steppenwolf, with his ring fleeing to find a suitable successor; this draws Steppenwolf's attention, allowing the Olympian gods to attack him. In Zack Snyder's Justice League, Yalan Gur appears as a "guardian from the sky" alongside the Old Gods, Atlanteans, Amazons and humans who fought against Darkseid and his army of Parademons in around 3000 BC. He shot beams at Darkseid, who hastily cut his hand and killed him, but his ring flew away to find a new wearer worthy of its power before Darkseid could get it, thanks to Zeus and his children Ares and Artemis.
Jong Li
Jong Li is a Green Lantern introduced in Green Lantern, Dragon Lord #1 (June 2001), written by Doug Moench and drawn by Paul Gulacy.He's actually Earth's first Green Lantern and was a monk raised in the Temple of the Dragon Lords in China. When Jong Li was growing up, he was taught of the Dragon Lords, beings who ruled in the "Golden Age" of man, and that under these lords, man prospered. He was taught to renounce all earthly possessions and live a life of peace and discipline, but then one day, a concubine named Jade Moon came to him in his temple, begging for help in trying to escape her bonds. Jong Li tried to help her but failed, and his temple and fellow monks were ravaged by the emperor's troops and their commander. Jong Li later encountered a representative of the Guardians of the Universe who gave him a power ring and a Lantern to "Oppose Evil, Ease Suffering, and Protect the Innocent." Jong Li later rescued Jade and learned of Lung Mountain, where the last Dragon Lords supposedly lived. He set out to seek their higher authority and, with their Blessing of Fire, became the last Dragon Lord of the Earth, finally defeating the evil emperor's forces and saving his people.
Laham
Laham of Scylla is introduced in Green Lantern Corps Quarterly #2 (Autumn 1992). He is killed off-panel during a surprise invasion of his home planet. Upon his death, his ring passes to Waverly Sayre, who becomes good friends with Laham's widow. Laham first physically appears as a statue in the Crypts on Oa.
Waverly Sayre
Waverly Sayre is a pioneer living on the frontier in the early years of the United States. Hoping to start a family, Waverly falls into depression when his wife dies in childbirth, taking their newborn son with her. As he contemplates suicide, the late Laham's ring appears to him and selects him as Laham's successor. Initially believing the ring to be a manifestation of Satan, Sayre quickly grows into his new role, taking his faithful dog with him on every mission.
Daniel Young
Daniel Young was a sheriff in Montana, in 1873. During his chase of a band of outlaws, Daniel was summoned by Abin Sur, wounded in a battle in deep space. While Abin Sur convalesced in his ship, healed by its machines, Young was a temporary replacement, and he used the power of the ring to bring the outlaws to justice. Afterward, the ring returned to Abin Sur.
Starkadr
Starkadr first appeared in Legends of the DC Universe #20 (September 1999). He is a hulking orange alien who is mortally wounded defending the planet Ungara from the forces of the Traitor. Though he succeeds in driving the Traitor from the planet, Starkadr dies and passes his ring to the Ungaran Abin Sur. He rises as an undead Black Lantern and fights the living Green Lanterns.
Abin Sur
Anya Savenlovich
Anya Savenlovich first appeared in Green Lantern: The New Corps #1 (March 1999). She is a lieutenant colonel from the Soviet Air Forces who was in suspended animation after participating in a space mission back in 1964. Kyle Rayner recruited her as a member of the New Corps in a bid to rebuild the Green Lantern Corps. However, finding his attempt was a failure, Kyle took Anya's ring. Aware that the Soviet Union no longer exists, Anya decides to stay in space to find a new purpose.
Green Lantern Corps of Earth
These Green Lanterns were stationed on Earth to safeguard the planet after the events of the Crisis on Infinite Earths.
Arisia Rrab
Ch'p
Katma Tui
Kilowog
Salaak
The Lost Lanterns
During the 1994 "Emerald Twilight" storyline, many of the Corps members are stripped of their rings and are left to die out in space. A few of them, however, were captured by the Manhunters and used as energy sources for the Manhunters until their eventual rescue. They are known as "the Lost Lanterns."
Boodikka
Chaselon
Chaselon is the Green Lantern of sector 1416; he first appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #9 (November–December 1961) in a story written by John Broome and drawn by Gil Kane. Chaselon is a native of Barrio III, a planet inhabited by silicon-based crystalline beings with thirteen senses. Barrio III was one of the planets that the mad Guardian Appa Ali Apsa "harvested" to create the planet Mosaic. Chaselon is one of the many Lanterns that were apparently killed when a maddened Hal Jordan attacks and destroys Oa. Although his shattered body is depicted floating in space, he later is found to be one of the many Lanterns captured by Cyborg Superman to provide a power source for the new Manhunters. Chaselon and the captured Lanterns are eventually rescued by a revived Hal Jordan.
Chaselon becomes one of the first Alpha Lanterns. He is later smashed to bits by several Black Lanterns, his remains are then immolated when Kyle Rayner ignites his dislodged internal power battery to deal a suicide attack to the assembled Black Lanterns.
Chaselon makes a cameo appearance with other members of the Green Lantern Corps in "The Green Loontern", an episode of the animated series Duck Dodgers. He also appeared in cameos in Justice League Unlimited and the animated films Green Lantern: First Flight and Green Lantern: Emerald Knights. The character also appears in Green Lantern: The Animated Series, guarding the Guardians' laboratory. Hal distracts him with conversation so Ch'p can rescue Aya. He later joins the Corps in an assault on the Manhunters, led by Guy Gardner.
Graf Toren
Hannu/Honnu
Hannu is the Green Lantern of Sector 2, he first appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 3) #49 (February 1994), in a story written by Ron Marz. Hannu is among several Lanterns called to defend Oa from the then-renegade Hal Jordan. Jordan made short work of him and added his power to his own and left him for dead. He was later found alive on Biot. He is from Ovacron 6 and, in his world, it's considered disgraceful and dishonorable to use weapons. He is never seen using his ring in battle (except for life support and travel), preferring his brute strength and fists instead (which prompted Kyle and John to summon him for aid when up against Alpha Lantern Boodikka while under the control of the Cyborg Superman, reasoning that her draining Hannu's ring wouldn't matter as he didn't use it). He finally activates his ring in the battle against the Anti-Monitor. Sector 2 is also the home sector of the Reach, creators of the Blue Beetle scarab and sworn enemies of the Guardians. According to their treaty with the Guardians, no Green Lantern is allowed in Sector 2 as long as the Reach stays within pre-treaty boundaries. He appears in a cameo in the Green Lantern live-action film and is also a part of the film toyline.
Jack T. Chance
Ke'Haan
Kreon
Laira
Laira is a female humanoid Green Lantern with purple skin and auburn hair. She first appeared in Green Lantern Corps Quarterly #6 (Fall 1993) in the story entitled "What Price Honor?", written by Ruben Diaz.
Laira is from the planet Jayd in space sector 112. She is trained by her father Kentor Omoto to take over his role as a soldier of the Guardians of the Universe; a Green Lantern of her sector. After the disappearance of her father during the Crisis on Infinite Earths and the proclamation by the Guardians that he is dead, she is considered for the post of ring bearer and Green Lantern of her sector. Her instructor turns out to be Ke'Haan of Varva: Kilowog's second in command, known for his tough-as-nails training. Eager to please and find a kindred spirit of honor within her teacher, she becomes his prized pupil.
To complete her training, Laira is sent to the city of X'ol on her home planet, where she must confront her father, who is not actually dead. She is later discovered by a reformed Hal Jordan and Guy Gardner being held captive by the Manhunters with the other "Lost Lanterns" including Kreon and Tomar-Tu. With the help of Jordan and Gardner, the Lost Lanterns put an end to the Manhunter planet of Biot and return to Oa. She then resumes her duties as Green Lantern of her sector.
During the Sinestro Corps War event, Laira and the Lost Lanterns come to Hal Jordan's aid on Qward. The group splits up, with Laira, Ke'Haan and Boodikka searching for Ion, and Hal, Graf Toren, and Tomar-Tu looking for John Stewart and Guy Gardner. Laira's group encounters the Anti-Monitor, who kills Ke'Haan, but they are able to recover Ion and return to Oa.
After preventing the invasion of Coast City by the Sinestro Corps, Laira visits the Crypt of the Green Lanterns to mourn Ke'Haan's death. Hannu reveals their attraction to one another to Boodikka, but explains that (before his death) Ke'Haan refuses Laira because he has a family on his home planet. Laira and the Lost Lanterns set out to his home world to deliver news of his death, only to find that his family has been murdered by Sinestro Corps member Amon Sur. The killer willingly submits to the Lanterns so that news of his actions will spread. Enraged by this, Laira kills Amon. Afterwards, Laira is held in custody on Oa, while the Lanterns who had seen her crime testify against her. She is placed in the custody of the newly founded Alpha Lanterns, and tried by the Guardians, who find her guilty and strip her of her power ring.
After her trial, Laira is arranged to be transported back to her home world, Jayd, by Hannu. However, a red power ring attacks their ship and chooses Laira as its bearer; making her the second Red Lantern. Under the influence of the red light, Laira's personality degenerates to the point where she is little more than a snarling beast; obsessed with revenge against Sinestro and showing no recognition when confronted by Hal Jordan and John Stewart. During a skirmish on the prison planet Ysmault with multiple Lanterns, Hal managed to reach Laira, who was able to see past her rage and regained some control, even asking Jordan for help, but she is nevertheless killed by Sinestro. Learning of her demise, the Guardians view her as dying in disgrace as a Red Lantern and renegade despite Jordan's protests.
Following the rise of Nekron and the Black Lantern Corps, a Black Lantern Ring attached itself to Laira's corpse and she was revived as a Black Lantern. After Nekron's defeat at the hands of Hal Jordan and his newly formed White Lantern Corps, Laira's ring was destroyed, reverting her to a corpse.
Laira's trial is referred to in The New 52, in Green Lantern Corps (vol. 3) #9. In DC Rebirth, she is seen among the fallen Green Lanterns in the Emerald Space.
Laira is featured in the 2011 anthology film, Green Lantern: Emerald Knights voiced by Kelly Hu.
Laira makes a non-speaking appearance in the Tomorrowverse film Green Lantern: Beware My Power as one of the many Green Lanterns killed by Sinestro and a possessed Hal Jordan on Oa.
Lashorr
Lashorr is the Green Lantern of Sector 3453. She first appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 4) #12 (July 2006) in a story written by Geoff Johns and drawn by Ivan Reis. Lashorr had a fling with a younger Salaak before she vanished in combat with the Dominators. She is discovered alive on the Manhunter homeworld of Biot and returned to her sector, albeit with a case of post-traumatic stress disorder.
Relok Hag
Sector 173; First appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 4) #12. Relok is a centaur-like barbarian who leads a crusade against the Dominators for experimenting on his people. He vanished in battle with them alongside #Lashorr and others, only to be found alive on Biot.
Tomar-Tu
Green Lantern Honor Guard
The Honor Guard is an elite group of Lanterns who serve as troubleshooters and special operatives.
Apros
The Green Lantern of Sector 3. Apros first appeared in Tales of the Green Lantern Corps #1 (May 1981) in a story written by Mike W. Barr and Len Wein, with pencils by Joe Staton. Apros is a sentient plant from the planet -7pi. It is one of the Corps' oldest and most decorated veterans. Apros serves in the Honor Guard during the war with Krona and Nekron, but appears to have returned to a sector patrol position following the rebuilding of the Corps.
K'ryssma
Sector 1890; First appeared in Tales of the Green Lantern Corps #1. K'ryssma is an insectoid alien resembling a human-like butterfly. She is trapped in a chrysalis state during the rampage of the mad Guardian Appa Ali Apsa. She emerges in a completely different form in the Mosaic world. After the destruction of the Corps at the hands of Parallax, K'ryssma joined the Darkstars, and as such, she was murdered by Grayven.
Tomar-Re
Guy Gardner and Kyle Rayner have also served as Honor Guard members.
The Alpha Lanterns
The Alpha Lanterns are Corps members who have been transformed into cyborgs and act as the Corps' Internal Affairs officers.
Boodikka
Green Man
Kraken
Part of the duo (with Raker Qarrigat) dedicated to bringing peace to their homeworld of Apokolips, she becomes an Alpha Lantern to further this goal, unaware of the toll it will take on her emotions. Later, in Final Crisis, she is possessed by the malevolent spirit of the New God Granny Goodness, who uses her to subdue the Green Lanterns of Earth, Hal Jordan and John Stewart, and capture Batman for use as a scientific test subject by her master, Darkseid. When Jordan is put on trial for an attempted murder performed by Kraken/Goodness herself, she is unmasked by Kyle Rayner and Guy Gardner before a sentence can be passed, and attempts at her primary mission, to obtain the central Green Lantern Power Battery for Darkseid. She is then defeated by Jordan and taken into custody by the other Alpha Lanterns. Following the restoration of reality at the closing of the Crisis, she is not seen among the other Alpha Lanterns, and her current status is not made apparent.
Varix
Sector 69; First appeared in Tales of the Green Lantern Corps Annual #2. Varix comes from the planet Naktos, which was devastated by a yellow plague. This, and the fact that his predecessor died of a mysterious brain disease, has led Varix to become a hypochondriac. Varix is described by Vurytt as his religion being his uniform, and in Varix's own words, as living for "justice and justice alone". Varix states that his people live to obey the law, and there has not been a murder on his planet for over 74 years (however, murderers in his world cannot be sentenced to more than two years of imprisonment). His dedication to justice came to a head when the Alpha Lanterns attempted to execute John Stewart when he killed another Green Lantern while the two were being held captive by enemies of the Corps and the other Lantern was about to reveal crucial information. Recognizing that John's actions had been committed for the right reasons even if they were questionable on the surface, Varix assisted the Green Lanterns in destroying the other Alpha Lanterns before he destroyed himself.
The Corpse
The Corpse are a black ops division of the Green Lantern Corps who use a disc that is swallowed to imitate the abilities of a power ring, but appear purple in color.
Von Daggle
The leader of the Corpse, Von Daggle, is a Durlan who was called back into service following the return of the Guardians of the Universe after their deaths at the hands of Parallax. His initial recruits for the new Corpse were Guy Gardner and R'amey Holl.
R'amey Holl
Sector 700, she first appeared in Green Lantern Corps #7. She was an insect-like humanoid, exhibiting traits similar to those of a butterfly. R'amey was a member of a Corps covert group known as The Corpse. She later disappeared and was last seen by Guy Gardner and hasn't been heard from in one year. Due to the undercover nature of her operations, no one is looking for her at the time. She appears in several group scenes in the live-action Green Lantern film and the blind box mini toy line.
The First Seven
During the rise of the First Lantern, 10 billion years ago, before the creation of the Manhunters and the Green Lantern Corps per se, Rami, the most brilliant of the Guardians of the Universe and Volthoom's closest friend, created seven Green Power Rings to seek out worthy wielders using the Great Heart for guidance. Those chosen became The First Seven, charged with bringing Volthoom to justice, however the rings are also extremely dangerous as they were untested and had no safeguards which does not guarantee the survival of its bearers. The first seven Green Lanterns are as follow:
Alitha
Alitha of Galatica was an Old God warrior from the Third World, the world that pre-dates the Fourth World with Mister Miracle and Darkseid and Orion. The Third World was a universe consumed by war, but Alitha stood out and made a very courageous decision that not only alters the future of her people but also puts her on the path to becoming one of the Original Seven Green Lanterns. She became Green Lantern 001 and was killed in battle by Volthoom and her body is currently located in the Vault of Shadows.
Z'Kran Z'Rann
Z'Kran Z'Rann of Mars was a White Martian that, as a child, was the only survivor of his village being massacred by vagabonds. Ten years later, an elder Z'Kran Z'Rann now known as the Stranger and wearing the same style of costume as the Martian Manhunters use currently today, tracked the vagabonds and killed them all. With his vengeance concluded he is reached by one of the seven Original Seven Green Lanterns. He became Green Lantern 002 and was killed in battle by Volthoom. His body is currently located in the Vault of Shadows.
Tyran'r the Mighty
Tyran'r of Tamaran is a tiger-man and apparently a thief among his peers. He was eventually caught and delivered to Mrak'r the Wizard King of Tamaran, who broke Tyran'r's mighty sword. Tyran'r however soon got his revenge by breaking free and killed Mrak'r and his henchmen in a sudden battle that changed the course of his life forever and puts him on the path to becoming one of the Original Seven Green Lanterns. He became Green Lantern 003 and is the only of the original lanterns to be alive and also is the keeper of the Vault of Shadows where the remains of the others are located. Curiously he also recognises Simon Baz and Jessica Cruz as old friends, even though they somehow are unable to remember even meeting a hulking tiger man with a giant sword much less befriending him. As it turns out Simon Baz and Jessica Cruz are sent billion years to the past where they meet Tyran'r and the other original Green Lanterns. Together they are able to defeat Volthoom but not without casualties. As Simon and Jessica are returned to the present day, Tyran'r resigned his green lantern ring to Baz.
Kaja Dox
Kaja Dox of Yod-Colu was a young female whose third-level intelligence, puts her as one of the highest on the planet. She's not a great warrior of her people but is instead a computer repair person living with her girlfriend and struggling with an overbearing mother. The love she feels for her simple life over the frustration of her day job puts her on the path to becoming one of the Original Seven Green Lanterns. Her body is currently located in the Vault of Shadows.
Jan-Al
Jan-Al of Krypton was a member of Krypton's first mission colonization, chosen to be brave on behalf of their people. Their ship came into contact with an unknown star type "purple sun" that immobilized the ship and destroyed their communication systems. The group barely managed to escape to the nearest planet which was a hellish wasteland but nevertheless was claimed in the name of their planet. When a sandstorm reach the group, Jan-Al decision on staying on the ground instead of seeking shelter inside the ark not only proved courageous but also alters her future and of her explorer group when they noticed that the storm destroyed the ark which puts her in the path of becoming one of the original Green Lanterns. She is also the first to learn about the instability of these power rings when her willpower exceeds 510% which essentially overcharged her ring and killed her.
Calleen
Calleen of Alstair was the first sentient element plant born on the dead planet Alstair, long consumed with fire from heavens. Her refuse to give up in the face of extinction allowed the planet over the centuries to thrived with life which eventually puts her on the path to becoming one of the Original Seven Green Lanterns. She became Green Lantern 006 and was killed in battle by Volthoom. Her body is currently located in the Vault of Shadows.
Brill
Brill of Grenda, was a member of the vast artificial intelligence known as the Hive, a collective mind whose computer intelligence allows them to know so much about the Universe but lack the knowledge about themselves. To find their purpose and origins, Brill was chosen among the one billion techno-organic brothers and sisters to be the first of their kind to leave the sanctity of the Hive and was given a vessel to journey into the Universe alone. When the vessel was ready, Brill separated himself from the collective consciousness and became the Insulatusnaut of the Hive. Isolated for the first time Brill was soon afterwards chosen to becoming one of the Original Seven Green Lanterns. Brill became Green Lantern 007 and its vessel was obliterated by Volthoom which its currently located in the Vault of Shadows.
Other Green Lanterns
Aa
Sector 904; First appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 3) #21 (February 1992).
Adam
Sector 1055; First appeared in Green Lantern Quarterly #5 (Summer 1993).
Alia
Sector 281; first appeared in Valor #5 (March 1993).
Amanita
Sector 3100; First appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 3) #20 (January 1992).
Arx
The Green Lantern of Sector 488. He first appeared in Green Lantern Corps (vol. 2) #1 (August 2006), in a story written by Dave Gibbons and penciled by Patrick Gleason. Arix is killed in a Sinestro Corps ambush in Final Crisis: Rage of the Red Lanterns #1 (December 2008).
Ash
Sector 658; (full name Ashel Sabian Formanta), a tattooed purple humanoid with vaguely occult designs on his jacket. First appeared in Green Lantern Quarterly #7 (Winter, 1993). Ash's primary concern was to hunt the "bloodseekers" (vampire-like aliens) who killed his beloved Tasha, and he joined the GLC to pursue these creatures into "the darkest corners of the cosmos". He was tasked by the Guardian known as Scar to find the Anti-Monitor's corpse. He finds the Anti-Monitor's armor. He later meets with Saarek, who was also sent to find the Anti-Monitor. The two find the Black Lantern Power Battery, only to be killed by two giant hands that rise up from the ground. He and Saarek are last seen on Ryut with Scar as Black Lanterns.
Ash-Pak-Glif
Sector 312. A rock like humanoid, it first appeared in Green Lantern 80-Page Giant #3 (August 2000).
B'dg
First appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 4) #4 (October 2005). B'dg (pronounced Badge) is one of the first recruits of the reconstructed Corps. Hailing from the planet H'lven like his predecessor Ch'p, B'dg first sees action when the Spider Guild invades Oa. He is trained on how to overcome the yellow impurity weakness of his ring in the midst of battle. He later participates in the defense of Oa when it is attacked by Superboy-Prime, and again when it is attacked by the Sinestro Corps. B'dg also participates in the final battle of the Sinestro Corps War, helping defend Earth. B'dg is part of the squad sent to arrest Hal Jordan for defying Guardian orders.
During the New 52, Salaak sends B'dg to Earth to locate Hal Jordan because B'dg can blend in with the planet's indigenous creatures. He is the first alien Green Lantern encountered by Simon Baz who had inherited Hal and Sinestro's fused ring. He instructs Baz in the basics of being a Green Lantern and helps him track down Black Hand.
In other media
B'dg appears in the "DC Super-Pets" sketch of DC Nation Shorts, voiced by Elisha Yaffe. He is introduced in "World's Finest Bark", when Ace the Bat-Hound and Krypto call him in to help on a case, but cannot resist the urge to chase the squirrel-like Green Lantern. B'dg later appears in "Have Your Cake and B'dg Too", assisting Jumpa the Amazon Kangaroo as she chases down Cheetah.
He was featured on the Robot Chicken DC Comics Special in a segment called "Real Characters From the DC Universe", voiced by Tom Root. In the segment, the narrator pokes fun of the fact that B'dg is a real character. In another follow up segment, Firestorm angry that he has been lumped together with characters like Mister Banjo and B'dg turns Mister Banjo's banjo into metal and hits him before asking the narrator where B'dg is and the narrator does. Firestorm is then heard attacking B'dg with the metal banjo.
B'dg also appears in Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: The Flash, voiced by Eric Bauza, where he and Ace the Bat-Hound help the microscopic Atom repair his suit and helps the Justice League escape to the Batcave.
He is a playable character in Lego DC Super-Villains, voiced by Roger Craig Smith.
B'Shi
B'Shi is one of several Green Lanterns appearing in the "A Lantern Against the Dark: A Forgotten Tale of the Green Lantern Corps" story, from Green Lantern 80-Page Giant #3. She is a monkey-like Green Lantern from the jungle world of Suirpalam, who is recruited into the Green Lantern Corps by Raker Qarrigat (and in turn recruits Ash-Pak-Glif) as part of preparations for a Green Lantern Corps invasion of Apokolips. She participates in this invasion, and is killed along with hundreds of other Green Lanterns when it quickly turns into a debacle.
Bloobert Cob
First appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #46 as a nameless background Lantern. Bloobert Cob was later given a name, sector assignment, and history as online "fanon". These details were later canonized by writer Van Jensen in Green Lantern Corps (vol. 4) #31. Bloobert Cob was the Green Lantern of Sector 74, and was one of the Lanterns captured and replaced by Durlan impostors. When the Durlan fakes were uncovered, the Durlan commanders ordered their Khund allies to execute the Lantern prisoners. A squad of Khunds shot Bloobert Cob in cold blood inside his prison cell. Bloobert Cob was quickly avenged by his fellow Lanterns, who recovered their stolen rings only moments after his execution.
Brik
First appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 3) #12 (May 1991). The Green Lantern of Sector 904, Brik comes from the planet Dryad and, like her sector partner, is composed entirely of organic rock. Originally recruited by Hal Jordan, Brik was one of hundreds of veteran Green Lanterns to return to active service upon the restoration of the Green Lantern Corps. Brik once had feelings for Jordan, and her partner, Aa, suspects that she still might. In truth, her feelings are for another Earthman. In the non-canonical Green Lantern Versus Aliens Brik perishes on the surface of the planet Mogo.
Brokk
Sector 981; First appeared in Tales of the Green Lantern Corps #1.
Bzzd
First appeared in Green Lantern Corps (vol. 2) #12 (July 2007). Bzzd is a small wasp-like Green Lantern from the planet Apiaton, assigned to sector 2261. He is the partner of Mogo. In battle, he usually creates oversized constructs (such as roller coasters and giant warheads) with his power ring. Bzzd often faces extra scrutiny from his fellow Lanterns because of his size but he has shown that his willpower is as strong as anyone else's.
It is revealed that his greatest fear is to be stripped of his ring and returned to an insignificant insect trapped on his homeworld. He gives his life to defeat Mongul II. He dies defending a team of his fellow Lanterns. His ring was bequeathed to Mother Mercy.
Bzzd appears as a Black Lantern in Green Lantern Corps (vol. 2) #39 and is seemingly defeated and destroyed by Guy Gardner in Green Lantern Corps (vol. 2) #40, though he can be seen reforming afterward.
Bzzd has a very brief cameo in the Green Lantern live action film.
Charlie Vicker
First appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #55 (September 1967) in a story written by John Broome and drawn by Gil Kane. Charlie Vicker of planet Earth is a former actor who portrayed Green Lantern in a TV show. Vicker led a fast lifestyle, and used his brother Roger as an understudy. One day, after a hectic night of parties, Roger filled in for his incapacitated brother. Roger was killed in a live television broadcast by an alien that had mistaken him for the real Green Lantern. A repentant Charlie works with Green Lantern to bring the aliens to justice. The Guardians, impressed with Charlie's spirit, make him a Green Lantern of sector 3319 Charlie Vicker was the second human to join the Green Lantern Corps after Hal Jordan. His time as a Green Lantern is marked with difficulty, as his sector is populated entirely by non-humanoid aliens. Eventually, he comes to feel compassion for his alien charges.
After the dissolution of the Corps, he was recruited into the Darkstars organization by John Stewart. He later died in battle, defending the planet Rann from the alien despot Grayven.
Cimfet Tau
Sector 3588; First appeared in Tales of the Green Lantern Corps Annual #2.
The Collective
When the Guardians of the Universe sent TO-T-U-K to a planet to find his replacement as the Green Lantern of Sector 1287, he couldn't find another sentient creature on the entire planet. When he observed the Collective trap and consume a bird-like creature, he learned that the Collective's mental aptitudes increased. TO-T-U-K realizing that if he allowed himself and the power battery to be consumed by the Collective then it would gain the ability to think and act. He also gave the Collective a power battery.
Because of the large number of orbs that make up the Collective and the ability of the Collective to spread out Sector 1287 is considered to be one of the safest in the universe.
Dalor
Sector 2813; First appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #154.
Dkrtzy RRR
Dkrtzy RRR of Sector 188 is a bio-sentient mathematical equation. He is first mentioned in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #188 (May 1985) in the story "Mogo Doesn't Socialize", written by Alan Moore and drawn by Dave Gibbons. It was apparently discovered by a mathematician named Timph Rye in an attempt to prove that willpower could be derived formulaically. Dkrzty's method of eliminating its enemies is erasing their minds by entering them, noted as a source of controversy by the Guardians. Although it has yet to make an actual appearance, Tomar-Re claiming that his nature means that only the Guardians are aware of his presence even if he attends the Corps gatherings. Dkrtzy's bio was included in Green Lantern/Sinestro Corps Secret Files.
Driq
First appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #217 (October 1987). Driq of Criq was killed by Sinestro and Sentient Sector 3600, but his ring inexplicably prevented his life force from escaping his body. Thus, he remained in a not-quite-dead state, though his physical body exhibited signs of decomposition and his costume was ragged and tattered. Each time he is destroyed, the ring reanimates his body. When Sinestro was executed and all of the Green Lantern rings lost their power, Driq collapsed into a final death. During the Blackest Night, Driq was revived as a half Black Lantern, with the right side of his body unaffected with ring intact. Unlike the rest of the Black Lanterns, Driq retained his true personality, speaking words of encouragement to John Stewart through his ring, and eventually leading his former comrade to the mass of black rings that were holding the reconstituted Xanshi together.
Eddore
Eddore from the planet Tront was a gaseous creature, vaguely amoeboid in appearance. He died during Crisis on Infinite Earths. Eddore, along with Arisia, were created by writer Mike W. Barr in his Tales of the Green Lantern Corps miniseries as a tip of the hat to E.E. Smith's Lensman series. Arisia and Eddore are the planets of the series' super-intelligent benevolent and evil races, respectively.
Ekron
Ekron from an unknown planet, was a giant floating head with a smaller alien inside "piloting" the large head of Ekron.
Ekron had one of its eyes, the mystic "Emerald Eye of Ekron" later used by the villainous Emerald Empress in Legion of Super-Heroes, ripped out by Lobo. Ekron later teamed-up with Animal Man, Adam Strange, Starfire, and Lobo against Lady Styx. Ekron dies in this battle, driving Lady Styx into a Sun-Eater.
Ermey
Ermey first appeared in Blackest Night: Tales of the Corps #3 (September 2009); he was the drill sergeant who trained Kilowog. He trained new recruits brutally, but only so they would be strong enough to survive as Lanterns. He was killed during a surprise attack on a group of Lanterns. It was from Ermey that Kilowog picked up the term "Poozer" which means "Useless Rookie". Ermey's name (and physical appearance) is a reference to the actor R. Lee Ermey, who has portrayed Drill Sergeants/figures of military authority in films such as Full Metal Jacket.
Ermey is later resurrected as a Black Lantern, with a more militaristic costume (and using his ring to create a black energy construct of a ceremonial sabre), in a gamble to stir powerful emotions in Kilowog by berating and abusing him for having once saved Sinestro's life and for having failed to train the now dead rookies. The reanimated Ermey enjoys some success as he is able to stir a reaction into Kilowog: a powerful rage against himself. However, before he can claim Kilowog's heart, he and the rest of the fallen Lanterns are ordered to devour the Oan main power battery.
A character very similar to Ermey is featured in the Kilowog section of the 2011 Green Lantern: Emerald Knights animated film. He was named Deegan, and was voiced by Wade Williams.
Flodo Span
Flodo Span is a gaseous member of the Green Lantern Corps. He has no corporeal body, and holds himself together with his ring. He was a friend of Hal Jordan's, and a member of the Green Lantern Corps of the Kylminade.
Galius Zed
Galius Zed is the Green Lantern of sector 1138. He first appeared in Tales of the Green Lantern Corps #2 (June 1981) in the story "Defeat!", written by Mike W. Barr and Len Wein, and drawn by Brian Bolland and Joe Staton. Galius is of a race of aliens whose bodies are enormous heads, with normal sized legs and arms. He was first introduced fighting alongside Hal Jordan during the war against Krona and Nekron. He has participated in many battles alongside his fellow Green Lantern Corps, and served as part of the invasion force sent to Qward to destroy the Anti-Green Lantern Corps. He was trusted to take part in the "psychodrama" in which Hal Jordan was tested on his capabilities of being a Green Lantern. Galius survived the Crisis on Infinite Earths, but lost his power ring after the trial of Sinestro and the subsequent collapse of the Main Power Battery on Oa.
After the destruction of the Corps, John Stewart was chosen by the Controllers for the Darkstars. John recruited Galius along with many other former Lanterns. Their first mission was to Talyn, a planet which had been devastated by Psimon. Galius Zed later went to Earth to drive off an alien crime syndicate.
When Grayven, the third son of Darkseid arose, the Darkstars stood up to fight him. After the Darkstars, with the aid of Kyle Rayner, defeated Grayven, Galius Zed, Munchukk, Chaser Bron, and Ferrin Colos remained on Rann to help Adam Strange rebuild the battered city of Ranagar. The Darkstars were soon needed to fight once more, this time against the threat of Hyathis. The would-be Empress of Rann used mind control to pit the Zaredians against the Darkstars, creating a diversion while she kidnapped Aleea, the daughter of Adam Strange. Hyathis might have succeeded but for the arrival of Superboy and the Ravers who helped to crush her plans.
Galius Zed was killed by the warrior Fatality who had been cutting down every Green Lantern she came across in revenge for John Stewart's failure to prevent the destruction of her home planet Xanshi. Zed is memorialized in the Crypts of Oa and is regarded by many to be a legendary Green Lantern. Zed is one of the many fallen Lanterns to be risen from his grave on Oa to become a Black Lantern. In Blackest Night #1, he is one of the many Black Lanterns beginning a stand against the living Green Lanterns on Oa.
Galius Zed appears in the animated series Justice League, voiced by René Auberjonois. He has a small role in the direct-to-video animated film Green Lantern: Emerald Knights, voiced by Bruce Timm. He appears briefly in the backgrounds in a few scenes in the live-action Green Lantern film and is part of the toyline.
Ganthet
During the Blackest Night crisis, Ganthet, a Guardian and one of Hal Jordan's allies, appointed himself as a deputy Green Lantern to aid Earth's heroes against Nekron and his Black Lantern Corps.
G'nort
G'Hu
Sector 2937; First appeared in Green Lantern Corps #1, and also appears in a background cameo in the Green Lantern live-action film and is also a part of the film toyline. He also appears in the animated film Green Lantern: Emerald Knights, as one of the first four Green Lanterns to be chosen.
Gpaak
Sector 3515; First appeared in Guy Gardner #11.
Gretti
The Green Lantern Gretti is part of a traveling caravan of "space gypsies" and refuses to stay in one place, roaming from sector to sector at the whim of his caravan. His superiors at the Corps say nothing since he still files his reports on time, but his sector partner Green Man has lately been less and less pleased with the situation. He is slain by Agent Orange, the keeper of the orange light of avarice.
Harvid
Sector 2937; First appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #161.
Horoq Nnot
Sector 885; First appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 4) #11. Slain in the purge of Alpha Lanterns.
Iolande
Sector 1417; First appeared in Green Lantern Corps (vol. 2) #1. Iolande is a princess from planet Betrassus, and Soranik Natu's partner on Sector 1417. She and Natu have clashed during the beginning of their careers as Green Lanterns; however, they eventually get along. She is the only one in the Corps who is aware of her partner's true parentage to Sinestro. She appears in cameos in the Green Lantern: First Flight animated film, more prominently in the Emerald Knights animated film, and has a brief cameo in the Green Lantern live action film. She also appears in Green Lantern: The Animated Series, voiced by Tara Strong.
Isamot Kol
Kaylark
Sector 1721; First appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #166.
Kho Kharhi
The Green Lantern of Sector 442. She first appeared in Wonder Woman (vol. 3) #19, and was created by Gail Simone and Bernard Chang. Kho is the young daughter of a Khund Ambassador, and was accepted into the Corps due to her strong sense of justice and compassion.
Krista X
Sector 863; First appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #166.
Lan Dibbux
Sector 3192; Showcase '93 #12
Larvox
The Green Lantern of Sector 0017. It first appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #9 in the story "Battle of the Power Rings!", written by John Broome and illustrated by Gil Kane. Larvox is an asexual being that comes from a planet where all beings are part of the whole and there are no individuals. Larvox cannot speak and must use its ring to communicate. After the fall of Oa, Larvox becomes a member of the Darkstars, but rejoins the Corps when the Green Lanterns are reformed.
Larvox has a cameo appearance in the Green Lantern: The Animated Series episode "Reboot".
Leezle Pon
Leezle Pon is a sentient smallpox virus, first mentioned in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #188 (May 1985). He defeated the Sinestro Corps viral villain Despotellis at the crux of the Sinestro Corps War when Guy Gardner was discovered to have been infected with the virus.
Meadlux
Sector 1776; First appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #169.
Medphyll
Mogo
Mogo is a sentient and living planet. It is technically genderless, but it is often casually referred to as male. When it is desired, its affiliation with the Corps is shown with foliage arranged into a green band, marked with the standard Green Lantern Corps lantern symbol, circling Mogo's equatorial area.
Mogo first appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #188 (May 1985) in a story titled "Mogo Doesn't Socialize" and was created by writer Alan Moore and artist Dave Gibbons. Although initially a one-off character from a short story, the planet has grown in importance in the Green Lantern mythos and is a necessary part of the process for distributing power rings as well as a destination for Corps members to recuperate.
Morro
A Green Lantern from Sector 666. Guy Gardner revealed to Kyle Rayner that Morro requested his duty as penance, as he killed his pets' mother in rage when he wrongfully thought it ate his brother (who was later found alive and well). His first act of atoning for his mistake was to adopt the creature's offspring as his own. Months later, after his brother's death (a natural cause) and the Sinestro Corps War, Morro chose to be the Corps' cryptkeeper. Morro is capable of combat and hunting without his ring, and his primary choice of weapon is his mallet. His dratures are fearsome dragon-like creatures loyal to their master and ready to aid him.
Mother Mercy
Matris Ater Clementia, or Mother Mercy, is the creator of the Black Mercy plants used by Mongul, and the new Lantern for Sector 2261. She initially created them to find people who are suffering and dying to ease their pain, which created a symbiotic relationship with her. However, the first Mongul discovered the plants and used them to spread his evil, even mutating some of the Black Mercys into giving their victims suffering. Mother Mercy, however, kept her sentience hidden from Mongul. Her abilities to both ease and create fear gave her both a Green Lantern Corps ring and a Sinestro Corps ring to choose from. The Green Lantern ring, which she ultimately chose, came from the recently deceased Bzzd. Mother Mercy first appeared in Green Lantern Corps (vol. 2) #24 (July 2008).
NautKeLoi
Naut Ke Loi first appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #9 (December 1961), and was created by John Broome and Gil Kane. NautKeLoi is the Lantern of Aeros, a planet entirely covered by water. As he cannot breathe air, he is always seen wearing a glass helmet filled with water. He is included as an action figure in the DC Universe Classics Green Lantern Classics subline for 2011. He appears briefly in the live-action Green Lantern film, and also appears in group scenes in the animated films Green Lantern: First Flight and Green Lantern: Emerald Knights.
Okonoko
The Green Lantern of Sector 1110. He first appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #162 (March 1983), and was created by Mike W. Barr. Okonoko is an oranges skinned humanoid with pointed ears, who retired from the Corp after training his replacement Deeter.
Olapet
Olapet was a plant-based Green Lantern, hailing from the planet of Southern Goldstar. She first appeared in Green Lantern Corps #217 (October 1987), and was created by Steve Englehart and Joe Staton. Olapet carries a seedling of herself in a pouch. She periodically dies and transfers both her memories and the Power Ring to the seedling. She, along with Driq and Flodo Span, were the sole survivors of the Green Lantern Corps of Laminate. The rest were killed by Sinestro and Sentient Sector 3600.
Oliversity
Sector 2111; First appeared in The Green Lantern Corps #222. Can create multiple effects with his venom.
Opto309v
Sector 2260; First appeared in 52 Week 41. Featured in Final Crisis #2, slain by Kalibak two issues later.
Orlan
Sector 3897; First appeared in The Brave and the Bold (vol. 3) #19. Orlan was from the planet Kahlo. He destroyed a major city of his home planet while under the control of a malevolent energy being, but was later freed from its influence by the Phantom Stranger.
Palaqua
The Green Lantern of sector 3600, he first appeared in Tales of the Green Lantern Corps Annual #2. He has also appeared in the Justice League Unlimited animated series and appears in a cameo in the Green Lantern: First Flight animated film. He also appears in a speaking role in the Green Lantern: Emerald Knights animated film.
Penelops
Protecting sector 1355, he first appeared in Tales of the Green Lantern Corps #3. He was a veteran Green Lantern who was re-recruited when the Corps returned. He appears in cameos in the animated films Green Lantern: First Flight and Green Lantern: Emerald Knights
Penn Maricc
The Green Lantern of Sector 3333. He first appeared in Tales of the Green Lantern Corps Annual #2 (December 1986), and was created by Mindy Newell and George Freeman. A hot-headed braggart, he frequently clashes with the equally hot headed Guy Gardner.
Perdoo
The Green Lantern of Sector 2234. He first appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 3) Annual #5 (1996), and was created by Len Wein and Bill Willingham. Perdoo is from the planet Qualar IV, whose natives resemble chicken like humanoids and are unusually timid. The first several Qualarians that were approached by the ring died of fright. Perdoo is the only member of his race without fear, and is therefore considered clinically insane by his fellow Qualarians. His name is a reference to Frank Perdue.
Procanon Kaa
Sector 442; First appeared in Green Lantern Corps #224 (May 1988): "The Ultimate Testament!". Despised by the Khunds.
Qurina Vint
Sector 282; First appeared in Green Lantern Corps (vol. 2) #61 (August 2011): "Beware My Power".
Recruited by Mogo during the War of the Green Lanterns. Her home planet is Calados, former police officer.
Raker Qarrigat
Raker Qarrigat is a fictional Green Lantern member of the DC Comics universe who first appeared in Green Lantern 80-Page Giant #3 (2000). He was created by Scott Beatty. He is abandoned by the Guardians of the Universe and hides in the shadows of Darkseid's domain, Apokolips. Qarrigat defends the downtrodden masses of Apokolips.
Reever of Xanshi
Sector 1313; First appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #130 (July 1980): "The Trial of Arkkis Chummuck: Indictment".
Remnant Nod
Sector 1132; Noted for opposing political oppression. Killed by Red Lantern Corps member Atrocitus.
Rori Dag
Sector 1234; The first Green Lantern.
Rot Lop Fan
Rot Lop Fan is one of several unorthodox members of the Green Lantern Corps created by Alan Moore in Tales of the Green Lantern Corps Annual #3 (1987). After his introduction, he later occasionally appears in Green Lantern Corps group scenes.
In the Tales of the Green Lantern Corps Annual #3 story "In the Blackest Night", Katma Tui is sent by the Guardians of the Universe to a lightless region of space known as the Obsidian Deeps, to recruit a new Green Lantern to protect that region of space. Despite the absolute darkness of the Deeps, Katma's power ring led her unerringly to a completely fearless and honest resident of the Deeps: Rot Lop Fan. However, as Rot Lop Fan's species had evolved in darkness, they had no concept of light and color, and thus Katma Tui was unable to explain how the power ring worked (it projects solid rays of light manifested by the bearer's will power).
Realizing that his species operates by hearing, Katma coaches him to create a hand bell with the ring, and describes the Green Lantern Corps as the "F-Sharp Bell Corps" — "F-Sharp" being a reassuring note for his race in the same manner that green is a reassuring color, and the ring's powers in terms of sound instead of light. She also composes a new oath for him to recite:
In loudest din or hush profound
my ears hear evil's slightest sound
let those who toll out evil's knell
beware my power, the F-Sharp Bell!
Having solved this dilemma, Katma leaves Rot Lop Fan to protect his people, not mentioning the ring's weakness to yellow as the colourless space made it relatively pointless; although, she privately notes that in some ways, Rot Lop Fan cannot be counted as a member of the "Green Lantern" Corps as he has truthfully never heard of them.
Rot Lop Fan later appears in several group scenes, including in the Crisis on Infinite Earths storyline when the Guardians of the Universe depart this plane of existence with the Zamarons, at the trial of Sinestro, on page 3 of the bar scene in Green Lantern (vol. 3) #56 (November 94) and in a group of ex-Green Lanterns freed from slavers by Warrior.
Rot Lop Fan has apparently been reinstated as a Green Lantern after the rebirth of the Corps. He appears in the backgrounds in a few scenes in the Green Lantern live-action film and is part of the 8-inch toyline.
Saarek
Saarek claims to be able to speak with the dead. He helps his fellow Lanterns track and capture the Sinestro Corps member who has been killing rookie Lantern's families, and is later tasked by a rogue Guardian, Scar, to find and speak with the Anti-Monitor's corpse. He later encounters Ash, who was also sent to find the Anti-Monitor, and the two decide to join forces. As they continue their journey, the voices of the dead grow so loud that they rupture Saarek's eardrums, deafening him. The two find the Black Lantern Power Battery, only to awaken the dormant power of the battery itself as two giant hands rise up from the ground and chase them, seeking flesh. He and Ash do not survive the conflict and are later seen as Black Lanterns at Scar's side on Ryut.
Shilandra Thane
Sector 3399; First appeared in Green Lantern Corps Quarterly #1.
Shorm
Sector 48. He first appeared in Green Lantern Corps: Recharge #1. Shorm is the acting desk sergeant of the Corps and is a close partner of Salaak. He appears in cameos in the Green Lantern: First Flight animated film and Green Lantern: Emerald Knights.
Sinestro
Skirl
Sector 2689; First appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #222.
Skyrd
Sector 3181; First appeared in Tales of the Green Lantern Corps #1.
Sodam Yat
Soranik Natu
Stel
T-Cher
The Green Lantern of Sector 1324, T-Cher first appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #167 (August 1983). T-Cher is a robot that had acted as the mechanical caregiver for the children of Green Lantern Brin. After Brin's retirement, the Guardians select T-Cher as his replacement.
Thulka Re
Little is known about Thulka Re save for the fact that he patrolled Sector 423. During a mission to the recently decimated world of Talcyion Omega, Thulka and his fellow Corpsmen were attacked by an army of powerful snakes known as the Silver Serpents. Thulka sacrificed his life to buy his companions time to escape, and was ultimately killed and consumed by the reptiles. His first and only appearance was in Wonder Woman (vol. 3) #42.
Torquemada
Torquemada is a powerful sorcerer as well as a Green Lantern. He first appeared in Green Lantern Corps Quarterly #4 (Spring 1993).
In the "Origins and Omens" back-up story in Green Lantern (vol. 4) #38 (March 2009), Torquemada is shown in manacles standing in front of the Guardians next to the sorcerer Mordru and Green Lantern Alan Scott, their fingers stretched out in accusation.
In Final Crisis: Legion of 3 Worlds #5 (September 2009), Torquemada and Alan Scott are shown imprisoned in a wall on the Sorcerers World in the 31st century.
T-O-T-U-K
A successor of Green Lantern AR-N-O-Q, TO-T-U-K served as a Green Lantern of Sector 1287 for nearly three thousand years until the events of the Crisis on Infinite Earths forced him into retirement. TO-T-U-K had no desire to retire from the Green Lantern Corps and actually preferred to dying in the line of duty. However, it was the will of the Guardians that TO-T-U-K pass his power ring to another. TO-T-U-K was sent to Valstan C5, a planet in the fifth sector of the globular cluster of Sector 1287, where he will find his successor.
Upon arriving in Valstan C5, TO-T-U-K scanned the planet to find a worthy heir but for reasons unknown to him his ring apparently failed to pinpoint his replacement. Initially confused, TO-T-U-K soon realized that the individual he had been looking for was a hive-mind cluster of floating organisms that were floating around him, called the Collective. The Collective, however, was insufficient to become a Green Lantern due to possessing a lower functioning intelligence. But TO-T-U-K learned that the Collective has the ability to absorb the essence of an ensnared lifeform, which would also absorb the personality and intelligence of the lifeform as it was assimilated into the Collective. TO-T-U-K realized that it was possible for the Collective to absorb his power battery and in doing so, each organism of the Collective would become a living power ring.
TO-T-U-K understood what he had to do in which he allowed himself to be absorbed by the Collective; his sacrifice provided the intelligence and higher reasoning the Collective needed to become a Green Lantern.
Tuebeen
The Green Lantern of Sector 918, Tuebeen's sole appearance is in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #155 (August 1982).
Turytt
Vath Sarn
Vath Sarn first appeared in DC Comics' Green Lantern Corps: Recharge #1 (November 2005), and was created by writers Geoff Johns and Dave Gibbons, and artist Patrick Gleason. The character is from the planet Rann, initially depicted as a veteran soldier of the Rann-Thanagar War, resulting in some tensions between him and his sector partner Isamot Kol, a soldier from Thanagar who was nevertheless more willing to look past their old conflict than Sarn. However, over time, the two move past their war history and become friends; when Sarn loses his legs during the Black Lantern Corps' assault on Oa, Kol actually has his own legs surgically transplanted onto Sarn, reasoning that his physiology will allow him to re-grow his lost limbs and wanting to give his friend the chance to continue his service in the Corps. Later, Vath is part of a small group of Lanterns who, by recruitment and circumstance, assist in taking down the original Guardians, who had gone mad with power.
Venizz
Sector 2812; First appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 4) #6 (January 2006). Venizz is the partner of Green Lantern Tagort. Noted for her opposition to eugenics.
Voz
Voz is close to Graf Toren, having been a fellow captive for a long time before Guy Gardner rescued them. Voz is assigned to be the warden of the Sciencells. It is a great honor to him, and he takes it very seriously. The Red Lantern Corps member Vice breaks free of his prison with the help of Scar and starts a riot. He breaks free many Sinestro Corps members too and Voz attempts to quell the riot singlehandedly, however Vice easily overpowers him. Voz is badly injured but survives. He appears in a cameo in the Green Lantern live-action film and is also a part of the film toyline.
Wissen
Sector 1915; First appeared in Tales of the Green Lantern Corps Annual #3 (1987). Wissen used his powers as a Green Lantern to end a thousand-year civil war on the planet Veltre. Wissen is eventually regarded by the natives of Veltre as a god, and under his benevolent rule the planet becomes peaceful but stagnant. After many years as the planet's ruler, a trio of Green Lanterns arrive to stabilize Veltre's core before it explodes like the planet Krypton. At first humbled by his failure, Wissen is persuaded to remain on Veltre to continue to act as its protector.
Xax
Xax of Xaos is a grasshopper-like alien from a planet ruled by insects. He first appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #9 and becomes one of Hal Jordan's good friends in the Corps. He was slain during a battle on the moon of Qward during the Crisis on Infinite Earths. Another grasshopper shaped Lantern named Xax is later slain and worn as an earring by Lady Styx. It's interesting to note that in his first appearance Xax does not use a ring, but a variation called a "power device" built into the insignia of his costume. Recharging it requires pressing the lantern shaped battery to his chest. All subsequent appearances show him wearing a ring. Xax appears in several scenes in both animated films, First Flight and Emerald Knights.
Zale
Zale of Bellatrix was Boodikka's replacement on the Bellatrix Bombers, and the next of her kind judged worthy by the Guardians to wield a GL ring. She first appeared in Green Lantern Corps #21. As a rookie Lantern who kept ignoring her call to duty, Zale was brought under investigation by her former sister Boodikka, now an Alpha-Lantern. After a lengthy confrontation, it was revealed that it was the Bombers who kept Zale from fulfilling her duties, by deceiving her into thinking she was needed with them. The Guardians punished Zale by making her Boodikka's sector partner and removing her power battery, making her dependent on Boodikka for recharges.
Zghithii
Sector 3599; First appeared in Green Lantern (vol. 2) #190 (July 1985). Zqhithii is a snake-like alien that helped fellow Green Lantern Xax fight off the Spider Guild invasion of Xaox.
Miscellaneous Green Lanterns
Avra
Appearing in the animated film Green Lantern: Emerald Knights in the segment "The First Lantern", a former scribe for the Guardians and one of the first four chosen Green Lanterns, when the Corps was formed. He was the first to discover the natural ability of the green light to create constructs, as it is the manifestation of willpower, and is thus considered the very first Green Lantern.
Blu
Appearing in the animated film Green Lantern: Emerald Knights in the segment "The First Lantern", Blue is a blue-skinned humanoid alien and one of the first four chosen Green Lanterns. She died in battle against a massive army, becoming the first Green Lantern to die in the line of duty.
Bruce Wayne
In the "Elseworlds" title In Darkest Knight, Bruce Wayne succeeded Abin Sur as Green Lantern of Sector 2814. His version of the Lantern uniform is darker than others and includes a cowl and a black scalloped cape. During that same story, Barry Allen / Flash, Superman, and Wonder Woman were recruited as Green Lantern candidates.
Wachet
Appearing in the animated film Green Lantern: Emerald Knights in the segment "The First Lantern", Wachet is a semi-translucent alien, nominally female, who was one of the first four chosen as Green Lanterns, and the second to use the full power of her ring following Avra's discovery.
Ngila G'rnt
First appeared in the Green Lantern live-action film and in the Green Lantern Movie Prequel: Hal Jordan #1 one-shot comic short story "Emerald City," Ngila G'rnt is a native of the planet Inguanzo, and a recently recruited teenaged Green Lantern. She possesses an extraordinary sense of hearing, natural to her race, and is named after the film's costume designer, Ngila Dickson.
Tai Pham
Appearing in the young adult graphic novels Green Lantern: Legacy (2020) and Green Lantern: Alliance (2022), Tai Pham is the thirteen-year-old grandson of Green Lantern Kim Tran who was selected by her power ring to become its successor. John Stewart, a frequent ally to Tran, became a mentor to Pham.
Kim Tran
Appearing in the young adult graphic novel Green Lantern: Legacy (2020), Kim Tran became a Green Lantern of Earth around the time of the Vietnam War and was a frequent ally to John Stewart. Her power ring chose her thirteen-year-old grandson Tai Pham as its successor upon her death.
Ardakian Trawl
Appearing only in the animated film Green Lantern: Emerald Knights during the introduction sequence, she is a female Green Lantern who dies after being assaulted by Krona's shadow demons. She is remembered by Ganthet as a brave and gallant Green Lantern.
Teen Lanterns
Frankie, Kelly, Jaclyn, and Samosa
Although not "official" members of the Green Lantern Corps, four teenagers — Frankie (male), Kelly (female), Jaclyn (female), and Samosa (male) — are given simplified Green Lantern rings by John Stewart after their homes are abducted to Oa by the Mad Guardian in Green Lantern (vol. 3) (1992) and Mosaic (1992–1993)..
Able to create simple objects, translate languages, synthesize atmosphere, and empower flight, these rings enabled the youngsters to explore Oa in the hopes that their youthful ways of looking at the Mosaic (and the other beings trapped there) would help ease relations between the Earthlings and other races.
Having a moderate degree of success, the four helped where they could until the Mosaic was torn apart when dozens of space fleets appeared over Oa, each planet determined to bring their people home.
Presumably the four are back on Earth readjusting to a "normal" life. At this time, it is unknown how the destruction of the Central Power Battery and subsequent reconstruction by Ion/Kyle Rayner affected the teenagers' rings. It is possible they still exist and can be recharged if given access to a Lantern.
Jordana Gardner
Another Teen Lantern, unrelated to the others and out-of-continuity, is Jordana Gardner, future descendant of Hal Jordan and Guy Gardner, who appears in Legion of Super Heroes in the 31st Century #6.
Keli Quintela
Young Justice (vol. 3) #1 (March 2019) introduced another Teen Lantern in Keli Quintela. An unofficial Green Lantern, Quintela is an eleven-year old from La Paz, Bolivia that hacked into the Green Lantern Power Battery and created a gauntlet that acts like a Green Lantern power ring.
M'ten
Appearing in Green Lantern: The Animated Series episode "Beware my Power," M'ten was the Green Lantern of an unknown sector who was assigned to Frontier Space. After being ambushed and murdered by Zilius Zox of the Red Lantern Corps, M'ten's ring returned to Oa, setting the events of the series in motion.
Shyir Rev
Appearing in the Green Lantern: The Animated Series episode "Beware My Power," Shyir Rev was a Green Lantern assigned to Frontier Space. He was ambushed and severely injured by members of the Red Lantern Corps, but was rescued by Hal Jordan and Kilowog. Shyir ultimately ended up sacrificing his life to save his home world from a Red Lantern bomb, and was honored by his comrades.
Dulok
Appearing in the Green Lantern: The Animated Series episode "Heir Apparent," Dulok was a Green Lantern from the planet of Betrassus. Dulok had planned to join a band of Green Lanterns tasked with fighting off the Red Lantern Corps, but was murdered by Ragnar, the planet's crown prince. After Dulok's death, his ring passed to Iolande, the young queen of Betrassus.
Probert
Probert was a mercenary who met up with a few Lanterns and conversed with Guy Gardner at the scene of a huge spaceborne battle. A few of the newer Lanterns pointed out that Probert had once been a Lantern and was described to Guy as having been "worse than you."
Monster Menace Green Lantern
A Green Lantern from an unnamed planet who leads a team of monstrous-appearing superheroes to Earth in pursuit of Sinestro's duplicate power ring and battery. Initially masquerading as a mysterious robed ghoul, he is a bald humanoid with chalk-white skin, and first appears in Super Friends #10, created by writer E. Nelson Bridwell and artist Ramona Fradon.
Kai-Ro
Kai-Ro is Green Lantern in the future DC animated universe voiced by Lauren Tom, first appearing in the Batman Beyond two-part episode "The Call" (2000). An eight-year-old child mature beyond his age, Kai-Ro possesses the standard Green Lantern power ring and assists Terry McGinnis, the Batman of the future, in finding a supposed traitor within the ranks of the Justice League Unlimited.
Kai-Ro later appears as a young adult in the 2005 Justice League Unlimited episode "Epilogue" in Terry's daydream. Still a member of the future JLU, he defeats a group of supervillains with McGinnis' help and pleads with McGinnis to stay with the team despite the Batman's growing animosity and disillusion upon the discovery of his true origins.
A two-issue story in the Batman Beyond comic reveals that Kai-Ro had been raised in a Buddhist monastery prior to receiving the ring. In this story he returns there to battle Black Light, a character with a black power ring, somewhat similar to Sinestro. The story mentions that Kai-Ro's ring had no yellow weakness.
A character named Kairo is Green Lantern's alien sidekick in the 1967 Filmation animated series The Superman/Aquaman Hour of Adventure.
Kid Lantern
Issue #3 of the miniseries Flash and Green Lantern: The Brave and the Bold (December 2000) has Flash, Kid Flash, and Green Lantern in pursuit of Mirror Master and Black Hand. The villains attempt to steal Flash's speed but Kid Flash loses his powers instead. Green Lantern creates a temporary power ring for Wally to use, dubbing him Kid Lantern. Wally's Lantern costume is palette swap of his Kid Flash costume, with black pants, green top/boots, white gloves, and a Green Lantern insignia in place of his lightning insignia.
Daffy Duck/Duck Dodgers
In episode #9 ("The Green Loontern") of the 2003 Duck Dodgers animated series, Duck Dodgers claims his laundry at the dry-cleaners, but mistakenly takes Hal Jordan's Green Lantern uniform instead of his usual outfit. This episode made use of discarded character concepts for a proposed Green Lantern Corps animated series. The series would have focused on the adventures of Kyle Rayner with a slightly comical version of the Corps. The episode included the first animated versions of Guy Gardner, Ch'p, and Boodikka.
Daffy also appears as The Green Loontern in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham.
Green Guardsman
A Green Guardsman is featured on the Justice League animated series' season one two-part episode "Legends" (2002) as an homage to the original Alan Scott. He appears as a Justice Guild of America member on an alternate Earth that had been devastated by nuclear war, but reconstructed as a vast mental illusion by a psychic, Ray Thompson. This is a reference to the pre-Crisis on Infinite Earths crossovers between DC Comics' Multiverse (which began in September 1961 "Flash of Two Worlds"). To mirror the Golden Age Green Lantern ring's vulnerability to wood, the Green Guardsman's ring has no power over aluminum. However, the Green Guardsman proves to be a loyal superhero of a bygone era, and willingly sacrifices himself to defend the Earth he protects.
Sonya Blade
Sonya Blade's ending in the video game Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe depicts her becoming the Green Lantern of Earthrealm after finding the ring of an unnamed Corps member who died offscreen during the game's Story Mode.
Power Ring
Power Ring is the name of several DC Comics supervillains — counterparts of Green Lanterns Hal Jordan, Kyle Rayner, and John Stewart. Originally residing on Earth-Three, which was subsequently destroyed during the 12-issue limited series Crisis on Infinite Earths, Power Ring along with the other Syndicators ended up being recreated in the Anti-Matter Universe's Earth.
Iron Lantern
Iron Lantern is a fictional character and an Amalgam Comics superhero, whose true debut was in Iron Lantern #1 (June 1997), though his first (metafictional) appearance in the Amalgam universe was in Showcase of Suspense #1. He is a combination of Marvel Comics' Iron Man and DC Comics' Green Lantern. Iron Lantern was created by writer Kurt Busiek.
Iron Lantern's origin is revealed in Iron Lantern #1. Hal Stark is the millionaire owner of Stark Aviation. While working on a prototype flight simulator, Stark is pulled to the site of a space ship by a beam of green energy. The simulator crashes, badly injuring Stark. The spaceship contains the corpse of an alien named Rhomann Sur (an amalgamation of Marvel's Rhomann Dey and DC's Abin Sur). Stark is able to use parts of the spaceship to build a superpowered suit of armor (powered by Sur's lantern) to keep himself alive. Stark then defeats the aliens responsible for Sur's death, and decides to fight evil as Iron Lantern.
Iron Lantern's other foes include Madame Sapphire (Pepper Ferris — Marvel's Madame Masque and DC's Star Sapphire), H.E.C.T.O.R. (Marvel's MODOK and DC's Hector Hammond), Oa the Living Planet (Ego the Living Planet mixed with Oa, the home planet of the Guardians of the Universe), and Mandarinestro (Marvel's Mandarin and DC's Sinestro).
Kyle O'Brien / Green Guardsman
Kyle O'Brien / Green Guardsman is an Amalgam Comics superhero whose true debut was in Iron Lantern #1, though his first (metafictional) appearance in the Amalgam universe was Showcase of Suspense #84, in a story entitled "The Other Iron Lantern". He was an amalgamation of Kevin O'Brien, the Guardsman, and Kyle Rayner, the then current Green Lantern.
Jade Yifei
Based on Jennifer-Lynn Hayden, Jade Yifei is the Green Lantern of Sector 2814 in the Ame-Comi universe. A teenager from China, she was chosen as the first Green Lantern of Earth in this continuity rather than Hal Jordan.
Doctor Spectrum (Marvel Comics)
Doctor Spectrum is the name of five different fictional comic book characters in the Marvel Comics multiverse. There have been five versions of the character to date — three supervillains from the mainstream Marvel Universe belonging to the team Squadron Sinister (Earth-616) and two heroes from different alternate universes. The two heroes each belong to a version of the team Squadron Supreme (the Squadron Supreme of Earth-712 and the Squadron Supreme of Earth-31916, respectively).
Green Lanterns by sectors of the universe
After long experimentation the Guardians equipped and loosely oversaw the Green Lantern Corps, over 7200 diverse beings from throughout the universe. Each was granted a battery and a ring. Thinly scattered among uncounted trillions of stars, each was assigned a sector of space which was vaster than anyone can comprehend.
The sectors are shaped as four-sided pyramid-shaped sections of a sphere, with their point meeting at Oa, which is located at the center of the universe. Oa is technically in each Lantern's sector, and while on Oa, the Lantern is still in his home sector
There are 3600 standard space sectors, plus three "special" sectors: 0 (Oa itself), -1 (Anti-matter universe), and 3601 (proscribed sector of space populated by the Manhunters).
See also
Green Lantern
Green Lantern Corps
Guardians of the Universe
Sinestro Corps
Doctor Spectrum
Green Lantern (film)
References
External links
The Great Book of Oa
Alan Kistler's profile on Green Lantern
Green Lantern
Green Lantern |
4291375 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%20NCAA%20Division%20I-A%20football%20season | 2000 NCAA Division I-A football season | The 2000 NCAA Division I-A football season ended with the Oklahoma Sooners beating the defending national champion Florida State Seminoles to claim the Sooners' seventh national championship and their thirty-seventh conference championship, the first of each since the departure of head coach Barry Switzer.
Oklahoma coach Bob Stoops was in his second season as head coach, having been the defensive coordinator of Steve Spurrier's 1996 National Champion Florida Gators, and also having helped Bill Snyder turn the Kansas State Wildcats around in the early 1990s. Stoops erased a three-game losing streak against rival Texas by a score of 63–14, one of the worst defeats in Texas' football history. Despite the lopsided victory, this game marked a return of the Red River Shootout to a rivalry game with national title implications.
The BCS title game, held at the Orange Bowl that year, was not without controversy, as the system shut fourth-ranked Washington out of the championship game, despite being the only team who had beaten each No. 2 Miami and No. 5 Oregon State and having the same 10–1 record as No. 3 Florida State during the regular season. 10–1 Miami, who handed No. 3 Florida State their only loss, was ranked higher in both the AP Writers' Poll and the ESPN/USA Today Coaches' Poll, and had the same record as the Seminoles, was also seen as a possible title contender.
Virginia Tech also was left out of the BCS bowls, despite being ranked higher than one of the at-large teams, Notre Dame.
The South Carolina Gamecocks broke a 21-game losing streak, stretching back into 1998, to go 8–4 including a win over Ohio State in the Outback Bowl.
Two new bowl games began in the 2000 season: the Silicon Valley Bowl, which had a contractual tie-in with the WAC, and the Galleryfurniture.com Bowl.
Rules changes
The following rules changes were passed by the NCAA Rules Committee in 2000:
The definition of an illegal block is expanded to include any high-low or low-high combination block by any two offensive players when the initial contact clearly occurs beyond the neutral zone.
Crack-back blocks are now prohibited from any offensive player in motion in any direction (previously it was in motion toward the ball) and the restricted zone is now 10 yards beyond the neutral zone in all directions.
Offensive teams in the process of substituting or simulated substituting are prohibited from rushing to the line of scrimmage to snap the ball to give the defense a disadvantage. The penalty for a first offense is five yards, additional violations are considered unsportsmanlike conduct (15 yards).
Defensive players lined up within one yard of the line of scrimmage are prevented from rushing up to the line with the obvious intent of causing an offensive player to false start.
Passers who are not within five yards of the sideline from the original position of the ball (aka the "tackle box") are allowed to throw the ball so it lands beyond the neutral zone without penalty.
Conference and program changes
Two teams upgraded from Division I-AA, thus increasing the number of Division I-A schools from 114 to 116.
Nevada left the Big West Conference to become the ninth member of the Western Athletic Conference.
Two new teams joined Division I-A football this season: the University of Connecticut and the University of South Florida.
Regular Season
August–September
Nebraska was voted No. 1 in the preseason AP Poll, followed by defending national champion Florida State at No. 2. Alabama and Wisconsin, last year’s winners of the SEC and Big Ten, were third and fourth, with Big East runner-up Miami at No. 5.
August 26: The only highly ranked team to play this week was No. 2 Florida State, who defeated Brigham Young 29-3 in the Pigskin Classic. The top five remained the same in the next AP Poll.
August 31-September 2: No. 1 Nebraska defeated San Jose State 49-13, and No. 2 Florida State was idle. No. 3 Alabama lost 35-24 at UCLA; the Crimson Tide turned out to be dramatically overrated to start the season, as they ended up finishing last in the SEC West with a 3-8 record. No. 4 Wisconsin beat Western Michigan 19-7, No. 5 Miami blasted McNeese State 61-14, and No. 6 Michigan won 42-7 over Bowling Green. The next poll featured No. 1 Nebraska, No. 2 Florida State, No. 3 Michigan, No. 4 Miami, and No. 5 Wisconsin.
September 9: No. 1 Nebraska held a 14-point second-half lead over No. 23 Notre Dame, but the Irish responded with a 100-yard kickoff return and an 83-yard punt return to force overtime. After a Notre Dame field goal, Eric Crouch ran for his third touchdown of the game to seal a 27-24 Cornhuskers win. No. 2 Florida State needed a fourth-quarter comeback of their own to beat Georgia Tech 26-21. No. 3 Michigan defeated Rice 38-7, but No. 4 Miami fell 34-29 at No. 15 Washington. Michael Bennett ran for 290 yards and led No. 5 Wisconsin to a 27-23 victory over Oregon, while No. 6 Texas overwhelmed Louisiana-Lafayette 52-10. The next poll featured No. 1 Nebraska, No. 2 Florida State, No. 3 Michigan, No. 4 Wisconsin, and No. 5 Texas.
September 16: No. 1 Nebraska was idle. No. 2 Florida State blew out North Carolina 63-14. No. 3 Michigan fell 23-20 to No. 14 UCLA, the Bruins’ second win in three weeks over a third-ranked team. With five starters suspended for receiving unauthorized shoe store discounts, No. 4 Wisconsin barely escaped Cincinnati in a 28-25 overtime win; the Badgers fell out of the top five in the next poll. No. 5 Texas lost 27-24 to Stanford when a late Cardinal touchdown drive erased a fourth-quarter Longhorns comeback. No. 6 Florida’s game against No. 11 Tennessee ended in controversy when a pass was knocked out of Gators receiver Jabar Gaffney’s hands in the end zone with time running out. The referees ruled that Gaffney had possession long enough for the touchdown to count, giving Florida a 27-23 win. No. 7 Kansas State shut out Ball State 76-0, and No. 8 Virginia Tech blanked Rutgers 49-0. The next poll featured No. 1 Nebraska, No. 2 Florida State, No. 3 Florida, No. 4 Kansas State, and No. 5 Virginia Tech.
September 23: No. 1 Nebraska defeated Iowa 42-13, No. 2 Florida State shut out Louisville 31-0, and No. 3 Florida beat Kentucky 59-31. No. 4 Kansas State won 55-10 over North Texas, but the Wildcats still switched places with idle No. 5 Virginia Tech in the next poll: No. 1 Nebraska, No. 2 Florida State, No. 3 Florida, No. 4 Virginia Tech, and No. 5 Kansas State.
September 28–30: No. 1 Nebraska beat Missouri 42-24, but the AP voters were more impressed by No. 2 Florida State’s 59-7 blowout of Maryland. No. 3 Florida accumulated 494 passing yards and negative 78 rushing yards in a 47-35 loss to Mississippi State. No. 4 Virginia Tech won 48-34 at Boston College, while No. 5 Kansas State was a 44-21 victor at Colorado. No. 7 Clemson beat Duke 52-22 to move up in the next AP Poll: No. 1 Florida State, No. 2 Nebraska, No. 3 Virginia Tech, No. 4 Kansas State, and No. 5 Clemson. Nebraska retained the top spot in the Coaches Poll.
October
October 7: No. 1 Florida State’s 27-24 loss to No. 7 Miami was a case of deja vu, as the Seminoles again missed a potential game-tying field goal at the end of a game with national championship implications. “Wide Right III” brought back memories of similar Florida State-Miami finishes in 1991 and 1992. No. 2 Nebraska won 49-27 at Iowa State, No. 3 Virginia Tech beat Temple 35-13, No. 4 Kansas State beat Kansas 52-13, and No. 5 Clemson held off North Carolina State 34-27. Nebraska returned to the No. 1 spot in both polls, and they were followed in the AP rankings by No. 2 Kansas State, No. 3 Virginia Tech, No. 4 Miami, and No. 5 Clemson.
October 12–14: No. 1 Nebraska dominated Texas Tech 56-3. No. 2 Kansas State fell 41-31 to No. 8 Oklahoma, whose head coach was former Wildcats assistant Bob Stoops. No. 3 Virginia Tech beat West Virginia 48-20, No. 4 Miami was idle, and No. 5 Clemson defeated Maryland 35-14. The next poll featured No. 1 Nebraska, No. 2 Virginia Tech, No. 3 Oklahoma, No. 4 Miami, and No. 5 Clemson.
October 21: No. 1 Nebraska shut out Baylor 59-0. No. 2 Virginia Tech spotted Syracuse a two-touchdown lead in the first quarter but came back to win 22-14. No. 3 Oklahoma was idle. No. 4 Miami won 45-17 at Temple, and No. 5 Clemson visited North Carolina for a 38-24 victory. The AP rankings remained the same, but the year’s first BCS rankings (which were released this weekend) had Oklahoma over Virginia Tech and Florida State in fifth place instead of Clemson.
October 28: No. 1 Nebraska visited No. 3 Oklahoma for what was expected to be a tight struggle. Instead, the game turned into a rout as the Sooners ran away with a 31-14 victory. No. 2 Virginia Tech lost star quarterback Michael Vick to an ankle injury and needed a last-minute field goal to escape Pittsburgh 37-34. No. 4 Miami, the Hokies’ Big East rival, looked sloppy in a 42-31 win over a 2-7 Louisiana Tech squad. No. 5 Clemson allowed an 80-yard game-ending touchdown drive and fell 31-28 to Georgia Tech. No. 6 Florida State won 58-14 at No. 21 North Carolina State. The next AP Poll featured No. 1 Oklahoma, No. 2 Virginia Tech, No. 3 Miami, No. 4 Florida State, and No. 5 Nebraska. The BCS standings were topped by the same five teams, but with Miami ranked fifth behind the Seminoles and Cornhuskers.
November–December
November 4: No. 1 Oklahoma blasted Baylor 56-7. With Michael Vick still hobbled by his injured ankle, No. 2 Virginia Tech was no match for No. 3 Miami. The Hokies’ 41-21 loss left Oklahoma as the only undefeated team in the nation. In a father vs. son coaching matchup, Bobby Bowden’s No. 4 Florida State crushed Tommy Bowden’s No. 10 Clemson 54-7. No. 5 Nebraska bounced back with a 56-17 victory over Kansas, and No. 6 Florida won 43-21 at Vanderbilt. The next AP Poll featured No. 1 Oklahoma, No. 2 Miami, No. 3 Florida State, No. 4 Nebraska, and No. 5 Florida, while the BCS continued to rate Florida State second and Miami third.
November 11: No. 1 Oklahoma trailed by 10 points in the fourth quarter, but an interception return for a touchdown allowed the Sooners to come back and beat No. 23 Texas A&M 35-31 before a Kyle Field record crowd of 87,188 fans. No. 2 Miami defeated Pittsburgh 35-7. No. 3 Florida State won 35-6 at Wake Forest. No. 4 Nebraska visited No. 16 Kansas State hoping to clinch a spot in the Big 12 title game. Instead, the Wildcats took over the division lead by winning a 29-28 nailbiter in a snowstorm. No. 5 Florida faced No. 21 South Carolina for the SEC East title, and the Gators won 41-21. No. 6 Oregon, the surprise first-place team of the Pac-10, beat California 25-17. The next AP Poll featured No. 1 Oklahoma, No. 2 Miami, No. 3 Florida State, No. 4 Florida, and No. 5 Oregon. The BCS had the same top four but picked Washington at No. 5, despite the Huskies’ early-season loss to the Ducks.
November 18: No. 1 Oklahoma clinched a spot in the Big 12 title game with a 27-13 victory over Texas Tech. No. 2 Miami shut out Syracuse 26-0. No. 3 Florida State overwhelmed No. 4 Florida 30-7. No. 5 Oregon and No. 8 Oregon State were both contenders for the Pac-10 title, and for the first time in 36 years the game between the two rivals would help decide the conference’s Rose Bowl representative. The Ducks had the opportunity to clinch the outright title, but Oregon quarterback Joey Harrington threw five interceptions in a 23-13 loss to the Beavers. No. 6 Washington blew out Washington State 51-3 to climb into a three-way tie for the conference lead, and the Huskies (who had beaten Oregon State in October) earned a trip to Pasadena. The next AP Poll featured No. 1 Oklahoma, No. 2 Miami, No. 3 Florida State, No. 4 Washington, and No. 5 Oregon State. However, the BCS was impressed enough with Florida State’s victory over Florida that the Seminoles were elevated back above the Hurricanes into the number-two spot.
November 25: Undefeated No. 1 Oklahoma had a tough time with 3-7 Oklahoma State, but the Sooners finally pulled out a 12-7 victory. No. 2 Miami beat Boston College 52-6. No. 3 Florida State, No. 4 Washington, and No. 5 Oregon State had all finished their seasons, and the next AP Poll remained the same.
December 2: No. 1 Oklahoma faced No. 8 Kansas State in the Big 12 Championship Game, hoping to preserve their undefeated record and earn a spot in the national title game. The game was tied at 17 going into the fourth quarter, but the Sooners scored a touchdown and kicked a 46-yard field goal to go ahead for good. After Kansas State cut the score to 27-24 with six seconds left, Oklahoma recovered the onside kick to salt away the win.
Undefeated No. 1 Oklahoma was guaranteed a spot in the Orange Bowl to play for the national championship, but the BCS caused a controversy by selecting AP No. 3 Florida State rather than No. 2 Miami or No. 4 Washington as the Sooners’ opponent. All three teams had been defeated only once, but Florida State’s loss was to Miami whose loss was to Washington. Miami would go to the Sugar Bowl against No. 7 Florida (who had easily beaten No. 18 Auburn in the SEC Championship Game), while Washington would play No. 14 Purdue in the Rose Bowl’s Pac-10 vs. Big Ten matchup. The BCS bowls were rounded out by two at-large teams, No. 5 Oregon State and No. 10 Notre Dame, who would meet in the Fiesta Bowl.
Regular season top 10 matchups
Rankings reflect the AP Poll. Rankings for Week 9 and beyond will list BCS Rankings first and AP Poll second. Teams that failed to be a top 10 team for one poll or the other will be noted.
Week 6
No. 7 Miami defeated No. 1 Florida State, 27–24 (Miami Orange Bowl, Miami, Florida)
Week 7
No. 8 Oklahoma defeated No. 2 Kansas State, 41–31 (KSU Stadium, Manhattan, Kansas)
Week 9
No. 2/3 Oklahoma defeated No. 1/1 Nebraska, 31–14 (Oklahoma Memorial Stadium, Norman, Oklahoma)
Week 10
No. 3/4 Florida State defeated No. 13/10 Clemson, 54–7 (Doak Campbell Stadium, Tallahassee, Florida)
No. 5/3 Miami defeated No. 2/2 Virginia Tech, 41–21 (Miami Orange Bowl, Miami, Florida)
Week 12
No. 3/3 Florida State defeated No. 4/4 Florida, 30–7 (Doak Campbell Stadium, Tallahassee, Florida)
No. 9/8 Oregon State defeated No. 7/5 Oregon, 23–13 (Reser Stadium, Corvallis, Oregon)
Week 14
No. 1/1 Oklahoma defeated No. 9/8 Kansas State, 27–24 (2000 Big 12 Championship Game, Arrowhead Stadium, Kansas City, Missouri)
Conference standings
Bowl games
BCS bowls
Orange Bowl: No. 1 Oklahoma (BCS No. 1) 13, No. 3 Florida State (BCS No. 2) 2
Rose Bowl: No. 4 Washington (Pac 10 co-champ) 34, No. 14 Purdue (Big Ten co-Champ) 24
Fiesta Bowl: No. 5 Oregon State (At Large [Pac 10 co-champ]) 41, No. 10 Notre Dame (At Large) 9
Sugar Bowl: No. 2 Miami (Big East Champ) 37, No. 7 Florida (SEC Champ) 20
Other New Year's Day bowls
Cotton Bowl Classic: No. 11 Kansas State (Big 12 runner-up) 35, No. 21 Tennessee 21
Florida Citrus Bowl: No. 17 Michigan (Big Ten co-champ) 31, No. 20 Auburn (SEC runner-up) 28
Gator Bowl: No. 6 Virginia Tech 41, No. 16 Clemson 20
Outback Bowl: South Carolina 24, No. 19 Ohio State 7
December bowl games
Holiday Bowl: No. 8 Oregon (Pac 10 co-champ) 35, No. 12 Texas 30
Peach Bowl: LSU 28, No. 15 Georgia Tech 14
MicronPC.com Bowl: NC State 38, Minnesota 30
Sun Bowl: Wisconsin 21, UCLA 20
Alamo Bowl: No. 9 Nebraska 66, No. 18 Northwestern (Big Ten co-champ) 17
Insight.com Bowl: Iowa State 37, Pittsburgh 29
Liberty Bowl: No. 23 Colorado State (MWC champ) 22, No. 22 Louisville (C-USA champ) 17
Aloha Bowl: Boston College 31, Arizona State 17
Oahu Bowl: No. 24 Georgia 37, Virginia 14
Independence Bowl: Mississippi State 43, Texas A&M 41 (OT)
Music City Bowl: West Virginia 49, Mississippi 38
Las Vegas Bowl: UNLV 31, Arkansas 14
Motor City Bowl: Marshall (MAC champ) 25, Cincinnati 14
Humanitarian Bowl: Boise State (Big West champ) 38, UTEP (WAC co-champ) 23
Mobile Alabama Bowl: Southern Miss 28, No. 13 TCU (WAC co-champ) 21
Silicon Valley Classic: Air Force 37, Fresno State 34
Galleryfurniture.com bowl: East Carolina 40, Texas Tech 27
Final polls
Heisman Trophy voting
The Heisman Trophy is given to the year's most outstanding player
Other major awards
Maxwell Award (College Player of the Year) – Drew Brees, Purdue
Walter Camp Award (Back) – Josh Heupel, Oklahoma
Davey O'Brien Award (Quarterback) – Chris Weinke, Florida State
Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award (Senior quarterback) – Chris Weinke, Florida State
Doak Walker Award (Running back) – LaDainian Tomlinson, TCU
Fred Biletnikoff Award (Wide receiver) – Antonio Bryant, Pittsburgh
Bronko Nagurski Trophy (Defensive player) – Dan Morgan, Miami
Chuck Bednarik Award – Dan Morgan, Miami
Dick Butkus Award (Linebacker) – Dan Morgan, Miami
Lombardi Award (Lineman or Linebacker) – Jamal Reynolds, Florida State
Outland Trophy (Interior lineman) – John Henderson, Tennessee, DT
Jim Thorpe Award (Defensive back) – Jamar Fletcher, Wisconsin
Lou Groza Award (Placekicker) – Jonathan Ruffin, Cincinnati
Paul "Bear" Bryant Award – Bob Stoops, Oklahoma
References |
4291630 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry%20of%20Environment%20%28South%20Korea%29 | Ministry of Environment (South Korea) | The Ministry of Environment () is the South Korea branch of government charged with environmental protection. In addition to enforcing regulations and sponsoring ecological research, the Ministry manages the national parks of South Korea. Its headquarters is in Sejong City.
Mission
The mission of the Ministry of Environment is to protect the national territory from threats of environmental pollution and to improve the quality of life for the public. This includes ensuring the people of South Korea can enjoy the natural environment, clean water and clear skies. Furthermore, the Ministry aims to contribute to the global efforts to protect the Earth. In February 2008, the Korea Meteorological Administration became an affiliate of the Ministry of Environment to facilitate countermeasures against climate change.
Tasks of the Ministry of Environment include
Enactment and amendment of environmental laws and regulations
Introduction of environmental institutions
Building up the framework structure for environmental administration
Drafting and implementation of mid to long term comprehensive measures for environmental conservation
Setting up standards for regulations
Providing administrative and financial support for environmental management to local governments
Inter-Korean environmental cooperation
Environmental cooperation with other countries.
History
The environmental authority of the Republic of Korea, began with the Pollution Section of the Ministry of Health and Society, established in 1967, which was expanded to become the Pollution Division, in charge of environmental administration, in 1973. After several reforms and the expansion of environmental authority, the Environment Administration was launched as an affiliate of the Ministry of Health and Society, in 1980. In January 1990, the Environment Administration was elevated to the Ministry of Environment under the Office of the Prime Minister, in order to efficiently integrate and coordinate environmental issues. In December 1994, the Ministry of Environment was given greater authority to establish and implement its own policies.
Timeline
Major policies
Air
Air Pollutant Emissions Trading System
Certification of Exhaust Reduction Equipment
Foul Odor Prevention
Promotion of Natural Gas Vehicles
Air Pollution Monitoring
Clean SYS
In-use Diesel Vehicle Emissions Control
Special Measures for Air Quality Improvement in the Seoul Metropolitan Area
Atmospheric Environmental Standard
Dust and sandstorms
Indoor Air Quality
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Reduction
Water
Drinking Water Quality Standard and Test
Ecological Stream Restoration Projects
Environmental Management of Military Facilities
Environmental Water Quality Standards
Individual Sewerage
Non-point Source Pollution Management
Operation of Water Quality Monitoring Network
Public Sewerage
Total Water Pollution Load Management System
Underground Water Management
Water Environment Management Master Plan
Water Use Charge
Whole Effluent Toxicity Management System
Riparian buffer zone designation system
This is a system that restricts the construction of restaurants, accommodation, spas, factories, and warehouses by establishing a certain section of a river as a buffer zone connecting the aquatic ecosystem and the terrestrial ecosystem for the purpose of securing a healthy aquatic ecosystem and clean water, and designating a Riparian Buffer Zone to form a Riparian Buffer Forest after buying lands near the waterside one by one, through agreements with residents.
For the Han River watershed, 255 km2 adjacent to Paldonghosu, Namhan River, Bukhan River, and Kyoungan stream was first designated as a Riparian Zone in September 1999. Three successive changes have reduced its size to 191.3 km2. For the Nakdong River, Geum River, and Yeongsan River watershed, major dams and the land near stream flow and lakes, which were used as a water source, were designated as Riparian Buffer Zones in September 2003. For the Nakdong River watershed, three changes have been applied, making the designated area 339.9 km2. For the Geum River watershed, three changes have been applied, making the designated area 373.2 km2. For Yeongsan River watershed, four changes have been applied, making the designated area 295.6 km2.
However, the following areas were excluded from the Riparian Buffer Zones: Water source protection areas, development restriction areas, and military facility protection areas, which were already subject to other regulations; sewage disposal areas, anticipated sewage disposal areas, and city areas and settlement areas designated by the Utilization Management of the Land Act that had an existing environmental infrastructure; and natural villages above level 5 for Nakdong River and above level 10 for Geum River and Yeongsan River. For areas designated as Riparian Buffer Zones, new construction of pollution sources such as restaurants, accommodation, spas, apartment housing, factories and warehouses are prohibited. After three years from an area's designation as a Riparian Buffer Zone, the existing pollution sources must discharge sewage only after it has been processed to BOD and SS levels below 10ppm.
Toxic pollutants effluent standard
To maintain public water quality at a level that is safe for human and animal health and for the growth of plants, pollution materials subject to management are designated under the Act on Water Quality and Ecosystem Conservation. Currently, 40 kinds of organic materials, including copper, lead, nickel, and cyanogens, are designated as water pollutants. To manage water quality safety, heavy metals and phenols are designated as specific water pollution material.
An emission standard is one of the regulatory methods to achieve environmental standards, and restricts the concentration of discharge water from a discharging business. The standard is set with consideration given to environmental standards and purification capacity of a stream. The Act on Water Quality and Ecosystem Conservation applies wastewater emission standards to 29 items (e.g., organic materials, suspended solids, and phenols), and classifies the water quality of each watershed into 4 levels (Clean, Ga, Na, Special) for each region.
Organic material and suspended solids are handled differently according to the amount of wastewater discharged from a business. That is, considering the effect that it has on the stream, stricter emission standards are applied to a business that discharges wastewater in the amount of more than 2,000 m3/day than to smaller businesses, in order to incorporate a quantity regulation method as well as a concentration regulation method. Taking the capacity of wastewater processing facilities into account, special emission standards are applied to businesses whose wastewater flows into wastewater processing facilities in industrial complexes or agricultural/industrial complexes.
Since 1997, emission standards regarding nitrogen and phosphorus materials have been applied to all businesses located at Paldang Lake, Daecheong Lake, Nakdong River and Nakdong Estuary watershed to prevent the eutrophication of lakes and marshes. All businesses in Korea have been subject to the same standards since 2003.
The amount of chemicals discharged from industries into the watershed have increased with the growth of the chemical industry and the increase in international trade. Therefore, pilot studies on the ecotoxicity of discharged water for fish (minnow), daphnia magna, and birds have been undertaken since 2002, to examine the toxicity of unknown harmful materials outside of emission standards items. The Act on Water Quality and Ecosystem Conservation was amended in November 2007 to adopt an integrated toxicity management system based on the result of this research.
Telemetry Monitoring System (TMS)
Tele-Monitoring System (TMS) refers to a system that monitors the emission state of pollution materials on a 24-hour basis by creating an online connection between automatic measurement devices, which are attached to the discharging outlet of wastewater processing facilities and wastewater-producing businesses, and a remote water quality control center.
The objective is to prevent water pollution by managing and monitoring the quality of discharged water, while inducing each business to make efforts for production process improvement by analyzing and managing water pollution levels. A reasonable and objective effluent charge is determined in order to improve policy credibility by identifying the exact pollution level for each period of time. Technical support and consultation for the establishment of control methods for the pollutants discharged by a business are provided, through the continuous assessment and analysis of the pollution level by the remote control of water quality.
Soil
Soil pollution is different from other environmental pollution in that it is almost impossible to detect soil contamination by eye. Such pollution cannot be recognized until it has progressed to a certain level, and there is a long time delay between the pollution activity and the onset of damage. In addition, the effect of soil pollution is very long-lasting. Once soil is polluted, it is hard to remove the pollution; it takes a great deal of time and expense.
Soil goes through three phases: solid, liquid and gas. The solid phase consists of inorganic material from stone weathering, dead bodies of animals and plants, and organic materials of living organisms. The liquid phase refers to soil water. The gas phase refers to soil air. Though soil comes from stone weathering, it takes various forms such as clay, silt, sand, and gravel, depending on the mineral compositions of rocks and metamorphic processes. Soil performs numerous environmental functions, including flood prevention, water containment, water purification, landslide prevention, erosion prevention, pollutant filtering, regulation of surface temperature and humidity, and protection of living organisms and vegetation.
Seventeen materials are designated as soil pollutants in Korea according to the Soil Environment Conservation Act, including cadmium, copper, arsenic, mercury, oil, and organic solvents. Each material is subject to two standards: one represents a pollution level that could negatively affect people's health and property and the growth of animals and plants; the other is for soil pollution countermeasures where pollution exceeds the standard and actually harms people's health and property and the growth of animals and plants.
Soil pollution standards classify soil by its various uses in accordance with the Cadastral Act. That is, farms and woodlands that are less likely to be polluted are classified as 'Ga' areas; factory sites, roads and railway sites that are more likely to be polluted are classified as 'Na' areas.
Soil is mainly polluted by human activities, production activities in agriculture and manufacturing, the overuse of pesticides and fertilizers, mineral discharge from mining activities, heavy metals and noxious chemicals from industrial activities, waste reclamation, and the diffusion and falling of pollutants from the air. The efforts made by the government to manage soil and protect it from such pollution sources are as follows:
To utilize soil pollution status and trends as basic data for establishing policies, the levels of pollution in the entire country have been continuously monitored. Currently, soil pollution surveys are done in two different ways: one is through networks that are operated by the Minister of Environment; the other is through soil pollution status surveys that are performed on behalf of mayors and provincial officers (the heads of Gun and the heads of Gu).
Targets for special soil pollution management such as oil manufacturing and storage facilities whose capacity is bigger than 20,000 liters, noxious material manufacturers and storage facilities, and pipeline facilities must be reported to mayors, the head of Gun, and the head of Gu, and checked for soil pollution level inspection and leakage tests for the purpose of reinforcing the soil pollution preventive system.
Five major oil refining companies have voluntarily signed an agreement to prevent soil pollution and restore degraded soil environment. They are SK Co. Ltd., GS Caltex Co. Ltd., and Hyundai Oilbank Co. Ltd. which handle more than 90% of the distributed oil in the country and the Korea National Oil Corporation which possesses large-scale oil storage facilities.
Both general and detailed surveys on the soil pollution status of 936 deserted metal mines across the country have been executed since 1992. Related ministries and offices carried out soil pollution prevention projects for mines in which contamination had been identified, such as the prevention of damage caused by mine-related pollution and improvement of farmland soil.
'Clean Gas Stations', which are equipped with dual-wall tanks, dual pipe lines, tanks and pumps have been designated to prevent soil pollution caused by facility corrosion and oil leakage from superannuated facilities.
Waste
Business Waste Minimization System
Control of Packaging Waste
Control on Waste Import and Export
Designated (Hazardous) Waste Management
EPR (Extended Producer Responsibility)
Empty Container Return Deposit System
Mandatory Use of Electronic Report on Waste Transfer
Medical Waste Management
Recycling of Electrical and Electronic Equipment and Vehicles
Restriction on the Use of Disposable Products
Volume Based Waste Fee System
Waste to Energy Policy
Food waste reduction
Each local government has established different standards for the separation and discharge of food waste according to the status of disposal facilities in its region, such as whether it is possible to reutilize food waste as a resource.
As food waste, which belongs to household wastes, causes secondary environmental pollution such as the odor or sewage produced from landfill sites, the government established in July 1995 the 'Committee for the Management of Food Waste' which involves 8 central agencies, and this committee worked together to prepare measures for the handling of food waste. In 2002, with the Korea-Japan FIFA World Cup providing momentum for the establishment of an eco-friendly food consumption culture, the government pushed local governments, restaurant organizations, and civil organizations to establish a voluntary agreement for the reduction of food waste, and implemented it with a focus on the cities in which the football games of the World Cup were to be held. This voluntary agreement has been applied to the entire country since 2003.
The government has been working with civil organizations since 2002 to develop an educational program that encourages the reduction of food waste. Major projects included holding "The day of no food waste" every Wednesday, "Designating Eco-Friendly Restaurant" and launching a "Plates with No Food Left" campaign. Advertisements for food waste reduction have been broadcast on TV, radio, and electric billboards, and a cartoon was produced and distributed to elementary schools across the country to familiarize children with the concept of food waste reduction. It is considered that these activities have helped to inspire a culture of food waste reduction among the people of Korea.
As a result of the public awareness campaign for food waste reduction, the amount of daily food waste in 2006 was at 13,372 tons and accounted for 27.4% of the total amount of daily household waste (48,844 tons), which is still a relatively high percentage, yet shows a downward trend compared with 29.1% in 1996.
However, as food waste that was discharged separately from other wastes increased following the prohibition of direct food waste landfill (January 1, 2005), and the consumption of fruits and vegetables increased with the trend to a healthy lifestyle, it turned out that the amount of food waste produced in 2006 increased significantly.
Therefore, the government began to provide funds (30% of the total funds required) to establish public disposal facilities that transform food waste into feed for poultry, compost and bio-mass, and has been promoting the cooperation and participation of citizens to establish a culture of resource recycling in Korean society.
Waste charge system
The waste charge system is a system that charges the manufacturer of the product part of the cost involved in disposing of a product that contains hazardous materials or that is not easy to recycle and may cause problems in waste management, in order to restrict waste generation and prevent the wasteful use of resources.
The waste charge system is intended to reduce the production of waste from the manufacturing stage and promote the efficient disposal of waste.
The items on which waste charges are imposed include insecticides, containers of toxic chemicals, antifreeze, chewing gum, disposable diapers, cigarettes, and plastic products.
Waste charges are used for the research and development of technology to reduce the weight of waste and recycle waste, the installation of waste disposal facilities, financing for waste recycling projects, financial support for local governments to collect and recycle waste, and the purchase and storage of recyclable resources.
Green growth
The concept of "green growth" was first adopted at the "Ministerial Conference on Environment and Development" jointly hosted by the Ministry of Environment and UNESCAP in 2005. It was initiated by Korea, the host country, and included in the outcome of the Conference, "Seoul Initiative Network on Green Growth".
Green growth is developed to introduce sustainable economic growth model for the future based on Korea's experience in implementing environmental protection with economic growth.
Green Growth is a concept developed to complement the existing concept of sustainable development (integration of economic, social development and environmental conservation) since 'sustainable development' is too abstract and broad. Green Growth aims to shift the pattern of economic growth into an environment friendly one.
The project to develop the concept of green growth was supported by many research institutes including the Korea Environment Institute, the Korea Institute for Industrial Economics and Trade, the Korea Institute of Public Finance, and scholars from the fields of economics and the environment.
The concept of environmentally sustainable green growth links 'Environmental Performance' and 'Environmental Sustainability'. Policy measures to pursue green growth are eco-tax reform, and disclosure of company's environmental information.
Green growth is the concept that embodies the harmony of environment (Green) and economy (Growth). Green growth 2 has two implication in term of the relationship of economy and environment. Green growth 1 (Economy→Environment) means that economic growth does not harm but improves the environment. Green growth 2 (Environment → Economy) means that environment conservation can be the new growth driver of the economy.
Green living
Eco-labeling system
Environmental Education
Environmental Industry
Environmental Technology
Environmental-friendly Products
Environmentally-friendly Company Designation System
Nature
Eco-Village
Ecosystem and Landscape Conservation Areas
Endangered Species Protection
Environmental Impact Assessment System
LMOs (Living Modified Organisms)
National Long-term Ecological Research Project
National Trust System for the Natural Environment
Nature Park
Prior Environmental Review System
Wetland Protection Areas
Wildlife Protection and Management
Human health & chemicals
Asbestos
Chemical Terrorism and Accidents
Dioxin aka "Agent Orange" was used in South Korea during the Vietnam War era, to defoliate areas along the DMZ. The South Korean Army also used Agent Orange to spray areas around NIKE Missile sites in the 1960s and 1970s at such bases as Camp Humphreys.
Endocrine Disruptors
Hazardous Chemicals Control
Health Impact Assessment System
Nano Materials
POPs (Persistent Organic Pollutants)
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Response to REACH
Restricted or Prohibited Chemicals Designation System
Risk Assessment
Toxics Release Inventory(TRI)
International cooperation
CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity)
Cooperation with America
Cooperation with OECD
Cooperation with UNEP
Korea-China-Japan Cooperation
Cooperation with Africa
Cooperation with ESCAP
Cooperation with Southeast Asia
FTA-related Environmental Agreement
Ramsar Convention
Cooperation with Europe
Cooperation with UNCSD
International Climate Change Negotiations
CITES
Climate change
CDM Projects
Greenhouse Gas Labeling System
Smart ways to reduce
Support for Local Governments In Responding to Climate Change
Offices
Previously the ministry had its headquarters in Gwacheon, Gyeonggi Province.
Regulatory reform
The Ministry of Environment has made significant success in improving water and air quality and conserving ecosystems by introducing various environmental regulations. However, in order to overcome the recent economic downturn and strengthen national competitiveness, it is necessary to conduct regulatory reforms, without undermining environmental quality, to create a better business environment, reduce public inconvenience and to raise the effectiveness of regulations.
To this end, Ministry of Environment will consider the life cycle and characteristics of companies in carrying out regulatory reforms, and ensure that such reforms contribute to improvements in the daily lives of the general public.
A more prudent approach is needed for environmental regulations as environmental issues often involve conflicts of interests and lack of scientific evidence. Therefore, the ministry plans to prevent social conflicts and environmental degradation by promoting communication among various stakeholders and securing environmental expertise.
Environmental impact assessment
The Korean government introduced systems to examine the environmental impacts of land development projects such as environmental impact assessment (EIA) and prior environmental review system (PERS). The government came up with measures to improve the systems to shorten time and avoid overlapping each other.
Under the EIA, all projects were subject to all test items (a total of 20) in the past, but now the government has adopted two streamlined processes according to the characteristics of a specific project. One is the "Scoping Process" under which an examination is conducted on necessary test items only. The other is "Simplified Assessment" which streamlines requirements for getting consent from local communities and consultation on documents of assessment when a project has a lesser environmental impact. "Scoping Process" and "Simplified Assessment" have been in effect since January 2009.
Small factories in "Planned Areas" are now exempted from PERS which had been applied to all factories.
As Korea has advanced its IT infrastructure, the government established the "Environmental Impact Assessment Support System" (EIASS) to provide all the information needed to draw up assessment documents. The EIASS provides free data, including measurements of environmental quality, ecosystem maps, historic sites, information on forests, geographical data, cadastral maps, and meteorological information.
To fundamentally solve problems with EIA and PERS, the government is working to unify the legal basis of EIA and PERS into a single law. "The Act on EIA and Other Environmental Assessment Systems" is in the making with a focus on the aims and process of consultation and ways of assessment. When the act comes into force in 2010, the period of assessment will be shortened by 30-40% (about 5–6 months), and the cost for drawing up assessment documents will be cut by 30%.
Seoul metropolitan area regulations
Areas allowed for land development within regions subject to Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) will be increased. Environmental protection areas in and around the capital city of Seoul (including eight local governments in Gyeonggi Province) were banned from large-scale development projects as those areas are mostly located near the catchment area of the Paldang Dam which supplies drinking water to about 23 million people in Seoul, the city of Incheon and Gyeonggi Province. However, progress in enhancing the water quality of the Paldang Dam has been slow, due to small development projects that are not subject to the above-mentioned regulation.
Therefore, the government changed the direction of water quality policy from regulations on the size of developed areas to the amount of water pollutants. In January 2009, the government allowed areas with the TMDL system to carry out development projects regardless of the scale of the projects if they meet the TMDL standard.
The environmental protection areas in the Seoul metropolitan area are famous for their beautiful landscapes and closeness to large cities. Therefore, with the eased regulations on those areas, investment is expected to increase in creating large tourist areas.
Discharge of industrial wastewater
Under the past regulation, building factories was banned within a certain distance from the upstream areas of water source. As a result, wide areas near the water source (at maximum of 20 km from the point of collecting water) were strictly controlled.
But some expressed concern that the regulation is too strict for plants discharging only pollutants similar to sewage from households.
To solve that problem, the government revised relevant laws in December 2008. It eased the regulation on factories that meet certain standards such as not discharging industrial waste waster and treating all emitted sewage through public sewerage system. So the limit on distance was reduced to 7 km upstream from water collection sites.
Advanced air pollution management
To control air pollutants more effectively, Ministry of Environment introduced the Telemetry Monitoring System (TMS) on the smokestacks of plants in 1997, and Total Air Pollution Load Management System in 2007.
TMS and Total Air Pollution Load Management System have been recognized as advanced systems in that TMS enables real-time monitoring of the concentrations of air pollutants and Total Air Pollution Load Management System encourages effective management of air pollution in places of business through a quota system. However, the two systems put economic burdens on companies. Therefore, the government has come up with measures to reduce such burdens without undermining the effectiveness of the systems.
First of all, improvements made on Total Air Pollution Load Management System include:
the allocation of the quota on dust has been suspended as it is difficult to set the quota because dust varies in types and characteristics.
currently the government is going to exclude Type 3 plants (mid-sized plants) from the system by revising relevant laws as those plants emit few air pollutants.
Next, some changes were made on TMS System as follows:
Installing and managing TMS device is expensive. So the government has decided not to impose the Basic Emission Charge, which is determined according to the amount of air pollutants emitted.
if companies exceed their quota unavoidably for a short period of time due to problems with their production system, they are exempted from administrative penalties.
the government will provide financial support to small- and medium-sized companies from 2009 for installing and managing TMS devices.
Condominiums and cable cars in natural parks
Heavy restrictions have been put on land development in protected areas and on historic sites designated as natural parks for public interest. However, building tourist facilities such as accommodation was also limited, causing inconveniences to local residents and visitors.
Constructing condominiums in natural parks has been restricted since early 1990, because such buildings could lead to a sense of inequality among different social classes. But recent surveys on local residents near natural parks and the general public showed that the majority of respondents were in favor of building condominiums in natural parks. And the demand for tourism has been increasing since the introduction of a 5-day workweek system. For these reasons, the government decided to lift restrictions on building condominiums in natural parks.
Also, the government has eased regulations on establishing cable cars in natural parks. In the latter half of 2009, limits on distance will be lowered from 2 km to 5 km, which will lead to more cable cars in natural parks. Such deregulation will enable more convenient trips for visitors and attract investment from the private sector for local development.
Toxicity of new chemicals
In Korea, manufacturers or importers of new chemicals are required to get toxicity examination on the chemicals by submitting a document on toxicity issued by certified laboratories. Certified laboratories were limited to domestic organizations only, so companies that had examination documents issued by overseas laboratories could not use their documents.
To resolve this, the government altered laws in June 2008 so that certified laboratories include laboratories in OECD countries. That reduced costs and time for drawing up examination documents, and laid the foundation for improved management of harmful chemicals through mutual recognition of test data with OECD countries.
If companies produce or import a small amount of new chemicals, or new chemicals are embedded in machines or equipment, it is not necessary to conduct a toxicity examination. Those companies or chemicals are given exemption from toxicity examinations, which reduces the time it takes to produce or import such chemicals.
List of ministers
See also
Environment of South Korea
References
External links
Official English-language site
Ministry of Environment
Environmental Impact Assessment Support System (EIASS)
Environment
Nature conservation in South Korea
South Korea
Pollution in South Korea
1994 establishments in South Korea |
4291958 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramedics%20in%20the%20United%20States | Paramedics in the United States | In the United States, the paramedic is a allied health professional whose primary focus is to provide advanced emergency medical care for patients who access Emergency Medical Services (EMS). This individual possesses the complex knowledge and skills necessary to provide patient care and transportation. Paramedics function as part of a comprehensive EMS response under physician medical direction. Paramedics often serve in a prehospital role, responding to Public safety answering point (9-1-1) calls in an ambulance. The paramedic serves as the initial entry point into the health care system. A standard requirement for state licensure involves successful completion of a nationally accredited Paramedic program at the certificate or associate degree level.
History
Prior to 1970, ambulances were staffed with advanced first-aid level responders who were frequently referred to as "ambulance attendants." There was little regulation or standardized training for those staffing these early emergency response vehicles or the required equipment carried inside. Around 1966 in a published report entitled "Accidental Death and Disability: The Neglected Disease of Modern Society", (known in EMS trade as the White Paper) medical researchers began to reveal, to their astonishment, that soldiers who were seriously wounded on the battlefields of Vietnam had a better survival rate than those individuals who were seriously injured in motor vehicle accidents on California freeways. Early research attributed these differences in outcome to a number of factors, including comprehensive trauma care, rapid transport to designated trauma facilities, and a new type of medical corpsman; one who was trained to perform certain critical advanced medical procedures such as fluid replacement and airway management, which allowed the victim to survive the journey to definitive care.
During the 1960s a Los Angeles cardiologist named Walter S. Graf became concerned about the lack of actual medical care being given to coronary patients during emergency transportation to a hospital. In 1969, while serving as president of the Los Angeles Chapter of the American Heart Association, he created a "mobile critical care unit", consisting of a Chevy van, a registered nurse, and a portable defibrillator. The same year his patient Kenneth Hahn, a member of the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors, persuaded the Supervisors to approve a pilot program to train county firefighters as "Mobile Intensive Care Paramedics". A change in state law was necessary to allow personnel other than doctors and nurses to render emergency medical care. Hahn recruited two state legislators who wrote the Wedworth-Townsend Paramedic Act of 1970, signed into law by Governor Ronald Reagan on July 15, 1970, despite opposition from doctors, nurses, and attorneys. Paramedic training began the next month at the Freeman Memorial Hospital under Graf's direction. It was the first nationally accredited paramedic training program in the United States.
Other communities in the United States were also experimenting with advanced emergency medical care. Pittsburgh's branch of Freedom House paramedics are credited as the first emergency medical technician (EMT) trainees in the United States. Pittsburgh's Peter Safar is referred to as the father of CPR. In 1967, he began training unemployed African-American men in what later became Freedom House Ambulance Service, the first paramedic squadron in the United States. Almost simultaneously, and completely independent from one another, experimental programs began in three U.S. centers; Miami, Florida; Seattle, Washington; and Los Angeles, California. Each was aimed at determining the effectiveness of using firefighters to perform many of these same advanced medical skills in the pre-hospital setting in the civilian world. Many in the senior administration of the fire departments were initially quite opposed to this concept of 'firemen giving needles', and actively resisted and attempted to cancel pilot programs more than once. In Seattle, the Medic One program at Harborview Medical Center and the University of Washington Medical Center, started by Leonard Cobb, M.D., began training firefighters in CPR in 1970. Dr. Eugene Nagel trained city of Miami firefighters as the first U.S. paramedics to use invasive techniques and portable defibrillators with telemetry in 1967. Dr. Jonathan Wasserberger helped actualize the teaching curriculum associated with this innovative training in 1973.
Elsewhere, the novel approach to pre-hospital care was also evolving. Portland's Leonard Rose, M.D., in cooperation with Buck Ambulance Service, instituted a cardiac training program and began training other paramedics. Baltimore's R. Adams Cowley, the father of trauma medicine, devised the concept of integrated emergency care, designing the first civilian Medevac helicopter program and campaigning for a statewide EMS system. Other communities that were early participants in the development of paramedicine included Jacksonville, Florida, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (in an expanded program), and Seattle, Washington (in an expanded program). In 1972 the first civilian emergency medical helicopter transport service, Flight for Life opened in Denver, Colorado. Emergency medical helicopters were soon put into service elsewhere in the United States. It is now routine to have paramedic and nurse-staffed EMS helicopters in most major metropolitan areas. The vast majority of these aeromedical services are utilized for critical care air transport (inter-hospital) in addition to emergency medical services (pre-hospital).
A television producer, working for producer Jack Webb, of Dragnet and Adam-12 fame, was in Los Angeles' UCLA Harbor Medical Center, doing background research for a proposed new TV show about doctors, when he happened to encounter these 'firemen who spoke like doctors and worked with them'. This novel idea would eventually evolve into the Emergency! television series, which ran from 1972–1977, portraying the exploits of a new group called 'paramedics'. The show captured the imagination of emergency services personnel, the medical community, and the general public. When the show first aired in 1972, there were only 6 full-fledged paramedic units operating in 3 pilot programs (Miami, Los Angeles, Seattle) in the whole of the United States. No one had ever heard the term 'paramedic'; indeed, it is reported that one of the show's actors was initially concerned that the 'para' part of the term might involve jumping out of airplanes! By the time the program ended production in 1977, there were paramedics operating in every state. The show's technical advisor was a pioneer of paramedicine, James O. Page, then a Battalion Chief responsible for the Los Angeles County Fire Department 'paramedic' program, but who would go on to help establish other paramedic programs in the U.S., and to become the founding publisher of the Journal of Emergency Medical Services.
Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the field continued to evolve, although in large measure, on a local level. In the broader scheme of things the term 'ambulance service' was replaced by 'emergency medical service' to reflect the change from a transportation system to a system that provides actual medical care. The training, knowledge base, and skill sets of both paramedics and emergency medical technicians (both competed for the job title, and 'EMT-Paramedic' was a common compromise) were typically determined by what local medical directors were comfortable with, what it was felt that the community needed, and what could actually be afforded. There were also tremendous local differences in the amount and type of training required, and how it would be provided. This ranged from in-service training in local systems, through community colleges, and ultimately even to universities. During the evolution of paramedicine, a great deal of both curriculum and skill set was in a state of constant flux. Permissible skills evolved in many cases at the local level, and were based upon the preferences of physician advisers and medical directors. Treatments would go in and out of fashion, and sometimes, back in again. The use of certain drugs, Bretylium for example, illustrate this. In some respects, the development seemed almost faddish. Technologies also evolved and changed, and as medical equipment manufacturers quickly learned, the pre-hospital environment was not the same as the hospital environment; equipment standards that worked fine in hospitals could not cope well with the less controlled pre-hospital environment.
Physicians began to take more interest in paramedics from a research perspective as well. By about 1990, most of the 'trendiness' in pre-hospital emergency care had begun to disappear, and was replaced by outcome-based research and evidence-based medicine; the gold standard for the rest of medicine. This research began to drive the evolution of the practice of both paramedics and the emergency physicians who oversaw their work; changes to procedures and protocols began to occur only after significant outcome-based research demonstrated their need. Paramedics became increasingly accountable for their errors as well, and these too led to changes in procedure. Such changes affected everything from simple procedures, such as CPR, to changes in drug protocols and other advanced procedures. As the profession of paramedic grew, some of its members actually went on to become not just research participants, but researchers in their own right, with their own projects and journal publications.
Education
The education and skills required of paramedics vary by state. The U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) designs and specifies a National Standard Curriculum
for EMT training. Most paramedic education and certifying programs require that a student is at a minimum educated and trained to the National Standard Curriculum for a particular skill level. The National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians (NREMT) is a private, central certifying entity whose primary purpose is to maintain a national standard. NREMT also provides certification information for paramedics who relocate to another state.
Paramedic education programs can be as short as six months or as long as four years. An associate degree program is two years, often administered through a community college. Degree programs are an option, with two-year associate degree programs being most common, although four-year bachelor's degree programs exist. In contrast to Commonwealth countries such as Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand, generally the minimum education is a two- to three-year degree at an accredited college or university for the entry-level paramedic, with four-year or even graduate degrees becoming the preferred credential in such jurisdictions. Many paramedic programs in the United States are through adult career and technical schools that provide a certificate of completion upon completion of the program. All programs must meet the current national standard curriculum. The institutions offering such training vary greatly across the country in terms of programs and requirements, and each must be examined by the prospective student in terms of both content and requirements where they hope to practice.
Regardless of education, all students must meet the same state requirements to take the certification exams, including the National Registry exams which consist of a psychomotor skills practical examination and a Computer Based Testing (CBT). In addition, most locales require that paramedics attend ongoing refresher courses and continuing medical education to maintain their license or certification. In addition to state and national registry certifications, most paramedics are required to be certified in pediatric advanced life support, pediatric prehospital care or pediatric emergencies for the prehospital provider, prehospital trauma life support; international trauma life support, and advanced cardiac life support. These additional requirements have education and certification from organizations such as the American Heart Association.
Credentialling and oversight
In the U.S., the community college training model remains the most common, although some university-based paramedic education models exist. These variations in both educational approaches and standards has led to tremendous differences from one location to another. There may be situations in which a group of people with 120 hours of training, and another group (in another jurisdiction) with university degrees, were both calling themselves 'paramedics'. There were some efforts made to resolve these discrepancies. The National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians (NAEMT) along with National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians (NREMT) attempted to create a national standard by means of a common licensing examination, but to this day, this has never been universally accepted by U.S. States, and issues of licensing reciprocity for paramedics continue, although if an EMT obtains certification through NREMT (NREMT-P, NREMT-I, NREMT-B), this is accepted by 40 of the 50 states in the United States. This confusion was further complicated by the introduction of complex systems of gradation of certification, reflecting levels of training and skill, but these too were, for the most part, purely local. To clarify, at least at a national level, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), which is the federal organization with authority to administer the EMS system, defines the various titles given to prehospital medical workers based on the level of care they provide. They are EMT-P (Paramedic), EMT-I (Intermediate), EMT-B (Basic), and First Responders. While providers at all levels are considered emergency medical technicians, the term "paramedic" is most properly used in the United States to refer only to those providers who are EMT-P's. Apart from this distinction, the only truly common trend that would evolve was the relatively universal acceptance of the term 'emergency medical technician' being used to denote a lower level of training and skill than a 'paramedic'.
Changes in procedures also included the manner in which the work of paramedics was overseen and managed. In the earliest days of the field, medical control and oversight was direct and immediate, with paramedics calling into a local hospital and receiving orders for every individual procedure or drug. This still occurs in some jurisdictions, but is becoming very rare. As physicians began to build a bond of trust with paramedics, and experience in working with them, their confidence levels also rose. Increasingly, in many jurisdictions day-to-day operations moved from direct and immediate medical control to pre-written protocols or 'standing orders', with the paramedic typically only calling in for direction after the options in the standing orders had been exhausted. Medical oversight became driven more by chart review or rounds, than by step by step control during each call.
Scope of practice
In the United States there are no federal guidelines for the scope of practice for any level of EMS provider. In the field, paramedics follow a set of pre-approved procedures and interventions for particular scenarios. For example, all fifty states allow for the administration of some form of anti-convulsive. In the state of Massachusetts a paramedic may administer the anti-convulsant, midazolam, up to a maximum of 6 mg . While in Maine paramedics are allowed to administer midazolam in upwards of 10 mg boluses. These pre-approved procedures are known as standing orders. Standing orders cannot surpass a provider's scope of practice. Scopes of practice represent the degree to which providers are trained.
The following is derived NHTSA's "National EMS Scope of Practice model". Without federal mandate, each state's office of emergency medical services may alter their respective standing orders. The purpose of the model is to provide a guide toward standardization in patient care that both improves patient outcomes but allows for reciprocity between states. Prior to certification as a paramedic, candidates must be a certified EMT. Traditionally, a paramedic is allowed to perform all skills an EMT may perform.
Below are some of the key skills and procedures expected of a paramedic in the United States.
Key skills and procedures
Assessment and evaluation of general incident scene safety.
Triage of patients in a mass casualty incident.
Patient primary and secondary assessments.
Effective verbal and written reporting skills (Documentation).
Carrying/Lifting/Extrication of patients.
Peripheral intravenous cannulation.
Cardiac monitoring and manual defibrillation.
ECG acquisition and interpretation.
Orotracheal intubation.
Medications
One of the primary differences between emergency medical technicians and paramedics includes the breadth and number of medications paramedic ambulances typically carry. Due to the variation between each state EMS office it would be cumbersome and unrealistic to list each and every single medication paramedics carry across the United States. Instead, different medications are carried to serve similar patient-care scenarios. Most services carry medications like albuterol or ipratropium to alleviate bronchospasm during an acute asthma attack. They carry cardiac medications to reverse deadly heart rhythms like amiodarone and lidocaine. They can also use medications like atropine, adenosine and different types of beta-blockers as heart rate controls. Paramedics may also utilize a number of other medications for analgesia, such as antiemetics and anti-convulsants. In the setting of inter-facility transfers providers may continue the administration of other medications that are not typically carried in the field (Heparin, Blood products, Potassium).
Variations in scope
The aforementioned skills and medications are often standing orders in state protocols. The expectations and responsibilities of providers varies across state lines. There are instances where special waivers granted by states allowing paramedic services to go beyond their protocols. For example, some paramedics in New Hampshire may be allowed to perform a surgical cricothyrotomy, medics in Virginia are allowed to use ultrasound as a diagnostic technique and paramedics in Arizona are allowed to perform rapid-sequence intubation utilizing paralytic and sedating medication to completely control a patient's airway.
Employment
Paramedics are employed by various public and private emergency service providers. These include private ambulance services, fire departments, public safety or police departments, hospitals, law enforcement agencies, the military, and municipal EMS agencies in addition to and independent from police or fire departments, also known as a 'third service'. Paramedics may respond to medical incidents in an ambulance, rescue vehicle, helicopter, fixed-wing aircraft, motorcycle, or fire suppression apparatus.
Paramedics may also be employed in medical fields that do not involve transportation of patients. Such positions include offshore drilling platforms, phlebotomy, blood banks, research labs, educational fields, law enforcement and hospitals.
Aside from their traditional roles, paramedics may also participate in one of many specialty arenas:
Critical care transporters move patients by ground ambulance or aircraft between medical treatment facilities. This may be done to allow a patient to receive a higher level of care in a more specialized facility. Registered Nurses with training in Emergency Nursing may work with paramedics in these settings. Paramedics participating in this role generally also provide care not traditionally administered by Paramedics who respond to 911 calls. Examples of this are blood transfusions, intra-aortic balloon pumps, and mechanical ventilators.
Tactical paramedics work on law enforcement teams (SWAT). These medics, usually from the EMS agency in the area, are commissioned and trained to be tactical operators in law enforcement, in addition to paramedic duties. Advanced medical personnel perform dual roles as operator and medic on the teams. Such an officer is immediately available to deliver advanced emergency care to other injured officers, suspects, innocent victims and bystanders. The advantage to having dual role paramedics is that medical care is provided almost immediately.
Hospital paramedics are sometimes employed in either of the outpatient and inpatient areas. Emergency departments employ the largest number of paramedics working inside of hospitals. Considered ambulatory care, emergency departments are classified as an outpatient area of a hospital. Depending on their scope of practice and job description within the emergency department, paramedics are allowed to triage and assess incoming patients, provide analysis and interpretation of both labs and EKGs, intravenous therapy, drug administration, transportation of emergency department patients to diagnostic testing or their inpatient rooms. Paramedics are also employed indirectly in the inpatient areas of hospitals as well. Paramedics are utilized in intensive care units assisting other licensed staff with ICU patients and they are utilized on high risk transport teams by providing transportation, continuation of care and assisting in sedation of patients during minimally invasive and invasive procedures at the bedside and in diagnostic areas. Because of the nature and purpose of these teams, paramedics work closely with radiology, interventional radiology, nuclear medicine and anesthesiology.
Salary
The salary of a paramedic in the US varies. The mean average is $30,000, with the lowest 10% earning under $20,000 and the top 10% earning over $50,000, considerably less than the salaries of paramedics in Canada. Factors such as education and location of the paramedic's practice influence the salary. Paramedic supervisors and managers may make between $60,000- $80,000, depending on location.
See also
Flight Paramedic
Emergency medical responder levels by state
United States Air Force Pararescue
Emergency medical services in the United States
References
National Academy of Sciences and National Research Council. Accidental Death and Disability: The Neglected Disease of Modern Society. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press, 1966.
Further reading
External links
National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians homepage
National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians
NHTSA Emergency Medical Services national page
Paramedicine.com
Emergency medical services in the United States |
4292152 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death%20of%20Marilyn%20Monroe | Death of Marilyn Monroe | On the evening of August 4, 1962, American actress Marilyn Monroe died at age 36 of a barbiturate overdose inside her home at 12305 Fifth Helena Drive in Brentwood, Los Angeles, California. Her body was discovered before dawn the following morning, on August 5. Monroe had been one of the most popular Hollywood stars during the 1950s and early 1960s, and was a top-billed actress for the preceding decade. Her films had grossed $200 million by the time of her death.
Monroe had suffered from mental illness and substance abuse, and she had not completed a film since The Misfits, released on February 1, 1961, which was a box-office disappointment. Monroe had spent 1961 preoccupied with her various health problems, and in April 1962 had begun filming Something's Got to Give for 20th Century Fox, but the studio fired her in early June. Fox publicly blamed Monroe for the production's problems, and in the weeks preceding her death she had attempted to repair her public image by giving several interviews to high-profile publications. She also began negotiations with Fox on being re-hired for Something's Got to Give and for starring roles in other productions.
Monroe spent the last day of her life, August 4, at her home in Brentwood. She was accompanied at various times by publicist Patricia Newcomb, housekeeper Eunice Murray, photographer Lawrence Schiller and psychiatrist Ralph Greenson. At Greenson's request, Murray stayed overnight to keep Monroe company. At approximately 3 a.m. on Sunday, August 5, Murray noticed that Monroe had locked herself in her bedroom and appeared unresponsive when she looked inside through a window. Murray alerted Greenson, who arrived soon after, entered the room by breaking a window, and found Monroe dead. Her death was officially ruled a probable suicide by the Los Angeles County coroner's office, based on information about her overdosing and being prone to mood swings and suicidal ideation. No evidence of foul play was found, and accidental overdose was ruled out because of the large amount of barbiturates she had ingested.
Despite the coroner's findings, several conspiracy theories suggesting murder or accidental overdose have been proposed since the mid-1960s. Many of these involve U.S. President John F. Kennedy and his brother Robert F. Kennedy, as well as union leader Jimmy Hoffa and mob boss Sam Giancana. Because of the prevalence of these theories in the media, the office of the Los Angeles County District Attorney reviewed the case in 1982 but found no evidence to support them and did not disagree with the findings of the original investigation.
Background
For several years heading into the early 1960s, Marilyn Monroe had been dependent on amphetamines, barbiturates and alcohol, and she experienced various mental health problems that included depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, and chronic insomnia. Monroe had acquired a reputation for being difficult to work with, and she frequently delayed productions by being late to film sets in addition to having trouble remembering her lines. She also had an FBI file open since 1956 due to her "problematic" relationships with accused communists.
By 1960, Monroe's behavior was adversely affecting her career. For example, although she was the preferred choice of author Truman Capote to play Holly Golightly in the film adaptation of Breakfast at Tiffany's, Paramount Pictures declined to cast her due to fear that she would complicate the film's production. The two films Monroe completed in the 1960s, Let's Make Love (1960) and The Misfits (1961), were both commercial failures. During the filming of the latter she had had to spend a week detoxing in a hospital. Her third marriage, to author Arthur Miller, also ended in divorce in January 1961.
Instead of working, Monroe spent a large part of 1961 preoccupied with health problems and did not work on any new film projects. She underwent surgery for her endometriosis and a cholecystectomy, and spent four weeks in hospital care—including a brief stint in a mental ward—for depression. Later in 1961, she moved back to Los Angeles after six years in Manhattan; she purchased a Spanish hacienda-style house at 12305 Fifth Helena Drive in Brentwood. In early 1962, she received a "World Film Favorite" Golden Globe award and began to shoot a new film, Something's Got to Give, a remake of My Favorite Wife (1940).
Days before filming began, Monroe caught sinusitis; the studio, 20th Century Fox, was advised to postpone the production, but the advice was not heeded and filming began on schedule in late April. Monroe was too ill to work for the majority of the next six weeks, but despite confirmations by multiple doctors, Fox tried to pressure her by publicly alleging that she was faking her symptoms. On May 19, Monroe took a break from filming to sing "Happy Birthday" on stage at U.S. President John F. Kennedy's birthday celebration at Madison Square Garden ten days before his actual birthday. This caused a great amount of publicity for Monroe, but also significant speculation about an extramarital affair with the president and concerns from government agents.
After Monroe returned to Los Angeles, she resumed filming and celebrated her 36th birthday on the set of Something's Got to Give on June 1. She was again absent for several days, which led Fox to fire her on June 7 and sue her for breach of contract, demanding $750,000 in damages. Monroe was replaced by Lee Remick, but after co-star Dean Martin refused to make the film with anyone other than Monroe, Fox sued him as well and shut down the production.
Fox publicly blamed Monroe's drug dependency and alleged lack of professionalism for the demise of the film, even claiming that she was mentally disturbed. To counter the negative publicity, Monroe gave interviews to several high-profile publications, such as Life, Cosmopolitan and Vogue, during the last weeks of her life. After successfully renegotiating her contract with Fox, filming with Monroe was scheduled to resume in September on Something's Got to Give, and she made plans for starring in What a Way to Go! (1964) as well as a biopic about Jean Harlow.
Timeline
Monroe spent the last day of her life, Saturday, August 4, 1962, at her Brentwood home. In the morning, she met photographer Lawrence Schiller to discuss the possibility of Playboy publishing nude photos taken of her on the set of Something's Got to Give. She also received a massage from her personal massage therapist, talked with friends on the phone, and signed for deliveries. Also present at the house that morning were her housekeeper, Eunice Murray, and her publicist Patricia Newcomb, who had stayed overnight. According to Newcomb, they had an argument because Monroe had not slept well the night before.
At 4:30 p.m. PDT, Monroe's psychiatrist Ralph Greenson arrived at the house to conduct a therapy session and asked Newcomb to leave. Before Greenson left at around 7 p.m., he asked Murray to stay overnight and keep Monroe company. At approximately 7–7:15, Monroe received a call from Joe DiMaggio Jr., with whom she had stayed close since her divorce from his father, the elder Joe DiMaggio. DiMaggio told Monroe that he had broken up with a girlfriend he did not like, and he detected nothing alarming in Monroe's behavior. At around 7:40–7:45, Monroe telephoned Greenson to tell him the news about the breakup of DiMaggio and his girlfriend.
Monroe retired to her bedroom at approximately 8 p.m. She received a call from actor Peter Lawford, brother-in-law of President Kennedy, who was hoping to persuade her to attend his party that night. Lawford became alarmed because Monroe sounded like she was under the influence of drugs. She told him, "Say goodbye to Pat, say goodbye to the president, and say goodbye to yourself, because you're a nice guy", before drifting off. Unable to reach Monroe, Lawford called his agent Milton Ebbins, who unsuccessfully tried to reach Greenson and later called Monroe's lawyer, Milton A. "Mickey" Rudin. Rudin called Monroe's house and was assured by Murray that she was fine.
At approximately 3:30 a.m. on Sunday, August 5, Murray woke up "sensing that something was wrong" and saw light from under Monroe's bedroom door, but she was not able to get a response and found the door locked. Murray telephoned Greenson, on whose advice she looked in through a window, and saw Monroe lying facedown on her bed, covered by a sheet and clutching a telephone receiver. Greenson arrived shortly thereafter. He entered the room by breaking a window and found Monroe dead. He called her physician, Hyman Engelberg, who arrived at the house at around 3:50 a.m. and officially confirmed the death. At 4:25 a.m., they notified the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD).
Inquest and 1982 review
Deputy coroner Thomas Noguchi conducted Monroe's autopsy on the same day that she was found dead, Sunday, August 5. The Los Angeles County coroner's office was assisted in the inquest by psychiatrists Norman Farberow, Robert Litman, and Norman Tabachnik from the Los Angeles Suicide Prevention Center, who interviewed Monroe's doctors and psychiatrists on her mental state. Based on the advanced state of rigor mortis at the time her body was discovered, it was estimated that she had died between 8:30 and 10:30 p.m. on August 4.
The toxicological analysis concluded that the cause of death was acute barbiturate poisoning; she had 8 mg% (mg/dl) of chloral hydrate and 4.5 mg% of pentobarbital (Nembutal) in her blood and a further 13 mg% of pentobarbital in her liver. The police found empty bottles of these medicines next to her bed. There were no signs of external wounds or bruises on the body.
The findings of the inquest were published on August 17; Chief Coroner Theodore Curphey classified Monroe's death a "probable suicide." The possibility of an accidental overdose was ruled out because the dosages found in her body were several times over the lethal limit and had been taken "in one gulp or in a few gulps over a minute or so." At the time of her death, Monroe was reported to have been in a "depressed mood", and had been "unkempt" and uninterested in maintaining her appearance. No suicide note was found, but Litman stated that this was not unusual, because statistics showed that less than forty percent of suicide victims left notes.
In their final report, Farberow, Litman, and Tabachnik stated:
Miss Monroe had suffered from psychiatric disturbance for a long time. She experienced severe fears and frequent depressions. Mood changes were abrupt and unpredictable. Among symptoms of disorganization, sleep disturbance was prominent, for which she had been taking sedative drugs for many years. She was thus familiar with and experienced in the use of sedative drugs and well aware of their dangers ... In our investigation we have learned that Miss Monroe had often expressed wishes to give up, to withdraw, and even to die. On more than one occasion in the past, she had made a suicide attempt, using sedative drugs. On these occasions, she had called for help and had been rescued. It is our opinion that the same pattern was repeated on the evening of Aug. 4 except for the rescue. It has been our practice with similar information collected in other cases in the past to recommend a certification for such deaths as probable suicide. Additional clues for suicide provided by the physical evidence are the high level of barbiturates and chloral hydrate in the blood which, with other evidence from the autopsy, indicates the probable ingestion of a large amount of drugs within a short period of time: the completely empty bottle of Nembutal, the prescription for which (25 capsules) was filled the day before the ingestion, and the locked door to the bedroom, which was unusual.
In the 1970s, claims surfaced that Monroe's death was a murder and not suicide. Due to these claims, Los Angeles County District Attorney John Van de Kamp assigned his colleague Ronald H. "Mike" Carroll to conduct a 1982 "threshold investigation" to see whether a criminal investigation should be opened. Carroll worked with Alan B. Tomich, an investigator for the district attorney's office, for over three months on an inquiry that resulted in a thirty-page report. They did not find any credible evidence to support the theory that Monroe was murdered.
In 1983, Noguchi published his memoirs, in which he discussed Monroe's case and the allegations of discrepancies in the autopsy and the coroner's ruling of suicide. These included the claims that Monroe could not have ingested the pills because her stomach was empty; that Nembutal capsules should have left yellow residue; that she may have been administered an enema; and that the autopsy noted no needle marks despite the fact that she routinely received injections from her doctors. Noguchi explained that hemorrhaging of the stomach lining indicated that the medication had been administered orally, and that because Monroe had been an addict for several years the pills would have been absorbed more rapidly than in the case of non-addicts. Noguchi also denied that Nembutal leaves dye residue, and he noted that only very recent needle marks are visible on a body, and that the only bruise he noted on Monroe's body, on her lower back, was superficial and its placement indicated that it was accidental and not linked to foul play. Noguchi finally concluded that based on his observations, the most probable conclusion is that Monroe committed suicide.
Public reactions and funeral
Monroe's unexpected death was front-page news in the United States and Europe. According to biographer Lois Banner, "it's said that the suicide rate in Los Angeles doubled the month after she died; the circulation rate of most newspapers expanded that month." The Chicago Tribune reported that they had received hundreds of phone calls from members of the public requesting information about her death. French filmmaker Jean Cocteau commented that her death "should serve as a terrible lesson to all those, whose chief occupation consists of spying on and tormenting film stars", her former co-star Laurence Olivier deemed her "the complete victim of ballyhoo and sensation", and Bus Stop director Joshua Logan stated that she was "one of the most unappreciated people in the world".
Monroe's funeral was held on August 8 at the Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery, where her foster parents Ana Lower and Grace McKee Goddard had also been buried. The service was arranged by her former husband Joe DiMaggio, her half-sister Berniece Baker Miracle and her business manager Inez Melson, who decided to invite only around thirty of her closest family members and friends, excluding most of Hollywood. Police were present to keep the press away and to control the several hundred spectators who crowded the streets around the cemetery.
The funeral service, presided over by a local minister, was conducted at the cemetery's chapel. Monroe was laid out in a green Emilio Pucci dress and held a bouquet of small pink roses. Her longtime make-up artist and friend, Allan "Whitey" Snyder, had done her make-up. The eulogy was delivered by Lee Strasberg, and a selection from Tchaikovsky's Sixth Symphony as well as a record of Judy Garland singing "Over the Rainbow" were played. Monroe was interred at crypt No. 24 at the Corridor of Memories. DiMaggio arranged for red roses to be placed in a vase attached to the crypt three times a week for the next twenty years.
In 1992, Hugh Hefner paid $75,000 to be interred at Westwood Memorial Park, in the crypt beside Monroe's. In 2009, he said to the Los Angeles Times: "Spending eternity next to Marilyn is an opportunity too sweet to pass up." In 2022 The Independent referred to her death as a "global obsession".
Administration of estate
In her will, Monroe left several thousand dollars to her half-sister Berniece Baker Miracle and her secretary May Reis, a share for the education of her friend Norman Rosten's daughter, and established a $100,000 trust fund to cover the costs of the care of her birth mother, Gladys Pearl Baker, and the widow of her acting teacher Michael Chekhov. From the remaining estate she granted twenty-five percent to her former psychiatrist Marianne Kris "for the furtherance of the work of such psychiatric institutions or groups as she shall elect", and seventy-five percent, including her personal effects, film royalties and real estate, to Strasberg, whom she instructed to distribute her effects "among my friends, colleagues and those to whom I am devoted". Due to legal complications, the beneficiaries were not paid until 1971.
When Strasberg died in 1982, his estate was willed to his widow Anna, who claimed Monroe's publicity rights and began to license her image to companies. In 1990, she unsuccessfully sued the Anna Freud Centre, to which Kris had bequeathed her Monroe rights, in an attempt to gain full rights to Monroe's estate. In 1996, Anna Strasberg hired CMG Worldwide, a celebrity-legacy licensing group, to manage the licensing rights.
Anna Strasberg went on to prevent Odyssey Group, Inc. from auctioning effects that Monroe's business manager Inez Melson, who had also been named Monroe's special administrator of estate, handed down to her nephew, Millington Conroy. Between 1996 and 2001, CMG entered into 700 licensing agreements with merchandisers. Against Monroe's wishes, Lee Strasberg had never distributed her effects amongst her friends, and in 1999 Anna commissioned Christie's to auction them, netting $13.4 million. In 2000, she founded Marilyn Monroe LLC.
Marilyn Monroe LLC's claim to exclusive ownership of Monroe's publicity rights became subject to a "landmark [legal] case" in 2006, when the heirs of three freelance photographers who had photographed her—Sam Shaw, Milton Greene, and Tom Kelley—successfully challenged the company in courts in California and New York State. In May 2007, the courts determined that Monroe could not have passed her publicity rights to her estate, as the first law granting such right, the California Celebrities Rights Act, was not passed until 1985.
Monroe's estate terminated their business relationship with CMG Worldwide in 2010, and sold the licensing rights to Authentic Brands Group the following year. Also in 2010, the estate sold Monroe's Brentwood home for $3.8 million, and published a selection of her private notes, diaries and correspondence as a book called Fragments: Poems, Intimate Notes, Letters.
Conspiracy theories
1960s: Frank A. Capell, Jack Clemmons
During the 1960s, there were no widespread conspiracy theories about Monroe's death. The first allegations that she had been murdered originated in anti-communist activist Frank A. Capell's self-published pamphlet The Strange Death of Marilyn Monroe (1964), in which he claimed that her death was part of a communist conspiracy. Capell claimed that Monroe and U.S. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy had an affair, and that Monroe had threatened to cause a scandal, leading Kennedy to order her to be assassinated. In addition to accusing Kennedy of being a communist sympathizer, Capell also claimed that many other people close to Monroe, such as her doctors and ex-husband Arthur Miller, were communists.
Capell's credibility has been seriously questioned because his only source was columnist Walter Winchell, who in turn had received much of his information from Capell; Capell, therefore, was citing himself. Capell's friend, LAPD Sergeant Jack Clemmons, aided him in developing his pamphlet; Clemmons, who was the first police officer on the scene of Monroe's death, became a central source for conspiracy theorists. He later made claims that he had not mentioned in the official 1962 investigation: he alleged that when he arrived at Monroe's house, Murray was washing her sheets in the laundry, and he had "a sixth sense" that something was wrong.
Capell and Clemmons' allegations have been linked to their political goals. Capell dedicated his life to revealing an "International Communist Conspiracy" and Clemmons was a member of the Police and Fire Research Organization (FiPo), which sought to expose "subversive activities which threaten our American way of life". FiPo and similar organizations were known for their stance against the Kennedys and for sending letters to the FBI incriminating them; a 1964 FBI file that speculated on an affair between Monroe and Robert F. Kennedy is likely to have come from them. Furthermore, Capell, Clemmons, and a third person were indicted in 1965 by a California grand jury for "conspiracy to libel by obtaining and distributing a false affidavit" claiming that U.S. Senator Thomas Kuchel had once been arrested for a homosexual act in retaliation for Kuchel's support of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Capell pleaded guilty, and charges against Clemmons were dropped after he resigned from the LAPD.
In the 1960s, Monroe's death was also discussed in Charles Hamblett's Who Killed Marilyn Monroe? (1966) and in James A. Hudson's The Mysterious Death of Marilyn Monroe (1968). Neither Capell's, Hamblett's, or Hudson's accounts were widely disseminated.
1970s: Norman Mailer, Robert Slatzer, Anthony Scaduto
The allegations of murder first became part of mainstream discussion with the publication of Norman Mailer's Marilyn: A Biography in 1973. Despite not having any evidence, Mailer repeated the claim that Monroe and Robert F. Kennedy had an affair and speculated that she was killed by either the FBI or the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), who wished to use the murder as a "point of pressure ... against the Kennedys". The book was heavily criticized in reviews, and later that year Mailer recanted his allegations in an interview with Mike Wallace for 60 Minutes, stating that he had made them to ensure commercial success for his book, and that he believes Monroe's death was "ten to one" an "accidental suicide".
Two years later, Robert F. Slatzer published The Life and Curious Death of Marilyn Monroe (1975), based on Capell's pamphlet. In addition to his assertion that Monroe was killed by Robert F. Kennedy, Slatzer also controversially claimed to have been married to Monroe in Mexico for three days in October 1952, and that they had remained close friends until her death. Although his account was not widely circulated at the time, it has remained central to conspiracy theories.
In October 1975, music journalist Anthony Scaduto published an article about Monroe's death in soft porn magazine Oui, and the following year expanded his account into book form as Who Killed Marilyn Monroe? (1976), published under the pen name Tony Sciacca. His only sources were Slatzer and his private investigator, Milo Speriglio. In addition to repeating Slatzer's claims, Scaduto alleged that Monroe had kept a red diary in which she had written confidential political information she had heard from the Kennedys, and that her house had been wiretapped by surveillance expert Bernard Spindel on the orders of union leader Jimmy Hoffa, who was hoping to obtain incriminating information against the Kennedys.
1980s: Milo Speriglio, Anthony Summers
In 1982, Speriglio published Marilyn Monroe: Murder Cover-Up, in which he claimed that Monroe had been murdered by Hoffa and mob boss Sam Giancana. Basing his account on Slatzer and Scaduto's books, Speriglio added statements made by Lionel Grandison, who worked at the Los Angeles County coroner's office at the time of Monroe's death. Grandison claimed that Monroe's body had been extensively bruised but this had been omitted from the autopsy report, and that he had seen the "red diary", but it had mysteriously disappeared.
Speriglio and Slatzer demanded that the investigation into Monroe's death be re-opened by authorities, and the Los Angeles District Attorney agreed to review the case. The new investigation could not find any evidence to support the murder claims. Grandison was found not to be a reliable witness as he had been fired from the coroner's office for stealing from corpses. The allegations that Monroe's home was wiretapped by Spindel were also found to be false. Spindel's apartment had been raided by the Manhattan District Attorney's office in 1966, during which his tapes were seized. Spindel later made a claim that he had wiretapped Monroe's house, but it was not supported by the contents of the tapes, to which the investigators had listened.
The most prominent Monroe conspiracy theorist in the 1980s was British journalist Anthony Summers, who claimed that Monroe's death was an accidental overdose enabled and covered up by Robert F. Kennedy. His investigation on Monroe began as an assignment for the British tabloid the Sunday Express to cover the Los Angeles District Attorney's 1982 review. Summers' book, Goddess: The Secret Lives of Marilyn Monroe (1985), became one of the most commercially successful Monroe biographies. Prior to writing on Monroe, he had authored a book on a conspiracy theory of the assassination of John F. Kennedy.
According to Summers, Monroe had severe substance abuse problems and was psychotic in the last months of her life. He alleges that Monroe had affairs with both John and Robert Kennedy, and that when Robert ended their affair she threatened to reveal their association. Kennedy and Lawford attempted to prevent this by enabling her addictions. According to Summers, Monroe became hysterical and accidentally overdosed, dying in an ambulance on the way to the hospital. Kennedy wanted to leave Los Angeles before Monroe's death became public to avoid being associated with it, and therefore her body was returned to her bedroom and the overdose staged as a suicide by Lawford, the Kennedys and J. Edgar Hoover.
Summers based his account on interviews he had conducted with 650 people connected to Monroe, but his research has been criticized by biographers Donald Spoto and Sarah Churchwell. According to Spoto, Summers contradicts himself, presents false information as fact, and misrepresents what some of Monroe's friends said about her. Churchwell, meanwhile, has stated that while Summers accumulated a large collection of anecdotal material, most of his allegations are speculation; many of the people he interviewed could provide only second- or third-hand accounts, and they "relate what they believe, not what they demonstrably know". Summers was also the first major biographer to find Slatzer a credible witness, and relies heavily on testimonies by other controversial witnesses, including Jack Clemmons and Jeanne Carmen, a model-actress whose claim to have been Monroe's close friend has been disputed by Spoto and Lois Banner.
Summers' allegations formed the basis for the BBC documentary Marilyn: Say Goodbye to the President (1985), and for a 26-minute segment produced for ABC's 20/20. The 20/20 segment was never aired, as ABC President Roone Arledge decided that the claims made in it required more evidence to back them up. Summers claimed that Arledge's decision was influenced by pressure from the Kennedy family.
1990s: Brown and Barham, Donald H. Wolfe, Donald Spoto
In the 1990s, two new books alleged that Monroe was murdered: Peter Brown and Patte Barham's Marilyn: The Last Take (1992) and Donald H. Wolfe's The Last Days of Marilyn Monroe (1998). Neither presented much new evidence but relied extensively on Capell and Summers as well as on discredited witnesses such as Grandison, Slatzer, Clemmons, and Carmen; Wolfe also did not provide any sources for many of his claims and disregarded many of the findings of the autopsy without explanation.
In his 1993 biography of Monroe, Donald Spoto disputed the previous conspiracy theories but alleged that Monroe's death was an accidental overdose staged as a suicide. According to him, Monroe's doctors Greenson (psychiatrist) and Engelberg (personal physician) had been trying to stop her abuse of Nembutal. In order to monitor her drug use, they had agreed to never prescribe her anything without first consulting with each other. Monroe was able to persuade Engelberg to break his promise by lying to him that Greenson had agreed to it. She took several Nembutals on August 4 but did not tell this to Greenson, who prescribed her a chloral hydrate enema; the combination of these two drugs killed her. Afraid of the consequences, the doctors and Murray then staged the death as a suicide.
Spoto argued that Monroe could not have been suicidal because she had reached a new agreement with Fox and because she was allegedly going to remarry DiMaggio. He based his theory of her death on alleged discrepancies in the police statements given by Monroe's housekeeper and doctors, a claim made by Monroe's publicist Arthur P. Jacobs's wife that he had been alerted of the death already at 10:30 p.m., as well as on claims made by prosecutor John Miner, who was involved in the official investigation. Miner had alleged that her autopsy revealed signs more consistent with an enema than oral ingestion.
2000s: John Miner, Matthew Smith
Miner's allegations that Monroe's death was not a suicide received more publicity in the 2000s, when he published transcripts that he claimed to have made from audiotapes that Monroe recorded shortly before her death. Miner claimed that Monroe gave the tapes to Greenson, who invited him to listen to them after her death. On the tapes, Monroe spoke of her plans for the future, which Miner argues is proof that she could not have killed herself. She also discussed her sex life and use of enemas; Miner alleged that Monroe was killed by an enema that was administered by Murray.
Miner's allegations have received criticism. During the official review of the case by the district attorney in 1982, he told the investigators about the tapes, but did not mention that he had transcripts of them. Miner claimed that this was because Greenson had sworn him to silence. The tapes themselves have never been found, and Miner remains the only person to claim they existed. Greenson was already dead before Miner went public with them.
Biographer Lois Banner knew Miner personally because they both worked at the University of Southern California; she further challenged the authenticity of the transcripts. Miner had once lost his license to practice law for several years, lied to Banner about having worked for the Kinsey Institute, and had gone bankrupt shortly before selling the alleged transcripts. He had first attempted to sell the transcripts to Vanity Fair, but when the magazine had asked him to show them to Summers in order to validate them, it had become apparent that he did not have them.
The transcripts, which Miner sold to British author Matthew Smith, were therefore written several decades after he alleged to have listened to the tapes. Miner's claim that Monroe's housekeeper was in fact her nurse and administered her enemas on a regular basis is also not supported by evidence. Furthermore, Banner wrote that Miner had a personal obsession about enemas and practiced sadomasochism; she concluded that his theory about Monroe's death "represented his sexual interests" and was not based on evidence.
Smith published the transcripts as part of his book Victim: The Secret Tapes of Marilyn Monroe (2003). He asserted that Monroe was murdered by the CIA due to her association with Robert F. Kennedy, as the agency wanted revenge for the Kennedys' handling of the Bay of Pigs Invasion. Smith had already written about the topic in his previous book, The Men Who Murdered Marilyn (1996). Noting that Smith included no footnotes in his 1996 book and only eight in Victim, Churchwell has called his account "a tissue of conjecture, speculation and pure fiction as documentary fact" and "arguably the least factual of all Marilyn lives". The Miner transcripts were also discussed in a 2005 Los Angeles Times article.
Notes
References
Footnotes
Sources
External links
"Marilyn Monroe Dead, Pills Near" Articles of Monroe's death in The New York Times
"From the Archives: Marilyn Monroe Dies; Pills Blamed" in Los Angeles Times
"Funeral for a Hollywood legend: The death of Marilyn Monroe in Los Angeles Times
"Marilyn Monroe Is Dead" in Chicago Tribune
"Marilyn is Dead Obituary in The Guardian
"Death of Marilyn Monroe" A British Pathé newsreel
Marilyn Monroe
1962 in California
1962 in Los Angeles
Monroe, Marilyn
Monroe, Marilyn
August 1962 events in the United States
Conspiracy theories in the United States |
4292193 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada%20in%20the%20War%20in%20Afghanistan | Canada in the War in Afghanistan | Canada's role in the Afghanistan War began in late 2001. Canada sent its first element of soldiers secretly in October 2001 from Joint Task Force 2, and the first contingents of regular Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) troops arrived in Afghanistan in January–February 2002. The operations were aimed at identifying and neutralizing Al-Qaeda members in that country and toppling the Taliban regime which was supporting international terrorism. Canada's role in the Afghan conflict grew in 2006 when Canadian troops relieved US forces in Kandahar province, taking command of the multinational brigade in the region during a major Taliban offensive.
Later operations in Afghanistan focused on security, reconstruction, and training the Afghan National Army (ANA) and Afghan National Police. The CAF made up the bulk of these missions, supplemented by personnel from the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), Foreign Affairs Canada, and the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). Major reconstruction projects included the Dahla Dam and irrigation system, improvement of roads and bridges, construction of schools, and immunization programs.
The CAF had the highest per-capita casualty rate among coalition members. 159 Canadian soldiers died on missions in theatre and another 22 died in non-combat circumstances. Public opposition to the war grew over time, and the financial cost of Canada's contribution to the war was estimated as high as $18.5 billion by 2011. The last CAF soldiers left Afghanistan in March 2014.
Background
The Canadian Armed Forces' (CAF) role in post-Cold War conflicts has been that of a peacekeeping force, focused on new techniques to contain violence and restore functioning civil societies. After Canadian peacekeeping troops came under fire in the 1993 Medak Pocket incident—a 15-hour firefight during the Croatian War of Independence—it became clear to Canadian military leadership that the rules of engagement had to allow peacekeeping forces to make a rapid tactical transition to an offensive force when attacked. This notion shaped Canadian training and military operations in the subsequent decades.
In peacekeeping missions in Bosnia, Somalia, and Haiti, Canadian and NATO troops have sought to deepen their cooperation with local and international development organizations, working together towards reconstruction goals. The approach to Canadian involvement in Afghanistan was based on the same model.
In 2001, following the September 11 terrorist attacks and the US declaration of the war on terror, Canadian Minister of National Defence Art Eggleton advised Governor General Adrienne Clarkson to authorize more than 100 Canadian Forces members then serving on military exchange programs in the US and other countries to participate in US operations in Afghanistan. Eggleton summed up the dominant thinking in the government at the time: "Any Canadian military deployment to Afghanistan may well be similar to a situation in Eritrea and Ethiopia where we went in on the first wave, we helped establish the stabilization, the basis for ongoing peace support operations that would come after ... but then turned it over to somebody else." The operations were aimed at identifying and neutralizing Al-Qaeda members in that country, as well as toppling the Taliban regime, which was supporting international terrorism.
In addition to standard combat training, mission-specific training has been part of a Canadian soldier's preparation for service on peacekeeping, peacemaking, and stability operations since the 1960s. This played a significant role in the war in Afghanistan. Soldiers needed to be aware of local traditions, beliefs and social institutions, and why groups "might oppose the establishment of peace and order." This training, accompanied by psychological triaging with a soldier's family, made the Afghanistan deployment the most-prepared of any overseas CAF mission. There was a clear goal during training: that success of the mission was a sustainable Afghan government that could serve the needs of its peoples. It was this notion that shaped the Canadian and NATO approach toward reconstructing Afghanistan.
2001–2002: Operation Apollo, Initial deployment
General Ray Henault, Chief of the Defence Staff, issued preliminary orders to several CAF units as Operation Apollo was established. The Canadian commitment to US operations in Afghanistan was originally planned to last until October 2003.
Approximately 40 Joint Task Force 2 (JTF2) soldiers were sent to southern Afghanistan in early December 2001. The Canadian public was not informed of the deployment, and Sean M. Maloney's book Enduring the Freedom reported that JTF2 had been deployed without Prime Minister Jean Chrétien's knowledge in early October 2001.
Regular forces arrived in Kandahar in January–February 2002. In March, three Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry (PPCLI) snipers fought alongside US Army units during Operation Anaconda. In the operation the team broke, and re-broke, the kill record for a long-distance sniper kill set during the Vietnam War. Operation Anaconda was also the first time since the Korean War that Canadian soldiers relieved American soldiers in a combat situation. Canadian forces also undertook Operation Harpoon in the Shah-i-Kot Valley. Other forces in the country provided garrison and security troops.
The Tarnak Farm incident occurred on 18 April 2002, when an American F-16 jet dropped a laser-guided bomb on a group of soldiers from the 3rd Battalion PPCLI Battle Group. The soldiers were conducting night-time training on a designated live-fire range, but the American pilots mistook their gunfire for a Taliban insurgent attack. The friendly fire incident killed four Canadians and wounded eight. Their deaths were the first Canadian deaths in Afghanistan, and the first in a combat zone since the Korean War.
2003–2005: Operation Athena
In August 2003, the Canadian Forces moved to the northern city of Kabul where it became the commanding station of the newly formed International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). Canada dubbed this Operation Athena and a 1,900-strong Canadian task force provided assistance for improving civilian infrastructure, such as well-digging and repair of local buildings.
In March 2004, Canada committed $250 million in aid to Afghanistan and $5 million to support the 2004 Afghan election.
On 13 February 2005, Defence Minister Bill Graham announced Canada was doubling the number of troops in Afghanistan by the coming summer, from 600 troops in Kabul to 1200.
In spring 2005, officials announced that the Canadian Forces would return to the volatile Kandahar Province, taking command of the region from US forces. Stage one of Operation Athena ended in December 2005 with the fulfillment of the stated aim of "rebuilding the democratic process" in Afghanistan.
2006: Operation Archer
Operation Archer followed Athena beginning in February 2006. Unlike the ISAF-led Athena, Archer was part of the US military command. By spring 2006, Canada had a major role in southern Afghanistan, with a battle group of 2,300 soldiers based at Kandahar. Canada also commanded the multinational brigade for Regional Command South, a main military force in the region, with Canadian Brigadier-General David Fraser formally taking over from US forces on 28 February.
In May 2006, the Canadian government extended Canadian military commitments to Afghanistan by two years, replacing earlier plans to withdraw soldiers in 2006. Foreign Affairs Canada stated that the commitment would employ a "whole of government approach", in which the Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT), utilizing personnel from the military, Foreign Affairs, the Canadian International Development Agency and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), would provide a dual role of security as well as reconstruction of the country and political structure.
On 31 July 2006, the NATO-led ISAF assumed command of the south of the country and the Canadian Task Force was transferred from the jurisdiction of Archer (Operation Enduring Freedom) to Athena (ISAF).
2006–2009: Taliban resurgence
When Canadian Forces returned to Kandahar, the Taliban began a major offensive. There were a record number of attacks against Canadian soldiers that spring, including six deaths.
Operation Mountain Thrust was launched in the beginning of summer 2006, in response to the gathering of Taliban forces in Kandahar and Helmand provinces. Canadians of the 1 PPCLI Battle Group were one of the leading combatants and the first fighting when the Battle of Panjwai took place. Daily firefights, artillery bombardments, and allied airstrikes turned the tides of the battle in favour of the Canadians. After the operation concluded, Taliban fighters returned to the Panjwai District in numbers that had not been seen before in a single area in the post-Anaconda war.
The Canadian Forces came under NATO command at the end of July, and the 1 RCR Battle Group replaced the PPCLI. Canadians launched Operation Medusa in September in an attempt to clear the areas of Taliban fighters from Panjwai. The fighting of Operation Medusa led to a second, fiercer Battle of Panjwai in which daily gun-battles, ambushes, and mortar and rocket attacks targeted the Canadian troops. An estimated 1,500 to 2,000 Taliban fighters were reluctant to give up the area, and after being surrounded by the Canadian Forces, they dug in and fought a conventional style battle. After weeks of fighting, the Taliban were cleared from the Panjwai area and Canadian reconstruction efforts began.
On 15 September 2006, the Canadian government committed a squadron of Leopard C2 tanks from Lord Strathcona's Horse and an additional 200 to 500 troops to Afghanistan.
On 1 November 2006, Fraser stepped down as head of NATO Regional Command South, which was rotated to Dutch command.
On 15 December 2006, the Canadians launched Operation Falcon Summit into Zhari District, to the north of Panjwai, as part of the NATO-led Operation Mountain Fury. During Operation Falcon Summit, the Canadians gained control of several key villages and towns that were former Taliban havens, such as Howz-E Madad. During the first week of the operation, massive Canadian artillery and tank barrages were carried out in a successful attempt to clear pockets of Taliban resistance. The operation concluded with plans to build a new road linking Panjwai with Kandahar's Highway 1 that runs east–west through Zhari.
In February 2007, the 2 RCR Battle Group took over combat operations in several districts of Kandahar Province.
From 15 July 2007 to February 2008, units from CFB Valcartier near Quebec City served in Kandahar filling most positions in the Operational Mentoring and Liaison Team (OMLT) and providing the protective company for the Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT). The 3rd Battalion Royal 22e Régiment Battle Group, with supporting troops from 5 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group and a composite tank squadron from Lord Strathcona's Horse conducted operations on the ground. This rotation reflected a change in tactics, with emphasis on systematically clearing, holding and building in the districts of Panjwai and Zhari, while also protecting Arghandab District and the Afghan–Pakistan border in the area of Spin Boldak. The focus was on intimately working with the Afghan army, police and civil administration to hold cleared areas rather than subsequently lose them to returning Taliban, as had previously occurred throughout the south and east.
In February 2008, the Van Doos contingent was replaced by a force centred on a PPCLI battle group. Also in February, Canadian Major-General Marc Lessard took command of Regional Command South for nine months.
On 13 March 2008, the Harper Conservative government's motion to extend the military mission past February 2009 into 2011 was approved in a parliamentary vote with the support of the Liberal opposition. The extension of almost another three years had a focus on reconstruction and training of Afghan troops, and set a firm pullout date, calling for Canadian troops to leave Afghanistan by December 2011. While the Liberals voted in favour of the Conservatives' confidence motion, the New Democratic Party and the Bloc Québécois voted against it, having consistently rejected any extension of the military mission. NDP leader Jack Layton said "There are millions of Canadians who don't want this strategy to continue. The population prefers a road to peace."
As part of the new US administration's policy on Afghanistan, 17,000 new US troops were deployed to the country with a third stationed in Kandahar province. On 10 August 2009, Brig-Gen. Jonathan Vance of Task Force Kandahar transferred the authority of some of Kandahar Province to Col. Harry Tunnell IV, commander of the US Army's 5th Stryker Brigade. Canadian troops were then stationed primarily around Kandahar City and the surrounding districts.
2010–2011: US surge, combat ends
On 1 December 2009, the US president announced a major troop increase that sent another 30,000 troops to Afghanistan. The Canadian troops remained mostly active in the Panjwai and Kandahar districts, where they were located at the end of 2009. Canadians were also active in the Zhari and Daman districts.
In February 2010, Canadian air forces and ground troops from 3PPCLI took part in the highly publicized Marja offensive. In early 2010, Task Force Kandahar also contributed to creating the 3rd brigade of the 205th Afghan National Army (ANA) Corps that was deployed in Kandahar and Helmand province. In April 2010 the 1st Battalion Royal Canadian Regiment (1RCR), along with O Company of the 3rd Battalion Royal Canadian Regiment (3RCR), was deployed to relieve PPCLI in the southern districts of Kandahar province. In late May 2010, heavy fighting ensued and continued for much of the summer. During this time, two major operations involving about 160 troops along with two platoons of ANA were conducted under the name Operation Azida 1 and Operation Azida 2. 7 Platoon 3RCR's involvement in the operations over three months confronted them with as many as 75 skirmishes with Taliban forces, and approximately 50–75 improvised explosive devices (IEDs) were found. On one occasion, a Chinook helicopter was struck in flight by an insurgent RPG. This resulted in a hard landing, and destruction of the helicopter, but with no reported serious injuries. The violent clashes and skirmishes continued through the end of August, leaving O Company 3RCR and their combat attachments with over a dozen serious injuries. Two weeks later Canadian Forces transferred Kandahar city to US forces, at which point most of Canada's forces were in the Panjwai district, Dand and Daman. On 27 November 2010, in the tenth and final troop rotation, the 1st Battalion of the Royal 22e Régiment took over, marking the final rotation before Canada's withdrawal from Afghanistan.
Canada withdrew the bulk of its troops from Afghanistan in 2011, with the Infantry Battle Group withdrawn by the end of July (handover of battlespace was completed 6 July, and all Canadian Forces personnel and equipment were withdrawn from Kandahar by the end of December. In September 2008, Conservative leader Stephen Harper had pledged the withdrawal by saying that a decade at war is enough, having extended the withdrawal deadline twice previously. He acknowledged that neither the Canadian public nor the troops themselves had any appetite to stay in the war and said that only a small group of advisers might remain.
2011–2014: Operation Attention, NATO training mission and withdrawal
On 9 December 2010, it was announced that after the end of combat operations in July 2011, approximately 950 newly posted specialized CAF personnel would be posted to the NATO Training Mission-Afghanistan to continue the training of the ANA and Afghan National Police. CAF personnel also provided force protection, SECFOR and quick reaction force elements to the ISAF mission. Canada's contribution to this mission was dubbed Operation Attention and took place mostly around Kabul with some training occurring at Mazar-i-Sharif.
By late 2013, Canada began withdrawing its final soldiers from the training mission. In October, the force was down to 650 personnel from over 800. On 12 March 2014, the government announced with little fanfare that the mission was formally completed with a flag-lowering ceremony held in Kabul.
The last 84 soldiers left Afghanistan on 15 March 2014, ending Canada's twelve-year military presence in the country.
2021: Operation Aegis
Members of Canadian Special Operations Forces Command were briefly redeployed to Afghanistan in August, during the August 2021 Taliban offensive. The Canadian military operation, Operation Aegis, aimed to evacuate its citizens, close the Canadian embassy, and help facilitate the 2021 Kabul airlift. After assisting with the evacuation of more than 3,700 people, the Canadian Armed Forces ended its airlift mission in Afghanistan on 26 August.
Provincial reconstruction team
A key element of Canadian operations in Afghanistan was the Kandahar Provincial Reconstruction Team (KPRT), one of 25 provincial reconstruction teams (PRTs) throughout the country. These units were introduced by the US government to support reconstruction efforts in unstable states, performing duties ranging from humanitarian work to the training of police and the military. Following NATO's involvement, command of some PRTs was transferred from the US to other nations under the ISAF.
KPRT was comprised around 330–335 personnel, composed largely of Canadian Forces elements (315) and a few diplomats, correctional officers, development specialists, and Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP).
KPRT also included one US State Department official, one US development official, and several US police mentors.
By 2007, the Canadian effort to rebuild Kandahar was following the National Solidarity Program (NSP), a strategy to empower local village councils, shifting outlooks from essential self-preservation to community governance. This required much time and patience by KPRT, earning trust, with power gradually transitioning "from drug lords and Taliban chieftains back to Afghans".
Among the challenges was instilling a belief in good government, which required the training of an organised and professional police force.
The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) focused on improving irrigation systems during a ten-year drought, allowing farmers to open unused fields and radically increase crop production. The farmers also had to be lifted from the fear imposed by the drug lords and Taliban who exploited them. By 2007, the mission had convinced Kandaharis who joined in the reconstruction efforts despite a Taliban resurgence.
The PRT was about one-eighth of the total 2,830 Canadian military forces in Afghanistan. The 2008 Manley report recommended that the KPRT be given more funding and attention and be placed under civilian leadership. The KPRT was transferred to a civilian command in April 2010, with the Representative of Canada in Kandahar Ben Rowswell as KPRT Director and former US Ambassador Bill Harris as deputy director. With impending Canadian withdrawal in 2011 and an increasing number of US soldiers and civilians in Kandahar, the KPRT transitioned from Canadian to American command in late 2010 to early 2011.
Major projects
Prompted by the Manley report, the Canadian Government highlighted several of its so-called "signature" projects in Kandahar Province:
Dahla Dam and irrigation system: Canada invested $50 million over three years toward projects to assist with irrigation and basic services across the region. It was believed that such funding would create 10,000 seasonal jobs.
Education: Canada invested $12 million over three years into improving the education system across Kandahar.
Polio eradication: Canada invested up to $60 million over three years toward the immunization of an estimated seven million children across Afghanistan, including 350,000 in Kandahar province.
As a result of these signature projects, over 6,000 schools were built and six of thirteen million children were enrolled. Transportation infrastructure was greatly improved, providing much better access to healthcare. The NSP also saw tremendous progression in the Afghan government, with over 16,000 community development councils elected, prioritizing projects that suit local needs.
Other operations
Canada's naval contribution to the Afghanistan War was part of the American-led Combined Task Force 150 (CTF 150), whose purpose was maritime patrol and enforcement near Afghanistan. Canada's maritime forces served as part of Operation Apollo, Operation Altair, and Operation Saiph – the last having a greater focus on the Horn of Africa.
The Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) increased activities abroad, including in support of Canada's participation in the war in Afghanistan. The executive director of its civilian oversight committee noted in January 2009 that this support had noticeably altered the spy agency and urged policy improvements to manage its growing operations overseas.
Canada assisted in the collection, storage and decommissioning of 10,000 heavy weapons left in Afghanistan over decades of conflict, including artillery, tanks and rocket launchers.
Canada helped clear about one third of the estimated 10 to 15 million mines in Afghanistan.
Canada lent money to over 140,000 people in Afghanistan.
Canada helped train the Afghan police and army.
Since December 2001, Canada was an active participant in the civilian-led United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan. The Canadian military terms it Operation ACCIUS.
In September 2005, Canada initiated the Strategic Advisory Team – Afghanistan (SAT-A), known as Operation ARGUS, to mentor aspects of the Afghan government on defence issues. It usually contained around fifteen personnel and one CIDA official. The SAT-A had often been considered a pet project of Chief of Defense Staff Rick Hillier and was shut down in August 2008, a month after his retirement.
Since early 2006, the Canadian Operational Mentoring and Liaison Team (OMLT) helped to train and equip the ANA to take over security from the coalition. OMLT's 200 personnel trained 1,000 Afghan soldiers at a time, and also had a subgroup to mentor the Afghan National Police.
Public opinion
The mission to Afghanistan was politically controversial with the Canadian public: On 31 August 2006, New Democrat leader Jack Layton called for the withdrawal of Canadian troops from the south of Afghanistan, to begin immediately and soon afterwards pursue peace negotiations with the Taliban insurgents. He argued that the mission lacked clear objectives and measures of success and that the counter-insurgency operation was undermining reconstruction in Afghanistan. The Liberals and the governing Conservatives were generally supportive of the mission in Afghanistan. While initially in support of the war, the Bloc Québécois opposed any extension beyond the initial withdrawal date. Opinion amongst pundits and academics was generally divided along ideological lines, with left-leaning media outlets and think-tanks being against the war, and right-leaning publications and institutes being supportive.
Successive surveys conducted by various pollsters across the political spectrum suggest opposition to the war amongst the general public grew over time:
At the end of 2001, a poll quoted by The Washington Post showed that 74% of Canadians supported the US-led war in Afghanistan.
One year after the September 11 attacks, Ekos reported that a majority of Canadians still supported the participation of the Canadian military in Afghanistan, with only one in five opposing.
In 2006, as Canada was expanding its presence in the country, a Strategic Counsel poll conducted for CTV News and The Globe and Mail suggested that a majority of Canadians opposed or were ambivalent to the War in Afghanistan, with 54% opposing. In Quebec, as much as 70% opposed the war, while in the West more Canadians were in support (49%) than opposed (45%).
In May 2008, the Canadian mission was extended by recommendation of a report from John Manley, a national poll by Angus Reid Public Opinion suggested that 54% of Canadians thought the House of Commons was wrong, while 41% agreed; two months later, 58% opposed and 36% agreed. At that point, Canada had lost 86 soldiers in the war.
In December 2009, public opinion on the War in Afghanistan stood at approximately the same numbers, with 53% opposing and 42% supporting the mission in Afghanistan. However, 66% were opposed to expanding Canada's role in the country, 28% were in support. At that point, Canada had lost 133 soldiers in the war.
At the end of 2010, nine years after the initial invasion, the Canadian government decided to extend Canada's involvement until 2014; however the combat mission was ending in 2011, and the new mission involved 950 instructors to help train Afghan troops. According to a national poll conducted by Angus Reid, 48% of Canadians agreed with this decision, while 44% disagreed; however, 56% still opposed the military mission in the country.
As the combat mission wrapped up, a poll conducted on 1570 Canadians in July 2011 for QMI Agency and Sun Media showed 30% of respondents felt the sacrifice was worthwhile, and 58% did not. The Léger poll also found that male respondents were more likely to feel the mission was worth the sacrifice than female respondents.
Many Canadians were vocal in their opposition to the war, and several protests were held by many anti-war groups, most of them organized under the Canadian Peace Alliance umbrella. In Quebec, some parliamentarians refused to stand in honour of soldiers visiting the National Assembly. Other Canadians were supportive of the mission, and more particularly of the troops. A grassroots phenomenon known as the Highway of Heroes that started in 2006 saw hundreds of local residents gathering along bridges to salute soldiers' remains travelling between CFB Trenton and the Coroner's office in Toronto. Some Canadians also participated in Red Fridays in honour of the soldiers.
Fatalities
Military deaths
Between 2001 and 2014, 159 Canadian soldiers died while on missions in Afghanistan. Of these, 123 were due to hostile circumstances, including 95 due to improvised explosive device (IED) or landmines, 21 due to rocket-propelled grenade, small arms or mortar fire, 11 due to suicide bomb attacks, and one died falling from a cliff during a combat operation that involved firefight. An additional 22 soldiers died in accidents or other non-combat circumstances; 7 due to friendly fire, 6 in vehicle crashes, 2 in a helicopter crash, 2 from accidental falls, 2 from accidental gunshots, 1 suicide death and 2 unspecified non-combat-related deaths in the country. Additionally, one unspecified non-combat-related death occurred at a support base in the Persian Gulf. Canada suffered the third-highest absolute number of deaths of any nation among the foreign military participants, and one of the highest casualties per capita of coalition members since the beginning of the war. More than 2000 soldiers were injured during the war between April 2002 and March 2014. 635 soldiers were injured in action while 1412 were injured in patrol or non-combat situations.
Non-military deaths
One senior Foreign Affairs official, Glyn Berry, and four Canadian civilians were killed in Afghanistan due to hostile circumstances.
Military equipment lost or damaged
The Canadian Forces lost over 34 vehicles and 359 were damaged during the mission. The land force lost 13 LAV III and another 159 were damaged by roadside bombs or enemy fire. At least three Leopard C2 were destroyed and 15 were damaged. A dozen unspecified trucks in various sizes and models were damaged and seven were destroyed. A number of floodlight assembly trailers and kitchen trailers were destroyed during various rocket attacks against Kandahar International Airport. The majority of the equipment was destroyed by former CIA TC/3.6 and TC/6 anti tank mines left behind during the Soviet–Afghan War. From the beginning of the war in 2002 until 2009, the Canadian Forces had no heavy-lift helicopter for supplying forward operating bases (FOB) and had to do road convoys, which were regularly the target of IEDs. Canadian Forces also lost two helicopters, one Bell CH-146 Griffon and one CH-147 Chinook, hit by Taliban small arms fire.
Unit recognition
Battle honours for the Afghanistan mission was bestowed in May 2014 to units of the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army and Royal Canadian Air Force that participated. Fifteen RCN surface vessels received the theatre honour "Arabian Sea". The "Afghanistan" theatre honour went to two units of the RCN, 65 units of the Canadian Army, four units of the RCAF and one unit of the Special Forces.
Several units were recognized with the Commander-in-Chief Unit Commendation, including the 1st Battalion, The Royal Canadian Regiment, 1st Battalion, PPCLI, 3rd Battalion, PPCLI, and 3rd Battalion, Royal 22e Régiment.
The Calgary Highlanders were awarded the Canadian Forces Unit Commendation for contributing more reserve soldiers to deployed units in Afghanistan than any other reserve unit. The unit deployed 107% of its established strength to the mission in Afghanistan, "significantly more than any other reserve unit".
Individual valour and bravery awards
Over the first four years in Afghanistan, a number of decorations for bravery or for military merit were awarded to Canadian soldiers. Of particular note, in December 2003, four PPCLI snipers from 3 PPCLI were awarded Mentions in Dispatches by the Canadian Army and the Bronze Star by the US Army for their actions in combat during Operation Anaconda, 2–11 March 2002. These were Master Corporal Graham Ragsdale, Master Corporal Tim McMeekin, Corporal Dennis Eason, Corporal Rob Furlong and Master Corporal Arron Perry.
The numbers of decorations being awarded increased when Canadian forces took over responsibility for Kandahar Province in 2006 and confronted an insurgency that was determined to regain control of the Pashtun heartland. During the period 2006–2011, Canadian forces came under fire from enemy forces for the first time since the Korean War and, because of this, 109 Decorations for Military Valour were awarded for the first time since the new system of decorations had been established in 1993. By the end of Operation Athena in 2011, the following awards had been made for courage "in the presence of the enemy":
Star of Military Valour – 20
Medal of Military Valour – 89
Mentions in Despatches – 308
The first awards of Decorations for Military Valour were made in 2006 to members of 1 PPCLI Battle Group.
On 27 October 2006, Sergeant Patrick Tower of the PPCLI became the first recipient of the Canadian Star of Military Valour. It came as a result of actions on 3 August, where he assumed command of his platoon under fire, and escorted them to safety.
Sergeant Michael Thomas Victor Denine, PPCLI, was awarded the Medal of Military Valour for his actions as part of Operation Archer. On 17 May 2006, though under intense rocket-propelled grenade, machine gun and small arms fire, he exited a light armoured vehicle and manned the pintle-mounted machine gun. In spite of being completely exposed to enemy fire, Denine laid down such a volume of suppressive fire that he forced the enemy to withdraw.
On 24 May 2006, while under intense enemy fire, Master Corporal Collin Ryan Fitzgerald, PPCLI, entered and re-entered a burning platoon vehicle, driving it off the roadway and allowing vehicles trapped in the enemy's kill zone to break free, for which he was awarded the Medal of Military Valour.
On 13 July, during Operation Archer, Private Jason Lamont, PPCLI, ran across open ground through concentrated enemy fire in order to deliver first aid to a wounded comrade, for which he was also awarded the Medal of Military Valour.
Major William Hilton Fletcher, PPCLI, received the Star of Military Valour. He was recognized for demonstrating extraordinary bravery during his service in Afghanistan from January to August 2006. He repeatedly exposed himself to intense fire while leading C Company, 1 PPCLI Battle Group, on foot, to assault heavily defended enemy positions.
Captain Derek Prohar, PPCLI, received the Medal of Military Valour. Assigned as liaison officer with US Special Forces in Afghanistan during the battle at Sperwan Ghar, 5–12 September 2006, Prohar operated as the rear machine gunner on the battalion commander's vehicle. He was wounded by an IED during an intense enemy ambush. Despite his injuries, he continued returning fire and assisted the commander with the control of the attack, which resulted in the successful seizing of key terrain.
Royal Air Force Flight Lieutenant Chris Hasler, a Canadian, was invested with the Distinguished Flying Cross personally by Queen Elizabeth II on 23 May 2007 for flying resupply missions under fire in Chinook helicopters in Afghanistan in 2006. He is the first Canadian to be decorated for bravery in the air since the Korean War.
At the end of 2006, every Canadian soldier was selected by the Canadian Press as the Canadian Newsmaker of the Year due to the war in Afghanistan.
Controversies
Canadian soldier charged with second-degree murder
In late December 2008, reports surfaced of alleged inappropriate conduct concerning the death of a "presumed insurgent". The Canadian Forces National Investigation Service investigated the incident, resulting in second-degree murder charges against Captain Robert Semrau on 31 December. Semrau, who was serving with NATO's Operational Mentoring and Liaison Team supervising and mentoring Afghan soldiers in Helmand Provence, was alleged to have killed a wounded insurgent found by ANA troops on 19 October 2008. According to the "detention review synopsis" filed by the crown prosecutor, Afghan soldiers found a man whose wounds "appeared too severe for any type of treatment in situ" and disarmed him. The statement alleged that Semrau was seen near the wounded man when two shots were heard. The document stated the prosecution's belief that Semrau fired both shots, which resulted in the death of the insurgent. The prosecution also said that it would produce a witness who would testify that he saw Semrau shoot the wounded man. The body of the man was left behind at the scene of the ambush and was never found.
Court proceedings began on 25 January 2010, before a military judge and a five-person panel. On 19 July, Semrau was found not guilty of murder, attempted murder, and negligence, but guilty of disgraceful conduct. On 5 October, he was dismissed from the military and his rank was reduced to second lieutenant, but he was not sentenced to jail. Lieutenant-Colonel Jean-Guy Perron, explaining his sentencing, described Semrau as a courageous soldier and leader, and that he was "probably caught between his moral values and his duties as a soldier". He also said that Semrau had even more responsibility towards his duties because he was in a leadership position: "How can we expect our soldiers to respect the rules of engagement if our officers don't?". Semrau was interviewed for CBC Radio on the publication of his book, The Taliban Don't Wave.
Afghan detainee abuse scandal
In 2007, allegations arose that the Canadian military was handing detainees over to the Afghan military without first making sure that they would not be abused. This evolved into a political scandal in Canada that eventually resulted in Defense Minister Gordon O'Connor being demoted.
On 18 November 2009, allegations regarding the treatment of Taliban prisoners captured by Canadian forces in Afghanistan resurfaced in parliamentary testimony by Richard Colvin, the second highest-ranked member of Canada's diplomatic service in Afghanistan from 2006 to 2007. Colvin testified that "According to our information, the likelihood is that all the Afghans we handed over were tortured. For interrogators in Kandahar, it was a standard operating procedure." Colvin also testified that he had made numerous reports to both the Department of Defence and the Foreign Affairs Department about the situation, starting in 2006. Defense Minister Peter MacKay responded to the allegations saying "I don't believe it's credible. I don't believe it's backed up by fact and what we have to deal with in a parliamentary hearing, as we do in a court of law, or another judicial or public inquiry, is evidence that can be substantiated".
Financial cost
The estimated cost of continuing Canadian operations in Afghanistan is the subject of considerable debate. Initial government estimates for the period 2001 to 2009 were as low as $9 billion according to Foreign Affairs Minister Peter MacKay in June 2006, but later government estimates of the incremental cost of the conflict (as distinct from the fixed cost of DND operations unrelated to Afghanistan) increased to $5 billion in March 2008 due to equipment purchases.
Independent estimates of the total cost of the conflict range as high as $18.5 billion by 2011, according to the Parliamentary Budget Officer. The discrepancy between this and government estimates lies in the difficulty in distinguishing between routine military costs and those dedicated specifically to the Afghan conflict, as well as the inclusion of long-term costs relating to injured soldiers and estimated lost productivity caused by personnel afflicted with operational stress injuries, such as post-traumatic stress disorder.
Bases
Camp Julien in Kabul
Camp Nathan Smith in Kandahar
Camp Mirage airbase, a logistics base outside of Afghanistan (taken down after UAE airline dispute)
Equipment
Effect on CAF Equipment
Canada's effort in Afghanistan had a noticeable effect on some of the CAF's equipment holdings. The most obvious areas were: tactical aviation, UAVs, and main battle tanks (MBT).
During and following the war, Canada's tactical aviation evolved from solely using utility versions of the CH-146 Griffon to using a mix of CH-47 Chinook and CH-146 Griffon, the latter of which often act as armed escorts.
The many-year effort to provide the CAF with UAVs came to fruition with the deployment of the SAGEM Sperwer to Kabul and then to Kandahar.
The fighting in Kandahar, notably during Operation Medusa, led the CAF to abandon its plan to transition to a wheeled, lightly armoured, 105mm-armed Armoured Combat Vehicle (see Tanks of Canada) instead of its Leopard 1 MBTs. Instead, it replaced the Leopard 1 with the Leopard 2 MBT.
Relevant equipment
Diplomatic ties
On 25 January 2002, Canada officially re-established diplomatic relations with Afghanistan. This was followed by the opening of Canada's embassy in Kabul in September 2003. Canada's current representative is Ambassador Francois Rivest.
In popular culture
The movie Hyena Road revolves around a group of Canadian soldiers from Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry (PPCLI) fighting the Taliban while surrounded by the political, tribal, and military complexities of Kandahar Province. The novelization, based on the screenplay by Paul Gross, was published in 2015.
See also
Afghanada
Afghan War order of battle
Operation Herrick
Canadian Afghan detainee issue
Canadian Forces casualties in Afghanistan
Civilian casualties in the war in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
International public opinion on the war in Afghanistan
Protests against the war in Afghanistan
Rana FM
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Bercuson, David J. and J.L. Granatstein. Lessons Learned? What Canada Should Learn from Afghanistan (Calgary, 2011).
External links
"Canada's military mission in Afghanistan". CBCNews.ca, 2009-02-10
Canada in Afghanistan: Military & Development Roles | Mapleleafweb.com
"Canada's Engagement in Afghanistan". Government of Canada
"International Campaign Against Terrorism in Afghanistan". The Canadian Encyclopedia.
South-West Asia Theatre Honours. Government of Canada, May 2014
Military history of Canada
Military history of Afghanistan
War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
Afghanistan–Canada military relations |
4292473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland%20State%20Police | Maryland State Police | The Maryland State Police (MSP), officially the Maryland Department of State Police (MDSP), is the official state police force of the U.S. state of Maryland. The Maryland State Police is headquartered at 1201 Reisterstown Road in the Pikesville CDP in unincorporated Baltimore County.
Organizational structure
The Maryland State Police is organized into a structure based on the United States military, composed of:
Department of State Police (commanded by the Colonel)
Bureaus (commanded by a Lieutenant Colonel)
Commands (commanded by a Major)
Troops (commanded by a Captain)
Divisions (commanded by a Captain or Civilian Director)
Barracks (commanded by a Lieutenant)
Sections (commanded by a Captain or Lieutenant or Civilian Director)
Units (commanded by a First Sergeant)
The Maryland State Fire Marshal is a member of the department and is charged with investigation and prosecution of suspicious fires and arson throughout the state.
All sworn members are organized into 1 of 4 bureaus or are assigned to the Office of the Superintendent.
Office of the Superintendent
The Office of the Superintendent includes staff and units that directly support the administrative responsibilities of the Secretary. Those units and staff report to the chief of staff. Some of the main functions of the Office of the Superintendent include:
Strategic Planning Command
The Strategic Planning Command deals with all planning within the department. The command manages the Budget and Finance Division, Government Affairs Unit, Policing Division, Staff Inspections Section, and Planning and Research Division. Within the Planning and Research Division is the Property Unit and the Accreditation Section. The Accreditation Section is responsible for authoring, review and issuance of all departmental directives. In addition, this section manages all aspects of the MSP's CALEA accreditation. The MSP received CALEA's coveted Tri-Arc award in November 2014 and is accredited in Law Enforcement, Training Academy, and Communications.
Criminal Intelligence Section
The section collects, analyzes, and coordinates the acquisition and dissemination of criminal intelligence information.
Department Prosecutor Section
The section has overall responsibility for the prosecution of all sworn disciplinary cases.
Executive Protection Section
The Executive Protection Section provides security for executive branch leaders in the State of Maryland, such as the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Attorney General, Comptroller, and Treasurer.
Legislative Security Section
The Legislative Security Section is charged with ensuring the safety and security of the President of the Senate, Speaker of the House, and all members of the General Assembly while in session.
Office of Diversity, Equity and Inclusion
The section is responsible for ensuring compliance with the Governor's Code of Fair Practices; state and federal discrimination laws; and administers an equal employment practices program consistent with the requirements of federal and state laws governing equal employment opportunity and the State Personnel and Pensions Article.
Internal Affairs Division
The section ensures thorough and objective investigations of allegations and complaints of misconduct against employees so that a proper defensive or appropriate disciplinary actions is processed.
Legal Counsel Section
The legal advisor represents the superintendent on legal issues and handles all matters referred by the superintendent.
Office of Media Communications
The office is responsible for the daily dissemination of information to the media and public, and the facilitation of internal communication from the Office of the Superintendent.
Vehicle Theft Prevention Council
Subtitle 2-702 of the Public Safety Article established the Vehicle Theft Prevention Council and Vehicle Theft Prevention Fund to assist in the prevention and deterrence of vehicle theft and related crimes, including vandalism and theft of property from vehicles.
Field Operations Bureau
The Field Operations Bureau is the most visible part of the Maryland State Police since it includes all troopers who regularly interact with the public. Within the Bureau are two commands: the Northern Command and Southern Command which together encompass the 22 barracks. The Northern Command is divided into the Central, Northern, and Western troops and the Southern Command is divided into the Eastern, Southern, and Washington Metro troops.
In addition to the traditional law enforcement services, each Barrack also provides additional services to assist the public. These services include salvage inspections and car seat safety checks.
The Automotive Safety Enforcement Division is responsible, by law, for the State's vehicle safety inspection program and all safety equipment repair orders issued by law enforcement agencies. The Division also supervises more than 1,600 inspection stations throughout the State.
The Commercial Vehicle Enforcement Division operates weigh and inspection stations. It also focuses efforts on safety inspections of commercial motor vehicles traveling in the State, while also concentrating on the prevention of commercial vehicles being used as weapons of terror. The Special Operations Division includes many specialized units and teams which provide safety and rescue assistance to the citizens of Maryland.
The Field Operations Bureau is currently commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Frank B. Lioi, Chief.
State Police Impaired Driving Reduction Effort
A component of the Field Operations Bureau, SPIDRE was launched in May 2013 and focuses on reducing alcohol related crashes in Maryland by targeting areas across the state with high crash rates involving impaired drivers. The program complements the MSP's extensive efforts to improve highway safety and help Maryland achieve the goal of zero deaths on our roadways. It is funded by the Maryland Department of Transportation's Highway Safety Office.
In 2013, 152 people were killed in alcohol related crashes, accounting for 33 percent of all traffic fatalities in 2013. Using data to identify high risk areas, the elite team of seven specially trained Maryland state troopers and their partners continue to make arrests in these concentrated areas to further reduce the number of deaths and injuries caused by impaired driving. Maryland state troopers will continue to collaborate with law enforcement partners in an effort to reduce the number of alcohol related crashes in Maryland.
Criminal Investigation Bureau
The Criminal Investigation Bureau provides the investigative functions for the Department in partnership with allied law enforcement agencies. It consists of the Criminal Investigation Command and the Drug Enforcement Command. The Criminal Investigation Command includes the Criminal Enforcement Division and the Forensic Sciences Division.
The Criminal Enforcement Division is composed of special investigative groups that work on criminal enforcement, gang and firearms enforcement, computer crimes, missing children, homicides, fugitive apprehension, vehicle theft, insurance fraud and environmental crimes. The Forensic Sciences Division provides forensic laboratory analysis and expert testimony.
The Drug Enforcement Command includes the Drug Enforcement Division. Their responsibility is to lead the Maryland State Police drug control strategy by focusing on the disruption of drug trafficking at every level. Through a variety of investigative techniques, personnel attempt to identify, infiltrate, and dismantle drug organizations operating in Maryland. The bureau underwent a realignment in 2013. Barrack investigators were placed into regional commands scattered geographically throughout the state. Investigators assist allied agencies with both minor and major investigations. A primary focus of the bureau are those crimes having an inter-jurisdictional nexus (crimes which cross local, county, or state borders).
The Criminal Investigation Bureau is currently commanded by Lieutenant Colonel David L. Ruel, Chief.
Support Services Bureau
The Support Services Bureau is divided into three commands: Logistics, Personnel, and Technology and Information Management. It provides materials and services to the Department of State Police and allied law enforcement agencies to enable them to meet their obligations and responsibilities. The Bureau's responsibilities also include managing the Department's information technology and communications systems.
The Aviation Command transports critically injured citizens to trauma centers. The Command also provides aerial support for the Department and allied public safety agencies, conducts search and rescue operations, and aids in criminal investigation and traffic control.
The Support Services Bureau is currently commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Dalaine M. Brady
Aviation Command
The agency operates a large Aviation Command focusing on medevac operations. Aviation also supports ground units of the state and local police. Funding comes from a vehicle registration surcharge ($17.00 per vehicle per year as of 2015) collected by the Maryland Motor Vehicle Administration.
Based out of seven strategically located sections, the Aviation Command operates two types of aircraft. The command operates as a multi-role helicopter unit conducting all scene-based medevac operations in the State of Maryland. Crews on the helicopter consist of two pilots and two Trooper/Flight Paramedics. Inter-facility (hospital to hospital) remain the responsibility of private medevac providers. The only exception is neonatal transports which are still handled by the State Police through an agreement with the Maryland Neonatal Transport Team.
In addition to medevacs, the Aviation Command provides advanced search-and-rescue services and airborne hoisting in emergency situations through the deployment of highly trained crews. The command routinely assists allied law enforcement agencies by providing a robust airborne law enforcement platform through the use of advanced camera and searchlight capabilities.
On October 20, 2010, Maryland State Police awarded a $71 million contract to AgustaWestland to provide six AW139 helicopters. In 2013, the contract totaled 10 AW139s at a price of $121.7 million.
As of December 31, 2014, all seven of the Aviation Command's sections were operational using the new AW139 aircraft. All 11 of the Eurocopter Dauphins were subsequently retired and sold at auction.
Current Fleet (As of May 10, 2020):
AW139 Fleet Data:
Retired Fleet:
Dauphin Fleet Data:
JetRanger Fleet Data (Incomplete Fleet Information):
The Aviation Command was instrumental in the support of the first trauma center in the USA, the R Adams Cowley Shock Trauma Center at the University of Maryland Medical Center in Baltimore.
History
Until 1921, Maryland had no state-wide police force. In that year, in response to increasing crime, the Commissioner of Motor Vehicles organized a team of police officers who were given statewide jurisdiction to enforce traffic and criminal laws. They gained jurisdiction through deputization by county sheriffs. An associated plainclothes investigative unit became known as the "State Police Force."
In 1935, the Maryland State Police was established as a separate unit of state government, funded out of revenues from the Department of Commissioner of Motor Vehicles. It was granted additional statewide police powers to enforce fish, oyster, game and other conservation laws and maintain a training school. It was made part of the Department of Public Safety and Correctional Services in 1970.
In 1994, the Department of Maryland State Police was formed as a separate executive department; it was renamed the Department of State Police in 1995. Recent superintendents have included David B. Mitchell from 1995 to 2003, Ed Norris from 2003 to 2004, Thomas E. Hutchins from 2004 to 2007, Terrence Sheridan from 2007 to 2011 and Marcus L. Brown from 2011 to 2015.
Colonel William M. Pallozzi was appointed as the acting superintendent on February 17, 2015. Colonel Pallozzi was overwhelmingly confirmed by the Maryland Legislature and on March 26, 2015, was officially sworn in as Maryland State Police Superintendent. Colonel Pallozzi began his career as a patrol trooper with the Maryland State Police in 1989. Since that time, he has held various supervisory and leadership positions, including commander of the Executive Protection Division; chief of staff in the Office of the Superintendent; chief of the Criminal Investigation Bureau; and chief of the Support Services Bureau. In his last role, he oversaw multiple, complex projects and programs impacting every aspect of the Maryland State Police.
In the history of the force, forty-three state troopers have been killed in the line of duty.
Jurisdiction
The Maryland State Police has jurisdiction throughout Maryland and may, in its discretion or at the request of any municipal agency, or when ordered by the Governor of Maryland, exercise and enforce statewide laws without regard to jurisdiction within the boundaries of the State of Maryland. Otherwise, except under certain conditions as defined by statute, the agency does not enforce criminal laws within the jurisdiction of those incorporated municipalities which have their own police force.
The department also has the authority and jurisdiction to investigate allegations of police corruption concerning any municipal agency within the state. The department also enforces controlled substance laws throughout the state.
Uniform and equipment
The police uniform has remained the same since 1951. The standard uniform consists of olive pants with a black stripe down the side, a tan colored button-up shirt is worn, with long sleeves in winter and short sleeves in summer. A black tie is worn with the long-sleeve shirt. Some also wear black sweaters in cold weather. Class A uniforms consist of a dress blouse and Sam Browne belt. The ranks of trooper first class, corporal, sergeant, and first sergeant wear yellow chevrons showing their rank on both sleeves. Members of certain specialized units wear a military camouflage work uniform.
A felt Stetson hat is worn in the winter months with a long sleeve shirt and tie, and a straw Stetson is worn in the summer months with the short sleeve shirt.
Maryland State Police troopers are issued the Glock 22 chambered in 40 S&W, replacing the Beretta Px4 Storm and a Remington 870 shotgun. Qualified troopers are also issued the Colt M16-A1 or the Colt AR-15 semi-automatic rifles.
Vehicles
Troopers patrol in marked or unmarked vehicles. Early marked patrol units were olive green with black fenders. Beginning in 1972, vehicles (including helicopters) were painted yellow. Beginning in about 1984 new vehicles were painted tan with black and olive side stripes from front to rear. In approximately 1996, the agency changed back to the historic colors, and painted vehicles with most horizontal surfaces olive green and most vertical surfaces black.
MSP currently operates a fleet consisting of the Ford Police Interceptor Utility, Ford Police Interceptor Sedan, Chevrolet Caprice 9C1, and Chevrolet Tahoe PPV, with the Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptor being phased out of service. Most newer vehicles are painted in the traditional green over black paint schemes, however, some are painted all black with traditional MSP lettering. All marked patrol vehicles contain the Maryland State Police Shield on both the driver and passenger door as well as "State Trooper" decals on the fenders and rear of the vehicle. Trooper's vehicles are not equipped with prisoner cages. Prisoners, by policy, are transported in the front seat.
Most vehicles assigned to patrol functions are equipped with mounted radar units, in-car mobile data terminals, printers, and barcode scanners that allow troopers to access various law enforcement databases as well as provide the hardware support for the MSP's Etix electronic citation program. This setup enables troopers to spend more time on patrol as they are able to complete reports through an internet-based computer-aided dispatch / report management system.
Training
The Maryland State Police Training Academy is in Sykesville, Maryland, along with the Maryland Police and Correctional Training Commission. The academy is live-in and consists of twenty-six weeks of basic instruction.
Candidates take college-level academic classes for which they receive 45 college credits. Training includes instruction in the use of the agency's firearms as well as in criminal law, motor vehicle law and emergency vehicle operation. Vehicle training is conducted on the training commission's course.
Upon completion of training, troopers are assigned to one of twenty-three barracks located around Maryland. There troopers will complete an additional eight weeks of field training under the supervision of a Field Training Trooper (FTT).
Barracks
Rank structure
The Maryland State Police is a paramilitary organization with a rank structure modeled after the United States military. The ranks of corporal through captain are based on promotional testing; majors and above are appointed by the superintendent.
The Maryland State Police rank structure is as listed:
Demographics
Male: 90%
Female: 10%
White: 78%
African-American/Black: 15%
Hispanic: 2%
Asian: 1%
Specialized units
Homeland Security and Intelligence Division (HSID)
Criminal Enforcement Division (CED)
Executive Protection
S.T.A.T.E. Team (SWAT)
Aviation Command
D.A.R.E.
Accident Reconstruction
Canine Unit (K9)
Crime Lab
Media Communications
Computer Crimes
Automotive Safety Enforcement Division
Police Academy or Training Division
Motorcycle Unit–Troopers from the Motorcycle Unit also patrol on All-Terrain Vehicles.
Licensing Division
Commercial Vehicle Enforcement Division
Underwater Recovery Unit (MSP URT)
Trooper 2 crash
On September 28, 2008, around 12:00am, Trooper 2 (Eurocopter AS 365N1 Dauphin, N92MD) crashed with five people aboard in Walker Mill Regional Park in Prince George's County. Out of the five aboard, there were four confirmed fatalities, which included pilot Stephen H. Bunker (retired corporal), paramedic Trooper First Class Mickey C. Lippy, Emergency Medical Technician Tonya Mallard (Waldorf Volunteer Fire Department), and one of the two patients on board. This resulted in the grounding of all aircraft, until the cause was determined, with allied agencies covering the state. Aircraft were inspected and brought up to cover missions two weeks after the crash with no resulting incidents.
This is the fourth fatal crash in the history of the Aviation Division. The most recent fatal crash prior to this occurred on January 19, 1986.
Controversies
Former superintendents (secretaries) of state police
Col. Edward T. Norris (Secretary of State Police 2003) pled guilty to federal corruption and tax charges. Federal prosecutors said he used the money, in part, to pay for extramarital encounters with six women. He served 6 months in federal prison, followed by three years of supervised probation and was ordered to perform 500 hours of community service.
Col. Marcus L. Brown (Secretary of State Police 2011-2015) after leaving the Maryland State Police, was appointed acting head of the Pennsylvania State Police by Pennsylvania Governor Tom Wolf. Brown became the subject of a Hampden Township, PA Police misdemeanor theft investigation after Brown was caught on video attempting to remove opponents' political signs. Many Republican senators expressed concern, "the incident calls into question Brown's judgment and ability to handle controversy and difficult situations within the bounds of the law."
Brown apologized, admitting, he "made a mistake in judgment", adding his actions didn't reflect well on himself or the state police. Brown lost his appointment for commissioner of the Pennsylvania State Police confirmation vote, mostly along party lines, and subsequently withdrew his name from consideration. Gov. Tom Wolf recalled Brown's nomination June 8, 2015, and later appointed him to another position that didn't require confirmation.
Racial profiling
In 1998 several individual plaintiffs, were joined by the NAACP, and the ACLU in filing a federal lawsuit alleging Maryland State Troopers were continuing to engage in racial profiling and discrimination. In 2003, the Maryland State Police entered into a Consent Decree with the US Department of Justice to resolve major portions of the case. The consent decree required, among other things; implementation of a policy against racial profiling, audio visual recording of traffic stops and searches, a 24 hour toll free hotline to receive discrimination complaints, and increased training.
In 2008 the State Police finally settled what had become known as the "driving while black" case, by agreeing to pay $300,000 in damages and legal costs, and up to $100,000 to retain an independent consultant to implement policy and practices changes.
Domestic Spying
In 2008, it was revealed through Freedom of Information Act requests that the Maryland State Police had been engaged in domestic spying of anti-war, anti-death penalty and environmental activists, and classified 53 of them as "terrorists," although none of them committed a violent crime. The police admitted that there was never any evidence linking these individuals with any intention to commit any acts of violence. Among those listed as terrorists were two Roman Catholic nuns living in Baltimore.
Search tactics questioned
On the morning of March 11, 2014, officers from the Montgomery County Police Department, Maryland State Police, Rockville City Police, and Prince George's County Police acting on a tip set up a roadblock on across all 12-lanes on Interstate 270 and walked car to car with pistols, shotguns and semiautomatic rifles searching for three armed bank robbery suspects. The incident brought hundreds of cars and thousands of motorists on the interstate to a standstill for 45-minutes as dozens of police officers conducted vehicle-to-vehicle searches. The search tactics came into question, with reports of officers walking down I-270 between stopped cars with guns drawn, telling people to get back in their vehicles, and open their trunks. One woman was reportedly shouted at by police with weapons drawn after she'd opened her car door to throw up, having gotten carsick from sitting in traffic. MCPD Chief Manger defended the incident. Don Troop, a motorist in the traffic, told the Washington Post that a group of officers made its way to his car and other cars around him. "They were just walking along saying: "Pop the trunk! Pop the trunk!" Troop said he overheard a man in a truck next to him call out to another motorist: "The police are looking for bank robbers." A short time later, about nine officers approached his car — including state police in tan uniforms, county police in dark uniforms and at least one plainclothes officer wearing a yellow tie. Among their commands to motorists that Troop heard: "Stay in your car." "Pop the trunk." "Get your hands on the steering wheel. Get you hands up where we can see them." Cpl. Aaron Smith, a pilot flying a Prince George's County helicopter dispatched to assist stated "We saw that they were searching traffic and going vehicle to vehicle." Montgomery County Police spokesman Captain Paul Starks described the incident as a "systematic check of trunks and rear hitches" of detained vehicles. Three suspects were identified in the traffic and taken into custody without incident. One handgun and bank currency were recovered. No legal action was filed against any police department due to the incident.
See also
List of law enforcement agencies in Maryland
State Police (United States)
State Patrol
Highway Patrol
Maryland State Police Museum - Pikesville, Maryland
References
External links
MSP Aviation Command
Maryland Trooper's Association
State law enforcement agencies of Maryland
Government agencies established in 1921
1921 establishments in Maryland |
4292653 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-127 | STS-127 | STS-127 (ISS assembly flight 2J/A) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS). It was the twenty-third flight of . The primary purpose of the STS-127 mission was to deliver and install the final two components of the Japanese Experiment Module: the Exposed Facility (JEM EF), and the Exposed Section of the Experiment Logistics Module (ELM-ES). When Endeavour docked with the ISS on this mission in July 2009, it set a record for the most humans in space at the same time in the same vehicle, the first time thirteen people have been at the station at the same time. Together they represented all ISS program partners and tied the general record of thirteen people in space with the first such occurrence of 1995.
The first launch attempt, on June 13, 2009, was scrubbed due to a gaseous hydrogen leak observed during tanking. The Ground Umbilical Carrier Plate (GUCP) on the external fuel tank experienced a potentially hazardous hydrogen gas leak similar to the fault that delayed the mission STS-119 in March 2009. Since a launch date of June 18, 2009, would have conflicted with the launch of the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO)/Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS), NASA managers discussed the scheduling conflict with both the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter project and the Air Force Eastern Range, which provides tracking support for rockets launched from Florida. A decision was made to allow the shuttle to attempt a second launch on June 17, 2009, allowing LRO to launch on June 18, 2009.
The second launch attempt on June 17, 2009, was also scrubbed due to hydrogen leak issues seen from the Ground Umbilical Carrier Plate. Due to conflicts with the launch of the LRO, and due to a beta angle constraint, the next available launch opportunity was scheduled for July 11, 2009. A successful tanking test for leak checks was performed on July 1, 2009, with modified GUCP seals allowing launch preparations to proceed as scheduled. Because of lightning strikes near the launch pad during the evening of July 10, 2009, NASA scrubbed the launch for the third time and rescheduled for July 12, 2009. Due to a Return To Launch Site (RTLS) weather violation, NASA scrubbed the launch for the fourth time on the evening of July 12, 2009.
STS-127's fifth launch attempt, on July 13, 2009, was also scrubbed due to anvil clouds and lightning within of the launch site, which violated launch safety rules. STS-127 finally launched successfully on its sixth launch attempt, on July 15, 2009, at 18:03 EDT. Pieces of foam were observed falling off of the External Tank during the ascent, the same occurrence that had led to the loss of Columbia in 2003. However, Endeavour received only minor scuffs to its heat shield, the damage not enough to cause concern over reentry. The shuttle landed at Kennedy Space Center 16 days later at 10:48 EDT on July 31, 2009.
Crew
Mission payload
Endeavour carried a wide variety of equipment and cargo in the payload bay, with the largest item being the Kibō Japanese Experiment Module Exposed Facility (JEM EF), and the Kibō Japanese Experiment Logistics Module – Exposed Section (ELM-ES). The exposed facility is a part of Kibō that will allow astronauts to perform science experiments that are exposed to the vacuum of space. The exposed section is similar to the logistics module on the Kibō laboratory, but is not pressurized. Once its payloads were transferred to the JEM EF, the ELM-ES was returned to the payload bay.
Also inside the payload bay was an Integrated Cargo Carrier-Vertical Light Deployable (ICC-VLD), containing a variety of equipment and spare components for the station. The carrier contained six new batteries for installation on the P6 truss, that was installed during two of the mission's spacewalks, as well as a spare space-to-ground antenna and a spare linear drive unit and pump module which was stored on an external stowage platform on the station's truss during one of the spacewalks.
Two satellites were also carried by the orbiter, for deployment when the mission ended. The Dual Autonomous Global Positioning System On-Orbit Navigator Satellite, called DRAGONSAT, gathers data on autonomous spacecraft rendezvous and docking capabilities, and consists of two picosatellites, the AggieSat2, and PARADIGM (BEVO-1), which acquire GPS data from a device at NASA and send it to ground stations at Texas A&M University and the University of Texas at Austin. After release, the two picosatellites remained attached for two orbits to collect GPS data, and separated during the third orbit.
A second satellite, the Atmospheric Neutral Density Experiment (ANDE-2), is part of a United States Department of Defense project flown by the Naval Research Laboratory to provide high-quality satellites, and will measure the density and composition of the low Earth orbit atmosphere while being tracked from the ground, to better predict the movement and decay of objects in orbit. ANDE-2 consists of two spherical microsatellites, ANDE Active spacecraft (Castor) and the ANDE Passive spacecraft (Pollux), and will be tracked by the International Laser Ranging Service (ILRS) network as well as the Space Surveillance Network (SSN). One of the satellites, Pollux, is running Arduino libraries, with its payload programmed and built by students.
A set of experiments to be deployed on the ISS were carried by STS-127, including Dosimetry for Biological Experiments in Space (ESA), Validation of Procedures for Monitoring Crew Member Immune Function, the student-made Image Reversal in Space (CSA/ISU), Nutritional Status Assessment (NASA), NASA Biological Specimen Repository and Tomatosphere-II (CSA).
The STS-127 Official Flight Kit (OFK) included water samples from each of the five Great Lakes, a resin statue of a water droplet for the One Drop Foundation, and a copy of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony for the Montreal Symphony Orchestra, among other mementos.
The docking module was also mounted with the DragonEye 3D Flash LIDAR ranging system manufactured by Advanced Scientific Concepts, Inc. The module was launched to test the docking system which will be used by the commercial SpaceX Dragon re-usable cargo carrier to send supplies to the ISS during the post-shuttle era. The Dragon spacecraft made its successful maiden flight in December 2010.
Mission milestones
The mission marked:
158th NASA crewed space flight
128th Space Shuttle mission
127th shuttle mission since STS-1
23rd flight of Space Shuttle Endeavour
29th shuttle mission to the ISS
102nd post-Challenger mission
14th post-Columbia mission
1st time that two Canadians have been in space at the same moment
Shuttle processing
Endeavour served as the STS-400 rescue vehicle for STS-125, and was prepared for a possible liftoff from Launch Pad 39B on May 15, 2009, four days after the launch of STS-125. After Atlantis performed the late inspection and was cleared for re-entry, Endeavour was officially released from stand-by status on May 21, 2009, and preparations for STS-127 were initiated.
Endeavour moved from Launch Pad 39B to 39A on May 31, 2009, in preparation for STS-127. The crew of STS-127 arrived at Kennedy Space Center on June 2, 2009, for the Terminal Countdown Demonstration Test (TCDT) that concluded with a full launch dress rehearsal. The Flight Readiness Review (FRR), a meeting during which NASA managers assess mission preparations and officially set the launch date, concluded on June 3, 2009. For the first time, live status updates about the FRR were published periodically during the meeting via NASA's Twitter stream.
Launch attempts
The launch countdown began June 10, 2009, but on June 13, 2009, as tanking was underway, a gaseous hydrogen leak on a vent line near the Ground Umbilical Carrier Plate was observed, and the June 13, 2009, launch was scrubbed at 00:26 EDT. As liquid hydrogen fuel is pumped in, some of it boils off as the extremely cold liquid enters the warm external tank. The vent line valve controls the resulting buildup of gas pressure by allowing excess gas to escape into a ground-side vent line, which leads to a flare stack at a safe distance away from the pad. A similar leak situation was seen during the first launch attempt of STS-119. NASA managers met on June 14, 2009, and June 15, 2009, and evaluated the leak, discussed steps that had to be taken, and set a new launch date of June 17, 2009, at 05:40 EDT.
A second launch attempt was made on June 17, 2009, for which NASA moved the planned launch of the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter to a new date. On June 17, 2009, loading of the shuttle's external tank with liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen was delayed three hours due to poor weather around the launch site, but tanking began once the weather cleared. Approximately two hours after tanking began, engineers saw leak indications in the GUCP similar to those seen during the first launch attempt. The launch was officially scrubbed at 01:55 EDT.
Following the launch scrub, Chairman of NASA's Mission Management Team LeRoy Cain noted that engineers would work to understand the hydrogen leak issue and come up with a solution to the problem. Cain said managers were hopeful that the issue could be resolved in time for the next available launch opportunity on July 11, 2009. Due to the delay of STS-127, managers noted that it was likely that the launch of STS-128 on August 7, 2009, would be pushed back slightly.
[[File:Space Shuttle Endeavour lightning strike.jpg|right|thumb|Lightning strikes Endeavour'''s Launch Pad.]]
On July 1, 2009, the shuttle managers conducted a new series of tanking tests to confirm a hypothesis that a misaligned vent port housing was the root cause of the leaks. The existing rigid seal was replaced with a flexible one in the hope that it would maintain a tight fix even under the cryogenic conditions that seem to cause the leak. The test was declared a success with no leaks detected on the GUCP. The mission was announced to be targeting a July 11, 2009, launch. On the evening of July 10, 2009, the launch pad region was hit by eleven strikes of lightning, which pushed back the July 11, 2009, launch time by at least 24 hours. Two of the strikes were strong enough to trigger an evaluation by NASA engineers. The inspections revealed that no damage had been done to the Space Shuttle.
NASA scrubbed Endeavour' July 12, 2009, launch attempt at T-minus 9 minutes and holding due to Cumulus clouds and lightning near the launch pad. During the final Go/No-Go polls, Mission Control in Houston declared a "No-Go" due to unacceptable weather forecast for a possible Return-To-Launch-Site (RTLS) abort, and planned for emergency scenarios when one or more engines shut down early leaving insufficient energy to reach the Transatlantic Abort Landing (TAL) sites. Similarly, during the July 13, 2009, attempt, RTLS weather was also "no go." Meanwhile, shuttle weather officer Kathy Winters informed the launch director, Pete Nickolenko, that the launch pad weather had changed to RED as the Phase-1 Lightning warning was issued for the Kennedy Space Center. The launch was scrubbed at T-minus 9 minutes and holding and was quickly reset for July 15, 2009 (a 48 hours scrub turn around) due to weather concerns on July 14, 2009, and the desire to replace the Tyvek covers over the forward Reaction Control System thrusters.
Mission timeline
July 15 (Flight Day 1, Launch)
On July 15, 2009, at 18:03:10 EDT, the launch was finally successful. Upon reviewing the launch video footage, imagery analysts noted eight or nine instances of foam shedding from the External Tank. The pictures of the external tank taken when jettisoning showed loss of foam in the intertank ribbing. The chairman of the Mission Management Team was not concerned and felt that the Space Shuttle would be cleared for re-entry on its return voyage—which it was a few days later.
The payload doors were opened after reaching orbit followed by deployment of the Ku band antenna and activation of the shuttle's mechanical arm.
July 16 (Flight Day 2)
The thermal protection system was inspected with the Shuttle Robotic Arm/Orbiter Boom Sensor System (OBSS) and the voluminous data downlinked for analysis. The orbital maneuvering system pods were inspected for tile damage or protruding tiles. The extravehicular mobility units were checked in addition to the rendezvous system tests and centerline camera installation. In preparation for the docking, the docking ring was extended.
July 17 (Flight Day 3, ISS Docking)
The shuttle successfully docked with the station above the Earth, following rendezvous pitch maneuver (RPM) photography of Endeavours thermal protection system by the Expedition 20 Crew. During this procedure, the shuttle flips over on its back to the station so that the station crew can capture high resolution imagery of the underside of the shuttle. The docking happened on the ISS's PMA-2 (Pressurized Mating Adapter) on the Harmony module and the hatch was opened after leak checks. As part of the crew swap, station crew member Koichi Wakata was replaced with Tim Kopra. The two astronauts specially fitted seatliners were interchanged. As part of preparation for EVA 1, astronauts Wolf and Kopra camped out in the Quest airlock. A quick review of the RPM imagery showed no serious concerns beyond two instances of coating loss. Further analysis of the imagery will be done. A boost of the station was completed with the shuttle's vernier thrusters to avoid a piece of space debris. The SRBs were retrieved and their camera imagery is expected to give more detail on the ET foam shedding.
July 18 (Flight Day 4, EVA 1)
EVA 1 started with astronauts Dave Wolf and Tim Kopra switching their spacesuit power to internal battery at 16:19 UTC. Despite a communication problem with the spacewalkers, the Japanese Exposed Facility was successfully installed on the Japanese Experiment Module by means of a complex series of steps involving the robotic arms of both the station and the shuttle. The JEF was first unberthed from the shuttle payload bay by the station arm, after which the shuttle arm took the load. The station arm was then moved to the worksite on Node-2 (Harmony), wherefrom it took the 4.1 ton facility back. The facility was then successfully latched on to the Experiment Module. As part of the EVA, the spacewalkers successfully deployed the port Unpressurized Cargo Carrier Attach System (UCCAS), which could not be deployed during STS-119. During the prior mission, the deployment failed due to a jamming caused by a stuck detent pin. Engineers designed a custom tool to force the pin to release, which was used to deploy the mechanism. Meanwhile, the shuttle managers announced that there would be no need for a focused inspection of the heat shield. The nose cap and wing leading-edge panels of the shuttle were cleared for entry as they were, but a reentry clearance was not given. Beyond one impact site having a gouge, the rest of the impacts were found to be mostly a loss of coating. The other activity scheduled for EVA 1, the deployment of a starboard side cargo carrier, was postponed for want of time. A fuel cell issue found before launch was analyzed, though the cell continued to function as expected with no impact to the mission.
July 19 (Flight Day 5)
The installation of the Integrated Cargo Carrier-Vertical Light Deployable (ICC-VLD) on the port side of the station was successfully completed with the use of both the shuttle and station robotic arms. The cargo pallet, containing spares and fresh batteries for the station, was lifted out of the shuttle bay by the shuttle arm and handed off to the station's Canadarm2, which maneuvered it to its position. The pallet's contents will be set up in upcoming EVAs. A malfunction in a new toilet in the Destiny laboratory caused the crew to use the one in the Russian segment while attempts were made to identify the fault. Meanwhile, the shuttle was cleared for reentry.
July 20 (Flight Day 6, EVA 2)
Astronauts Wolf and Marshburn began EVA 2 at 15:27 UTC out of the Quest airlock. The EVA was to transfer the spare components brought by the shuttle from the ICC-VLD to External Stowage Platform-3. The spares were handled by Wolf riding the station's robotic arm to the P3 truss stowage platform where he and Marshburn attached them for long-term storage. The purpose of the spares was to provide redundancy to the station in the period following the shuttle's retirement. The spares unloaded include a Ku-Band Space-to-Ground antenna, a pump module for the coolant system and a drive unit for the station's robotic arm's mobile transporter. A planned installation of a camera on the Japanese Experiment Facility was postponed to a future EVA for want of time. Meanwhile, the malfunctioning toilet was set right with the replacement of internal parts and cleared for normal use after tests.
July 21 (Flight Day 7)
In one of the more relaxed days, the Japanese logistics carrier was attached to the Japanese Exposed Facility. The cargo pallet was unberthed from the shuttle by the shuttle's robotic arm and handed to the station's robotic arm which then soft fixed it temporarily to the facility. After the experiments, containing an X-ray astronomy payload, a space environment monitor and a communications system, are installed the pallet will be returned to Earth by the shuttle.
July 22 (Flight Day 8, EVA 3)
The spacewalk involving astronauts Wolf and Cassidy started at 14:32 UTC. As part of preparation for experiment installation on the Japanese external science deck, Cassidy removed the thermal covers off the experiment carrier. Meanwhile, Wolf removed obstructions, consisting of a steel handrail and an equipment installation socket, from the Harmony node to clear the way for an upcoming Japanese automated resupply ship. The other task for EVA 3, involving replacement of four of the six batteries in the P6 truss, did not go as planned. Each 170 kg (375 lb) battery was to be removed and placed in a temporary stowage platform while a new one is taken from the ICC-VLD and fixed. The old ones will be returned to Earth. When two new batteries had been installed and three old ones removed, the levels in Cassidy's suit showed an upward trend. Even though it never exceeded the safety limits, the EVA was called off with both astronauts returning into the station. This left one old battery in a temporary flexible stowage position. The rest of the batteries will be installed in a future EVA with the rest of the EVAs being under replanning.
July 23 (Flight Day 9)
The Kibō robotic arm was inaugurated operationally with it being used to install experiments on to the Japanese exposed facility. The three experiments, transferred from the Japanese cargo pallet, consisted of Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image, Inter-orbit Communication System and Space Environment Data Acquisition Equipment-Attached Payload. As per the revised plan for EVA 4 astronauts Cassidy and Marshburn will replace the remaining four batteries on P6 and complete the already deferred installation of a camera on the Japanese experiment facility.
July 24 (Flight Day 10, EVA 4)
The fourth spacewalk, by Cassidy and Marshburn, involved replacement of the final four of the six batteries on P6 truss integrated electronics assembly. After berthing the old batteries in the ICC-VLD, the cargo pallet was returned to the Endeavours payload bay by the shuttle's robotic arm. The elevated levels of in Cassidy's suit during EVA 3 was attributed to the astronaut working at a fast pace.
July 25 (Flight Day 11)
The crew of both the shuttle and station had a day off. The day was uneventful except for the station's American removal system shutting down without any immediate impact.
July 26 (Flight Day 12)
The Japanese Exposed Section cargo carrier was berthed in Endeavours payload bay by the shuttle's robotic arm after it was handed the pallet by the station's robotic arm. After this the crew of both the station and the shuttle held a joint news conference. Meanwhile, the malfunctioning American removal system has been transitioned to manual mode in order to keep it running.
July 27 (Flight Day 13, EVA 5)
Cassidy and Marshburn started EVA 5 at 11:33 UTC when they switched their suit power to internal battery. For this spacewalk, the absorbent system in the suits were changed from Lithium Hydroxide to METOX due to problems with Cassidy's usage. Cassidy completed the reconfiguring of power channels in the Zenith 1 patch panel which are used for the control moment gyroscopes. Before the rewiring, two of the gyroscopes were fed by the same power channel. Since a failure of the channel can knock down two gyros and put the station in a degraded position the reconfiguration was made necessary. This rewiring made the two gyros to operate from separate power channels. Meanwhile, Marshburn secured some multi-layered insulation on the Dextre. Later both the spacewalkers installed video cameras on the front and back of the Japanese exposed facility which will be used in dockings of the Japanese cargo crafts and normal operation. The cameras flew up in launch configuration and now have been installed in an operational configuration, thus completing the JEF assembly. Meanwhile, due to Cassidy's METOX limitation, the deployment of the PAS was deferred to a future spacewalk. Instead some get ahead tasks were completed which included installation of handrails and a portable foot restraint.
July 28 (Flight Day 14, ISS Undocking)
After a crew farewell Endeavour undocked from the ISS at 17:26 UTC. Unlike most other launches, hatch closure, which happened at 15:08 UTC, and undocking happened on the same day due to the extended delay in launching and the arrival of the Progress 34 cargo craft. After undocking Hurley began a fly around of the station giving the shuttle crew an opportunity to photograph the station's current configuration in all directions. Then a final separation burn was completed at 3:09 pm EDT.
July 29 (Flight Day 15)
The OBSS was grappled by the shuttle's robotic arm and used to inspect Endeavours thermal protection system for damage from orbital debris. The imagery will be analyzed to clear the shuttle for reentry. Meanwhile, the foam loss on the external tank was initially attributed to substrate contamination ahead of the application of the foam. Later during the processing of STS-128, voids in the foam was highlighted as a trigger for the shedding. The air trapped in the voids could have expanded due to the high temperatures generated during ascent thus breaking the foam.
July 30 (Flight Day 16)
The crew checked out the shuttle's systems for the landing, and successfully deployed the DRAGONSat and ANDE-2 satellites. The shuttle was cleared for reentry, with the TPS imagery showing no concerns. The shuttle tracked two chances of landing at KSC on July 31, and could land no later due to its limited carbon dioxide-scrubbing LiOH supply.
July 31 (Flight Day 17, Landing)
After a 16-day mission, Endeavour'' landed successfully at Kennedy Space Center at 10:48 EDT on July 31, 2009. The landing had to be undertaken before August 1, due to -scrubbing lithium hydroxide limitations. There were two opportunities to land on July 31, of which the first was ultimately utilized.
EVAs
Five spacewalks were conducted during STS-127.
Wake-up calls
NASA began a tradition of playing music to astronauts during the Gemini program, and first used music to wake up a flight crew during Apollo 15. Each track is specially chosen, often by the astronauts' families, and usually has a special meaning to an individual member of the crew, or is applicable to their daily activities.
See also
2009 in spaceflight
List of human spaceflights
List of International Space Station spacewalks
List of Space Shuttle missions
List of spacewalks 2000–2014
Media
References
Notes
Inline citations
NASA
External links
SpaceFlightNow's Mission Status Center for STS-127
NASA's Space Shuttle page
NASA's STS-127 page
Mark Polansky on Twitter
NASA's Twitter page
Spacecraft launched in 2009
Space Shuttle missions
Spacecraft which reentered in 2009
Articles containing video clips |
4292915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20Roumanian-American%20Congregation | First Roumanian-American Congregation | The First Roumanian-American Congregation, also known as Congregation Shaarey Shomayim (, "Gates of Heaven"), or the Roumanishe Shul (Yiddish for "Romanian synagogue"), was an Orthodox Jewish congregation that, for over 100 years, occupied a historic building at 89–93 Rivington Street on the Lower East Side of Manhattan, New York.
Those who organized the congregation in 1885 were part of a substantial wave of Romanian-Jewish immigrants, most of whom settled in the Lower East Side. The Rivington Street building, built around 1860, had previously been a church, then a synagogue, then a church again, and had been extensively remodeled in 1889. It was transformed into a synagogue for a second time when the First Roumanian-American congregation purchased it in 1902 and again remodeled it.
The synagogue became famous as the "Cantor's Carnegie Hall", because of its high ceiling, good acoustics, and seating for up to 1,800 people. Yossele Rosenblatt, Moshe Koussevitzky, Zavel Kwartin, Moishe Oysher, Jan Peerce and Richard Tucker were all cantors there. Red Buttons sang in the choir, George Burns was a member, and Edward G. Robinson had his Bar Mitzvah there.
The congregation's membership was in the thousands in the 1940s, but by the early 2000s had declined to around 40, as Jews moved out of the Lower East Side. Though its building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1998, the congregation was reluctant to accept outside assistance in maintaining it. In December 2005, water damage was found in the structural beams, and services were moved to the living room of the rabbi's mother. In January 2006, the synagogue's roof collapsed, and the building was demolished two months later.
Origins
First Roumanian-American/Congregation Shaarey Shamoyim
From 1881 through 1914, approximately 2 million Jews immigrated to the United States from Europe. An estimated three-quarters of them settled in New York City, primarily in the Lower East Side. Over 75,000 of these immigrants were from Romania, where Jews faced antisemitic laws, violence and expulsion. These hardships, combined with low crop yields and economic depression, resulted in 30 percent of the Jews in Romania emigrating to the United States.
Romanian Jewish immigrants in New York City gravitated to a fifteen-block area bounded by Allen, Ludlow, Houston and Grand streets. This "Romanian quarter" became the most densely populated part of the Lower East Side, with 1,500 to 1,800 people per block. These immigrants founded the First Roumanian-American congregation, also known as Congregation Shaarey Shamoyim.
The origins of the congregation are disputed; its establishment in 1885 may have been a re-organization of a congregation founded in 1860. Located initially close to the Romanian quarter at 70 Hester Street, and later situated at the heart of it with the move to Rivington Street, the synagogue was the preferred house of worship for the quarter's inhabitants.
Rivington Street building
The Rivington Street building was constructed as a Protestant church around 1860 by the Second Reformed Presbyterian Church, which served the area's large German immigrant community. In November 1864 the building was sold to the Orthodox German-Jewish Congregation Shaaray Hashomayim ("Gates of the Heavens"), which had been founded in 1841. Though its Hebrew name was essentially the same as that used by the First Roumanian-American congregation—Congregation Shaarey Shamoyim—which later purchased the building in 1902, the two congregations were unrelated.
By the late 1880s, the German-Jewish community had mostly moved from the Lower East Side. In 1889, Congregation Shaaray Hashomayim moved to 216 East 15th Street, near Second Avenue, selling the Rivington Street building to the New York City Church Extension and Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, which built or purchased churches, missions, and Sunday schools in New York City.
The Church Extension and Missionary Society engaged J. Cleaveland Cady to design major alterations to the structure. Cady was, at the time, New York's most famous church architect, and had designed many other public institutional buildings, including university buildings, hospitals and museums. His work included the original Metropolitan Opera building (since demolished), the Richardsonian Romanesque West 78th Street wing of the American Museum of Natural History, and several other buildings for the Church Extension and Missionary Society. The renovations cost approximately $36,000 (today $), and included an entirely new Romanesque Revival facade in the reddish-orange brick that Cady also used on several other churches.
Renamed the Allen Street Methodist Episcopal Church (or Allen Street Memorial Church), the Rivington Street building's new purpose was to "attract Jewish immigrants seeking conversion". It was, however, unsuccessful in this endeavor. In 1895, the church's pastor stated, "The existence of the church here attracts few. Our audiences are small, and contain almost no Jews."
Purchase and renovation by First Roumanian-American
In 1902, the First Roumanian-American congregation/Congregation Shaarey Shamoyim purchased the Rivington Street building from the Church Extension and Missionary Society to satisfy a need for a larger building to serve the Lower East Side's rapidly growing Romanian-Jewish population. At the time, the property was valued at $95,000 (today $). The funds for the purchase were raised from the members of the congregation, and to honor those contributing $10 or more, names were engraved on one of four marble slabs in the stairway to the main sanctuary. The most generous gift was $500, at a time when $10 was two weeks' pay. The congregation also took out two mortgages; one for $50,000 (today $) with the Title Insurance Company, and a second for $30,000 (today $) with the Church Extension and Missionary Society.
The congregation commissioned Charles E. Reid for extensive renovations, at a cost of $6,000 (today $). The "eclectic Byzantine" remodeling involved converting it for Jewish use by removing Christian symbols and adding a Torah ark and bimah (central platform from which the Torah is read) at the sanctuary's north end. The renovations retained the original "horseshoe-shaped gallery supported by twelve Ionic columns" and wooden pews with reading shelves (likely from the 1889 Cady renovation), but a number of structural changes were made. Steel beams were added to support the weight of the ark and bimah, the rear wall was re-built and the gallery extended to meet it, two skylights were added (a concave stained glass one and a clear glass one over the ark), and at the front of the building, on top of the shallow (14 feet deep) fourth-story attic, an equally shallow fifth-story attic was added.
The completed structure filled almost the entire width of its approximately by lot, and seated 1,600 to 1,800. Dedicated in late December 1902, it was the Lower East Side's largest synagogue and only Romanesque one, and it became an "architectural and public showpiece".
Early activities
By 1903 the synagogue was well established on Rivington Street, and, due to its capacity and prominence, was often the site of significant or mass meetings. In April 1903 a service to honor the memory of Reform rabbi and Zionist leader Gustav Gottheil was held there, and a similar service was held for Theodor Herzl the following year. At the latter service, which was boycotted by Orthodox rabbis, Herzl was not eulogized, nor was his name mentioned.
The Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America (UOJCA) held its third annual convention at the synagogue in June 1903, attended by around 100 delegates, and presided over by the organization's president, Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes. The most important resolutions adopted at that meeting were one that deprecated the granting of a get (religious divorce document) to—or allowing subsequent re-marriage by—people who had not first obtained a civil divorce, and the request that congregations with mostly foreign-born members "secure an English-speaking rabbi for the benefit of their American-born English-speaking children". Pereira Mendes spoke in favor of the creation of a committee to bring victims of the Kishinev pogrom to the United States, and against a proposal by the Union of American Hebrew Congregations (UAHC) that the Jewish Sabbath be moved to Sunday. Pereira Mendes also announced that the UOJCA would "unite" with the UAHC and other national "religious, philanthropic, or educational" Jewish organizations in Washington "to discuss the subjects of vital concern to Judaism and Jews", while rejecting the proposition that "the main topic of the discussion at the first congress shall be the immigration problem."
At the meeting Albert Lucas also spoke out strongly against attempts by Christian groups to proselytize Jewish children in nurseries and kindergartens. Ostensibly to combat this proselytization, in 1903 the congregation was one of several New York City synagogues that allowed Lucas the use of its premises for free religious classes, "open to all children of the neighborhood".
In December 1905 a mass meeting was held at the synagogue to protest massacres of Jews in Russia and mourn their deaths, and the congregation donated $500 to a fund for the sufferers. In March 1909 Orthodox groups held meetings there to organize opposition to the constitution and make-up of Judah Leon Magnes's Kehilla, an overarching organization intended to represent all of New York's Jews, which lasted until 1922. A mass meeting of local residents and businessmen to combat Lower East Side gangsters was held at the synagogue in 1913.
The Rivington Street synagogue was also a preferred venue for airing issues relevant specifically to Romanian-American Jews. In 1905 it was the site of New York City's only memorial service honoring United States Secretary of State John Hay, who had worked on behalf of oppressed Jews in Romania. In 1908, the synagogue hosted a meeting of over 30 religious organizations representing Romanian-American Jews, at which the formation of a federation of those organizations was proposed, and again in 1916 hosted a similar meeting of "two hundred delegates representing thirty-five organizations ... to plan incorporation of the American League of Rumanian Jews". At the latter meeting steps were taken to raise $1,000,000 (today $) for oppressed Jews in Romania, and to campaign for their "equal rights and their emancipation from thralldom".
The congregation carried out extensive charity campaigns during the Passover season; by 1905 the congregation was distributing wagon-loads of matzos to poor Jews so they could celebrate the holiday. By 1907–1908 membership had risen to 500 (up from 160 in 1900), the Talmud Torah had 250 students, and the synagogue's annual revenues were $25,000 (today $). The congregation ran into financial difficulties of its own in 1908, and in October of that year raised funds by selling a number of its Torah scrolls in a public auction.
Members who would become famous included George Burns and Bucharest-born Edward G. Robinson, who had his Bar Mitzvah there in 1906. Robinson would later laugh that his propensity for taking the stage was demonstrated when he gave the longest Bar Mitzvah speech in the history of the congregation—"but the men sat still and listened".
In 1911 First Roumanian-American celebrated its ten-year jubilee at the synagogue. Guest speakers included United Synagogue of America president Solomon Schechter, Congressman Henry M. Goldfogle, and the principal speaker was William Jay Gaynor, then Mayor of New York City.
Membership had grown to 350 families by 1919. The congregational school held classes daily, and had 4 teachers and 300 students. The American Jewish Year Book listed the synagogue's rabbi as Abraham Frachtenberg, a well-known cantor.
"Cantor's Carnegie Hall"
The synagogue's sanctuary had a high ceiling and "opera house" characteristics, and was renowned for its "exquisite" or "magnificent" acoustics. Known as "the Cantor's Carnegie Hall", First Roumanian-American became a center for cantorial music, and many of the greatest cantors of the 20th century led services there. Yossele Rosenblatt, Moshe Koussevitzky, Zavel Kwartin and Moishe Oysher all sang there, as did Jan Peerce and Richard Tucker before they became famous opera singers. Having a reputation for good cantorial singing had a positive impact on a synagogue's finances; congregations depended on the funds from the sale of tickets for seats on the High Holy Days, and the better the cantor, the greater the attendance.
Red Buttons sang at the synagogue with Rosenblatt in 1927, and when visiting the synagogue almost 70 years later could still remember the songs. Though his family actually went to a "small storefront synagogue", Buttons was discovered, at age eight, by a talent scout for Rosenblatt's Coopermans Choir, who heard him singing near the intersection of Fifth Street and Avenue C, at a "pickle stand". Buttons would sing in the choir for three years. Eddie Cantor has also been claimed as a choir member, though this is less likely.
Oysher—"the greatest of all popularizers of cantorial singing"—became the synagogue's cantor in 1935, and the congregation's membership peaked in the 1940s, when it numbered in the thousands. In a 1956 interview by Brendan Gill in The New Yorker magazine, Oysher described First Roumanian-American as "the most orthodox Orthodox synagogue in town". Oysher died of a heart attack two years later "at the young age of 51". The week of his death, he had said, "half-jokingly", that he wanted only one person to deliver his eulogy: Chaim Porille, rabbi of the First Roumanian-American Congregation. Porille had been born in Uścieczko (then in Austria-Hungary) in 1898, and moved to the United States in 1927, to serve as rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of Providence, Rhode Island. He became rabbi of First Roumanian-American in 1932, a post he filled until 1962, and was a member of the executive board of the Agudath Harabonim. He died in September 1968.
Subsequent building renovations and appearance in the 1990s
In the years following First Roumanian-American's initial purchase and renovation of the Rivington Street building, the congregation made a number of other structural alterations. These included:
1916–1917: Adding fire escapes on the east and west sides of the building.
1920s or later: Installing individual theatre-style seats in the gallery.
1938–1943: Removing the staircase to the fourth floor, leaving access only from the fire escapes.
1948–1950: Reconstructing the portico with some of the existing stone and brick, and adding new "fireproof steel stairs with terrazzo treads" and light-yellow and blue tinted glass windows on the east and west walls of the sanctuary, and other improvements.
1964: Adding a kitchen to the basement "for social purposes".
In the 1990s, the north-facing orange-red brick facade presented a large, compound arched brick and stone portico, with deeply recessed doors. This arch was "supported by three carved columns, two twisted columns, and a central column with a chevron pattern, each with a Byzantine-style capital", and had a stone coping on top. Carved into the portico arch in capital letters were the words "First Roumanian-American Congregation" in English.
Originally there were large rectangular window openings on the ground floor on each side of the portico, each divided into two windows, but these had been bricked in by the 1990s. The second- and third-floor windows above them were originally stained glass but later clear glass, each second-floor window having eight square panes, and each third-floor window six panes topped with an arch. "Ornamental red terra cotta panels" separated the second- and third-floor openings. On the third floor, centered above the portico, was a similar window, this one flanked by two short recessed twisted columns, each "supporting a stone lintel incised with a cupid's-bow ornament". Similar lintels capped three-story pilasters at each corner of the facade, and these pilasters and lintels extended around the northeast and northwest corners. The six-paned windows were each capped with a roundel and three spandrels, "two large and one small", and these retained their original stained glass.
The shallow fourth floor was demarcated on the bottom by "a heavy frieze and corbelled brick cornice", which supported "eight round-arched windows with molded brick voussoirs ... massed in a 3-2-3 pattern". By the 1990s these had also been bricked in. The attic on top of the fourth floor, added during the 1902–1903 renovations, was "capped by a band of small red terra-cotta blocks".
The sides of the building were faced with plain brick, and flanked by narrow alleys with iron gates at each entrance. The walls generally had plain windows, though there was a round arched one on each side of the fourth floor. One fire escape remained, in the east alley.
Inside, the building held a two-story balconied main sanctuary and dining room, in addition to the basement kitchen and bathrooms. The heating system was in a sub-basement. The front ark and wood bimah in the sanctuary were ornate; the red velvet draped ark was elaborately decorated, and the bimah was also decorated, and supported a large bronze candelabra. The sanctuary floor was wood, with wood wainscoting and plaster walls.
Appearances in popular culture
The synagogue building can be seen in the 1956 film Singing in the Dark, starring Oysher, and also starring (and produced by) Joey Adams. The entrance can be seen in the panoramic photograph of the corner of Ludlow and Rivington streets found on the Beastie Boys' 1989 Paul's Boutique album cover foldout, and the building (and Jacob Spiegel) can also be seen in Raphael Nadjari's 2001 film I Am Josh Polonski's Brother.
Decline
Over time the synagogue appealed to a broader constituency than just Roumanian-American Jews. Nevertheless, membership declined during the latter half of the 20th century as the upwardly mobile Jewish population of the Lower East Side moved to north Manhattan, Brooklyn, and the Bronx. First Roumanian-American was particularly affected: as it was an Orthodox congregation, in order to attend Sabbath services its members had to live within walking distance.
In 1980 First Roumanian-American was one of the few congregations on the Lower East Side to still have its own Talmud Torah. This school had been housed in a small building on the east side of the synagogue that had formerly served as the church rectory. The congregation was eventually forced to sell the building, but the new owners retained the school's carved sign.
Rabbi Mordecai Mayer, who had led the congregation for 20 years, died in 1981, two days before his 66th birthday. Born in Chortkov (then in Poland), he had graduated from the Chachmei Lublin Yeshiva, and had emigrated to the United States in 1936. He had, for 40 years, conducted programs on Jewish topics on radio station WEVD, then owned by The Forward. In the 1970s he was a columnist for the Yiddish weekly Algemeiner Journal, and was the author of the English-language books Israel's Wisdom in Modern Life (1949) and Seeing Through Believing (1973). He was succeeded by Jacob Spiegel.
In the early 1990s the congregation could still be assured of the required quorum of ten men for the minyan during the week, as local businessmen attended the morning and evening prayers before opening and after closing their shops. By 1996, however, the membership was down to around two dozen, and Spiegel began holding services in the small social hall in the basement, as the main sanctuary had become too expensive to maintain.
With the decline in membership, the building deteriorated. In 1997 the congregation received a grant for preservation and repair of the structure from the New York Landmarks Conservancy, and the following year received $4,000 from the Landmarks Conservancy's Sacred Sites program for roof truss repairs. That same year the synagogue building was listed in the National Register of Historic Places at the local level. In the fall of that year Shimon Attie's laser visual work Between Dreams and History was projected onto the synagogue and neighboring buildings for three weeks.
Spiegel had a heart attack and died in 2001, leaving charge of the synagogue to the youngest of his three sons, Rabbi Shmuel Spiegel. The other sons, Rabbi Gershon and Rabbi Ari, were, respectively, synagogue president and assistant rabbi. In June 2003 the name "Rabbi Yaakov Spiegel Way" was given collectively to the corner of Rivington Street and Ludlow Street near the synagogue location and the stretch of Rivington in front of the synagogue.
The roof had long been in bad shape by the time of Jacob Spiegel's death in 2001 and it was threatening to collapse. In December of that year, Shmuel Spiegel managed to raise $25,000 for emergency repairs. However, despite offering cholent (the traditional Sabbath lunch stew) at the Sabbath morning kiddush, Spiegel had to search local streets to make the ten men for the minyan. In 2004 the regular membership hovered around 40. Spiegel kept the synagogue running at an annual cost of around $75,000.
Collapse
On January 22, 2006, the roof of the synagogue caved in, severely damaging the main sanctuary. Joshua Cohen, writing in The Forward in 2008, described the roof as "falling in respectfully, careful not to disturb the local nightclubs, or the wine and cheesery newly opened across the street". No one was injured, and a party to celebrate that fact was later held at the Chasam Sopher Synagogue on Clinton Street.
The National Trust for Historic Preservation issued a press release about the collapse, in which it described "older religious properties, like the First Roumanian-American Synagogue" as "national treasures", and stated:
The roof collapse at First Roumanian–American Synagogue this week demonstrates that houses of worship must have access to necessary technical assistance, staff and board training, and the development of new funding sources in order to save these landmarks of spirituality, cultural tradition, and community service.
Amy Waterman, executive director of a project to repair and renovate the Eldridge Street Synagogue, noted in The Forward:
Synagogues like the First Roumanian-American Congregation, more familiarly known as the Rumanische shul, were the first spiritual homes for successive waves of European immigrants. They were built more than 100 years ago, and just like the bridges and tunnels of New York City, they're bound to fail if not attended to.
Though First Roumanian-American had hosted a wedding as recently as October 30, 2005, the sanctuary had not been in regular use for over 10 years as a result of the difficulty maintaining it. Services had been held instead on a lower floor, and by autumn 2005 the roof was so porous that on Yom Kippur—even in the basement—they prayed "with buckets". After a contractor found water damage in the ceiling beams in early December, the three Spiegel brothers had been holding services in their mother Chana's apartment at 383 Grand Street, where they placed the congregation's 15 Torah scrolls following the roof cave-in. The synagogue's historic ark was also retrieved from the ruins. According to Shmuel Spiegel, "the insurance company [was] playing hardball."
Because the building had never been registered as a National Historic Landmark, after the collapse it was demolished on March 3, 2006. The New York City Department of Buildings said that the decision to demolish was the congregation's, but congregational vice president Joshua Shainberg said the Department of Buildings had left them no choice: "The Department of Buildings told us, 'You are to demolish it or we are to demolish it.' There were figures of up to $1.5 million for demolition." At the time of the building's collapse, the Spiegel brothers vowed that it would be re-built, but not nearly as large: "perhaps 20 feet high by 60 feet deep by 75 feet wide, which would cost about $2 million to $3 million".
Richard Price described the collapsed building in his novel Lush Life, writing that, after the demolition, only the rear wall with a Star of David in stained glass remained: "The candlesticks were standing up in the rubble, and the whole place looked like an experimental stage set—like Shakespeare in the Park." By October 2007 all that was left was "an empty lot dotted with weeds and crushed bricks". In a 2008 addendum to his book Dough: A Memoir, Mort Zachter described the remains as "a multimillion dollar real estate opportunity masquerading as a vacant, weed-strewn lot".
Controversy
The collapse of the roof, and subsequent destruction of the synagogue, generated widespread concern and criticism among preservationists, who blamed Jacob and Shmuel Spiegel—a charge the family rejected.
Julia Vitullo-Martin, senior fellow at the Manhattan Institute and director of its Center for Rethinking Development, stated that First Roumanian-American's roof collapse and subsequent destruction dramatized an "ongoing though undocumented synagogue crisis—particularly in poor neighborhoods" and revealed a broader problem peculiar to Jewish houses of worship:
In the years preceding the building's collapse, the congregation had received offers of assistance from the New York Landmarks Conservancy, the National Trust for Historic Preservation, Lower East Side Conservancy, and the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation, though reports on the amounts and types of assistance offered varied. The congregation, then under the leadership of Jacob Spiegel, rejected them. Joel Kaplan of the Lower East Side Conservancy stated that the congregation "didn't want the several hundred thousand dollars in landmarking grants that went to other Lower East shuls, money that could have kept the shul in repair".
The reasons given for this rejection also varied. According to Vitullo-Martin, writing in The Wall Street Journal, Shmuel Spiegel was not sure why the offers were rejected, as the records were "buried in the rubble". Vitullo-Martin speculated that congregants might have hesitated to agree to a condition that they would need permission from the state for any sale or alteration of the building during the following 20 years. According to The New York Times, Spiegel stated that the repairs required were so extensive that the congregation could not have made them even with this financial assistance. According to The Jewish Week, Spiegel stated that the congregation "didn't want outside interference", was "uncomfortable with the idea of being landmarked and having to answer to landmark guidelines", and was also uncomfortable with making part of the building into a "museum of past glory", as others nearby had done.
Zachter writes:
Notes
References
Singing in the Dark, National Center for Jewish Film website. Accessed September 15, 2009.
Further reading
Zachter, Mort. Dough: A Memoir, University of Georgia Press, 2007.
External links
, The New York Times, February 28, 1910.
Photographs of First Roumanian-American from March 1994 by Gene Lowinger.
"Breaking: Rivington Street Synagogue Deconstruction?", Curbed NY, February 7, 2006.
"On the Market: Incredible Shrinking Synagogue Site", Curbed NY, March 14, 2006.
"Incredible Shrinking Synagogue Listing", Curbed NY, March 16, 2006.
"More Bad News from Incredible Shrinking Synagogue", Curbed NY, March 31, 2006.
"CurbedWire: Incredible Shrinking Synagogue, $14m", Curbed NY, September 25, 2006.
1885 establishments in New York (state)
Buildings and structures demolished in 2006
Demolished churches in New York City
Demolished buildings and structures in Manhattan
Former Presbyterian churches in New York City
Former synagogues in New York (state)
Lower East Side
Orthodox synagogues in New York City
Properties of religious function on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan
Religious organizations established in 1885
Romanesque Revival architecture in New York City
Romanesque Revival synagogues
Romanian-Jewish culture in New York (state)
Synagogues completed in 1860
Synagogues in Manhattan
Synagogues on the National Register of Historic Places in New York City |
4292924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel%20Martelly | Michel Martelly | Michel Joseph Martelly (; born 12 February 1961) is a Haitian musician and politician who was the President of Haiti from May 2011 until February 2016.
Martelly was one of Haiti's best-known musicians for over a decade, going by the stage name Sweet Micky. For business and musical reasons, Martelly has moved a number of times between the United States and Haiti. When travelling to the United States, Martelly mostly stays in Florida. After his presidency, Martelly returned to his former band and sang a carnival méringue entitled "Bal Bannan nan" (Give Her the Banana), as a mocking response to Liliane Pierre Paul, a famous Haitian female journalist in Port-au-Prince.
As a singer and keyboardist, "Sweet Micky" is known for his Kompa music, a style of Haitian dance music sung predominantly in the Haitian Creole language, but he blended this with other styles. Martelly popularized a "new generation" of compas with smaller bands relying on synthesizers and electronic instruments. From 1989 to 2008, Martelly recorded over a dozen studio albums and a number of live CDs. As a musician and club owner in Haiti in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Martelly became associated with the neo-Duvalierist Haitian military and police, including figures such as police chief Michel François, and he agreed with the 1991 Haitian coup d'état against Jean-Bertrand Aristide. In 1995, after Aristide had been restored to office, Martelly's name appeared on a hit list of coup supporters, and he stayed away from Haiti for almost a year. During this time, he released a song, "Prezidan" (on the album Pa Manyen), "an exuberant ditty that called for a president who played compas". However, he did not run for political office until 2010, when he became a candidate for President of Haiti.
After the catastrophic earthquake, Martelly won the 2010–11 Haitian general election for his party Repons Peyizan (Farmers' Response Party), after a run-off against candidate Mirlande Manigat. Martelly had come in third in the first round of the election, until the Organization of American States forced Jude Célestin to withdraw due to alleged fraud. Martelly assumed his position of the President of Haiti on 14 May 2011 after René Préval retired to his home in Marmelade. His election campaign included a promise to reinstate the nation's military, which had been abolished in the 1990s by Jean-Bertrand Aristide. He resigned as president in February 2016. He was sanctioned by the Canadian Government, which accuses him of involvement in human rights violations and supporting criminal gangs, on 17 November 2022.
For the political scientist Frédéric Thomas, the accession to power of Michel Martelly in 2011 marked the beginning of a "form of legal banditry" and constitutes a key step in the process of decay of the Haitian state.
Early life
Martelly was born in Côtes-de-Fer, the son of Gerard Martelly, a Shell Oil executive and Marie Madeleine Martelly (née De Pradines, b. 1931 – d. 21 October 2016). On his mother's side, his grandfather Auguste de Pradines was a troubadour who wrote comic protest songs against the 1915–34 United States occupation of Haiti. After graduating from high school at the Institution Saint Louis de Gonzague, Martelly enlisted in the Haitian Military Academy, but (according to Martelly) was expelled after impregnating the daughter of a general. In 1984, he moved to the United States, and worked in construction and briefly attended a community college in Miami. In 1986, after one semester, he divorced his first wife, an American citizen, and returned to Haiti just as Jean-Claude Duvalier, then president-for-life, was heading into exile. In 1987, Martelly returned to Miami with his then-girlfriend, Sophia Saint-Rémy, whom he later married in a small ceremony in Miami, Florida. They returned to Haiti in 1988.
Upon his return to Haiti, Martelly had his first breakthrough in the music industry when he began playing keyboard as a fill-in musician in local venues in Pétion-Ville and Kenscoff, upscale suburbs of Port-au-Prince. Martelly "sang playful, romantic numbers over a slow méringue beat called compas, the only music allowed under the Duvaliers." After the 1991 Haitian coup d'état saw the expulsion of Jean-Bertrand Aristide, "Martelly opened a Pétion-Ville club called the Garage, where he entertained many of the coup's main architects, including the much-feared chief of national police, Michel François, later convicted in absentia for massacring Aristide supporters."
Music
Martelly has been heralded as a pioneer of a unique genre of compas, a style of Haitian dance music sung predominantly in the Haitian Creole language. Originally, compas, was the creation of Nemours Jean-Baptiste. Martelly, a keyboardist and the self-proclaimed "President of Compas," popularized a nouvelle génération, or "new generation" style, of smaller bands with few members that relied predominantly on synthesizers and electronic instruments to reproduce a fuller sound. Martelly's live performances and recordings are sometimes laced with physical humor and humorous sociopolitical commentaries and satires. Although he is the most recognized musician and public personality in Haiti, Martelly's performance style has sometimes ignited controversy throughout Haitian communities.
Recording career
By 1988, Martelly's musical talent, stage craft, and his pattering style of compas had gained tremendous popularity at El Rancho Hotel and Casino and The Florville, another local venues. That year, he recorded his first single, "Ou La La", which became an instant hit, followed by "Konpas 'Foret des Pins'" in 1989, also from his debut album Ou La La. During the period of about 1988–2008 Martelly, using his stage name Sweet Micky, recorded fourteen studio albums and a number of live CDs. His music features slow méringue, compas, troubadour, carnival méringue, rabòday, etc.
In 1997, Martelly's crossover appeal to other musical genres was evident when hip hop star, Wyclef Jean of The Fugees featured him on the title track for Jean's solo effort Wyclef Jean Presents The Carnival featuring the Refugee Allstars. As Jean proclaims on 'The Carnival,' "Surprise – it's Sweet Micky, y'all!" Also in 1997, Martelly released an album containing one of his most celebrated hits, Pa Manyen ("Don't Touch"). The song is an adaptation of "Angola", composed by the renowned artist/composer/record producer Ramiro Mendes (of the Mendes Brothers), first recorded by Cesária Évora, the legendary Cape Verdean singer. Pa Manyen went on to be featured in various compilation albums, including the popular Putumayo Presents: French Caribbean in 2003. The song was also covered by Venezuelan singer, Soledad Bravo as "Canta, Canta Corazon" and by Jose Luiz Cortes of Cuba. See also the Mendes Brothers' original version of the song, performed by Ramiro Mendes included in the group's 1997 album—Para Angola Com Um Xi Coracao. Martelly is also notorious for his cursing on stage, cross-dressing as well as using homophobic slurs. His celebrity status as a popular compas musician would become a major factor in his popularity as a politician.
Political career
In 1992, Martelly played for free at a protest against the arrival of a UN representative charged with negotiating the return of Jean-Bertrand Aristide after the 1991 Haitian coup d'état. Martelly later explained "I did not want Aristide back... You want me to be a de facto [supporter of the coup]. I'm a de facto. It's my right. It's my country. I can fight for whatever I believe in." After Jean-Bertrand Aristide had been restored to office, some former military officers, paramilitaries and secret police associated with the old regime were assassinated. In February 1995, a "hit list" of such individuals was circulated, and included Martelly's name. After an individual on the list was murdered, Martelly's wife warned him not to come back from his tour, and it was almost a year before he returned to Haiti. During this time he released a song, Prezidan, "an exuberant ditty that called for a president who played compas". At the 1996 Carnival, to which Manno Charlemagne, the mayor of Port-au-Prince, invited him, Martelly dressed in a pink wig and bra. As Martelly explained, it was intended in part as a political statement: "If you see me as a Macoute, then I'm a Macoute. If you see me as gay, I'm gay. What you think of me is no problem, as far as I am concerned. You have the right to think what you want. I know who I am, and that's the main thing."
In 1997, Martelly participated in "Knowledge Is Power", an HIV educational music video with a message about preventing the spread of HIV. His humanitarian work as the president of the Fondation Rose et Blanc, created by his wife Sophia and himself, to help the poor and disenfranchised of the country, was the basis for his choice as the Good Will Haitian Ambassador for the Protection of the Environment by the Haitian Government.
In 2004, following the 2004 Haitian coup d'état against Aristide, Gérard Latortue, a friend of Martelly's, became Prime Minister. At this time, Martelly was living in Florida but in 2007, he moved back to Haiti. In the process, when the mortgage/financial sector crashed, he defaulted on more than $1m in loans, losing 3 properties to foreclosure.
Following the 2010 earthquake, Martelly ran for President of Haiti in the general elections. He benefited from his celebrity status as a musician, and held musical rallies called koudjay (musical political endorsement rallies), drawing crowds and media attention. He also benefited from the support of Bill Clinton (UN Special Envoy to Haiti) and the active support of US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. He challenged the results as to whether he placed second, making the runoff, or third. On 3 February 2011, it was announced that he would participate in a run-off election scheduled for 20 March 2011. On 4 April 2011, a senior official announced that Martelly had won the presidential run-off election against candidate Mirlande Manigat with more than 60% of the vote. Amongst the Core Group Nations of Haiti, some of their ambassadors notably the Secretary of the State of the U.S. during the Obama administration former first First Lady Hillary Clinton decided that Maretlly was the winner.
Presidency
After the devastating earthquake, Martelly was sworn in as President of Haiti on 14 May 2011, marking the first time in Haitian history that an incumbent president peacefully transferred power to a member of the opposition. On the anniversary of the earthquake, the incumbent Haitian Prime Minister, Jean-Max Bellerive, resigned to allow Martelly to choose his own Prime Minister. Martelly was quick to pledge reforms for the post-earthquake reconstruction process.
In August 2011, Martelly announced a plan to reinstate the nation's military. This plan was controversial as many human rights activists were concerned about the return of a military responsible for many atrocities in the past.
In September 2011, Martelly formed an advisory board that included business executives, bankers, and politicians such as former U.S. President Bill Clinton, which he hoped would improve the economy.
In February 2012, Martelly's Prime Minister Garry Conille resigned after having been in office five months. He was replaced in May by Laurent Lamothe, the Haitian Foreign Minister.
Between March and April 2012, Martelly was accused of corruption, with allegations that during and after the 2010 earthquake and presidential election, he had accepted $2.6 million in bribes to ensure that a Dominican Republic construction company would continue to receive contracts under his presidency. Martelly denied the allegations. Companies owned or controlled by Félix Bautista had received no-bid contracts worth $200 million, awarded by former Haitian Prime Minister Jean-Max Bellerive. In October 2013, Martelly met with a Franco-Polish arms dealer Pierre Dadak and two Canadian businessmen to discuss a $20 billion plan to develop Île-à-Vache, a plan which came to nothing, but has the source of some controversy. In November 2013, anti-government protests were held in the country over the high cost of living and corruption.
Mid-term Senate elections had been originally due in May 2012, while the municipal poll was three years behind schedule. They were again postponed on 26 October 2014—the day they were due to be held—because of an ongoing stalemate between the government and a group of opposition senators over an electoral law. The Haitian government faced months of protests over the delayed elections. Haitian Prime Minister Laurent Lamothe resigned on 14 December and was replaced by Evans Paul. But street protests continued, with renewed calls for the president's resignation.
On 13 January 2015, the parliament was dissolved after its term expired and four days later, thousands of protesters in Port-au-Prince again demanded the president's resignation. Police used tear gas and water cannon to disperse the crowd. Martelly urged protesters to respect public order and said he had reached a deal with the opposition to form a consensus government within the next 48 hours. New election dates were announced in March 2015, both for parliament and for president. Martelly was ineligible to run again as Haiti's constitution does not allow for consecutive terms.
On 9 August 2015, the first election Haiti had under President Michel Martelly took place. The citizens voted in the first round to fill two-thirds of the 30-member Senate and the entire 119-member Chamber of Deputies. In the capital, groups of young men ripped up paper ballots as heavily armed police shot into the air to re-establish order. Rocks were thrown in response before authorities closed the polling station. Local media reported the closure of numerous polling places in other parts of the country and scattered arrests of people accused of voting more than once. 54 polling stations, roughly 5 percent of the total, were closed amid violence and other disruptions. The first round of Haiti's presidential election was scheduled for 25 October 2015.
Presidential elections were held in Haiti on 25 October 2015, alongside local elections and the second round of the legislative elections. The runoff of this election were scheduled for 27 December 2015. According to preliminary results posted by the Provisional Electoral Council, Jovenel Moïse obtained 32.81% of the preferences, and Jude Célestin won 25.27%.
After the preliminary results were published on 25 October 2015, Jude Célestin said he did not recognize them. His criticism was joined by five other presidential candidates. They issued a joint statement denouncing the results as "anti-democratic" and called for the people's vote to be respected. Martelly openly declared his support for Moïse. The supporters of Célestin protested in the streets, together with the supporters of Jean-Charles Moïse's Platfom Pitit Desalin and supporters of former President Jean-Bertrand Aristide's Fanmi Lavalas party the presidential candidate of which, Maryse Narcisse, finished fourth behind Jean-Charles Moïse and also denounced the results during a news conference. The protesters threw rocks and burned tires. The police responded with tear gas and made some arrests. The police also stopped and searched the vehicle of a former top government prosecutor, Claudy Gassant, who is a supporter of Moïse.
Martelly resigned the presidency on 10 February 2016, leaving Haiti without a president for a week. On 17 February 2016, he was succeeded by Jocelerme Privert who served as interim president. Amid allegations of fraud in the 2015 elections, Privert created a month-long verification commission to restore legitimacy to the electoral process. In May 2016, the commission audited ~13,000 ballots and determined that the elections had been dishonest and recommended a complete redo of the election.
In 2015, Pras of the Fugees completed a documentary entitled Sweet Micky for President and directed by Ben Patterson. The film chronicles the rise of Martelly through his election to fight corruption as President of Haiti. The film had its World premiere at the 2015 Slamdance Film Festival and later appeared on Showtime.
Canadian Government Sanctions Against Martelly
On 17 November 2022, the Government of Canada imposed joint sanctions against Martelly and former Prime Ministers Laurent Lamothe and Jean Henry Ceant. The sanctions against Martelly was a response to his allegedly involvement in "gross and systematic human rights violations in Haiti." Specifically Martelly is accused of supporting violent armed gangs in Haiti that terrorize the population. A "tormented" Martelly was seen returning to Haiti from Miami 24 hours before the sanctions were publicly announced, traveling with nine pieces of luggage.
A press release by the office of Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau mentioned that Martelly is "suspected of protecting and enabling the illegal activities of armed criminal gangs.
Personal life and later music career
Martelly divorced his first wife, an American citizen, in 1986.
Martelly has a brother, Girard, who served in the United States Armed Forces.
Martelly currently lives in Haiti, but held several homes in Palm Beach, Florida. He lives with his wife and former manager, Sophia Saint–Rémy, and their four children, Olivier, Sandro, Yani, and Malaika. In 2006, Martelly announced his unofficial retirement from recording and performing, but two years later announced a return to music with a new single, Magouyè, and the video/short film, "Bandi Legal yo ki rive". He is a cousin of Port-au-Prince hotel manager and musician Richard Morse.
In April 2012, Martelly was flown to the United States for treatment of what was later diagnosed as a pulmonary embolism. It was attributed to the immobilisation of his arm necessitated by recent shoulder surgery.
Discography
References
External links
Official website
Music
Sweet Micky: Mon Colonel, music video
1961 births
2010s in Haiti
21st-century Haitian politicians
Grand Crosses with Silver Breast Star of the Order of Merit of Duarte, Sánchez and Mella
20th-century Haitian male singers
Haitian people of Mulatto descent
Living people
Politicians from Port-au-Prince
Musicians from Port-au-Prince
Presidents of Haiti
Repons Peyizan politicians
Haitian expatriates in the United States
21st-century Haitian male singers |
4293014 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001%20NCAA%20Division%20I-A%20football%20season | 2001 NCAA Division I-A football season | The 2001 NCAA Division I-A football season was the first college football season of the 21st century. It ended with the University of Miami winning the national title for the fifth time.
The Hurricanes were led by Larry Coker, who was in his first year as head coach after five years as Miami's offensive coordinator under Butch Davis and became the first head coach since 1989's Dennis Erickson from the University of Miami to win a national title in his first season. Coker had the benefit of inheriting a star-studded program that Davis had rebuilt in the aftermath of NCAA sanctions in the mid-to-late '90s. Miami completed a perfect 12–0 season, which culminated in a 37–14 win over Nebraska in the Rose Bowl BCS National Championship Game.
In yet another controversial season for the BCS, (AP) No. 4 Nebraska was chosen as the national title opponent despite not having even played in the Big 12 championship game. The Huskers went into their last regularly scheduled game at Colorado undefeated, but left Boulder having lost the game by a score of 62–36. The Buffaloes went on to win the Big 12 championship game. The BCS computers, among other things, didn't weigh later games any more heavily than earlier games, and one-loss Nebraska came out ahead of two-loss No. 3 Colorado and one-loss, No. 2 Oregon. Some fans chanted "number 4" at the title game held at the Rose Bowl.
Florida State did not win the ACC championship for the first time since joining the conference in 1991, losing out to Maryland. Steve Spurrier left the Florida Gators at the end of the season to coach the Washington Redskins, accepting what was then the largest salary for an NFL head coach.
The season had one of the more competitive Heisman Trophy races with Eric Crouch of Nebraska winning by only a small margin over Rex Grossman of Florida. All of the five finalists played the quarterback position. Two of the finalists were coached at some point by Oregon offensive coordinator Jeff Tedford. Indiana quarterback Antwaan Randle El earned first-team All-America honors from the FWAA after becoming the first NCAA Division I-A quarterback to throw for 40 touchdowns and rush for 40 touchdowns in a career. He also became the first player in NCAA I-A history to record 2,500 total yards from scrimmage in four consecutive seasons.
Joe Paterno needed just 2 victories to pass legendary Alabama Coach Paul "Bear" Bryant as the winningest coach in Division I-A college football, However, after the Nittany Lions started the season 0–4 it looked like Bear Bryant's record would remain intact for at least 1 more year. After a 20–0 drubbing Penn State took against Michigan at home on Oct 6, the Nittany Lions were a dismal 1–6 since Paterno notched his 321st coaching win on October 28, 2000.
At Northwestern on October 20, the Lions lost a late 31–28 lead to fall behind 35–31 with two minutes to go. With their starting quarterback, Matt Senneca, out with an injury, Penn State put its collective hopes on the shoulders of redshirt freshman quarterback Zack Mills. Mills drove the Lions 69 yards in 1:41, leading Penn State to its first victory of the year by a 38–35 margin. The victory gave Paterno 323 career wins, tying Bear Bryant's record.
A week later, Penn State hosted Ohio State, who held on to a small lead for most of the game until the Buckeyes started to pull away with a 27–9 lead following a 44-yard interception return for a touchdown by Derek Ross in the third quarter. Penn State would fight all the way back with a 69-yard touchdown run by Mills and a 26-yard pass to Tony Johnson to cut the lead to 27–22, and they would take the lead early in the fourth quarter with a 13-yard touchdown pass to Eric McCoo. Penn State's 29–27 win moved Paterno in to first place on the all-time coaching victories list with 324 wins. He would later slip behind Bobby Bowden at Florida State, but he would relinquish the top spot a few years later. Paterno remains the winningest coach in Division I-A college football with a final record of 409–136–3.
The newly formed Boise State/Fresno State rivalry would be a major factor in the race to be the "BCS buster" for several seasons. Both teams ultimately lost the race to Utah, who became the first to bust the BCS in 2004, and the first to make a second trip in 2008.
The Aloha Bowl and Oahu Bowl lost funding after Chrysler Corporation, which owned the former bowl's sponsor of Jeep, was acquired by Daimler-Benz and became DaimlerChrysler. The Aloha Bowl moved to Seattle and became the Seattle Bowl.
The New Orleans Bowl began to play, the host team being the Sun Belt champion.
End of season upsets and BCS drama
The final three weeks of the regular season saw an incredible amount of drama as several teams were in prime position to earn their way to the national championship game in the Rose Bowl. For most of November, Miami and Nebraska were the only two undefeated teams in the power conferences and clearly the top contenders for the title. But on November 23, the day after Thanksgiving, Nebraska suffered a devastating 62–36 loss to Colorado which seemingly caused their season to fall by the wayside. Conference rival Oklahoma had been ranked third behind Nebraska and Miami in the BCS standings, but the Sooners' hopes dissolved the next day when they were upset at home by Oklahoma State 16–13. These losses affected not only the national championship race but also the Big 12 standings, as the conference championship game would now feature Texas and Colorado instead of the expected Nebraska-Oklahoma matchup.
Miami, Florida, and Texas now held the top three spots in the BCS standings heading into their games on December 1, but all three teams would be pushed to the brink in a single thrilling day. Miami barely escaped Virginia Tech 26–24 to finish as the only undefeated team in the nation and clinch a Rose Bowl berth. However, the other clubs were not so fortunate. Florida lost 34–32 to Tennessee in Gainesville; as with Nebraska and Oklahoma, the loss not only ended the Gators' national championship dreams but also kept them out of the conference title game. Later that evening, Texas entered the Big 12 finals against Colorado in prime time television knowing that a win would almost certainly seal their spot in the Rose Bowl, but the Longhorns fell 39–37 in yet another nailbiter.
After their victory over Florida, Tennessee stepped into the number two spot going into the following week's SEC Championship against LSU. However, the Volunteers felt the same sting that Nebraska, Oklahoma, Florida, and Texas had all encountered the previous few weeks. After a 31–20 upset by the Tigers, Tennessee's hopes of National Championship appearance were gone as quickly as they had come.
Miami was left at the top of all the polls, and the debate began about who deserved to play in the Rose Bowl. Many felt Colorado was the hottest team in the country after dismantling Nebraska and then beating the Longhorns in the Big 12 title game, but their two losses at the beginning of the year were tough to ignore. Others felt Oregon deserved the honor, being ranked in both the AP and Coaches' Polls as the number two team in the country. Ultimately, after all of the upsets, Nebraska ended up as the number two team in the BCS, despite being the team whose loss started all of the drama three weeks earlier.
Rules changes
The NCAA Rules Committee adopted the following rules changes for the 2001 season:
Charged team time-outs are reduced to 30 seconds if the team taking the time-out requests it. Otherwise, team time-outs are 90 seconds in length.
Eliminated TV/Radio time-outs during overtime periods.
All penalties committed by the offense behind the neutral zone are enforced from the previous spot, completely repealing the 1991 rule that enforced offensive holding, clipping, and illegal use of hands occurring behind the line from the spot of the foul.
Stopping the clock once a runner's helmet comes off.
Runners are exempt from being called for hurdling.
Roughing the passer penalties committed during a two-point conversion will be assessed on the ensuing kickoff or, if committed during overtime, on the succeeding spot.
Guidelines for officials on lightning-related game issues are included in the rulebook.
Conference and program changes
One team upgraded from Division I-AA, thus increasing the number of Division I-A schools from 116 to 117.
The Big West Conference stopped sponsoring football after the 2000 season. Its remaining football-playing members departed for the WAC, the Sun Belt (see below), or independence:
Boise State joined the WAC
Utah State opted to become an Independent.
The Sun Belt Conference, previously a non-football conference, began sponsoring football during the 2001 season, absorbing many of the Big West's former members.
Arkansas State, New Mexico State and North Texas joined from the Big West.
Idaho joined the Sun Belt as a football-only member
Louisiana–Lafayette, Louisiana–Monroe, and Middle Tennessee joined after playing as independents.
TCU joined Conference USA from the Western Athletic Conference
Louisiana Tech joined the Western Athletic Conference after five years as an independent.
Troy State joined Division I-A football this season.
Regular Season
August–September
The preseason AP Poll was led by Florida at No. 1 and Miami at No. 2, followed by three consecutive Big 12 teams: defending champion Oklahoma at No. 3, Nebraska at No. 4, and Texas at No. 5.
August 25: No. 3 Oklahoma defeated North Carolina 41-27 in the Hispanic College Fund Football Classic, while No. 4 Nebraska beat Texas Christian 21-7 in the Pigskin Classic. The other leading teams had not yet begun their schedules, and the top five remained the same in the next poll.
September 1: All of the top five teams won easily: No. 1 Florida defeated Marshall 49-14, No. 2 Miami won 33-7 at Penn State, No. 3 Oklahoma visited Air Force for a 44-3 victory, No. 4 Nebraska beat Troy State 42-14, and No. 5 Texas won 41-7 over New Mexico State. Miami moved to the top of the next AP Poll: No. 1 Miami, No. 2 Florida, No. 3 Oklahoma, No. 4 Texas, and No. 5 Nebraska. Florida held onto the top spot in the Coaches Poll.
September 8: The top teams continued to dominate their opponents. No. 1 Miami shut out Rutgers 61-0, No. 2 Florida beat Louisiana-Monroe 55-6, No. 3 Oklahoma defeated North Texas 37-10, No. 4 Texas won 44-14 over North Carolina, and No. 5 Nebraska was a 27-10 winner over No. 17 Notre Dame. Miami now held the No. 1 spot in both polls, followed in the AP rankings by No. 2 Florida, No. 3 Oklahoma, No. 4 Nebraska, and No. 5 Texas.
Games scheduled for September 15 were cancelled due to the terrorist attacks four days earlier. One of the affected games was a SEC matchup between No. 2 Florida and No. 8 Tennessee, which was rescheduled for early December and ended up having a major effect on the national championship picture.
September 20-22: No. 1 Miami was idle. No. 2 Florida belatedly opened conference play with a 44-10 win at Kentucky. No. 3 Oklahoma was also idle. No. 4 Nebraska breezed past Rice 48-3, and No. 5 Texas won 53-26 at Houston. The top five remained the same in the next AP Poll.
September 27-29: No. 1 Miami visited Pittsburgh for a 43-21 win. No. 2 Florida blanked No. 21 Mississippi State 52-0. No. 3 Oklahoma nearly blew a 21-point second-half lead but held on for a 38-37 nailbiter over No. 11 Kansas State. No. 4 Nebraska won 36-3 at Missouri, and No. 5 Texas beat Texas Tech 42-7. The top five again remained the same.
October
October 6: No. 1 Miami beat Troy State 38-7, but the AP voters were more impressed by No. 2 Florida’s 44-15 defeat of No. 18 LSU. No. 3 Oklahoma squared off against No. 5 Texas in the Red River Shootout, and the Longhorns were kept out of the end zone in a 14-3 Sooners win. No. 4 Nebraska won 48-14 over Iowa State, and No. 7 Oregon blasted Arizona 63-28. The next AP Poll featured No. 1 Florida, No. 2 Miami, No. 3 Oklahoma, No. 4 Nebraska, and No. 5 Oregon, with Miami retaining first place in the Coaches Poll.
October 13: No. 1 Florida fell 23-20 to Auburn on a Tigers field goal with time running out. The rivalry between No. 2 Miami and No. 14 Florida State often produced nail-biting finishes, but this time the Hurricanes pulled away in the second half on their way to a 49-27 victory. No. 3 Oklahoma won 38-10 at Kansas, No. 4 Nebraska was a 48-7 victor at Baylor, No. 5 Oregon beat California by the same 48-7 margin, and No. 7 UCLA prevailed 35-13 over No. 10 Washington. Miami returned to the No. 1 spot in both polls, followed by No. 2 Oklahoma, No. 3 Nebraska, No. 4 UCLA, and No. 5 Oregon.
October 20: No. 1 Miami was idle. No. 2 Oklahoma defeated Baylor 33-17. No. 3 Nebraska was tied at the half with Texas Tech, but the Cornhuskers ultimately managed a 41-31 victory. No. 4 UCLA beat California 51-17. No. 5 Oregon led Stanford by two touchdowns at the start of the fourth quarter, but the Cardinal made a furious comeback to defeat the Ducks 49-42. No. 6 Virginia Tech was idle but moved up in the next poll: No. 1 Miami, No. 2 Oklahoma, No. 3 Nebraska, No. 4 UCLA, and No. 5 Virginia Tech. The year’s first BCS standings were released this week, and the computers placed Oklahoma in the top spot with Miami in fourth place.
October 25-27: No. 1 Miami, lauded by the pollsters but snubbed by the BCS, improved their resume by blasting West Virginia 45-3. The biggest game of the week took place in Lincoln between No. 2 Oklahoma and No. 3 Nebraska, and the Cornhuskers broke open a defensive struggle with a trick play for a 63-yard touchdown pass and a 20-10 victory. No. 20 Stanford pulled off their second upset in a row, 38-28 over No. 4 UCLA. In another surprise, No. 5 Virginia Tech fell 22-14 to Syracuse. No. 6 Florida beat No. 15 Georgia 24-10, and No. 7 Texas won 35-16 at Missouri. With several undefeated teams losing this week, Miami and Nebraska were now the only two teams in the power conferences without a loss. The AP’s top five were No. 1 Miami, No. 2 Nebraska, No. 3 Oklahoma, No. 4 Florida, and No. 5 Texas, while the BCS ranked Nebraska at the top and put Michigan (AP No. 6) in place of Florida.
November
November 3: There was little competition at the top this week. No. 1 Miami shut out Temple 38-0, No. 2 Nebraska won 51-7 at Kansas, No. 3 Oklahoma rebounded from their loss to the Cornhuskers by blanking Tulsa 58-0, No. 4 Florida beat Vanderbilt 71-13, and No. 5 Texas visited Baylor for a 49-10 win. The AP’s top five remained the same; with Michigan losing to Michigan State on a controversial last-second play, the BCS elevated AP No. 6 Tennessee into the Wolverines’ No. 4 spot.
November 10: No. 1 Miami found themselves in deep trouble against unranked Boston College, clinging to a five-point lead as the Eagles had a first-and-goal at the Hurricanes’ nine-yard line with 30 seconds left. But a Boston College pass was deflected to Miami’s Matt Walters, who handed off to Ed Reed for an 80-yard touchdown return which clinched an 18-7 Hurricanes victory. No. 2 Nebraska trailed at the half but came back to beat Kansas State 31-21. No. 3 Oklahoma defeated Texas A&M 31-10, No. 4 Florida won 54-17 at No. 14 South Carolina, and No. 5 Texas shut out Kansas 59-0. The AP’s top five again remained the same. Despite the Longhorns’ big win, the BCS dropped Tennessee and Texas from their top five in favor of Oregon (AP No. 7) and Florida.
November 17: No. 1 Miami hosted No. 14 Syracuse, with the winner guaranteed at least a share of the Big East title. Recovering from last week’s close call, the Hurricanes overwhelmed their opponents 59-0. No. 2 Nebraska was idle. No. 3 Oklahoma won 30-13 at Texas Tech, No. 4 Florida defeated No. 21 Florida State 37-13, and No. 5 Texas was also idle. The next top five was No. 1 Miami, No. 2 Nebraska, No. 3 Florida, No. 4 Oklahoma, and No. 5 Texas.
November 23-24: Miami and Nebraska, the only undefeated teams in the major conferences, had held the top two spots in the polls throughout November. On Thanksgiving weekend, No. 1 Miami maintained their standard by blasting No. 12 Washington 65-7. However, No. 2 Nebraska received a major shock from No. 14 Colorado. The Buffaloes raced out to a 35-3 lead in the second quarter and cruised to a 62-36 victory, scoring the most points by any opponent in Cornhuskers history (including a record six touchdowns by running back Chris Brown). Since Colorado only had one conference loss, the two teams finished tied atop the Big 12 North and the head-to-head tiebreaker kept Nebraska out of the conference championship game. The Big 12 South title was decided in an equally surprising manner. No. 4 Oklahoma came into their rivalry game against Oklahoma State having outscored their last three opponents 119-23, while the Cowboys had a record of just 3-7. But the two teams engaged in a hard-fought defensive struggle until backup quarterback (and future major league baseball player) Josh Fields led Oklahoma State on a late drive which ended in a touchdown pass and a 16-13 Cowboys win. This opened the door for No. 5 Texas, who earned the right to face Colorado with a 21-7 victory at Texas A&M. No. 3 Florida and No. 6 Oregon were idle, but the chaos in the Big 12 allowed both teams to move up in the next poll. No. 7 Tennessee got the same benefit after shutting out Vanderbilt 38-0. The AP’s new top five were No. 1 Miami, No. 2 Florida, No. 3 Texas, No. 4 Oregon, and No. 5 Tennessee; the BCS agreed on the top three but kept Nebraska in the running at No. 4.
December
December 1: The late-season drama continued as each of the top five teams played a game decided by three points or less. No. 1 Miami led 20-3 at the half and 26-10 in the fourth quarter, but No. 14 Virginia Tech scored a touchdown, passed for a two-point conversion, and took a blocked punt back 59 yards for another score. This time the Hokies failed to convert the two-point play, leaving the score at 26-24. Virginia Tech got the ball back once more, but Ed Reed made his second game-saving play in less than a month with an interception that sealed Miami’s perfect regular season. No. 2 Florida matched up against No. 5 Tennessee in the game that was delayed due to the September 11 attacks, playing for the SEC East title and a berth in the conference championship game. In a back-and-forth contest with several lead changes, a missed two-point conversion again made the difference as Florida cut the score to 34-32 with 86 seconds left but failed to complete the two-point pass. With the Gators out of the way, No. 3 Texas could earn a shot at the title by winning the Big 12 Championship Game. The Longhorns had beaten No. 9 Colorado 41-7 in October, but this time the Buffaloes rushed out to a 29-10 lead in the second quarter as Texas quarterback Chris Simms committed four turnovers before leaving with an injured finger. Major Applewhite, the Longhorns’ starting QB in 1998 and 1999 who had lost his job to Simms, led the team on a furious comeback that fell just short, with Colorado winning a 39-37 decision for their second shocking upset in as many weeks. Having already clinched at least a share of the Pac-10 title, No. 5 Oregon won the conference outright in a 17-14 defensive struggle against rival Oregon State. No. 6 Nebraska had finished their schedule, but they moved up in the next AP Poll: No. 1 Miami, No. 2 Tennessee, No. 3 Oregon, No. 4 Colorado, and No. 5 Nebraska. However, the BCS ranked Nebraska at No. 3 ahead of Colorado and Oregon.
December 8: No. 2 Tennessee was in the driver’s seat for a national title berth as they matched up against No. 21 LSU in the SEC Championship Game. Just like Texas in the Big 12 title game, the Volunteers were playing an opponent they’d defeated earlier in the year. And, just like Texas, they flubbed the opportunity: LSU scored two fourth-quarter touchdowns for a 31-20 comeback win that gave coach Nick Saban his first championship of a major conference. The final AP Poll featured No. 1 Miami, No. 2 Oregon, No. 3 Colorado, No. 4 Nebraska, and No. 5 Florida—but the BCS had different plans.
Undefeated No. 1 Miami was an obvious choice to play for the national championship in the Rose Bowl, but deciding their opponent was a more difficult matter. In the last three weeks of the season, five teams ranked No. 2 or No. 3—Nebraska, Oklahoma, Florida, Texas, and Tennessee—had suffered upset losses when they were in the driver’s seat for a berth in the title game. In a controversial decision, the BCS computers selected Nebraska despite Oregon’s No. 2 ranking in both human polls and Colorado’s 26-point win over the Cornhuskers. The Ducks and Buffaloes ended up playing each other in the Fiesta Bowl. No. 5 Florida got an at-large BCS berth and faced No. 6 Maryland, the ACC champion, in the Orange Bowl; the Big Ten and SEC winners, No. 7 Illinois and No. 12 LSU, squared off in the Sugar Bowl.
Regular season top 10 matchups
Rankings reflect the AP Poll. Rankings for Week 8 and beyond will list BCS Rankings first and AP Poll second. Teams that failed to be a top 10 team for one poll or the other will be noted.
Week 5
No. 3 Oklahoma defeated No. 5 Texas, 14–3 (Cotton Bowl, Dallas, Texas)
Week 6
No. 7 UCLA defeated No. 10 Washington, 35–13 (Rose Bowl, Pasadena, California)
Week 8
No. 2/3 Nebraska defeated No. 1/2 Oklahoma, 20–10 (Memorial Stadium, Lincoln, Nebraska)
Week 13
No. 6/5 Tennessee defeated No. 2/2 Florida, 34–32 (Ben Hill Griffin Stadium, Gainesville, Florida)
No. 7/9 Colorado defeated No. 3/3 Texas, 39–37 (2001 Big 12 Championship Game, Texas Stadium, Irving, Texas)
Conference standings
Bowl Championship Series rankings
Final BCS standings
Miami
Nebraska
Colorado
Oregon
Florida
Tennessee
Texas
Illinois
Stanford
Maryland
Oklahoma
Washington State
LSU
South Carolina
Washington
Source:
Bowl games
BCS bowls
Rose Bowl: No. 1 Miami (FL) (BCS No. 1) 37, No. 4 Nebraska (BCS No. 2) 14
Fiesta Bowl: No. 2 Oregon (Pac-10 champ) 38, No. 3 Colorado (Big 12 champ) 16
Sugar Bowl: No. 12 LSU (SEC champ) 47, No. 7 Illinois (Big 10 champ) 34
Orange Bowl: No. 5 Florida (At Large) 56, No. 6 Maryland (ACC champ) 23
Other New Year's Day bowls
Cotton Bowl Classic: No. 10 Oklahoma 10, Arkansas 3
Florida Citrus Bowl: No. 8 Tennessee 45, No. 17 Michigan 17
Gator Bowl: No. 24 Florida State 30, No. 15 Virginia Tech 17
Outback Bowl: No. 14 South Carolina 31, No. 22 Ohio State 28
December bowl games
Holiday Bowl: No. 9 Texas 47, No. 21 Washington 43
Peach Bowl: North Carolina 16, Auburn 10
Tangerine Bowl: Pittsburgh 34, NC State 19
Sun Bowl: No. 13 Washington State 33, Purdue 27
Independence Bowl: Alabama 14, Iowa State 13
Alamo Bowl: Iowa 19, Texas Tech 16
Insight.com Bowl: No. 18 Syracuse 26, Kansas State 3
Liberty Bowl: No. 23 Louisville (C-USA champ) 28, No. 19 BYU (MWC champ) 10
Humanitarian Bowl: Clemson 49, Louisiana Tech (WAC Champ) 24
Motor City Bowl: No. 25 Toledo (MAC Champ) 23, Cincinnati 16
Seattle Bowl: Georgia Tech 24, No. 11 Stanford 14
Music City Bowl: Boston College 20, No. 16 Georgia 16
Las Vegas Bowl: Utah 10, Southern California 6
GMAC Bowl: Marshall 64, East Carolina 61 (2 OT)
Silicon Valley Classic: Michigan State 44, No. 20 Fresno State 35
Galleryfurniture.com bowl: Texas A&M 28, TCU 9
New Orleans Bowl: Colorado State 45, North Texas (Sun Belt Champ) 20
Heisman Trophy voting
The Heisman Trophy is given to the year's most outstanding player
Other annual awards
Maxwell Award (College Player of the Year) – Ken Dorsey, Miami
Walter Camp Award (Back) – Eric Crouch, Nebraska
Davey O'Brien Award (Quarterback) – Eric Crouch, Nebraska
Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award (Senior Quarterback) – David Carr, Fresno State
Doak Walker Award (Running back) – Luke Staley, BYU
Fred Biletnikoff Award (Wide receiver) – Josh Reed, Louisiana State
John Mackey Award (Tight end) – Daniel Graham, Colorado
Dave Rimington Trophy (Center) – LeCharles Bentley, Ohio State
Bronko Nagurski Trophy (Defensive Player) – Roy Williams, Oklahoma
Chuck Bednarik Award – Julius Peppers, North Carolina
Dick Butkus Award (Linebacker) – Rocky Calmus, Oklahoma
Lombardi Award (Lineman or Linebacker) – Julius Peppers, North Carolina
Outland Trophy (Interior Lineman) – Bryant McKinnie, Miami, OT
Jim Thorpe Award (Defensive back) – Roy Williams, Oklahoma
Lou Groza Award (Placekicker) – Seth Marler, Tulane
Ray Guy Award (Punter) – Travis Dorsch, Purdue
Paul "Bear" Bryant Award – Larry Coker, Miami
The Home Depot Coach of the Year Award: Ralph Friedgen, Maryland
References |
4293135 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerian%20Americans | Nigerian Americans | Nigerian Americans (;
;
) are Americans who are of Nigerian ancestry. The number of Nigerian immigrants residing in the United States is rapidly growing, expanding from a small 1980 population of 25,000. The 2019 American Community Survey (ACS) estimated that 461,695 U.S. residents were of Nigerian ancestry. The 2019 ACS further estimated that around 392,811 of these (85%) had been born in Nigeria. Similar to its status as the most populous country in Africa, Nigeria is also the African country with the most migrants to the United States, as of 2013. In a study which was carried out by consumer genetics company 23andMe which involved the DNA of 50,281 people of African descent in the United States, Latin America, and Western Europe, it was revealed that Nigeria was the most common country of origin for testers from the United States, the French Caribbean, and the British Caribbean. Most Nigerian Americans, like British Nigerians, predominantly originate from southern Nigeria, as opposed to the Islamic northern half of the country.
History
Atlantic slave trade (17th century – 1808)
The first people of ancestry from what is now modern Nigeria to arrive in what is now the modern United States were brought by force as slaves. These enslaved people were not called Nigerians but were known by their ethnic nations due to Nigeria not being a country until the early 1900s, after the slave trade was over. Calabar and Badagry (Gberefu Island), Nigeria, became major points of export of enslaved people from Africa to the Americas during the 17th and 18th centuries. Most slave ships frequenting this port were English. Most of the slaves of Bight of Biafra – many of whom hailed from the Igbo hinterland – were trafficked to Virginia. After 400 years in the United States and the lack of documentation because of enslavement, African Americans have often been unable to track their ancestors to specific ethnic groups or regions of Africa. Like Americans of other origins, at this point most African Americans have ancestors of a variety of ethnic backgrounds. Most of the people who were stolen from Nigeria were likely to have been, Igbo or Yoruba. Other ethnic groups, such as the Fulani and Edo people were also captured and transported to the colonies in the New World. The Igbo were exported mainly to Maryland and Virginia. They comprised the majority of all enslaved Africans in Virginia during the 18th century: of the 37,000 Africans trafficked to Virginia from Calabar during the eighteenth century, 30,000 were Igbo. In the next century, people of Igbo descent were taken with settlers who moved to Kentucky. According to some historians, the Igbo also comprised most of the slaves in Maryland. This group was characterized by high rates of rebellion and suicide, as the people resisted and fought back against enslavement. Many Nigerians of Igbo origin were also brought into the U.S. in the late 1960s as war refugees during Nigerian civil war.
Some Nigerian ethnic groups, such as the Yoruba, and some northern Nigerian ethnic groups, had traditional, cultural identification marks, such as tattoo and scarification designs. These could have assisted a kidnapped and enslaved person who escaped in locating other members of their ethnic group, but few enslaved people managed to escape the colonies. In the colonies, slavers tried to dissuade the practice of traditional tribal customs. They also mixed people of different ethnic groups to make it more difficult for them to communicate and band together in rebellion.
U.S. President Thomas Jefferson officially outlawed the Atlantic slave trade in 1808, although some enslaved Africans continued to be illegally smuggled into the country and the institution of slavery persisted until the American Civil War.
Modern migration (1960s – present)
In modern times, most Americans of unambiguous Nigerian ancestry are voluntary immigrants and their descendants. Various leaders of the Nigerian independence movement such as Eyo Ita, Mbonu Ojike, and Nnamdi Azikiwe were educated in the United States during the 1930s-1940s. When President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, U.S. restrictions on immigration from regions outside of Northwestern Europe were eliminated, allowing for a greater number of Nigerians in the United States.
The modern generation of Nigerian migrants was initially motivated by the desire to pursue educational opportunities in undergraduate and postgraduate institutions in the United States. During the 1960s and the 1970s aftermath of the Nigerian Civil War, the Nigerian government funded the education of Nigerian students attending U.S. universities. While this was occurring, there were several military coups, interspersed with brief periods of civilian rule. The instability resulted in many Nigerian professionals emigrating, especially doctors, lawyers and academics, who found it difficult to return to Nigeria.
During the 1980s, a larger wave of Nigerians immigrated to the United States. This migration was driven by political and economic problems exacerbated by the military regimes of self-styled generals Ibrahim Babangida and Sani Abacha. Other émigrés comprised a large number of refugees, fleeing on account of religious persecutions, endless political unrests and ethnic/tribal conflicts, the presumption of Nigeria as a failing state, or just to enhance the quality of lives for themselves and their families (Ogbuagu, 2013). The most noticeable exodus occurred among professional and middle class Nigerians who, along with their children, took advantage of education and employment opportunities in the United States.
This exodus contributed to a "brain-drain" of Nigeria's intellectual resources to the detriment of its future. Since the advent of multi-party democracy in March 1999, the former Nigerian head-of-state Olusegun Obasanjo has made numerous appeals, especially to young Nigerian professionals in the United States, to return to Nigeria to help in its rebuilding effort. Obasanjo's efforts have met with mixed results, as some potential migrants consider Nigeria's socio-economic situation still unstable (Ogbuagu, 2013b).
Since 1980, the estimated population of foreign-born Nigerians has grown from 25,000 to 392,811 in 2019.
Socioeconomics
Education
According to Rice University research, Nigerian Americans are the most educated group in the United States.
According to the 2008-2012 American Community Survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau, 61.4% of Nigerian Americans aged 25 years or older hold a bachelor's degree or higher, compared to 28.5% of the total U.S. population. The Migration Policy Institute reports that 29% of Nigerian Americans have a master's degree, PhD, or an advanced professional degree (compared to 11% of the U.S population overall). Nigerian Americans are also known for their contributions to medicine, science, technology, arts, and literature.
Nigerian culture has long emphasized education, placing value on pursuing academic excellence as a means to financial security. Examples of Nigerian Americans in education include Akintunde Akinwande, Oyekunle Olukotun, Jacob Olupona and Dehlia Umunna, professors at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford University and Harvard University respectively. Recent famous examples include ImeIme Umana, the first black woman to be elected president of the Harvard Law Review, Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, the first woman to become the head of the World Trade Organization (WTO), and Tanitoluwa Adewumi, a homeless child refugee who went on to become a chess prodigy. Examples of Nigerian Americans in popular media include Dr. Bennet Omalu, portrayed in the 2015 film Concussion, and Emmanuel Acho, host of the weekly activist webcast Uncomfortable Conversations with a Black Man.
A large percentage of black students at highly selective top universities are immigrants or children of immigrants. Harvard University, for example, has estimated that more than one-third of its black student body consists of recent immigrants or their children, or were of mixed-race parentage. Other top universities, including Yale, Princeton, Penn, Columbia, Rice, Duke and Berkeley, report a similar pattern. As a result, there is a question as to whether affirmative action programs adequately reach their original targets: African Americans who are descendants of American slaves and their discriminatory history in the US.
According to the 2021 Open Doors report, the top five U.S. institutions with the largest student population of Nigerian descent (in no particular order) are Texas Southern University, University of Houston, University of Texas at Arlington, University of North Texas, and Houston Community College. According to Institute of International Education's 2017 Open Doors report, 11,710 international students from Nigeria studied in the U.S. during the 2016–17 academic year, the 12th highest country of origin and highest of any African country.
Income
In 2018, Nigerian Americans had a median household income of $68,658 - higher than
$61,937 for all overall U.S. households. In 2012, Nigerian Americans had a poverty rate of 12.8%, lower than the U.S. national average of 14.9% and lower than the total African American poverty rate of 27.2%.
Relations with other black Americans
In 2017, sociologist Onoso Imoagene argued that second generation Nigerian Americans are forming a distinct "diasporic Nigerian ethnicity" rather than assimilating into the mainstream African American culture, in contrast to what should have been predicted by segmented assimilation theory. Limited sociological research suggests that Nigerian Americans may have a more positive opinion of the American police compared to the broader black community. The Marshall Project and Prison Legal News have reported that the Texas Department of Criminal Justice heavily recruits Nigerians to serve as guards in Texas prisons, where a significant proportion of the prisoners are black.
Demography and areas of concentrated residence
As of 2013, the World Bank estimated that 252,172 Nigerian migrants live in the US. This is 23% of all Nigerian migrants, the most of any destination country. Nigerian migrants represent 0.5% of all migrants in the U.S., the 32nd highest of all U.S. source countries.
US states with the largest Nigerian populations
The 2016 American Community Survey estimates that 380,785 U.S. residents report Nigerian ancestry.
The 2012-2016 ACS estimates that 277,027 American residents were born in Nigeria. It also estimates that these states have the highest Nigerian-born population:
Texas 60,173
Maryland 31,263
New York 29,619
California 23,302
Georgia 19,182
Illinois 15,389
New Jersey 14,780
Florida 8,274
Massachusetts 6,661
Pennsylvania 6,371
North Carolina 3,561
Religious demographics
In terms of religion, the Nigerian community in the United States is split, as approximately 70% practice Christianity while 28% follow Islam and the remainder practice other religions (2%).
Traditional attire
Among Nigerian Americans, traditional Nigerian attire remains very popular. However, because the fabric is often hard to acquire outside of Nigeria, traditional attire is not worn on an everyday basis but rather, reserved for special occasions such as weddings, Independence Day celebrations, birthday ceremonies and Muslim Eid celebrations. For weddings, the fabric used to sew the outfit of the bride and groom is usually directly imported from Nigeria or bought from local Nigerian traders and then taken to a local tailor who then sews it into the preferred style. Due to the large number of Nigerians living in America and the cultural enrichment that these communities provide to non-Nigerians, the traditional attire has been adopted in many parts of the country as a symbol of African ethnicity, for example, clothes worn during Kwanzaa celebrations are known to be very influenced by Nigerian traditional attire. In recent years, the traditional fabric has attracted many admirers especially among celebrities such as Solange Knowles and most notably Erykah Badu. On the fashion runway, Nigerian American designers like Boston-born Kiki Kimanu are able to combine the rich distinct colors of traditional attire with Western styles to make clothes that are highly sought after by young Nigerian professionals and Americans alike.
Nigerian American ethnic groups
Nigerian-Americans can be subdivided into Nigeria's three largest ethnic groups - the Igbo, Yoruba, and Hausa-Fulani.
Igbo American
Igbo Americans are people in the United States that maintain an identity of a varying level of Igbo ethnic group that now call the United States their chief place of residence (and may also have US citizenship). Many moved to the US following the effects of the Biafran War (1967–1970).
Yoruba American
Yoruba Americans are Americans of Yoruba descent. The Yoruba people () are an ethnic group originating in southwestern Nigeria and southern Benin in West Africa. The first Yoruba people who arrived to the United States were imported as slaves from Nigeria and Benin during the Atlantic slave trade. This ethnicity of the slaves was one of the main origins of present-day Nigerians who arrived to the United States, along with the Igbos. In addition, native slaves of current Benin hailed from peoples such as Nago (Yoruba subgroup, although exported mainly by Spanish, when Louisiana was Spanish), Ewe, Fon and Gen. Many slaves imported to the modern United States from Benin were sold by the King of Dahomey, in Whydah.
The native tongue of the Yoruba people is spoken principally in Nigeria and Benin, with communities in other parts of Africa, Europe and the Americas. A variety of the language, Lucumi, is the liturgical language of the Santería religion of the Caribbean.
Fulani and Hausa American
Fulani and Hausa Americans are people in the United States that maintain a cultural identity of various levels from the Fulani and Hausa ethnic groups and now call the United States home. Most speak Hausa, Fulfulde as well as English fluently and Arabic on various levels. The first wave of Fulani immigrants arrived as a result of the Atlantic Slave trade. Recent Fulani and Hausa arrivals immigrated to the United States during the 1990s. They now make up a large percentage of the Muslim communities across America.
Organizations
Nigerian American organizations in the US include:
Houston, Texas-based Nigerian Union Diaspora (NUD)
Society for Africans in the Diaspora (SAiD Institute)
Houston, Texas-based Nigerian American Multicultural Council, NAMC (namchouston.org)
Washington, D.C.-based Nigerian-American Council or Nigerian-American Leadership Council
The Alliance of Nigerian Organizations in Atlanta, Georgia
The Nigerian Association Utah
The Nigerian Ladies Association of Texas (NLAT)
The Nigerian American Multi Service Association, NAMSA (namsa.org)
First Nigeria Organisation
United Nigeria Association of Tulsa
The Alliance of Nigerian Organizations in Georgia is an organization that tries to satisfy the interests of the community, and represents all Nigeria nonprofit associations in the state (such as Nigerian Women Association of Georgia – NWAG-), in tribal issues, ethnic, educational, social, political and economic. Through the ANOG, the Office of Nigerian Consulate in Atlanta reaches the Nigerian community associations.
National Council of Nigerian Muslim Organizations in USA;
The National Council of Nigerian Muslim Organizations is an organization that teaches Islam, study the elements of religion, favoring Muslim integration in the U.S., creating a Muslim American identity and promoting interpersonal relationships.
Nigerian Ladies Association of Texas (NLAT) is an apolitical, non-profit formed by Nigerian women that promote fellowship, community and family values. NLAT is looking for ways to improve the lives of its members and their families and contribute to improving the life and development of Nigeria and the United States of America. The association teaches its members on individual rights (especially the rights of women, creating media to promote respect for these rights, to promote equality and peace between the sexes) and establishes job opportunities for Nigerians living in Texas, organizes and provides resources to women and children in Nigeria and the US, teaches Nigerian culture to the new generations, working with women's groups in the U.S. and drives programs to promote education and health services. and the Nigerian American Multi Service Association (NAMSA) provides services to community members.
Nigerian Lawyers Association (NLA): Incorporated in 1999, the Nigerian Lawyers Association (“NLA”) NLA's principal objectives are to cultivate the science of jurisprudence. Its first president was John Edozie of Madu, Edozie, and Madu law firm.
NNAUSA is an organization for the Ngwa Diaspora in America
Nigerian American associations representing the interests of determined groups include:
The Association of Nigerian Physicians in the Americas (ANPA)
Igbo studies association, USA
Nigerian Nurses Association USA
Ogbakor Ikwerre USA, Inc. is a non–profit organization of Ikwerre indigenes residing in the United States of America and Canada. We are committed to the survival and prosperity of the Ikwerre people and the entire Ikwerre community. OIUSA is an incorporate body that was founded on July 6, 1996 in Los Angeles, California. The organization is incorporated in the city of Atlanta, Georgia, but headquartered in Los Angeles. Membership comprises individuals and associations that subscribe to OIUSA vision. Members come from all over the 50 states in the US and Canada
Nigerian Student Association
Notable people
See also
Igbo Americans
Yoruba Americans
Africans in the United States
African immigration to Latin America
History of Nigerian Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth
List of topics related to Black and African people
Nigeria–United States relations
References
Further reading
Emeka, Amon. "'Just black' or not 'just black?' ethnic attrition in the Nigerian-American second generation." Ethnic and Racial Studies 42.2 (2019): 272–290.
Ette, Ezekiel Umo. Nigerian Immigrants in the United States: Race, Identity, and Acculturation (Lexington Books, 2012).
Ogbaa, Kalu. The Nigerian Americans (Greenwood, 2003).
Ogbuagu, B.C. (2013). “Diasporic Transnationalism”: Towards a framework for conceptualizing and understanding the ambivalence of the social construction of “Home” and the myth of Diasporic Nigerian homeland return. Journal of Educational and Social Research 3(2), 189–212; Doi:10.5901/jesr. 2013.v3n2p189; ISSN 2239-978X. http://www.mcser.org/journal/index.php/jesr/article/view/157.
Ogbuagu, B.C. (2013). Remittances and in-kind products as agency for community development and anti-poverty sustainability: Making a case for Diasporic Nigerians. International Journal of Development and Sustainability 2(3),1828-1857. Online – www.isdsnet.com/ijds ISDS Article ID: IJDS13052905
Rich, Timothy. "You can trust me: A multimethod analysis of the Nigerian email scam." Security Journal 31.1 (2018): 208–225. online
Sarkodie-Mensah, Kwasi. "Nigerian Americans." in Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America, edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol. 3, Gale, 2014), pp. 329–341. online
https://isdsnet.com/ijds-v2n3-13.pdf
https://www.isdsnet.com/ijds-v2n3.html
https://isdsnet.com/ijds-v2n3-13.pdf
American
West Africans in the United States
African-American society |
4293656 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20invasion%20of%20Afghanistan | United States invasion of Afghanistan | Shortly after the September 11 attacks, the United States declared the beginning of the war on terror and subsequently led a multinational invasion of Taliban-ruled Afghanistan. The stated goal was to dismantle al-Qaeda, which had executed the attacks under the leadership of Osama bin Laden, and to deny Islamist militants a safe base of operations in Afghanistan by toppling the Taliban government. The United Kingdom was a key ally of the United States, offering support for military action from the start of the invasion preparations. The American military presence in Afghanistan greatly bolstered the Northern Alliance, which had been locked in a losing fight with the Taliban during the Afghan Civil War. Prior to the beginning of the United States' war effort, the Taliban had seized around 85% of Afghanistan's territory as well as the capital city of Kabul, effectively confining the Northern Alliance to Badakhshan Province and smaller surrounding areas. The American-led invasion in October 2001 marked the first phase of what would become the 20-year-long War in Afghanistan.
After the September 11 attacks, American president George W. Bush demanded that the Taliban government extradite Osama bin Laden to the United States and also expel al-Qaeda militants from Afghanistan; bin Laden had been active in Afghanistan since the Soviet–Afghan War and was already wanted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation for his role in the 1998 United States embassy bombings. The Taliban declined to extradite bin Laden and further ignored demands to shut down terrorist bases or extradite other suspected terrorists. In response, the United States launched Operation Enduring Freedom on 7 October 2001, alongside the United Kingdom. The two countries were later joined by a large multinational force, including Afghanistan's local Northern Alliance. The invasion effort made rapid progress for the next two months as the coalition captured Kabul on November 13 and toppled the Taliban by 17 December, after which international military bases were set up near major cities across the country. However, most members of al-Qaeda and the Taliban were not captured: during the Battle of Tora Bora, several fighters including Osama bin Laden, the founder of al-Qaeda escaped into neighboring Pakistan or otherwise retreated to remote regions deep within the Hindu Kush.
In December 2001, the United Nations Security Council established the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) to oversee military operations in Afghanistan and also train the new Afghan National Security Forces. At the Bonn Conference that same month, Hamid Karzai was selected to lead the Afghan Interim Administration. Simultaneously, the Taliban's founding leader Muhammad Umar reorganized the movement to wage asymmetric warfare against the coalition, and by 2002, the group had launched an insurgency against the American-led war effort. Protracted fighting continued for the next two decades, and by mid-2021, the international coalition and the United States had begun to withdraw from the country amidst a nationwide Taliban offensive. In August 2021, the Taliban captured Kabul and toppled the Afghan government, re-establishing their rule in the form of a second Islamic emirate.
Background
In 2001, Afghanistan had been at war for over 20 years. The communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) seized power in 1978, and its policies sparked a popular uprising. The Soviet Union, sensing PDPA weakness, intervened in 1979 to support the regime. The entry of the Soviet Union into Afghanistan prompted its Cold War rivals, especially the United States and Saudi Arabia, to support rebels fighting against the Soviet-backed PDPA. While the secular and socialist government controlled the cities, religiously motivated mujahidin held sway in much of the countryside. The most important mujahidin commander was Ahmad Shah Massoud, who led the well-organized Tajik forces. The American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) worked closely with Pakistan's Inter-Service Intelligence (ISI) to funnel foreign support for the mujahidin. The war also attracted Arab volunteers, known as "Afghan Arabs", including Osama bin Laden.
After the withdrawal of the Soviet military from Afghanistan in February 1989, the PDPA regime collapsed in 1992. In the resulting power vacuum, the mujahidin leaders vied for dominance in a civil war from 1992 to 1996. By then, bin Laden had left the country. The United States' interest in Afghanistan also diminished. In 1994, a Pashtun mujahid named Muhammad Umar founded the Taliban movement in Kandahar. His followers were religious students and sought to end warlord rule through strict adherence to Islamic law. By the end of 1994, the Taliban had captured all of Kandahar Province.
Taliban vs. Northern Alliance (1996–2001)
In 1996, with military support from Pakistan and financial support from Saudi Arabia, the Taliban seized Kabul and founded the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. They imposed their fundamentalist interpretation of Islam in areas under their control, issuing edicts forbidding women to work outside the home or attend school and requiring them to abide by harsh rules on veiling and seclusion.
After the Taliban takeover of Kabul, Massoud retreated north to his native Panjshir Valley and formed a resistance movement against the Taliban, called the United Front or the Northern Alliance. In addition to Massoud's Tajik force, the United Front included Uzbeks under the former PDPA general Abdul Rashid Dostum and Hazara factions. The Northern Alliance received varying degrees of support from Russia, Iran, and India. Like the Taliban, Massoud also raised money by trafficking drugs. By 2001, the Taliban controlled 80% of the country, with the Northern Alliance confined to the country's northeast corner.
Al-Qaeda
After nearly five years of shelter, bin Laden was expelled from Sudan in 1996 and arrived in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. He had founded al-Qaeda in the late 1980s to continue jihad after the end of the Soviet–Afghan War. He moved al-Qaeda's operations to eastern Afghanistan and developed a close relationship with the Taliban. However some key Taliban members, such as the foreign minister Wakil Muttawakil, disapproved of the alliance with al-Qaeda because bin Laden's terrorist activities were complicating the Taliban's quest for international recognition of their government. In 2000 Muhammad Umar visited bin Laden and forbade him from attacking the United States while he was a guest of the Taliban. During the 1990s the CIA and Delta Force planned several operations to kill or capture bin Laden, but President Bill Clinton never ordered them to proceed.
Change in U.S. policy towards Afghanistan
During the early years of the Clinton administration, the US had no clear policy toward Afghanistan. The 1998 US embassy bombings, however, masterminded by al-Qaeda, provoked President Clinton to order missile strikes on militant training camps in Afghanistan; bin Laden was indicted for his involvement in the bombings. In 1999 both the US and the United Nations enacted sanctions against the Taliban in United Nations Security Council Resolution 1267, which demanded the Taliban surrender bin Laden for trial in the US and close all terrorist bases in Afghanistan. At the time, the only collaboration between Massoud and the US was an effort with the CIA to trace bin Laden. The US provided no support for Massoud's fight against the Taliban.
A change in US policy was effected in early September 2001. The Bush administration agreed on a plan to start supporting Massoud. A September 10 meeting of top national security officials agreed that the Taliban would be presented with an ultimatum to hand over bin Laden and other al-Qaeda operatives. If the Taliban refused, the US would provide covert military aid to anti-Taliban groups to attempt to overthrow the Taliban.
Military situation on the eve of the 9/11 attacks
On 9 September 2001, two al-Qaeda members posing as journalists killed Massoud by detonating a bomb hidden in their video camera during an interview. The assassination was a gift from bin Laden to the Taliban and left them poised to achieve total control over Afghanistan. Mohammed Fahim became the new leader of the Northern Alliance. The Alliance had 15,000–20,000 fighters distributed across five locations. On the Kabul front, Taliban and Northern Alliance forces faced each other from trenches across the Shomali Plain. The Takhar front extended from the Tajikistan border in the north to Parwan in the south, near Kabul. Dostum's forces were located south of Mazar-i-Sharif, the Hazaras under Muhammad Mohaqiq were in the central Hazarajat region, and Ismail Khan was near Herat.
The Taliban's military commander in the north was Mohammad Fazl. The Taliban military comprised approximately 45,000 Afghans and 2,700 foreign fighters, which included al-Qaeda's 055 Brigade. According to military analyst Ali Jalali, the 055 Brigade was only 400–600 strong, but its ties to bin Laden made it politically important. The foreign fighters included Arabs as well as Kashmiris, Chechens, Uzbeks, and Uyghurs. Several hundred officers from Pakistan's ISI were stationed in Afghanistan advising the Taliban. By mid-October, approximately 10,000 Pakistani volunteers crossed the border to augment the Taliban's forces. The volunteers were mostly madrasa students, some as young as 14.
Both sides primarily used Russian military equipment. The Northern Alliance had 14.5mm heavy machine guns, Russian artillery, T-72 tanks, and BMP-1 armored vehicles retrofitted with rocket pods from Soviet combat helicopters. Dostum's Uzbeks used horses for transportation. The Northern Alliance had 18 helicopters and three fixed-wing planes, used mostly for logistical purposes. The Taliban's equipment was similar to that of the Northern Alliance, and they also had Stinger missiles donated by the United States to the mujahidin during the Soviet–Afghan War. They relied on pickup trucks for mobility and operated as a "motorized light force." They had about 40 combat aircraft, operated by ex-PDPA pilots.
Both sides had a history of human rights abuses: Uzbeks and Hazaras had "massacred hundreds of Taliban prisoners and killed Pashtun villagers in the north and around Kabul", and the Taliban killed 5,000–8,000 civilians after they captured Mazar-i-Sharif in 1998. Afghanistan also faced a serious humanitarian crisis in 2001 due to drought; according to the United Nations, 5 million Afghans were in need of humanitarian aid that year and 3.8 million could not survive without UN food aid.
Prelude to the invasion
On the morning of September 11, 2001, al-Qaeda carried out four coordinated attacks on the United States, employing four hijacked jet airliners. The attacks killed almost 3,000 people and injured more than 6,000 others. By the early afternoon of 11 September, the CIA had confirmed that al-Qaeda was responsible for the attack. The Taliban condemned the attacks, but Umar issued a statement denying bin Laden's involvement. Although bin Laden eventually took responsibility for the 9/11 attacks in 2004, he initially denied having any involvement. One of bin Laden's strategic goals was to draw the US into a costly war in Afghanistan, so it could be defeated just as the USSR had been.
Diplomatic and political activity
On the evening of September 11, President Bush stated the US would respond to the attacks and would "make no distinction between those who planned these acts and those who harbor them." On 14 September 2001, Congress passed legislation titled Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists, authorizing military force against al-Qaeda and its supporters. President Bush addressed Congress on September 20 and demanded the Taliban deliver bin Laden and al-Qaeda or face war.
On the same day, a grand council of 300 or 700 Muslim clerics across Afghanistan, who had convened to decide bin Laden's fate, issued a fatwa recommending that the Islamic Emirate ask bin Laden to leave their country. The fatwa went on to warn that should the United States invade Afghanistan, jihad would become obligatory until the invaders were expelled. On September 21, Muhammad Umar rejected both Bush's demands and the advice of the council, again denying that bin Laden was responsible for 9/11.
Simultaneously, the US urged Pakistan to end its support for the Taliban regime and to pressure Muhammad Umar to hand over bin Laden. On September 12, the US demanded Pakistan close its border with the Taliban and share intelligence with the Bush administration. US pressure on Pakistan reportedly included an ultimatum that Pakistan declares itself either a friend or a foe and the threat to "turn Pakistan back to the stone age". Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf agreed and sent the ISI director-general to negotiate with the Taliban. Muhammad Umar told Pakistan that he would be willing to turn bin Laden over to a third country, but the US refused, demanding a direct handover.
Meanwhile, Umar authorized his deputy Akhtar Mohammad Osmani to negotiate with Robert Grenier, the CIA's chief of station in Pakistan, to discuss giving up bin Laden. The two met in Quetta on 15 September and 2 October. During the latter meeting, Grenier, aware that Osmani belonged to the moderate faction of the Taliban and was not fond of bin Laden, proposed that Osmani seize power in Afghanistan. He offered CIA assistance in the coup on the condition that Osmani would hand over bin Laden afterwards. Although Osmani initially showed some interest in the proposal, they ultimately failed to reach an agreement.
On 4 October the British government released a document summarizing the evidence linking bin Laden to the attacks. That same day, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) invoked Article V of the North Atlantic Treaty for the first time in its history; Article V states that an attack on one member of the alliance is to be considered an attack on all members. On October 7, as the US aerial bombing campaign began, President Bush stated, "Full warning has been given, and time is running out."
Planning
In 2001, the Defense Department did not have a pre-existing plan for an invasion of Afghanistan. Therefore, the plan approved by Bush was devised by the CIA, reusing elements of the agency's previous contingency plans for collaboration with the Northern Alliance against the Taliban. Bush met with his cabinet at Camp David on 15 September for a war planning session. The military presented three options for military action in Afghanistan: The first was a cruise missile strike, the second was a combined cruise missile and bombing campaign lasting 3–10 days, and the third called for cruise missile and bomber strikes as well as ground forces operating inside Afghanistan. The CIA also presented its war plan, which involved inserting paramilitary teams to work with the Northern Alliance and, eventually, American Special Forces units. The planners wanted to minimize the use of American ground forces, to avoid provoking the Afghan population as the British and Russians had done. On 17 September Bush approved the CIA's plan and directed the military to develop a detailed war plan based on the third option from Camp David. Planning efforts were hindered because the Taliban had little physical infrastructure for the military to target. Early plans by the Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) included poisoning the Afghan food supply and raiding a fertilizer factory that JSOC believed could be used to make chemical weapons.
The military completed its war plan by 21 September and called it Operation Infinite Justice. This name was deemed culturally insensitive because Islamic theology only deems God's justice to be infinite, so Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld changed the name to Operation Enduring Freedom.
The US aimed to destroy al-Qaeda and remove the Taliban regime from power, but also sought to prevent the Northern Alliance from taking control of Afghanistan, believing the Alliance's rule would alienate the country's Pashtun majority. CIA director George Tenet argued that the US should target al-Qaeda but "hold off on the Taliban," since the Taliban were popular in Pakistan and attacking them could jeopardize relations with Pakistan.
Humanitarian situation in Afghanistan
At the time of the invasion, the humanitarian situation in Afghanistan was dire, and the attacks in the United States caused thousands of Afghans to attempt to flee fearing potential U.S. military action - this on top of millions that were already refugees in regional countries due to the continuous conflict already in place for 22 years. Food stock was running critically low and almost all aid workers had left the country after the attacks. Barry Bearak in a New York Times article described Afghanistan as a "post-apocalyptic place of felled cities, parched land and downtrodden people." Seventy percent of the population was undernourished in 2001, and the life expectancy was ranked two places from bottom in the world.
Fox News suggested on 27 September that "millions" of Afghans would possibly starve, amid the paralyzed relief network, closed border crossings, and the cold winter approaching. The U.N. refugee agency feared that the scale of the crisis could reach the peaks of that in Bosnia and Rwanda.
Overthrow of the Taliban
Command structure
The invasion consisted of American, British, Canadian, and Australian forces, with other countries providing logistical support. General Tommy Franks of US Central Command (CENTCOM) was the overall commander for Operation Enduring Freedom. He led four task forces: the Combined Joint Special Operations Task Force (CJSOTF), Combined Joint Task Force Mountain (CJTF-Mountain), the Joint Interagency Task Force-Counterterrorism (JIATF-CT), and the Coalition Joint Civil-Military Operations Task Force (CJCMOTF).
CJSOTF consisted of three subordinate task forces: Joint Special Operations Task Force-North (JSOTF-North or Task Force Dagger), Joint Special Operations Task Force-South (JSOTF-South or Task Force K-Bar) and Task Force Sword (later renamed Task Force 11). Task Force Dagger was led by Colonel James Mulholland and was formed around his 5th Special Forces Group with helicopter support from the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (160th SOAR). Dagger was assigned to the north of Afghanistan and Task Force K-Bar was assigned to southern Afghanistan. K-Bar was led by Navy SEAL Captain Robert Harward and formed around SEAL Teams 2, 3 and 8 and Green Berets from 1st Battalion, 3rd Special Forces Group. The task force principally conducted special reconnaissance and sensitive site exploitation missions. Most coalition contributions were arrayed under K-Bar, including New Zealand's Special Air Service, Canada's Joint Task Force 2, and Germany's Kommando Spezialkräfte. Task Force Sword was the Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) component of the mission. Task Force Sword's primary objective was capturing or killing senior leadership within al-Qaeda and the Taliban. Sword was structured around a two-squadron component of operators from Delta Force and SEAL Team Six was supported by a Ranger force protection team, an Intelligence Support Activity (ISA) signals intercept and surveillance team, and the 160th SOAR. The British Special Boat Service was integrated directly into Sword's structure.
Alongside the SOF task forces operated the largely conventional CJTF-Mountain. Mountain initially comprised three subordinate commands, but only one was a special operations force – Task Force 64, a special forces task group built around a sabre squadron from the Australian SAS. The US Marines contributed Task Force 58, consisting of the 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit. The JIATF-CT (also known as Task Force Bowie), led by Brigadier General Gary Harrell, was an intelligence integration and fusion activity composed of personnel from all participating units. Bowie numbered 36 military personnel and 57 from agencies such as the FBI, NSA, and CIA, as well as liaison officers from coalition SOF. Administratively embedded within Bowie was Advanced Force Operations (AFO). AFO was a 45-man reconnaissance unit made up of Delta Force reconnaissance specialists augmented by selected SEALs and supported by ISA's technical experts. AFO had been raised to support TF Sword and was tasked with intelligence preparation of the battlefield, working closely with the CIA and reporting directly to TF Sword. AFO conducted covert reconnaissance along the border with Pakistan. The AFO operators deployed observation posts to watch and report enemy movements and numbers and conduct environmental reconnaissance. The final task force supporting the invasion was CJCMOTF, which would manage civil affairs and humanitarian efforts.
First move
On 26 September, fifteen days after 9/11, the US covertly inserted (via CIA-piloted Mi-17 helicopter) 10 members of the CIA into the Panjshir Valley, Massoud's stronghold. The CIA mission was led by Gary Schroen and designated the Northern Afghanistan Liaison Team, known by the call-sign 'Jawbreaker'. In addition to specialized human assets, the team brought a metal case containing $3 million in $100 bills to buy support. Jawbreaker linked up with General Mohammed Fahim, commander of the Northern Alliance forces in the Panjshir Valley, and prepared the way for introduction of Army Special Forces. The Jawbreaker team brought satellite communications equipment, enabling its intelligence reports to be instantly available to CIA headquarters. The team also assessed potential targets for Operation Crescent Wind, provided in-extremis combat search and rescue (CSAR), and could provide bomb damage assessment for the air campaign. To allow fixed-wing aircraft to land in the area, the team refurbished an airstrip at Gulbahar built by the British in 1919.
On 28 September, British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw approved the deployment of MI6 officers to Afghanistan, utilizing people involved with the mujahidin in the 1980s, who had language skills and regional expertise. At month's end, a handful of MI6 officers landed in northeast Afghanistan and met with Fahim. They began working with other contacts in the north and south to build alliances, secure support, and bribe as many Taliban commanders as possible to change sides or leave the fight. Two more CIA teams soon arrived, operating near Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif.
Initial air strikes
On 7 October, the US began military operations in Afghanistan with air strikes on 31 targets across the country. Most of the Taliban's outdated SA-2 and SA-3 surface-to-air missiles, small fleet of MIG-21s and Su-22s, and radar and command units were destroyed on the first night. On the same night the CIA conducted the first-ever air strike with a Predator drone. The Predator was loitering over Muhammad Umar's house and followed several men who left the house. CIA analysts believed that Umar was in the group, which drove first to the house of Umar's mother and then to a school west of Kandahar. The men stayed in the school for several hours and the CIA requested that the Air Force strike the school with a conventional bomb, but Franks denied the request, citing the risk of collateral damage and uncertainty over whether Umar was really there. The CIA fired the Predator's Hellfire missile at a truck outside to draw the men out; the men left the school, and Umar escaped. Predator drones had been in development since the early 1990s, had been used to search for bin Laden since 2000, and had even been proposed as a means of assassinating bin Laden before 9/11. The employment of armed Predators in Afghanistan marked the start of a new era of drone warfare.
US aircraft bombed Taliban training camps and air defenses over the next several days, employing Apache helicopter gunships from the 101st Combat Aviation Brigade. US Navy cruisers, destroyers and Royal Navy submarines launched several Tomahawk cruise missiles. Within a few days, most Taliban training sites were severely damaged and air defenses destroyed. The campaign focused on command, control, and communications targets. The front facing the Northern Alliance held, and no battlefield successes were achieved there. The United States dropped 1500 munitions in the first week of bombing. They also began airdropping food and medical supplies to civilians in Northern Alliance-controlled territory. By the second week of the campaign most of the preplanned targets had been destroyed.
On 19 October, Operational Detachment Alpha (ODA) teams 555 and 595, both 12-man Green Beret teams from the 5th Special Forces Group, plus Air Force Combat Controllers, were airlifted by helicopter from the Karshi-Khanabad Air Base in Uzbekistan more than across the Hindu Kush mountains in zero-visibility conditions by MH-47E Chinook helicopters from 2nd Battalion 160th SOAR. ODA 555 went to the Panjshir Valley to link up with the NALT and Fahim, and ODA 595 went to the Darya Suf Valley, just south of Mazar-i-Sharif, to work with Dostum.
In mid-October, A and G squadron of the British 22nd SAS Regiment, reinforced by members of the Territorial SAS regiments, deployed to northwest Afghanistan in support of Enduring Freedom. They conducted largely uneventful reconnaissance under the code-name Operation Determine, none of which resulted in enemy contact. They traveled in Land Rover Desert Patrol Vehicles and modified all-terrain vehicles (ATVs). Both squadrons returned to their barracks in the UK after two weeks.
Operation Rhino and Objective Gecko
On the night of October 19, simultaneous with the Special Forces entering the country, 200 Rangers from the 3rd Battalion, 75th Ranger Regiment, parachuted onto Objective Rhino—a landing strip south of Kandahar. The landing strip had been built as part of an Emirati hunting camp. Before the Rangers dropped, B-2 Spirit stealth bombers and AC-130 gunships bombed and strafed the site, meeting the resistance of only one Taliban fighter. The Rangers provided security while a forward arming and refuelling point (FARP) was established using fuel bladders from MC-130s, to refuel aircraft flying to the next objective. The mission was filmed by combat cameramen and a P-3C Orion observation plane flying overhead. No US casualties were suffered in the operation itself (two Rangers received minor injuries in the jump), but two Rangers assigned to a CSAR element supporting the mission were killed when their MH-60L helicopter crashed at a temporary staging site in Dalbandin, Pakistan, due to a brownout.
Simultaneously, a squadron of Delta Force operatives supported by Rangers from Task Force Sword conducted an operation—designated Objective Gecko—outside Kandahar at Muhammad Umar's residential compound. Four MH-47E helicopters took off from the USS Kitty Hawk (which was serving as a SOF base) in the Indian Ocean carrying 91 soldiers. The assault teams were drawn from Delta, while teams from the Rangers secured the perimeter and occupied blocking positions. Before the soldiers were inserted, the target area was softened by preparatory fire from AC-130s and MH-60L Direct Action Penetrators. The assaulters met no resistance and there was no sign of the Taliban leader, so they searched the target location for intelligence, while their helicopters refueled at the newly established FARP in Rhino. The next day, the Pentagon showed the video footage from Objective Rhino at a press conference and distributed it to news organizations. Intelligence prior to the missions had indicated that neither objective had any Taliban forces on it. According to former Delta Force officer Peter Blaber, the JSOC commander Dell Dailey "believed that if we raided empty targets in Afghanistan and filmed the raids for the world to see... we would have some kind of morale-breaking effect on the enemy."
Continued air strikes
The Green Berets of ODA 595 split into two elements, Alpha and Bravo. Alpha rode on horseback with General Dostum to his headquarters to plan an assault on Mazar-i-Sharif. Bravo was tasked with clearing the Darya Suf Valley of Taliban and to travel into the Alma Tak Mountains to conduct reconnaissance. Dostum and General Atta Muhammad Nur had been fighting the Taliban in the Darya Suf Valley throughout the summer and had gradually lost ground. The valley ran north to south and Dostum had established his headquarters near the village of Dehi—60 miles south of Mazar-i-Sharif—because the rugged terrain prevented Taliban tanks from moving that far into the valley.
On 21 October, the Alpha element of ODA 595 guided in the first Joint Direct Attack Munition bomb from a B-52, impressing Dostum. As part of its operations, the Americans beamed in radio broadcasts in both Pashto and Dari calling al-Qaeda and the Taliban criminals and promising US$25 million to anyone who would provide information leading to bin Laden's whereabouts.
On 23 October, the anti-Taliban Pashtun leader Abdul Haq entered Afghanistan with about 20 supporters and tried to raise a revolt against the Taliban in Nangarhar. Haq was among the most famous commanders of the anti-Soviet jihad, during which he had been wounded sixteen times and lost a foot. The Taliban captured and executed him.
On 25 October, ODA 585 infiltrated an area near Kunduz to work alongside warlord Burillah Khan. The same night, three Delta Force operators flew into the Panjshir and began working with the CIA Jawbreaker team to plan an important hostage rescue mission. In early August 2001 the Taliban had imprisoned eight employees of a Christian aid organization named Shelter Now, on charges of proselytizing. Held in Kabul, the prisoners included two Americans, Heather Mercer and Dayna Curry. They faced the death penalty if convicted. Since their arrival in Afghanistan, the CIA team had been using Northern Alliance intermediaries to contact Taliban officials and attempted to bribe them to release the prisoners, without success. Delta Force specialized in hostage rescue and began planning to infiltrate Kabul with 50–60 operators, disguised as an al-Qaeda convoy, to extract the prisoners. Planning and rehearsal for the mission, which also included an element from Seal Team Six, continued for the next three weeks, but execution was delayed because the Taliban frequently moved the Shelter Now employees between two prisons in Kabul.
At the beginning of November, US aircraft shifted from attacking strategic targets to striking the Taliban front lines. On 2 November, ODA 553 inserted into Bamyan and linked up with General Karim Khalili's forces; ODA 534 was also inserted into the Balkh River Valley after being delayed by weather for several nights, near Dostum and ODA 595. Its role was to support General Atta in a drive on Mazar-i-Sharif, coordinated with Dostum. Bravo team of ODA 595 conducted airstrikes in the Darya Suf Valley, cutting off and destroying Taliban reinforcements and frustrating Taliban attempts to relieve their embattled forces in the north. Cumulatively, the near constant airstrikes had begun to have a decisive effect and the Taliban began to withdraw toward Mazar-i-Sharif. Dostum's forces and Alpha team of ODA 595 followed, working their way north through the valley. On November 5, Dostum and Atta began a coordinated assault on the village of Baluch. Dostum prepared his men to follow a bombing run from a B-52 with a cavalry charge, but one of Dostum's lieutenants misunderstood an order and sent 400 Uzbek horsemen charging toward the Taliban lines as the bomber made its final approach. The bomb landed just in time on the Taliban positions and the cavalry charge succeeded in breaking the Taliban defenses. Dostum and Atta then entered the Balkh Valley and continued towards Mazar-i-Sharif.
On the Shomali Plain, ODA 555 and the CIA Jawbreaker team attached to Fahim Khan's forces began calling airstrikes on entrenched Taliban positions at the southeastern end of the former Soviet air base at Bagram Airfield. The Green Berets set up an observation post in a disused air traffic control tower and guided in two BLU-82 Daisy Cutter bombs, which caused heavy Taliban casualties. On November 8, ODAs 586 and 594 infiltrated into Afghanistan in MH-47s and picked up on the Afghan–Tajik border by CIA-flown MI-17s. ODA 586 deployed to Kunduz with the forces of General Daoud Khan and ODA 594 deployed into the Panjshir to assist the men of ODA 555. Among the individuals in ODA 594 was 71 year old Billy Waugh, who had tracked Osama bin Laden in Kartoum during the 1980s.
Fall of Mazar-i-Sharif
Mazar-i-Sharif was important as the home of the sacred Muslim site of the Shrine of Ali, and as a transportation hub, with two major airports and a bridge into Uzbekistan. Taking the city would enable humanitarian aid to alleviate a looming food crisis, which threatened more than six million people with starvation. Many of those in most urgent need lived in rural areas to the south and west of Mazar-i-Sharif. Dostum and Atta fought their way up the Balkh Valley and on 8 November reached the Tanghi Pass, the gateway between the valley and Mazar-i-Sharif. The pass was heavily defended, but the Northern Alliance seized it on November 9, triggering a Taliban retreat from Mazar-i-Sharif. The Northern Alliance entered the city on November 10.
The fall of the city was a "major shock"; the US Central Command originally believed it would remain in Taliban hands well into the following year. US Army Civil Affairs Teams from the 96th Civil Affairs Battalion, and Tactical Psychological Operations Teams from the 4th Psychological Operations Group, were immediately deployed to begin reconstruction in Mazar-i-Sharif.
On 10 November, operators from C squadron Special Boat Service, inserted via two C-130s into the recently captured Bagram Airfield, caused a political quandary with the Northern Alliance leadership, who claimed the British had failed to consult them on the deployment. The Northern Alliance foreign minister Abdullah Abdullah considered the uninvited arrival to be a violation of sovereignty, and complained to the head of the CIA field office, threatening to resign if the British did not withdraw. The British government had alerted the deputy head of the United Nations mission in Afghanistan that they were deploying troops to Bagram, albeit on short notice. Arriving on the first flight, Brigadier Graeme Lamb—the Director Special Forces at that time—simply ignored Abdullah and drove to the Panjshir Valley, where he paid his respects to Ahmad Shah Massoud's grave and held talks with Northern Alliance leaders. The British Foreign Secretary tried to reassure the Northern Alliance that the deployment was not a vanguard of a British peacekeeping army, but Northern Alliance leaders did not believe them; with the threat of the Northern Alliance opening fire on incoming troop transports, the deployment was put on hold.
On 11 November, in the central north of Afghanistan, ODA 586 was advising General Daoud Khan outside the city of Taloqan and coordinating a batch of preparatory airstrikes, when the General surprised the Americans by launching an impromptu mass infantry assault on the Taliban holding the city. The city fell before the first bomb could be dropped.
Fall of Kabul
On 12 November, the US tracked and killed al-Qaeda's number three, Muhammad Atif, with an air strike in Kabul. That day the Taliban abandoned Kabul and decided to regroup in Jalalabad and Kandahar. Taliban forces evacuated by the end of 13 November, and Northern Alliance forces (supported by ODA 555) arrived took control of the city the following afternoon. During their retreat, the Taliban took the Shelter Now prisoners with them, but abandoned them in a prison in Ghazni on 13 November. Anti-Taliban Afghans freed the prisoners, who had found a satellite phone and used it to call the American embassy in Pakistan. SEAL Team Six used Chinook helicopters to extract the prisoners from Ghazni on the night of November 14 and take them to Pakistan.
The fall of Kabul started a cascading collapse of Taliban positions. Within 24 hours, all Afghan provinces along the Iranian border had fallen, including Herat. Local Pashtun commanders and warlords had taken over throughout northeastern Afghanistan, including Jalalabad; Taliban holdouts in the north fell back to the city of Kunduz, while others retreated to their heartland in southeastern Afghanistan, around Kandahar.
In the midst of the retreat, Delta Force conducted a high-altitude, low-opening (HALO) jump northeast of Kandahar to call in airstrikes on targets retreating from Kabul, the first combat HALO jump conducted at night by the United States since the Vietnam War. By 13 November, al-Qaeda and Taliban forces—possibly including bin Laden—were concentrating in Tora Bora, southwest of Jalalabad. Nearly 2,000 al-Qaeda and Taliban fighters fortified themselves within bunkers and caves. On November 16 the US began bombing the mountain redoubt. Around the same time, CIA and Special Forces operatives worked in the area, enlisting local warlords and planning an attack.
Objective Wolverine, Objective Raptor, and Operation Relentless Strike
On 13 November, the 75th Ranger Regiment carried out its second combat parachute drop into Afghanistan. A platoon-sized Ranger security element, including a team from the Ranger Reconnaissance Detachment and accompanied by eight Air Force Special Tactical operators, parachuted into a dry lake bed southwest of Kandahar and secured the area. A pair of MC-130 cargo planes then landed in the lake bed and deposited four AH-6J Little Bird helicopters from the 160th SOAR. The Little Birds flew to a Taliban compound near Kandahar codenamed Objective Wolverine and destroyed it. They returned to the lake bed to rearm and refuel, then launched another strike against a second site called Objective Raptor. After the second strike they went back to the lake bed, loaded onto the MC-130s and flew back to Oman. Several nights later, beginning on November 16, a series of missions codenamed Operation Relentless Strike took place. On the first night, the Rangers drove modified HMMWVs and Land Rovers to secure a remote desert airstrip. The Little Birds then flew in on MC-130s and conducted a search and destroy mission along Highway 1. The Little Birds conducted similar search and destroy missions over the next several nights.
Battle of Tarinkot
On 14 November, ODA 574 and Hamid Karzai inserted into Uruzgan Province via 4 MH-60K helicopters with a small force of guerrillas. Karzai was the leader of the Pashtun Popalzai tribe and had been an enemy of the Taliban since they assassinated his father in 1999. He had entered Afghanistan with three other men on 9 October, but was almost killed by the Taliban, and was extracted by the CIA on 4 November. Once he returned he began to move towards the town of Tarinkot. Responding to the approach of Karzai's forces, the inhabitants of the town of Tarinkot revolted and expelled their Taliban administrators. Karzai traveled to Tarinkot to meet with the town elders. While he was there, the Taliban marshaled a force of 300–500 men to retake the town. Karzai's small force, plus the American contingent, deployed in the town's front to block the Taliban's advance. Relying heavily on close air support, the American and Afghan force managed to drive the Taliban away from the town.
The defeat of the Taliban at Tarinkot was an important victory for Karzai, who used it to recruit more men to his fledgling guerrilla band. His force would grow in size to a peak of around 800 men. Soon afterwards, they left Tarinkot and began advancing on Kandahar.
Siege of Kunduz and alleged Pakistani airlift
Task Force Dagger's attention focused on the last northern Taliban stronghold, Kunduz. As the bombardment at Tora Bora grew, the Siege of Kunduz continued. General Daoud and ODA 586 had initiated massive coalition airstrikes to demoralize the Taliban defenders. After 11 days of fighting and bombardment, Taliban fighters surrendered to Northern Alliance forces on 23 November. Shortly before the surrender, Pakistani aircraft arrived to evacuate intelligence and military personnel who had been aiding the Taliban's fight against the Northern Alliance, including Taliban and al-Qaeda leaders. The details of the airlift are disputed. Investigative reporter Seymour Hersh alleged that up to five thousand people were evacuated, while Karzai stated that, "even the Americans did not know who got away." The United States government denied that the airlift occurred, with Secretary Rumsfeld saying, "neither Pakistan nor any other country flew any planes into Afghanistan to evacuate anybody."
Operation Trent
The British Special Air Service (SAS) played a small role in the early stages of the war because American SOF commanders guarded targets for their own units. It took political intercession from Prime Minister Tony Blair for the SAS to be given a direct-action task – the destruction of an al-Qaeda-linked opium production facility. The facility was located southwest of Kandahar and defended by between 80 and 100 foreign fighters, with a defense of trench lines and several makeshift bunkers. The SAS were ordered to assault the facility in full daylight because CENTCOM would not provide air support for a night raid. The timing meant that the squadrons could not carry out a detailed reconnaissance prior to the assault. Despite these factors, the commanding officer of 22 SAS accepted the mission. The target was a low priority for the US and probably would have been destroyed from the air if the British had not argued for a larger role in Afghanistan.
The mission began in November 2001, with an 8-man patrol from G Squadron's Air Troop performing the regiments first wartime HALO parachute jump. The patrol landed at a desert location in Registan to assess its suitability as an improvised airstrip for the landing of the main assault force in C-130 Hercules cargo aircraft. The Air Troop advance team confirmed the site was suitable and later that day the C-130s landed and disembarked the SAS in their vehicles. The assault force was composed of operators from A and G Squadrons driving 38 Land Rover Desert Patrol Vehicles, two logistics vehicles, and eight Kawasaki dirt bikes. The assault force drove to a release point and split into two elements. A squadron was the assault force and G Squadron provided fire support.
The assault began with a preparatory airstrike, after which A Squadron dismounted from their vehicles and closed in on the target on foot. G Squadron provided covering fire with heavy weapons, and air support flew sorties until running out of munitions. On a final pass, a US Navy F-18 Hornet strafed a bunker with its 20mm cannon, which narrowly missed several members of G Squadron. When the A Squadron assault force reached the objective, they cleared the HQ building and gathered all intelligence materials they could find. The mission lasted four hours and four SAS operators were wounded; the operation was the largest British SAS operation in history.
Battle of Qala-i-Jangi
On 25 November, as Taliban prisoners were moved into Qala-i-Jangi fortress near Mazar-i-Sharif, a few Taliban attacked their Northern Alliance guards. This incident triggered a revolt by 600 prisoners, who soon seized the southern half of the fortress, including an armory stocked with AK-47s, RPGs and crew-served weapons. Johnny Micheal Spann, one of two CIA SAD operatives at the fortress who had been interrogating prisoners, was killed, marking America's first combat death.
The other CIA operator, Dave Olson, managed to make contact with CENTCOM, which relayed his request for assistance to SOF troops at a TF Dagger safe house in Mazar-i-Sharif. The safe house housed members of Delta Force, some Green Berets and a small team from M squadron SBS. A quick reaction force was immediately formed from whoever was in the safe house at the time: a headquarters element from 3rd Battalion, 5th SFG, a pair of USAF liaison officers, a handful of CIA SAD operators and the SBS team. The 8-man SBS team arrived in Land Rovers and the Green Berets and CIA operatives arrived in minivans and began engaging the prisoners, fighting a pitched battle to suppress the uprising, letting Olson escape. The operators then turned their attention to recovering Spann's body. Over the course of four days the battle continued, with Green Berets calling in multiple airstrikes on the Taliban prisoners. During one CAS mission a Joint Direct Attack Munition was misdirected and hit the ground close to the Coalition and Northern Alliance positions, wounding five Green Berets and four SBS operators.
AC-130 gunships kept up aerial bombardments throughout the night. The following day (November 27) the siege was broken when Northern Alliance T-55 tanks were brought into the central courtyard to fire shells into several block houses containing Taliban fighters. Fighting continued sporadically throughout the week, and the Taliban were finished by Dostum's Northern Alliance forces. The combined Green Beret–SBS team recovered Spann's body on November 26.
The revolt ended on December 1 after seven days of fighting. 86 Taliban survived out of 1,000 that had been in the prison, and around 50 Northern Alliance soldiers were killed.
Consolidation: the fall of Kandahar
ODA 574 and Hamid Karzai began moving on Kandahar, gathering fighters from friendly local Pashtun tribes. At the strategic Sayd-Aum-Kalay Bridge they fought for two days with the Taliban, eventually seizing it with the help of US airpower, opening the road to Kandahar.
ODA 583 had infiltrated the Shin-Narai Valley southeast of Kandahar to support Gul Agha Sherzai, the former governor of Kandahar. The ODA established covert observation posts by November 24, allowing them to call in fire on Taliban positions. By the end of November, Kandahar was the Taliban's last stronghold, and was coming under increasing pressure. Nearly 3,000 tribal fighters under Karzai and 350 under Sherzai pressured Taliban forces from the east and cut off northern supply lines to Kandahar.
Meanwhile, nearly 1,000 US Marines ferried in by CH-53E Super Stallion helicopters and C-130s set up a Forward Operating Base known as Camp Rhino in the desert south of Kandahar on 25 November (Camp Rhino was located at Objective Rhino, the same airstrip seized by the Rangers on 19 October). On 26 November, 15 Taliban armored vehicles approached the base and were attacked by helicopter gunships, destroying many of them.
On 5 December, a GPS-guided bomb landed among the Green Berets from ODA 574, killing 3 members and wounding the rest of the team. Over 20 of Karzai's militia were also killed and Karzai himself was slightly wounded. A Delta Force unit that had been operating nearby on a classified reconnaissance mission arrived in their Pinzgauers and secured the site, while Delta medics treated the wounded Green Berets.
On 6 December, Karzai was informed that he would be the next president of Afghanistan. He also negotiated the successful surrender of both the remaining Taliban forces and the city of Kandahar. Karzai's militia began their final push to clear the city. The US government rejected amnesty for Umar or any Taliban leaders. On 7 December, Sherzai's forces seized Kandahar airport and moved into the city. Umar departed Kandahar and disappeared; he may have gone to Zabul, Helmand, or Pakistan. Other Taliban leaders fled to Pakistan through the remote passes of Paktia and Paktika.
In early December, as the US invasion was almost over, 7,500 Taliban prisoners were transported from Kunduz to Sheberghan prison by Junbish-i Milli, a group led by Dostum. Hundreds to 2,000 of the Taliban prisoners suffocated in the overcrowded metal shipping containers on trucks or were shot dead in an incident known as the Dasht-i-Leili massacre. Some were shot dead when guards shot air holes into the containers. The dead were buried in graves in the Dasht-i-Leili desert just west of Sheberghan, in the Jowzjan Province. Physicians for Human Rights discovered the mass grave in 2002, but the Bush administration discouraged attempts to investigate the incident.
Battle of Tora Bora: Osama bin Laden escapes to Pakistan
After the fall of Kabul and Kandahar, suspected al-Qaeda members, including bin Laden and other key leaders, withdrew to Jalalabad, Nangarhar Province. From there they moved into the Tora Bora region of the Spin Ghar (White Mountains), 20 km away from the Pakistan border, which had a network of caves and prepared defenses used by the mujahidin during the Soviet–Afghan War. Signal intercepts and interrogation of captured Taliban fighters and al-Qaeda terrorists pointed towards the presence of significant numbers of foreign fighters and possible senior leaders in the area. Instead of committing conventional forces, both the White House and the Pentagon decided to isolate and destroy al-Qaeda elements in the area with the US SOF supporting locally recruited Afghan militias, due to a fear of repeating the Soviet's experience in the area.
ODA 572 and a CIA team were dispatched to Tora Bora to advise eastern anti-Taliban militias under the command of two warlords: Hazrat Ali and Mohammed Zaman. Hazrat Ali and Zaman distrusted each other, and during the battle their militias sometimes shot at each other. Using CIA funds, some 1,000 Afghan fighters were recruited for the coming battle. The leader of the CIA team was Gary Berntsen, who in November had replaced Gary Schroen as the senior CIA officer in Afghanistan. On 2 December Berntsen requested a battalion of Rangers be dropped into the mountains to establish blocking positions along potential escape routes out of Tora Bora into Pakistan. In addition to the Rangers, other available forces included 1,000 Marines under Brigadier General Jim Mattis in Kandahar and soldiers from the 10th Mountain Division in Uzbekistan. Franks denied Berntsen's request.
From the outset of the battle, ODA 572 with its attached Combat Controller called in precision airstrikes, whilst the Afghans launched a number of poorly executed attacks on established al-Qaeda positions, with limited success. The militias would typically gain ground in the morning following US airstrikes, but relinquish control of those gains the same day. They would also retreat to their base areas to sleep and break their fast each night, since the battle occurred during Ramadan, the month when Muslims do not eat or drink during the day. With the Afghan offensive stalled and the CIA and ODA teams overstretched, Franks decided to deploy special operations soldiers from JSOC into the battle on 9 December.
Forty operators from A Squadron Delta Force deployed forward to Tora Bora and assumed tactical command of the battle from the CIA. With the Delta squadron were a dozen of so members of the British SBS. The Delta operators were deployed in small teams embedded within the militias and sent their own operators out to search for bin Laden. Eventually, with the assistance of Green Berets and CIA operators, the militias made progress. The Delta squadron commander agreed with the Jawbreaker assessment of the situation and requested blocking forces or the scattering of aerial landmines to deny mountain passes to the enemy. Since the deployment of the Ranger battalion had been denied, he requested that his operators carryout the proposed role but all his requests were denied by General Franks. On 12 December, two weeks into the battle, Zaman opened negotiations with the trapped al-Qaeda and Taliban in Tora Bora. Against the wishes of the Americans and British, Zaman called a temporary truce to allow al-Qaeda to surrender. This truce was a ruse to allow as many as several hundred al-Qaeda and members of the 055 Brigade to escape over night toward Pakistan. According to journalist Peter Bergen, bin Laden left Tora Bora on the night of 12 December and went to Kunar Province.
The following day, a handheld radio recovered from the body of a dead al-Qaeda fighter allowed members of the Delta squadron, SBS, CIA, and MI6 to hear bin Laden's voice – apparently apologizing to his followers for leading them to Tora Bora and giving his blessing for their surrender – thought to be a recording addressed to the terrorists that stayed to fight a rearguard action to allow bin Laden to escape. The leader of the CIA Jawbreaker team at Tora Bora believed that two large al-Qaeda groups escaped: the smaller group of 130 jihadis escaped east into Pakistan, while the second group including bin Laden and 200 Saudi and Yemeni jihadis took the route across the mountains to the town of Parachinar, Pakistan. The Delta squadron commander believed that bin Laden crossed the border into Pakistan sometime around 16 December. A Delta reconnaissance team, call-sign 'Jackal', spotted a tall man wearing a camouflage jacket with a large number of fighters entering a cave. The team called in multiple airstrikes on the presumption that it was bin Laden, but later DNA analysis from the remains did not match bin Laden's. With the majority of the enemy gone, the battle came to an end on 17 December.
On 20 December, ODA 561 was inserted into the White Mountains to support ODA 572 in gathering intelligence in the caves and to assist with recovering DNA samples from terrorist bodies. US and UK forces continued searching into January, but no sign of al-Qaeda leadership emerged. An estimated 220 al-Qaeda fighters were killed during the battle and 52 prisoners were taken. No American or British personnel were killed.
In subsequent years, the military was heavily criticized for not deploying ground forces into Tora Bora to capture bin Laden. According to journalist Sean Naylor, Franks opposed the idea because he was "obsessed with not repeating the Soviets' mistake of deploying large conventional formations into Afghanistan," believing it would provoke popular resistance. Another possible explanation is that his attention was elsewhere – Franks spent December 12, the day bin Laden may have escaped, briefing Secretary Rumsfeld on his plan for invading Iraq. There were also logistical obstacles: airlift assets in Afghanistan were limited, so transporting a large ground force to the Spin Ghar and resupplying it was "essentially impossible," according to an official Army history. Mattis, however, developed a plan that he thought logistically feasible – to drop artillery observers on the mountain passes with five days of sustainment to reduce resupply requirements.
Inter-Afghan political settlement
In late November 2001 the United Nations hosted the Bonn Conference; the Taliban were excluded, while three Afghan opposition groups participated. Observers included representatives of neighboring and other involved major countries. The resulting Bonn Agreement created the Afghan Interim Authority and outlined the Bonn Process that would lead towards a new constitution and a new Afghan government. Following the Bonn Conference, tribal leaders and former exiles established an interim government in Kabul under Hamid Karzai.
Casualties and war crimes
The Costs of War Project at Brown University estimated that between 1,537 and 2,375 civilians were killed during the invasion. Northern Alliance casualties are unknown. United States casualties were 12 military personnel and one CIA officer (Mike Spann), while the Taliban suffered 8,000 to 12,000 killed. According to Human Rights Watch, during the invasion the Northern Alliance "carried out systematic attacks on Pashtun villages, raping women, summarily executing civilians, and stealing livestock and land."
Logistics
A landlocked country with forbidding terrain and a harsh climate, Afghanistan presents major difficulties for military operations. Prior to the war, the United States had no military bases in Central or South Asia. The initial CIA Jawbreaker team entered Afghanistan by helicopter from Tashkent, Uzbekistan, stopping to refuel in Dushanbe, Tajikistan. The US established its main base at Karshi-Khanabad Air Base (known as K2) in Uzbekistan. Personnel and equipment were flown from the large American bases in Germany to K2 and then onward to Afghanistan. Pakistan granted the use of Shahbaz Air Base in Jacobabad as an auxiliary base, and the CIA flew Predator drones from both Jacobabad and Shamsi Airfield. Masirah Island off the coast of Oman served as the headquarters of Joint Special Operations Command, while the aircraft carrier USS Kitty Hawk in the Indian Ocean was used as a platform for helicopters of the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment to fly special operations personnel into southern Afghanistan. Some B-52 bombers flew into Afghanistan from the island of Diego Garcia, and B-2 bombers flew nonstop from Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri to Afghanistan.
Analysis
According to historian Carter Malkasian, the campaign was a "striking military success". The United States achieved its war aims while committing a force of only 110 CIA officers, 350 special operators, and 5,000 Rangers and Marines. The model of special forces working with local fighters and calling in precision air strikes was heavily used by the United States during later operations in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Syria. One explanation for the rapid victory is that in Afghan culture, fighters tend to defect to the winning side once its victory is seen as inevitable; as anthropologist Thomas Barfield puts it, "Just as the Taliban had come to power by persuading people that they were winners without fighting and buying the defection of wavering commanders with suitcases full of hundred-dollar bills, they lost the war in a reverse process." The pattern recurred during the 2021 Taliban offensive, when the US-backed government collapsed and a resurgent Taliban captured a dozen provincial capitals in a week before it entered Kabul unopposed.
Legality and international law
Scholars have disputed the legality of the invasion under international law. The United States and its allies argued that the invasion was an act of self defense, which is legal according to Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations. The US sent a letter to the Security Council on October 7 stating that, "Afghanistan was harboring terrorists who attacked the United States, that further attacks might be anticipated, and that military action was needed to deter them." Legal scholar John Quigley has argued that the invasion was illegal because al-Qaeda, not Afghanistan, was the perpetrator of the 9/11 attacks, and because there was no evidence that further terrorist attacks were imminent. Sean Murphy made the opposite case, that Afghanistan was responsible for the actions of al-Qaeda because it allowed al-Qaeda to operate from its territory and refused to extradite al-Qaeda operatives. The debate continued with the 2009 publication of Myra Williamson's Terrorism, War and International Law: The Legality of the Use of Force Against Afghanistan in 2001. Williamson analyzed the legal questions raised by state responses to terrorism and the implications of the Afghanistan precedent for later conflicts such as the 2003 United States invasion of Iraq and the 2006 Israeli invasion of Lebanon.
Reactions and aftermath
In October 2001 when the invasion began, polls indicated that about 88% of Americans and about 65% of Britons backed military action. An Ipsos-Reid poll conducted between November and December 2001 showed that majorities in Canada (66%), France (60%), Germany (60%), Italy (58%), and the UK (65%) approved of US airstrikes while majorities in Argentina (77%), China (52%), South Korea (50%), Spain (52%), and Turkey (70%) opposed them. There were a number of protests against the invasion, including 20,000 people in Washington, D.C., on September 29 and 20,000 people in London on October 7. In Afghanistan, according to anthropologist Thomas Barfield, there was "a surprising level of popular support...for the US intervention, especially among non-Pashtuns." In November 2001, CNN reported widespread relief amongst Kabul's residents after the Taliban fled the city, with young men shaving off their beards and women taking off their burqas.
On 20 December 2001, the United Nations authorized an International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), with a mandate to help the Afghans maintain security in Kabul and surrounding areas. For its first years ISAF consisted of 8,000 American and 5,000 coalition soldiers and its mandate did not extend beyond the Kabul area. In February 2002, the US detected a large concentration of Taliban and al-Qaeda fighters in the eastern Shah-i-Kot Valley. Coalition forces cleared the valley during Operation Anaconda in March 2002, which resulted in 8 US soldiers killed and 80 wounded.
US forces established their main base at Bagram airbase just north of Kabul. Kandahar airport also became an important US base, and outposts were established in eastern provinces to hunt for Taliban and al-Qaeda fugitives. Following Operation Anaconda, al-Qaeda and Taliban fighters established sanctuaries on the Pakistani border, where they launched cross-border raids beginning in April 2002.US Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld aimed to carry out operations in Afghanistan rapidly and leave as fast as possible. He thus wished to focus on kinetic counter-terrorism operations and building up a new Afghan Army. Rumsfeld announced in mid-2002 that "The war is over in Afghanistan," to the disbelief of State Department, CIA, and military officials in the country. As a result, Rumsfeld downplayed the need for an Afghan army of even 70,000 troops, far fewer than the 250,000 envisaged by Karzai.
In February 2002, the National Security Council met to decide whether to expand ISAF beyond Kabul. In a dispute between Secretary of State Colin Powell and Rumsfeld, Rumsfeld's view—that the force should not be expanded—prevailed. Historians later wrote that the failure of ISAF to be deployed beyond Kabul drove Karzai to offer positions within the state to potential spoilers whose activities did great harm to the state's reputation. Because the rise of the Taliban insurgency was linked to grievances over governance, this became a serious problem.
Several events in early 2002, taken together, can be seen as the conclusion of the first phase of the US-led war in Afghanistan. The first was the dispersal of the major groups of the Taliban and al-Qaeda after the end of Anaconda. In February 2002 the United States decided to not expand international security forces beyond Kabul. President Bush made his speech at the Virginia Military Institute on April 17, 2002, invoking General George Marshall while talking about Afghan reconstruction, resulting in discussion of a 'Marshall Plan' for Afghanistan. The decision against a significant expansion of international presence and development assistance was later seen by historians as a major error. However, the US's growing commitment to Iraq, which it had invaded in March 2003, was absorbing more and more resources, which in hindsight would have made committing such resources to Afghanistan impossible.
In the years following the invasion and overthrow of the Taliban, millions of Afghan refugees, who had fled during the previous decades of war, returned to Afghanistan from Pakistan and Iran. By 2012, over 5.7 million had returned, increasing the country's population by 25%.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Articles
Books
War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
2001 in Afghanistan
2001 in the United States
Conflicts in 2001
21st-century military history of the United States
Invasions by the United States
United States
Military operations involving the United Kingdom
Military operations involving Canada
Military operations involving Australia
Al-Qaeda activities |
4293761 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic%20of%20Koroghlu | Epic of Koroghlu | The Epic of Koroghlu (; ; ; ) is a heroic legend prominent in the oral traditions of the Turkic peoples, mainly the Oghuz Turks. The legend typically describes a hero who seeks to avenge a wrong. It was often put to music and played at sporting events as an inspiration to the competing athletes. Koroghlu is the main hero of epic with the same name in Azerbaijani, Turkmen and Turkish as well as some other Turkic languages. The epic tells about the life and heroic deeds of Koroghlu as a hero of the people who struggled against unjust rulers. The epic combines the occasional romance with Robin Hood-like chivalry.
Due to the migration in the Middle Ages of large groups of Oghuz Turks within Central Asia, South Caucasus and Asia Minor, and their subsequent assimilation with other ethnic groups, Epic of Koroghlu spread widely in these geographical regions leading to emergence of its Turkmen, Kazakh, Uzbek, Tajik, Azerbaijani, Turkish, Crimean Tatar, Georgian and Kurdish versions. The story has been told for many generations by the "bagshy" narrators of Turkmenistan, fighter Ashik bards of Azerbaijan and Turkey, and has been written down mostly in the 18th century.
Koroghlu
Koroghlu is a semi-mystical hero and bard among the Turkic people who is thought to have lived in 16th century. The name of "Koroghlu" means "the son of the blind", "the son of ember" or "the son of the clay" (the clay refers to death) in Turkic languages. His real name was in Azerbaijani, in Turkish or in Turkmen, which was a loanword from Persian رُوشن Rowšan meaning light or bright.
Turkmen tradition
In Turkmenistan, the epic is called which translates as "the son of a grave" and holds a special place among the Turkmen epics.
The Turkmen people refer to performers specialized in as dessanchy bagshy (musicians performing songs from dastan). Within Turkmenistan, dessanchy bagshy are encountered in two regions of the country: and Lebap. Outside of Turkmenistan, the tradition is found in neighbouring countries — including Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Iran — and in other places where Turkmen ethnic groups have historically lived.
The epic of tells the story of the hero, , and his forty jigits (warriors) that includes descriptions of all major traditional events of Turkmen life. Sections in prose that describe the events alternate with sections in poetry that express the characters’ feelings.
The first "chapter" of the epic is about a miraculous birth and heroic education of (he grows up with grandfather Jygalybek and aunt ), raising the winged horse called Gyrat, building the Chandybil fortress and gathering warriors. Next are the stories about the marriage of to a fairy-tale girl, (the hero falls in love with a girl in his dream, goes in search of her, overcomes obstacles, takes her to Chandybil), about revenge on for kidnapping his aunt, , about the adoption of Ovez, about saving him from captivity and about his marriage. The "chapters" about battle with , making a way into an enemy camp, the attack of the Sultan’s troops on the country of and the abduction of Ovez, the adoption of Gorogly Hassan, the son of a blacksmith, are of a heroic nature. The cycle ends with the story of the death of , who retired to a cave in old age.
Various art forms are employed in the oral performance of , including narration, singing, vocal improvisation, and acting. Dessanchy bagshys are known for their prodigious memory, outstanding musical skills, and intelligence, which are all necessary qualities for performing the epic. Performers should master traditional musical instruments — such as the dutar (a two-stringed plucked instrument) and the gyjak (an instrument resembling the fiddle)— and be able to sing various melodies of the epic, performing improvisation.
Under the supervision of his master, in addition to learning the repertoire and perfecting his skills, the apprentice of the baghshy learns moral and ethical norms of the epic performance. For the transmission of knowledge, teacher bagshys use a variety of techniques and materials. When the apprentice is ready, his knowledge is thoroughly evaluated. The master then gives his blessing to the new performer, who is thus granted the right to perform the epic independently and teach students of his own.
This system of transmission ensures a constant flow of knowledge from one generation to the next and maintains skill levels and standards. In addition, the Turkmen National Conservatory, the State School of Culture and Arts, and various specialized school facilitate the acquisition of dutar skills by learners before they enter training with a dessanchy bagshy master.
plays an important role in a wide range of social functions within Turkmen communities. Values and emotions described in the epic form a basis for social interactions among Turkmen people and are reflected in social networks and relations among individuals.
The epic enables Turkmen people to learn and transmit their common history and social values to younger generations. Indeed, it is used as a tool for educating the young and strengthening national identity, pride, and unity. Through Gorogly, youngsters are taught diligence and precise thinking skills. They are also taught to love the history and culture of their homeland. Yet respect towards other nations and cultures is encouraged.
In the epic, the Turkmen people are portrayed as compassionate, wise, generous, hospitable, and tolerant. They demonstrate leadership, fearlessness, and loyalty to friends, family, and country. They respect their elders and never break promises.
Because of the emphasis of these values in Gorogly, knowledge and skills related to the epic, including talent for music, poetry, narration, and language as well as traditional skills described in the epic—such as the breeding Akhal-Teke horses—are highly valued. All of these elements constitute the cultural identity of Turkmen people.
The element is safeguarded thanks to gatherings and social events such as wedding ceremonies. Dessanchy bagshy competitions, regular national and religious holidays, celebrations, commemorations, and international cultural festivals also contribute greatly to the safeguarding of the Görogly tradition. Bagshys are the main promoters of traditional Görogly performance as they teach and transmit the element to prospective performers in the same way they learned from their masters. In addition, each province has a bagshylar oyi ("house of bagshy"), where masters gather monthly to exchange ideas, record themselves, and broadcast their performances on TV and radio. This allows for the dissemination of the element among the public and attract potential new performers.
The following is one of several poems encountered in the Turkmen version of , which is often performed by bagshys at Turkmen weddings. First column is the poem in its original (Turkmen) language, the second column is the poem's Turkish translation and the third one is its English translation.
Kybladan sallanyp geldi mestana,
Aga jan, Arabyň gyzyn bereýin.
Jemalyn görenler boldy diwana,
Agajan, Arabyň gyzyn bereýin.
Aryp bolsaň, habar algyl sözünden,
Bakdygynça, gözüň doýmaz gözünden,
Aşyk bolan behre alar ýüzünden,
Aga jan, Arabyň gyzyn bereýin.
Ýene döwran geldi biziň bu baga,
Ol Zuleýha bolsa, sen Ýusup, aga,
Biziň gözel ähli şoňa sadaga,
Aga jan, Arabyň gyzyn bereýin.
Görogly beg ar üstünde söweşer,
Burma saçy tar-tar topugna düşer,
Ýuka dodaklary balmydyr-şeker,
Aga jan, Arabyň gyzyn bereýin.
Kıble'den sallanıp geldi mestane,
Ağacan, Arabın kızını vereyim.
Cemalını görenler olmuş divane,
Ağacan, Arabın kızını vereyim.
Arif olsan haber algıl sözünden,
Bakarsan gözlerin doymaz gözlerinden.
Aşık olan behre alır yüzünden,
Ağacan, Arabın kızını vereyim.
Yine devran geldi, bizim bu bağa,
O Züleyha ise sen Yusuf, ağa.
Tüm güzeller olsun ona sadaka,
Ağacan, Arabın kızını vereyim.
Köroğlu beğ öç uğruna savaşır,
Kıvırcık saçları topuğuna düşer,
İnce dudakları baldır ve şeker,
Ağacan, Arabın kızını vereyim.
She came swinging and whirling from the Qibla,
Brother, let me give you the Arab's daughter.
Those who gazed at her face lost their mind,
Brother, let me give you the Arab's daughter.
If you are wise enough, learn from her words,
The more you see her, the more you fall in love.
And her lover will find solace in her face,
Brother, let me give you the Arab's daughter.
Our time has come again, to this vineyard of ours,
And if she is Zuleykha, you are Yusuf, brother.
May all the beauties be alms to her,
Brother, let me give you the Arab's daughter.
Gorogly likes to fight for revenge,
Her curly hair reaches her tender ankles,
Her thin lips are made of honey, sugar,
Brother, let me give you the Arab's daughter.
Azerbaijani and Turkish tradition
A theme common to nearly all versions is that of the hero — , literally "son of the blind man", or more directly translated as 'Blindson' (analogous with the English surname Richardson, sons of Richard), defending his clan or tribe against threats from outside. In many of the versions, earns his name from the wrongful blinding of his father, an act for which the son takes his revenge and which initiates his series of adventures. He is portrayed as a bandit and an ozan. A number of songs and melodies attributed to survives in the folk tradition.
The most common version of the tale describes as Rushen Ali, the son of the stableman Koca Yusuf lives in Dörtdivan under the service of the Bey of Bolu. One day, Yusuf comes across a filly which, to his trained eye, is an animal that will turn into a fine beast if well-fed. Bey wants to give good fillies to the Sultan as a present to repair their worsening relationship. However the Bey does not know enough about horses to appreciate the thin, famished animal that is presented to him. Being a man of foul and easily provoked temper, he suspects that he is being mocked and orders the poor worker to be blinded. His son, therefore, gains his nickname and harbors an ever-increasing hatred towards the Bey of Bolu in his heart as he grows up. The mare, which he names Kırat (kır at means literally "gray horse"; the word kırat can also mean "carat", "quality"), grows up with him and indeed turns into an animal of legendary stature and strength.
One day, Hızır shows himself to Yusuf in a dream and tells him that soon, the waters of the river Aras will flow briefly as a kind of thick foam and whoever drinks that foam will be cured of whatever physical problems that may be ailing him, including blindness and aging. Yusuf goes to the shore of the river with his son, but his son drinks the foam before he does. As this miracle can give everlasting health and youth to only one man, Yusuf loses his chance to see again; and dies a few days later, ordering his son to avenge him.
In some versions of the story, neither Yusuf nor his son can drink from the foam. Yusuf is warned by Hızır just before the phenomenon occurs, but being an old and blind man, he cannot reach the river in time. Köroğlu is by the river when the foam starts flowing, but, as he is ignorant of the significance of the event, he does not drink from the river. Instead, his horse Kırat does and becomes immortal.
After his father's death, Köroğlu takes up arms against the Bey. As he has only a few followers, he does not engage the army of Bolu directly and uses guerrilla tactics instead. He raids and plunders his former master's property, and eludes his would-be captors by staying on the move and fleeing to distant lands whenever his enemy organises a large-scale campaign to capture him.
Before he succeeds, however, the knowledge of firearms is carried by merchants to Anatolia. Even the simple guns of the time are sufficient to change the ways of the warriors forever: The balance of power is upset by the "holed iron", as Köroğlu calls the tool when he first sees one, and the Beys of Northern Anatolia engage in brutal warfare with each other. The fighting goes on and on, with no end in sight. Köroğlu realizes that even if he succeeds in bringing down the Bey of Bolu, he won't be able to bring back the old, chivalric world that he was born into. The warrior-poet disbands his followers and fades into obscurity, leaving only these lines behind:
A typical occasion where one might hear Köroğlu melodies is at a traditional wrestling competition such as Kirkpinar. A team of zurna and davul players play continually as the wrestlers struggle with each other.
In 1967, Yaşar Kemal successfully collected this legend in his epic novel Üç Anadolu Efsanesi, which stands as the most outstanding Köroğlu reference in contemporary literature.
Gurughli
Gurughli (also known as Gurghuli) is the titular character of the epic cycle from Central Asia. The cycle includes up to fifty segments which are still performed by the peoples of Turkestan in Tajik as well as Turkic languages.
Gurughli, whose name means "born of the grave", is the immaculately conceived child of the sister of Ahmadkhan (a Turkistan khan). She dies during pregnancy, and the child is born while the mother is already buried and survives on the milk of one of the mares from Ahmadkhan's herd, until he is found and named by shepherds. The other hero in the tales is his adopted son Ahwazkhan, child of a fairy mother.
His tales are told in all-night storytelling sessions in free verse. The background presumed known by the audience, they start without much introduction and are accompanied by music from a two-stringed lute, the dombra. Later brought into line with Islam, the stories originate from a time before Islam reached the area but became a "vehicle for the transmission of religious and moral instruction, especially targeted at the masses of nonliterate Muslims".
The extant corpus of Gurughli poetry entails some 100,000 lines. It reached its final form in the 18th century and was first discovered by the outside world through Russian travelers in 1870. It was recorded between 1930 and 1960 and is preserved in the Tajik Academy of Sciences.
Uzbek tradition
In Uzbek bakhshi tradition ("bakhshi" is a narrator of dastans or epic, usually, playing his dumbira, two-string musical instrument), the history and interpretation of Köroğlu's name are different from Turkish one. "Go‘ro‘g‘li" in Uzbek just like in Turkmen means "the son of grave". As it is told, Gorogli's mother dies while being in the last months of pregnancy. However, people bury her with Gorogli inside. After some time a local shepherd notices the number of sheep is decreasing. He spies after his sheep and finds a small boy, at the age of 3-4 eating one of sheep. When he tries catch the boy, he escapes and hides in a grave. As the story narrates later he will fight against giants and kill them. It is said Gorogli had a horse called "G`irot". The capital of Gorogli's state was in legendary Chambil.
International recognition
In December 2015, the Turkmen epic art of Görogly was inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
Toponyms
Görogly is commonly used in naming streets and districts in Turkmenistan, including Görogly köçesi in Ashgabat. It is also the name of a town near Dashoguz.
In art
Azerbaijani composer Uzeyir Hajibeyov has created an opera by this name, using the Ashik stories and masterfully combined some Ashik music with this major classical work. See The Opera of Koroglu.
Koroghlu in popular culture
"Köroğlu" movie by Atıf Yılmaz, starring Cüneyt Arkın, 1968: IMDB tt0183368
"Üç Anadolu Efsanesi" (Three Anatolian Legends) novel of Yaşar Kemal
"Koroğlu" movie by Əfrasiyab Məmmədov, 1960
"Koroğlu" movie by Rövşən Almuradlı, 2003
"Koroğlu" opera by Üzeyir Hacıbəyov
See also
Book of Dede Korkut
Epic tradition of Turkish literature
Turkish folk music
Turkish folklore
Turkmen music
Turkmen literature
Azerbaijani literature
Opera of Koroglu
References
External links
Four editions of the Koroghlu Destan
The Other "Koroghlu". Tbilisi Manuscript Sheds Light on Medieval Azerbaijani Hero, 2002
Koroghlu, the Opera. Composed by Uzeyir Hajibeyov. Libretto by Mammad Sayid Ordubadi. Synopsis of the Plot by Jala Garibova
The Persianization of Köroĝlu (JUDITH M. WILKS, Asian Folklore Studies, Volume 60, 2001: 305–318, Chicago)
A short section of a stage production of Köroğlu, an opera by Uzeyir Hajibeyov (10 min 55 sec).
Koroglu
Azerbaijani poetry
Turkish literature
Azerbaijani mythology
Turkic mythology
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity |
4294366 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93United%20Kingdom%20relations | Iran–United Kingdom relations | Iran–United Kingdom relations are the bilateral relations between the United Kingdom and Iran. Iran, which was called Persia by the West before 1935, has had political relations with England since the late Ilkhanate period (13th century) when King Edward I of England sent Geoffrey of Langley to the Ilkhanid court to seek an alliance.
Until the early nineteenth century, Iran was a remote and legendary country for Britain, so much so that the European country never seriously established a diplomatic center, such as a consulate or embassy. By the middle of the nineteenth century, Iran grew in importance as a buffer state to the United Kingdom's dominion over India. Britain fostered conflict between Iran and Afghanistan as a means of forestalling an Afghan invasion of India.
UK seeds a number of proximity conflicts between Iran and its neighbouring states like Azerbaijan on the countries' borders, Afghanistan on the Hirmand river and United Arab Emirates on possession of three disputed islands.
History of Anglo-Iranian relations
Safavid era
In the year 1553, King Edward VI of England hired the wealthy merchant and explorer, Sebastian Cabot to develop a semi-profitable trading company. He was given two ships that sailed towards the port city of Arkhangelsk. The captain of one of those ships was Cpt. Richard Chancellor, who successfully reached the northern city. From there, Sebastian Cabot and his envoy traveled towards the Russian city of Moscow with a business proposition for the Grand Duke Ivan IV the Terrible. When it was accepted, the Moscow Trading Company came into existence. South of the Moscow Trading Company Headquarters was the wealthy realm of the Safavid Empire. The company started sending envoys during the reign of Shah Tahmasp I during the first years in business. Anthony Jenkinson was one of the first leaders of these envoys. In total, there were six visits and the last one was in June 1579 during the reign of Shah Mohammad Khodabandeh led by Arthur Edwards. But at the time the company's envoys reached the royal court in Qazvin, the Shah was busy protecting his borders from his arch rival, the Ottoman Empire. In order to attain the wealth of the country, the company penetrated successfully into the bazaars and dispatched more envoys.
In 1597, as Abbas I of Safavid sought to establish an alliance against his arch rival, the Ottomans, he received Robert Shirley, Anthony Shirley, and a group of 26 English envoys in Qazvin. The English delegation, also well aware of the Ottoman threat, were more than glad to have Persia as an ally against the Ottoman threat. Shah Abbas warmly received the delegation and took them as his guests with him to Isfahan, his new capital.
Soon, the Shirley brothers were appointed by the Shah to organize and modernize the royal cavalry and train the army (most notably the elite "Ghulam" slave soldiers, consisting of en masse deported and imported Circassians, Georgians, and Armenians and other Caucasians by the Shahs). The effects of these modernizations proved to be highly successful, as from then on the Safavids proved to be an equal force against their arch rival, immediately crushing them in the first war to come (Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)) and all other Safavid wars to come. Many more events followed, including the debut of the British East India Company into Persia, and the establishment of trade routes for silk though Jask in the Strait of Hormuz in 1616. It was from here where the likes of Sir John Malcolm later gained influence into the Qajarid throne.
Qajar era
Anglo-Persian relations picked up momentum as a weakened Safavid empire, after the short-lived revival by the military genius Nader Shah (r. 1736-1747), eventually gave way to the Qajarid dynasty, which was quickly absorbed into domestic turmoil and rivalry, while competing colonial powers rapidly sought a stable foothold in the region. While the Portuguese, British, and Dutch, competed for the south and southeast of Persia in the Persian Gulf, Imperial Russia was largely left unchallenged in the north as it plunged southward to establish dominance in Persia's northern territories.
Plagued with internal politics and incompetence, the Qajarid government found itself fast after their ascendancy incapable of rising to the numerous complex foreign political challenges at the doorsteps of Persia.
During the monarchy of Fath Ali Shah, Sir John Malcolm, Sir Harford Jones-Brydges, 1st Baronet, Allen Lindsay, Henry Pottinger, Charles Christie, Sir Henry Rawlinson, Harold Nicolson, Sir John McNeill, Edmund Ironside, and James Morier were some of the British elite closely involved with Persian politics. Allen Lindsay was even appointed as a general in Abbas Mirza's army.
A weakened and bankrupted royal court under Fath Ali Shah was forced to sign the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813, followed by the Treaty of Turkmenchay after efforts by Abbas Mirza failed to secure Persia's northern front against Imperial Russia. The treaties were prepared by the Sir Gore Ouseley with the aid of the British Foreign Office in London. Sir Gore Ouseley was the younger brother of the British orientalist William Ouseley, who served as secretary to the British ambassador in Persia.
In fact, Iran's current southern and eastern boundaries were determined by none other than the British during the Anglo-Persian War (1856 to 1857). After repelling Nasereddin Shah's attack in Herat in 1857, the British government assigned Frederic John Goldsmid of the Indo-European Telegraph Department to determine the borders between Persia and India during the 1860s.
In 1872, the Shah signed an agreement with Baron Julius de Reuter, which George Nathaniel Curzon called "The most complete and extraordinary surrender of the entire industrial resources of a kingdom into foreign hands that has ever been dreamed of".
The Reuter Concession was immediately denounced by all ranks of businessmen, clergy, and nationalists of Persia, and the concession was quickly forced into cancellation.
Similarly, the "Tobacco fatwa", decreed by Grand Ayatollah Mirza Hassan Shirazi was an incident which raised popular resentment against the British presence in Persia in lieu of a diplomatically decapitated and apathetic Qajar throne. Concessions such as this and the 70-year contract of Persian railways to be operated by British businessmen such as Baron de Reuter became increasingly visible. The visibility became particularly pronounced after the discovery of oil in Masjed Soleiman in 1909 and the establishment of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company and the "D'Arcy Concession".
By the end of the 19th century, Britain's dominance became so pronounced that Khuzestan, Bushehr, and a host of other cities in southern Persia were occupied by Great Britain, and the central government in Tehran was left with no power to even select its own ministers without the approval of the Anglo-Russian consulates. Morgan Shuster, for example, had to resign under tremendous British and Russian pressure on the royal court. Shuster's book The Strangling of Persia is a recount of the details of these events, a harsh criticism of Britain and Imperial Russia.
Pahlavi era
Of the public outcry against the inability of the Persian throne to maintain its political and economic independence from Great Britain and Imperial Russia in the face of events such as the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 and "the 1919 treaty", one result was the Persian Constitutional Revolution, which eventually resulted in the fall of the Qajar dynasty.
The great tremor of the Persian political landscape occurred when the involvement of General Edmund Ironside eventually led to the rise of Reza Shah Pahlavi in the 1920s. The popular view that the British were involved in the 1921 coup was noted as early as March 1921 by the American embassy and relayed to the Iran desk at the Foreign Office. A British Embassy report from 1932 concedes that the British put Reza Shah "on the throne".
After his establishing of power and strengthening of the central government, Rezā Khan quickly put an end to the autonomous activities of the British-backed Sheikh Khazal in the south. London withdrew its support of Khaz'al in favor of Rezā Shāh.
A novel chapter in Anglo-Iranian relations had begun when Iran canceled its capitulation agreements with foreign powers in 1928. Iran's success in revoking the capitulation treaties, and the failure of the Anglo-Iranian Agreement of 1919 earlier, led to intense diplomatic efforts by the British government to regularize relations between the two countries on a treaty basis. On the Iranian side negotiations on the widest range of issues were conducted by Abdolhossein Teymourtash, the Minister of Court from 1925 to 1932, and Iran's nominal Minister of Foreign Affairs during the period.
The ire of the British Government was raised, however, by Persian diplomatic claims to the oil-rich regions of the Greater and Lesser Tunbs islands, Abu Musa and Bahrain in the Persian Gulf region. On the economic front, on the other hand, Iran's pressures to rescind the monopoly rights of the British-owned Imperial Bank of Persia to issue banknotes in Iran, the Iranian Trade Monopoly Law of 1928, and prohibitions whereby the British Government and Anglo-Persian Oil Company ("APOC") were no longer permitted to enter into direct agreements with their client tribes, as had been the case in the past, did little to satisfy British expectations. The cumulative impact of these demands on the British Government was well expressed by Sir Robert Clive, Britain's Minister to Tehran, who in 1931 noted in a report to the Foreign Office "There are indications, indeed that their present policy is to see how far they can push us in the way of concessions, and I feel we shall never re-establish our waning prestige or even be able to treat the Persian government on equal terms, until we are in a position to call a halt".
Despite the enormous volume of correspondence and protracted negotiations that took place between the two countries on the widest array of issues, on the Iranian side, Teymourtash conducted these negotiations single-handedly “without so much as a secretary to keep his papers in order”, according to one scholar. Resolution of all outstanding differences eluded a speedy resolution, however, given the reality that on the British side progress proved tedious due to the need to consult many government departments with differing interests and jurisdictions.
The most intractable challenge, however, proved to be Iran's assiduous efforts to revise the terms whereby the APOC retained near monopoly control over the oil industry in Iran as a result of the concession granted to William Knox D'Arcy in 1901 by the Qajar King of the period. "What Persians felt", Teymourtash would explain to his British counterparts in 1928, "was that an industry had been developed on their own soil in which they had no real share".
Complicating matters further, and ensuring that such demands would in due course set Iran on a collision course with the British Government was the reality that pursuant to a 1914 Act of the British Parliament, an initiative championed by Winston Churchill in his capacity as First Lord of the Admiralty, led the British Government to be granted a majority fifty-three percent ownership of the shares of APOC. The decision was adopted during World War I to ensure the British Government would gain a critical foothold in Iranian affairs so as to protect the flow of oil from Iran due to its critical importance to the operation of the Royal Navy during the war effort. By the 1920s APOC's extensive installations and pipelines in Khuzestan and its refinery in Abadan meant that the company's operations in Iran had led to the creation of the greatest industrial complex in the Middle East.
The attempt to revise the terms of the oil concession on a more favorable basis for Iran led to protracted negotiations that took place in Tehran, Lausanne, London and Paris between Teymourtash and the Chairman of APOC, Sir John Cadman, spanning the years from 1928 to 1932. The overarching argument for revisiting the terms of the D'Arcy Agreement on the Iranian side was that its national wealth was being squandered by a concession that was granted in 1901 by a previous non-constitutional government forced to agree to inequitable terms under duress.
However, despite much progress, Rezā Shāh Pahlavi was soon to assert his authority by dramatically inserting himself into the negotiations. The Monarch attended a meeting of the Council of Ministers in November 1932, and after publicly rebuking Teymourtash for his failure to secure an agreement, dictated a letter to cabinet canceling the D'Arcy Agreement. The Iranian Government notified APOC that it would cease further negotiations and demanded cancellation of the D'Arcy concession. Rejecting the cancellation, the British government espoused the claim on behalf of APOC and brought the dispute before the Permanent Court of International Justice at The Hague, asserting that it regarded itself "as entitled to take all such measures as the situation may demand for the Company's protection." At this point, Hassan Taqizadeh, the new Iranian minister to have been entrusted the task of assuming responsibility for the oil dossier, was to intimate to the British that the cancellation was simply meant to expedite negotiations and that it would constitute political suicide for Iran to withdraw from negotiations.
Rezā Shāh was removed from power abruptly during the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran during World War II. The new Shah, Crown Prince Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, signed a Tripartite Treaty Alliance with Britain and the Soviet Union in January 1942, to aid in the allied war effort in a non-military way.
In 1951, the Iranians nationalized the oil under the leadership of democratically elected prime minister Mohammad Mosaddegh. This caused a lot of tension between Iran and the UK.
According to the book All the Shah's Men, the British tried to convince Harry S. Truman to join their campaign against Iran. However, it was only when Dwight Eisenhower became the president that British succeeded in convincing U.S. to join their plot. In order to convince the Eisenhower administration Woodhouse shaped his appeal around the rhetoric of anti-communism. They pointed out the Tudeh party could take control of Iran. Eventually British and CIA created a plan code-named Operation Ajax to overthrow the democratically elected Mosaddegh. The coup was performed by Central Intelligence Agency field commander Kermit Roosevelt Jr. (grandson of Theodore Roosevelt).
After the coup, scores of Iranian political activists from the National and Communist parties were jailed or killed. This coup only added to the deep mistrust towards the British in Iran. It has since been very common in Iranian culture to mistrust British government; a good example is the character of Uncle in the television show My Uncle Napoleon.
The end of World War II brought the start of American dominance in Iran's political arena, and with an anti-Soviet Cold War brewing, the United States quickly moved to convert Iran into an anti-communist bloc, thus considerably diminishing Britain's influence on Iran for years to come. Operation Ajax and the fall of Prime Minister Mosaddegh was perhaps the last of the large British involvements in Iranian politics in the Pahlavi era.
The Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi paid a state visit to the United Kingdom in May 1959. Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom paid a state visit to Iran in March 1961.
The British forces began to withdraw from Persian Gulf in 1968. This was done, quite literally, out of pure economic considerations. The British simply could not afford the costs of administration. (See also East of Suez). As part of this policy, in 1971, the then British government decided not to support the Shah and eventually, the patronage of the United Kingdom ended, and consequently, this role was filled by the US.
The Islamic Republic
On 30 April 1980, the Iranian Embassy in London was taken over by a six-man terrorist team holding the building for six days until the hostages were rescued by a raid by the SAS. After the Revolution of Iran in 1979, Britain suspended all diplomatic relations with Iran. Britain did not have an embassy until it was reopened in 1988.
During the Iran–Iraq War, Saddam Hussein acquired metal tubes from firms in the United Kingdom, intended for the Project Babylon supergun. All were intercepted by customs and excise and none ever reached Iraq. The suppliers were under the impression that their tubes would have been used in a pipeline project.
A year after the re-establishment of the British embassy in Tehran, Ayatollah Khomeini issued a fatwa ordering Muslims across the world to kill British author Salman Rushdie. Diplomatic ties with London were broken off only to be resumed at a chargé d'affaires level in 1990.
Relations normalized in 1997 during President Mohammad Khatami's reformist administration, and Jack Straw became the first high-ranking British politician to visit Tehran in 2001 since the revolution.
Relations suffered a setback in 2002 when David Reddaway was rejected by Tehran as London's ambassador, on charges of being a spy, and further deteriorated two years later when Iran seized eight British sailors in Arvand River near the border with Iraq. The sailors were pardoned and attended a goodbye ceremony with President Ahmadinejad shortly after they were released.
In February 2004, following the earthquake in Bam, Prince Charles and then President Mohammad Khatami visited the city.
On 28 November 2011 Iran downgraded its relations with Britain due to new sanctions put in place by the UK. The next day a band of students and Basiji attacked the UK embassy compound in Tehran, damaging property and driving the embassy staff away. On 30 November 2011, in response to the attack, the UK closed its embassy in Tehran and ordered the Iranian embassy in London closed.
According to a 2013 BBC World Service poll, only 5% of British people view Iran's influence positively, with 84% expressing a negative view. According to a 2012 Pew Global Attitudes Survey, 16% of British people viewed Iran favorably, compared to 68% which viewed it unfavorably; 91% of British people oppose Iranian acquisition of nuclear weapons and 79% approve of "tougher sanctions" on Iran, while 51% of British people support use of military force to prevent Iran from developing nuclear weapons.
From July 2012 until October 2013, British interests in Iran were maintained by the Swedish embassy in Tehran while Iranian interests in the United Kingdom were maintained by the Omani embassy in London.
On July 2013, it was announced that the UK would consider opening better relations with Iran "step-by-step" following the election of President Hassan Rouhani.
On October 8, 2013, Britain and Iran announced that they would each appoint a chargé d'affaires to work toward resuming full diplomatic relations.
On February 20, 2014, the Iranian Embassy in London was restored and the two countries agreed to restart diplomatic relations.
On August 23, 2015, the British Embassy in Tehran officially reopened.
Current relations
Trade
The first Persian Ambassador to the United Kingdom was Mirza Albohassan Khan Ilchi Kabir.
The Herald Tribune on 22 January 2006 reported a rise in British exports to Iran from £296 million in 2000 to £443.8 million in 2004. A spokesperson for UK Trade and Investment was quoted saying that "Iran has become more attractive because it now pursues a more liberal economic policy". As of 2009, the total assets frozen in Britain under the EU (European Union) and UN sanctions against Iran are approximately £976m ($1.64 billion). In November 2011, Britain severed all ties with Iranian banks as part of a package of sanctions from the US, UK and Canada aimed at confronting Tehran’s nuclear programme.
Political tension
The confrontation between the United States–European Union pact on one side and Iran on the other over Iran's nuclear program also continues to develop, remaining a serious obstacle in the improvement of Tehran–London ties.
A confidential letter by UK diplomat John Sawers to French, German and US diplomats, dated 16 March 2006, twice referred to the intention to have the United Nations Security Council refer to Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter in order to put pressure on Iran. Chapter VII describes the Security Council's power to authorize economic, diplomatic, and military sanctions, as well as the use of military force, to resolve disputes.
The Sunday Telegraph reported that a secret, high-level meeting would take place on 3 April 2006 between the UK government and military chiefs regarding plans to attack Iran. The Telegraph cited "a senior Foreign Office source" saying that "The belief in some areas of Whitehall is that an attack is now all but inevitable. There will be no invasion of Iran but the nuclear sites will be destroyed." The BBC reported a denial that the meeting would take place, but no denial of the alleged themes of the meeting, by the UK Ministry of Defence, and that "there is well sourced and persistent speculation that American covert activities aimed at Iran are already underway".
2004 Iranian seizure of Royal Navy personnel
On 21 June 2004, eight sailors and Royal Marines were seized by forces of the Revolutionary Guards' Navy while training Iraqi river patrol personnel in the Persian Gulf.
2007 Iranian seizure of Royal Navy personnel
On 23 March 2007 fifteen Royal Navy personnel were seized by the naval forces of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard for allegedly having strayed into Iranian waters. Eight sailors and seven Royal Marines on two boats from HMS Cornwall were detained at 10:30 local time by six Guard boats of the IRGC Navy. They were subsequently taken to Tehran. Iran reported that the sailors are well. About 200 students targeted the British Embassy on 1 April 2007 calling for the expulsion of the country's ambassador because of the standoff over Iran's capture of 15 British sailors and marines. The protesters chanted "Death to Britain" and "Death to America". Speculation on the Iranians' motivations for this action ran rampant; with the Iranians under tremendous pressure on a number of fronts from the United States, the Revolutionary Guard Corps could have been responding to any one of a number of perceived threats.
On 3 April 2007, Prime Minister Tony Blair advised that "the next 48 hours will be critical" in defusing the crisis. At approximately 1:20 PM GMT, Iran's president announced that the 8 sailors would be 'pardoned'. The following day, he announced all 15 British personnel would be released immediately "in celebration of the Prophet's birthday and Easter."
Arms sales
Despite the political pressure and sanctions, a probe by customs officers suggests that at least seven British arms dealers have been supplying the Iranian air force, its elite Revolutionary Guard Corps, and the country's controversial nuclear ambitions. A UK businessman was caught smuggling components for use in guided missiles through a front company that proved to be the Iranian Ministry of Defence. Another case involves a group that included several Britons which, investigators alleged, attempted to export components intended to enhance the performance of Iranian aircraft. Other examples involve a British millionaire arms dealer caught trading machine-guns used by the SAS and capable of firing 800 rounds a minute with a Tehran-based weapons supplier.
Gholhak Garden
In 2006 a dispute about the ownership of Gholhak Garden, a large British diplomatic compound in northern Tehran was raised in the Iranian Parliament when 162 MPs wrote to the speaker. The British Embassy have occupied the site since at least 1934 and assert that they have legal ownership but the issue was raised again in 2007 when a group of MPs claimed that the ownership papers for the site were unlawful under the laws extant in 1934. In July 2007 a conference was held to discuss the ownership of the compound but was not attended by the British side.
Asylum
On 14 March 2008, Britain said it would reconsider the asylum application of a gay Iranian teenager who claims he will be persecuted if he is returned home. He had fled to the Netherlands and sought asylum there; however, the Dutch government turned him down, saying the case should be dealt with in Britain, where he first applied.
Escalating war talk
As talk of strikes and counter-strikes in relation to war talk between the United States-Israel-Iran trio heated up in 2008, a senior Iranian official suggested his regime should target London to deter such an attack. The head of the Europe and US Department in the Iranian Foreign Ministry, Wahid Karimi, said an attack on London could deter the US from attacking Tehran. He said: "The most appropriate means of deterrence that Iran has, in addition to a retaliatory operation in the [Persian Gulf] region, is to take action against London." He also suggested a propensity to attack could arise from a "usually adventuresome" second term presidency. He said: "US presidents are usually adventuresome in their second terms... [Richard] Nixon, disgraced by the Watergate scandal; [Ronald] Reagan, with the 'Irangate' adventure; [and Bill] Clinton, with Monica Lewinsky—and perhaps George Bush, the sitting president, will create a scandal connected to Iran's legitimate nuclear activity so as not to be left behind." His speculation led him to suggest a clash could occur between the 2008 U.S. presidential elections and by the time the new president enters office in January 2009. "In the worst-case scenario, George Bush may perhaps persuade the president-elect to carry out an ill-conceived operation against Iran, prior to January 20, 2009—that is, before the regime is handed over and he ends his presence in the White House. The next president of the US will have to deal with the consequences."
2009 Iranian election controversy
In the aftermath of the disputed 2009 Iranian presidential election and the protests that followed, UK-Iran relations were further tested. On 19 June 2009, the Supreme Leader of Iran Ayatollah Khamenei described the British Government as the "most evil" of those in the Western nations, accusing the British government of sending spies into Iran to stir emotions at the time of the elections, although it has been suggested by British diplomats that the statement was using the UK as a "proxy" for the United States, in order to prevent damaging US–Iranian relations. Nonetheless, the British Government, unhappy at the statement, summoned the Iranian ambassador Rasul Movaheddian to the Foreign Office to lodge a protest. Iran then proceeded to expel two British diplomats from the country, accusing them of "activities inconsistent with their diplomatic status". On 23 June 2009, the British Government responded, expelling two Iranian diplomats from the United Kingdom. Prime Minister Gordon Brown stated that he was unhappy at having to take the action, but suggested there was no option after what he described as 'unjustified' actions by Iran. On 24 June 2009, Iranian Foreign Minister Manouchehr Mottaki announced that the country was considering 'downgrading' its ties with the UK.
Four days later it was reported that Iranian authorities had arrested a number of British embassy staff in Tehran citing their "considerable role" in the recent unrest. After this event, the UK Government responded strongly demanding that the Iranian authorities release the British staff immediately as it stated that Iran's accusations are baseless without evidence. After the arrest of UK staff, the European Union (EU) has also demanded that UK staff be released in Iran under international law and if the UK staff are not released then the EU threatens a 'strong response'. On December 29, 2009, Britain was warned by Iranian Foreign Minister Manouchehr Mottaki to state "Britain will get slapped in the mouth if it does not stop its nonsense."
The Queen's College, Oxford established the Neda Agha-Soltan Graduate Scholarship in 2009, named after Neda Agha-Soltan, who died in the protests that followed the election. This led to a letter of protest to the college from the Iranian embassy in London, signed by the deputy ambassador, Safarali Eslamian. The letter disputed the circumstances of her death, and said that there was "supporting evidence indicating a pre-made scenario". Eslamain wrote, "It seems that the University of Oxford has stepped up involvement in a politically motivated campaign which is not only in sharp contract with its academic objectives, but also is linked with a chain of events in post-Iranian presidential elections blamed for British interference both at home and abroad". The letter also said that the "decision to abuse Neda's case to establish a graduate scholarship will highly politicise your academic institution, undermining your scientific credibility—along with British press which made exceptionally a lot of hue and cry on Neda's death—will make Oxford at odd with the rest of the world's academic institutions." Eslamain asked for the university's governing board to be informed of "the Iranian views", and finished by saying, "Surely, your steps to achieve your attractions through non-politically supported programs can better heal the wounds of her family and her nation." Following publication of the Iranian letter, The Times was told by UK diplomatic sources, speaking anonymously, that the scholarship had put "another nail into the coffin" of relations between Britain and Iran. If the government had been asked, the sources were reported as saying, it would have advised against the move, because it was felt that Iran would see it as an act of provocation, and because it would interfere with efforts to free Iranians working for the British Embassy in Tehran who had been detained for alleging participating in the post-election protests. A college spokesman said that the scholarship had not been set up as part of a political decision, and if the initial donations had been refused, this would have been interpreted as a political decision too.
2009 international arbitration court ruling
In April 2009 the British government lost its final appeal in the arbitration court of the International Chamber of Commerce at The Hague against a payment of $650 million to Iran. The money is compensation for an arms deal dating from the 1970s which then did not come about due to the occurrence of the Iranian Revolution. The Shah's government had ordered 1,500 Chieftain tanks and 250 Chieftain armoured recovery vehicles (ARVs) in a contract worth £650 million, but only 185 vehicles had been delivered before the revolution occurred. The contract also covered the provision of training to the Iranian army and the construction of a factory near Isfahan to build tank parts and ammunition. In order to recover some of the costs 279 of the Chieftains were sold to Jordan and 29 of the ARVs to Iraq, who used them against Iran in the Iran–Iraq War. The UK continued to deliver tank parts to Iran after the revolution but finally stopped following the outbreak of the Iranian hostage crisis in 1979.
The British government has itself confirmed it has to pay the money and the ruling, which originated in The Hague, received coverage in The Independent. Britain had already placed £486 million with the court in 2002 to pay for any ruling against it. The settlement is worth £390 million that will come out of this fund. Iran has yet to officially apply to receive the money but when it does so will not receive it, instead it will join £976 million of Iranian assets frozen by the UK due to EU sanctions.
2011 attack on the British Embassy
On 29 November 2011, despite heavy police resistance, two compounds of the British embassy in Tehran were stormed by Iranian protesters. The protesters smashed windows, ransacked offices, set fire to government documents, and burned a British flag. Six British diplomats were initially reported by the Iranian semi-official news agency Mehr as being taken hostage, while later reports indicated that in fact they were escorted to safety by the police. The storming of the British embassy followed from the 2011 joint American-British-Canadian sanctions and the Iranian government's Guardian Council approving a parliamentary bill expelling the British ambassador as a result of those sanctions. A British flag was taken down and replaced by the Iranian flag by the protesters. The British Foreign Office responded by saying "We are outraged by this. It is utterly unacceptable and we condemn it." According to Iranian state news agencies, the protesters were largely composed of young adults. On 30 November William Hague announced that all Iranian diplomats had been expelled and given 48 hours to leave the United Kingdom.
Since 2011
The UK Defence Secretary Philip Hammond warned that Britain might take military action against Iran if it carries out its threat to block the Strait of Hormuz. He said any attempt by Iran to block the strategically important waterway in retaliation for sanctions against its oil exports would be “illegal and unsuccessful” and the Royal Navy would join any action to keep it open. British defence officials met US Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta on 6 January to criticize other members of the NATO for not being willing to commit resources to joint operations, including in Libya and Afghanistan. The following day, UK officials reported its intention to send its most powerful naval forces to the Persian Gulf to counter any Iranian attempt to close the Strait of Hormuz. The Type 45 destroyer would arrive in the Gulf by the end of January. According to officials, the ship is capable of shooting down "any missile in Iran's armoury."
In July 2013, the UK considered opening better relations with Iran "step-by-step" following the election of President Hassan Rouhani, and in October of the same year, both countries announced that they would each appoint a chargé d'affaires to work toward resuming full diplomatic relations. This was done on 20 February 2014, and the British government announced in June 2014 that it would soon re-open its Tehran embassy. Embassies in each other's countries were simultaneously reopened in 2015. The ceremony in Tehran was attended by UK Foreign Secretary Philip Hammond, the first British Foreign Secretary to visit Iran since Jack Straw in 2003, who attended the reopening of the Iranian embassy in London, along with Iran's deputy foreign minister Mehdi Danesh Yazdi. Diplomat Ajay Sharma was named as the UK's charge d'affaires but a full ambassador was expected to be appointed in the coming months. In September 2016, both countries restored diplomatic relations to their pre-2011 level, with Nicholas Hopton being appointed British Ambassador in Tehran.
British Prime Minister David Cameron and Iranian President Hassan Rouhani met on the sidelines of a United Nations in September 2014, marking the highest-level direct contact between the two countries since the 1979 Islamic revolution.
In April 2016, an Iranian-British dual citizen Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe was arrested while visiting Iran with her daughter. She was found guilty of "plotting to topple the Iranian government" in September 2016 and sentenced to 5 years in prison. Her husband led a concerted campaign to have her released maintaining that she "was imprisoned as leverage for a debt owed by the UK over its failure to deliver tanks to Iran in 1979." After her initial sentence expired in March 2021 she was charged and found guilty of propaganda activities against the government and sentenced to one year in prison. She was finally released on 16th March 2022, which was reported to be related to the UK paying a historic debt for tanks paid for by Iran in the 1970s but never delivered.
Theresa May, who succeeded Cameron as Prime Minister in July 2016, accused Iran of "aggressive regional actions" in the Middle East, including stirring trouble in Iraq, Lebanon and Syria, and this led to a deterioration in relations In response, Iran's Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei condemned Britain as a "source of evil and misery" for the Middle East.
The British intelligence officials concluded that Iran was responsible for a cyberattack on the British Parliament lasting 12 hours that compromised around 90 email accounts of MPs in June 2017.
On July 7, 2022, The Royal Navy of Britain reported that one of its warships had arrested smugglers in international waters south of Iran early this year after seizing Iranian armaments, including surface-to-air missiles and cruise missile engines.
Tanker detention and Strait of Hormuz tensions
On 4 July 2019, Royal Marines boarded the Iranian-owned tanker Grace 1 by helicopter off Gibraltar where it was detained. The reason given was to enforce European Union sanctions against Syrian entities, as the tanker was suspected of heading to Baniyas Refinery named in the sanctions that concern Syrian oil exports. Gibraltar had passed regulations permitting the detention the day before. Spain's Foreign Minister Josep Borrell stated that the detention was carried out at the request of the United States. An Iranian Foreign Ministry official called the seizure "piracy," stating that the UK does not have the right to implement sanctions against other nations "in an extraterritorial manner".
On 10 July 2019, tensions were raised further when boats belonging to Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps approached a British Petroleum tanker, British Heritage, impeding it while it was transiting the Strait of Hormuz. The Royal Navy frigate positioned themselves between the boats and ship so that it could continue its journey.
On 14 July 2019, British Foreign Secretary Jeremy Hunt said Grace 1 could be released if the UK received guarantees the oil — 2.1 million barrels worth — would not go to Syria.
On 19 July 2019, Iran media reported that the Swedish owned but British-flagged oil tanker Stena Impero had been seized by the Iranian Revolutionary Guard in the Strait of Hormuz. A first tanker, MV Mesdar, which was a Liberian-flagged vessel managed in the UK, jointly Algerian and Japanese owned, was boarded but later released. Iran stated that the British-flagged ship had collided with and damaged an Iranian vessel, and had ignored warnings by Iranian authorities. During the incident HMS Montrose was stationed too far away to offer timely assistance; when the Type 23 frigate arrived it was ten minutes too late. HMS Montrose was slated to be replaced by , however in light of events it was decided that both ships would subsequently be deployed together.
On 15 August 2019 Gibraltar released Grace 1 after stating that it had received assurances she would not go to Syria. The Iranian government later stated that it had issued no assurances that the oil would not be delivered to Syria and reasserted its intention to continue supplying oil to the Arab nation. On 26 August, Iranian government spokesman Ali Rabiei announced that the 2.1 million barrels of crude had been sold to an unnamed buyer, in either Kalamata, Greece or Mersin, Turkey. A US court issued a warrant of seizure against the tanker because it was convinced that the tanker was owned by the IRGC, which is deemed by Washington a foreign terrorist organization.
On 15 August 2019 the UK's new Boris Johnson-led government agreed to join the U.S. in its Persian Gulf maritime security Operation Sentinel, abandoning the idea of a European-led naval protection force.
On 4 September 2019 Iran released seven of the 23 crew members of the British-flagged oil tanker Stena Impero, which the Iranian forces had detained in August. The Iranian Foreign Ministry spokesman Abbas Mousavi stated that they have been released on humanitarian grounds. He said that their problem was the violation committed by the ship. On 23 September, the Iranian authorities announced that the British-flagged tanker Stena Impero, which they had captured on July 19 in the Strait of Hormuz, was free to leave. According to the government spokesperson Ali Rabiei informed that the legal process concluded and all the conditions to let the oil tanker go were also fulfilled. However, on September 24, it was reported that despite raising a green signal for the British tanker to leave the port, it remained in Iran waters. Swedish owner of Stena Impero, Erik Hanell said that they had no idea why the tanker was still there. On 27 September, the Stena Impero departed from Iranian waters and made its way to Port Rashid in Dubai. All of the remaining crew members who were still detained by Iran were released as well. The ship was also able to transmit location signals before arriving at Port Rashid, Dubai, after which the remaining crew members started undergoing medical checkups. The same day, HMS Duncan returned to Portsmouth.
Detention of British Nationals
Following the release of dual British-Iranian Nationals of Anoosheh Ashoori and Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe and furlough of tri-national Morad Tahbaz on 16 March 2022, Iran thenreturned Morad Tahbaz back to detention within two days. On 14 January 2023, Iran executed dual British-Iranian Alireza Akbari.
2023 sanctions on Iran
In April 2023, the European Union, along with Britain, imposed sanctions on over 30 Iranian officials and organizations, including units of the revolutionary guards, due to their alleged involvement in human rights abuses during a crackdown on civil unrest. In response, Iran threatened sanctions of their own.
In July 2023 the UK government said it planned to sanction officials from Iran. The UK's foreign secretary said that since 2022 there had been "15 credible threats by Iran's regime to kill or kidnap Britons or UK-based people".
See also
Iranians in the United Kingdom
1979 Iranian Revolution conspiracy theory
2007 Iranian seizure of Royal Navy personnel
Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907
Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran
Foreign relations of Iran
Foreign relations of the United Kingdom
Imperial Bank of Persia, a British-owned bank established in 1889.
2011–12 Strait of Hormuz dispute
British School of Tehran
Old fox, a term used by Iranians to describe Britain.
Bushire Under British Occupation
References
Further reading
Bonakdarian, Mansour. Britain and the Iranian Constitutional Revolution 1906–1911. Syracuse University Press in association with the Iran Heritage Foundation. 2006.
Bullard, Reader. Britain and the Middle East: From Earliest Times to 1963 (1964) popular history by a diplomat
Galbraith, John S. "British policy on railways in Persia, 1870–1900." Middle Eastern Studies 25.4 (1989): 480-505 covers "Reuter Concession"; online
Galbraith, John S. "Britain and American Railway Promoters in Late Nineteenth Century Persia." Albion 21.2 (1989): 248-262. online
Greaves, Rose Louise. "British Policy in Persia, 1892-1903--I" Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 28#1 (1965), pp. 34–60 online
Ingram, Edward. Britain’s Persian Connection 1798–1828: Prelude to the Great Game in Asia. 1993. Oxford University Press.
Kazemzadeh Firuz, Russia and Britain in Persia 1864–1914, A Study in Imperialism, 1968, Yale University Press.
Sabahi, Houshang. British policy in Persia, 1918-1925 (Routledge, 2005).
Shahnavaz, Shahbaz. Britain and South-West Persia 1880-1914: A Study in Imperialism and Economic Dependence (Routledge, 2005).
Shuster, Morgan, The Strangling of Persia: Story of the European Diplomacy and Oriental Intrigue That Resulted in the Denationalization of Twelve Million Mohammedans.
Sykes, Christopher. "The Persian Crisis: Historical Background." History Today (July 1951) 1#7 pp 19–24 covers 1880 to 1944.
Thornton, A. P. "British Policy in Persia, 1858-1890." part I English Historical Review (1954) 70#274: 554-579 online. part III 70#274 (1955), pp. 55–71 online
Wilson, K. "Creative accounting: the place of loans to Persia in the commencement of the negotiation of the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907." Middle Eastern Studies 38.2 (2002): 35-82.
External links
BRITISH POLICY IN PERSIA, 1885-1892
Iran-UK relation timeline: BBC
UK-Iran relations - parstimes.com
The British-Iranian Chamber of Commerce
The Iran Society of London
The Irano-British Chamber of Commerce
Iran's Embassy in London
The British Embassy in Tehran
United Kingdom
Bilateral relations of the United Kingdom |
4294832 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java%20collections%20framework | Java collections framework | The Java collections framework is a set of classes and interfaces that implement commonly reusable collection data structures.
Although referred to as a framework, it works in a manner of a library. The collections framework provides both interfaces that define various collections and classes that implement them.
Differences from Arrays
Collections and arrays are similar in that they both hold references to objects and they can be managed as a group. However, unlike arrays, Collections do not need to be assigned a certain capacity when instantiated. Collections can grow and shrink in size automatically when objects are added or removed.
Collections cannot hold primitive data types such as int, long, or double. Instead, Collections can hold wrapper classes such as , , or .
Collections are generic and hence invariant, but arrays are covariant. This can be considered an advantage of generic objects such as when compared to arrays, because under circumstances, using the generic instead of an array prevents run time exceptions by instead throwing a compile-time exception to inform the developer to fix the code. For example, if a developer declares an object, and assigns the object to the value returned by a new instance with a certain capacity, no compile-time exception will be thrown. If the developer attempts to add a to this object, the java program will throw an . On the other hand, if the developer instead declared a new instance of a as , the Java compiler will (correctly) throw a compile-time exception to indicate that the code is written with incompatible and incorrect type, thus preventing any potential run-time exceptions.The developer can fix the code by instantianting as an object. If the code is using Java SE7 or later versions, the developer can instatiate as an object by using the diamond operator
Collections are generic and hence reified, but arrays are not reified.
History
Collection implementations in pre-JDK 1.2 versions of the Java platform included few data structure classes, but did not contain a collections framework. The standard methods for grouping Java objects were via the array, the Vector, and the Hashtable classes, which unfortunately were not easy to extend, and did not implement a standard member interface.
To address the need for reusable collection data structures, several independent frameworks were developed, the most used being Doug Lea's Collections package, and ObjectSpace Generic Collection Library (JGL), whose main goal was consistency with the C++ Standard Template Library (STL).
The collections framework was designed and developed primarily by Joshua Bloch, and was introduced in JDK 1.2. It reused many ideas and classes from Doug Lea's Collections package, which was deprecated as a result. Sun Microsystems chose not to use the ideas of JGL, because they wanted a compact framework, and consistency with C++ was not one of their goals.
Doug Lea later developed a concurrency package, comprising new Collection-related classes. An updated version of these concurrency utilities was included in JDK 5.0 as of JSR 166.
Architecture
Almost all collections in Java are derived from the interface. Collection defines the basic parts of all collections.
The interface has the and methods for adding to and removing from a Collection respectively. It also has the method, which converts the Collection into an array of Objects in the Collection (with return type of Object[]). Finally, the
method checks if a specified element exists in the Collection.
The Collection interface is a subinterface of , so any Collection may be the target of a for-each statement. (The Iterable interface provides the method used by for-each statements.) All Collections have an that goes through all of the elements in the Collection.
Collection is generic. Any Collection can store any . For example, any implementation of contains objects. No casting is required when using the objects from an implementation of Collection<String>. Note that the angled brackets can hold a type argument that specifies which type the Collection holds.
Types of collection
There are several generic types of Collection: Queues, maps, lists and sets.
Queues allow the programmer to insert items in a certain order and retrieve those items in the same order. An example is a waiting list. The base interfaces for queues are called Queue.
Dictionaries/Maps store references to objects with a lookup key to access the object's values. One example of a key is an identification card. The base interface for dictionaries/maps is called Map.
Lists are finite collections where it can store the same value multiple times.
Sets are unordered collections that can be iterated and contain each element at most once. The base interface for sets is called Set.
List interface
Lists are implemented in the collections framework via the interface. It defines a list as essentially a more flexible version of an array. Elements have a specific order, and duplicate elements are allowed. Elements can be placed in a specific position. They can also be searched for within the list.
List implementations
There are several concrete classes that implement List, including and all of its corresponding subclasses, as well as .
AbstractList class
The direct subclasses of class include , and .
is an example of a skeletal implementation, which leverages and combines the advantages of interfaces and abstract classes by making it easy for the developer to develop their own implementation for the given interface.
ArrayList class
The class implements the List as an array. Whenever functions specific to a List are required, the class moves the elements around within the array in order to do it.
LinkedList class
The class stores the elements in nodes that each have a pointer to the previous and next nodes in the List. The List can be traversed by following the pointers, and elements can be added or removed simply by changing the pointers around to place the node in its proper place.
Vector class
The class has as its direct subclass. This is an example of a violation of the composition over inheritance principle in the Java platform libraries, since in computer science, a vector is generally not a stack. Composition would have been more appropriate in this scenario.
Stack class
The Stack class extends class with five operations that allow a Vector to be treated as a Stack.
Stacks are created using . The Stack offers methods to put a new object on the Stack (method ) and to get objects from the Stack (method ). A Stack returns the object according to last-in-first-out (LIFO), e.g. the object which was placed latest on the Stack is returned first. java.util.Stack is a standard implementation of a stack provided by Java.
The Stack class represents a last-in-first-out (LIFO) stack of objects. The Stack class has five additional operations that allow a Vector to be treated as a Stack. The usual and operations are provided, as well as a method () to peek at the top item on the Stack, a method to test for whether the Stack is empty (), and a method to search the Stack for an item and discover how far it is from the top (). When a Stack is first created, it contains no items.
CopyOnWriteArrayList class
The extends the class, and does not extend any other classes. allows for thread-safety without performing excessive synchronization.
In some scenarios, synchronization is mandatory. For example, if a method modifies a static field, and the method must be called by multiple threads, then synchronization is mandatory and concurrency utilities such as should not be used.
However synchronization can incur a performance overhead. For scenarios where synchronization is not mandatory, then the is a viable, thread-safe alternative to synchronization that leverages multi-core processors and results in higher CPU utilization.
Queue interfaces
The interface defines the queue data structure, which stores elements in the order in which they are inserted. New additions go to the end of the line, and elements are removed from the front. It creates a first-in first-out system. This interface is implemented by java.util.LinkedList, , and .
Queue implementations
AbstractQueue class
The direct subclasses of class include , , , ,
.
and
.
Note that and both extend but do not extend any other abstact classes such as .
is an example of a skeletal implementation.
PriorityQueue class
The java.util.PriorityQueue class implements java.util.Queue, but also alters it. PriorityQueue has an additional method. Instead of elements being ordered in the order in which they are inserted, they are ordered by priority. The method used to determine priority is either the method in the elements, or a method given in the constructor. The class creates this by using a heap to keep the items sorted.
ConcurrentLinkedQueue class
The java.util.concurrent.ConcurrentLinkedQueue class extends . ConcurrentLinkedQueue implements the interface.
The ConcurrentLinkedQueue class is a thread-safe collection, since for any an element placed inside a , the Java Collection Library guarantees that the element is safely published by allowing any thread to get the element from the collection. An object is said to be safely published if the object's state is made visible to all other thread at the same point in time. Safe publication usually requires synchronization of the publishing and consuming threads.
BlockingQueue interface
The
interface extends Queue.
The interface has the following direct sub-interfaces: and . works like a regular Queue, but additions to and removals from the BlockingQueue are blocking. If
is called on an empty BlockingQueue, it can be set to wait either a specified time or indefinitely for an item to appear in the BlockingQueue. Similarly, adding an item using the method is subject to an optional capacity restriction on the BlockingQueue, and the method can wait for space to become available in the BlockingQueue before returning. BlockingQueue interface introduces a method which removes and gets the head of the BlockingQueue, and waits until the BlockingQueue is no longer empty if required.
Double-ended queue (Deque) interfaces
The interface
extends the interface. creates a double-ended queue. While a regular only allows insertions at the rear and removals at the front, the allows insertions or removals to take place both at the front and the back. A is like a that can be used forwards or backwards, or both at once. Additionally, both a forwards and a backwards iterator can be generated. The interface is implemented by java.util.ArrayDeque and java.util.LinkedList.
Deque implementations
LinkedList class
LinkedList, of course, also implements the List interface and can also be used as one. But it also has the Queue methods. LinkedList implements the interface, giving it more flexibility.
ArrayDeque class
ArrayDeque implements the Queue as an array. Similar to LinkedList, ArrayDeque also implements the interface.
BlockingDeque interface
The interface extends java.util.concurrent.BlockingQueue. is similar to . It provides the same methods for insertion and removal with time limits for waiting for the insertion or removal to become possible. However, the interface also provides the flexibility of a Deque. Insertions and removals can take place at both ends. The blocking function is combined with the Deque function.
Set interfaces
Java's interface defines the Set. A Set can't have any duplicate elements in it. Additionally, the Set has no set order. As such, elements can't be found by index. Set is implemented by , , and .
Set interface implementations
There are several implementations of the Set interface, including and its subclasses, and the final static inner class (where and are formal type parameters).
AbstractSet
is a skeletal implementation for the interface.
Direct subclasses of include , , , and .
EnumSet class
The class extends . The class has no public constructors, and only contain static factory methods.
contains the static factory method . This method is an aggregation method. It takes in several parameters, takes into account of the type of the parameters, then returns an instance with the appropriate type. As of 2018, In Java SE8 OpenJDK implementation uses two implementations of which are invisible to the client, which are and . If the no longer provided any performance benefits for small enum types, it could be removed from the library without negatively impacting the Java Collection Library.
is a good replacement for the bit fields, which is a type of set, as described below.
Traditionally, whenever developers encountered elements of an enumerated type that needs to be placed in a set, the developer would use the int enum pattern in which every constant is assigned a different power of 2. This bit representation enables the developer to use the bitwise OR operation, so that the constants can be combined into a set, also known as a bit field.
This bit field representation enables the developer to make efficient set-based operations and bitwise arithmetic such as intersection and unions.
However, there are many problems with bit field representation approach. A bit field is less readable than an int enum constant. Also, if the elements are represented by bit fields, it is impossible to iterate through all
of these elements.
A recommended alternative approach is to use an , where an int enum is used instead of a bit field. This approach uses an to represent the set of values that belong to the same type. Since the implements the interface and no longer requires the use of bit-wise operations, this approach is more type-safe. Furthermore, there are many static factories that allow for object instantiation, such as the method method.
After the introduction of the , the bit field representation approach is considered to be obsolete.
HashSet class
HashSet uses a hash table. More specifically, it uses a to store the hashes and elements and to prevent duplicates.
LinkedHashSet class
The java.util.LinkedHashSet class extends by creating a doubly linked list that links all of the elements by their insertion order. This ensures that the iteration order over the Set is predictable.
CopyOnWriteArraySet class
is a concurrent replacement for a synchronized . It provides improved concurrency in many situations by removing the need to perform synchronization or making a copy of the object during iteration, similar to how acts as the concurrent replacement for a synchronized .
On the other hand, similar to , should not be used when sychronization is mandatory.
SortedSet interface
The java.util.SortedSet interface extends the java.util.Set interface. Unlike a regular Set, the elements in a SortedSet are sorted, either by the element's method, or a method provided to the constructor of the SortedSet. The first and last elements of the SortedSet can be retrieved using the and methods respectively, and subsets can be created via minimum and maximum values, as well as beginning or ending at the beginning or ending of the SortedSet. The java.util.TreeSet class implements the SortedSet interface.
NavigableSet interface
The interface extends the java.util.SortedSet interface and has a few additional methods. The , , , and methods find an element in the set that's close to the parameter. Additionally, a descending iterator over the items in the Set is provided. As with SortedSet, java.util.TreeSet implements NavigableSet.
TreeSet class
java.util.TreeSet uses a red–black tree implemented by a . The red–black tree ensures that there are no duplicates. Additionally, it allows TreeSet to implement .
ConcurrentSkipListSet class
acts as a concurrent replacement for implementations of a synchronized . For example it replaces a that has been wrapped by the method.
Map interfaces
Maps are defined by the interface in Java.
Map interface implementations
Maps are data structures that associate a key with an element. This lets the map be very flexible. If the key is the hash code of the element, the Map is essentially a Set. If it's just an increasing number, it becomes a list.
Examples of implementations include , , and .
AbstractMap class
is an example of a skeletal implementation.
The direct subclasses of class include , , , , and .
EnumMap
extends . has comparable speed with an ordinal-indexed array. This is because internally uses an array, with implementation details completely hidden from the developer. Hence, the EnumMap gets the type safety of a while the performance advantages of an array.
HashMap
uses a hash table. The hashes of the keys are used to find the elements in various buckets. The is a hash-based collection.
LinkedHashMap
extends by creating a doubly linked list between the elements, allowing them to be accessed in the order in which they were inserted into the map. contains a protected removeEldestEntry method which is called by the put method whenever a new key is added to the Map. The Map removes its eldest entry whenever removeEldestEntry returns true. The removeEldestEntry method can be overridden.
TreeMap
, in contrast to and , uses a red–black tree. The keys are used as the values for the nodes in the tree, and the nodes point to the elements in the Map.
ConcurrentHashMap
is similar to and is also a hash-based collection. However, there are a number of differences, such as the differences in the locking strategy they use.
The uses a completely different locking strategy to provide improved scalability and concurrency. does not synchronize every method using the same lock. Instead, use a mechanism known as lock striping. This mechanism provides a finer-grained locking mechanism. It also permits a higher degree of shared access.
ConcurrentSkipListMap class
acts as a concurrent replacement for implementations of a synchronized . is very similar to , since replaces a that has been wrapped by the method.
Map subinterfaces
SortedMap interface
The interface extends the java.util.Map interface. This interface defines a Map that's sorted by the keys provided. Using, once again, the compareTo() method or a method provided in the constructor to the SortedMap, the key-element pairs are sorted by the keys. The first and last keys in the Map can be called by using the and methods respectively. Additionally, submaps can be created from minimum and maximum keys by using the method. SortedMap is implemented by java.util.TreeMap.
NavigableMap interface
The interface extends java.util.SortedMap in various ways. Methods can be called that find the key or map entry that's closest to the given key in either direction. The map can also be reversed, and an iterator in reverse order can be generated from it. It's implemented by java.util.TreeMap.
ConcurrentMap interface
The interface extends the java.util.Map interface. This interface a thread Safe interface, introduced as of Java programming language's Java Collections Framework version 1.5.
Extensions to the Java collections framework
Java collections framework is extended by the Apache Commons Collections library, which adds collection types such as a bag and bidirectional map, as well as utilities for creating unions and intersections.
Google has released its own collections libraries as part of the guava libraries.
See also
Collection
Container
Standard Template Library
Java concurrency
Java ConcurrentMap
Citation
References
Java (programming language)
Data structures libraries and frameworks |
4294949 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee%20Peltier | Lee Peltier | Lee Anthony Peltier (born 11 December 1986) is an English professional footballer who plays as a defender for Championship club Rotherham United. While he has played in positions in both defence and midfield, he primarily plays as a right-back or centre-back. He started his career with his hometown club Liverpool, making his professional debut as a teenager in 2006. After loan spells with Hull City and Yeovil Town he signed for the latter on a permanent basis in 2008.
In 2009, he joined Huddersfield Town, where he made over 100 appearances and reached the 2011 Football League One play-off final, before signing for Leicester City. A year later, he moved to Leeds United, where he was appointed club captain on arrival. He fell out of favour in his second season at the club and, after a brief loan spell with Nottingham Forest, he rejoined Huddersfield Town.
In 2015, he signed for Cardiff City, where he made 163 appearances and helped the club win promotion to the Premier League after finishing as Championship runners-up during the 2017–18 season. He is also a former England under-18 International, winning three caps in 2004.
Early life
Born in Toxteth, Liverpool, Peltier attended St. Patrick's Roman Catholic Primary School and Campion High School in his hometown. Peltier first attended football matches at Tranmere Rovers and later Liverpool after joining the club's academy.
Club career
Liverpool
Peltier joined the Liverpool Academy in 1997 at the age of ten and signed his first professional contract with the club in 2004. Initially playing as a centre-back, he converted to right-back and also featured as a midfielder for the club's youth sides before settling into a full-back role after being promoted to the senior side. In August 2006 he was named in the first-team squad, as an unused substitute for a UEFA Champions League qualifier against Maccabi Haifa. He made his professional debut in a League Cup tie against Reading on 25 October 2006. Two months later, he made his Champions League debut for Liverpool against Galatasaray. With Liverpool already guaranteed to progress to the next round, he played the full 90 minutes at right-back as Liverpool lost 3–2.
On 16 March 2007, Peltier was subject to an emergency loan cover agreement, and subsequently joined Championship side Hull City until the end of the season in order to gain first team experience. He made his debut in a 4–0 victory against Southend United and went on to make seven appearances for the club in the final two months of the 2006–07 season.
Yeovil Town
In order to gain further first team opportunities, manager Rafael Benítez loaned Peltier to League One club Yeovil Town on 31 July 2007 until 31 December. Peltier agreed to join the club following encouragement from his mother. Eleven days later, he made his debut in a 1–0 defeat against Huddersfield Town. Although a right-back, Peltier played as a midfielder during an FA Cup match against Torquay United in November, but switched back to his original position for the club's following fixture against Gillingham a week later. He made 21 appearances in all competitions during his loan spell without scoring.
On 21 January 2008, he joined Norwich City on trial, featuring in a reserve team fixture against Colchester United, but was not offered a contract by manager Glenn Roeder. On 31 January 2008, he returned to Yeovil on a permanent basis for a minor fee, signing a three-year contract. He ended the season having made 38 appearances in all competitions, including his original loan spell, and won the club's Young Player of the Year award.
In his second season with Yeovil, Peltier made 39 appearances in all competitions, scoring his only goal for the club in a 3–2 victory over Swindon Town on 20 December 2008. His performances attracted attention from several clubs and Yeovil assistant manager Nathan Jones confirmed that the club would not "stand in his way [...] if the price was right." Despite this, Peltier admitted to suffering from homesickness having moved away from Liverpool for the first time in his career, commenting "I was quite happy with my football but [...] I struggled a bit and got quite homesick."
Huddersfield Town
2009–10 season
On 30 June 2009, he joined fellow League One side Huddersfield Town on a three-year contract for an undisclosed fee. Peltier had previously impressed manager Lee Clark during his brief trial spell with Norwich, where Clark was serving as assistant manager. He made his debut in a 2–2 draw against Southend United at Roots Hall on 8 August 2009. He was switched from right-back to left-back for Huddersfield's game against Millwall due to the usual left-back Dean Heffernan suffering from a dead leg. He was Huddersfield's first choice left-back keeping the position for the remainder of the regular season. Peltier helped the side to reach the play-offs in League One playing at left-back for the first leg at home to Millwall, but was forced to return to his usual position of right-back for the second leg at the New Den due to an injury to Tom Clarke in the first leg of the play-off semi final.
Peltier was voted the Players' Player of the Season, in his first season with Huddersfield, after making a total of 50 appearances in all competitions as Huddersfield finished sixth in the regular season before losing 2–0 to Millwall in the Play-Off semi-final second leg on 18 May 2010. In July 2010, Peltier was linked with a £3 million pound move to Queens Park Rangers managed by Neil Warnock. However, in August 2010, he signed a new contract at Huddersfield to extending his deal until 2014.
2010–11 season
Peltier remained first choice full back the following season. He received the first red card of his senior career during a 5–1 defeat to Premier League side Everton in the first round of the League Cup, being shown a second yellow after conceding a penalty. On 16 November 2010, he scored his first goal for Huddersfield in their FA Cup first round replay against Cambridge United at the Galpharm Stadium, where Huddersfield were trailing before winning 2–1 with two goals in extra time. His first league goal for Town came in their 3–1 win against Milton Keynes Dons at Stadium MK on 22 April 2011.
He made 53 appearances for the club during the season, helping the side reach the League One play-offs. During the first leg, he suffered a hamstring injury during a 1–1 draw with AFC Bournemouth but overcame fitness doubts play in the second leg, scoring his third goal of the season in a 3–3 draw as Huddersfield reached the final via a penalty shootout. In his last game for the club, Peltier failed to gain promotion at Huddersfield after losing 3–0 to Peterborough United in the 2011 League One play-off final.
Leicester City
Within hours of Huddersfield's League One playoff defeat, the club received enquiries for several players including Peltier.
On 22 June 2011, he signed for Championship side Leicester City, becoming Sven-Göran Eriksson's first signing of the summer after agreeing a three-year deal at the King Power Stadium. He had been recommended to Eriksson by his assistant Derek Fazackerley who had previously worked with Peltier at Huddersfield where Fazackerley had worked as Lee Clark's assistant. The initial fee was reported to be around £750,000 as part of a package worth over £1 million. On 6 August 2011, Peltier scored only goal on his league debut in a 1–0 victory over Coventry City, in the opening game of Leicester's 2011–12 season. However, the club struggled for form at the start of the season which lead to Eriksson's dismissal at the end of October having spent over £10 million on new signings. Over the course of the season Peltier made 40 league appearances, scoring twice, and was the club's first choice right-back, ahead of John Pantsil. The club finished the season in ninth place under Eriksson's successor Nigel Pearson.
In July 2012, after the club signed Belgian right-back Ritchie De Laet, Leicester announced that Peltier was not part of Pearson's long-term planning. Former Leicester player Steve Walsh commented his belief that "his better performances came under Sven and I don't think Nigel saw the best of him", leading to him being made available for a transfer. Despite this, Walsh claimed that Peltier would be a "good signing for any club in this league." Having been made available, Peltier chose to return home from a pre-season training camp in Austria, and this triggered transfer interest from his former club Huddersfield Town and Leeds United. Both clubs were reported to have bid around £600,000 but both were rejected by Leicester City who had set an asking price of £850,000. Leeds later agreed a fee with Leicester for the purchase of Peltier on 3 August.
Leeds United
Peltier joined Leeds United on 4 August 2012, and signed a three-year contract with the club. He became the club's tenth signing of the summer, with manager Neil Warnock making his signing a priority after missing out on his original target Joel Ward. Peltier made his competitive debut for Leeds playing at centre-back in the first game of the season against Shrewsbury Town in the League Cup on 11 August. Peltier was announced as the new Leeds United captain on 18 August, replacing the departed captain Robert Snodgrass. Peltier made his league debut for Leeds in their 1–0 victory against Wolverhampton Wanderers. He became an established first team player in his first season, making 41 league appearances, under managers Neil Warnock, Neil Redfearn and Brian McDermott primarily as a centre-back partnering Tom Lees. Toward the end of the season, he reverted to his usual position at right-back.
Despite captaining Leeds during 2013–14 pre-season, and for the opening two games of the season, Peltier was replaced in the role by teammate Rodolph Austin who returned to the side against Leicester City on 11 August 2013. Peltier publicly supported Austin following the announcement, commenting "It was the gaffer's choice to go with Rudy and I respect that." Peltier scored his first Leeds goal in a 1–1 draw against Blackpool on 26 December 2013 with a looping header.
After falling out of favour under McDermott, on 24 March 2014, Leeds announced that Peltier had signed for Nottingham Forest on loan, however Forest owner Fawaz Al-Hasawi announced the same day that the deal hadn't been completed, resulting in confusion over which club Peltier was contracted to. On 27 March 2014, Peltier completed his loan move to Nottingham Forest, only hours after their sacking of Billy Davies as manager. His former Leeds manager Neil Warnock was expected to be announced as Davies' replacement and Peltier had been lined up as the club's first signing under the new manager. However, Warnock's appointment collapsed when he was unable to agree personal terms with the club's hierarchy. Peltier attempted to back out of the move after being informed that Warnock was not going to be appointed and had hoped to join Bolton Wanderers instead, who submitted a late bid to sign him. However, the transfer had already been processed and Peltier eventually completed his move to Forest without Warnock. He was favoured in a central midfield position for Forest under caretaker manager Gary Brazil, making his debut in a 1–1 draw with Ipswich Town on 29 March. With Forest appointing Stuart Pearce as the new manager, Peltier returned to Leeds. On his return he stated that he was unsure what his future would hold at Leeds. He made seven appearances for Forest without scoring during his loan spell. He later commented that "I didn't realise how much I wasn't enjoying my football until I joined them (Forest)", believing that instability over Leeds' ownership under Massimo Cellino had directly affected the player's performances. This included a two-month spell where players were left unpaid.
Return to Huddersfield Town
On 23 June 2014, Peltier left Leeds United, after reaching a mutual agreement with the club to cancel the last year of his contract. Despite interest from Forest, Bolton Wanderers and Blackburn Rovers, on the same day, Peltier rejoined former club Huddersfield Town on a three-year deal. He took the number 37 shirt which he wore during his loan spell at Nottingham Forest at the end of the previous season. On 7 August, he was named as the new club captain by manager Mark Robins, replacing Peter Clarke, who left at the end of the previous season. He made his second debut for the Terriers in their 4–0 defeat by Bournemouth on 9 August. However, following the dismissal of Robins, Peltier fell out of favour under new manager Chris Powell who preferred Tommy Smith. On 16 October, he was relieved of his duties as captain by Powell, being replaced by new signing Mark Hudson. He made only four further appearances under Powell, ending his second spell with Huddersfield having made 12 appearances in all competitions.
Cardiff City
On 24 January 2015, Peltier signed for Cardiff City on a deal until the summer of 2018, reuniting with his former Yeovil manager Russell Slade. Signed as a replacement for John Brayford, he made his debut for the club, a week later in a 2–0 loss to Derby County, and went on to help Cardiff push away from a relegation battle and finished mid-table. The following season, Peltier became an ever-present member of the team which just missed out on a play-off place to Sheffield Wednesday.
The appointment of Paul Trollope in 2016 as Slade's successor threatened to displace Peltier from the side with the new manager favouring more attack minded full-back Jazz Richards. However, Trollope was sacked after three months in charge and was replaced by Peltier's former Leeds manager Neil Warnock. In February 2017, Peltier underwent an operation on his ankle, which resulted in a long-term absence from the first-team squad. He eventually made his return on 17 April, having missed nearly three months, against Nottingham Forest. Despite an injury-ridden season, he made 28 appearances and was rewarded with a two-year contract extension.
Peltier was part of the side that won promotion to the Premier League during the 2017–18 season, making 30 appearances for the club as they finished as Championship runners-up. In the opening match of the following season, he made his Premier League debut in a 2–0 defeat to Bournemouth. He was dropped from the first team following the match with manager Neil Warnock favouring playing centre-back Bruno Ecuele Manga at right-back, not making a league appearance for over a month when he suffered a shoulder injury during a 5–0 defeat to Manchester City on 22 September.
West Bromwich Albion
On 31 January 2020, Peltier signed for Cardiff's fellow Championship side West Bromwich Albion. However, he did not make any appearances for the Baggies and was released by the end of the extended season. Peltier rejoined the club in September 2020, and made his debut for the club in the EFL Cup against Harrogate. On 29 December 2020, he made his first league start for West Brom in a 5–0 home defeat to Leeds.
On 27 May 2021 it was announced that Peltier would leave West Bromwich Albion following the conclusion of his contract, thus ending an 18-month spell at the club.
Middlesbrough
On 2 July 2021, Peltier joined Middlesbrough on a one-year contract. Peltier left the club at the end of the 2021–22 season upon the expiration of his contract.
Rotherham United
On 28 July 2022, Peltier joined Rotherham United on a one-year contract.
Following the departure of Paul Warne as Rotherham United's manager in September 2022, Peltier was installed as caretaker manager along with Richard Wood as the club searched for a permanent option. Peltier was in the technical area and Wood played as the duo oversaw a 2–0 home loss to Wigan Athletic, this was the only game overseen by the duo before the appointment of Exeter City's Matt Taylor.
He scored his first goal for the South Yorkshire club in a 2-1 defeat to Reading F.C. - his first netting in almost a decade.
International career
Peltier is a former youth international player having represented his native England at international level. He was capped at under-18 level three times during his time as a player at hometown club Liverpool but has not been capped at a higher level than under-18s to date.
In 2012, Peltier was approached by the Antigua and Barbuda Football Association to represent the Benna Boys at international level.
Style of play
Though mainly a right-back, Peltier also plays in the centre-back position. He has said that right-back is his favourite position and has described himself as "a hard working defensive type of player who likes to tackle and pass the ball. [He gets] about the pitch quite well and keep it simple." He does not move up the flanks and shoot crosses; instead he only plays as a defender. Scott Johnson from WalesOnline wrote that he "does not fit the modern stereotype of what we now expect from a full-back, as he is not particularly swashbuckling or flashy."
Personal life
In March 2009, Peltier was shopping with fellow footballer Victor Anichebe in Knutsford when the pair were stopped by police officers after being accused of theft. During the incident, Peltier was handcuffed by officers and Anichebe's crutch was confiscated. The pair were not arrested over the claim and Anichebe received a public apology from the assistant chief constable of the Cheshire Constabulary over the claims.
Career statistics
Honours
Cardiff City
EFL Championship runner-up: 2017–18
Individual
Yeovil Town Young Player of the Year: 2007–08
Huddersfield Town Players' Player of the season: 2009–10
References
External links
1986 births
Living people
People from Toxteth
Footballers from Liverpool
English men's footballers
England men's youth international footballers
Men's association football defenders
Men's association football midfielders
Men's association football utility players
Liverpool F.C. players
Hull City A.F.C. players
Yeovil Town F.C. players
Huddersfield Town A.F.C. players
Leicester City F.C. players
Leeds United F.C. players
Nottingham Forest F.C. players
Cardiff City F.C. players
West Bromwich Albion F.C. players
Middlesbrough F.C. players
Rotherham United F.C. players
English Football League players
English people of Antigua and Barbuda descent
Premier League players
Rotherham United F.C. managers
English Football League managers |
4295195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knocked%20Up | Knocked Up | Knocked Up is a 2007 American romantic comedy film written, produced and directed by Judd Apatow, and starring Seth Rogen, Katherine Heigl, Paul Rudd, and Leslie Mann. It follows the repercussions of a drunken one-night stand between a slacker and a recently promoted media personality that results in an unintended pregnancy.
The film was released on June 1, 2007, to box office success, grossing $219 million worldwide, and acclaim from critics. This Is 40, a "sort-of sequel" focused on Rudd's and Mann's characters with Apatow returning as writer/director, was released on December 21, 2012.
Plot
Ambitious Los Angeles reporter Alison Scott has just been given an on-air role with E! and lives in the guest house of her sister Debbie's family. Ben Stone is an immature and wise-cracking Canadian slacker who lives off injury compensation funds and sparsely works on a celebrity porn website with his stoner roommates. While celebrating her promotion, Alison meets Ben at a local nightclub. After a night of heavy drinking, Ben and Alison have a one-night stand and due to a miscommunication, Ben does not wear a condom. The following morning, they learn over breakfast that they have nothing in common so they go their separate ways, leaving Ben visibly upset.
Eight weeks later, when Alison experiences morning sickness while interviewing James Franco, she realizes she could be pregnant. After taking multiple pregnancy tests, she is shocked to find out she is pregnant. She contacts Ben for the first time since their one-night stand to tell him. Although abrasive at first, he says he will support her. Although he is still unsure about being a parent, his father is overjoyed. Alison's mother tries to persuade her to have an abortion, but she decides to keep the child.
Later, Alison and Ben decide to give the relationship a chance. The couple's efforts include Ben making a marriage proposal with an empty ring box, promising to get her a ring someday. Alison thinks it is too early to think about marriage, as she is more concerned with hiding the pregnancy from her bosses, fearing they will fire her if they find out. After a positive beginning, tempers flare in the relationship.
Alison is increasingly worried about Ben's lack of support and understanding, and has doubts about their relationship's longevity. These thoughts are due to her sister's loveless marriage. Debbie's husband, Pete, works as a talent scout for rock bands, but leaves at strange hours in the night, making her suspect he is having an affair. Upon investigating, she learns that he is actually part of a fantasy baseball draft, and that he has been doing other activities such as going to the movies on his own, which he explains he does to be free from Debbie's manipulative manner.
As a result, they separate, and when Ben expresses pride in Pete's deception, it leads to an argument with Alison as they drive to her doctor. Furious, she ejects him from her car, abandoning him in the middle of a busy street. He tracks her down at her appointment and they have another argument, leading to their breakup.
Ben and Pete go on a road trip to Las Vegas. Under the influence of psychedelic mushrooms, they realize their loss and decide to try and save their relationships. Simultaneously, Debbie drags a nervous Alison out partying with her, but they are refused admission to a nightclub by its sympathetic bouncer on account of Debbie's age and Alison's pregnancy; leading to Debbie's tearful laments about her life and her desire to have Pete back. They reconcile at their daughter's birthday party, but when Ben tries to work things out with Alison, she refuses to get back together. Alison's boss finds out about her pregnancy and sees an opportunity to boost ratings with female viewers by having her interview pregnant celebrities. After a talk with his father, Ben decides to take responsibility and goes to great effort to mature, including obtaining his own apartment, getting an office job as a web designer, and reading pregnancy books.
When Alison goes into labor and is unable to contact her doctor, she calls Ben, as Debbie and Pete are out of town. He discovers that Alison's gynecologist is at a Bar Mitzvah despite having assured them that he never took vacations and leaves him an abusive voicemail. During labor, Alison apologizes for questioning Ben's priorities. When Debbie and Pete arrive at the hospital, Ben refuses to allow Debbie to be at Alison's side, insisting that it is his place. Debbie is both incredulous and thankful that he took charge of the situation and begins to change her formerly negative opinion of him. The couple welcomes a baby girl (a boy in the alternate ending) and start a new life together.
Cast
Seth Rogen as Ben Stone
Katherine Heigl as Allison Scott
Paul Rudd as Pete
Leslie Mann as Debbie
Jason Segel as Jason
Jay Baruchel as Jay
Jonah Hill as Jonah
Martin Starr as Martin
Charlyne Yi as Jodi
Production
Several of the major cast members return from previous Judd Apatow projects: Seth Rogen, Martin Starr, Jason Segel, and James Franco all starred in the television series Freaks and Geeks which Apatow produced. From the Apatow-created Undeclared (which also featured Rogen, Segel and Starr) there are Jay Baruchel and Loudon Wainwright III. Paul Feig, who co-created Freaks and Geeks, starred in the Apatow-written movie Heavyweights and directed the Apatow-produced Bridesmaids also makes a brief cameo as the Fantasy Baseball Guy. Steve Carell, who makes a cameo appearance as himself, played the main role in Apatow's The 40-Year-Old Virgin which also starred Rogen and Rudd, as well as appearing in the Apatow-produced Anchorman. Finally, Leslie Mann, who also appeared in The 40-Year-Old Virgin and Freaks and Geeks, is married to Apatow and their two daughters play her children in the movie.
Anne Hathaway was originally cast in the role of Alison in the film, but dropped out due to creative reasons that Apatow attributed to Hathaway's disagreement with plans to use real footage of a woman giving birth. Jennifer Love Hewitt and Kate Bosworth auditioned for the part after Hathaway dropped out, but ended up losing out to Katherine Heigl. Christina Aguilera was a contender for the main role but decided to turn it down because she was promoting her album Back to Basics at the time.
The closing credits roll over cast members' baby photos. The image of Joanna Kerns as a young mother was previously famous from its use in opening credits of Growing Pains''' first few seasons.
Bennett Miller, the director of Capote, appears in a mockumentary DVD feature called "Directing the Director", in which he is allegedly hired by the studio to supervise Apatow's work, but only interferes with it, eventually leading the two into a fist fight.
Reception
Box office performance
The film opened at No. 2 at the U.S. box office, grossing $30,690,990 in its opening weekend, behind Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's Ends second weekend. The film grossed $148,768,917 domestically and $70,307,601 in foreign territories, totalling $219,076,518. The film also spent eight weeks in the box office top ten, the longest streak amongst May–June openers in 2007. A company that specializes in tracking responses to advertising spanning multiple types of media attributed the film's unexpected financial success to the use of radio and television ads in combination.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of , based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "Knocked Up is a hilarious, poignant and refreshing look at the rigors of courtship and child-rearing, with a sometimes raunchy, yet savvy script that is ably acted and directed." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 85 out of 100, based on reviews from 38 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.
The Los Angeles Times praised the film's humor despite its plot inconsistencies, noting that, "probably because the central story doesn't quite gel, it's the loony, incidental throwaway moments that really make an impression." Chris Kaltenbach of The Baltimore Sun acknowledged the comic value of the film in spite of its shortcomings, saying, "Yes, the story line meanders and too many scenes drone on; Knocked Up is in serious need of a good editor. But the laughs are plentiful, and it's the rare movie these days where one doesn't feel guilty about finding the whole thing funny."Variety magazine, while calling the film predictable, said that Knocked Up was "explosively funny." On the television show Ebert & Roeper, Richard Roeper and guest critic David Edelstein gave Knocked Up a "two big thumbs up" rating, with Roeper calling it "likeable and real," noting that although "at times things drag a little bit.... still Knocked Up earns its sentimental moments."
A more critical review in Time magazine noted that, although a typical Hollywood-style comedic farce, the unexpected short-term success of the film may be more attributable to a sociological phenomenon rather than the quality or uniqueness of the film per se, positing that the movie's shock value, sexual humor and historically taboo themes may have created a brief nationwide discussion in which movie-goers would see the film "so they can join the debate, if only to say it wasn't that good."
Accusations of sexism
Mike White (longtime associate of Judd Apatow and screenwriter for School of Rock, Freaks and Geeks, Orange County, and Nacho Libre) is said to have been "disenchanted" by Apatow's later films, "objecting to the treatment of women and gay men in Apatow's recent movies", saying of Knocked Up, "At some point it starts feeling like comedy of the bullies, rather than the bullied."
In early reviews, both Slate Dana Stevens and the Los Angeles Times Carina Chocano wrote articles claiming the film propagated sexist attitudes, a topic which was the primary focus of a Slate magazine podcast in which New York editor Emily Nussbaum said: "Alison [Heigl's character] made basically zero sense. She was just a completely inconsistent character.... she was this pleasant, blandly hot, peculiarly tolerant, yet oddly blank nice girl. She seemed to have no actual needs or desires of her own...." A. O. Scott of The New York Times explicitly compared Knocked Up to Juno, calling the latter a "feminist, girl-powered rejoinder and complement to Knocked Up."
In a later Vanity Fair interview, lead actress Katherine Heigl admitted that though she enjoyed working with Apatow and Rogen, she had a hard time enjoying the film itself, calling it "a little sexist" and claiming that the film "paints the women as shrews, as humorless and uptight, and it paints the men as lovable, goofy, fun-loving guys."Associated Press. Heigl having 'a really hard time' with 'Grey's' affair 2004. Retrieved December 14, 2007.
In response, Apatow did not deny the validity of her accusations, saying, "I'm just shocked she [Heigl] used the word shrew. I mean, what is this, the 1600s?" Apatow also said that the characters in the film Knocked Up "are sexist at times... but it's really about immature people who are afraid of women and relationships and learn to grow up."
Heigl's comments spurred widespread reaction in the media, including a Huffington Post article in which she was labeled "an assertive, impatient go-getter who quickly tired of waiting for her boyfriend to propose". Heigl clarified her initial comments to People magazine, stating that, "My motive was to encourage other women like myself to not take that element of the movie too seriously and to remember that it's a broad comedy," adding that, "Although I stand behind my opinion, I'm disheartened that it has become the focus of my experience with the movie."
Meghan O'Rourke of Slate called Heigl's comments unsurprising, noting "Knocked Up was, as David Denby put it in The New Yorker, the culminating artifact in what had become 'the dominant romantic-comedy trend of the past several years—the slovenly hipster and the female straight arrow. The Guardian noted that Heigl's comments "provoked quite a backlash, and Heigl was described as ungrateful and a traitor". In the wake of mounting accusations of sexism, director Judd Apatow discussed ways he might develop more authentic female characters.
In July 2009, while promoting their film Funny People Apatow and Rogen appeared on The Howard Stern Show and defended the work in Knocked Up, disagreeing with the position Heigl had stated. Rogen pointed to Heigl's work in the film The Ugly Truth to illustrate his point. Rogen said: "I hear there's a scene where she's wearing underwear with a vibrator in it, so I'd have to see if that is uplifting for women." Apatow remarked on Heigl's criticisms, stating that he had expected an apology from Heigl. "You would think at some point I'd get a call saying she was sorry, that she was tired, and then the call never comes."
In August 2016, Rogen again spoke to Howard Stern about how he had felt hurt and somewhat betrayed back then by Heigl's comments. He went on to talk about what a great rapport they'd had on set while working together, and that at the time he had even envisioned making many more movies with her. Though Rogen wishes she would have apologized to him personally as opposed to publicly, he affirmed that he still really liked her, and that he never would have wanted the incident to hurt her career.
Heigl responded by saying that Rogen had "handled that so beautifully," and that she felt nothing but "love and respect" for him. "It was so long ago at this point, I just wish him so much goodness, and I felt that from him, too," she said.
Alleged copyright infringement
Canadian author Rebecca Eckler wrote in Maclean's magazine about the similarities between the movie and her book, Knocked Up: Confessions of a Hip Mother-to-Be, which was released in the U.S. in March 2005. She pursued legal action against Apatow and Universal Pictures on the basis of copyright infringement.Complaint for Copyright Infringement: Demand for Jury Trial – legal filing with United States District Court, Central District of California, January 3, 2007. In a public statement, Apatow said, "Anyone who reads the book and sees the movie will instantly know that they are two very different stories about a common experience."
Another Canadian author, Patricia Pearson, also publicly claimed similarities between the film and her novel, Playing House. She declined to sue and declared Eckler's lawsuit to be frivolous.
Top ten lists
The film made the top-ten list of the jury for the 2007 AFI Awards as well as the top-ten lists of several well-known critics, with the AFI jury calling it the "funniest, freshest comedy of this generation" and a film that "stretches the boundaries of romantic comedies." John Newman, respected film critic for the Boston Bubble, called the film "a better, raunchy, modern version of Some Like it Hot."
Early on the film was deemed the best reviewed wide release of 2007 by the Rotten Tomatoes' website.
The film appeared on many critics' top-ten lists of the best films of 2007.
3rd – Kyle Smith, New York Post 4th – Christy Lemire, Associated Press
5th – Scott Tobias, The A.V. Club 6th – David Ansen, Newsweek 8th – Ella Taylor, LA Weekly 9th – Empire 9th – Scott Foundas, LA Weekly (tied with Superbad)
10th – A. O. Scott, The New York Times (tied with Juno and Superbad)
10th – Lisa Schwarzbaum, Entertainment Weekly 10th – Peter Travers, Rolling Stone (tied with Juno)
Awards
On December 16, 2007, the film was chosen by the American Film Institute as one of the ten best movies of the year. It was one of the two pregnancy comedies on the list (Juno being the other). E! News praised the film's success, saying that, "The unplanned pregnancy comedy, shut out of the Golden Globes and passed over by the L.A. and New York critics, was one of 10 films selected Sunday for the American Film Institute's year-end honors."
The 2007 Teen Choice Awards awarded the film "Choice : Comedy". They also gave Ryan Seacrest "Best Hissy Fit", for his brief cameo, where he becomes self-obsessed and complains about rising young talents, saying that they "fuck his day up".
Judd Apatow was nominated for the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Original Screenplay.
In 2008, the film was nominated for a Canadian Comedy Award for Best Actor, for Seth Rogen. Coincidentally Rogen lost to Michael Cera for his role in Superbad, which Rogen had written and co-starred in.
High Times Magazine awarded the film a Stony Award for Best Pot Comedy in 2007.
MusicStrange Weirdos: Music From and Inspired by the Film Knocked Up, an original soundtrack album, was composed for the film by folk singer-songwriter Loudon Wainwright III and Joe Henry. However, the movie's lead song "Daughter" was written by Peter Blegvad.
In addition to Wainwright's tracks, there were approximately 40 songs featured in the motion picture that were not included on the official soundtrack on Concord Records.
Some of the songs featured in Knocked Up are:
"We Are Nowhere and It's Now" – Bright Eyes (feat. Emmylou Harris)
"All Night" by Damian Marley
"Stand Up Tall" by Dizzee Rascal
"Rock Lobster" by The B-52's
"Gives You Hell" by The All-American Rejects
"Police on my Back" by The Clash
"Biggest Part of Me" by Ambrosia
"Smile" by Lily Allen
"Girl" by Beck
"King without a Crown" by Matisyahu
"Toxic" by Britney Spears
"Santeria" by Sublime
"Tropicana" by Ratatat
"Shimmy Shimmy Ya" by Ol' Dirty Bastard
"Love Plus One" by Haircut One Hundred
"Rock You Like a Hurricane" by Scorpions
"Reminiscing" by Little River Band
"Ashamed" by Tommy Lee
"Clumsy" by Fergie
"Swing" by Savage (featured in the menu section of the DVD)
"Shame on a Nigga" by Wu-Tang Clan (used in the film's trailer)
"Grey in LA" by Loudon Wainwright III
"End of the Line" by Traveling Wilburys (used in the film's trailer)
Home media
Several separate Region 1 DVD versions were released on September 25, 2007. The theatrical R-rated version (128 minutes), an "Unrated and Unprotected" version (133 minutes) (separate fullscreen and widescreen editions available), a two-disc "Extended and Unrated" collector's edition, and an HD DVD "Unrated and Unprotected" version. On November 7, 2008, Knocked Up was released on Blu-ray following the discontinuation of HD DVD, along with other Apatow comedies The 40-Year-Old Virgin and Forgetting Sarah Marshall.
Spin-offsVariety reported in January 2011 that Paul Rudd and Leslie Mann would reprise their Knocked Up roles for a new film written and directed by Apatow, titled This Is 40. Apatow had stated that it would not be a sequel or prequel to Knocked Up, but a spin-off, focusing on Pete and Debbie, the couple played by Rudd and Mann. The film was shot in the summer of 2011, and was released on December 21, 2012.
In March 2022, Apatow was announced to be in early development of writing a third film, set 10 years after This Is 40 and titled This is 50''.
References
External links
2007 films
2007 romantic comedy films
2000s pregnancy films
2000s sex comedy films
American romantic comedy films
American sex comedy films
Apatow Productions films
Cultural depictions of Jessica Alba
2000s English-language films
Films about drugs
Films about sisters
Films directed by Judd Apatow
Films produced by Judd Apatow
Films produced by Clayton Townsend
Films set in Los Angeles
Films shot in Los Angeles
American pregnancy films
Films with screenplays by Judd Apatow
Universal Pictures films
2000s American films |
4295212 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London%20Lions%20%28basketball%29 | London Lions (basketball) | London Lions are a British professional basketball team based in Stratford, East London, England, and compete in the British Basketball League as well as the EuroCup.
The team was originally founded in 1977 as the Hemel Hempstead Lakers, and was previously based in Hemel Hempstead, following ownership take over by Vince Macaulay two seasons in Hemel Hempstead then meant relocation to Watford and notably Milton Keynes, where they were known as Milton Keynes Lions. It was in Milton Keynes that the team won its first silverware in 2008, the BBL Cup. The Lions relocated to London in 2012 and play its home games at the Copper Box Arena in the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park as well as occasional EuroCup matches at Wembley Arena.
In 2017, the Lions launched a women's team into the Women's British Basketball League after partnering with and rebranding the existing Barking Abbey Crusaders team as the London Lions.
London Lions is now owned by 777 Partners after they purchased the club from Macaulay ending his 27 year ownership . 777 Partners also purchased 45% of the British Basketball League (BBL) for £7m in December 2021. The balance of BBL is owned by the 10 clubs that compete in the BBL, including London, therefore, effectively 777 controls the BBL.
History
Hemel Hempstead Lakers
The club initially started out based in the town of Hemel Hempstead, 24 miles northwest of London, and were known as the Hemel Hempstead Lakers. The team was named after one of the NBA’s most famous teams, Los Angeles Lakers, and even adopted the LA Lakers' colours of purple and gold. In 1977, the Lakers entered the National Basketball League’s Division 2, and enjoyed a rather successful first season, finishing fifth (from 11 teams) with a 10–10 record. Their second season would be even more successful, with the Lakers finishing second in Division 2 (15–3) and winning promotion to the top-level league Division 1.
With entry into the country's top league ensured, the club received a major sponsorship deal from beverage brand Ovaltine, and as part of the deal were known as Ovaltine Hemel Hempstead. The franchise became a formidable force in Division 1, regularly finishing at the top-end of the table and making many appearances in the Play-off semi-finals at Wembley Arena, finishing third in 1981. Following the end of the Ovaltine sponsorship and a one-year deal with retailers Poundstretcher, the franchise was rebranded as the Hemel Royals in 1985. Meanwhile, on court, the team failed to reproduce the performances of the past few seasons and often settled for mid-table positions. This was a golden period in British Basketball and Hemel regularly brought top American talent from the States. Dick Miller is the greatest defensive player in the franchise's history and probably the game as a whole in the UK. The enigmatic Harvey Knuckles is considered one of the greatest players ever to play in Britain. Steve Hale was a fourth round draft pick, Sam Smith scored big points from all round the court and Daryl Thomas was a prolific scorer.
For the 1989–1990 season the franchise opted to leave the top-tier (now known as the Carlsberg League due to sponsorship from the Carlsberg Group) and return to the second-tier league, which had been renamed as NBL Division 1. After only one season, and a fourth-place finish (14–8), the Royals returned to Carlsberg League. The team finished bottom of the league in the 1992–1993 season with a 4–29 record, and were subsequently relegated back to Division 1, however they were later reinstated and returned to the rebranded BBL for the following season. A dismal spell ensued and over the next decade the team wouldn't finish outside of the bottom three, but with the removal of the promotion/relegation system between the BBL and Division 1, this had little consequence.
Watford Royals
The lack of fortune and an aging venue prompted the franchise to look at relocating and the team found a suitable, yet temporary solution in the neighbouring town of Watford. In preparation for the move, the franchise was rebranded as Hemel & Watford Royals in 1996 and they made the move from the Dacorum Centre to Watford Leisure Centre in 1997. The move had little effect on the team's playing performance and they finished 13th out of 13 in the 1997–1998 season (3–33). Royals' stay in Watford lasted just one season and, in 1998, with the promise of a future purpose-built arena being offered in the town of Milton Keynes, the team packed up, moved and renamed themselves as the Milton Keynes Lions.
Milton Keynes Lions
Lions' on-court performances were an instant improvement and the franchise began a slow but noticeable turnaround, reaching the semi-finals of the National Cup and also the end-of-season Play-offs for the first time in eight seasons in 2000. After a hugely successful run, the franchise reached its first major final in 2002 with an appearance at the SkyDome Arena in the BBL Trophy. The Lions fought valiantly but eventually lost to the all-conquering Chester Jets, losing 90–89 in a close contest. From then on, the Lions remained a competitive force in the league, often qualifying for the post-season Play-offs (though having little impact on the final outcome), and an appearance in the BBL Cup Semi-final in 2005 was considered to be a major landmark.
2007–08 season
It was announced on 8 May 2007 that coach Tom Hancock would not coach the Lions for the 2007–08 season, after just one term at the helm. On 17 May, the club declared owner Vince Macaulay-Razaq, a former player and coach of the franchise, would be appointed head coach for the proceeding season. The signing of Yorick Williams during the pre-season was a massive coup, and for many fans signalled the dawning of a new era for the club. During this exciting time and in preparation for a planned move to a new arena, the club also undertook a rebranding initiative, redesigning the logo and changing the kit colours from the traditional purple and gold, to a more dynamic black, gold and white, as well as the establishment of a new Academy in partnership with Milton Keynes College. The Milton Keynes College Lions Basketball Academy is headed by Lions' player Mike New.
With Macaulay back controlling the club on court as well as off it, the team's standing in the league was immediately matched to his own ambition as the club's owner. The veteran team performed sensationally and by the Christmas break they were well in contention for the league crown, resting in second place behind title-rivals Newcastle Eagles, who coincidentally they beat in their first-ever BBL Cup Final appearance at the National Indoor Arena (NIA), on 13 January 2008. Milton Keynes led for most of the game and sealed the 69–66 victory when New scored the final points of the game to end a Newcastle resurgence, handing the Lions franchise its first piece of silverware.
After finishing 4th in the league (19–14), Lions qualified for the post-season Play-offs with a seeded home-court Quarter-final tie against Scottish Rocks. The home team eased past the Rocks, 105–93, with the game filmed live in front of Setanta Sports cameras. For the first time in its history, Milton Keynes progressed to the Championship Finals weekend at the NIA where they defeated league champions Newcastle Eagles (63–72) on the way to the final eventually succumbing to Guildford Heat, 88–100, again live on Setanta Sports. The incredible achievements of the season, earned coach Macaulay-Razaq the accolade of BBL's Coach of the Year. Another highlight of the Lions' most successful season in history was the development of players through the new Academy with 18-year-old Greg Harvey progressing onto the roster in the latter stages of the season.
2008–09 season
As of 2008, Lions expected to be playing at the brand-new 4,500-seat capacity arena:mk adjacent to the new stadium:mk (home to Milton Keynes Dons football team). The move to their new home would have seen the Lions play in one of the BBL's biggest, modern venues, rivalling the homes of the Rocks and Newcastle. Unfortunately, the completion of the arena was delayed due to the deferral of proposed commercial developments around the site (which would have funded the project). With the demolition of Lions' current home, Bletchley Centre, scheduled for November 2009, the lack of an alternative venue raised question marks as to the future of the franchise remaining in Milton Keynes.
On court, there were big expectations following the successful campaign previously, but the 2008–09 season didn't start off too well for the Lions, with defeat to Guildford in the Cup Winners' Cup. After losing 91–89 in the first leg at Guildford, the Heat rolled over the Lions to a 68–60 victory at the Bletchley Centre, and a 159–149 series win. Further woe was added with a BBL Cup Quarter-final exit at the hands of visiting Everton Tigers, coupled with an exit at the 1st round of the Trophy. The disastrous season came to an abrupt end in April, with a 14–19 record and 9th-placed finish meaning the Lions missing out on the end-of-season Playoffs.
2009–10 season
With the demolition of the Bletchley Centre looming, the club sought to find an alternative venue for home games and on 31 July 2009 announced that from January 2010, the Lions would be playing out of Middleton Hall at thecentre:mk as a temporary measure until the new arena:mk was due to be completed, later in the year. The Lions played their last game in front of a packed Bletchley Centre crowd on 18 December, with a dramatic 98–97 victory over Guildford Heat. Robert Youngblood scored the winning point from the free-throw line and thus scored the last basket for Lions at their former home.
After Middleton Hall decided upon changes that would no longer make it suitable for basketball, the Lions were forced yet again to search for another new home venue, for at least the 2010–2011 season. The club secured a three-game lease for an out-of-town venue at Stoke Mandeville in Aylesbury to begin their 2010–2011 campaign, and decided upon renovating a site in the centre of Milton Keynes to host home games for the duration of the season. A three-year deal was agreed upon to use a warehouse in Winterhill and convert it into a 1,400-seat basketball arena and practice venue. The venue opened as the MK Lions Arena at the end of November 2010.
2010–11 season
In his first season as head coach, former Lions player Mike New led the team to a disappointing 10th-place finish in the British Basketball League. Despite now boasting a fantastic full-time basketball venue, which featured two permanent courts – allowing the teams throughout the Lions banner to train more than ever before, the club missed out on qualifying for the play-offs. One of the few highlights of the season was the play of American guard Demarius Bolds, who was among the league leaders in several statistics as he was named Lions' Player of the Year.
2011–12 season
2011–12 saw the Lions miss the play-offs for a second successive season, as they finished 9th in the Championship table – one place and four points behind 8th-placed Guildford Heat for the last post-season berth. A heavy 102–67 defeat to Leicester saw elimination at the first hurdle in the BBL Cup, however the team would later go close to making the BBL Trophy final. After topping their group in round robin play, Lions won the home leg of their semi-final against Plymouth Raiders in front of a sold-out Prestige Homes Arena, before suffering a 188–186 defeat on aggregate (after OT) in the return leg. Success was however found on a personal level, as Nathan Schall won the BBL dunk competition as part of the BBL Cup Final festivities and Stefan Gill completed the dunking double as he was crowned dunk contest champion at the World Basketball Festival.
Departure from Milton Keynes
Following the conclusion of the 2011–12 season, the owners of Prestige Homes Arena triggered an opt-out clause in the lease to let the building as a retail outlet. A planning application to change the building from a sporting facility to retail unit was approved by Milton Keynes Council, thus leaving the club without a home venue for the third time in as many seasons. Owner Vince Macaulay searched during the summer of 2012 to secure a new base for Lions home games, which included public pleas to local businesses for help in finding a new home as offers from cities around the UK poured in to relocate the team. On 17 July, a local newspaper revealed negotiations to secure the Lions' future in Milton Keynes were ongoing, with Macaulay hoping to finalise a deal with sufficient time to begin preparation for the new season, slated to begin away to the re-formed Manchester Giants on 21 September. On 30 July, with the country's interest in basketball heightened by Great Britain's participation in the London 2012 Olympic basketball tournament, Macaulay revealed his search to find a home venue had been unsuccessful and the club would be forced to leave Milton Keynes. In addition to the loss of professional basketball games, the move was a big blow to Milton Keynes residents who had enjoyed extensive community and schools' basketball programmes since the Lions arrived in 1998. It was not then known what effect the team's departure would have on the many school teams and community projects, but Macaulay stated that he wished to remain involved in the development of youth basketball in Milton Keynes in some form. Questions also remained as to the future of the Milton Keynes Lions College Academy which enabled young adults to attend basketball practice five days a week whilst furthering their education – several of whom had gone on to sign professional deals with the first team.
When faced with the challenge of finding a new home outside of Milton Keynes, Macaulay shortlisted two new locations:
First was Cardiff, with Macaulay stating the appeal of every game feeling like Wales versus England being an exciting prospect. However, he ultimately found that agreeing to a deal with the proposed arena's owners would be unlikely before the deadline he was facing of the start of the next season.
Second was Liverpool, Macaulay's hometown. Liverpool already had a BBL franchise – the Mersey Tigers, however, they were in financial trouble so Macaulay proposed merging the two teams and a 50/50 ownership. The current owners were interested but wanted Macaulay to send them his CV. Somewhat offended, he knew such a working relationship was unlikely to work, so withdrew his proposal. The Mersey Tigers folded the following season.
Completely out of options during the summer of 2012, Macaulay noted a lot of talk about the legacy of the London 2012 Olympic Games and investigated whether there would be any venues that could potentially become home for a basketball team once the games were over. Ultimately he entered discussions with the new owners of the Copper Box Arena, and the Milton Keynes Lions, soon to be the London Lions, had a new home.
Move to London
On 8 August 2012, an article in the Milton Keynes Citizen newspaper revealed the Lions would be moving to London for the 2012–13 season, taking residence at the Copper Box Arena in the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park. As the Copper Box was being used for handball during the 2012 Summer Olympics and goalball during the 2012 Summer Paralympics, the venue needed to be converted for basketball use, and the Lions, therefore, began the season playing home games at Crystal Palace National Sports Centre. Owner Vince Macaulay-Razaq revealed the Lions would maintain links in Milton Keynes by keeping the Milton Keynes College Lions Basketball Academy open.
2012–13 season
Following the Lions' move to London, head coach Mike New elected to remain in Milton Keynes and continue his work as head coach of the Milton Keynes College Lions Basketball Academy. Lions owner Vince Macaulay coached the team for the 2012–13 season. London Lions played its home games at Crystal Palace National Sports Centre until the Copper Box Arena had been converted for basketball use following its role as handball arena during the London 2012 Olympic Games.
2013–14 season
London Lions was successfully launched as the only professional basketball club in London. The team finished 6th in the regular season before losing to Worcester Wolves in the playoffs quarter-finals.
2014–15 season
The two previous seasons' BBL MVPs, Drew Sullivan and Zaire Taylor, were recruited for the 2014–15 season. The Lions reached the semi-finals of the BBL Trophy, losing to Leicester Riders. They finished 6th in the regular season. In the playoffs, the Lions defeated Worcester Wolves in the quarter-finals and Cheshire Phoenix in the semi-finals. The final, played in front of 14,700 at The O2 Arena, was won by Newcastle Eagles, who completed the clean sweep of British basketball titles.
2015–16 season
Nigel Lloyd took over as head coach for the 2015–16 season. Joe Ikhinmwin, the only senior player retained from the previous season's run to the play-off final, was made captain. Olumide Oyedeji would later rejoin in October following a serious injury to Demond Watt. Alex Owumi signed in December following further roster changes. The season ended with defeat to Sheffield Sharks in the play-off quarter-finals, on their way to winning the trophy.
2016–17 season
A more stable summer saw Nigel Lloyd remain in charge, bringing back Alex Owumi, Andre Lockhart, Jamal Williams, Joe Ikhinmwin and Kai Williams. Zaire Taylor also returned after a year away, along with Derek Hall and Rashad Hassan. A 9–1 start to the season in all competitions suggested great promise, but the departure of Hall after only 3 games and a season-ending injury to Jamal Williams disrupted the team's form. Defeat to Newcastle Eagles in the BBL Cup followed shortly afterwards. Reinforcements arrived in the shape of Navid Niktash and Zak Wells but the early season form couldn't be recaptured.
2017–18 season
After Lloyd stepped down as head coach at the beginning of the 17–18 season, Mariusz Karol was appointed as head coach and lead the team to a 9–3 start before losing 4 out of the next 6. This led to a mutual agreement with team management for him to step down as head coach and club director / owner Vince Macaulay-Razaq to become head coach.
2018–19 season
The team won its first silverware since rebranding as London Lions, beating Glasgow Rocks in the BBL Cup Final. They were beaten in the BBL Trophy Final by London City Royals, before winning the BBL league championship. Justin Robinson won his second BBL MVP award in a row.
2019–20 season
Lions changed their colours from their traditional purple and gold to black, silver and white. The season was curtailed prematurely due to the COVID-19 pandemic, with no champions being named.
European debut
In the 2020–21 season, the Lions played in European competition for the first time in club history. They were confirmed to have a spot in the qualifying rounds for the fifth season of the Basketball Champions League (BCL). however they failed to qualify for the tournament proper, losing 77–73 to Neptūnas in the single game qualifying tie.
In the 2021–22 season, the Lions made their debut in the FIBA Europe Cup, which meant their debut in the group phase of a European competition. On 13 October 2021, the Lions beat Donar Groningen away to register their first-ever European win.
Home arenas
Dacorum Leisure Centre (1977–1997)
Watford Leisure Centre (1997–1998)
Bletchley Centre (1998–2009)
Middleton Hall (thecentre:mk) (2010)
Prestige Homes Arena (2010–2012)
Crystal Palace National Sports Centre (2012–2013)
Copper Box Arena (2013–present)
Note: Between 1998 and 2002, some home games were played at Planet Ice Milton Keynes for TV broadcasting purposes. Between 2017 and 2020, some home games were played at University of East London SportsDock and Brixton Recreation Centre. In the 2022-23 season, some European home games were played at Wembley Arena.
Season-by-season records
Honours
BBL Championship
Winners: (2) 2018–19, 2022–23
Runners Up (2) 2017–18, 2020–21
BBL Play-offs
Winners: (0)
Runners Up (5) 2007–08, 2014–15, 2017–18, 2020–21, 2021–22
BBL Cup
Winners: (3) 2007–08, 2018–19, 2022–23
Runners Up (1) 2020–21
BBL Trophy
Winners: (1) 2020–21
Runners Up (3) 2001–02, 2018–19, 2021–22
Current roster
Depth chart
European matches
Matches
Notes
QB: Qualification Group B
QD: Qualification Group D
RS: Regular season
R2: Second round
See also
London Lions (women)
British Basketball League
Milton Keynes College Lions Basketball Academy
Milton Keynes Breakers
References
External links
London Lions (official website)
London Lions (basketball)
Basketball teams established in 1977
Basketball teams in England
Basketball teams in London
Sport in Milton Keynes
British Basketball League teams
Sport in Watford
Hemel Hempstead
1977 establishments in England |
4295603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwall%20Railway%20viaducts | Cornwall Railway viaducts | The Cornwall Railway company constructed a railway line between Plymouth and Truro in the United Kingdom, opening in 1859, and extended it to Falmouth in 1863. The topography of Cornwall is such that the route, which is generally east–west, cuts across numerous deep river valleys that generally run north–south. At the time of construction of the line, money was in short supply due to the collapse in confidence following the railway mania, and the company sought ways of reducing expenditure.
On the advice of the Victorian railway engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel, they constructed the river crossings in the form of wooden viaducts, 42 in total, consisting of timber deck spans supported by fans of timber bracing built on masonry piers. This unusual method of construction substantially reduced the first cost of construction compared to an all-masonry structure, but at the cost of more expensive maintenance.
Replacement of the timber viaducts by all-masonry structures began in the 1870s but a few remained in service until the 1930s.
History
The Cornwall Railway linked Plymouth with Falmouth. The section from Plymouth to was opened on 4 May 1859, and the remainder to Falmouth on 24 August 1863. Although the line had been designed by Brunel, this was after his death and the construction under the supervision of R P Brereton. It was built as a single-track broad gauge line.
The of railway crossed 45 rivers and deep valleys. Of these 43 were spanned by viaducts of various types built partly or entirely from timber. Workshops were established at where timber could arrive on barges to be preserved and cut to size. The offcuts from the timbers used for the viaducts and track were then used for the construction of the railway's buildings.
The choice of timber was made to keep initial costs down, but Brunel had warned that this meant more expensive maintenance—running to £10,000 annually. Replacement of the viaducts started in 1875 but led to a dispute in 1884 between the Cornwall Railway and the Great Western Railway which was leasing the line. The lease precluded the conversion of the line to standard gauge, and the Cornwall Railway refused to pay for the widening of the viaducts during rebuilding sufficient to accommodate a double line of standard gauge tracks. Following the amalgamation of the two companies on 1 July 1889 all the remaining viaducts on the main line to Truro were replaced. Most were either rebuilt in situ or by a replacement viaduct built immediately alongside, and in the latter case many of the original piers still remain today.
Between Saltash and St Germans, a deviation line was built in 1908, eliminating the wooden viaducts on by-passed section of line. Those on the Falmouth branch were all replaced between 1923 and 1934.
Constructional features
The distinctive timber viaducts were constructed using yellow pine which was preserved by Kyanising (using chloride of mercury), or sometimes by Burnettising (using chloride of zinc, a process patented by William Burnett) in the workshops at Lostwithiel. The various timbers were seated in cast iron chairs, and wrought iron was used for parts of the bridge which would be in tension, such as tie rods between spans. Five distinct types of viaduct were built to suit local conditions at each site. Peter John Margary, the Cornwall Railway engineer from 1868 to 1891, classified them as classes A to E.
Class A: The majority of viaducts were constructed on stone piers that rose to about below track level. From the tops of these radiated three fans of timber struts to support the beams beneath the track; one fan on each side and the third beneath the centre of the track. The struts radiated at around 55, 75, 105 and 125 degrees from horizontal (resulting in a \\// form), although there were some slight variations. This gave piers spaced at about centres.
Class B: A stronger support was given to St Pinnock, Largin, and Ponsanooth viaducts by replacing the central set of fan struts with a pair. These joined the outer fans at the top of the pier and met each other at the top, giving a W form when viewed across the width of the piers.
Class C: The soft ground of the tidal valleys at Weston Mill, Forder, Wivelscombe, and Nottar required a lighter structure. This was achieved by dispensing with the stone piers and replacing them with vertical timber trestles built on top of timber piles driven into the mud. There were no fans supporting the track, instead timber trusses were built directly on top of the timber trestles.
Class D: Coombe (by Saltash) and Moorswater viaducts had only two fans on each pier – one on each side – but the bottoms of these were joined by laminated timber beams between each set of fans, which created a continuous beam along the length of the viaduct above the top of the masonry piers.
Class E: The shallowest valleys at Grove, Draw Wood, and Probus were crossed by simple trestles of three parallel fans with two struts each in a V shape.
Brunel's designs allowed any defective timber to be withdrawn and replaced. The first decay usually occurred at the bottom of legs where they were seated in the cast iron chairs, and around bolt holes. The other area with significant decay was generally underneath the decking that carried the track and ballast. After World War I it became difficult to obtain the preferred yellow pine and other timber with shorter life was used instead, although by this time only the viaducts on the Falmouth branch remained in use.
Special gangs of men worked together on the viaduct maintenance. To reach timbers below the deck they worked from manila ropes. It was possible to work on the viaduct without closing the viaduct to trains, but a temporary speed restriction was enforced until the replacement was properly in place. The actual movement of the larger timbers was carried out on a Sunday when there were few trains operating.
Viaducts from Plymouth to St Germans
Stonehouse Pool
Milepost 247.25 on original Millbay to Devonport line between Five Fields Lane (now North Road West) and Stuart Road, south of station. ()
The only double track viaduct on the line, it was a Class A viaduct but with five fans of struts on each of the dwarf piers. It was high and long on 5 dwarf piers. Rebuilt with iron girders on brick piers in 1908.
The land below the viaduct was the head of a tidal creek but is now drained and forms a park. In 1876 a new Cornwall Loop between Plymouth North Road station and the Cornwall Railway was opened, built on a viaduct alongside the Stonehouse Pool Viaduct. Millbay station and its connecting lines (on which Stonehouse Pool Viaduct was located) were closed in 1964; the girders have since been removed and a steel work of art has been erected in its place.
Keyham
Milepost 248.75, north of Devonport. ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 6 piers. It was rebuilt using iron girders in 1900 which were again replaced with steel in 1937.
Weston Mill
Milepost 249.5, north of Devonport, above Weston Mill Creek. station was opened at the southern end in 1900. ()
A Class C viaduct high and long on 29 trestles. It was replaced by a steel structure in 1903.
Royal Albert Bridge
Milepost 252, immediately east of station. ()
This was the largest metal bridge on the route when it opened. A wrought iron bridge (including two main spans of ); it stands clear of high water.
Coombe by Saltash
Milepost 251.5, west of Saltash station. ()
A Class D viaduct high and long on 9 trestles. It was replaced by a stone viaduct on 19 October 1894. Because it crossed a deep, muddy tidal inlet, Brunel constructed this viaduct on timber piles and used timber trestles instead of stone piers. These were made from four groups of four timber baulks, each group raking inwards towards the top of the trestle.
Forder
Milepost 252.25, west of Saltash. ()
A Class C viaduct high and long on 16 trestles. It was demolished after the line was diverted to a more inland alignment on 19 May 1908.
Wivelscombe
Milepost 253.5, west of Saltash. ()
A Class C viaduct high and long on 4 trestles consisting solely of two uprights each plus a cross brace. It was demolished after the line was diverted to a more inland alignment on 19 May 1908.
Grove
Milepost 255.0, east of . ()
A Class E viaduct high and long on two dwarf piers. The fans consisted of two raking struts on either side of the track, tied beneath the track by cross braces, and a central pair of struts which were joined at the top as an inverted V; from the side this gave a \|/ fan. It was demolished after the line was diverted to a more inland alignment on 19 May 1908.
A fatal accident occurred here just two days after the opening of the railway. On 6 May 1859 the engine of the 7.25 p.m. train from Plymouth was approaching St Germans when it left the rails, hit the parapet of the viaduct and fell into the mud below, landing upside down. Two of the coaches also ended up in the creek. The driver, fireman, and one guard were killed. A second guard, Richard Paddon, was given a reward of five pounds for his part in keeping the remainder of the train on the viaduct and helping to rescue the survivors. At the inquest held on 10 May 1859, the Permanent Way Inspector, the Traffic Superintendent, and Mr Brereton, Brunel's Chief Engineer, were all unable to account for the derailment, and the jury verdict was accidental death.
Nottar
Milepost 255.25, across the River Lynher east of . ()
A Class C viaduct high and long on 27 trestles. It was demolished after the line was diverted to a more inland alignment on 19 May 1908.
St Germans
Milepost 256.0, across the River Tiddy east of St Germans. ()
This timber viaduct was not included in Margary's classification system as it was not a fan viaduct. Instead it was a timber truss on 16 timber trestles, creating a viaduct high and long. Piles were driven into the mud and the trestles built on top from four groups of four timber baulks, each group raking inwards towards the top of the trestle. Where the piers were on the river bank the trestles rested on low masonry plinths. It was not possible to remove individual timbers from the trestles, unlike the fan viaducts which were designed with piecemeal maintenance in mind. It was demolished after the line was diverted to a new alignment on 19 May 1908.
Viaducts from St Germans to Liskeard
Tresulgan
Milepost 261.0, east of . ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 8 piers. It was replaced by a new stone viaduct on 26 March 1899.
Coldrennick
Milepost 261.5, immediately east of Menheniot station. ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 16 piers. The piers were raised in brick and new iron girders replaced the timber, the work being completed on 23 January 1898. The piers were further strengthened in 1933 by encasing them in stone.
The Times newspaper reported that it "is stated to be 134ft. high and is the highest of the whole series of bridges by which the [Cornwall] railway is carried".
Note: the original typography is maintained in the above quotation and in the quotations below.
An accident occurred on 9 February 1897 during the reconstruction while a gang of 17 workmen were working below the viaduct superstructure on a platform that collapsed, throwing 12 of the men to their deaths. They were working in the seventh span; cross-girders had been installed and they were positioning a longitudinal wrought iron rail-bearer, moving it by hand with one end supported on the viaduct pier. The rail-bearer was 20 feet long. The "platform" they were working on, spanning that gap, was supported by a second-hand timber beam formerly used as a main structural member in one of the other spans; it had several notches cut out (for its former use) and there was decay at the slenderest point. The supervising engineer said a chain should have been used to support the centre, to take part of the load of the men and the rail-bearer.
The inquest statements throw an interesting light on the working methods of the day:
Samuel Stephens, railway labourer, Liskeard, said he had been employed on Coldrenick-viaduct since the summer. The scaffolding which fell had been erected some weeks. At the time of the accident there were 13 men actually bearing on the platform which collapsed. There were about 17 men taking part in the work of removing the girder. As the girder was pushed forward more men came to the front bearing on the span which collapsed. When the men in front had the girder on their shoulders the weight on the platform would be increased. He and 12 other men were carrying the girder on their shoulders, one end being supported by the pier of the viaduct. Just as the other end of the girder was approaching a cross-girder on which it was intended to rest it the staging suddenly collapsed and 12 of the gang fell into the valley beneath.
P. C. Ball said he had examined the spar which gave way. It was 22ft. long and 8in. by 6in. in size, but pieces had been cut out of it. At one place there was an indentation 9in. by 4in. wide. At another place 2ft. away was another cut 30in. long and 2in. or 3in. wide. Another indentation was 48in. long. The break was in about the centre of the cut. The beam was reduced here to 5½in. thick, and just at this point there was a flaw in the span, the wood being decayed.
The jury after a long consultation found that the death of the 12 men was due to the fall of the platform that negligence was shown by the foreman Blewett in not causing chains to be used in constructing the platform, and also by the ganger Pearse in selecting defective timber for constructing the platform. They also found that Blewett and Pearse feloniously caused the death of the men.The Times, London, 11 February 1897, The Serious Viaduct Accident
Trevido
Milepost 262.5, west of Menheniot. ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 7 piers. It was replaced by a new stone viaduct on 14 September 1898. An accident happened on 15 November 1897 during this reconstruction work. A rope gave way while five men were hoisting a wooden beam up onto the new viaduct. One of them let go of his rope too soon, as a result the beam swung free and knocked two of the gang to their deaths.
Cartuther
Milepost 264.0, east of . ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 6 piers. It was replaced by a new stone viaduct on 8 January 1882.
Bolitho
Milepost 264.25, east of . ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 8 piers. It was rebuilt as a stone viaduct in 1882.
Liskeard
Milepost 264.5, at the east end of Liskeard station. () Since 25 February 1901 the Looe branch line has passed beneath this viaduct.
A Class A viaduct high and long on 11 piers. It was rebuilt by raising the brick piers and replacing the timber with iron girders in 1894. These girders were renewed in steel in 1929.
Viaducts from Liskeard to Bodmin Road
Moorswater
Milepost 265.5, west of Liskeard. ()
A Class D viaduct high and long on 14 buttressed piers. John Binding, in his study of Brunel's Cornish Viaducts, thought that Moorswater, by virtue of its size and location, was surely the most spectacular.
In 1855 two of the piers then under construction collapsed. Brunel inspected them and rebuilt them the following year to his original design. In 1867 about of one pier was dismantled and rebuilt. Instead of the usual metal tie rods between the tops of the piers, this viaduct was fitted with timber ties; vertical timber baulks were fitted at the corners of some piers.
It was replaced by a new eight-arch stone viaduct with cast iron parapets on 25 February 1881. During this work H.G. Cole, the resident engineer, was killed when a steam crane fell over. Six of the old piers still stand alongside the new viaduct, but the weakest piers were taken down before they collapsed. The new viaduct and the remaining piers of the original structure were listed Grade II* on 26 November 1985.
The line that runs below this viaduct is the Liskeard and Looe Railway. To the south can be seen while to the north is the remains of Moorswater yard, still used by freight trains. Beyond this the Liskeard and Caradon Railway used to rise up onto the hills to serve various granite quarries.
Westwood
Milepost 269, west of . ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 5 piers. It was replaced by a new stone viaduct on 14 December 1879. The quarry to the south of the railway provided stone for both the building and later rebuilding many of the viaducts in Cornwall.
St Pinnock
Milepost 269.5, west of Doublebois above the Trago Mills out-of-town shopping complex. ()
A Class B viaduct high and long on 9 piers. It was rebuilt by raising the piers and replacing the timber with iron girders in 1882. This is the tallest viaduct on the Cornwall Railway. The line was singled over this viaduct on 24 May 1964 to reduce the load on the structure. This was listed Grade II in 1985.
Largin
Milepost 269.75, west of Doublebois. ()
A Class B viaduct high and long on 8 piers. It was rebuilt by raising the piers and replacing the timber with iron girders on 16 January 1886. The line was singled over this viaduct on 24 May 1964 to reduce the load on the structure.
West Largin
Milepost 270.25, west of Doublebois. ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 5 piers. It was replaced by a new stone viaduct on 26 September 1875. This was listed Grade II in 1985.
Draw Wood
Milepost 270.5, west of Doublebois. ()
A Class E viaduct high and long on 17 dwarf piers. It was replaced by an embankment and stone retaining wall in 1875.
Derrycombe
Milepost 271, west of Doublebois. ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 5 piers. It was replaced by a new stone viaduct on 8 May 1881. The new viaduct and the remaining piers of the original structure were listed Grade II in 1985.
Clinnick
Milepost 271.5, east of Bodmin Road. ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 5 piers. It was replaced by a new stone viaduct with an iron parapet on 16 March 1879. The new viaduct and the remaining piers of the original structure were listed Grade II in 1985.
Penadlake
Milepost 272.25, east of Bodmin Road. ()
A Class E viaduct high, long on 10 dwarf piers; replaced by a new stone viaduct on 7 October 1877. This was listed Grade II in 1985.
Viaducts from Lostwithiel to Truro
Lostwithiel
Milepost 277.75, west of across the River Fowey. ()
An wrought iron bridge with six timber approach spans. The date of replacement is uncertain.
Milltown
Milepost 278.5, west of Lostwithiel. ()
A Class A viaduct high, long on 7 piers; replaced by a new stone viaduct in 1894.
Par
Milepost 282.25, west of . ()
A five-arch stone viaduct to carry the line over a tramway, river and canal near Par Harbour. This was the only stone built viaduct on the line when it opened in 1859. It is known locally as the 'Five Arches'.
St Austell
Milepost 286.75, across the Trenance valley west of .()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 10 piers. It was built on a curve and crosses the road to Bodmin at an angle. The pier next to this road had to be built to an unusual triangular plan to fit this unusual configuration. The viaduct was replaced by a new stone viaduct in 1899. This sprung from the same point at the St Austell end before taking up an adjacent alignment. This meant that the northern half of the new viaduct was built first, the timber structure dismantled, and then the southern side completed.
The viaduct is referred to as Trenance Viaduct on Ordnance Survey maps.
Gover
Milepost 287.5, west of St Austell. ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 10 piers. It was replaced by a new stone viaduct in 1898. This viaduct and the remaining piers of the original structure were listed Grade II in 1988.
Coombe St Stephens
Milepost 291.25, east of . ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 11 piers. It was replaced by a new stone viaduct on 11 July 1886. The surviving piers from Brunel's viaduct were listed Grade II in 1988.
Fal
Milepost 291.75, east of Grampound Road. ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 8 piers. It was replaced by a new stone viaduct on 24 August 1884.
Probus
Milepost 295.25, west of (). Probus and Ladock Halt was opened a quarter of a mile east of the viaduct site on 1 February 1908.
A Class E viaduct high and long on 11 dwarf piers. It was replaced by an embankment in 1871.
Tregarne
Milepost 296.75, west of Grampound Road. ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 9 piers. It was replaced by a new stone viaduct on 1 September 1901.
Tregeagle
Milepost 297, west of Grampound Road and east of Polperro Tunnel. ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 4 piers. It was replaced by a new stone viaduct on 2 February 1902.
Truro
Milepost 300, east of . ()
Sometimes known as Moresk Viaduct, this Class A viaduct is high and long on 20 piers. 14 of these still stand alongside the replacement stone viaduct which was brought into use on 14 February 1904.
Carvedras
Milepost 300.5, a short distance east of Truro station. ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 15 piers. It was replaced by a new stone viaduct on 17 August 1902. The new viaduct and the remaining piers of the original structure were listed Grade II on 30 July 1993.
Viaducts from Truro to Falmouth
Penwithers
Milepost 301.5, west of the junction with the West Cornwall Railway to . ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 12 piers. It was rebuilt as an embankment in 1926.
Ringwell
Milepost 304, north of . ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 5 piers. It was rebuilt as an embankment in 1933.
Carnon
Milepost 304.25, north of Perranwell. ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 11 piers. The soft nature of valley floor meant that some piers had to have a foundation built for them by sinking a temporary caisson and removing the mud within it. It was replaced by a new stone viaduct on 13 August 1933.
This viaduct crossed Restronguet Creek and the Redruth and Chasewater Railway near its Devoran terminus. This disused railway line now forms part of the Mineral Tramway Trails.
Perran
Milepost 305.75, south of Perranwell. ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 5 piers. It was replaced by a new stone viaduct on 24 April 1927.
Ponsanooth
Milepost 307, across the River Kennal north of . ()
A Class B viaduct high and long on 9 piers. It was replaced by a new stone viaduct on 7 September 1930. This is the tallest viaduct west of Truro.
Pascoe
Milepost 307.25, north of Penryn. ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 6 piers. It was replaced by an embankment in 1923.
Penryn
Milepost 308.75, north of Penryn. ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 5 piers. It was replaced by an embankment in 1923.
Collegewood
Milepost 309.5, south of Penryn. ()
A Class A viaduct high and long on 14 piers. It was replaced by a new stone viaduct on 22 July 1934. This was the longest viaduct west of Truro and the last timber viaduct to be replaced in Cornwall. The piers of the original viaduct still stand and are listed Grade II.
See also
List of railway bridges and viaducts in the United Kingdom
Angarrack Viaduct
Penponds Viaduct
References
Further reading
R J Woodfin, The Cornwall Railway to its Centenary in 1959, Bradford Barton, Truro, 1972, ; Chapter V gives a detailed analysis.
External links
Remember Falmouth: photograph of Penwithers viaduct
Bridges by Isambard Kingdom Brunel
Railway bridges in Cornwall
Railway viaducts in Cornwall |
4295687 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabyle%20people | Kabyle people | The Kabyle people (, or Leqbayel or Iqbayliyen, , ) are a Berber ethnic group indigenous to Kabylia in the north of Algeria, spread across the Atlas Mountains, east of Algiers. They represent the largest Berber population of Algeria and the second largest in North Africa.
Many of the Kabyles have emigrated from Algeria, influenced by factors such as the Algerian Civil War, cultural repression by the central Algerian government, and overall industrial decline. Their diaspora has resulted in Kabyle people living in numerous countries. Large populations of Kabyle people settled in France and, to a lesser extent, Canada (mainly Québec) and United States.
The Kabyle people speak Kabyle, a Berber language. Since the Berber Spring of 1980, they have been at the forefront of the fight for the official recognition of Berber languages in Algeria.
Etymology
The word 'Kabyle' (Kabyle: Iqbayliyen) is an exonym, and a distortion of the Arabic word qaba'il (قبائل), which means 'tribes', or 'to accept', which after the Muslim conquest was used for people who accepted the word of the Quran. The term qaba'il was used, and is still somewhat used by various peoples in Algeria to refer to various mountain dwelling tribes, including the Kabyle people.
The term used for Kabyles specifically was 'Zwawa' ('Izwawen' in Kabyle, 'زواوة' in Arabic). This appellation has been used since the medieval era for the tribes of Greater Kabylia, and is featured in important medieval ethnographic works like Ibn Khaldun's. After the French conquest, the French often confused the term "Arabs" and "Kabyle" thanks to the widespread usage of Kabyle all over the country. Although initially the French used the term Kabyle to refer to all Berbers, it was later specified to mean only the modern Kabyle people during the colonial era, however, Zwawa is still the most used term for Kabyles in areas such as western Algeria.
History
The Kabyles were one of the few peoples in North Africa who remained independent during successive rule by the Romans, the Byzantines, the Vandals, the Ottoman Turks and the Carthaginians. Even after the Arab conquest of North Africa, the Kabyle people still maintained possession of their mountains.
Fatimid Caliphate
Between 902 and 909, after being converted to Isma'ilism and won over by Abu Abdallah's propaganda, the Kutama Berbers from Little Kabylie helped contribute to the founding of the Fatimid Caliphate, whose support in the conquest of Ifriqiya resulted in the creation of the Caliphate, although the ruling Fatimid dynasty was Arab. After the conquest of Ifriqiya the Fatimids conquered the realm of the Rustamids on the way to Sijilmasa which they also then briefly conquered and where Abdullāh al-Mahdī Billah, who at the time was imprisoned, was then freed and then accepted as the Imam of the movement and installed as the Caliph, becoming the first Caliph and the founder of the ruling dynasty. The historian Heinz Halm describes the early Fatimid state as being "a hegemony of the Kutama and Sanhaja Berbers over the eastern and central Maghrib" and Prof. Dr. Loimeier states that rebellions against the Fatimids were also expressed through protest and opposition to Kutama rule. The weakening of the Abbasids allowed Fatimid-Kutama power to quickly expand and in 959 Ziri ibn Manad, Jawhar the Sicilian and a Kutama army conquered Fez and Sijilmasa in Morocco.
During the reign of al-Aziz Billah, the role of the Kutama in the Fatimid army was greatly weakened as he significantly reduced their size in the army and included new socio-military groups. In 969 under the command of Jawhar, the Fatimid Kutama troops conquered Egypt from the Ikhsidids, the general Ja'far ibn Fallah was instrumental in this success: he led the troops that crossed the river Nile and according to al-Maqrizi, captured the boats used to do this from a fleet sent by Ikhshidid loyalists from Lower Egypt. The general Ja’far then invaded Palestine and conquered Ramla, the capital, he then conquered Damascus and made himself the master of the city and then he moved north and conquered Tripoli. It was around this time period that the Fatimid Caliphate reached its territorial peak of 4,100,000 km2.
Zirid Dynasty
The Zirid Dynasty was a family of Sanhadja Berbers with origins in the Kabyle mountains. During their reign they established their rule over the entire Maghreb and also established rule in parts of Andalusia. They also had suzerainty over the Emirate of Sicily through the Kalbite emirs and later assassinated the ruler and took over the island. When the Emirate of Sicily was split into separate taifas, Ayyub Ibn Tamim entered Sicily and united all of the taifas under his rule until he left the island.
Hammadid Dynasty
The Hammadids came to power after declaring their independence from the Zirids. They managed to conquer land in all of the Maghreb region, capturing and possessing significant territories such as: Algiers, Béjaïa, Tripoli, Sfax, Susa, Fez, Ouargla and Sijilmasa. South of Tunisia, they also possessed a number of oases that were the termini of trans-Saharan trade routes.
Kingdom of Ait Abbas and Kingdom of Kuku
These two Kabyle Kingdoms managed to maintain their independence and participated in notable battles alongside the Regency of Algiers, such as the campaign of Tlemcen and the conquest of Fez. In the early 16th century Sultan Abdelaziz of the Beni Abbes managed to defeat the Ottomans several times, notably in the First Battle of Kalaa of the Beni Abbes.
The Kabyle were relatively independent of outside control during the period of Ottoman Empire rule in North Africa. They lived primarily in three different kingdoms: the Kingdom of Kuku, the Kingdom of Ait Abbas, and the principality of Aït Jubar. Kabylia was the last part of northern Algeria to be colonised by the French during the years 1854–1857, despite vigorous resistance. Such leaders as Lalla Fatma N'Soumer continued the resistance as late as Mokrani's rebellion in 1871.
French colonists invented the Kabyle myth in the 19th century which asserted that the Kabyle people were more predisposed than Arabs to assimilate into "French civilization." Lacoste explained that "turning the Arabs into invaders was one way of legitimizing the French presence".
Kabyle villages were ruled through an indirect administration based on the preservation of Kabyle traditional political institutions such as the village’s assemblies djemaas, this institution played a central role in the Kabyle’s self-governing. The djemaas would resolve disputes between the village’s inhabitants and edict the customary law rules. French officials confiscated much land from the more recalcitrant tribes and granted it to colonists, who became known as pieds-noirs During this period, the French carried out many arrests and deported resisters, mainly to New Caledonia in the South Pacific. Due to French colonization, many Kabyle emigrated to other areas inside and outside Algeria. Over time, immigrant workers also began to go to France.
In the 1920s, Algerian immigrant workers in France organized the first party promoting Algerians independence. Messali Hadj, Imache Amar, Si Djilani Mohammed, and Belkacem Radjef rapidly built a strong following throughout France and Algeria in the 1930s. They developed militants who became vital to the fighting for an independent Algeria. This became widespread after World War II.
Since Algeria gained independence in 1962, tensions have arisen between Kabylie and the central government on several occasions. In July 1962, the FLN (National Liberation Front) was split rather than united. Indeed, many actors who contributed to independence wanted a share of power but the ALN (National Liberation Army) directed by Houari Boumédiène, joined by Ahmed Ben Bella, had the upper hand because of their military forces.
In 1963 the FFS party of Hocine Aït Ahmed contested the authority of the FLN, which had promoted itself as the only party in the nation. Aït Ahmed and others considered the central government led by Ben Bella authoritarian, and on September 3, 1963, the FFS (Socialist Forces front) was created by Hocine Aït Ahmed. This party grouped opponents of the regime then in place, and a few days after its proclamation, Ben Bella sent the army into Kabylie to repress the insurrection. Colonel Mohand Oulhadj also took part in the FFS and in the Maquis (fr) because he considered that the mujahideen were not treated as they should be. In the beginning, the FFS wanted to negotiate with the government but since no agreement was reached, the maquis took up arms and swore not to give them up as long as democratic principles and justice were a part of the system. But after Mohand Oulhadj's defection, Aït Ahmed could barely sustain the movement and after the FLN congress on April 16, 1964, which reinforced the government's legitimacy, he was arrested in October 1964. As a consequence, the insurrection was a failure in 1965 because it was hugely repressed by the forces of the ALN, under Houari Boumédiène. In 1965 Aït Ahmed was sentenced to death, but later pardoned by Ben Bella. Approximately 400 deaths were counted amongst the maquis.
In 1980, protesters mounted several months of demonstrations in Kabylie demanding the recognition of Berber as an official language; this period has been called the Berber Spring. In 1994–1995, the Kabyle conducted a school boycott, termed the "strike of the school bag". In June and July 1998, they protested, in events that turned violent, after the assassination of singer Matoub Lounès and passage of a law requiring use of the Arabic language in all fields.
In the months following April 2001 (called the Black Spring), major riots among the Kabyle took place following the killing of Masinissa Guermah, a young Kabyle, by gendarmes. At the same time, organized activism produced the Arouch, and neo-traditional local councils. The protests gradually decreased after the Kabyle won some concessions from President Abdelaziz Bouteflika.
On 6 January 2016, Tamazight was officially recognized in Algeria's constitution as a language equal to Arabic.
Geography
The geography of the Kabyle region played an important role in the people's history. The difficult mountainous landscape of the Tizi Ouzou and Bejaia provinces served as a refuge, to which most of the Kabyle people retreated when under pressure or occupation. They were able to preserve their cultural heritage in such isolation from other cultural influences.
The area supported local dynasties (Numidia, Fatimids in the Kutama periods, Zirids, Hammadids, and Hafsids of Bejaïa) or Algerian modern nationalism, and the war of independence. The region was repeatedly occupied by various conquerors. Romans and Byzantines controlled the main road and valley during the period of antiquity and avoided the mountains (Mont ferratus). During the spread of Islam, Arabs controlled plains but not all the countryside (they were called el aadua: enemy by the Kabyle).
The Regency of Algiers, under Ottoman influence, tried to have indirect influence over the people (makhzen tribes of Amraoua, and marabout).
The French gradually and totally conquered the region and set up a direct administration.
Algerian provinces with significant Kabyle-speaking populations include Tizi Ouzou, Béjaïa and Bouira, where they are a majority, as well as Boumerdes, Setif, Bordj Bou Arreridj, and Jijel. Algiers also has a significant Kabyle population, where they make up more than half of the capital's population.
The Kabyle region is referred to as Al Qabayel ("tribes") by the Arabic-speaking population and as Kabylie in French. Its indigenous inhabitants call it Tamurt Idurar ("Land of Mountains") or Tamurt n Iqbayliyen/Tamurt n Iqbayliyen ("Land of the Kabyle"). It is part of the Atlas Mountains and is located at the edge of the Mediterranean.
Culture and society
Language
The Kabyle ethnic group speak Kabyle, a Berber language of the Afro-Asiatic family. It is the largest Berber language in Algeria. It was spoken by 3 million people in 2004 and has significant Arabic, French, Latin, Greek, Phoenician and Punic substratum, with Arabic loanwords representing 22.7% to 46% of the total Kabyle vocabulary, with many estimates putting it at about 35%. Many Kabyles also speak Algerian Arabic and French.
During the first centuries of their history, Kabyles used the Libyco-Berber writing system (ancestor of the modern Tifinagh). Since the beginning of the 19th century, and under French influence, Kabyle intellectuals began to use the Latin script. It is the basis for the modern Berber Latin alphabet.
After the independence of Algeria, some Kabyle activists tried to revive the Old Tifinagh alphabet. This new version of Tifinagh has been called Neo-Tifinagh, but its use remains limited. Kabyle literature has continued to be written in the Latin script.
Religion
The Kabyle people are mainly Muslim, with a small Christian minority. Many Zawaya exist all over the region; the Rahmaniyya is the most prolific.
Catholics of Kabyle background generally live in France. Recently, the Protestant community has had significant growth, particularly among Evangelical denominations.
Economy
The traditional economy of the area is based on arboriculture (orchards and olive trees) and on the craft industry (tapestry or pottery). Mountain and hill farming is gradually giving way to local industry (textile and agro-alimentary). In the middle of the 20th century, with the influence and funding by the Kabyle diaspora, many industries were developed in this region. It has become the second most important industrial region in the country after Algiers.
Politics
The Kabyle have been fierce activists in promoting the cause of Berber (Amazigh) identity. The movement has three groups: those Kabyle who identify as part of a larger Berber nation (Berberists); those who identify as part of the Algerian nation (known as "Algerianists", some view Algeria as an essentially Berber nation); and those who consider the Kabyle to be a distinct nation separate from (but akin to) other Berber peoples (known as Kabylists).
Two political parties dominate in Kabylie and have their principal support base there: the Socialist Forces Front (FFS), led by Ali Laskri who replaced Hocine Aït Ahmed, and the Rally for Culture and Democracy (RCD), led by Mohcine Belabbès who replaced Saïd Sadi. Both parties are secularist, Berberist and Algerianist.
The Arouch emerged during the Black Spring of 2001 as a revival of the village assembly, a traditional Kabyle form of democratic organization. The Arouch share roughly the same political views as the FFS and the RCD.
The Movement for the Autonomy of Kabylie (MAK) also emerged during the Black Spring, It claimed the right for a regional autonomy of Kabylie. On 21 April 2010, MAK proclaimed a Provisional Government of Kabylie in exile (ANAVAD). Ferhat Mehenni was elected president by the National Council of the MAK. In 2013, MAK officially became an independentist movement and changed its name to the Movement for the Self-Determination of Kabylie.
Diaspora
For historical and economic reasons, many Kabyles have emigrated to France, both for work and to escape political persecution. They now number around 1 million people. Some notable French people are of full or partial Kabyle descent.
Notable people
Sport
Hicham Boudaoui
Samir Aït Saïd
Mohamed Allek
Larbi Benboudaoud
Soraya Haddad
Loucif Hamani
Cherif Hamia
Kheira Hamraoui
Mohand Chérif Hannachi
Rabah Madjer
Kylian Mbappé
Mahieddine Meftah
Sarah Ourahmoune
Moussa Saïb
Hocine Soltani
Zinedine Zidane
Business
Issad Rebrab
Cinema
Isabelle Adjani
Mhamed Arezki
Ramzy Bedia
Habiba Djahnine
Fellag
Marie-José Nat
Daniel Prévost
Rouiched
Erika Sawajiri
Malik Zidi
Music
Abderrahmane Abdelli
Lounis Aït Menguellet
Assia
Slimane Azem
Chimène Badi
Alain Bashung
Chérifa
Malika Domrane
Idir
Mohamed Iguerbouchène
Marina Kaye
Souad Massi
Matoub Lounès
Kamel Messaoudi
Emma Saïd Ben Mohamed
Marcel Mouloudji
El Hadj M'Hamed El Anka
Rilès
Takfarinas
Paint
M'hamed Issiakhem
Hamid Tibouchi
Politics
Abane Ramdane
Ferhat Abbas
Belaïd Abrika
Hocine Aït Ahmed
Amirouche Aït Hamouda
Lucius Alfenus Senecio
Nasir ibn Alnas
Fadela Amara
Cheikh Mokrani
Belkacem Lounes
Mohand Arav Bessaoud
Lalla Fatma N'Soumer
Salima Ghezali
Ferhat Imazighen Imula
Krim Belkacem
Saïd Mohammedi
Belkacem Radjef
Saïd Sadi
Science
Mouloud Mammeri
Si Amar
Mohammed Arkoun
Kahina Bahloul
Salem Chaker
Mustapha Ishak Boushaki
Noureddine Melikechi
Rachid Ouyed
Si Saïd
Abdelmalek Sayad
Mohand Tazerout
Tassadit Yacine
Literature
Arezki Aït Larbi
Taos Amrouche
Tahar Djaout
Nabile Farès
Mouloud Feraoun
Si Mohand
Salem Zenia
See also
List of Kabyle people
Notes and references
External links
Provisional Government of Kabylie (ANAVAD)
Kabyle Movement of Autonomy
Kabyle centric news site
Social web site
Kabyle centric news site
Ethnologue.com about Kabyle language
Algerian linguistic policy
Cultural site
Analysis
Ethnic groups in Algeria
Indigenous peoples of North Africa
Berber peoples and tribes |
4295976 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel%20Agbonlahor | Gabriel Agbonlahor | Gabriel Imuetinyan Agbonlahor (born 13 October 1986) is an English former professional footballer who played as a forward; he mostly played as a striker, but he was also capable of playing on the wing. He spent his entire professional career with Aston Villa in the Premier League and later the Championship, with loans at Watford and Sheffield Wednesday at the start of his career.
He is a product of Aston Villa's Academy, and made his first-team debut in 2006 following loans to Football League clubs Watford and Sheffield Wednesday. He made 391 total appearances for Aston Villa, including 322 in the Premier League. He scored 87 goals for the club, and is their all-time leading Premier League goalscorer, with 74 across 11 consecutive league seasons. Formerly a regular with the England under-21s, Agbonlahor made his senior international debut for England in 2008 and earned three caps.
Club career
Early career
Before being scouted by Aston Villa, Agbonlahor was playing for Great Barr Falcons and his district. It was at a district game where he was scouted by Aston Villa. During this time he had also been scouted by Wolverhampton Wanderers and played a few games for them, but chose to join his boyhood football team Aston Villa. Agbonlahor came through the youth ranks at local club Aston Villa. He signed a two-year professional contract at the club in June 2005. On 22 September 2005, he was loaned to Championship club Watford, where he made his senior debut six days later, replacing Trevor Benjamin at half time in a 3–1 defeat away to Coventry City. He made his first start in his only other match for Watford, a goalless draw against Leeds United at Vicarage Road on 1 October, in which he made way for Francino Francis after 65 minutes. Agbonlahor was loaned to another team from the division on 28 October, Sheffield Wednesday, where he made eight appearances without scoring.
Agbonlahor's Premier League debut for Villa came on 18 March 2006 at the age of 19, under manager David O'Leary, against Everton at Goodison Park. O'Leary was forced to delve into the youth academy because of a lack of senior strikers due to injury, thus earning Agbonlahor a rare start. He scored after 63 minutes, although Villa went on to lose the match 4–1.
2006–2008
In five pre-season matches of the 2006–07 season, Agbonlahor netted three goals for Aston Villa; a quick double salvo against Walsall (the first a near-post header, the latter a close range finish) in a 5–0 victory, and a consolation strike in a 2–1 defeat at NEC. Agbonlahor started the season on the right wing in Martin O'Neill's new-look Villa team, and would be part of the team that managed to get a point from the first Premier League match at Arsenal's new Emirates Stadium. Agbonlahor's first goal of the season came at home against Charlton Athletic in a 2–0 win. On 30 September, Agbonlahor scored a crucial equaliser against Premiership champions Chelsea just before half-time, heading in Liam Ridgewell's cross with a glancing header to earn Villa a 1–1 draw.
Agbonlahor also provided cup heroics in 2006, scoring an injury-time winner to beat Leicester City 3–2 at the Walkers Stadium. The following match, he scored a consolation effort in Villa's first loss of the season, on 28 October, ten matches in. Agbonlahor completed his run of scoring against the so-called "Big Four", when he scored against Manchester United. Aston Villa were beaten 3–1 in the match at Old Trafford. Agbonlahor then scored deep into injury time in the following match, against Watford on 20 January 2007, to end a Villa winless run that stretched back to 11 November.
Agbonlahor had played every minute of Aston Villa's campaign in 2006–07, until he was replaced by Patrik Berger in the 2–0 away fixture against Reading on 10 February 2007. The following match was the first of the season that Agbonlahor did not start—he instead appeared from the bench, replacing new Villa signing Shaun Maloney. Manager Martin O'Neill suggested that Agbonlahor, who had been playing out of position on the right wing for much of the season, had done superbly, and being dropped from the first 11 was in order to rest him, and alleviate growing crowd pressure. Following this break, Agbonlahor went on a scoring spree. He scored from the right-wing against Everton on 2 April to gain Villa a valuable point. Following this match, Agbonlahor signed a new-four-year contract at Villa. The following Saturday, in the absence of John Carew, he was moved back to his natural position at centre forward and again found his name on the scoresheet. Agbonlahor made it three in a row on Easter Monday, again scoring an equaliser, adjudged to have crossed the line by assistant referee Dave Richardson.
Agbonlahor also scored the vital second goal in the match between Aston Villa and Chelsea on 2 September, in which Villa won 2–0. Agbonlahor headed the winning goal in the 86th minute of the Second City derby away to Birmingham on 11 November, shortly after saving the ball on the line from a Liam Ridgewell shot. Agbonlahor won the Premier League Player of the Month award for November and manager Martin O'Neill won the equivalent award for the same month. On 12 April 2008, Agbonlahor scored the fourth goal against Derby County in a 6–0 victory at Pride Park Stadium in the Premier League. In the Second City derby against Birmingham City on 20 April 2008, he scored the fifth and final goal in the 5–1 victory.
2008–2010
On 15 August 2008, Agbonlahor signed a new four-year contract with Villa, tying him to the club until 2012. Following his contract extension, on 17 August 2008, Agbonlahor scored a "perfect" hat-trick (scoring goals with his head, right foot and left foot) against Manchester City in Villa's opening match of the 2008–09 Premier League season at Villa Park. The three goals were netted in the space of seven minutes, making it the third-fastest hat-trick in the history of the Premier League after Robbie Fowler and Sadio Mané. He was later named man of the match for this performance, which led to a 4–2 victory.
Early in the season, he began to form a successful strike partnership with teammate John Carew, this demonstrated in the Premier League away matches against West Bromwich Albion and Wigan Athletic where both players scored in both matches and provided assists. On 3 November 2008, Agbonlahor was at the centre of a controversy with Newcastle United's Joey Barton when, during the match, Barton appeared to brush his fingers on Agbonlahor's face. It later emerged that Barton's attack might have been race-orientated but, after careful consideration by both Aston Villa and The Football Association, no further action was taken. On 8 November, it emerged in some national newspapers that the reason Agbonlahor decided not to pursue legal action against Barton was because he "felt sorry" for him. On 15 November, he scored once and played a part in the other goal, when Aston Villa beat Arsenal 2–0 at Emirates Stadium. He scored a brace against Bolton Wanderers on 13 December. Agbonlahor notched his tenth league goal of the season in the 90th minute in a 2–0 win against Blackburn Rovers on 7 February.
However, this was a high point in a dismal run of form in which he scored just one goal in 12 league matches. Some fans began to get frustrated with Agbonlahor, and in Villa's home defeat against Tottenham Hotspur, there were some sarcastic cheers as he was substituted off by Martin O'Neill. He was subsequently dropped to the bench for Villa's next match away to Liverpool, which Villa lost 5–0. After the heavy defeat to Liverpool and despite his lack of form, Agbonlahor was recalled to the starting 11 and went on to score a goal against Manchester United on 5 April in a 3–2 defeat for Villa. Agbonlahor was nominated for the PFA Young Player of the Year, with teammate Ashley Young ultimately winning the honour.
Agbonlahor's first goal of the 2009–10 season came in a 2–0 home victory over Fulham on 30 August 2009, scoring from 25 yards. The striker scored the only goal in the season's opening Birmingham derby against Birmingham City, netting an open header past Joe Hart as a result of a free kick taken by Ashley Young. Agbonlahor scored his third goal of the season scoring in a 2–0 win against Portsmouth. He scored his fourth and fifth consecutive goals of the season against Cardiff City in the League Cup and Blackburn in the Premier League. His next goal came on 24 October 2009 against Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux in the Premier League. Fellow Villa forward Emile Heskey played the ball into the penalty area where Agbonlahor turned a defender and placed a low shot past Wolves goalkeeper Wayne Hennessey. The match finished 1–1.
He scored the only goal in the 1–0 win against Manchester United at Old Trafford, heading in a cross from Ashley Young after 21 minutes, providing Villa's first league win at Old Trafford since 1983. Agbonlahor also scored in the second leg of the League Cup semi-final against Blackburn, helping Villa to get to the final where they lost to Manchester United, 2–1. He scored twice in 2–0 win at Fulham on 30 January 2010. On 21 February 2010, Agbonlahor provided an assist for Emile Heskey before adding Villa's final goal in a 5–2 victory over Burnley for his 11th league goal of the season. Agbonlahor finished the season with 13 goals in the Premier League, and 16 in all competitions.
2010–2014
Despite Villa suffering some issues on and off the field at the beginning of the season, such as the resignation of manager Martin O'Neill and a humiliating 6–0 defeat at the hands of Newcastle United, Agbonlahor defended the club and stated his intent to remain there for the long term. Agbonlahor signed a new four-and-a-half-year contract on 12 November 2010, keeping him at Villa Park until at least 2015. On 16 January 2011, he made his 200th appearance in an Aston Villa shirt in a 1–1 draw with rivals Birmingham, playing the full 90 minutes at St Andrew's. Agbonlahor scored his first goal in the Premier League since April 2010 in the 2–1 victory over Wigan Athletic on 26 January 2011 at the DW Stadium. On 16 April 2011, he scored an injury-time winner away at West Ham United. Agbonlahor was less prolific in terms of goalscoring during 2010–11 due to Aston Villa manager Gérard Houllier preferring to use him as a winger.
Agbonlahor scored his first goal of the 2011–12 season in Aston Villa's 3–1 home win over Blackburn Rovers on 20 August 2011, and followed this up with the leveller in a 2–2 away draw against Everton ten days later. For his positive performances during the opening month of the season, Agbonlahor was named as Aston Villa's Player of the Month for August 2011, beating off competition from Fabian Delph to the top spot. He then made it three goals in three matches when he scored in a 1–1 home draw against Newcastle on 17 September. This meant that Agbonlahor had equalled his Premier League goals tally from the 2010–11 season after just five matches into the new season.
After rediscovering his goalscoring form under new boss Alex McLeish, the striker publicly spoke of his discontent at the managerial tenure of Gérard Houllier and his assistant Gary McAllister and said that he even considered quitting the club had the previous regime remained. Meanwhile, on the pitch Agbonlahor continued to impress, scoring the first goal and setting up Darren Bent for the second in a man of the match performance against Wigan on 1 October. He then put in another man of the match performance against Norwich City in a 3–2 win on 5 November, setting up both of Darren Bent's goals and scoring the second himself. On 7 January 2012, he scored the second goal in a 3–1 win against Bristol Rovers in the third round of the FA Cup after Marc Albrighton had given Villa the lead. On 3 April 2012, after Aston Villa captain Stiliyan Petrov's diagnosis with acute leukaemia, Agbonlahor was named team captain upon Petrov's diagnosis.
Following the sacking of Alex McLeish in the summer of 2012, Agbonlahor was not chosen as interim captain by McLeish's successor, Paul Lambert. The Scotsman opted firstly for Darren Bent as skipper, before ultimately choosing new signing Ron Vlaar to wear the captain's armband in the absence of Stiliyan Petrov. Agbonlahor began the season injured, and could not make an appearance until the 1–1 away draw with Newcastle United on 2 September 2012. He later returned to full fitness and started the away match at Manchester City on 25 September. Agbonlahor managed to score two goals in the match as Villa secured a memorable 4–2 League Cup win (after extra time) over the Premier League champions at the City of Manchester Stadium. On 3 November 2012, he scored his first Premier League goal in just under a year against Sunderland in a run stretching 29 matches. On 6 April 2013, Agbonlahor scored his 60th Premier League goal for Aston Villa, making him joint top Premier League goalscorer for the club alongside Dwight Yorke. On 29 April, in a 6–1 win over Sunderland, Agbonlahor scored his 61st Premier League goal to overtake Yorke as Villa's highest all-time Premier League goal scorer. He scored two goals in a 2–1 win over Norwich on 4 May, moving Aston Villa up to 13th place in the Premier League.
Agbonlahor began the season brightly, winning two penalties in a 3–1 away win over Arsenal on 17 August 2013 and assisting Christian Benteke's goal against Chelsea four days later in a controversial 2–1 defeat at Stamford Bridge. This resulted in strong praise from manager Paul Lambert, and a huge demand from the public for an England call up, which was ignored by Roy Hodgson. In September, Agbonlahor participated in a charity match organised by Stiliyan Petrov, which featured many celebrities and footballers, both former and current. During the match, Agbonlahor tackled and injured One Direction member Louis Tomlinson, who then became ill after being substituted. Despite apologising to Tomlinson, Agbonlahor received many threats after the match from One Direction fans via Twitter.
Later career
On 10 September 2014, Agbonlahor signed a new four-year contract, saying, "I can still remember making my debut, so to still be able to contribute is a great feeling." Three days later, he scored the only goal as Villa won away at Liverpool, a club he had only scored once against before in the Premier League. Agbonlahor was given a straight red card on 20 December for a challenge on former teammate Ashley Young as Villa drew 1–1 with Manchester United, however his three-match suspension was rescinded on appeal three days later.
Agbonlahor made his 300th Premier League appearance for Villa on 14 March 2015 away to Sunderland, scoring twice in the first half in a 4–0 win. On 30 May in the FA Cup Final against Arsenal at Wembley Stadium, manager Tim Sherwood chose to start Charles N'Zogbia instead of Agbonlahor, and then brought him on in place of the Frenchman after 53 minutes, with Villa already 2–0 down; they eventually lost 4–0.
Agbonlahor was named club captain at the start of the 2015–16 season, with new signing Micah Richards named team captain. Soon after manager Rémi Garde joined, Agbonlahor was dropped from the starting line-up. During the January transfer window, there was speculation surrounding Agbonlahor and his future at the club; however, though Turkish club Kayserispor were linked, Garde later revealed that no offers had been made for him. Agbonlahor returned to the squad in an FA Cup tie against Manchester City on 30 January 2015, and scored his first goal of the season a week later in a Premier League match in a 2–0 home victory against Norwich. This was his first goal in 11 months.
On 1 April 2016, Aston Villa suspended Agbonlahor, pending an investigation into reports that he was pictured appearing to hold a shisha pipe while on holiday in Dubai. On 19 April 2016, he was again suspended after he was allegedly pictured with laughing gas canisters. He was punished with a substantial fine and resigned the captaincy. Agbonlahor failed to impress new manager Roberto Di Matteo in pre-season, and his lack of involvement led to media speculation of a move away from the club. Despite interest from Reading, he turned them down and a move failed to materialise.
When manager Steve Bruce arrived, he immediately reinstated Agbonlahor into first-team training, saying that he's "not interested in what has happened in the past" and that it's a "clean slate" for him. Bruce subsequently put him on a six-week fitness regime in a bid to get him fit for the rest of the season. Agbonlahor came on as a substitute in the Second City derby on 23 April 2017 and scored his only goal of the season in a 1–0 win.
Agbonlahor made six appearances for Villa during 2017–18 and scored a single goal, during the first game of the season against Hull City. His final game for the club came against Sheffield United on 23 December 2017. He left the club at the end of the season after his contract was not renewed, ending a 17-year association with his hometown club. During his career at Villa, he has scored 86 times in 391 appearances and is the club's record Premier League scorer with 73 goals. He retired from playing on 27 March 2019 at the age of 32.
International career
Youth
Agbonlahor's ancestry qualified him to play for Scotland or Nigeria at international level, but he chose to play for his homeland of England.
On 20 September 2006, Agbonlahor was pencilled in as a player in the Nigeria under-20 team for the match against Rwanda. He turned down the call, whilst not ruling out playing for the country in the future, but subsequently pledged his future to England.
On 28 September 2006, Agbonlahor received his first call-up to the England under-21 team, and won his first cap as a substitute for Wayne Routledge against Germany on 6 October. Four days later he started in place of Routledge against the same opponents. Agbonlahor was then omitted from the England's 2007 UEFA European Under-21 Championship squad, by manager Stuart Pearce, as a result of missing the England U21 training camp in Spain.
Agbonlahor was later recalled to the team by Pearce, in September 2007, netting his first goal for the under-21s, the second of a 3–0 victory over Montenegro.
Senior
On 7 March 2007, Agbonlahor was one of several surprise names called up as part of a 37-man provisional Nigeria squad by new manager Berti Vogts, alongside fellow English players Victor Anichebe and Carl Ikeme, and full Israel international Toto Tamuz.
On 1 February 2008, Agbonlahor was named in Fabio Capello's 23-man England squad to play Switzerland later in the month, although a hamstring injury forced him to withdraw from the match. Agbonlahor was also an unused substitute in England's respective 2–0 and 3–0 friendly victories against the United States and Trinidad & Tobago in May–June 2008.
On 15 November 2008, he was called up to Capello's squad for the upcoming match away to Germany, joining three other Aston Villa players in the squad: Ashley Young, Curtis Davies and Gareth Barry. On 19 November 2008, he was named to start against Germany. He played for 76 minutes, had a goal disallowed and received high praise from John Terry, the latter describing him as "a nightmare to play against".
On 11 February 2009, he was in the starting line up against Spain, where he played for 75 minutes before being substituted for debutant Carlton Cole. He made his first appearance in a competitive international on 14 October 2009, playing 66 minutes in the 3–0 win over Belarus in the last match of qualification for the 2010 World Cup. He was last called up to the squad in November 2011.
Personal life
Agbonlahor was born in Birmingham, West Midlands. His parents separated while he was still young and he lived with his father, without any contact with his mother, for around 20 years. In 2009, ahead of the striker's 23rd birthday, his mother made a public appeal to him via the city's Sunday Mercury newspaper in order to become part of his life once more. Agbonlahor later contacted his mother and the pair reconciled. Following retirement, he has worked as a pundit for both Sky Sports and Talksport and written columns for online magazines such as Football Insider.
Career statistics
Club
International
Honours
Aston Villa
FA Cup runner-up: 2014–15
Football League Cup runner-up: 2009–10
England U21
UEFA European Under-21 Championship runner-up: 2009
Individual
Premier League Player of the Month: November 2007
References
External links
1986 births
Living people
People from Erdington
Footballers from Birmingham, West Midlands
English men's footballers
England men's under-21 international footballers
England men's international footballers
Men's association football forwards
Aston Villa F.C. players
Watford F.C. players
Sheffield Wednesday F.C. players
English Football League players
Premier League players
Black British sportsmen
English sportspeople of Nigerian descent
English people of Scottish descent
English association football commentators |
4296593 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodstock%20%28novel%29 | Woodstock (novel) | Woodstock, or The Cavalier. A Tale of the Year Sixteen Hundred and Fifty-one (1826) is a historical novel by Sir Walter Scott, one of the Waverley novels. Set just after the English Civil War, it was inspired by the legend of the Good Devil of Woodstock, which in 1649 supposedly tormented parliamentary commissioners who had taken possession of a royal residence at Woodstock, Oxfordshire. The story deals with the escape of Charles II in 1652, during the Commonwealth, and his final triumphant entry into London on 29 May 1660.
Composition and sources
Scott began composing Woodstock at the very end of October 1825. He appears to have made rapid progress at first, but there were many interruptions during December and the second volume was not finished until 11 February 1826. He completed the final volume on 26 March.
The History of England by David Hume (1754‒62), which Scott admired above all others, gave him most of what he needed for the historical background, though for many details he was able to draw on his profound acquaintance with the literature of the seventeenth century. For the goings-on at Woodstock Manor he was familiar with two accounts accepting a supernatural explanation in Satan's Invisible world Discovered by George Sinclair (1685) and Saducismus Triumphatus by Joseph Glanvil (1700). He also knew, though not necessarily at first hand, the version of the story in The Natural History of Oxford-shire by Robert Plot (1677), adopting its more sceptical approach to the business.
Editions
The first edition of Woodstock was published in Edinburgh by Archibald Constable and Co. and Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green in London on 28 April 1826. As with all the Waverley novels before 1827 publication was anonymous. The price was one and a half guineas (£1 11s 6d or £1.57½.). Scott does not seems to have revisited the novel until the spring of 1831 when he revised the text and provided an introduction and notes for the 'Magnum' edition, in which it appeared as Volumes 39 and 40 in August and September 1832.
The standard modern edition, by Tony Inglis with J. H. Alexander, David Hewitt, and Alison Lumsden, was published as Volume 19 of the Edinburgh Edition of the Waverley Novels in 2009: this is based on the first edition with emendations mainly from the manuscript and corrected proofs; the 'Magnum' material appears in Volume 25b (2012).
Plot summary
At a thanksgiving service in Woodstock church for the victory at Worcester (3 September 1651), the Rev. Nehemiah Holdenough was compelled to cede the pulpit, which he had usurped from the late rector (Dr Rochecliffe), to Joseph Tomkins, who, in military attire, declaimed against monarchy and prelacy, and announced the sequestration of the royal lodge and park by Cromwell and his followers. Proceeding thither, he encountered Sir Henry Lee, accompanied by his daughter Alice, prepared to surrender his charge, and was conducted through the principal apartments by the forester Joliffe, who managed to send his sweetheart Phoebe and dog Bevis with some provisions to his hut, in which the knight and his daughter had arranged to sleep. On arriving there they found Colonel Everard, a Roundhead who had come to offer them his own and his father's protection; but Sir Henry abused and spurned his nephew as a rebel, and at Alice's entreaty he bade them farewell, as he feared, for ever. On his way to the lodge he met his Royalist friend, Captain Wildrake, whom he was sheltering in spite of his politics, and determined to send him with an appeal to Cromwell to reinstate his uncle at Woodstock. On reaching Windsor, the captain, disguised as a Roundhead, obtained an interview with Oliver Cromwell, and a compliance with Everard's request, on condition that he would aid in securing the murdered king's son, in the event of his seeking refuge with the Lees.
Armed with the warrant of ejectment, the colonel and Wildrake, accompanied by the mayor and the minister, visited the Commissioners during their evening carouse, and took part in endeavouring to ascertain the cause of some startling occurrences by which they had been disturbed. Everard made his way alone to a dark gallery, in which he fancied he heard his cousin's voice, and suddenly felt a sword at his throat. Meeting Wildrake as he regained the hall, they hurried off to the hut where they found Dr Rochecliffe reading the Church service to Sir Henry and his daughter; and, after a reconciliation between uncle and nephew, the cousins were allowed a private interview, during which Alice warned her lover against betraying the king. Returning to the lodge they were told of other unaccountable events; and during the night Everard was ordered by an apparition to change his quarters. The sentinels also declared that they had heard strange sounds, and the Commissioners decided to retire to the village inn. Master Holdenough, too, confessed that he had been terribly shocked by the reflection in a mirror of the figure of a college friend whom he had seen drowned.
The following day Sir Henry Lee was induced to resume his post, and his son Albert arrived with one "Louis Kerneguy", whom he introduced as his Scotch page. Sir Henry having no suspicion who his guest really was treated him without ceremony; and while Dr Rochecliffe and the colonel were planning for his escape to Holland, the disguised Charles amused himself by endeavouring to gain Alice's love; but, in spite of a declaration of his rank, she made him ashamed of his suit. A quarrel, however, having arisen between him and Everard, she evinced her loyalty by preventing a duel they had arranged, at the risk of her reputation and the loss of her cousin's affection. A similar attempt by Tomkins to trifle with Phoebe was punished by a death-blow from Joliffe. The next evening Everard and his friend, and Holdenough, were unexpectedly made prisoners by Cromwell, who, having received intelligence of their knowledge of the king's sojourn at Woodstock, had brought a large force to secure him. Wildrake, however, managed to send his page Spitfire to the lodge to warn them, and while Alice acted as Charles's guide, Albert, in his dress, concealed himself in Rosamond's tower. Cromwell and his soldiers arrived soon afterwards with Dr Rochecliffe and Joliffe, whom they had seized as they were burying Tomkins, and, having searched all the rooms and passages in vain, they proceeded to blow up the tower. Albert, however, leapt from it just before the explosion, and Cromwell was furious when he discovered the deception. In his rage he ordered the execution of the old knight and all his abettors, including his dog; but afterwards released them, with the exception of Albert, who was imprisoned, and subsequently fell in the battle of Dunkirk (1658). Alice returned in safety, with the news that the king had effected his escape, and a letter from him to Sir Henry, approving of her marriage with Everard, whose political opinions had been considerably influenced by recent events.
Eight years later Wildrake arrived at Brussels with news for Charles. After Cromwell's son Richard abdicated, the Protectorate was abolished and the country descended into chaos. Order was restored when George Monck, the Governor of Scotland, marched into the City of London with his army and forced the Rump Parliament to re-admit members of the Long Parliament excluded during Pride's Purge. The Long Parliament dissolved itself and for the first time in almost 20 years, there was a general election. The Convention Parliament assembled and voted for Charles' restoration. In his progress to London, Charles, escorted by a brilliant retinue, amidst shouts of welcome from his assembled subjects, dismounted to salute a family group in which the central figure was the old knight of Ditchley, whose venerable features expressed his appreciation of the happiness of once more pressing his sovereign's hand, and whose contented death almost immediately followed the realisation of his anxious and long-cherished hopes.
Characters
Principal characters in bold
Sir Henry Lee, of Ditchley, keeper of Woodstock Park
Albert Lee, his son, a Royalist colonel
Alice Lee, his daughter
Dr Anthony Rochecliffe, late rector of Woodstock
Rev Nehemiah Holdenough, a Presbyterian minister
Colonel Markham Everard, a Roundhead, Sir Henry's nephew
Joceline Joliffe, a Royalist forester, and Sir Henry's servant
Phoebe Mayflower, his sweetheart
Commissioners of the Council of State
Colonel Desborough
General Harrison
Joshua Bletson
Joseph Tomkins, their steward
Captain Roger Wildrake, of Squattlesea-mere
Spitfire, his page
Oliver Cromwell
Zerobabel Robins, a Parliamentary soldier (Zerubbabel in some editions)
Captain Pearson, his aide-de-camp
Louis Kerneguy, a page, the future Charles II of England
Bevis, a wolf-dog
Chapter summary
Volume One
Preface: The Author has extracted the following Memoirs from the papers of the [fictitious] 17th-century Rector of Woodstock the Rev. J. A. Rochecliffe, D. D.
Ch. 1: Nehemiah Holdenough, a Presbyterian minister, is displaced in the pulpit of Woodstock parish church by an Independent [Joseph Tomkins] who is heckled by Josceline Joliffe, a royalist forester.
Ch. 2: In the park, Tomkins overhears the staunch royalist Sir Henry Lee and his daughter Alice discussing their family's divided political allegiances. After initially resisting, Sir Henry submits to him as a steward of the Parliamentary Commissioners, and the Lees leave to seek shelter in Joliffe's hut.
Ch. 3: Tomkins and Joliffe spar verbally on their way to the Lodge, where Joliffe despatches Phoebe Mayflower to his hut with refreshments.
Ch. 4: At the hut Markham Everard offers Sir Henry and Alice his assistance, but it is indignantly rejected by his uncle.
Ch. 5: On his way to the Lodge, Markham encounters Roger Wildrake. Tomkins agrees, without enthusiasm, to afford the pair a night's lodging.
Ch. 6: Markham composes an appeal to Cromwell, to be delivered by Wildrake, for the preservation of Woodstock from sequestration.
Ch. 7: Wildrake arrives at Windsor and has an interview with Cromwell.
Ch. 8: Wildrake obtains from Cromwell an order consigning the Lodge to Markham's keeping, and delivers it to him at a Woodstock inn.
Ch. 9: On the way to the Lodge, Markham, Wildrake, the Mayor of Woodstock, and Holdenough discuss the order and the stories of supernatural goings-on there.
Ch. 10: The three Commissioners present at the Lodge—Desborough, Harrison, and Bletson—are introduced to the reader.
Ch. 11: The Commissioners, Mark, and Wildrake discuss strange happenings at the Lodge. Markham thinks he hears two warning voices, one which he takes to be Alice's, the other belonging to a man by whom he is slightly wounded.
Volume Two
Ch. 1 (12): At Joliffe's hut Markham attempts to assure Sir Henry, and then Alice, of his integrity.
Ch. 2 (13): As they return to the Lodge, Wildrake tells Markham that he believes Cromwell views the Lodge as a device to attract and trap the fugitive King. Wildrake fights a crazed Harrison, who believes the cavalier is the ghost of the actor Dick Robison whom he had murdered, before Markham calms the pair.
Ch. 3 (14): Markham again hears the warning voices and fires without effect in the direction of two forms.
Ch. 4 (15): The three Commissioners reluctantly agree to vacate the Lodge in compliance with Cromwell's order.
Ch. 5 (16): Holdenough tells Markham that he believes he has seen the spirit of his fellow-student Albany, who had become a priest and had been killed at his instigation during an attack on a royalist house. Markham persuades him to assist the Lees if it should prove necessary.
Ch. 6 (17): On his return to the Lodge, Sir Henry spars verbally with Tomkins and rejoices with Joliffe. At Rosamond's Well, Alice encounters a female fortune-teller [Charles in disguise], who drops a ring in her pitcher.
Ch. 7 (18): Albert Lee arrives at the Lodge unexpectedly, and narrowly escapes injury when his father thinks he is an intruder.
Ch. 8 (19): Albert says that Charles has escaped after the battle of Worcester. He introduces
his page Louis Kerneguy [Charles in another disguise], who is teased by the drunken Wildrake.
Ch. 9 (20): Charles and Albert discuss the situation in private.
Ch. 10 (21): Dr Rochecliffe, the deposed vicar of Woodstock, advises Albert that the Lodge is as safe a refuge for Charles as anywhere. Alice praises the King's virtues (but not his appearance) in Louis's presence.
Ch. 11 (22): Louis defends the King's behaviour before escaping from Sir Henry's Shakespeare recitation. He determines to discontinue his attempts to seduce Alice.
Ch 12 (23): Alarmed by Louis's advances towards Alice, Phoebe decides to alert Markham. Inadvertently snubbed by Alice, Louis gets into a fight with Markham, who believes him to be Lord Wilmot, the original owner of the ring of Ch. 17.
Volume Three
Ch. 1 (24): Sir Henry interrupts the fight between Louis and Markham, and disputes with latter about Milton.
Ch. 2 (25): Alice rejects Louis's advances, even when he acknowledges himself to be Charles.
Ch. 3 (26): Wildrake delivers a challenge from Markham to Louis, who eventually decides to accept it. Rochecliffe arranges with Alice that they should combine to prevent the duel.
Ch. 4 (27): When they arrive at the spot selected for the encounter, Alice is unable to explain to Markham why Louis's safety is so important. Charles resolves matters by disclosing his identity, and Markham promises to help him as far as his duties to the Commonwealth permit.
Ch. 5 (28): Phoebe repels the advances of Tomkins at Rosamond's Well, and he is killed by Joliffe.
Ch. 6 (29): Cromwell arrives at Woodstock, survives an assault by Wildrake, and begins searching for Charles, placing Markham under arrest. Wildrake sends his page Spitfire to Alice at the Lodge with a feather to indicate Cromwell's arrival.
Ch. 7 (30): Albert arrives at the Lodge to make preparations for Charles's departure. Bevis brings Tomkins's glove, and Joliffe and Rochecliffe find his body and set about burying it.
Ch. 8 (31): Spitfire brings Wildrake's feather, and Charles reveals his identity to Sir Henry as preparations for his departure are made. Sir Henry and Albert make arrangements for delaying the pursuit.
Ch. 9 (32): Cromwell finds Joliffe and Rochecliffe burying Tomkins. He suffers a fit of hesitation, but Pearson encourages him to proceed. Effecting entry to the Lodge by means of a petard, Cromwell interrogates Sir Henry and proceeds to search the labyrinthine building.
Ch. 10 (33): Cromwell supervises an attack on a turret, from which Albert (impersonating Charles) jumps.
Ch. 11 (34): Albert is revealed and condemned to death by Cromwell along with the other prisoners. Captain Pearson is reluctant to execute the sentence.
Ch. 12 (35): As the prisoners await execution, Rochecliffe discloses to Holdforth that he is the Albany of Ch. 16.
Ch. 13 (36): Prompted by the soldier Zerobabel Robins, Cromwell pardons the prisoners one by one. Sir Henry receives a letter from Charles giving his blessing to the union of Alice and Markham.
Ch. 14 (37): [The final chapter is set in 1660] Wildrake brings news to Charles in Brussels of the political changes in Britain which make it possible for him to return as the restored monarch. On his way to London he passes the Lee-Everard family and receives Sir Henry's blessing before the old man dies.
Reception
There was very general agreement among the reviewers that Woodstock occupied a middle rank in the Waverley novels, with a handful rating it highly and two or three condemning it. Little enthusiasm is discernible for the thin plot and the tedious succession of tricks played on the Commissioners in the Lodge. On the other hand, several of the characters were more often than not deemed impressive. Doubts were expressed about Cromwell's historicity and tendency towards the sentimental, but he was widely recognised as a strong presentation. Charles was also deemed a success, as were Lee, Alice, and Wildrake in their different ways. Views differed on the question of authorial impartiality or otherwise. A formidable essay in The Westminster Review analysed Scott's lack of historical verisimilitude in his presentation of the characters, concentrating on the stylistic incoherence of their dialogue.
Cultural references
In Two Years Before the Mast the author/narrator recounts reading Woodstock to his fellow sailors.
References
External links
Page on Woodstock at the Walter Scott Digital Archive
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4296727 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20genocide | Greek genocide | The Greek genocide (), which included the Pontic genocide, was the systematic killing of the Christian Ottoman Greek population of Anatolia which was carried out mainly during World War I and its aftermath (1914–1922) on the basis of their religion and ethnicity. It was perpetrated by the government of the Ottoman Empire led by the Three Pashas and by the Government of the Grand National Assembly led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, against the indigenous Greek population of the Empire. The genocide included massacres, forced deportations involving death marches through the Syrian Desert, expulsions, summary executions, and the destruction of Eastern Orthodox cultural, historical, and religious monuments. Several hundred thousand Ottoman Greeks died during this period. Most of the refugees and survivors fled to Greece (adding over a quarter to the prior population of Greece). Some, especially those in Eastern provinces, took refuge in the neighbouring Russian Empire.
By late 1922, most of the Greeks of Asia Minor had either fled or had been killed. Those remaining were transferred to Greece under the terms of the later 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey, which formalized the exodus and barred the return of the refugees. Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians and Armenians, and some scholars and organizations have recognized these events as part of the same genocidal policy.
The Allies of World War I condemned the Ottoman government–sponsored massacres. In 2007, the International Association of Genocide Scholars passed a resolution recognising the Ottoman campaign against its Christian minorities, including the Greeks, as genocide. Some other organisations have also passed resolutions recognising the Ottoman campaign against these Christian minorities as genocide, as have the national legislatures of Greece, Cyprus, the United States, Sweden, Armenia, the Netherlands, Germany, Austria and the Czech Republic.
Background
At the outbreak of World War I, Asia Minor was ethnically diverse, its population included Turks and Azeris, as well as groups that had inhabited the region prior to the Ottoman conquest, including Pontic Greeks, Caucasus Greeks, Cappadocian Greeks, Armenians, Kurds, Zazas, Georgians, Circassians, Assyrians, Jews, and Laz people.
Among the causes of the Turkish campaign against the Greek-speaking Christian population was a fear that they would welcome liberation by the Ottoman Empire's enemies, and a belief among some Turks that to form a modern country in the era of nationalism it was necessary to purge from their territories all minorities who could threaten the integrity of an ethnically based Turkish nation.
According to a German military attaché, the Ottoman minister of war Ismail Enver had declared in October 1915 that he wanted to "solve the Greek problem during the war … in the same way he believe[d] he solved the Armenian problem", referring to the Armenian genocide. Germany and the Ottoman Empire were allies immediately before, and during, World War I. By 31 January 1917, the Chancellor of Germany Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg reported that:
Origin of the Greek minority
The Greek presence in Asia Minor dates at least from the Late Bronze Age (1450 BC). The Greek poet Homer lived in the region around 800 BC. The geographer Strabo referred to Smyrna as the first Greek city in Asia Minor, and numerous ancient Greek figures were natives of Anatolia, including the mathematician Thales of Miletus (7th century BC), the pre-Socratic philosopher Heraclitus of Ephesus (6th century BC), and the founder of Cynicism Diogenes of Sinope (4th century BC). Greeks referred to the Black Sea as the "Euxinos Pontos" or "hospitable sea" and starting in the eighth century BC they began navigating its shores and settling along its Anatolian coast. The most notable Greek cities of the Black Sea were Trebizond, Sampsounta, Sinope and Heraclea Pontica.
During the Hellenistic period (334 BC – 1st century BC), which followed the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greek culture and language began to dominate even the interior of Asia Minor. The Hellenization of the region accelerated under Roman and early Byzantine rule, and by the early centuries AD the local Indo-European Anatolian languages had become extinct, being replaced by the Koine Greek language. From this point until the late Middle Ages all of the indigenous inhabitants of Asia Minor practiced Christianity (called Greek Orthodox Christianity after the East–West Schism with the Catholics in 1054) and spoke Greek as their first language.
The resultant Greek culture in Asia Minor flourished during a millennium of rule (4th century – 15th century AD) under the mainly Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire. Those from Asia Minor constituted the bulk of the empire's Greek-speaking Orthodox Christians; thus, many renowned Greek figures during late antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance came from Asia Minor, including Saint Nicholas (270–343 AD), rhetorician John Chrysostomos (349–407 AD), Hagia Sophia architect Isidore of Miletus (6th century AD), several imperial dynasties, including the Phokas (10th century) and Komnenos (11th century), and Renaissance scholars George of Trebizond (1395–1472) and Basilios Bessarion (1403–1472).
Thus, when the Turkic peoples began their late medieval conquest of Asia Minor, Byzantine Greek citizens were the largest group of inhabitants there. Even after the Turkic conquests of the interior, the mountainous Black Sea coast of Asia Minor remained the heart of a populous Greek Christian state, the Empire of Trebizond, until its eventual conquest by the Ottoman Turks in 1461, a year after the Ottomans conquered the area of Europe which is now the Greek mainland. Over the next four centuries the Greek natives of Asia Minor gradually became a minority in these lands under the now dominant Turkic culture.
Events
Post-Balkan Wars
Beginning in the spring of 1913, the Ottomans implemented a programme of expulsions and forcible migrations, focusing on Greeks of the Aegean region and eastern Thrace, whose presence in these areas was deemed a threat to national security. The Ottoman government adopted a "dual-track mechanism" allowing it to deny responsibility for and prior knowledge of this campaign of intimidation, emptying Christian villages. The involvement in certain cases of local military and civil functionaries in planning and executing anti-Greek violence and looting led ambassadors of Greece and the Great Powers and the Patriarchate to address complaints to the Sublime Porte. In protest to government inaction in the face of these attacks and to the so-called "Muslim boycott" of Greek products that had begun in 1913, the Patriarchate closed Greek churches and schools in June 1914. Responding to international and domestic pressure, Talat Pasha headed a visit in Thrace in April 1914 and later in the Aegean to investigate reports and try to soothe bilateral tension with Greece. While claiming that he had no involvement or knowledge of these events, Talat met with Kuşçubaşı Eşref, head of the "cleansing" operation in the Aegean littoral, during his tour and advised him to be cautious not to be "visible". Also, after 1913 there were organized boycotts against the Greeks, initiated by the Ottoman Interior Ministry who asked the empire's provinces to start them. The British ambassador in Constantinople at that time described the boycott as a direct result of the Committee of Union and Progress and that "Committee emissaries are everywhere instigating the people", adding that every person, Greek or Muslim, who entered a non-Muslim shop was beaten.
One of the worst attacks of this campaign took place in Phocaea (Greek: Φώκαια), on the night of 12 June 1914, a town in western Anatolia next to Smyrna, where Turkish irregular troops destroyed the city, killing 50 or 100 civilians and causing its population to flee to Greece. French eyewitness Charles Manciet states that the atrocities he had witnessed at Phocaea were of an organized nature that aimed at circling Christian peasant populations of the region. In another attack against Serenkieuy, in Menemen district, the villagers formed armed resistance groups but only a few managed to survive being outnumbered by the attacking Muslim irregular bands. During the summer of the same year the Special Organization (Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa), assisted by government and army officials, conscripted Greek men of military age from Thrace and western Anatolia into Labour Battalions in which hundreds of thousands died. These conscripts, after being sent hundreds of miles into the interior of Anatolia, were employed in road-making, building, tunnel excavating and other field work; but their numbers were heavily reduced through privations and ill-treatment and through outright massacre by their Ottoman guards.
Following similar accords made with Bulgaria and Serbia, the Ottoman Empire signed a small voluntary population exchange agreement with Greece on 14 November 1913. Another such agreement was signed 1 July 1914 for the exchange of some "Turks" (that is, Muslims) of Greece for some Greeks of Aydin and Western Thrace, after the Ottomans had forced these Greeks from their homes in response to the Greek annexation of several islands. The swap was never completed due to the eruption of World War I. While discussions for population exchanges were still conducted, Special Organization units attacked Greek villages forcing their inhabitants to abandon their homes for Greece, being replaced with Muslim refugees.
The forceful expulsion of Christians of western Anatolia, especially Ottoman Greeks, has many similarities with policy towards the Armenians, as observed by US ambassador Henry Morgenthau and historian Arnold Toynbee. In both cases, certain Ottoman officials, such as Şükrü Kaya, Nazım Bey and Mehmed Reshid, played a role; Special Organization units and labour battalions were involved; and a dual plan was implemented combining unofficial violence and the cover of state population policy. This policy of persecution and ethnic cleansing was expanded to other parts of the Ottoman Empire, including Greek communities in Pontus, Cappadocia, and Cilicia.
World War I
According to a newspaper of the time, in November 1914, Turkish troops destroyed Christian properties and murdered several Christians at Trabzon. After November 1914 Ottoman policy towards the Greek population shifted; state policy was restricted to the forceful migration to the Anatolian hinterland of Greeks living in coastal areas, particularly the Black Sea region, close to the Turkish-Russian front. This change of policy was due to a German demand for the persecution of Ottoman Greeks to stop, after Eleftherios Venizelos had made this a condition of Greece's neutrality when speaking to the German ambassador in Athens. Venizelos also threatened to undertake a similar campaign against Muslims that were living in Greece if Ottoman policy did not change. While the Ottoman government tried to implement this change in policy, it was unsuccessful and attacks, even murders, continued to occur unpunished by local officials in the provinces, despite repeated instructions in cables sent from the central administration. Arbitrary violence and extortion of money intensified later, providing ammunition for the Venizelists arguing that Greece should join the Entente.
In July 1915 the Greek chargé d'affaires claimed that the deportations "can not be any other issue than an annihilation war against the Greek nation in Turkey and as measures hereof they have been implementing forced conversions to Islam, in obvious aim to, that if after the end of the war there again would be a question of European intervention for the protection of the Christians, there will be as few of them left as possible." According to George W. Rendel of the British Foreign Office, by 1918 "over 500,000 Greeks were deported of whom comparatively few survived". In his memoirs, the United States ambassador to the Ottoman Empire between 1913 and 1916 wrote "Everywhere the Greeks were gathered in groups and, under the so-called protection of Turkish gendarmes, they were transported, the larger part on foot, into the interior. Just how many were scattered in this fashion is not definitely known, the estimates varying anywhere from 200,000 up to 1,000,000."
Despite the shift of policy, the practice of evacuating Greek settlements and relocating the inhabitants was continued, albeit on a limited scale. Relocation was targeted at specific regions that were considered militarily vulnerable, not the whole of the Greek population. As a 1919 Patriarchate account records, the evacuation of many villages was accompanied with looting and murders, while many died as a result of not having been given the time to make the necessary provisions or of being relocated to uninhabitable places.
State policy towards Ottoman Greeks changed again in the fall of 1916. With Entente forces occupying Lesbos, Chios and Samos since spring, the Russians advancing in Anatolia and Greece expected to enter the war siding with the Allies, preparations were made for the deportation of Greeks living in border areas. In January 1917 Talat Pasha sent a cable for the deportation of Greeks from the Samsun district "thirty to fifty kilometres inland" taking care for "no assaults on any persons or property". However, the execution of government decrees, which took a systematic form from December 1916, when Behaeddin Shakir came to the region, was not conducted as ordered: men were taken in labour battalions, women and children were attacked, villages were looted by Muslim neighbours. As such in March 1917 the population of Ayvalık, a town of c. 30,000 inhabitants on the Aegean coast was forcibly deported to the interior of Anatolia under order by German General Liman von Sanders. The operation included death marches, looting, torture and massacre against the civilian population. Germanos Karavangelis, the bishop of Samsun, reported to the Patriarchate that thirty thousands had been deported to the Ankara region and the convoys of the deportees had been attacked, with many being killed. Talat Pasha ordered an investigation for the looting and destruction of Greek villages by bandits. Later in 1917 instructions were sent to authorize military officials with the control of the operation and to broaden its scope, now including persons from cities in the coastal region. However, in certain areas Greek populations remained undeported.
Greek deportees were sent to live in Greek villages in the inner provinces or, in some case, villages where Armenians were living before being deported. Greek villages evacuated during the war due to military concerns were then resettled with Muslim immigrants and refugees. According to cables sent to the provinces during this time, abandoned movable and non-movable Greek property was not to be liquidated, as that of the Armenians, but "preserved".
On 14 January 1917 Cossva Anckarsvärd, Sweden's Ambassador to Constantinople, sent a dispatch regarding the decision to deport the Ottoman Greeks:
According to Rendel, atrocities such as deportations involving death marches, starvation in labour camps etc. were referred to as "white massacres". Ottoman official Rafet Bey was active in the genocide of the Greeks and in November 1916, Austrian consul in Samsun, Kwiatkowski, reported that he said to him "We must finish off the Greeks as we did with the Armenians ... today I sent squads to the interior to kill every Greek on sight".
Pontic Greeks responded by forming insurgent groups, which carried weapons salvaged from the battlefields of the Caucasus Campaign of World War I or directly supplied by the Russian army. In 1920, the insurgents reached their peak in regard to manpower numbering 18,000 men. On 15 November 1917, Ozakom delegates agreed to create a unified army composed of ethnically homogeneous units, Greeks were allotted a division consisting of three regiments. The Greek Caucasus Division was thus formed out of ethnic Greeks serving in Russian units stationed in the Caucasus and raw recruits from among the local population including former insurgents. The division took part in numerous engagements against the Ottoman army as well as Muslim and Armenian irregulars, safeguarding the withdrawal of Greek refugees into the Russian held Caucasus, before being disbanded in the aftermath of the Treaty of Poti.
Greco-Turkish War
After the Ottoman Empire capitulated on 30 October 1918, it came under the de jure control of the victorious Entente Powers. However, the latter failed to bring the perpetrators of the genocide to justice, although in the Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919–20 a number of leading Ottoman officials were accused of ordering massacres against both Greeks and Armenians. Thus, killings, massacres and deportations continued under the pretext of the national movement of Mustafa Kemal (later Atatürk).
In an October 1920 report a British officer describes the aftermath of the massacres at İznik in north-western Anatolia in which he estimated that at least 100 decomposed mutilated bodies of men, women and children were present in and around a large cave about 300 yards outside the city walls.
The systematic massacre and deportation of Greeks in Asia Minor, a program which had come into effect in 1914, was a precursor to the atrocities perpetrated by both the Greek and Turkish armies during the Greco-Turkish War, a conflict which followed the Greek landing at Smyrna in May 1919 and continued until the retaking of Smyrna by the Turks and the Great Fire of Smyrna in September 1922. Rudolph Rummel estimated the death toll of the fire at 100,000 Greeks and Armenians, who perished in the fire and accompanying massacres. According to Norman M. Naimark "more realistic estimates range between 10,000 to 15,000" for the casualties of the Great Fire of Smyrna. Some 150,000 to 200,000 Greeks were expelled after the fire, while about 30,000 able-bodied Greek and Armenian men were deported to the interior of Asia Minor, most of whom were executed on the way or died under brutal conditions. George W. Rendel of the British Foreign Office noted the massacres and deportations of Greeks during the Greco-Turkish War. According to estimates by Rudolph Rummel, between 213,000 and 368,000 Anatolian Greeks were killed between 1919 and 1922. There were also massacres of Turks carried out by the Hellenic troops during the occupation of western Anatolia from May 1919 to September 1922.
For the massacres that occurred during the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, British historian Arnold J. Toynbee wrote that it was the Greek landings that created the Turkish National Movement led by Mustafa Kemal: "The Greeks of 'Pontus' and the Turks of the Greek occupied territories, were in some degree victims of Mr. Venizelos's and Mr. Lloyd George's original miscalculations at Paris."
Relief efforts
In 1917 a relief organization by the name of the Relief Committee for Greeks of Asia Minor was formed in response to the deportations and massacres of Greeks in the Ottoman Empire. The committee worked in cooperation with the Near East Relief in distributing aid to Ottoman Greeks in Thrace and Asia Minor. The organisation disbanded in the summer of 1921 but Greek relief work was continued by other aid organisations.
Contemporary accounts
German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats, as well as the 1922 memorandum compiled by British diplomat George W. Rendel on "Turkish Massacres and Persecutions", provided evidence for series of systematic massacres and ethnic cleansing of the Greeks in Asia Minor. The quotes have been attributed to various diplomats, including the German ambassadors Hans Freiherr von Wangenheim and Richard von Kühlmann, the German vice-consul in Samsun Kuchhoff, Austria's ambassador Pallavicini and Samsun consul Ernst von Kwiatkowski, and the Italian unofficial agent in Angora Signor Tuozzi. Other quotes are from clergymen and activists, including the German missionary Johannes Lepsius, and Stanley Hopkins of the Near East Relief. Germany and Austria-Hungary were allied to the Ottoman Empire in World War I.
The accounts describe systematic massacres, rapes and burnings of Greek villages, and attribute intent to Ottoman officials, including the Ottoman Prime Minister Mahmud Sevket Pasha, Rafet Bey, Talat Pasha and Enver Pasha.
Additionally, The New York Times and its correspondents made extensive references to the events, recording massacres, deportations, individual killings, rapes, burning of entire Greek villages, destruction of Greek Orthodox churches and monasteries, drafts for "Labor Brigades", looting, terrorism and other "atrocities" for Greek, Armenian and also for British and American citizens and government officials. Australian press also had some coverage of the events.
Henry Morgenthau, the United States ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1913 to 1916, accused the "Turkish government" of a campaign of "outrageous terrorizing, cruel torturing, driving of women into harems, debauchery of innocent girls, the sale of many of them at 80 cents each, the murdering of hundreds of thousands and the deportation to and starvation in the desert of other hundreds of thousands, [and] the destruction of hundreds of villages and many cities", all part of "the willful execution" of a "scheme to annihilate the Armenian, Greek and Syrian Christians of Turkey". However, months prior to the First World War, 100,000 Greeks were deported to Greek islands or the interior which Morgenthau stated, "for the larger part these were bona-fide deportations; that is, the Greek inhabitants were actually removed to new places and were not subjected to wholesale massacre. It was probably the reason that the civilized world did not protest against these deportations".
US Consul-General George Horton, whose account has been criticised by scholars as anti-Turkish, claimed, "One of the cleverest statements circulated by the Turkish propagandists is to the effect that the massacred Christians were as bad as their executioners, that it was '50–50'." On this issue he comments: "Had the Greeks, after the massacres in the Pontus and at Smyrna, massacred all the Turks in Greece, the record would have been 50–50—almost." As an eye-witness, he also praises Greeks for their "conduct ... toward the thousands of Turks residing in Greece, while the ferocious massacres were going on", which, according to his opinion, was "one of the most inspiring and beautiful chapters in all that country's history".
Casualties
According to Benny Morris and Dror Ze'evi in The Thirty-Year Genocide, as a result of Ottoman and Turkish state policy, "several hundred thousand Ottoman Greeks had died. Either they were murdered outright or were the intentional victims of hunger, disease, and exposure."
For the whole of the period between 1914 and 1922 and for the whole of Anatolia, there are academic estimates of death toll ranging from 289,000 to 750,000. The figure of 750,000 is suggested by political scientist Adam Jones. Scholar Rudolph Rummel compiled various figures from several studies to estimate lower and higher bounds for the death toll between 1914 and 1923. He estimates that 84,000 Greeks were exterminated from 1914 to 1918, and 264,000 from 1919 to 1922. The total number reaching 347,000. Historian Constantine G. Hatzidimitriou writes that "loss of life among Anatolian Greeks during the WWI period and its aftermath was approximately 735,370". Erik Sjöberg states that "[a]ctivists tend to inflate the overall total of Ottoman Greek deaths" over what he considers "the cautious estimates between 300,000 to 700,000".
Some contemporary sources claimed different death tolls. The Greek government collected figures together with the Patriarchate to claim that a total of one million people were massacred. A team of American researchers found in the early postwar period that the total number of Greeks killed may approach 900,000 people. Edward Hale Bierstadt, writing in 1924, stated that "According to official testimony, the Turks since 1914 have slaughtered in cold blood 1,500,000 Armenians, and 500,000 Greeks, men women and children, without the slightest provocation." On 4 November 1918, Emanuel Efendi, an Ottoman deputy of Aydin, criticised the ethnic cleansing of the previous government and reported that 550,000 Greeks had been killed in the coastal regions of Anatolia (including the Black Sea coast) and Aegean Islands during the deportations.
According to various sources the Greek death toll in the Pontus region of Anatolia ranges from 300,000 to 360,000. Merrill D. Peterson cites the death toll of 360,000 for the Greeks of Pontus. According to George K. Valavanis, "The loss of human life among the Pontian Greeks, since the Great War (World War I) until March 1924, can be estimated at 353,000, as a result of murders, hangings, and from punishment, disease, and other hardships." Valavanis derived this figure from the 1922 record of the Central Pontian Council in Athens based on the Black Book of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, to which he adds "50,000 new martyrs", which "came to be included in the register by spring 1924".
Aftermath
Article 142 of the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres, prepared after the first World War, called the wartime Turkish regime "terrorist" and contained provisions "to repair so far as possible the wrongs inflicted on individuals in the course of the massacres perpetrated in Turkey during the war." The Treaty of Sèvres was never ratified by the Turkish government and ultimately was replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne. That treaty was accompanied by a "Declaration of Amnesty", without containing any provision in respect to punishment of war crimes.
In 1923, a population exchange between Greece and Turkey resulted in a near-complete ending of the Greek ethnic presence in Turkey and a similar ending of the Turkish ethnic presence in much of Greece. According to the Greek census of 1928, 1,104,216 Ottoman Greeks had reached Greece. It is impossible to know exactly how many Greek inhabitants of Turkey died between 1914 and 1923, and how many ethnic Greeks of Anatolia were expelled to Greece or fled to the Soviet Union. Some of the survivors and expelled took refuge in the neighboring Russian Empire (later, Soviet Union). Similar plans for a population exchange had been negotiated earlier, in 1913–1914, between Ottoman and Greek officials during the first stage of the Greek genocide but had been interrupted by the onset of World War I.
In December 1924, The New York Times reported that 400 tonnes of human bones consigned to manufacturers were transported from Mudania to Marseille, which might be the remains of massacred victims in Asia Minor.
In 1955, the Istanbul Pogrom caused most of the remaining Greek inhabitants of Istanbul to flee the country. Historian Alfred-Maurice de Zayas identifies the pogrom as a crime against humanity and he states that the flight and migration of Greeks afterwards corresponds to the "intent to destroy in whole or in part" criteria of the Genocide Convention.
Genocide recognition
Terminology
The word genocide was coined in the early 1940s, the era of the Holocaust, by Raphael Lemkin, a Polish lawyer of Jewish descent. In his writings on genocide, Lemkin is known to have detailed the fate of Greeks in Turkey. In August 1946 the New York Times reported:
The 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in December 1948 and came into force in January 1951. It includes a legal definition of genocide.
Before the creation of the term "genocide", the destruction of the Ottoman Greeks was known by Greeks as "the Massacre" (in Greek: ), "the Great Catastrophe" (), or "the Great Tragedy" (). The Ottoman and Kemalist nationalist massacres of the Greeks in Anatolia, constituted genocide under the initial definition and international criminal application of the term, as in the international criminal tribunals authorized by the United Nations.
Academic discussion
In December 2007 the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) passed a resolution affirming that the 1914–23 campaign against Ottoman Greeks constituted genocide "qualitatively similar" to the Armenian genocide. IAGS President Gregory Stanton urged the Turkish government to finally acknowledge the three genocides: "The history of these genocides is clear, and there is no more excuse for the current Turkish government, which did not itself commit the crimes, to deny the facts." Drafted by Canadian scholar Adam Jones, the resolution was adopted on 1 December 2007 with the support of 83% of all voting IAGS members. Several scholars researching the Armenian genocide, such as Peter Balakian, Taner Akçam, Richard Hovannisian and Robert Melson, however stated that "the issue had to be further researched before a resolution was passed."
Manus Midlarsky notes a disjunction between statements of genocidal intent against the Greeks by Ottoman officials and their actions, pointing to the containment of massacres in selected "sensitive" areas and the large numbers of Greek survivors at the end of the war. Because of cultural and political ties of the Ottoman Greeks with European powers, Midlarsky argues, genocide was "not a viable option for the Ottomans in their case." Taner Akçam refers to contemporary accounts noting the difference in government treatment of Ottoman Greeks and Armenians during WW I and concludes that "despite the increasingly severe wartime policies, in particular for the period between late 1916 and the first months of 1917, the government's treatment of the Greeks – although comparable in some ways to the measures against the Armenians – differed in scope, intent, and motivation."
Some historians, including , , and Andrekos Varnava argue that the persecution of Greeks was ethnic cleansing or deportation, but not genocide. This is also a position of some Greek mainstream historians; according to Aristide Caratzas this is due to a number of factors, "which range from governmental reticence to criticize Turkey to spilling over into the academic world, to ideological currents promoting a diffuse internationalism cultivated by a network of NGOs, often supported by western governments and western interests". Others, such as Dominik J. Schaller and Jürgen Zimmerer, argue that the "genocidal quality of the murderous campaigns against Greeks" was "obvious". The historians Samuel Totten and Paul R. Bartrop, who specialize on the history of genocides, also call it a genocide; so is Alexander Kitroeff. Another scholar who considers it a genocide is Hannibal Travis; he also adds that the widespread attacks by the successive governments of Turkey, on the homes, places of worship, and heritage of minority communities since the 1930s, constitute cultural genocide as well.
Dror Ze'evi and Benny Morris, authors of The Thirty-Year Genocide, write that "the story about what happened in Turkey is much broader and deeper [than just the Armenian genocide]. It's deeper because it isn't just about World War I, but about a series of homicidal ethno-religious cleansings that took place from the late 1890s to the 1920s and beyond. It is wider because the victims weren't only Armenians. Alongside hundreds of thousands of Armenians... Greeks and Assyrians... were massacred in similar numbers... We estimate that during the 30 year period that we studied between a million and a half and two and a half million Christians from all three religious groups were murdered or intentionally left for dead of starvation and sickness, and millions of others were deported and lost everything. In addition, tens of thousands of Christians were forced to convert, and many thousands of girls and women were raped by their Muslim neighbors and the security forces. The Turks even set up markets where Christian girls were sold as sex slaves. These horrendous acts were committed by three entirely different regimes: the authoritarian-Islamist regime of Sultan Abdul Hamid II, the wartime regime of the Committee of Union and Progress ("The Young Turks") led by Talaat and Enver, and the nationalist-secular post-war regime of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk."
Political recognition
Following an initiative of MPs of the so-called "patriotic" wing of the ruling PASOK party's parliamentary group and like-minded MPs of conservative New Democracy, the Greek Parliament passed two laws on the fate of the Ottoman Greeks; the first in 1994 and the second in 1998. The decrees were published in the Greek Government Gazette on 8 March 1994 and 13 October 1998 respectively. The 1994 decree, created by Georgios Daskalakis, affirmed the genocide in the Pontus region of Asia Minor and designated 19 May (the day Mustafa Kemal landed in Samsun in 1919) a day of commemoration, (called Pontian Greek Genocide Remembrance Day) while the 1998 decree affirmed the genocide of Greeks in Asia Minor as a whole and designated 14 September a day of commemoration. These laws were signed by the President of Greece but were not immediately ratified after political interventions. After leftist newspaper I Avgi initiated a campaign against the application of this law, the subject became subject of a political debate. The president of the left-ecologist Synaspismos party Nikos Konstantopoulos and historian Angelos Elefantis, known for his books on the history of Greek communism, were two of the major figures of the political left who expressed their opposition to the decree. However, the non-parliamentary left-wing nationalist intellectual and author George Karabelias bitterly criticized Elefantis and others opposing the recognition of genocide and called them "revisionist historians", accusing the Greek mainstream left of a "distorted ideological evolution". He said that for the Greek left 19 May is a "day of amnesia".
In the late 2000s the Communist Party of Greece adopted the term "Genocide of the Pontic (Greeks)" () in its official newspaper Rizospastis and participates in memorial events.
The Republic of Cyprus has also officially called the events "Greek Genocide in Pontus of Asia Minor".
In response to the 1998 law, the Turkish government released a statement which claimed that describing the events as genocide was "without any historical basis". "We condemn and protest this resolution" a Turkish Foreign Ministry statement said. "With this resolution the Greek Parliament, which in fact has to apologize to the Turkish people for the large-scale destruction and massacres Greece perpetrated in Anatolia, not only sustains the traditional Greek policy of distorting history, but it also displays that the expansionist Greek mentality is still alive," the statement added.
On 11 March 2010, Sweden's Riksdag passed a motion recognising "as an act of genocide the killing of Armenians, Assyrians/Syriacs/Chaldeans and Pontic Greeks in 1915".
On 14 May 2013, the government of New South Wales was submitted a genocide recognition motion by Fred Nile of the Christian Democratic Party, which was later passed making it the fourth political entity to recognise the genocide.
In March 2015, the National Assembly of Armenia unanimously adopted a resolution recognizing both the Greek and Assyrian genocides.
In April 2015, the States General of the Netherlands and the Austrian Parliament passed resolutions recognizing the Greek and Assyrian genocides.
Reasons for limited recognition
The United Nations, the European Parliament, and the Council of Europe have not made any related statements. According to Constantine Fotiadis, professor of Modern Greek History at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, some of the reasons for the lack of wider recognition and delay in seeking acknowledgement of these events are as follows:
In contrast to the Treaty of Sèvres, the superseding Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 dealt with these events by making no reference or mention, and thus sealed the end of the Asia Minor Catastrophe.
A subsequent peace treaty (Greco-Turkish Treaty of Friendship in June 1930) between Greece and Turkey. Greece made several concessions to settle all open issues between the two countries in return for peace in the region.
The Second World War, the Civil War, the Military junta and the political turmoil in Greece that followed, forced Greece to focus on its survival and other problems rather than seek recognition of these events.
The political environment of the Cold War, in which Turkey and Greece were supposed to be allies – facing one common Communist enemy – not adversaries or competitors.
In his book With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide, Colin Tatz argues that Turkey denies the genocide so as not to jeopardize "its ninety-five-year-old dream of becoming the beacon of democracy in the Near East".
In their book Negotiating the Sacred: Blasphemy and Sacrilege in a Multicultural Society, Elizabeth Burns Coleman and Kevin White present a list of reasons explaining Turkey's inability to admit the genocides committed by the Young Turks, writing:
They propose the following reasons for the denial of the genocides by Turkey:
Genocide as a model for future crimes
According to Stefan Ihrig, Kemal's "model" remained active for the Nazi movement in Weimar Germany and the Third Reich until the end of World War II. Adolf Hitler had declared that he considered himself a "student" of Kemal, whom he referred to as his "star in the darkness", while the latter's contribution to the formation of National Socialist ideology is intensely apparent in Nazi literature. Kemal and his new Turkey of 1923 constituted the archetype of the "perfect Führer" and of "good national practices" for Nazism. The news media of the Third Reich emphasised the "Turkish model" and continuously praised the "benefits" of ethnic cleansing and genocide. Hitler referred to Kemal as being of Germanic descent.
Hitler's National Socialist Party, from its first steps, had used the methods of the Turkish state as a standard to draw inspiration from. The official Nazi newspaper Völkischer Beobachter ("Völkisch Observer"), on its February 1921 issue, stressed with admiration in an article titled "The Role Model": "The German nation will one day have no other choice but to resort to Turkish methods as well."
A Nazi publication of 1925 exalted the new Turkish state for its "cleansing" policy, which "threw the Greek element to the sea". The majority of writers of the Third Reich stressed that the double genocide (against Greeks and Armenians) was a prerequisite for the success of the new Turkey, the NSDAP claimed: "Only through the annihilation of the Greek and the Armenian tribes in Anatolia was the creation of a Turkish national state and the formation of an unflawed Turkish body of society within one state possible."
Memorials
Memorials commemorating the plight of Ottoman Greeks have been erected throughout Greece, as well as in a number of other countries including Australia, Canada, Germany, Sweden, and the United States.
Literature
The Greek genocide is remembered in a number of modern works.
Not Even My Name by Thea Halo is the story of the survival, at age ten, of her mother Sano (Themia) Halo (original name Euthemia "Themia" Barytimidou, Pontic Greek: ), along the death march during the Greek genocide that annihilated her family. The title refers to Themia being renamed to Sano by an Arabic-speaking family who could not pronounce her Greek name, after they took her in as a servant during the Greek genocide.
Number 31328 is an autobiography by the Greek novelist Elias Venezis that tells of his experiences during the Greek genocide on a death march into the interior from his native home in Ayvali (Greek: , ), Turkey. Of the 3000 "conscripted" into his "labour brigade" (otherwise known as Amele Taburlari or Amele Taburu) only 23 survived. The title refers to the number assigned to Elias by the Turkish army during the death march. The book was made into a movie called 1922 by Nikos Koundouros in 1978, but was banned in Greece until 1982 because of pressure from the Turkish Foreign Ministry who complained that the film would ruin Greek-Turkish relations.
See also
Armenian genocide
Assyrian genocide
Burning of Smyrna
Deportations of Kurds (1916–1934)
Greek refugees
Human rights in Turkey
Istanbul pogrom
İzmit massacres
Outline and timeline of the Greek genocide
Republic of Pontus
Tel Aviv and Jaffa deportation
References
Citations
Sources
Notes
Bibliography
Contemporary accounts
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Secondary sources
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Naimark, Norman M. (2001). Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe, Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press.
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Further reading
Books
Andreadis, George, Tamama: The Missing Girl of Pontos, Athens: Gordios, 1993.
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Compton, Carl C. The Morning Cometh, New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1986.
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. In fourteen volumes, including eleven volumes of materials (vols. 4–14).
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King, Charles (2005). The Black Sea: A History, Oxford: Oxford University Press
Koromila, Marianna (2002). The Greeks and the Black Sea, Panorama Cultural Society.
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Housepian Dobkin, Marjorie. Smyrna 1922: the Destruction of a City, New York, NY: Newmark Press, 1998.
Lieberman, Benjamin (2006). Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe, Ivan R. Dee.
de Murat, Jean. The Great Extirpation of Hellenism and Christianity in Asia Minor: the historic and systematic deception of world opinion concerning the hideous Christianity's uprooting of 1922, Miami, FL (Athens, GR: A. Triantafillis) 1999.
Papadopoulos, Alexander. Persecutions of the Greeks in Turkey before the European War: on the basis of official documents, New York: Oxford University Press, American branch, 1919.
Pavlides, Ioannis. Pages of History of Pontus and Asia Minor, Salonica, GR, 1980.
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Sjöberg, Erik. THE MAKING OF THE GREEK GENOCIDE Contested Memories of the Ottoman Greek Catastrophe, , 2016.
Shenk, Robert. "America's Black Sea Fleet - The U.S. Navy Amid War and Revolution,1919-1923", Naval Institute Press, Annapolis Maryland, 2012
Tsirkinidis, Harry. At last we uprooted them... The Genocide of Greeks of Pontos, Thrace, and Asia Minor, through the French archives, Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis Bros, 1999.
Ward, Mark H. The Deportations in Asia Minor 1921–1922, London: Anglo-Hellenic League, 1922.
Articles
External links
Bibliography at Greek Genocide Resource Center
"Massacre of Greeks Charged to the Turks",The Atlanta Constitution. 17 June 1914.
"Reports Massacres of Greeks in Pontus; Central Council Says They Attend Execution of Prominent Natives for Alleged Rebellion." The New York Times. Sunday 6 November 1921.
Greeks from the Ottoman Empire
Genocides in Asia
Ethnic cleansing in Europe
Ethnic cleansing in Asia
Massacres in the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Pontus
World War I crimes by the Ottoman Empire
Death marches
Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)
Turkish War of Independence
History of Greece (1909–1924)
Modern history of Turkey
Committee of Union and Progress
Greece–Turkey relations
Anti-Christian sentiment in Turkey
Anti-Greek sentiment
Persecution of Greeks in Turkey
Persecution of Christians in the Ottoman Empire
Persecution of Greeks in the Ottoman Empire in the 20th century
1910s in the Ottoman Empire
1920s in the Ottoman Empire
1920s in Turkey
Massacres of Christians
Persecution by Muslims
Events that led to courts-martial |
4297102 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchala%20Kingdom%20%28Mahabharata%29 | Panchala Kingdom (Mahabharata) | The Panchala (पञ्चाल Pañcāla) kingdom was one of the historical Mahajanapadas of ancient India (c. 30th to 4th centuries BC). It was annexed into the Nanda Empire during the reign of Mahapadma Nanda. Ahichchhatra was capital of northern Panchala and Kampilya was capital of southern Panchala.
Panchala in the Mahabharata
Geography
The Panchala kingdom (Mahabharata) extends from the Himalayas in the north; to the Charmanwati river; with the Kuru, Surasena and Matsya kingdoms to the west; and the Naimisha Forest to the east. Later, Panchala was divided into Southern Panchala ("Panchala proper", centered at Kampilya, ruled by King Drupada, the father-in-law of Pandavas); and Northern Panchala (centered at Ahichatra, ruled by Ashwathama, the son of Drona. Drona was Drupada's friend who later became his enemy). The Ganges River separated the two Panchalas.
People from Panchala
In Mahabharata many figures were said to be natives of Panchala.
Draupadi or Panchali : Wife of the Pandavas
Dhrishtadyumna : Commander-in-Chief of the Pandavas in Kurukshetra War and brother of Panchali
Drupada : Father of Panchali and Dhristadyumna
Shikhandi or Sikhandin : Another daughter of Drupada (He married from Dasarna (See Dasarna Kingdom)
Prishata : Father of Drupada.
Satyajit : Commander-in-chief of Panchala army under king Drupada and second oldest son, alternately called Chitraratha in Mahabharata.
Sage Dhaumya : Priest of the Pandavas.
Aruni : A Brahmin boy from Panchala and disciple of sage Dhaumya.
Many other sons of Drupada (a total of 10) and other Panchala princes (like Yudhamanyu, Uttamaujas, Janamejaya etc.) were allied with the Pandavas in the Kurukshetra War.
Origin of Panchala Kingdom
The lineage extending from King Puru, son of King Yayati to Santanu. The following passage from Mahabharata, that describes the Puru lineage of kings, shows the kinship of the Kurus and the Panchalas, both branched from the same line: "When Janamejaya wished to hear the history of kings who were descended from Puru. Vaisampayana narrated the lineage of kings in Puru’s line.".
Lineage of the Puru Kings up to the Panchala Kingdom
Puru had by his wife, Paushti, three sons: Pravira, Iswara, and Raudraswa.
Pravira (perpetuator of the dynasty) had by his wife, Suraseni, a son Manasyu. Manasyu had by his wife, Sauviri, three sons: Sakta, Sahana, and Vagmi.
Raudraswa had by his wife, Apsara Misrakesi, ten sons (all who had sons): Richeyu, Kaksreyu, Vrikeyu, Sthandileyu, Vaneyu, Jaleyu, Tejeyu, Satyeyu, Dharmeyu and Sannateyu.
Richeyu, as Anadhrishti, succeeded them all. Anadhristi had a son, Matinara, the latter who was well-regarded and virtuous as king and performed the Rajasuya and the Ashwamedha. Matinara had four sons: Tansu, Mahan, Atiratha, and Druhyu.
Tansu (perpetuator of the Puru line) had a son, Ilina.
Ilina had by his wife, Rathantara, five sons: Dushyanta, Sura, Bhima, Pravasu, and Vasu; Dushyanta succeeded as king.
Dushyanta had by his wife, Sakuntala, an intelligent son who succeeded as Emperor Bharata. It is the name of the latter that is applied to the race of which he was the founder.
Bharata had with his three wives nine sons but he was not pleased with any of them. Bharata performed a great sacrifice and through the grace of Bharadwaja obtained a son, Bhumanyu, who was made his heir-apparent.
Bhumanyu had by his wife: Pushkarini, six sons: Suhotra, Suhotri, Suhavih, Sujeya, Diviratha and Kichika.
Suhotra, described as having a virtuous reign, had by his wife, Aikshaki, three sons: Ajamidha, Sumidha, and Purumidha. Ajamidha succeeded them all.
Ajamidha's son was Nila. The dynasty of Ajamidha stands as:
Nila
Susanti
Purujanu
Rksa
Bhrmyasva
Mudgala
Vadhryasva
Divodasa
Mitrayu
Maitreya Soma
Srnjaya
Cyavana Pancajana
Sudasa Somadatta
Sahadeva
Somaka
Jantu
Prsata
Drupada
War between Panchalas and the forefathers of Kurus
The outcome of warring between the Kurus and Panchalas led the Kurus being exiled to the banks of the Sindhu.
Riksha became king being the elder of Jala and Rupina. Riksha had a son, Samvarana, the latter the perpetrator of the royal line.
During the reign of Samvarana, there was a great loss of people by famine, pestilence, drought, and disease.
The king of the Panchalas invaded during this time with four kinds of troops and ten Akshauhinis. Samvarana was exiled with his family and government in the forest along the Sindhu or Tapati river, the latter which extended to the foot of the western mountains. There the Bharatas lived for a thousand years.
Samvarana had with his wife, Tapati (?) (the daughter of Surya, a king of the Solar Dynasty), a son Kuru.
Then one day the sage Vasishtha, having become the priest, approached the exiled Bharata and made him the sovereign of the Kshatriyas. The king retook his old capital made all the monarchs pay tribute to him.
Kuru was exceedingly virtuous, and was made king by his people, the founding of the Kuru dynasty and the Kuru Kingdom. The field called Kurujangala is named after him and is where after becoming devoted to asceticism, he there practiced asceticism.
The sages in the line of Vasistha, were the priests of the Solar Dynasty of kings for many generations, especially the Ikshwakus. It is speculated that is why Samvarana took Vasistha as his priest, married from the Solar Dynasty. The history of Samvarana falling in love with Tapati while he lived near the Tapati river) was with the help of Maharashtra and Vasistha in getting the consent to marry from her father king Surya
Drupada becomes the king of Panchala
The King Prishata of Northern Panchala, a great friend of Bharadwaja, had a son, named Drupada. Drupada would come every day to the hermitage of Bharadwaja to play and study with Drona. Prishata died, Drupada succeeded him as the king and then repudiated his friendship with Drona. Drupada insulted Drona by saying that Drona was not a king, but a poor Brahmana.
Partition of the Panchala Kingdom
Drona defeated Drupada, by means of his disciple Arjuna and the other Kuru princes, to settle his old scores. Drona spoke as follows to the captive Drupada:-
Thou toldest me before that none who was not a king could be a king’s friend. Therefore is it, O Yajnasena (Drupada), that I retain half thy kingdom. Thou art the king of all the territory lying on the southern side of the Bhagirathi (Ganga), while I become king of all the territory on the north of that river. And, O Panchala, if it pleaseth thee, know me hence for thy friend.
On hearing these words, Drupada answered: Thou art of noble soul and great prowess. Therefore, O Brahmana, I am not surprised at what thou doest. I am very much gratified with thee, and I desire thy eternal friendship.
After this, Drona released the king of Panchala, and cheerfully performing the usual offices of regard, bestowed upon him half the kingdom. Thenceforth Drupada began to reside sorrowfully in the city of Kampilya within the province of Makandi on the banks of the Ganges filled with many towns and cities. And after his defeat by Drona, Drupada ruled the Southern Panchalas up to the bank of the Charmanwati river. Meanwhile Drona continued to reside in Ahichatra. Thus was the territory of Ahicchatra full of towns and cities, obtained by Arjuna, and bestowed upon Drona.
Higher status of Panchalas and Kurus in ancient India
The Kurus and Panchalas were considered as foremost among the ruling tribes in ancient India, because they followed the Vedic religion in its dogmatic and purest form. Other tribes imitated the practices of these tribes and thus got accepted into the Vedic religions:
Commencing with the Panchalas, the Kauravas, the Naimishas (a forest-country to the east of Panchala), the Matsyas, all these, know what religion is. The old men among the Northerners, the Angas, the Magadhas, without themselves knowing what virtue is follow the practices of the Kuru-Panchalas.
The Kurus and the Panchalas comprehend from a half-uttered speech; the Salwas cannot comprehend until the whole speech is uttered. The Magadhas are comprehenders of signs; the Koshalas comprehend from what they see. The Mountaineers, like the Sivis, are very stupid.
The Yavanas are omniscient; the Suras are particularly so. The mlecchas are wedded to the creations of their own fancy that other peoples cannot understand.
The Panchalas observe the duties enjoined in the Vedas; the Kauravas observe truth; the Matsyas and the Surasenas perform sacrifices. Beginning with the Matsyas, the residents of the Kuru and the Panchala countries, the Naimishas as well and the other respectable peoples, the pious among all races are conversant with the eternal truths of religion. The Kauravas with the Panchalas, the Salwas, the Matsyas, the Naimishas, the Koshalas, the Kasapaundras, the Kalingas, the Magadhas, and the Chedis who are all highly blessed, know what the eternal religion is.
Territories and locations within the Panchala Kingdom
Kichaka Kingdom
Capital: Vetravat
Kichaka the commander-in-chief of Matsya army
Kichaka Kingdom was a territory lying to the south of (southern) Panchala. It was ruled by Kichaka clan of kings. They belonged to the Suta caste (offspring of Kshatriyas upon Brahmana ladies). One among the Kichakas was the commander-in-chief of the Matsya army under king Virata. Pandava Bhima slew Kichaka because of the latter's abuse towards the wife of Pandavas, viz Draupadi. Kichaka kingdom also lied to the east of the Matsya Kingdom under the rule of king Virata. It seems that this territory was allied to both the Matsyas and Panchalas, with its own independent rulers. Its capital was Vetrakiya, on the banks of river Vetravati (Betwa), also known as Suktimati.
The town named Ekachakra
It is believed that the Pandavas lived in a small town named Ekachakra, belonging to this territory, during their wanderings after Duryodhana attempted to murder them at Varanavata (a Kuru city).
In the course of their wanderings the Pandavas saw the countries of the Matsyas, the Trigartas, the Panchalas and the Kichakas, and also many beautiful woods and lakes therein. They all had matted locks on their heads and were attired in barks of trees and the skins of animals. They attired in the garbs of ascetics. They used to study the Rik and the other Vedas and also all the Vedangas as well as the sciences of morals and politics. Finally they met Vyasa. He told them:- Not far off before you is a delightful town. Saying this he led them into the town of Ekachakra. on arriving at Ekachakra, the Pandavas lived for a short time in the abode of a Brahmana, leading an eleemosynary life.
During this period, Bhima slew a Rakhsasa named Baka (Vaka), at Vetrakiya controlled the affairs of the Kichaka Kingdom and freed that kingdom from Baka's reign of terror.
Pandavas journey from Ekachakra to Kampilya
Pandavas proceeded towards Panchala with their mother, to attend the self-choice event of princess Draupadi. In order to reach their destination, they proceeded in a due northerly direction, walking day and night till they reached a sacred shrine of Siva with the crescent mark on his brow. Then those tigers among men, the sons of Pandu, arrived at the banks of the Ganges. It was a forest called Angaraparna. Here, they encountered a Gandharva named Angaraparna. After that encounter they went to a place called Utkochaka, where they met sage Dhaumya. They appointed Dhaumya, the younger brother of Devala, as their priest. Then they proceeded towards the country of the southern Panchalas ruled over by the king Drupada They proceeded by slow stages staying for some time within those beautiful woods and by fine lakes that they beheld along their way and entered the capital of the Panchalas. Beholding the capital (Kampilya), as also the fort, they took up their quarters in the house of a potter. Desirous of beholding the Swayamvara (self-choice ceremony of the princess), the citizens, roaring like the sea, all took their seats on the platforms that were erected around the amphitheatre. The kings from diverse countries entered the grand amphitheatre by the north-eastern gate. And the amphitheatre which itself had been erected on an auspicious and level plain to the north-east of Drupada's capital, was surrounded by beautiful mansions. And it was enclosed on all sides with high walls and a moat with arched doorways here and there. The Pandavas, too, entering that amphitheatre, sat with the Brahmanas and beheld the unequalled affluence of the king of the Panchalas.
"Arjuna won the competition set for winning Draupadi in the self-choice ceremony".<ref>Kisari Mohan Ganguli, The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa Translated into English Prose", 1883-1896, Bk. 1, Ch. 192.</ref>
Kanyakubja Kingdom This kingdom is identified to be the modern day Kannauj district of Uttar Pradesh. During the reign of King Drupada of southern Panchala, this territory formed a part of the southern PanchalaGadhi, born in the race of king Kusika and Gadhi's son Viswamitra, were earlier rulers of this kingdom. Gadhi's daughter was married to Richika (could be related to the Rishikas in the north), belonging to the Bhargava clan. Richika's son was Jamadagni and Jamadagni's son was the celebrated Bhargava Rama. Gadhi mentions to Richika about a custom followed by their race, that during marriage, that the bridegroom should give to the bride side a dower of 3000 fleet steeds with brown color. (This custom is similar to that of Madra Culture.) Richika get the horses from Varuna (Varuna is indicative of western cultures. Note that Arjuna also got his excellent chariot, horses and bow from Varuna). The horses reached Kanyakubja capital, crossing the river Ganges. The spot where they crossed the river was known by the name horse's landing place.
Not far from Kanyakubja, a spot in the sacred bank of the Ganges is still famous among men as Aswatirtha in consequence of the appearance of those horses at that place.
Both the Kusikas and the Bhargava-Richikas seems to have links with the ancient western-cultures (See Also: Bahlika Culture, Madra Culture, Rishika Kingdom and Rishikas). Viswamitra (Kusika's race) was born as a Kshatriya and later became a Brahmana, much like what was common in Madra Cultures. Bhargava Rama (Richika's race) was an expert in the use of the battle-axe, which he got from Kailasa region (Kailas range Tibet). The location of the Rishika tribe, who were experts in the use of battle-axes was not too distant from this region. The custom of donating or accepting horses as dowry also indicate north-western culture. It seems that neither the Bhargavas (and Richikas or Rishikas) nor the Kusikas, maintained any distinctions such as Brahmana and Kshatriya upon themselves. However, during the later periods, when the Vedic religion became rigid in its four-order caste-system, the Bhargavas were accepted as Brahmanas and the Kusikas as Kshatriyas.
Gadhi was sovereign whose military force was exceedingly great. Viswamitra also possessed a large army and many animals and vehicles. Using those animals and vehicles he used to roam around in forests in search of deer. During his wanderings he met the sage Vasistha. He engaged in a dispute with this sage, on the matter of the wealth of cattle possessed by the sage. (Cattle wealth always caused dispute among ancient Indian kingdoms (See the dispute between Matsyas and Trigartas for the sake of cattle wealth; in Matsya Kingdom). Viswamitra had to encounter many local-armies to seize the cattle wealth. (See Dravida Kingdom, Kerala Kingdom, Pundra Kingdom and Kirata Kingdom, Himalaya Kingdom). He was vanquished by the local-armies. After the defeat from Vasistha, Viswamitra adopted the life of an ascetic. Bhargava Rama defeated many tribes like Heheyas and later adopting the life of an ascetic. Thus both the Kusikas and Bhargava-Richikas were warrior-tribes, who also were a priest-like class of people.
In the country of Panchala, there is a forest called Utpala, where Viswamitra of Kusika's race had performed sacrifices with his son.
Pandavas's route from Dwiata lake to Matsya kingdom
Panchala was one among the countries considered by the Pandavas to spend their 13th year of anonymity along with the kingdoms Chedi, Matsya, Surasena, Pattachchara, Dasarna, Navarashtra, Malla, Salwa, Yugandhara, Saurashtra, Avanti, and the spacious Kuntirashtra.
Pandavas selected the Matsya Kingdom for their 13th year of anonymous life. Pandavas ordered their chief servant Indrasena and the others to take with then the empty chariots and to speedily proceeded to Dwaravati. All the maid-servants of Draupadi were ordered to go to the Panchala kingdom. After that the Pandavas left Dwaita lake in the Dwaita forest and proceeded to Matsya kingdom. Dhaumya, their priest, taking their sacred fires, set out for the Panchala Kingdom. Pandavas travelling eastwards, reached river Yamuna. Travelling along the southern banks of Yamuna, they passed through Yakrilloma, Surasena. Then they turned westwards (possibly to deceive the spies of Duryodhana, who might have following them), leaving behind, on their right (north side), the country of the Panchalas, and on their left (south side), that of the Dasarnas entered the Matsya Kingdom.
Impact of Magadha kings on Panchala
Due to the power of Magadha king Jarasandha, many ancient tribes had to shift their domains. Prominent among them were the Yadavas, who fled from Surasena Kingdom to south-west to Anarta Kingdom. The king of the Salwayana tribe with their brethren and followers, and the southern Panchalas and the eastern Kosalas also had to flee to the country of the Kuntis (which was south to these kingdoms).
Even though only king Jarasandha is mentioned, this situation could have arisen due to many generations of powerful Magadha kings who were forefathers of Jarasandha. During the reign of Drupada, no shift in the location of southern Panchala is mentioned explicitly. If the situation was created by Jarasandha alone, and no other Magadha kings later or earlier to him, then this shift of southern-Panchala could be temporary.
Dispute of Panchalas with Dasarnas There arose a dispute between the Dasarna Kingdom lying to the south, and the southern-Panchala king Drupada, upon the matter of the gender of prince Shikhandi, who was married to the princess of Dasarna. Panchala's alliance with Pandava King Yudhishthira
Bhima collected tribute for Yudhishthira's Rajasuya sacrifice during his military campaign to the east and first visited the Panchala Kingdom after leaving his home city Indraprastha. only two tribes do not pay tribute unto Yudhishthira, viz., the Panchalas in consequence of their relationship by marriage, and the Andhakas and Vrishnis (Anarta Yadavas) in consequence of their friendship.
When the Pandavas were exiled by Duryodhana, both the Panchalas and Yadavas visited them along with other cousins like the Chedis and Kekeyas. Pandavas five son's by Draupadi, spent some of their life in Panchala and some in Dwaraka during the 13-year-long exile of the Pandavas.
During their pilgrimage all around India, Yudhishthira asked the weak men among his followers to go to king Dhritarashtra of Kuru Kingdom and if he didn't take care of them, then to king Drupada of southern Panchala.
Yudhishthira and his followers, with Matsya king Virata, began to make preparations for war (Kurukshetra War). Virata and his relatives sent word to all the monarchs, and Panchala king Drupada also did the same. And at the request of Pandavas, as also of the two kings of the Matsyas and the Panchalas, many kings gathered for their cause. Druupada sent his priest to Hastinapura for the initial peace talks.
Drupada, the king of the Panchalas, surrounded by his ten heroic sons, Satyajit and other headed by Dhrishtadyumna, and well-protected by Shikhandi, and having furnished his soldiers with necessary things, joined the Pandavas with a full Akshauhini.
Panchalas in Kurukshetra War
Panchalas were the closest among all the allies of the Pandavas in the Kurukshetra War. Panchala prince Dhristadyumna was the commander-in-chief for the whole of the Pandava army. Many heroes from Panchala battled in the war. Most of them were alive till the end of the war. However all of them were slain by Ashwathama in an ambush, when they were asleep in their tents, on the last day of the war. Ashwathama was the ruler of half of the Panchala Kingdom viz the northern Panchala, under Kuru king Duryodhana. Northern Panchala was then reduced to the status of a province of the Kuru Kingdom. This could be the political factor that caused the Panchalas (southern Panchalas) to become kinsmen of the Pandavas, who were a rebel force in the Kuru Kingdom. By supporting the Pandavas in Kurukshetra War they might have sought to regain their lost Panchala territories.
Panchala heroes
Satyajit was as the commander-in-chief of the Panchala army under king Drupada who fought against Arjuna who was then a disciple of Drona, the preceptor in warfare, in the Kuru Kingdom. He came to the Kurukshetra War leading the one Akshouhini of Panchala army. The brave warriors among the Panchalas, viz., Jayanta, Amitaujas and the great car-warrior Satyajit were great car-warriors (Maharathas) by Bhishma. He was slain by Drona on the 12th day of the war.
The Panchala princes Yudhamanyu and Uttamaujas. were protectors of Arjuna's car-wheels during the battle. Similarly the Panchala prince Kumara was one of the protectors of Yudhishthira's car-wheels, along with another hero Yugadhara (hailing from the city of Yugandhara, located somewhere to the west of Kurujangala (either in Haryana or Punjab). Kumara and Yugandhara were slain by Drona. Vyaghradatta was another Panchala prince slain by Drona along with Sinhasena.
Dhrishtadyumna, Shikhandi, Janamejaya (the son of Durmuksha), Chandrasen, Madrasen, Kritavarman, Dhruva, Dhara, Vasuchandra and Sutejana were Panchala heroes, some of them being the sons of Drupada. The 10 sons of Drupada. and five sons (something off here) as in the Kurukshetra War. Suratha and Satrunjaya were sons of Drupada slain by Ashwathama. Vrika and Panchalya were sons of Drupada slain by Drona. Drupada's three grandsons also were in the war. Shikhandi's son Khsatradeva was in the war. Dhristadyumna's sons, tender in year, were slain by Drona in the war. Other Panchala Chiefs who died at the hands of Drona were Ketama and Vasudhana as per C.Rajagopalachari's Mahabharata.
Valanika, Jayanika, Jaya, Prishdhra, and Chandrasena—these heroes were also believed to be of Panchala, slain by Ashwathama.
The Somakas, Srinjayas and the Prabhadrakas
These three names were frequently in the story of the Kurukshetra War either as related to the Panchalas or as synonymous to the Panchalas. Srinjayas and Somakas were tribes allied to the Panchalas by kinship, born off from the various branches of the same royal lineage that brought forth the Panchala-tribe. They dwelled in the various provinces of the Panchala kingdom. Prabhadrakas seems to be an elite group of Panchala army, employed in Kurukshetra War.
The Somakas
Somaka seems to be a name used to denote all the tribes of Panchalas. The word Somaka, means the one who belonged to the Lunar Dynasty. This name could have given by rulers of Solar Dynasty. The Kosala Kingdom ruled by Solar Dynasty of kings lied to the east of Panchala. So this name could have coined by the Kosalas to denote the Panchalas. Thus the name could be collective to the whole of the Panchala tribes and specific to the tribes that lie close to Kosala, i.e. the tribes that dwell in the eastern parts of Panchala.
Pancalas and Srinjayas were sometimes referred to collectively as Somakas.
Somakas and Panchalas were different tribes.
Somakas and Srinjayas were different tribes.
Somakas and Prabhadrakas were different tribes.
The Srinjayas and the Panchalas, the Matsyas and the Somakas were separate tribes.
Drona during the war said to Duryodhana:
I will not put off my armour without slaying all the Panchalas. O king, go and tell my son Ashwathama not let the Somakas alone.
Kshatradharman, a Kurukshetra War hero, belonged to the Somaka tribe; another hero was Uttamaujas belonging to the Panchala tribe.
King Somaka, (1-2,127,128) is with his son Jantu. King Somaka was the son of Sahadeva, and a most excellent maker of gifts and he performed a sacrifice on the banks of Yamuna. King Somaka is listed among the great kings of ancient India.
The Somakas and Panchalas were at many of the same places. Drupada was the Somaka king and Dhristadyumna is a Somaka prince.
The Srinjayas
Srinjaya king Hotravahana is the maternal grandfather of the Kasi princess Amba (Amva). Amva, coming from Salwa stayed in the asylum of sage Saikhavatya (who dwelled on the banks of Saikavati river). Hotravahana met her granddaughter there. He was a friend of Bhargava Rama.
The Panchalas and Srinjayas attacked Arjuna when he tried to make Drupada captive for the sake of Drona.
Uttamujas was the great Srinjaya car-warrior.
The Srinjayas and Panchalas were separate tribes at many places.
Chedis the Andhakas, the Vrishnis, the Bhojas, the Kukuras and the Srinjayas were separate tribes. Here the Andhakas, Vrishinis, Bhojas and the Kukuras were tribes belonging to the Yadava clan.
The Kasayas (Kasis), the Chedis, the Matsyas, the Srinjayas, the Panchalas, and the Prabhadrakas were separate tribes.
The Chedis, the Srinjayas, the Kasis and the Kosalas were battling together for Pandavas.
A Srinjaya king is mentioned as great amongst conquerors at (1- 1). He is also mentioned at (2,8). At (7,53) Srinjaya is mentioned as the son of a king named Switya. Sinjaya's son named Suvarnashthivin was slain by some robber-tribes during his childhood. The sages Narada and Parvata (Narada's sister's son (12,30)) were Srinjaya's friends. Chapters (7- 53 to 69) describes a narration of Narada to Srinjaya, to console him in the death of his son. This is also mentioned at (12-29,30,31).
Bhishma mentions at (5,164) that he could slay the whole armies of Srinjayas and the Salweyas (Salwa lied to the west of Kuru while Panchala lied to its east).
Srinjayas were mentioned as synonymous to Panchalas at many places. Refer (3- 33,35), (5- 22, 24, 25, 26, 28, 48, 71, 72, 82, 93, 127, 162, 163, 168), (6- 16, 45, 59, 60, 72, 73, 74, 75, 87, 91, 99, 108, 109, 110, 115, 116, 120), (7- 2, 7, 9, 12, 13, 14, 16, 33, 76, 92, 94, 107, 122, 148, 151, 152, 180, 184, 190), (8- 21, 24, 31, 35, 51, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61, 66, 67, 73, 75, 79, 85, 93, 94), (9- 19, 29, 33, 34, 57, 59, 61), (10,8), (11,26).King Srinjaya is mentioned as an ally of King Jayadratha of Sindhu. (3,263).
The Prabhadrakas Prabhadrakas seems to be an elite army obtained by Panchalas from the Kambojas. They could also be a Panchala army-unit or a Panchala tribe, that got trained in cavalry warfare by the Kambojas.
At (7,23.42-43) the Prabhadrakas were mentioned as hailing from Kamboja Kingdom. In MBH verse 7.23.43, as it can be seen from original Sanskrit text, the term Prabhadraka has been used as a qualifier before the Kambojas:
(MBH Gorakhpore Rec., 7.23.42-44)
Hence in this context, the term Prabhadraka definitely implies adjective and not noun, and may not, therefore, be confused with the Prabhadraka clan. As an adjective, the term Prabhadraka/Prabhadrakastu means "exceedingly handsome, exceedingly fortunate" Researchers like Dr Robert Shafer, Dr J. L. Kamboj, S Kirpal Singh etc. have, therefore correctly taken the term Prabhadraka in the sense of an adjective rather than noun in the present context and qualify Kambojas as "very handsome, very fortunate". Ganguli's translation is in error here. In fact, according to Sanskrit scholars, Ganguli's translation of Mahabharata has numerous translations errors. (See also note 4 & 5 in: Parama Kamboja Kingdom). They could be the army bought by Panchals from the Kambojas, since Kambojas were famous for lending their horses or cavalry to any party on payment basis:- The Prabhadrakas of the Kamvoja country, numbering 6000, with upraised weapons, with excellent steeds on their gold-decked cars, with stretched bows, supported Dhristadyumna (6, 19), (7,23). To distinguish them from the proper Panchala army or from other Prabhadrakas, they were mentioned as Prabhadraka-Panchalas (7,151). They were 6000 in numbers and mentioned as supporting Shikhandi at (7,151). They were an elite group in the Pandava army (5- 48, 199). This army is mentioned as allies of the Pandavas at (6,112), (7- 159, 182), (8- 12, 22, 30, 48, 49, 56, 67), (9- 7, 11, 15, 27). Karna slew 770 foremost of warriors among the Prabhadrakas initially (8,48). He then slew 1700 of them (8, 67).
A group of Prabhadrakas is mentioned as battling against Dhristadyumna at (7,92):- The chief of the Avanti Kingdom (Mahabharata), with the Sauviras and the cruel Prabhadrakas, resisted wrathful Dhrishtadyumna.
The Kasayas (Kasis), the Chedis, the Matsyas, the Srinjayas, the Panchalas, and the Prabhadrakas were mentioned as separate armies. Prabhadrakas and Panchalas were mentioned as separate armies.
When Ashwathama attacked the Panchalas in a night-time ambush, Shikhandi woke up, alarmed the Prabhadrakas and they tried to put up some resistance but all were slain.
Other references
Brahmadatta is mentioned as a highly devout king of Panchala Here he is mentioned as donating a conch-shell.(?) He is mentioned as donating two precious jewels called Nidhi and Sankha and he is also mentioned
A sage from Panchala is mentioned as Rishi-Panchala (also known as Galava, born in the Vabhravya race) He compiled the rules in respect of the division of syllables and words for reading the Vedas and those about emphasis and accent in utterance, and shone as the first scholar who became conversant with those two subjects. He is mentioned to have acquired the science of Krama.
See also
Epic India
References
Kisari Mohan Ganguli, The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa Translated into English Prose'', 1883-1896.
External links
Kingdoms of the Puru clan
Panchala |
4297324 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion%20in%20Pakistan | Religion in Pakistan | The official religion of Pakistan is Islam, as enshrined by Article 2 of the Constitution, and is practised by approximately 96.47% of the country's population. The remaining 3.53% practice Hinduism, Christianity, Ahmadiyya Islam (recognised as a non-Muslim group by the Pakistani constitution), Sikhism and other religions.
A few aspects of secularism have also been adopted by Pakistani constitution from British colonial concept. However, religious minorities in Pakistan often face significant discrimination, subject to issues such as violence and the blasphemy laws.
Muslims comprise a number of sects: the majority practice Sunni Islam (estimated at 90%), while a minority practice Shia Islam (estimated at 10%). Most Pakistani Sunni Muslims belong to the Hanafi school of jurisprudence, which is represented by the Barelvi and Deobandi traditions. However, the Hanbali school is gaining popularity recently due to Wahhabi influence from the Middle East. The majority of Pakistani Shia Muslims belong to the Twelver Islamic law school, with significant minority groups who practice Ismailism, which is composed of Nizari (Aga Khanis), Mustaali, Dawoodi Bohra, Sulaymani, and others.
Before the arrival of Islam beginning in the 8th century, the region comprising Pakistan was home to a diverse plethora of faiths, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Zoroastrianism.
Constitutional provisions
The Constitution of Pakistan establishes Islam as the state religion, and provides that all citizens have the right to profess, practice and propagate their religion subject to law, public order, and morality. The Constitution also states that all laws are to conform with the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran and Sunnah.
The Constitution limits the political rights of Pakistan's non-Muslims. Only Muslims are allowed to become the President or the Prime Minister. Only Muslims are allowed to serve as judges in the Federal Shariat Court, which has the power to strike down any law deemed un-Islamic, though its judgments can be overruled by the Supreme Court of Pakistan. However, non-Muslims have served as judges in the High Courts and Supreme Court. In 2019, Naveed Amir, a Christian member of the National Assembly moved a bill to amend the article 41 and 91 of the Constitution which would allow non-Muslims to become Prime Minister and President of Pakistan. However, Pakistan's parliament blocked the bill.
Secularism
Aspects & Practices of secularism
There was a petition in Supreme Court of Pakistan in the year of 2015 by 17 judges to declare the nation as a "Secular state" officially. Muhammad Ali Jinnah (the founder of Pakistan) wanted Pakistan to be a secular, democratic, and a liberal republic. Pakistan was secular from 1947 to 1955 and after that, Pakistan adopted a constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic with Islam as its state religion.
The main principles of Secularism in the Pakistani constitution were incorporated in its fundamental rights which were granted under various articles of 20, 21, 22 & 25 of the constitution –
(a) Article 20 : Freedom to profess religion and to manage religious institutions.
(b) Article 21 : Safeguard against taxation for purposes of any particular religion.
(c) Article 22 : Safeguards as to educational institutions in respect of religion, etc.
(d) Article 25 : Equality of citizens.
Demographics of religion in Pakistan
1901 to 1931 census
The 1961 Census of Pakistan (Volume 1 – page 24 of Part II – Statement 2.19) released estimates on the religious composition of the country to the nearest thousandth for Muslims, Hindus, Christians, and others for 60 years prior. The pre-partition figures were derived from prior decadal censuses taken in administrative divisions in British India that would become part of Pakistan following partition, and included separate results for West Pakistan and East Pakistan. As the area that composes the contemporary nation of Pakistan corresponds with the historical administrative unit of West Pakistan, the figures in the table below are for West Pakistan from the 1901 census, 1911 census, 1921 census, and the 1931 census.
1941 census
The total population of the region that composes contemporary Pakistan was approximately 29,347,813 according to the final census prior to partition in 1941. With the exception of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, all administrative divisions in the region that composes contemporary Pakistan collected religious data, with a combined total population of 26,970,214, for an overall response rate of 91.9 percent. Similar to the contemporary era, where censuses do not collect religious data in Azad Jammu and Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan, the total number of responses for religion is slightly smaller than the total population, as detailed in the table breakdown below.
1951 census
After partition, when first census of Pakistan was conducted in the year 1951, It was found that the Muslim proportion in West Pakistan (contemporary Pakistan) increased from approximately 77.3 percent according to the 1941 census, to 97.1 percent as per the 1951 census; in contrast, the combined Hindu and Sikh proportion in West Pakistan (contemporary Pakistan) decreased from approximately 20.8 percent to just 1.7 percent during the same timeframe, as the 1947 Partition of India gave rise to bloody rioting and indiscriminate inter-communal killing of Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs across the Indian subcontinent. As a result, around 7.2 million Hindus and Sikhs moved to India and 7.5 million Muslims moved to Pakistan permanently, leading to demographic change of both the nations to a certain extent.
2017 census
As per 2017 Census of Pakistan, the country has a population of 207,684,000.The CCI approved the release of provisional population figures of 207.754 million people. The final results showed the total population of Pakistan to be 207.684 million, a reduction of 68,738 people or 0.033% against provisional results, Pakistan has a population of 224,418,238 as of 2021.
As of 2018, there are 3.63 million non-Muslim voters in Pakistan- 1.77 million were Hindus, 1.64 million Christians, 167,505 were Ahmadi Muslims, 31,543 were Baháʼís, 8,852 were Sikhs, 4,020 were Parsis, 1,884 were Buddhist and others such as Kalashas. The NADRA makes it nearly impossible to declare and change the religion to anything from Islam making the statistics somewhat misleading.
Details
Pakistan Bureau of Statistics released religious data of Pakistan Census 2017 on 19 May 2021. 96.47% are Muslims, followed by 2.14% Hindus, 1.27% Christians, 0.09% Ahmadi Muslims and 0.02% others.
These are some maps of religious minority groups. The 2017 census showed an increasing share in Hinduism, mainly caused by a higher birth rate among the impoverished Hindus of Sindh province. This census also recorded Pakistan's first Hindu-majority district, called Umerkot District, where Muslims were previously the majority.
On the other hand, Christianity in Pakistan, while increasing in raw numbers, has fallen significantly in percentage terms since the last census. This is due to Pakistani Christians having a significantly lower fertility rate than Pakistani Muslims and Pakistani Hindus as well as them being concentrated in the most developed parts of Pakistan, Lahore District (over 5% Christian), Islamabad Capital Territory (over 4% Christian), and Northern Punjab.
The Ahmadiyya movement shrunk in size (both raw numbers and percentage) between 1998 and 2017, while remaining concentrated in Lalian Tehsil, Chiniot District, where approximately 13% of the population is Ahmadi Muslim.
Here are some maps of Pakistan's religious minority groups as of the 2017 census by district:
Demographics of religion by province/territory
Punjab
Sindh
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Balochistan
Azad Jammu and Kashmir
Gilgit–Baltistan
Islam
Islam is the state religion of Pakistan, and about 95–98% of Pakistanis are Muslim. Pakistan has the second largest number of Muslims in the world after Indonesia. The majority are Sunni (estimated at 85-90%), with an estimated 10–15% Shia. A PEW survey in 2012 found that 6% of Pakistani Muslims were Shia. There are a number of Islamic law schools called Madhab (schools of jurisprudence), which are called fiqh or 'Maktab-e-Fikr' in Urdu. Nearly all Pakistani Sunni Muslims belong to the Hanafi Islamic school of thought, while a small number belong to the Hanbali school. The majority of Pakistani Shia Muslims belong to the Twelver (Ithna Asharia) branch, with significant minority who adhere to Ismailism branch that is composed of Nizari (Aga Khanis), Mustaali, Dawoodi Bohra, Sulaymani, and others. Sufis and above mentioned Sunni and Shia sects are considered to be Muslims according to the Constitution of Pakistan; the Ahmadiyya (though self-described Muslims) are specifically declared not to be.
The mosque is an important religious as well as social institution in Pakistan. Many rituals and ceremonies are celebrated according to Islamic calendar.
Sunni
Barelvi and Deobandi Sunni Muslims
There are two major Sunni sects in Pakistan, the Barelvi movement and Deobandi movement. Statistics regarding Pakistan's sects and sub-sects have been called "tenuous", but estimates of the sizes of the two groups give a slight majority of Pakistan's population to followers of the Barelvi school, while 15–25% are thought to follow the Deobandi school of jurisprudence.
Sufi
Islam to some extent syncretized with pre-Islamic influences, resulting in a religion with some traditions distinct from those of the Arab world. Two Sufis whose shrines receive much national attention are Ali Hajweri in Lahore (ca. 11th century) and Shahbaz Qalander in Sehwan, Sindh (ca. 12th century). Sufism, a mystical Islamic tradition, promoted by Fariduddin Ganjshakar in Pakpatan, has a long history and a large popular following in Pakistan. Popular Sufi culture is centered on Thursday night gatherings at shrines and annual festivals which feature Sufi music and dance. Contemporary Islamic fundamentalists criticize its popular character, which in their view, does not accurately reflect the teachings and practice of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions. There have been terrorist attacks directed at Sufi shrines and festivals, 5 in 2010 that killed 64 people.
Ahmadiyya
According to the last Census in Pakistan, Ahmadi Muslim made up 0.22% of the population; however, the Ahmadiyya Muslim community boycotted the census. Independent groups generally estimate the population to be somewhere between two and five million Ahmadi Muslims. In media reports, four million is the most commonly cited figure.
In 1974, the government of Pakistan amended the Constitution of Pakistan to define a Muslim according to Qu'ran 33:40, as a person who believes in finality of Muhammad under the Ordinance XX. According to Ordinance XX, Ahmadi Muslims cannot call themselves Muslim or "pose as Muslims" which is punishable by three years in prison. Ahmadi Muslims believe in Muhammad as the final law-bearing prophet, but also believe Mirza Ghulam Ahmad to be a prophet, the prophecised Mehdi and second coming of Jesus. Consequently, Ahmadi Muslims were declared non-Muslims by a parliamentary tribunal and are subject to persecution under Pakistani blasphemy laws.
Hinduism
Hinduism is the second largest religion affiliation in Pakistan after Islam. As of 2020, Pakistan has the fourth largest Hindu population in the world after India, Nepal and Bangladesh. According to the 1998 Census, the Hindu population was found to be 2,111,271 (including 332,343 scheduled castes Hindus). While according to latest census of 2017, There are 4.4 million Hindus in Pakistan out of 207.68 million total population comprising 2.14% of the country's population of both General and Schedule caste. Hindus are found in all provinces of Pakistan but are mostly concentrated in Sindh. About 93% of Hindus live in Sindh, 5% in Punjab and nearly 2% in Balochistan. They speak a variety of languages such as Sindhi, Seraiki, Aer, Dhatki, Gera, Goaria, Gurgula, Jandavra, Kabutra, Koli, Loarki, Marwari, Sansi, Vaghri and Gujarati.
The Rig Veda, the oldest Hindu text, is believed to have been composed in the Punjab region in the Indian subcontinent around 1500 BCE and spread from there across South and South East Asia slowly developing and evolving into the various forms of the faith we see today.
Many ancient Hindu temples are located throughout Pakistan. A significant Hindu pilgrimage site known as Hinglaj Mata takes place in southern Balochistan, where over 250,000 people visit during spring as a pilgrimage.
Cases collected by Global Human Rights Defence show that underage Hindu (and Christian) girls are often targeted by Muslims for forced conversion to Islam. According to the National Commission of Justice and Peace and the Pakistan Hindu Council (PHC) around 1,000 non-Muslim minority women are converted to Islam and then forcibly married off to their abductors or rapists.
Christianity
Christians () make up 1.3% of Pakistan's population. The majority of the Pakistani Christian community consists of Punjabis who converted during the British colonial era and their descendants. Pakistani Christians mainly live in Punjab and in urban centres. There is also a Roman Catholic community in Karachi which was established by Goan and Tamil migrants when Karachi's infrastructure was being developed between the two World Wars. A few Protestant groups conduct missions in Pakistan. The present Christian population in Pakistan is ranged between 2 and 3 million as per as recent (2020–21) year estimation by various institution and NGOs of Pakistan. There is a small myth that Christianity has been existent in Pakistan ever since a few decades after the crucifixion of Jesus. This myth became more popular after the finding of a structure looking like a giant cross in Northern Pakistan, but there is almost no evidence that this cross is related to Christianity.
There are a number of church-run schools in Pakistan that admit students of all religions, including Forman Christian College, St. Patrick's Institute of Science & Technology and Saint Joseph's College for Women, Karachi.
Pakistan is number eight on Open Doors’ 2022 World Watch List, an annual ranking of the 50 countries where Christians face the most extreme persecution. Cases collected by Global Human Rights Defence show that young underage Christian (and Hindu) girls are sometimes targeted by Muslims for forced conversion to Islam. Christians also often face abuses of Pakistani blasphemy laws, notably in the case of Asia Bibi.
Sikhism
In the 15th century, the Sikh faith was born in the Punjab region (of present day India and Pakistan) where Sikhism's founder Guru Nanak was born. Home to some of the world's most sacred gurdwaras, Sikhs have a become a crucial part in Pakistan's religious tourism with large numbers coming to the country particularly during festivals. Aside from religious tourists, estimates on the Sikh population permanently residing in Pakistan vary due to the community being excluded from the national census up until 2023 which marks the first inclusion of Sikhs in census data since partition (where almost 99% fled to India). The results of the 2023 Census of Pakistan thus are significant in the first official Sikh count since the formation of Pakistan as a sovereign nation.
In a news article published in December 2022, there was an estimated 30,000–35,000 Sikhs in Pakistan according to Gurpal Singh. Other sources, including the US Department of State, claim the Sikh population in Pakistan to be at 20,000. Though full community counts have not yet been available, the National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA) does provide the numbers of eligible voters belonging to minority religions (registered in electoral rolls):
2013: 5,934 Sikh Voters
2018: 8,852 Sikh Voters
In recent years, their numbers have increased with many Sikhs migrating from neighboring Afghanistan who have joined their co-religionists in Pakistan.
Other religions
Baháʼí
The Baháʼí Faith in Pakistan begins previous to its independence when it was still under British colonial rule. The roots of the religion in the region go back to the first days of the Bábí religion in 1844, with Shaykh Sa'id Hindi who was from Multan. During Bahá'u'lláh's lifetime, as founder of the religion, he encouraged some of his followers to move to the area that is present day Pakistan.
The Baháʼís in Pakistan have the right to hold public meetings, establish academic centers, teach their faith, and elect their administrative councils. Bahá'í sources claim their population to be around 30,000. Shoba Das of Minority Rights Group International reported around 200 Baháʼís in Islamabad and between 2,000 and 3,000 Baháʼís in Pakistan, in 2013. One more PhD thesis says that "It is an assumption that the Bahá’ís do not want to declare their exact population, which is supposed to be more or less 3,000 in total". Most of these Bahá’ís have their roots in Iran.
Zoroastrianism
There are at least 4,000 Pakistani citizen practicing the Zoroastrian religion. The region of Balochistan is believed to be a stronghold of Zoroastrianism before the advent of Islam. With the flight of Zoroastrians from Greater Iran into the Indian subcontinent, the Parsi communities were established. More recently, from the 15th century onwards, Zorastrians came to settle the coast of Sindh and have established thriving communities and commercial enterprises. At the time of independence of Pakistan in 1947, Karachi and Lahore were home to a thriving Parsi business community. Karachi had the most prominent population of Parsis in Pakistan, though their population is declining. Parsis have entered Pakistani public life as social workers, business folk, journalists and diplomats. The most prominent Parsis of Pakistan today include Ardeshir Cowasjee, Byram Dinshawji Avari, Jamsheed Marker, as well as Minocher Bhandara. The founding father of Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, married Ratti Bai who belonged to a Parsi family before her conversion to Islam.
Kalash
The Kalash people practise a form of ancient Hinduism mixed with animism. Adherents of the Kalash religion number around 3,000 and inhabit three remote valleys in Chitral; Bumboret, Rumbur and Birir. Their religion has been compared to that of ancient Greece, but they are much closer to the Hindu traditions in other parts of the Indian subcontinent. It is more similar to the historical Vedic religion, than later forms of Hinduism.
Jainism
Several ancient Jain shrines are scattered across the country. Baba Dharam Dass was a holy man whose tomb is located near the bank of a creek called (Deoka or Deokay or Degh) near Chawinda Phatic, behind the agricultural main office in Pasrur, near the city of Sialkot in Punjab, Pakistan. Another prominent Jain monk of the region was Vijayanandsuri of Gujranwala, whose samadhi (memorial shrine) still stands in the city.
Buddhism
Buddhism has an ancient history in Pakistan; currently there is a small community of at least 1500 Pakistani Buddhist in the country. The country is dotted with numerous ancient and disused Buddhist stupas along the entire breadth of the Indus River that courses through the heart of the country. Many Buddhist empires and city states existed, notably in Gandhara but also elsewhere in Taxila, Punjab and Sindh.
The number of Buddhist voters was 1,884 in 2017 and are mostly concentrated in Sindh and Punjab.
Judaism
Various estimates suggest that there were about 1,500 Jews living in Pakistan at the time of its independence on 14 August 1947, with the majority living in Karachi and a few living in Peshawar. However, almost all emigrated to Israel after 1948. There are a few disused synagogues in both cities; while one Karachi synagogue was torn down for the construction of a shopping mall. The one in Peshawar still exists, although the building is not being used for any religious purpose. There is a small Jewish community of Pakistani origin settled in Ramla, Israel.
One Pakistani, Faisal Khalid (a.k.a. Fishel Benkhald) of Karachi claims to be Pakistan's only Jew. He claimed that his mother is Jewish (making him Jewish by Jewish custom) but, his father is a Muslim. Pakistani authorities have issued him a passport which stated Judaism as his religion and have allowed him to travel to Israel.
Irreligion
Irreligion is present among a minority of mainly young people in Pakistan. There are people who do not profess any faith (such as atheists and agnostics) in Pakistan, but their numbers are not known. They are particularly in the affluent areas of the larger cities. Some were born in secular families while others in religious ones. According to the 1998 census, people who did not state their religion accounted for 0.5% of the population, but social pressure against claiming no religion was strong. A 2012 study by Gallup Pakistan found that people not affiliated to any religion account for 1% of the population. Many atheists in Pakistan have been lynched and imprisoned over unsubstantiated allegations of blasphemy. When the state initiated a full-fledged crackdown on atheism since 2017, it has become worse with secular bloggers being kidnapped and the government running advertisements urging people to identify blasphemers among them and the highest judges declaring such people to be terrorists.
Freedom of religion in Pakistan
In 2022, Freedom House rated Pakistan’s religious freedom as 1 out of 4, noting that the blasphemy laws are often exploited by religious vigilantes and also curtail the freedom of expression by Christians and Muslims, especially Ahmadi Muslims. Hindus have spoken of vulnerability to kidnapping and forced conversions. Pakistan, a Muslim-majority country of about 220 million, is often under fire for crimes against members of its religious minorities, including Christians, Ahmadi and Shi’ite Muslims, and Hindus.
See also
Blasphemy law in Pakistan
Demographics of Pakistan
List of religious populations
Major religious groups
Religious Minorities in Pakistan
Shamanism in Pakistan
Freedom of religion in Pakistan
Pakistan National Commission for Minorities
References
External links
– (Government of Pakistan) Official website
Religious demographics
pt:Paquistão#Religião |
4298302 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPLEDGE%20program | IPLEDGE program | The iPLEDGE program is a program by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for managing the risk of isotretinoin (also known as Accutane), a prescription medication used for the treatment of acne. Patients, their doctors and their pharmacists are required by the FDA to register and use the iPLEDGE web site in order to receive, prescribe or dispense isotretinoin.
Isotretinoin carries a high risk of causing severe birth defects if taken during pregnancy (see Teratogenicity of isotretinoin) and the goals of the iPLEDGE REMS (risk evaluation and mitigation strategy) program are to prevent fetal exposure to isotretinoin and to inform prescribers, pharmacists, and patients about isotretinoin's serious risks and safe-use conditions.
The program was designed by the Isotretinoin Product Manufacturers Group (IPMG) and its chosen vendor, Covance, under the direction of the FDA and went live on March 1, 2006.
The program has not significantly reduced exposure of pregnant people to the drug in comparison to the previous SMART program, and has been criticized for being overly complicated and difficult for prescribers, pharmacists and patients to navigate successfully.
Process
Once a doctor decides a patient is a candidate for isotretinoin, they will counsel the patient to ensure they understand the drug and the potential side effects. Once the patient signs the necessary paperwork, their doctor will give them a patient ID number, ID card, and program educational materials. After a patient has been registered in iPLEDGE by their doctor, they receive their password in the mail within 5–10 business days.
iPLEDGE originally classified patients as females of child-bearing potential (FCBPs), females not of child-bearing potential (FnCBPs), or males. Effective December 13, 2021 iPLEDGE switched to gender neutral categories: patients who can get pregnant and patients who cannot get pregnant.
Patients who can get pregnant are required to pick and use two birth control methods (abstinence included), and must take doctor-administered pregnancy tests in two consecutive months. After the second (confirmatory) negative pregnancy test, the patient must also take an online comprehension test to ensure they understand the requirements of the Program. Once those two items are complete, the patient is authorized to receive drug at an authorized pharmacy. From the date of the second (confirmatory) negative pregnancy test, a patient who can get pregnant has seven days to pick up their prescription. They must see their doctor and take a pregnancy test in each subsequent month in order to get another prescription for the next 30 days.
Patients who cannot get pregnant must see their doctor every month, but don't have to take the pregnancy or comprehension tests. They have 30 days from the date of their office visit to pick up their prescriptions. After that point they have to see their doctor for another 30-day prescription.
Before dispensing isotretinoin, the pharmacist must check the iPLEDGE Program website to ensure the patient is authorized to receive the drug. Isotretinoin may only be dispensed at authorized US pharmacies that are registered with the iPLEDGE Program, and FDA has taken action against Canadian and internet pharmacies which dispense isotretinoin outside of the iPLEDGE Program.
The typical course of isotretinoin treatment will last 4–5 months, and is generally considered to be an option when nothing else has worked.
Background and history
Some dermatologists have praised isotretinoin for its ability to treat severe acne, with current research calling it "a drug of choice" with "immense promise … in reducing dermal irritation and increasing the therapeutic performance, thus resulting in an efficacious and patient-compliant formulation". However, there have also been many reports and studies criticizing the negative side effects of isotretinoin have been published over the years.
The iPLEDGE Program was instituted as a replacement for the failed SMART program (System to Manage Accutane Related Teratogenicity). Instituted in April 2002, SMART aimed to eliminate isotretinoin-induced birth defects by preventing exposure to the drug during pregnancy. The program mandated two consecutive negative pregnancy tests, birth defect risk counseling and a pledge to use two forms of contraception when engaging in intercourse for all people assigned female at birth of childbearing age seeking an isotretinoin prescription. A voluntary registration program called The Accutane Survey was also established. However, no effort was made to verify the compliance of doctors and pharmacists, only a small percentage of people registered in the survey, and isotretinoin's reputation as an acne wonder drug continued to fuel demand for new prescriptions, an increasing number of which were being written and dispensed for relatively minor cases of acne vulgaris without proper screening, supervision or evidence that less risky medications had first been attempted.
Failure of the previous system
In 2003, a first-year review of SMART compliance conducted by the pharmaceutical industry revealed that the number of pregnant people prescribed isotretinoin actually increased by hundreds of documented cases over the previous year, before the program was instituted. Of these cases, the majority underwent abortions—either spontaneous or elective—with a handful of children reported to be born with typical isotretinoin-induced birth defects. When surveyed, many pregnant people reported that their physicians had attempted to downplay the risks of isotretinoin or violated the standards in other ways, such as failing to inform them of the need to use two forms of birth control or allowing them to substitute a single, less-accurate urine pregnancy test conducted in the doctor's office for the two laboratory-conducted blood pregnancy tests mandated by SMART. The FDA also concluded that, considering the voluntary nature of the reporting program and lack of mandatory record-keeping, the actual number of pregnant people affected was likely far higher than the reported number.
Mandatory reporting and verification
The report led to SMART being dismissed as "a total failure", with the FDA quickly moving to halt the downward slide with a stricter mandatory registry system to document and verify all isotretinoin prescriptions written or dispensed in the United States. This was a feature originally included in the plan for SMART recommended by the original FDA advisory panel and wholeheartedly endorsed by the pharmaceutical manufacturers, but removed due to concerns that political opposition from lobbying groups would delay the program's implementation. Although eventually resolved, the older concerns proved valid in 2003 when the launch of iPLEDGE was held up for three years while objections from women's rights, patient's rights, physician's rights and pro-choice lobbyists were debated in committee.
The iPLEDGE program was put into place a group formed by the companies that manufactured the drug at the time – Roche, Mylan, Barr, and Ranbaxy – called the Isotretinoin Products Manufacturing Group (IPMG); they are responsible for iPLEDGE and they hired Covance to manage it. The program launched on March 1, 2006, at the beginning of the annual meeting of the American Academy of Dermatology.
In the U.S., around 2000 people became pregnant while taking the drug between 1982 and 2000, with most pregnancies ending in abortion or miscarriage. About 160 babies with birth defects were born. In 2011, after the FDA put the more strict iPLEDGE program in place, 155 pregnancies occurred among 129,544 patients taking isotrentinoin (0.12%) who have the capacity to become pregnant.
Criticisms
Criticisms of the iPLEDGE program include the following:
Difficulty of compliance
When the Program launched in March 2006, there were many complaints about how difficult it was to use the system. Launch and pre-launch difficulties were common with the system jointly built by the drug manufacturers with the assistance of Covance, Inc, and approved by the FDA. Glitches with the website and long hold times were rampant at the time, and became a focus of physician and patient ire. Physicians have continued to be concerned that this very effective drug is made difficult to obtain due to a relatively small proportion of potential birth defects.
Though prescriber and pharmacy populations have become more familiar with the requirements of the iPLEDGE Program over the years, and some of the initial issues with the system have subsided, the nature of the restrictive distribution program continues to cause inconvenience, added expenses, and interruptions in the course of treatment. For example, if there is a problem with the data a patient or prescriber enters, the patient may be locked out of the system, unable to obtain the drug, for that 30-day cycle. Additionally, if a patient who can become pregnant misses their 7-day prescription pick-up window, the patient must return to the prescriber for another pregnancy test before being able to get the drug again. This return visit to the doctor, of course, can be inconvenient and costly. To minimize the number of necessary visits to the doctor, a patient would want to schedule their appointment near the end of a 30-day period, but then must pick up the medicine quickly to avoid being blocked out of the system and running out of the medication. In 2008, dermatologist Robert Greenburg said "For a program to be so inflexible that it doesn't take into consideration the holiday or a patient's extenuating circumstances is such an impediment. It happens often that the 30-day window runs into the weekend when offices are closed. This [iPLEDGE] isn't the way things are done in the real world." "Why is iPLEDGE so complicated? Clearly, it's for political reasons," said Greenberg, citing political opposition to abortion and his impression that morality has guided the policy development more than medical science and evidence of effectiveness.
Privacy intrusion
Some patients feel that the requirements to take monthly pregnancy tests and enter information about contraceptive choices constitute an unreasonable intrusion, and feel that's too high a price to pay to gain access to this drug. Additionally, maintenance of a pregnancy registry is part of the Program, though participation in the registry is voluntary for those patients who might have become pregnant.
Requirements of the program also mandate, per FDA requirements, monthly pregnancy tests for patients who may become pregnant.
The website does include a privacy statement, which discusses what information is collected, how it is used, and where questions can be directed.
Required participation of patients who cannot become pregnant
The iPLEDGE Program requires all patients to participate whether they can become pregnant or not, and this has been a subject of criticism over the course of the program's lifetime.
Program administrators say all patients must participate as they are concerned about the potential sharing of medication with people who can become pregnant. Dermatologist Ned Ryan said "They [the FDA and drug manufacturers] want a wide net, understandably. But this is completely over the top."
Though they must be part of the iPLEDGE Program, requirements for patients who cannot become pregnant are more lenient than requirements for patients who can become pregnant. Patients who cannot become pregnant do not need to take either pregnancy or comprehension tests on a monthly basis, and their prescription window is 30 days from the date of the office visit, rather than seven days as it is with patients who can become pregnant.
Economic burden on patients who can become pregnant
A study of 71 female patients who received isotretinoin treatment from 2010 to 2020 at Children's National Hospital found that iPledge requirements unjustifiably increased the cost of treatment for patients with the potential to become pregnant, especially when windows were missed requiring additional follow up medical appointments and repeated laboratory pregnancy tests. The financial cost is a significant burden that, along with other iPledge imposed barriers, leads to more patients discontinuing treatment before completion.
Disproportionate impact on minorities and lower socioeconomic status groups
A 2019 study of patients at two academic institutions in Boston, Massachusetts demonstrated differences in delayed starting, interruption, and early termination of isotretinoin treatment course across race. Non-white patients were more likely than white patients to experience medication interruptions and early terminations and were more likely to achieve sub-optimal doses of isotretinoin. The most common cited reasons for delays were logistics associated with the iPLEDGE system, including computer issues, missed pick-up windows, and missed/delayed appointments/tests.
Misgendering of transgender patients
Some transgender men taking testosterone treatments develop acne as a side effect which can be successfully treated with isotretinoin.
Since trans men who have the reproductive organs they were born with have the potential to become pregnant whether they are on testosterone or not, under the previous patient classification model the iPLEDGE program required that transgender patients register based on their gender assigned at birth. This meant that the iPLEDGE program required trans men be misgendered as female in order to gain access to isotrenoin in the United States. A proposed solution was for iPLEDGE to make their classifications of patients gender neutral; instead focusing on the potential to become pregnant. Effective December 13, 2021 iPLEDGE adopted gender neutral patient categorizations as recommended by The American Academy of Dermatology.
Criticisms of the iPLEDGE website and phone system
Some criticisms of the iPLEDGE website include that the website does not clearly identify who administers the site, despite being a mandatory program that requires the submission of private information about medical patients. The terms of use and legal disclaimer section of the site do not clearly identify the legal entity running the program or describe how the private information of the patients is secured. The terms of use for the site is phrased as a contract between "you" and "the sponsors of the Site" (which it defines as synonymous with "iPLEDGE"), without clearly saying who "the sponsors of the Site" includes.
The program was mandated by the FDA despite criticism from practicing medical doctors that its cumbersome nature and strict deadlines can make the drug unavailable to deserving patients. In practice, the website has presented many problems to physicians; once information is entered, it can be difficult or impossible to change or correct it. If there is an error, the patient can be locked out for 30 days without being able to receive the medication. Problems are common and take days to correct. Technical assistance by phone is available via a toll free number, but trying to correct problems using the phone system can be difficult and time-consuming. Cathy Boeck, a past president of the Dermatology Nurses Association, said "Nurses are having the same frustrations as doctors regarding difficulties of getting the drug to patients and patients' complaints. It has a huge impact on resources if someone is waiting on hold with iPLEDGE and is also taking calls from patients who are upset and frustrated. That’s what we’ve heard from members."
Although the goal of the program is to prevent pregnancies of women who take the drug, male patients must also participate in anti-pregnancy restrictions, primarily due to fears that male isotretinoin users might share their prescriptions with females without their physicians' knowledge. There has been no link to birth defects from Accutane associated with males using the drug, though male sexual dysfunction has been suggested by one study. As this has not been conclusively proven, this is not acknowledged as a side effect in the official literature accompanying the medication.
As of December 13, 2021, IPLEDGE launched a nationwide update to their system against the AAD's recommendations, the AAD claimed this change would slow down a patient's ability to receive their prescription. The phone system on launch day was completely suspended providing no available support to users trying to navigate a new system that is full of bugs. There has since been long hours of waiting on the phone to get support and when connected with someone are told they received word "not to give out any information. If there are questions you should call the number on the letter sent out or email the original sender that distributed the information." Neither of these had worked at the time. IPLEDGE and the FDA have been heavily under fire in the dermatologic community due to these changes. The AAD issued a statement claiming the IPLEDGE issues are unacceptable and states, "Over the last several weeks we have repeatedly warned the FDA and Syneos that the proposed changes did not reflect clinical practice and would impede patient care; and we asked for a halt to the program until our concerns could be addressed. We were told “no,” with the explanation that suspending the iPLEDGE program would not, from FDA’s perspective, provide the safeguards that are necessary to prevent embryofetal exposure."
References
External links
ipledgeprogram.com The official iPledge program web site.
REMS document
FDA press release about the program
Information from the CDC CDC and the March of Dimes Isotretinoin and other retinoids during pregnancy
Medscape Medical News, Dermatologists Frustrated With Problematic iPledge Program, AAD 64th Annual Meeting. Focus session, March 6, 2006
AAD's 12/13/2021 statement
Pharmaceuticals policy
Pharmacy in the United States
Isotretinoin |
4298408 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siamosaurus | Siamosaurus | Siamosaurus (meaning "Siam lizard") is a genus of spinosaurid dinosaur that lived in what is now known as China and Thailand during the Early Cretaceous period (Barremian to Aptian) and is the first reported spinosaurid from Asia. It is confidently known only from tooth fossils; the first were found in the Sao Khua Formation, with more teeth later recovered from the younger Khok Kruat Formation. The only species Siamosaurus suteethorni, whose name honours Thai palaeontologist Varavudh Suteethorn, was formally described in 1986. In 2009, four teeth from China previously attributed to a pliosaur—under the species "Sinopliosaurus" fusuiensis—were identified as those of a spinosaurid, possibly Siamosaurus. It is yet to be determined if two partial spinosaurid skeletons from Thailand and an isolated tooth from Japan also belong to Siamosaurus.
Since it is based only on teeth, Siamosaurus body size is uncertain, though it has been estimated at between in length. The holotype tooth is long. Siamosauruss teeth were straight, oval to circular in cross-section, and lined with distinct lengthwise grooves. Its teeth had wrinkled enamel, similar to teeth from the related genus Baryonyx. As a spinosaur it would have had a long, low snout and robust forelimbs, and one possible skeleton indicates the presence of a tall sail running down its back, another typical trait of this theropod family. Siamosaurus is considered by some palaeontologists to be a dubious name, with some arguing that its teeth are hard to differentiate from those of other Early Cretaceous spinosaurids, and others that it may not be a dinosaur at all. Based on dental traits, Siamosaurus and "S." fusuiensis have been placed in the subfamily Spinosaurinae.
Like in all spinosaurids, Siamosaurus teeth were conical, with reduced or absent serrations. This made them suitable for impaling rather than tearing flesh, a trait typically seen in largely piscivorous (fish-eating) animals. Spinosaurids are also known to have consumed pterosaurs and small dinosaurs, and there is fossil evidence of Siamosaurus itself feeding on sauropod dinosaurs, either via scavenging or active hunting. Siamosaurus role as a partially piscivorous predator may have reduced the prominence of some contemporaneous crocodilians competing for the same food sources. Isotope analysis of the teeth of Siamosaurus and other spinosaurids indicates semiaquatic habits. Siamosaurus lived in a semi-arid habitat of floodplains and meandering rivers, where it coexisted with other dinosaurs, as well as pterosaurs, fishes, turtles, crocodyliforms, and other aquatic animals.
History of discovery
The Sao Khua Formation, where the first Siamosaurus fossils were discovered, is part of the Khorat Group. The formation is dated to the Barremian stage of the Early Cretaceous period, 129.4 to 125 million years ago. In 1983, French palaeontologist Éric Buffetaut and his Thai colleague Rucha Ingavat described a set of fossil teeth recovered from the Phu Pratu Teema locality of the Sao Khua Formation, in the Phu Wiang area of Khon Kaen Province. They did not conclude as to what animal they originated from, their opinion being that the specimens belonged "either to an unusual theropod dinosaur or to some unknown crocodilian". In 1986, a reassessment of the remains by the same authors attributed them to a new genus and species of spinosaurid theropod, which they named Siamosaurus suteethorni. The generic name alludes to the ancient name of Thailand, "Siam", and is combined with the Ancient Greek word (), meaning "lizard" or "reptile". The specific name honours Thai geologist and palaeontologist Varavudh Suteethorn, and his contributions to vertebrate palaeontology discoveries in Thailand.
The best-preserved specimen from the teeth described, designated DMR TF 2043a, was chosen as the holotype of Siamosaurus. The paratypes comprise eight other well-preserved teeth catalogued as DMR TF 2043b to i. The original fossils are currently housed in the palaeontological collection of the Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok. Siamosaurus teeth are common in the Sao Khua Formation, and further isolated specimens were found later throughout the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Sculptures of the animal have been erected in various places across northeastern Thailand, including Si Wiang Dinosaur Park, the Siam Paragon shopping mall in Bangkok, the Phu Wiang Dinosaur Museum, and the Sirindhorn Museum. S. suteethorni was also illustrated on Thai postage stamps released in 1997, along with fellow Thai dinosaurs Phuwiangosaurus sirindhornae, Siamotyrannus isanensis, and Psittacosaurus sattayaraki.
Thailand's Khok Kruat Formation is dated to the Aptian age (between 125 and 113 million years ago), younger than the Sao Khua Formation. The Khok Kruat Formation has provided many spinosaurid teeth, including ones from Siamosaurus and closely allied forms. Given the varied size and morphology of the teeth found, the presence of multiple spinosaur taxa in the region is likely. Nearly 60 fossil teeth were recovered from the formation during fieldwork by Thai-French palaeontological teams between 2003 and 2008, including specimens from the Sam Ran, Khok Pha Suam, and Lam Pao Dam localities. Eight of these teeth were described in detail by Kamonrak and colleagues in 2019, and classified into two main morphotypes: the Khok Kruat morphotype, which is found only in the Khok Kruat Formation, and the Siamosaurus morphotype, which includes forms widely recovered from both the Sao Khua and Khok Kruat Formations.
Siamosaurus is the first reported spinosaurid dinosaur from Asia, and subsequently to its naming, material resembling or possibly belonging to the genus has been found across the continent. In 1975, Chinese palaeontologist Hou Lian-Hai and colleagues described five teeth as a new species of the pliosauroid Sinopliosaurus, which they named S. fusuiensis, the specific name is in reference to Fusui County in Guangxi, China, from which the fossils were collected. Four of these teeth—one was not found in the museum collection—were reassigned by Buffetaut and colleagues in 2008 to a spinosaurid theropod and referred to as "Sinopliosaurus" fusuiensis. The researchers deemed it as "closely related to, if not identical with", S. suteethorni. In 2019, "S." fusuiensis was referred to by Thai palaeontologist Wongko Kamonrak and colleagues as Siamosaurus sp. (of uncertain species). Later in 2019, Thai palaeontologist Adun Samathi and colleagues considered the teeth as belonging to an indeterminate spinosaurid. The specimens were retrieved from China's Early Cretaceous Xinlong Formation, in which spinosaurid teeth are frequently reported, though most of them are hard to differentiate from those of Japan or Thailand without more complete fossil material, such as a skull. Buffetaut and Suteethorn suggested that the Xinlong Formation could be geologically related to the Sao Khua or Khok Kruat Formation, since similar types of fossils have been recovered in all three regions.
In 1994, an isolated tooth (specimen GMNH-PV-999) was found by a fossil prospector in the Sebayashi Formation, Japan. The tooth was believed, until 2003, to belong to a marine reptile, when Japanese palaeontologist Yoshikazu Hasegawa and colleagues assigned it to ?Siamosaurus sp. The tooth came from rocks dated to the Barremian, similar in age to sediments that Siamosaurus teeth have been recovered from in Thailand. In 2015, a more incomplete tooth was recovered from the same formation by two local children. Kept under the specimen number KDC-PV-0003, the tooth was assigned to an indeterminate spinosaurid in 2017 by Japanese palaeontologist Kubota Katsuhiro and colleagues. Further spinosaurid teeth from unnamed and indeterminate forms have been discovered in central China and Malaysia.
In 2004, excavation began on a partial skeleton from an outcrop of the Khok Kruat Formation near the city of Khon Kaen. The specimen (SM-KK 14) consists of cervical (neck) and dorsal (back) vertebrae, a high neural spine (upwards-extending process from top of vertebra), pelvis (hip) fragments, a possible metacarpal (long bone of the hand), and a chevron from the tail. The cervical vertebrae and pelvic region resemble those of the European spinosaur Baryonyx walkeri, and the neural spine is elongated, similarly to those of other spinosaurids. A Siamosaurus tooth found nearby indicates the skeleton may belong to this genus, though this could also represent evidence of scavenging. The skeleton, as well as two well-preserved teeth—SM2016-1-147 and SM2016-1-165, also attributed to Siamosaurus—are currently stored in the vertebrate fossil collection of the Sirindhorn Museum, Kalasin Province. In 2019, a series of spinosaurid caudal (tail) vertebrae possibly belonging to S. suteethorni were recovered from the Sao Khua Formation, and described in a dissertation by Samathi. The fossils (SM-PW9B-11 to 17, SM-PW9B, SM-PW9A-unnumbered, SM-PW9-unnumbered, and SM 2017-1-176) were designated by Samathi as "Phuwiang spinosaurid B", and bear similarities to the possible spinosaurid Camarillasaurus and a Baryonyx specimen discovered in Portugal.
Description
In 2004, American dinosaur researcher Don Lessem estimated Siamosaurus at long. In 2005, British author Sussana Davidson and colleagues gave a lower estimate of in length and weighing . In a 2016 popular book, authors Rubén Molina-Pérez and Asier Larramendi estimated it at approximately long, tall at the hips, and weighing . However, reliable calculations on the weight and body size of fragmentary dinosaurs like Siamosaurus are hindered by the lack of good material, such as a skull or postcranial skeleton, and thus estimates are only tentative. "Phuwiang spinosaurid B" was calculated as approximately long by Samathi in 2019. As a spinosaurid, Siamosaurus would have had low, narrow, and elongated jaws; well-built forelimbs; relatively short hindlimbs; and elongated neural spines on the vertebrae forming a sail on its back.
Type specimens
Fossil theropod teeth are typically identified by attributes such as the proportions, size, and curvature of the crown, as well as the presence and/or shape of the denticles (serrations). The holotype of S. suteethorni (specimen DMR TF 2043a) is in total length, with the crown being long, and wide at its base. It is among the larger teeth discovered by Buffetaut and Ingavat. One much smaller specimen (DMR TF 2043b) measures in length. According to the authors, this dramatic size range suggests the teeth are from individuals of different ages. Among theropods, this may also indicate size variation along the tooth row in the jaws, which is observed to have been prevalent in spinosaurids.
The holotype tooth is relatively straight, with only minor front to back curvature. It is oval in cross-section while other specimens are nearly circular in this aspect. Unlike in most theropods, the carinae (cutting edges) of Siamosaurus teeth lack well-defined serrations, though unworn teeth do exhibit very fine denticles. Some teeth (including the holotype) have a wave-like double recurvature when viewed from the front or back, which Buffetaut and Ingavat compared to that seen in carnosaur teeth from the same formation and one Deinonychus tooth described by John Ostrom in 1969. The S. suteethorni holotype is symmetrically concave front to back, and bears 15 flutes (lengthwise grooves) on its lingual (inward facing) and labial (outward facing) surfaces. These flutes run from the base of the crown before stopping from the rounded tooth tip. A region of the holotype where the enamel (outer layer of the teeth) has weathered away reveals that these flutes extend down to the dentin (second layer of the teeth). The enamel also has a granular (finely wrinkled) texture, as seen in teeth from the spinosaurid Baryonyx. Some of the root is preserved in the holotype and, as in all theropods, there is a large pocket for the tooth pulp, which would have housed blood vessels and nerves.
Khok Kruat teeth
Of the two Khok Kruat Formation tooth morphotypes assigned by Kamonrak and colleagues in 2019, morphotype I, the Khok Kruat morphotype, is on average in total length, of which the crown takes up , with a wide base. They are oval in cross-section, have well-defined carinae, and a smooth enamel surface, which becomes wrinkled at the base of the crown. They bear fine, sharply defined flutes, of which there are about 21 to 32 on each side. Morphotype II, the Siamosaurus morphotype, is on average long, with a tall crown that is wide at the base. They are also oval in cross-section and have distinct carinae, but unlike the Khok Kruat morphotype, the entire length of the crown has wrinkled enamel, and the flutes are coarser and fewer in number, with 11 to 16 on each side. The Siamosaurus morphotype also shares with S. suteethorni, GMNH-PV-999, and IVPP V 4793 a wrinkled enamel surface and between 12 and 15 flutes on each side.
Possible material
Teeth
The first Sebayashi Formation specimen (GMNH-PV-999) is an isolated tooth crown with a partially intact root. It is not known in which jaw the tooth was positioned or which surface faced the inside or outside of the mouth. The tooth's front and back carinae are well-defined, though the former is not well-preserved. Besides having a broader, wide base and being slightly smaller at in length, GMNH-PV-999 has a very similar morphology to the S. suteethorni holotype. Features shared between the two specimens include: a straight and only slightly compressed shape; a somewhat oval cross-section; no serrations on the carinae (possibly due to bad preservation); and flutes on the crown surface, the Japanese specimen having 12 on each side. The teeth also share a crown surface with numerous small granular structures oriented parallel to their lengths. Because of these resemblances, Hasegawa and colleagues regarded GMNH-PV-999 as nearly identical to the S. suteethorni holotype tooth. The blood grooves (tiny furrows in the gaps between each denticle) of GMNH-PV-999 have an oblique orientation of 45 degrees, as in Baryonyx and KDC-PV-0003, the second Sebayashi formation tooth, which consists of a slightly recurved crown fragment with an almost circular cross-section. It has better preservation of small details than the former specimens, such as visible, though poorly defined serrations, with two to three denticles per mm (0.039 in). Like GMNH-PV-999, it has a granular texture and at least 12 flutes on its surface, not all of which stretch to the crown's full length.
Out of the four teeth attributed to "S." fusuiensis, specimen IVPP V 4793 is the most intact, although still somewhat deformed. The crown, which is missing its tip, is long and wide at the base. The tooth is straight, only slightly recurved, and has an oval cross-section. The front and rear carinae are distinct, though their serrations have been heavily eroded, similar to those of KDC-PV-0003. Like the Thai and Japanese teeth, the "S." fusuiensis specimens bear developed flutes and a granular surface. As in both Sebayashi Formation teeth, there are 12 flutes on each face of the "S." fusuiensis teeth. Like in KDC-PV-0003, these flutes vary in length. Buffetaut and colleagues found the "S." fusuiensis teeth most similar to those of Siamosaurus, given their identical crown shape, fluting, and granular enamel.
Postcrania
Though no skeletal elements were associated with the original Siamosaurus teeth, the Khok Kruat skeleton, SM-KK 14, may be attributable to the genus. The cervical vertebrae of SM-KK 14 had elongated centra (vertebral bodies) with articulating surfaces that were not offset, as well as prominent epipophyses (processes to which neck muscles attached) and strong ligament scars. All of these characteristics were also present in Baryonyx. The cervicals also became longer towards the front of the neck and—based on comparison with Baryonyx—may represent the fourth, sixth, seventh, and tenth vertebrae. The dorsal vertebrae had enlarged infraprezygapophyseal fossae—depressions under the prezygapophyses, which connect adjacent vertebrae—and their neural spines were elongated similarly to those of other spinosaurids, indicating the presence of a sail on the animal's back; like in the Asian spinosaurid Ichthyovenator. One of the neural spines of SM-KK 14 measured at least in height. The chevron lacked a process on its front end, as in other spinosaurids. Viewed distally (towards the centre of attachment), the lower end of the pubis had an L-shape, similar to that of Ichthyovenator and the African Suchomimus. Also as in Ichthyovenator, the hind rim of the pubis had a notch-like obturator foramen. However, in SM-KK 14 the front of the pubis was concave and the chevrons were curved backwards, in contrast to the straight condition these bones had in Ichthyovenator.
Classification
In 1986, Buffetaut and Ingavat classified Siamosaurus as a theropod because of the straight, tall crown and double sideways recurvature of its teeth. At the time, Siamosauruss particular combination of dental characteristics, especially the longitudinal fluting and lack of serrations, had not been observed in other theropods. The authors noted similarities in Siamosauruss teeth to those of ceratosaurian tooth crowns, some of which also have longitudinal flutes. However, this identification was ruled out, since ceratosaur teeth are more narrow and blade-like in cross-section, bear far fewer dental flutes, and have distinct serrations. Buffetaut and Suteethorn concluded that the closest taxon in dentition to Siamosaurus was Spinosaurus aegyptiacus from Egypt, whose fragmentary fossils had been destroyed during World War II. Like Siamosaurus, this African taxon had straight and unserrated conical teeth. Though Spinosaurus lacked the developed flutes seen in Siamosaurus, Buffetaut and Ingavat noted that both smooth and fluted spinosaur teeth had been reported from Africa. Therefore, they tentatively placed Siamosaurus in the family Spinosauridae, based on the close similarities in dentition to S. aegyptiacus.
Many palaeontologists later questioned Buffetaut and Ingavat's identification of Siamosaurus, given that spinosaurid teeth, including many from Asia, have often been mistaken for those of aquatic reptiles like crocodilians, plesiosaurs, and ichthyosaurs. In view of this, the German palaeontologist Hans-Dieter Sues and colleagues in 2002 asserted that there is not enough material to confidently identify Siamosaurus as a dinosaur. In 2004, American palaeontologist Thomas Holtz and colleagues considered it a dubious name, stating that the teeth might instead belong to a contemporaneous fish such as a saurodontid or an ichthyodectid teleost. The same year, American palaeontologist David Weishampel and colleagues considered Siamosaurus an indeterminate theropod. In 2012, an analysis by American palaeontologist Matthew Carrano and colleagues agreed with the possibility of confusion with other reptiles, and regarded the genus as a possible indeterminate spinosaurid. They noted that oftentimes, isolated teeth are an unstable foundation for naming new theropod taxa, and most species based on them turn out to be invalid. This problem is especially common with spinosaurids, given that skull and skeletal fossils from the group are rare.
Authors such as Buffetaut and Ingavat in 1986, and Hasegawa and colleagues in 2003, have noted that since crocodilian teeth are usually more strongly recurved than spinosaur teeth, they can be distinguished from each other. Crocodilians also lack the lateral double recurvature of Siamosauruss tooth crowns, which, based on their shape, were vertically inserted into the jaw, whereas long-snouted crocodilian teeth are usually angled outwards from the mouth. Though Siamosaurus and plesiosaur teeth are similar in overall shape, Buffetaut and Ingavat pointed out that plesiosaur teeth were significantly more recurved. Other researchers also noted that compared to plesiosaurs, Asian spinosaurid teeth also have coarser and more numerous flutes that extend almost the whole length of the crown. In 2008, Buffetaut and colleagues stated that the "S." fusuiensis teeth bear carinae on the plane of the crown's curvature, a condition not observed in plesiosaur teeth. The discovery of the Khok Kruat skeleton and of baryonychine teeth with dental flutes similar to those of Siamosaurus, were also brought up by the researchers as further evidence of Siamosauruss spinosaurid classification. Later discoveries revealed that largely straight tooth crowns with flutes and a lack or reduction of serrations were unique characteristics of spinosaurid teeth.
In 2014, Italian palaeontologist Federico Fanti and colleagues considered the various spinosaurid teeth from East Asia, including those of S. suteethorni, as identical to those of Spinosaurus. In 2017, Brazilian palaeontologists Marcos Sales and Cesar Schultz suggested that the various Asian teeth might eventually be attributed to Ichthyovenator-like forms. The researchers accepted Siamosaurus as a spinosaurid, but stated that its teeth and those of "S." fusuiensis are too similar to those of other Early Cretaceous spinosaurids to erect new taxa unequivocally; and thus considered both taxa as dubious. Carrano and colleagues noted that the Khok Kruat skeleton may provide answers to their identification. Authors such as Milner and colleagues in 2007, Bertin Tor in 2010, Holtz in 2011, and Kamonrak and colleagues in 2019 regarded the Khok Kruat skeleton as first definitive evidence of spinosaurs in Asia. In 2012, French palaeontologist Ronan Allain and colleagues described a partial skeleton from the Grès supérieurs Formation of Laos, and used it to name the new spinosaurid genus and species Ichthyovenator laosensis. They considered it the first definitive evidence of spinosaurids in Asia, in light of the debated identity of Siamosaurus and "S." fusuiensis. In a 2014 abstract, Allain announced that further Ichthyovenator material, including three teeth, had been excavated. Typically of spinosaurines, Ichthyovenators teeth bore straight and unserrated crowns, though no comparison was made to the other Asian teeth.
The taxonomic and phylogenetic affinities of the Spinosauridae are subject to active research and debate, given that in comparison to other theropod groups, many of the family's taxa are based on poor fossil material. Traditionally, the group is split into the subfamilies Spinosaurinae (unserrated, straight teeth with well marked flutes and more circular cross-sections) and Baryonychinae (finely serrated, somewhat recurved teeth with weaker flutes and a more oval cross-section). Since spinosaurines were, on average, larger animals than baryonychines, their teeth were also generally larger. The morphological variation seen in spinosaurid teeth, however, has shown that the aforementioned characteristics are not always consistent within the subfamilies. Likewise, the Khok Kruat skeleton shares mixed characteristics between Baryonyx and Spinosaurus, and its precise phylogenetic placement is uncertain pending a description of the material. The possibility that Baryonychinae is a paraphyletic (unnatural) grouping has been suggested by researchers such as Sales and Schultz, on the basis that genera such as Irritator and Angaturama (the two are possible synonyms) may represent intermediate forms between baryonychines and spinosaurines. As it is definitively known only from teeth, Siamosauruss exact position within the Spinosauridae is difficult to determine. In 2004, Brazilian palaeontologists Elaine Machado and Alexander Kellner suggested it as a possible spinosaurine, given its lack of dental serrations. Likewise in 2010, British palaeontologist David Hone and colleagues placed Siamosaurus and "S." fusuiensis in the Spinosaurinae. British palaeontologist Thomas Arden and colleagues identified Siamosaurus as a basal (early diverging or "primitive") member of this subfamily in 2019; their cladogram can be seen below:
Later in 2019, the Khok Kruat Formation teeth were also referred to the Spinosaurinae by Kamonrak and colleagues, on the basis that both the Khok Kruat and Siamosaurus morphotypes lack characteristics seen in baryonychines, such as long and slender roots, 0–10 flutes on each side, no well defined carinae, a sculptured surface of the crown base, and 45 degree orientation of the blood grooves. But they share with spinosaurines a sub-circular to oval cross-section, fluted tooth crowns, well defined front and rear carinae, distinct striations on the crown, varying denticle size, and a wrinkled surface of the crown base. The authors also noted that unlike spinosaurines such as Irritator and Spinosaurus, Asian spinosaurines usually have more laterally compressed tooth crowns, and wrinkles across more of the enamel surface. In 2020, a paper by British palaeontologist Robert Smyth and colleagues considered S. suteethorni a dubious name and attributed its teeth to an indeterminate spinosaurine, given the uncertainties of classifying spinosaurid teeth at the genus or species level, as well as the degree of heterodonty (variation within the tooth row) that spinosaurines apparently exhibited. Due to new discoveries and research on spinosaurid teeth since Siamosaurus was named in 1986, a reassessment of the genus' validity is currently being prepared by Buffetaut.
Palaeobiology
Diet and feeding
Buffetaut and Ingavat suggested in 1986 that Siamosaurus probably led a heavily piscivorous (fish-eating) lifestyle, since its dentition—like those of other spinosaurids—had a highly specialised morphology better suited for piercing rather than tearing flesh, due to the long, straight conical tooth crowns with reduced or absent serrations. The authors noted that this dental morphology is also seen in other piscivorous predators like plesiosaurs and long-snouted crocodilians. Such a dietary preference had been suggested for Baryonyx the same year by British palaeontologists Angela Milner and Alan Charig, and was later confirmed in 1997 with the discovery of acid-etched fish scales inside the body cavity of its holotype skeleton. The elongate, interlocking jaws of spinosaurids also had snout tips that fanned out into a rosette-like shape—a trait also observed in highly piscivorous crocodilians such as gharials—which made them well-adapted to catching and feeding on fish. Fossil evidence has shown that besides aquatic prey, spinosaurids also consumed other dinosaurs and pterosaurs. In the Sao Khua Formation, localities such as Wat Sakawan have yielded sauropod remains in association with tooth crowns from Siamosaurus, documenting either predation or scavenging on part of the latter.
In 2006, Thai biologist Komsorn Lauprasert examined fossils collected from the Phu Kradung, Sao Khua, and Khok Kruat Formations. In this study, the teeth of Siamosaurus and a Moroccan spinosaurid were compared to those of crocodilians using scanning electron microscopy. Lauprasert found that spinosaurids and crocodilians may have employed similar feeding tactics and been under comparable mechanical constraints, based on resemblances in the microstructure of their tooth enamel. Therefore, Lauprasert suggested that Siamosaurus—as a piscivorous predator—could have replaced the ecological niche of contemporaneous long-snouted crocodilians. He noted that this likely occurred in correlation with the rising aridity of the Sao Khua and Khok Kruat Formations during the Early Cretaceous, since Siamosaurus had better mobility in a dry environment than crocodilians did. This might explain the absence of long-snouted crocodilian fossils from that time and place. Goniopholidid crocodilians were prevalent, however, and since this group had broader, shorter snouts and thus more varied diets, Lauprasert suggested that this would have kept them from competing with Siamosaurus. A similar scenario was proposed for spinosaurids by Hone and colleagues in 2010, who also noted that compared to large crocodilians and obligate aquatic predators, they could more easily travel from one body of water to another in search of prey.
Aquatic habits
In 2008, French palaeontologist Romain Amiot and colleagues compared the oxygen isotope ratios of remains from theropod and sauropod dinosaurs, crocodilians, turtles, and freshwater fish recovered from eight localities in northeastern Thailand. The study revealed that Siamosaurus teeth had isotope ratios closer to those of crocodilians and freshwater turtles than other theropods, and so it may have had semiaquatic habits similar to these animals, spending much of its daily life near or in water. Discrepancies between the ratios of sauropods, Siamosaurus, and other theropods also indicate these dinosaurs drank from different sources, whether river, pond, or plant water. In 2010, Amiot and colleagues published another oxygen isotope study on turtle, crocodilian, spinosaurid, other theropod remains, this time including fossils from Thailand, China, England, Brazil, Tunisia, and Morocco. The analysis showed that Thai spinosaurid teeth tended to have the largest difference from the ratios of other, more terrestrial theropods, while those of Spinosaurus from Tunisia and Morocco tended to have the least difference, despite the advanced piscivorous adaptations in the skull observed for this genus. The authors suggested that piscivory and semiaquatic habits may explain how spinosaurids coexisted with other large theropods. By feeding on different prey items and occupying a distinct ecological role, a phenomenon that is known as niche partitioning, the different types of theropods would have been out of direct competition. Further lines of evidence have since demonstrated that spinosaurids, especially those within the Spinosaurinae, developed strong adaptations for aquatic environments, such as dense limb bones for buoyancy control; reduction of the pelvic girdle; and elongated neural spines on the tail, likely used for underwater propulsion.
Palaeoenvironment and palaeobiogeography
Of all the Mesozoic formations in northeastern Thailand, the Sao Khua is the most abundant and diverse in vertebrate fossil discoveries. The Khorat Group yields fossil taxa only of continental origin, with no definitive evidence for marine fossils or sedimentary structures found so far. In 1963, Yoshitsugu Kobayashi of Hokkaido University reported ichthyosaur and plesiosaur teeth from the Sao Khua Formation, but these have now been identified as belonging to Siamosaurus and a crocodilian respectively. The sediments of the Sao Khua Formation, which comprise red clays, mudstones, sandstones, siltstones, and conglomerate rocks, record a fluvial environment dominated by lakes, floodplains, and meandering low-energy rivers. This is consistent with the types of vertebrate fauna present in the formation, which comprise only terrestrial or freshwater animals.
Besides Siamosaurus, there were theropod dinosaurs like the metriacanthosaurid Siamotyrannus isanensis, the ornithomimosaur Kinnareemimus khonkaenensis, the megaraptoran Phuwiangvenator yaemniyomi, the basal coelurosaur Vayuraptor nongbualamphuensis, a compsognathid theropod, and indeterminate birds. Theropod eggs with embryos have also been recovered from the formation. There were also sauropods like the titanosauriform Phuwiangosaurus sirindhornae, mamenchisaurids, and indeterminate forms. Sauropod remains are some of the most abundant in the Sao Khua and Khok Kruat Formations. No ornithischian (or "bird-hipped") dinosaur fossils have been found in the Sao Khua Formation, possibly suggesting that they were uncommon compared to saurischian (or "lizard-hipped") dinosaurs. The faunal assemblage also included indeterminate pterosaurs; carettochelyid, adocid, and softshell turtles; hybodont sharks like hybodontids, ptychodontids, and lonchidiids; pycnodontiform fish; ray-finned fishes such as sinamiids and semionotids; and the goniopholidid crocodyliforms Sunosuchus phuwiangensis, Siamosuchus phuphokensis, and Theriosuchus grandinaris. The Sao Khua and Khok Kruat Formations had a more semi-arid climate than the older, more humid Phu Kradung Formation, dated to the Berriasian.
The Khok Kruat Formation is composed mostly of sandstones, conglomerates, siltstones, and shales. Similar to the Sao Khua Formation, the deposition of these sediments occurred in an arid to semi-arid floodplain environment of slow-moving, meandering rivers. This ecosystem included pterosaurs, sinamiid fish; carettochelyid and acocid turtles; ptychodontid, hybodontid, and thaiodontid sharks; and the crocodyliform Khoratosuchus jintasakuli, as well as goniopholidids. Besides Siamosaurus, the dinosaur fauna of the Khok Kruat Formation included the carcharodontosaurid Siamraptor suwati; iguanodontians like Sirindhorna khoratensis, Ratchasimasaurus suranaerae, and Siamodon nimngami; a titanosauriform sauropod similar to Phuwiangosaurus; an indeterminate ceratopsian; and various indeterminate theropods. The formation is probably equivalent to the Grès supérieurs Formation of Laos, since animals like spinosaurids, sauropods, and derived ("advanced") iguanodontians have also been found there.
In 2007, Milner and colleagues suggested that spinosaurids and iguanodontians may have spread from western to eastern Laurasia—the northern supercontinent at the time—during the Aptian, based on their distribution and presence in the Khok Kruat Formation. American palaeontologist Stephen Brusatte and colleagues noted in 2010 that the discovery of spinosaurids in Asia, a family previously known only from Europe, Africa, and South America, suggests a faunal interchange between Laurasia and Gondwana (in the south) during the early Late Cretaceous. Though it may also be possible that spinosaurids already had a cosmopolitan distribution before the Middle Cretaceous, preceding the breakup of Laurasia from Gondwana. However, the authors noted that more evidence is needed to test this hypothesis. In 2012, Allain and colleagues suggested such a global distribution may have occurred earlier across Pangaea before the Late Jurassic, even if Asia became separated from the supercontinent first. In 2019, Spanish palaeontologist Elisabete Malafaia and colleagues also indicated a complex biogeographical pattern for spinosaurs during the Early Cretaceous, based on anatomical similarities between Ichthyovenator and the European genus Vallibonavenatrix.
References
External links
Spinosaurids
Barremian genera
Early Cretaceous dinosaurs of Asia
Cretaceous Thailand
Fossils of Thailand
Fossil taxa described in 1986
Taxa named by Éric Buffetaut |
4298423 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General%20Medical%20Council | General Medical Council | The General Medical Council (GMC) is a public body that maintains the official register of medical practitioners within the United Kingdom. Its chief responsibility is to "protect, promote and maintain the health and safety of the public" by controlling entry to the register, and suspending or removing members when necessary. It also sets the standards for medical schools in the UK. Membership of the register confers substantial privileges under Part VI of the Medical Act 1983. It is a criminal offence to make a false claim of membership. The GMC is supported by fees paid by its members, and it became a registered charity in 2001.
History
The Medical Act 1858 established the General Council of Medical Education and Registration of the United Kingdom as a statutory body. Initially its members were elected by the members of the profession, and enjoyed widespread confidence from the profession.
Purpose
All the GMC's functions derive from a statutory requirement for the establishment and maintenance of a register, which is the definitive list of doctors as provisionally or fully "registered medical practitioners", within the public sector in Britain. The GMC controls entry to the List of Registered Medical Practitioners ("the medical register"). The Medical Act 1983 (amended) notes that, "The main objective of the General Council in exercising their functions is to protect, promote and maintain the health and safety of the public."
Secondly, the GMC regulates and sets the standards for medical schools in the UK, and liaises with other nations' medical and university regulatory bodies over medical schools overseas, leading to some qualifications being mutually recognised. Since 2010, it has also regulated postgraduate medical education.
Thirdly, the GMC is responsible for a licensing and revalidation system for all practising doctors in the UK, separate from the registration system, on 3 December 2012.
Activities and powers
Due to the principle of autonomy and law of consent there is no legislative restriction on who can treat patients or provide medical or health-related services. In other words, it is not a criminal offence to provide what would be considered medical assistance or treatment to another person – and not just in an emergency. This is in contrast with the position in respect of animals, where it is a criminal offence under the Veterinary Surgeons Act 1966 for someone who is not a registered veterinary surgeon (or in certain more limited circumstances a registered veterinary nurse) to provide treatment (save in an emergency) to an animal they do not own.
Parliament, since the enactment of the 1858 Act, has conferred on the GMC powers to grant various legal benefits and responsibilities to those medical practitioners who are registered with the GMC - a public body and association, as described, of the Medical Act 1983, by Mr Justice Burnett in British Medical Association v General Medical Council.
Through which, by an Order in the Privy Council, the GMC describes "The main objective of the General Council in exercising their functions is to protect, promote and maintain the health and safety of the public".
The GMC is funded by annual fees required from those wishing to remain registered and fees for examinations. Fees for registration have risen significantly in the last few years: 2007 fees = £290, 2008 fees = £390, 2009 fees = £410, 2010 fees = £420, 2011 fees = £420, with a 50% discount for doctors earning under £32,000.
In 2011, following the Command Paper "Enabling Excellence-Autonomy and Accountability for Healthcare Workers, Social Workers and Social Care Workers", registration fees were reduced by the GMC in accordance with the Government's strategy for reforming and simplifying the system for regulating healthcare workers in the UK and social workers and social care workers in England and requiring that "[A]t a time of pay restraint in both the public and private sectors, the burden of fees on individual registrants needs to be minimised."
Registering doctors in the UK
Registration with the GMC confers a number of privileges and duties. GMC registration may be either provisional or full. Provisional registration is granted to those who have completed medical school and enter their first year (F1) of medical training; this may be converted into full registration upon satisfactory completion of the first year of postgraduate training. In the past, a third type of registration ("limited registration") was granted to doctors who had graduated outside the UK and who had completed the Professional and Linguistic Assessment Board examination but who were yet to complete a period of work in the UK. Limited registration was abolished on 19 October 2007 and now international medical graduates can apply for provisional or full registration depending on their level of experience – they still have to meet the GMC's requirement for knowledge and skills and for English language.
The GMC administers the Professional and Linguistic Assessment Board test (PLAB), which has to be sat by non-European Union overseas doctors before they may practise medicine in the UK as a registered doctor.
A registered practitioner found to have committed some offences can be removed from ("struck off") the Medical Register.
Licensing and revalidating doctors in the UK
The GMC is now empowered to license and regularly revalidate the practice of doctors in the UK. When the licensing scheme was introduced in 2009, 13,500 (6.1%) of registered doctors chose not to be licensed. Unlicensed but registered doctors are likely to be non-practising lecturers, managers, or practising overseas, or retired. Whereas all registered doctors in the UK were offered a one-off automatic practise licence in November 2009, since December 2012 no licence will be automatically revalidated, but will be subject to a revalidation process every five years. No doctor may now be registered for the first time without also being issued a licence to practice, although a licensed doctor may give up their licence if they choose. No unlicensed but registered doctor in the UK is subject to revalidation. However, unlicensed but registered doctors in the UK are still subject to fitness-to-practice proceedings, and required to follow the GMC's good medical practice guidance.
Setting standards of good medical practice
The GMC sets standards of professional and ethical conduct that doctors in the UK are required to follow. The main guidance that the GMC provides for doctors is called Good Medical Practice. This outlines the standard of professional conduct that the public expects from its doctors and provides principles that underpin the GMC's fitness-to-practise decisions. Originally written in 1995, a revised edition came into force in November 2006, and another with effect from 22 April 2013. The content of Good Medical Practice has been rearranged into four domains of duties. Their most significant change is the replacement of a duty to, "Act without delay if you have good reason to believe that you or a colleague may be putting patients at risk," to a new duty to, "Take prompt action if you think that patient safety, dignity or comfort is being compromised". Alongside the guidance booklet are a range of explanatory guidelines, including a new one about the use of social media. The GMC also provides additional guidance for doctors on specific ethical topics, such as treating patients under the age of 18, end-of-life care, and conflicts of interest.
Medical education
The GMC regulates medical education and training in the United Kingdom. It runs 'quality assurance' programmes for UK medical schools and postgraduate deaneries to ensure that the necessary standards and outcomes are achieved.
In February 2008 the then Secretary of State for Health, Alan Johnson, agreed with recommendations of the Tooke Report which advised that the Postgraduate Medical Education and Training Board should be assimilated into the GMC. Whilst recognising the achievements made by PMETB, Professor John Tooke concluded that regulation needed to be combined into one body; that there should be one organisation that looked after what he called 'the continuum of medical education', from the moment someone chooses a career in medicine until the point that they retire. The merger, which took effect on 1 April 2010, was welcomed by both PMETB and the GMC.
Misconduct and fitness to practise
A registered medical practitioner may be referred to the GMC if there are doubts about their fitness to practise. The GMC is concerned with ensuring that doctors are safe to practise. Its role is not, for example, to fine doctors or to compensate patients following problems (compensation might be addressed through a medical malpractice lawsuit). The outcomes of hearings are made available on the GMC website.
Historically the handling of concerns had two streams: one regarding health, the other about conduct or ability, but these streams have been merged, into a single fitness-to-practice process. The GMC has powers to issue advice or warnings to doctors, accept undertakings from them, or refer them to a fitness-to-practise panel. The GMC's fitness-to-practise panels can accept undertakings from a doctor, issue warnings, impose conditions on a doctor's practice, suspend a doctor, or remove them from the medical register (when they are said to be 'struck off').
It has been repeatedly established that the GMC's fitness of practice disproportionately affects non-white doctors. Black and ethnic minority doctors are complained about more, investigated more frequently, issued the most severe punishment more frequently, and are least represented in all aspects of governance in the GMC.
On the 18th of June 2021 the GMC, for the first time in its history was found guilty of racial discrimination against a non white doctor by a UK court. A ruling from Reading employment tribunal found that the GMC had discriminated against Dr Karim a consultant urologist based on his race by continuing an investigation into him when it did not investigate the same allegation against a white doctor. The tribunal heard Dr Karim was an internationally renowned urologist of mixed black African and European descent who had been a whistle blower in a case about surgeons performing operations without appropriate training. Following the GMC investigation, Dr Karim attended a fitness-to-practice hearing in 2018, after which he was cleared of any wrongdoing. After the hearing, Dr Karim said: "Right from the outset, the GMC saw me as a guilty black doctor and withheld evidence that could have proven my innocence.
Dr Karim described being wrongly accused of bullying was “pretty devastating”. He said: “You feel as though everything has collapsed and is falling apart. When you’ve done nothing, you realise people can be so vindictive. I was discriminated against by the GMC and I had clear-cut evidence that I was innocent but they withheld evidence during my fitness-to-practice tribunal in 2018. It is a landmark victory and the first time it has ever been done against the GMC. They basically look at your name and where you are from and they decide the case beforehand based on that — it is pretty shocking, to be honest. My background was the only difference between me and the guy who was let off and he was my main comparison throughout this whole case. He was white and I have a Muslim name and I’m mixed race. Unfortunately, with the NHS, there is an undercurrent of hidden racism and, sadly, it is rife throughout the system, right up to the regulator".
Emergency driving
Gaining registration with the GMC (whether provisional or full) also allows the registrant to fit and utilise green flashing lights to their car. Such lights can be used when attending a medical emergency to alert other road users to their presence and intentions. They can also make a doctor's car more visible if they have stopped at an accident scene. They do not confer exemptions to road traffic legislations.
Reform
Since 2001, the GMC's fitness-to-practise decisions have been subject to review by the Council for Healthcare Regulatory Excellence (CHRE), which may vary sentences.
The GMC is also accountable to the Parliament of the United Kingdom through the Health Select Committee. In its first report on the GMC, the Committee described the GMC as "a high-performing medical regulator", but called for some changes to fitness-to-practice rules and practices, including allowing the GMC the right to appeal sentences of its panels.
In the 2000s, the GMC implemented wide-ranging reforms of its organisation and procedures. In part, such moves followed the Shipman killings. They followed a direction set by the UK government in its white paper, Trust, Assurance and Safety. In 2001, freemasonry was added to the register of interests of council members that the GMC published. One of the key changes was to reduce the size of the Council itself, and changing its composition to an equal number of medical and lay members, rather than the majority being doctors. Legislation passed in December 2002 allowed changes in the composition of the Council from the following year, with the number of members reducing from 104 to 35, increasing the proportion of lay members.
In July 2011, the GMC accepted further changes that would separate its presentation of fitness-to-practise cases from their adjudication, which would become the responsibility of a new body, the Medical Practitioners Tribunal Service. The GMC had previously been criticised for combining these two roles in a single organization.
A forthcoming reform to medical registration is the introduction of revalidation of doctors, more similar to the periodic process common in American states, in which the professional is expected to prove his or her professional development and skills. Revalidation is scheduled to start in 2012.
On 16 February 2011, the Secretary of State for Health, Andrew Lansley, made a Written Ministerial Statement in the Justice section entitled 'Health Care Workers, Social Workers and Social Care Workers' in which he said:
Within the Command Paper:-
Sir Liam Donaldson, a former chief medical officer had recently told the Mid Staffordshire Foundation Trust public inquiry that he had been involved in discussions about the Nursing and Midwifery Council merging with the General Medical Council, but proponents had "backed off" from the idea and the Council for Healthcare Regulatory Excellence was created instead to share best practice. Sir Liam said the CHRE had been "reasonably successful" but it would be "worth looking at the possibility of a merger" between the GMC and NMC.
Criticism
Self-regulation and handling of complaints
Concern has resulted from several studies that suggest that the GMC's handling of complaints appears to differ depending on race or overseas qualifications, but it has been argued that this might be due to indirect factors.
However a ruling on the 18th of June 2021 by a UK court for the first time found the GMC guilty of racial discrimination in its disciplinary procedures.
The mortality and morbidity among doctors going through GMC procedures has attracted attention. In 2003/4 between 4 and 5% of doctors undergoing fitness to practice scrutiny died. In response to a request for information in accordance with the Freedom of Information Act 2000, the GMC revealed that 68 doctors had died recently whilst undergoing a fitness to practice investigation,
In an internal report, "Doctors Who Commit Suicide While Under GMC Fitness to Practise Investigation", the GMC identified 114 doctors, with a median age of 45, who had died during the previous nine years, and had an open and disclosed GMC case at the time of death, and in which 28 had committed (24) or attempted (4) suicide and recommended 'emotional resilience' training for doctors.
In a warning on "over-regulation" Dr Clare Gerada, a former chair of the Royal College of General Practitioners, commented:
Following the suicide of Professor John E Davies from Guy's Hospital, London, HM Senior Coroner for the area wrote to Niall Dickson with her Regulation 28: Report to Prevent Future Deaths:
Academics at King's College London researched the effects of increased regulatory transparency on the medical profession and found significant unintended consequences. As doctors reacted anxiously to regulation and media headlines, they practised more defensively.
Charitable status
The GMC was registered as a charity with the Charity Commission of England and Wales on 9 November 2001. The Commissioners having considered the court and the Commission's jurisdiction to consider an organisation's status, which had previously been considered by the courts, in issues of charitable status.
Charities do not normally have to pay income tax or corporation tax, capital gains tax or stamp duty. Following the granting of charitable status the GMC obtained tax relief backdated to 1 April 1994. Charities pay no more than 20% of normal business rates on the buildings they use and occupy. The GMC received confirmation of 80% business rates relief effective from April 1995.
the accounts submitted by the GMC to the Charity Commission showed an income of £97 million, spending of £101m with reserves of £68m.
Shipman inquiry
The GMC was most heavily criticised by Dame Janet Smith as part of her inquiry into the issues arising from the case of Dr Harold Shipman. "Expediency," says Dame Janet, "replaced principle." Dame Janet maintained that the GMC failed to deal properly with Fitness to Practise (FTP) cases, particularly involving established and respected doctors.
In response to the Shipman report, Sir Liam Donaldson, the then Chief Medical Officer, published a report titled Good doctors, safer patients, which appeared in 2006. Donaldson echoed concerns about GMC FTP procedures and other functions of the Council. In his view, complaints were dealt with in a haphazard manner, the GMC caused distress to doctors over trivial complaints while tolerating poor practice in other cases. He accused the Council of being "secretive, tolerant of sub-standard practice and dominated by the professional interest, rather than that of the patient". Former President of the General Medical Council, Sir Donald Irvine, called for the current Council to be disbanded and re-formed with new members.
Penny Mellor
In July 2010 the GMC was severely criticized in an open letter in the British Medical Journal by Professionals Against Child Abuse for the decision to include Penny Mellor on the GMC's Expert Group on Child Protection. According to the letter, Penny Mellor had been convicted and imprisoned for conspiring to abduct a child, and had led protracted hostile campaigns including false allegations against doctors and other professionals involved in child protection cases. She had also campaigned against Sir Roy Meadow and Professor David Southall, who were erased from the medical register by the GMC but subsequently re-instated after court rulings. Penny Mellor subsequently resigned from the Expert Group.
John Walker-Smith
In March 2012, the High Court of England and Wales overturned a 2010 decision by the GMC to strike pediatric gastroenterologist John Walker-Smith off the medical register for serious professional misconduct. In his ruling, the presiding judge criticized what he said were the GMC's "inadequate and superficial reasoning and, in a number of instances, a wrong conclusion," and stated, "It would be a misfortune if this were to happen again."
Junior doctors contract
Controversy arose in July 2016 when the General Medical Council announced it would be appointing Charlie Massey as its new CEO. Massey had been an adviser to health secretary Jeremy Hunt on the controversial Junior doctors contract, which had led to several days of industrial action by doctors over concerns about feasibility and patient safety. Many doctors felt this reflected a clear conflict of interest and signed a petition to the medical council for transparency in its appointment process. The medical council issued a response claiming that they were still an independent body. Massey had also signally failed to distinguish himself in front of the Public Accounts Committee of Parliament.
Officers
The Council is composed of six medical professionals and six lay members. All members are appointed by the Privy Council. The current Chair is Dame Carrie MacEwen who has served since May 2022. The current chief executive and registrar is Charlie Massey.
Christine Murrell was the first woman elected to the GMC in 1933, however she died before she could take her seat. In 1950, Hilda Lloyd became the first female member of the Council.
Other regulators of healthcare professionals
The Professional Standards Authority for Health and Social Care (PSA), is an independent body accountable to the UK Parliament, with the remit to promote the health and well-being of patients and the public in the regulation of health professionals. But the PSA does not have legal power to investigate complaints about regulators. It advises the four UK government health departments on issues relating to the regulation of health professionals; scrutinising and overseeing the work of the nine regulatory bodies:-
Health and Care Professions Council (regulates other health professions in the UK)
Nursing and Midwifery Council (regulates nurses and midwives)
General Optical Council
General Dental Council
General Chiropractic Council
General Osteopathic Council
General Pharmaceutical Council
Pharmaceutical Society of Northern Ireland
General Medical Council
In response to the Government's recent proposals the Council for Healthcare Regulatory Excellence has made a call for ideas in their December 2011 paper 'Cost effectiveness and efficiency in health professional regulation' for 'right-touch regulation' described as being
References
Further reading
MacAlister, D. Introductory Address on the General Medical Council (lecture, 2 October 1906)
External links
1858 establishments in the United Kingdom
Education regulation in the United Kingdom
Higher education organisations based in the United Kingdom
Higher education regulation
Medical and health regulators
Medical regulation in the United Kingdom
Organisations based in the London Borough of Camden
Organizations established in 1858
Professional associations based in the United Kingdom
Regulators of the United Kingdom |
4298666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Man%20Who%20Fell%20to%20Earth | The Man Who Fell to Earth | The Man Who Fell to Earth is a 1976 British science fantasy drama film directed by Nicolas Roeg and adapted by Paul Mayersberg. Based on Walter Tevis's 1963 novel of the same name, the film follows an extraterrestrial (Thomas Jerome Newton) who crash lands on Earth seeking a way to ship water to his planet, which is suffering from a severe drought, but finds himself at the mercy of human vices and corruption. It stars David Bowie, Candy Clark, Buck Henry, and Rip Torn. It was produced by Michael Deeley and Barry Spikings. The same novel was later adapted as a television film in 1987. A 2022 television series with the same name serves as a continuation of the film 45 years later, including featuring Newton as a character and showing archival footage from the film.
The Man Who Fell to Earth retains a cult following for its use of surreal imagery and Bowie's first starring film role as the alien Thomas Jerome Newton. It is considered an important work of science fiction cinema and one of the best films of Roeg's career.
Plot
Thomas Jerome Newton is a humanoid alien who travels to Earth from a distant planet. Landing in New Mexico, he appears as an Englishman. Newton has arrived on Earth on a mission to take water back to his home planet, which is experiencing a catastrophic drought. Newton swiftly uses the advanced technology of his home planet to patent many inventions on Earth. He acquires tremendous wealth as the head of an Arizona technology-based conglomerate, World Enterprises Corporation, aided by leading patent attorney Oliver Farnsworth. This wealth is needed to construct a space vehicle with the intention of shipping water back to his home planet.
While revisiting New Mexico, Newton meets Mary-Lou, a lonely young woman from Oklahoma who works an array of part-time jobs in a small town hotel to support herself. Mary-Lou introduces Newton to many customs of Earth, including churchgoing, alcohol, and sex. She and Newton move into a house together which he has built close to where he first landed in New Mexico.
Dr. Nathan Bryce, a former college professor who slept with his students, has landed a job as a fuel technician with World Enterprises and slowly becomes Newton's confidant. Bryce senses Newton's alienness and arranges a meeting with Newton at his home where he has hidden a special X-ray camera. When he takes a picture of Newton with the camera, it reveals Newton's alien physiology. Newton's appetite for alcohol and television (he is capable of watching multiple televisions at once) becomes crippling, and he and Mary-Lou fight. Realizing that Bryce has learnt his secret, Newton reveals his alien form to Mary-Lou. She is unable to accept his true form, so she flees in panic and horror.
Newton completes the spaceship and attempts to take it on its maiden voyage amid intense press exposure. However, just before his scheduled take-off, he is seized and detained, apparently by the government and a rival company. His business partner Farnsworth is murdered. The government, which had been monitoring Newton via his driver, holds Newton captive in a locked luxury apartment, constructed deep within a hotel. During his captivity, they keep him sedated with alcohol (to which he has become addicted) and continuously subject him to rigorous medical tests, cutting into his human disguise. One examination, involving X-rays, causes the contact lenses he wears as part of his human disguise to permanently affix themselves to his eyes.
Toward the end of Newton's years of captivity, he is visited again by Mary-Lou. She is much older, and her appearance has been ravaged by alcohol and time. They have mock-violent, playful sex that involves firing a gun with blanks, and afterwards occupy their time drinking and playing table tennis. Mary-Lou declares that she no longer loves him, and he replies that he does not love her either. Eventually Newton discovers that his "prison", now derelict, is unlocked, and he leaves.
Unable to return home, a despondent and alcoholic Newton creates a recording with alien messages, which he hopes will be broadcast via radio to his home planet. Bryce, who has since married Mary-Lou, buys a copy of the album and meets Newton at a restaurant. Newton is still rich and young-looking despite the passage of many years. However, he has also fallen into depression and continues to suffer from alcoholism. Seated on the restaurant's outdoor patio, Newton inquires about Mary-Lou, before collapsing in a drunken stupor on the chair.
Cast
Production
Paramount Pictures had distributed Roeg's previous film, Don't Look Now (1973), and agreed to pay $1.5 million for the US rights. Michael Deeley used this guarantee to raise finance to make the film. Roeg originally considered casting author Michael Crichton and actor Peter O'Toole in the role of Newton before Bowie.
Filming
Filming began on 6 July 1975. The film was primarily shot in New Mexico, with filming locations in Albuquerque, White Sands, Artesia and Fenton Lake. The film's production had been scheduled to last eleven weeks, and throughout that time, the film crew ran into a variety of obstacles: Bowie was sidelined for a few days after drinking bad milk; film cameras jammed up; and for one scene shot in the desert, the movie crew had to contend with a group of Hells Angels who were camping nearby.
Bowie, who was using cocaine during the movie's production, was in a fragile state of mind when filming was underway, going so far as to state in 1983 that "I'm so pleased I made that [film], but I didn't really know what was being made at all" and that "My one snapshot memory of that film is not having to act. Just being me was perfectly adequate for the role. I wasn't of this earth at that particular time." He said of his performance:
Candy Clark, Bowie's co-star, remembers things differently: "David vowed to Nic, 'No drug use'," says Clark and he was a man of his word, "clear as a bell, focused, friendly and professional and leading the team. You can see it clearly because of (DP) Tony Richmond's brilliant cinematography. Look at David: his skin is luminescent. He's gorgeous, angelic, heavenly. He was absolutely perfect as the man from another planet." She added that Roeg had hired "an entirely British crew with him to New Mexico and I remember David was very happy about that." Roeg also cast Bowie's bodyguard, Tony Mascia, as his character's onscreen chauffeur.
Bowie and Roeg had a good relationship on set. Bowie recalled in 1992 that "we got on rather well. I think I was fulfilling what he needed from me for that role. I wasn't disrupting ... I wasn't disrupted. In fact, I was very eager to please. And amazingly enough, I was able to carry out everything I was asked to do. I was quite willing to stay up as long as anybody."
Bowie brought a personal library with him; "I took 400 books down to that film shoot. I was dead scared of leaving them in New York because I was knocking around with some pretty dodgy people and I didn't want any of them nicking my books. Too many dealers, running in and out of my place."
Music
Although Bowie was originally approached to provide the music, contractual wrangles during production caused him to withdraw from this aspect of the project. Nonetheless, Bowie would go on to use stills from the film for the covers of two of his albums, Station to Station (1976) and Low (1977). The music used in the film was coordinated by John Phillips, former leader of the pop group The Mamas & the Papas, with personal contributions from Phillips and Japanese percussionist-composer Stomu Yamash'ta as well as some stock music. Phillips called in former Rolling Stones guitarist Mick Taylor to assist with developing ideas for the soundtrack. The music was recorded at CTS Lansdowne Recording Studios in London, England.
Due to a creative and contractual dispute between Roeg and the studio, no official soundtrack was released for the film, even though the 1976 Pan Books paperback edition of the novel (released to tie in with the film) states on the back cover that the soundtrack is available on RCA Records. The soundtrack, derived from recently rediscovered masters, was eventually released on CD and LP in 2016 to coincide with the 40th anniversary of the film's premiere. The music by Yamash'ta had already appeared on his own albums, as noted below.
Music crew
Musical Directors: John Phillips, Derek Wadsworth
Piano/Keyboards: Pete Kelly, John Taylor
Guitars: Mick Taylor, Ricky Hitchcock, Richard Morcombe, Jim Sullivan
Pedal Steel Guitar: B. J. Cole
Bass: Steve Cook
Drums: Henry Spinetti
Percussion: Frank Ricotti
Music as listed on end credits
Composed and recorded by Stomu Yamashta:
"Poker Dice" (from Floating Music)
"33⅓" (from Raindog)
"Mandala" (from the Soundtrack from Man from the East)
"Wind Words" (from Freedom is Frightening)
"One Way" (from Floating Music)
"Memory of Hiroshima" (from the Soundtrack from Man from the East)
Performed by John Phillips:
"Boys from the South"
"Rhumba Boogie"
"Bluegrass Breakdown"
"Hello Mary-Lou" (featuring Mick Taylor)
Other music:
"Blueberry Hill" – Louis Armstrong
"Enfantillages Pittoresques" composed by Erik Satie, performed by Frank Glazer
"A Fool Such As I" – Hank Snow
"Make the World Go Away" – Jim Reeves
"Try to Remember" – The Kingston Trio
"Blue Bayou" – Roy Orbison
"Silent Night" – Robert Farnon
"True Love" – Bing Crosby
"Love Is Coming Back" – Genevieve Waite
"Stardust" – Artie Shaw
"Planets Suite, Op. 32: Mars, Bringer of War & Venus, Bringer of Peace"composed by Gustav Holst and performed by the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra
For the scenes in which Newton's thoughts drift back to his alien home, Phillips and Roeg enlisted Desmond Briscoe to craft simple electronic atmospheres that were then combined with whale songs, to eerie effect.
Release
According to Michael Deeley, when Barry Diller of Paramount saw the finished film he refused to pay for it, claiming it was different from the film the studio wanted. British Lion sued Paramount and received a small settlement. The film obtained a small release in the United States through Cinema V in exchange for $850,000 and due to foreign sales the film's budget was just recouped.
The British Board of Film Censors passed the film uncut for adult UK audiences with an X rating.
It was announced in the summer of 2016 that the film was in the process of being digitally remastered to 4K quality for its 40th anniversary (which was reported to have begun before Bowie's death). This remastered version premiered at BFI Southbank before being released in cinemas across the UK on 9 September of that year. The film's 2011 and 2016 re-releases grossed $100,072 domestically and $73,148 internationally.
Reception
Critical response
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times awarded the film stars of four; while he complimented parts of the film and the directing, he was dismissive of the plot, writing in his review that the film is "so preposterous and posturing, so filled with gaps of logic and continuity, that if it weren't so solemn there'd be the temptation to laugh aloud." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film three stars out of four and wrote that it "may leave you punch drunk, knocked out by its visuals to the point of missing what a simple story it is." Richard Eder of The New York Times praised the film, writing, "There are quite a few science-fiction movies scheduled to come out in the next year or so. We shall be lucky if even one or two are as absorbing and as beautiful as The Man Who Fell to Earth."
Robert Hawkins, reviewing for Variety, praised Roeg's direction and felt the film was "stunning stuff throughout, and Bowie's choice as the ethereal visitor is inspired...Candy Clark, as his naive but loving mate, confirms the winning ways that won her an Oscar nomination in American Graffiti. Her intimate scenes with Bowie, especially the introductory ones, are among pic's highlights." Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times described Bowie as "perfect casting" but thought the film was "a muddle," and suspected it was because he reviewed a version trimmed by 20 minutes for its U.S. run: "That would do a lot to explain why the movie proceeds from the provocatively cryptic to the merely incomprehensible." In a retrospective review, Kim Newman of Empire gave the movie five stars out of five, describing the film as "consistently disorientating and beguilingly beautiful."
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports the film has an 80% approval rating based on 67 reviews with an average rating of 7.80/10. The critics' consensus states: "Filled with stunning imagery, The Man Who Fell to Earth is a calm, meditative film that profoundly explores our culture's values and desires." On Metacritic, the film has achieved a weighted average rating of 81 out of 100 from 9 critic reviews, citing "universal acclaim".
Legacy
Since its original 1976 release, The Man Who Fell to Earth has achieved cult status. This status has been echoed by critics, especially as it was a popular hit with midnight movie audiences years after it was released. Joshua Rothkopf of Time Out believed that the cult classic status, which he described as a "vaguely demeaning term", does the film a disservice. He labeled the film as "the most intellectually provocative genre film of the 1970s." When re-released in 2011, Ebert gave the film three stars, stating that readers should "consider this just a quiet protest vote against the way projects this ambitious are no longer possible in the mainstream movie industry." The movie has been applauded for its experimental approach and compared to more recent sci-fi films such as Under the Skin. Rolling Stone ranked it second on its 50 best sci-fi movies of the 1970s, Timeout ranked it 35th on its 100 best sci-fi movies, it is 61st on the Online Film Critics Society list of "greatest science fiction films of all time". Empire placed it 42nd on its list of 100 best British films. British Film Institute included it on its list of "50 late night classics", demonstrating its popularity as a midnight movie.
Bowie's role in the film led to his casting as Nikola Tesla in The Prestige, with director Christopher Nolan stating "Tesla was this other-worldly, ahead-of-his-time figure, and at some point it occurred to me he was the original Man Who Fell to Earth. As someone who was the biggest Bowie fan in the world, once I made that connection, he seemed to be the only actor capable of playing the part." It also led to Bowie being cast by Jack Hofsiss in the play The Elephant Man - "The piece of work he did that was most helpful in making the decision was The Man Who Fell To Earth, in which I thought he was wonderful, and in which the character he played had an isolation similar to the Elephant Man's".
Accolades
In popular culture
Iron Maiden's founder Steve Harris used the font in the film poster to come up with the band's iconic name design.
In Philip K. Dick's science fiction novel VALIS, fictionalised versions of Dick and K. W. Jeter become obsessed with Valis, a film starring musician Eric Lampton. Dick based the novel's story on his and Jeter's real obsession with The Man Who Fell to Earth; Lampton is a fictionalised stand-in for Bowie.
The music video to Guns N' Roses's 1987 "Welcome to the Jungle" was partially based on The Man Who Fell to Earth.
The music video to Scott Weiland's 1998 song "Barbarella" uses themes from The Man Who Fell to Earth.
Dr. Manhattan's apartment and Ozymandias' Antarctic retreat in the 2009 film Watchmen were mainly based on the set of The Man Who Fell to Earth.
The 2009 song "ATX" by Alberta Cross is based on Bowie's character in The Man Who Fell to Earth.
Michael Fassbender has said he used Bowie's performance as an inspiration for the android David in Ridley Scott's 2012 science fiction film Prometheus.
In Bret Easton Ellis's 2010 novel Imperial Bedrooms, the main character mentions that he is involved with writing the script for a remake of The Man Who Fell to Earth.
The musical Lazarus, which premiered off-Broadway in 2015, with music and lyrics by David Bowie and book by Enda Walsh, is based on the novel and the film. While the music video for the 2013 Bowie song "The Stars (Are Out Tonight)" references the film with a picture of alien Bowie, as he appears in the film, on a magazine.
The title of the Doctor Who episode "The Woman Who Fell to Earth" is a reference to the book and film.
A character by the name Thomas Jerome Newton appears in the TV series Fringe, as does David Robert Jones, which is David Bowie's birth name.
References
External links
The Man Who Fell to Earth at the British Film Institute
The Man Who Fell to Earth: Loving the Alien an essay by Graham Fuller at the Criterion Collection
Brows Held High's take on the 1976 classic
1976 films
1976 drama films
1970s avant-garde and experimental films
1970s dystopian films
1970s English-language films
1970s science fiction drama films
British avant-garde and experimental films
British Lion Films films
British science fiction drama films
Films about extraterrestrial life
Films based on American novels
Films based on science fiction novels
Films directed by Nicolas Roeg
Films set in New Mexico
Films set in New York (state)
Films shot in New Mexico
Films with screenplays by Paul Mayersberg
1970s British films |
4298756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20passport | Australian passport | Australian passports are travel documents issued to Australian citizens under the Australian Passports Act 2005 by the Australian Passport Office of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT), both in Australia and overseas, which enable the passport bearer to travel internationally. Australian citizens are allowed to hold passports from other countries. Since 1988 over a million Australian passports have been issued annually, and it reached 1.4 million in 2007, and increasing towards a projected 3 million annually by 2021. As of July 2023, Australian citizens had visa-free or visa on arrival access to 186 countries and territories, ranking the Australian passport sixth in the world in terms of travel freedom according to the Henley Passport Index.
Since 24 October 2005, Australia has issued only biometric passports, called ePassports, which have an embedded microchip that contains the same personal information that is on the colour photo page of the passport, including a digitised photograph. As all previous passports have now expired, all Australian passports are now biometric. SmartGates have been installed in Australian airports to allow Australian ePassport holders and ePassport holders of several other countries to clear immigration controls more rapidly, and facial recognition technology has been installed at immigration gates.
As of May 2023, it was regarded as "the most expensive travel document in the world", at a cost of AUD$325 per passport.
History
Before 1901, Australia consisted of six separate British colonies. Passport usage was not common, and if required British or other national passports were used. In the 19th century, paroled convicts were issued a type of internal passport called "ticket of leave", which enabled them to move freely between the colonies. In 1901, the six colonies joined to form the Commonwealth of Australia, although Australians retained British nationality. It was only in 1912 that the first federal passport regulations were introduced, and the passports issued by the Australian government still bore the words "British Passport" on the cover until 1967. During World War I, the monitoring and identifying of those crossing international borders was regarded as critical to the security of Australia and its allies, and the War Precautions Act 1914 required all persons over 16 years of age, on leaving Australia, to possess some passport.
Australian nationality came into existence on 26 January 1949 when the Nationality and Citizenship Act 1948 came into force, and Australian passports began to distinguish between Australian citizens and other British subjects. British subjects, who were not Australian citizens, continued to be entitled to an Australian passport. The term "British subject" had a particular meaning in Australian nationality law. The term encompassed all citizens of countries included in the list contained in the Nationality and Citizenship Act 1948. The list of countries was based on, but was not identical with, those countries (and their colonies) which were members of the Commonwealth from time to time. The list was amended from time to time as various former colonies became independent countries, but the list in the Act was not necessarily up-to-date as far as to constitute exactly a list of countries in the Commonwealth at any given time. This definition of "British subject" meant that, for the purposes of Australian nationality law, citizens of countries which had become republics, such as India, were classified as "British subjects". The words "British Passport" were removed from the covers of Australian passports in 1967.
In 1981, the Commonwealth, Queensland, New South Wales and Victorian governments set up the Stewart Royal Commission to inquire into various drug trafficking and related criminal activities, but which spent much of its time examining how criminals were using and abusing the passport system for criminal purposes. The Commission published its final report in 1983, making recommendations on how to prevent such abuses, most of which were acted upon by the federal government. The report's recommendations included that applicants for a passport attend a Passport Office and that mailed applications cease; that passports be issued only to citizens, so that British subjects would cease to be entitled to a passport; that birth certificates not be accepted as a sufficient proof of identity; that passports cease to be issued through travel or other agents; and that all persons who change their name, whether by choice, marriage or adoption, be required to register the change with State Registrars of births, deaths and marriages. The legal category of British subject was abolished in 1984 by the Australian Citizenship (Amendment) Act 1984, and Australian passports began to be issued exclusively to Australian citizens, though existing passports held by non-citizen British subjects continued to be valid until each expired.
In 1980, large bound book registers were replaced by a computerised processing and registration system, called the Passport Issue and Control System (PICS). Since 1984, to speed up processing of incoming and outgoing passengers and data entry, Australia has been issuing passports with machine readable lines, to ICAO Document 9303 standard. Since 24 October 2005, Australia has issued only biometric passports, called ePassports, which have an embedded RFID microchip that contains the same personal information that is on the colour photo page of the passport, including a digitised photograph. Australia was only the fourth country in the world (after Malaysia, Thailand and Sweden) to introduce biometric passports. All Australian passports are now biometric, all pre-2006 passports having now expired. SmartGates have been installed in Australian airports to allow Australian ePassport holders, and ePassport holders of several other countries, to clear immigration controls more rapidly, and facial recognition technology has been installed at immigration gates to capture and save a biometric profile of passport holders as well as to compare against the immigration database and watchlist. Australia does not use fingerprinting of incoming passengers, as is done by some other countries.
Summary of passport series
In 1917, 'X' series passports issued.
In 1937, 'A' series passports issued. Passport cover included the Commonwealth Coat of Arms and the words 'British Passport Commonwealth of Australia'.
In 1949, after Australian nationality was created, passports began to distinguish between Australian citizens and other British subjects. The passports contained manually inserted photos with wet seals and raised embossed seals over the photo as security features. Two types of passport were issued:
'B' series passports – issued (within Australia only) to British subjects who were not Australian citizens.
'C' series passports – issued to Australian citizens.
In 1950, 'E' series passport replaces 'B' and 'C' series.
In 1964, 'G' series passport introduced, with the St Edward's Crown at the top of the cover, the word 'Australia' followed by the Australian Coat of Arms, and the words 'British Passport' at the bottom.
In 1967, the words 'British Passport' removed from passports but retain the Crown. The word 'Australia' appears below the Crown, followed by the Australian Coat of Arms and the word 'Passport'.
In 1975, responsibility for Australian passport functions were transferred to the Department of Foreign Affairs (since 1987, the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade), from the then Department of Labor and Immigration.
Before 1983, a married woman's passport application had to be authorised by her husband.
In 1983, the department partnered with Australia Post to enable the issue of Australian passports at most Australia Post outlets.
In 1984, 'T' series passport introduced, with Crown emblem removed from cover. These were the first to have a laminate built into the document.
In 1986, single identity passports introduced, so that children could no longer be included on a parent's passport.
In 1988, 'H' and 'J' series passports issued with Bicentennial logo. And until 1988, a woman could apply for and receive a passport in her married name, before she was actually married.
In 1994, digitised colour printing of photograph and signature on the glue side of the laminate introduced.
In 1995, 'L' series passports introduced, with kangaroo motif security laminate. The personal data pages initially included a photograph and a cut out piece of paper with the holder's signature under a sheet of adhesive laminate.
From approximately 1998, the personal data page for 'L' series passports colour laser printed under a sheet of adhesive laminate.
From 27 November 2003, 'M' series passport issued, which included enhanced security features. The personal data page printed by ink-jet onto the adhesive surface of the security laminate, the laminate itself containing a holographic design.
From October 2005, 'M' series passports issued as a biometric or ePassport. Electronic passport logo printed under the passport number on the personal data page. The front cover printed in gold ink.
Since May 2009, 'N' series passports issued as a biometric or ePassport. The passport was black instead of blue and had a slight font and case change to the word 'Passport' on the front cover. The front cover printing was in silver. Additional fraud counter-measures were included including a 'Ghost Image' and 'Retro-Reflective Floating Image' on the laminated page. Each page featured images of Australia printed throughout the document making every visa page unique and more difficult to reproduce.
In late June 2014, 'P' series passports issued with innovative security features that make it even more difficult to forge. They have an Australian flag blue with gold embossed cover, printed using the same technologies as Australian banknotes. Visible security features include a new security laminate with the world's first colour floating image.
From September 2022, 'R' series passports issued incorporate works by Indigenous artists, it has a high security photo page made of layered plastic, making the passport harder to forge and less susceptible to damage. The visa pages show 17 iconic Australian landscapes in spectacular true colour.
Types of passport
The Australian Government issues passports to provide an internationally accepted attestation of their citizens' identity. To facilitate this global recognition, several types of passports are issued.
These are broadly issued in these categories:
Ordinary passport
Diplomatic passport
Official passport
Emergency passport
Certain non-passport travel documents may also be issued, with eligibility not limited to citizens:
Convention Travel Document
Certificate of Identity
Document of Identity
Provisional Travel Document
Beyond these, other documents for travel are issued in limited circumstances: ImmiCard, PLO56 (M56), Document for Travel to Australia (DFTTA). These are issued to protection or humanitarian visa holders, or persons in similar circumstances warranting their issue.
Passports and Documents of Identity are ordinarily worth 70 points in the 100 point check system, and can be used as an authoritative identity document throughout Australia. Passports issued with full validity can be used as an identity document for up to two years after their expiry.
Ordinary passport
These are the passports most commonly issued to Australian citizens. An applicant must satisfy the identity and citizenship requirements. When they are unable to meet these requirements, a Limited Validity Passport (LVP) or Document of Identity may be compassionately issued. LVPs are identical to ordinary passports, but are valid for up to 12 months.
Ordinary passports are ordinarily valid for 5 or 10 years. Children under 16 years of age are issued 5 year passports, and adults aged 75 or over may choose a 5 or 10 year validity. Other adult applicants are normally issued passports with a 10-year validity. Exceptions to this exist, such as in the case of concurrent passports.
Ordinary passports in the P series issued since June 2014 have 34 usable visa pages, with a frequent traveller variant available containing 66 visa pages. The larger variant is available only to adult applicants seeking 10 year passports, as 5 year passports already have the same number of visa pages per year of validity.
Diplomatic and official passport
These are issued to people employed by or acting on behalf of the Australian Government, and are primarily for individuals in defined categories and roles, required to represent the Australian Government overseas in an official capacity. These passports may sometimes be issued to dependents of the principal applicant, where necessary to facilitate their travel or safety.
These passports may only be issued to Australian citizens whose role or purpose of travel fits within the Ministerial Guidelines. Issuance is tightly controlled, due to the significance of formally representing an individual as acting overseas on behalf of the Australian Government.
Unlike Ordinary passports, individuals have certain legislative and contractual obligations to the Australian Government when using or holding these passports. These passports may be cancelled without notice, if used outside the relevant provisions in the Ministerial Guidelines.
Emergency passport
These are issued at overseas posts to facilitate the urgent travel of Australian citizens who meet all requirements but cannot wait three weeks for the issue of a full validity passport.
These passport do not include a passport chip as they are issued by overseas posts that do not have the capability to produce ePassports. Because they are not a biometric travel document, travel on an these passport may require a visa, even where Australian citizens can usually travel visa-free.
Australian citizens who cannot meet all requirements for an ordinary passport, but can satisfy the citizenship and identity requirements, or need to travel urgently and cannot wait for an ordinary passport. Issuance is strictly controlled, particularly where usual requirements cannot be met.
They are valid for up to 12 months, though normally they are valid for 7 months.
Special circumstance passports
In limited circumstances, Australian citizens may be issued passports outside of the usual requirements. Such passports will always be issued in one of the above categories: ordinary, official or diplomatic. Other than for an emergency passport, their appearance is identical.
Concurrent passport
A concurrent passport is an additional passport issued to an individual who already holds a valid passport of the same category (ordinary, official or diplomatic). Issuance of these is very tightly controlled, and granted to enable travel in exceptional circumstances.
Concurrent passports are most often granted when traveling (or transiting) a country that will not accept evidence of travel to certain places, or where significant delays will result in having to wait for the return of a passport following (unrelated) visa issuance. Other circumstances may be considered, requiring authorisation by more senior staff.
These passports are valid for up to 3 years, except that an emergency passport is valid for up to 12 months. The validity period will usually be limited to the duration of travel needs plus 6 months.
Limited validity passport
These are issued to Australian citizens who cannot provide full documentation, provided their identity and citizenship have been confirmed. They are issued to applicants with incomplete or inconsistent documentation, to allow them to travel in the interim. They are identical to regular passports, but with shorter validity. They are valid for up to 12 months, and available from within Australia only.
LVPs are most commonly offered to applicants with incomplete or inconsistent documentation around name or gender, such as following a name change. These applicants may hold cardinal documents, such as a birth certificate, differing from their current identity, without sufficient documentation to corroborate the difference.
On completion of a full application and satisfaction of the usual requirements, a LVP may be exchanged for an ordinary passport, free of charge.
Physical appearance
The current series Australian passport is blue, with the Australian coat of arms emblazoned in at the top of the front cover. "AUSTRALIA" is written below the coat of arms and, below it, "PASSPORT" is written. Toward the bottom of the cover the international e-passport symbol (). The standard passport contains 42 visa pages.
Identity information page
The Australian passport includes the following data:
Photo of passport holder
Type (of document, "P" for "personal")
Code of issuing state (listed as "AUS" for "Australia")
Document No.
Family name
Given names
Nationality ("Australian")
Date of birth
Sex (M, F or X)
Place of birth (only the city or town is listed, even if born outside Australia)
Date of issue
Date of expiry
Holder's signature
Authority ("Australia" if issued in Australia, or the name of the issuing diplomatic mission if issued overseas – e.g. London)
The information page ends with the machine readable zone.
Passport note
The passports contain inside the front cover a note that is addressed to the authorities of all countries and territories, identifying the bearer as a citizen of Australia and requesting that the bearer be allowed to pass and be treated according to international norms:
Passports issued during the reign of Queen Elizabeth II (1952–2022):
Languages
The passport is printed in English. French translation is found on the identity information.
Biometric chip
The embedded chip stores the owner's digitised photograph, name, sex, date of birth, nationality, passport number, and the passport expiry date. This is the same information that appears on the printed information page of every passport. Facial recognition technology was introduced with the release of the ePassport to improve identity verification and reduce identity-related fraud.
Sex and gender diverse
Australian Government policy is to record gender and not sex. Australian travel documents allow for recording of non-binary gender, one of less than 10 countries known to do so. Replacement passports are issued for free to applicants whose details have changed in the course of gender transition.
Applicants may choose to have the "Sex" (this name being an ICAO requirement) field on their passport recorded as "M", "F", or "X". While unavailable on passports due to ICAO requirements, a "Document of Identity" may be issued with the sex field blank.
The sex recorded does not need to match that on a birth certificate or any other documents. For those without revised identity documents, who have not previously been issued a passport in the desired gender, a brief statement by a registered doctor or psychologist is sufficient. Where unable to get a letter from a doctor or psychologist, applicants are encouraged to inform the APO, so alternative arrangements can be considered.
Administrative policy of the APO and Department of Foreign Affairs aim to prevent unnecessary distress or offense. Refusal of applications from sex and gender diverse applicants, for lack of documentation or otherwise, is prohibited. Staff are required to not ask for extra information or documents, when applications are made. After lodgement, applications from sex and gender diverse applicants are required to be handled at all times by Executive Level officers with suitable sex and gender diverse training.
Features
Microprinting – for example, horizontal lines on the notice/bearer's information pages are made up of microprinted words.
In L-series passports, the first verse of Advance Australia Fair is used.
In M-series passports, the words are from Waltzing Matilda.
In N-series passports, the lines are made up of the word "Australia" repeated.
N-series passports also feature microprinted words from Clancy of the Overflow on the visa pages.
The laminate of the identity information page on M-series and later passports contains retro-reflective floating images of kangaroos.
Applications for a passport
The 100-point personal identification system applies to new applicants for an Australian passport, and an Australian passport can in turn be used as an identification document of the passport holder (worth 70 points in the 100-point check scheme).
The 100-point personal identification system does not apply to a renewal of a passport, in Australia or overseas by using the PC7 form. To be eligible for the PC7 form, your most recently issued adult passport is required, and it must be issued with a validity of at least 2 years (i.e. it is not an Emergency Passport or a limited validity document); AND
was issued in your current name, date of birth and sex; AND
has not been lost, stolen or damaged; AND
is current or expired less than three years ago.
The demanded Australian passport photo dimensions are:
– width
– height
– maximum size of the face from chin to the top of the head
Renewal
Australian citizens, aged 18 years or over who have an adult Australian passport that was valid for at least two years when issued, and was issued on or after 1 July 2000, in the current name, date of birth and sex or have a child Australian passport that was valid for at least two years when issued, and was issued on or after 1 July 2005, and that were 16 years or over at the time of issue may apply online for a renewal. If overseas, this may be done by contacting the nearest Australian diplomatic mission.
Renewals are not available for lost or stolen passports, in which case an application for a new passport must be made.
Refusal to issue passport
Under the Australian Passports Act 2005, the Minister for Foreign Affairs has the power to refuse, cancel or suspend a passport on a number of grounds including national security or health. In addition, a court can order an accused in a criminal matter, or any other person, to surrender their passport, for example, as a condition of grant of bail or otherwise.
In May 2017, the Turnbull government successfully reached a deal with Derryn Hinch's Justice Party to allow the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade to revoke the passports of 20,000 convicted child sex offenders listed on Australia's national child offender register, of which about 3,200 offenders with lifetime reporting requirements were to be permanently denied the opportunity to obtain a passport and hence the ability to travel outside Australia for life. This was described as a "world-first" passport-ban policy intended to combat child sex tourism perpetuated by Australian citizens especially in developing countries.
Five Nations Passport Group
Since 2004, Australia has participated in the Five Nations Passport Group, an international forum for cooperation between the passport issuing authorities in the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States to "share best practices and discuss innovations related to the development of passport policies, products and practices".
Visa requirements
An Australian passport does not, in itself, entitle the holder to enter another country. To enter another country, the traveller must comply with the visa and entry requirements of the other countries to be visited, which vary from country to country and may apply specifically to a particular passport type, the traveler's nationality, criminal history, or many other factors.
As of July 2023, Australian citizens had visa-free or visa on arrival access to 186 countries and territories, ranking the Australian passport sixth in the world in terms of travel freedom according to the Henley Passport Index. Additionally, Arton Capital's Passport Index ranked the Australian passport fourth in the world in terms of travel freedom, with a visa-free score of 173 as of July 2023.
Foreign travel statistics
According to the statistics these are the numbers of Australian visitors to various countries per annum in 2015 (unless otherwise noted):
Declared area offence
It is an offence under Australian law for Australians to enter, or remain in, certain regions designated as 'declared areas'. The Government may declare an area (but not a whole country) if it considers terrorists are operating in that area. The maximum penalty is 10 years imprisonment. However, it is a defence if a person can show they entered or remained in the area for a legitimate purpose prescribed in the regulations.
, there were no active 'declared areas'.
Former declared areas were:
Mosul District, Nineveh Governorate, Iraq, Declared 2 March 2015, renewed 2 March 2018, and revoked 19 December 2019.
Raqqa Governorate, Syria, Declared 4 December 2014, and revoked 29 November 2017.
See also
Aboriginal passport
List of passports
Visa requirements for Australian citizens
References
Citations
Sources
Passports - Outdated, see this one instead: Passports
Travel documents
Minister for Foreign Affairs
Archived copy
List Of Countries/Territories Whose Nationals Do Not Require Visas
External links
Australian Passport office official website
Gateway to the IATA Timatic Web database from Qantas website
smarttraveller.gov.au – travel advisories and bulletins provided by DFAT including:
United States-New Entry Requirements
Europe: Entry Requirements : Schengen Convention
Portrait of an Australian – a virtual artists' book in the form of an Australian passport created by Jonathan Tse; digitised and held by the Australian Library of Art, State Library of Queensland
Biometric passport cracked and cloned
A Passport Identifies who a Person Is
Passports by country
Passport
Identity documents of Australia |
4298904 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halictus%20rubicundus | Halictus rubicundus | Halictus rubicundus, the orange-legged furrow bee, is a species of sweat bee found throughout the Northern Hemisphere. H. rubicundus entered North America from the Old World during one of two main invasions of Halictus subgenera. These invasions likely occurred via the Bering land bridge at times of low sea level during the Pleistocene epoch.
The species exhibits different social behaviors depending on climate: it is a solitary species in high elevations or latitudes where the season is short, but eusocial in other areas. Often, solitary and eusocial colonies appear simultaneously in the same population. These sweat bees are extensively studied for their variability in social behavior, which has become a model for social plasticity. This variability has contributed to an understanding of evolution of social behavior.
Taxonomy and phylogeny
Halictus rubicundus is a species of Hymenoptera in the bee family Halictidae, more commonly known as sweat bees. This common name comes from their frequent attraction to perspiration. This species exhibits polymorphic social behavior that varies with environmental conditions, and other species of the family Halictidae are thought to have similar variability in sociality.
Description and identification
Many members of the family Halictidae are metallic in appearance but Halictus rubicundus are not metallic. Females are about 1 cm in body length and brown in color, with fine white bands across the apices of the abdominal segments, and rusty-orange legs. The males are more slender, with longer antennae and yellow markings on the face and legs; they can be distinguished from males of similar species by the absence of an apical hair band on the terminal abdominal segment. In social populations, females of the first brood, mostly workers, can be recognized because they are typically slightly smaller than the foundresses.
Distribution and habitat
H. rubicundus has one of the widest natural distributions of any bee species, occurring throughout the temperate regions of the Holarctic region. It is believed that differences in climate across this vast range actually contribute to variation in their social behavior. Those living in more northern geographic locations or higher elevations are often more solitary in behavior than those in southern areas or lower elevations. This difference is widely studied, as it provides insight into the evolutionary transition from solitary to social behavior. Nests are haplometrotic, meaning that they are founded by single females. Social populations typically are found in warmer regions, such as Kansas, while solitary populations nest in cooler regions, such as Colorado, Scotland and Alaska. In intermediate regions, such as New York and southern Ontario, both social and solitary behavior can be found in different nests of the same population. The strictly solitary phenotype is expressed as a response to colder environments because the active season is not long enough to produce two broods.
Nesting
Both solitary and eusocial types of the species typically excavate nest burrows in southward facing slopes in isolated areas, consisting of sand or soil. This slope maximizes the heat absorption from the sun, making the nest warmer. The nests with a favorable slope were thought to increase foraging efficiency of adults and development of larvae with a stable thermal environment.
Stones or areas of vegetation are usually found near nest entrances, likely because of the heating properties of these objects. For each offspring, a females constructs a small underground chamber (a "brood cell"), into which she deposits several loads of pollen mixed with nectar, which is then formed into a ball; a single egg is laid upon this pollen mass, and then the brood cell is sealed. The female repeats the process with other brood cells, going progressively deeper into the soil. A higher temperature increases the rate at which the larvae develop to maturity, as thermal regulation is important for the development of both the eggs and the larvae.
The nests can be up to 120 mm deep, and are constructed in a wide range of soil types. Because social nests produce more offspring than solitary nests, social nests will burrow further into the ground, as the second brood of the social population will extend the burrows downward. Females typically nest in dense aggregations, likely because the nesting females are relatives and demonstrate philopatric behavior.
Soil hardness
The nests are typically burrowed into the ground in loam soil. Halictus rubicundus has a high tolerance for soil hardness. Soil hardness affects the density of nesting. Females prefer to nest in softer ground as they spend less energy and time excavating the nest. Unlike the similar species Lasioglossum zephyrus that build nests in very close proximity to each other, this species prefers less dense aggregations. Foundresses will choose to build their nests in patches of softer ground until they reach the critical nearest-neighbor distance of about 50 mm, at which point the close spacing poses a high risk of the nests collapsing. At this point, further foundresses would be forced to build their nests in harder soils where the nests could be built closer together without compromising nest architecture. Foundresses may test the hardness of the soil by biting into the surface or performing a short test dig.
Temperature
Nest temperature determines egg development and foraging active time of females. As long as temperatures do not reach lethal thresholds, developmental rates of offspring will increase with temperature. Higher temperatures will also increase the thoracic temperature and allow females to fly more rapidly. With increased speed in flight, females are allowed more time for foraging, mating, and excavating nests.
Most nests of H. rubicundus are south facing and sloped because of this desire for increased temperature in nesting sites. Based on the distribution of this species, facing the south maximizes the period of time sunlight is shining directly on the nest. Sloping substrates increase the surface area of the nest and allow for higher absorption of sunlight. In order to test the temperature of the substrate, females often spend several seconds basking at various points on the ground while searching for nesting sites.
Soil water content
The water content of the substrate in which foundresses build the nest is important, as waterlogging must be avoided by using well-drained soils, which provides another advantage to building in sloping ground. However, there must be an adequate moisture level to prevent desiccation of the brood cells. Soil samples taken near the nests of H. rubicundus demonstrate a relatively high humidity.
Parasites
Halictus rubicundus nests are attacked by kleptoparasitic bees (e.g., Sphecodes), as well as flies (Bombyliidae, Anthomyiidae). Although it would seem as though nesting in dense groups would draw attention to aggregations and increase mortality by parasitism, such is not observed to be the case; because the sweat bees nest densely, it is assumed that there is a large dilution effect that proportionally decreases mortality rates by parasites.
Colony cycle and demographics
H. rubicundus’s annual colony cycle is dependent both on hibernation and mating schedules. After hibernation during the winter, female foundresses who mated the previous cycle emerge in the spring. They each create their own nests in late spring, where they rear a single brood. Females are more likely to build nests where there is a warmer surface temperature, as this indicates a warmer interior of the nest for the offspring to develop more quickly. The foundress gynes will continue to forage for 3–5 weeks, after which they will stop constructing and provisioning brood cells. The brood cells are left inactive for 1–2 weeks before the emergence of the first brood. The first brood typically emerges in June, and most females from the first brood will stay with their natal nest and act as foraging workers, provisioning for a second brood, on which the foundresses will resume laying eggs.
Some females (the gynes) from the first brood, and all of the females from the second brood, will mate, disperse, and enter hibernation for the winter, and the colony cycle begins again the following spring.
Sociality effects on colony cycle
The annual cycle differs slightly for eusocial and solitary populations, in terms of the number and sex ratios of offspring born in the broods. For example, in solitary populations, the first brood comprises 40% females, who all mate and enter hibernation. However, in eusocial populations, the emergence from hibernation occurs one or two months earlier, and results in a brood with mostly or exclusively worker females, with the female bias being greater the earlier nesting begins. Nesting for solitary populations begins in late May or June. The absence of a brood of female workers defines this nest type as solitary, so solitary populations produce only one reproductive brood that is provisioned by a gyne. The emergence of this brood is at approximately the same time as the emergence of the second or third brood in the social colony cycle. Upon emergence, the offspring mate and then females enter hibernation away from the nesting site. As in social colonies, the males and nest foundresses die at the end of the season.
Sex ratio variation
In social populations where there are two or more broods in one season, there are different sex ratios for each brood., and even variation between years, depending upon temperature (warmer years lead to increased male bias). The first brood will typically contain 75–100% females, most of which become workers, to help the mother produce a second brood. The final brood is slightly male-biased, typically with a sex ratio of about 60% males, and the females of the second brood are all gynes. The peak of male production strongly corresponds with photoperiod, such that eggs laid on or near the summer solstice are almost all male. In solitary populations, nesting begins later and only one brood is produced. The brood has a sex ratio made up of 60% males, similar to that of the final brood in social populations. This brood is also produced at about the same time that the final brood is produced in social populations so that the colony cycle ends at about the same time regardless of where the population lives.
Body size
Temperature affects not only the sex ratio, but also the size of offspring in the first brood of Halictus rubicundus, with warmer temperatures strongly correlated with larger offspring; there are various hypotheses that offer explanations as to why such is the case:
At optimum temperatures, the maximum offspring size will be produced. Smaller sizes will be the result of both higher and lower temperatures based on differing stresses. So varying conditions around one optimum temperature will lead to different offspring sizes. This hypothesis is not supported by existing data.
Low temperatures may reduce flowering, or reduce bees' ability to forage during the day, and therefore effect the rate of cell provisioning. If the rate of provisioning is lower, females may lay eggs on pollen masses before the mass reaches an optimal size. This hypothesis is supported by existing data.
An offspring's size is not correlated with the size of their mother; foundress females that are smaller than the population average produce offspring that are larger than they are, and foundress females that are above the population average produce offspring that are smaller than they are. Once a nest contains workers, the size of offspring ceases to correlate with temperature, and instead correlates very strongly with the number of workers foraging for pollen, with the largest offspring (both males and females) being produced in nests with the greatest numbers of foragers.
Behavior
Halictus rubicundus is widely studied for their variability in behavior depending on geographic location, and with changes in temperature. Those at low elevations are known to exhibit eusocial behavior, while those at high elevations and latitudes are known to be solitary.
Dominance hierarchy
There is a caste system in H. rubicundus. The nest-founding females recruit their early-emerging daughters as workers, but later-emerging offspring mate prior to dispersal and hibernation. These behavioral categories are not thought to be genetically predetermined, but determined instead by mating behaviors and social factors in the first few days of adulthood. In this hierarchy, there is a foundress, which is a gyne that is always mated and starts her own colony after hibernation each cycle. She is considered the foundress queen if she is the one that established the nest, and recruits her daughters to act as workers. A gyne is any female that enters diapause, with the potential to become a nest foundress the following season. Below that is a non-gyne, which is a female who stays in an existing colony and may or may not reproduce. Within these non-gynes, there are some that are considered replacement queens, if they take the place of a dead foundress queen in the colony, but the majority are workers, who forage and maintain the colony. Replacement queens and workers appear to produce mostly male eggs, when they reproduce. Neither replacement queens nor workers enter hibernation, and die at the end of the season.
Division of labor
In eusocial colonies, there is a division of labor similar to that in other eusocial bees. In these colonies in New York, the first brood is primarily worker females, which in turn help the foundress rear her second brood, and a number of gynes and males. The second brood in New York yields only gynes and males, which breed to repeat the cycle. In Kansas, the first brood is exclusively worker females, and it is not until the second brood that gynes and males begin to appear, while the third brood is exclusively gynes and males. However, in non-eusocial nests within the New York populations, or at high elevation in Colorado, the brood contains only males and gynes. The cooperative breeding behavior of worker bees in eusocial colonies benefits the fitness of the foundress queen. However, in solitary nests, the offspring do not serve as workers and do not help the mother establish a second brood, but rather go off to try to establish nests of their own the following season.
There is no evidence for predetermined morphological or physiological differences in caste for H. rubicundus. The differentiation into different castes is based on behavior. Females that do not mate immediately after emergence become workers or replacement queens while the others become gynes. The factor that may dictate whether a female mates is the relative abundance of males to newly emerged females; there is a higher percentage of gynes relative to non-gynes when males are relatively more abundant. This has population-level consequences in that during seasons where males are more abundant, a smaller proportion of nests contain eusocial colonies, and the average number of workers per nest is lower.
Mating behavior
Like most bee species, mating in H. rubicundus occurs on the ground or vegetation in and around the nest aggregation. Males may hover around their natal nest and wait to encounter females that are entering or leaving a surrounding nest. Gynes are those females that leave the nest site after mating and enter a dormant state (diapause), and restart the cycle the following spring, while worker females, if they mate, remain in the natal nest.
In this species, there are foundress gynes and non-gynes (who can be replacement queens or workers). The gynes and non-gynes are distinct groups, as gynes mate, do not work, and enter diapause (to become foundresses), while non-gynes work and do not diapause. There is evidence that male abundance may be the factor triggering this distinction early in life; if there is an abundance of males, a virgin female is more likely to encounter males and mate early shortly after emergence, and make a caste switch into being a gyne. If she is left unmated for two or three days, however, she will likely stay a non-gyne, even if she mates later on; no female who began acting as a worker (pollen-collecting behavior, typically starting within two or three days after emergence) was ever found to return the following season. Halictus rubicundus is the first bee species documented to have mixed broods containing both gynes and non-gynes, and it was previously thought that non-gynes and gynes were always produced in separate broods.
Sex ratio effects on sociality
Male abundance appears to have a major effect on deciding the social behavior within a population; the best predictor for a female's fate (future foundress gyne versus worker non-gyne) is the relative male abundance in proportion to virgin females on the first day a given virgin female emerges as an adult (i.e., if there are 10 males and 10 virgin females on one day, each female has a 50% chance of becoming a gyne, but if the following day there are 15 males and only 5 virgin females, then 75% of those females will become gynes). Warmer temperatures during the first brood provisioning phase in the spring leads to a higher ratio of male to female offspring, and a significantly lower proportion of females are recruited as workers, reducing the overall level of sociality expressed in that population, ranging from above 75% in some years to below 45% in others, in the same location. Sex ratio is also affected by photoperiod at the time of egg production, with eggs laid on or near the summer solstice being almost exclusively male, so the earlier the season starts, the more female-biased the early brood phase will be, as in Kansas, where there are no males produced at all in the first brood, and there are three broods annually.
Nest-site fidelity
Nest-site fidelity may be due to one of three reasons, or a combination:
Philopatry is the tendency for adult bees to excavate a nest near their natal nest; in H. rubicundus, females returning from overwintering sites typically excavate burrows within 30 cm of the location of their natal nest. Returning to the vicinity of the natal nest is beneficial because the site must have been successful enough to produce adults for one year. This prevents H. rubicundus from taking the risk of settling in a poor location for brood rearing.
Habitat learning describes the process through which females recognize characteristics of the site from which she emerged and chooses to nest in similar conditions. Although this is different from philopatry in that she will not purposely choose to be near her previous nest and will make selections based on environmental cues, the nest the female chooses may still be near her original nest when the number of favorable nest sites is limited.
Social facilitation may influence the nesting location chosen by a female because the benefits of nesting close to other bees may outweigh the costs of finding a new location with a suitable substrate.
In H. rubicundus, females fly back, after 10 months in diapause at remote locations, to within centimeters of the nest they emerged from, even though the nesting area used by the population is many square meters, suggesting the first of these mechanisms is of primary importance (i.e., within the nesting area as a whole, only a model of strict philopatry predicts a non-random distribution of females within that larger area, and the observed distribution is extremely non-random).
Gregarious nesting
Dense nesting tendencies of H. rubicundus are most likely due to the following three factors:
There is a limited amount of suitable substrate in which the bees can build their nests, so they must build many nests packed tightly together without compromising the structural integrity of the nest.
As mentioned earlier, philopatry is an important factor in maintaining an aggregation. The search for a new nesting site requires a lot of resources, so females will likely limit their dispersal and stay near their natal nest sites.
Hymenopteran and dipteran species may attack the ground nests of H. rubicundus. Although it would seem that aggregation of nests would increase mortality due to parasitism (as the sites would be more conspicuous), it is likely that there is a dilution effect that reduces mortality by parasitism.
Pheromone recognition
Halictid bees have a gland known as the Dufour’s gland that extends throughout the abdomen. It is found primarily in female Hymenoptera. The Dufour’s gland, which is associated with the sting structure, secretes fluids that are important for socioecological functioning. In H. rubicundus, the Dufour’s gland produces pheromones that may aid females in recognizing brood cells as well as other individuals in the nest.
Kin selection
Genetic relatedness within colonies
Following standard models, it is assumed that worker bees who help their mother raise the following brood are in a position to benefit from the effects of kin selection. Females within the first brood therefore that stays in the colony, and are directly genetically related to their mother by half, are able to help to raise a second brood containing sisters, which are also (due to haplodipoidy) related to them by half.
Genetic relatedness among colonies of different behaviors
There is evidence for greater genetic relatedness between two colonies with similar behavioral patterns (either eusocial or solitary), than between those of closer geographic distance but different social behaviors. This does not necessarily mean that social behavior is governed by certain genes, but it could be linked to certain genetic lineages that are more suited for certain environments. Empirical data from within a single population, however, indicates that females who do not remain as workers in their mother's nest are not more likely to have daughters that similarly depart. Although there is only limited research to date on the correlation between genetics, the environment, and social behavior, there is ample evidence that there are links between these three factors. The differences between the populations of H. rubicundus exhibiting solitary behavior, and those exhibiting eusocial behavior could be the result of environmental control of sociality, rather than having a purely genetic explanation.
Costs and benefits of sociality
In environments with short breeding seasons, sociality is not expected because there is no benefit to acting as a worker in the absence of an opportunity to produce another brood that season, and no potential for kinship selection benefits. Populations in environments that allow for multiple broods exhibit eusocial behavior, and there are potential benefits to worker behavior in eusocial colonies, as workers are related to the foundress (their mother) and the brood (their sisters, in particular). Under theories of inclusive fitness, it is potentially beneficial for workers to help their mother produce a second brood if that brood is primarily female. However, H. rubicundus does not show female bias in the second brood, with values only ranging to a maximum of 40% female. Furthermore, the one study providing empirical data for H. rubicundus shows that a typical worker contributes to the production of 0.9 sisters and 0.8 brothers, far below the threshold for inclusive fitness effects to favor helping, but above the threshold at which their mother benefits directly; as such, this species provides evidence that kin selection effects would not apply to this species, and instead suggests that mothers manipulate some of their daughters into acting as workers because of direct gains to maternal fitness, even though these manipulated daughters have lower fitness than they could have had if they had been gynes.
References
External links
rubicundus
Hymenoptera of North America
Insects described in 1791
Taxa named by Johann Ludwig Christ |
4299290 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deacon%20McGuire | Deacon McGuire | James Thomas "Deacon" McGuire (November 18, 1863 – October 31, 1936) was an American professional baseball player, manager and coach whose career spanned the years 1883 to 1915. He played 26 seasons in Major League Baseball, principally as a catcher, for 11 different major league clubs. His longest stretches were with the Washington Statesmen/Senators (901 games, 1892–99), Brooklyn Superbas (202 games, 1899–1901) and New York Highlanders (225 games, 1904–07). He played on Brooklyn teams that won National League pennants in 1899 and 1900.
McGuire was the most durable catcher of his era, setting major league catching records for most career games caught (1,612), putouts (6,856), assists (1,860), double plays turned (143), runners caught stealing (1,459), and stolen bases allowed (2,529). His assist, caught stealing, and stolen bases allowed totals remain current major league records. During his major league career, he also compiled a .278 batting average, .341 on-base percentage, 770 runs scored, 1,750 hits, 300 doubles, 79 triples, 45 home runs, 840 RBIs and 118 stolen bases. His best season was 1895 when he caught a major league record 133 games and compiled a .336 batting average with 10 home runs, 97 RBIs and 17 stolen bases.
McGuire was also the manager of the Washington Senators (1898), Boston Red Sox (1907–08) and Cleveland Indians (1909–11). He compiled a 210–287 (.423) as a major league manager.
Early years
McGuire was born in Youngstown, Ohio, in 1863. He moved as a boy to Cleveland, learned to play baseball "on the lots" of that city, and at age 18 was playing for the "Woodlands" team. As a young man, he moved to Albion, Michigan, where he worked as an apprentice in an iron foundry in Albion and played baseball on the weekend.
Professional baseball player
Minor leagues
McGuire first gained note playing baseball for a team in Hastings, Michigan, where he was paired with pitcher Lady Baldwin. McGuire was reputed to be "the only catcher within a 50-mile radius who could handle" the left-handed Baldwin and his "incendiary fastball and sinuous curve, a so-called 'snakeball.'" At age 19, McGuire began his professional baseball career in 1883 with the Terre Haute, Indiana, club.
Toledo Blue Stockings
McGuire made his major league debut in June 1884 with the Toledo Blue Stockings of the American Association. He hit .185 in 151 at bats and appeared in 45 games. At Toledo, he shared the catching responsibilities with Moses Fleetwood Walker, the first African-American player in Major League Baseball. McGuire and Walker each caught 41 games for the Blue Stockings. The Blue Stockings finished in eighth place (out of 13 teams) with a 46–58 record and folded after the 1884 season.
Detroit Wolverines
McGuire began the 1885 season playing for the Indianapolis Hoosiers of the newly formed Western League. McGuire appeared in 16 games for the Hoosiers, who were the dominant team in the Western League, compiling an .880 winning percentage.
In mid June 1885, the Western League disbanded, and a mad rush developed to sign the players on the Indianapolis roster, a line-up that included McGuire, Sam Thompson, Sam Crane, Chub Collins, Jim Donnelly, Mox McQuery, Gene Moriarty, and Dan Casey. Sam Thompson later told the colorful story of the Detroit Wolverines' acquisition of the Indianapolis players. Detroit sent two representatives (Marsh and Maloney) to Indianapolis, principally to sign the Hoosiers' battery of Larry McKeon and Jim Keenan. The Wolverines were outbid by the Cincinnati Reds for McKeon and Keenan but wound up with the Hoosiers' manager (Bill Watkins) and the rest of the team's starting lineup. The only catch was that a 10-day waiting period would allow other teams to outbid Detroit. Marsh and Maloney promptly sent the players to Detroit and quartered them in a hotel there. The next morning, the players were told that the team had arranged a fishing trip for them. The players boarded the steamship Annette and enjoyed the first day and night of successful fishing. After three days, the players became suspicious, but the ship captain laughed when asked when they would return to Detroit. As the players became mutinous on the sixth day, the captain admitted he had been ordered to keep them "out at sea" for 10 days. In another account, Thompson described his 10 days aboard the Annette as follows: We were prisoners, but well cared-for prisoners. Anything in the line of creature comforts you could find packed away on ice. We lived on the best in the market, and spent the rest of the time in fishing and playing poker, chips having very thoughtfully been provided. On the night of the tenth day, at midnight, we were all taken ashore where Watkins met us and signed us to our contracts.
The players were only later presented with their accumulated mail which included scores of offers from other clubs. A writer in the Detroit Free Press later noted: "Detroit magnates showed some inside baseball brains and great finessing in sending the players away from all tempters for that period when they belonged to no club."
Once at Detroit, McGuire hit .190 in 121 at bats and served as the backup for catcher Charlie Bennett; Bennett caught 62 games and McGuire 31. While with the Wolverines, McGuire was reunited with Lady Baldwin, the "snakeball" pitcher who he had caught in Hastings. Despite the infusion of talent from Indianapolis, the Wolverines finished in sixth place with a 41–67 record.
Philadelphia Quakers
In November 1885, the Wolverines returned McGuire to league control, and he was then acquired by the Philadelphia Quakers in January 1886. McGuire played with the Quakers for two full seasons.
In 1886, McGuire caught 49 games for the Quakers, two more than the team's other principal catcher Jack Clements. The 1886 season was McGuire's first in the major leagues with a winning ball club, as the Quakers finished in fourth place in the National League with a 71–43 record.
In 1887, McGuire and Clements again split the catching duties for the Quakers, with 41 and 59 games, respectively. McGuire improved dramatically as a batter in 1887. After compiling a .198 batting average in 1886, McGuire hit .307 in 150 at bats. The team also improved to second place with a 75–48 record.
McGuire began the 1888 season with the Quakers. However, on June 30, 1888, he was released by the Quakers after batting .333 in 12 games and 51 at bats.
Cleveland, Toronto and Rochester
On July 2, 1888, McGuire signed as a free agent with the Detroit Wolverines. He appeared in only three games for Detroit, had no hits in 13 at bats, and was released on August 1, 1888. In late August 1888, McGuire met and signed with Tom Loftus, the manager of the Cleveland Blues of the National League. The Cleveland Plain Dealer reported at the time: "He will strengthen the team a good deal, especially in batting. Jim was a little careless as to his condition early in the season and Harry Wright released him because he had three other cheaper catchers. . . . At this time he is in perfect condition and has given a fine sample of his work in the three games against Kansas City." McGuire appeared in 26 games for Cleveland at the end of the 1888 season, batting .255 in 94 at bats.
In early February 1889, McGuire was released by Cleveland and signed by the Toronto Canucks of the International League. McGuire appeared in 93 games for Toronto and hit .282 with 72 runs scored, 42 extra base hits and 29 stolen bases. (An account published at the end of the 1889 season stated that McGuire hit .300 at Toronto and caught 92 games).
In February 1890, the Rochester Broncos of the American Association purchased McGuire from Toronto. In his return to the major leagues, McGuire appeared in 87 games for Rochester, 71 as a catcher, 15 at first base, three in the outfield and one as a pitcher. He hit .299 with a .356 on-base percentage, .408 slugging average and 53 RBIs. Prior to the 1890 season, McGuire had never earned a Wins Above Replacement (WAR) rating even as high as 1.0; his 1890 season received a 2.7 WAR rating. His defensive play also blossomed in 1890 with a 0.9 Defensive WAR rating – the only season in McGuire's long career in which he ranked among the top ten Defensive WAR ratings in his league.
The "Deacon"
In The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract, sports historian Bill James wrote that McGuire was called Deacon, "because he didn't drink and carouse", like other players of his era. To the contrary, a biographical sketch of McGuire published in 1901 stated that McGuire had been a heavy drinker for much of his career, though he did later become a "teetotaler." The sketch noted:McGuire's career, as will be noted, has been a somewhat checkered one and not without its ups and downs. His downs, for the most part, were due to an acquaintance he early formed with the Hon. John Barleycorn, and his association with this noted gentleman led to frequent and divers bouts with one Ben Booze who invariably gave Mac the worst of it and came near causing his downfall. It was not until he quit these gentlemen entirely that the true worth of the man permanently asserted itself and his flight into fame was continued.
Another account, published in Sports Illustrated 1984, stated that McGuire's Brooklyn teammates gave him the nickname in 1900 because he was "so straight-arrow" and had never been fined or ejected from a game. Multiple accounts support the widely publicized claim that he was never fined or ejected from a game and describe McGuire as "placid, easy-going, hard-working and thoroughly conscientious."
However, the origin of the "Deacon" nickname appears to date back to 1896. In February of that year, The Sporting Life, a national baseball newspaper, reported a dispatch from Michigan that McGuire "has experienced religion at a revival meeting and is thinking of giving up baseball and devote his time to preaching, perhaps." The Sporting Life closed with this observation: " If Mac felt bent on doing missionary work his duty is to remain right where he is. But he will be back next April doing just as brilliant work behind the bat as last year. He will have no redress, however, if he is addressed hereafter as 'Deacon' McGuire."
Washington Senators
In February 1891, McGuire jumped from the Rochester Broncos to the Washington Statesmen. He played the next nine seasons in a Washington uniform.
During the 1891 season, McGuire appeared in 114 games for the Statesmen, including 98 as a catcher and 18 in the outfield. He compiled a .303 batting average and, with the boost from 43 bases on balls and 10 times hit by pitch, a .382 on-base percentage. For the second consecutive season, he earned a 2.7 WAR rating – a level he would exceed only once in his career. Focusing solely on offense, his Offensive WAR rating in 1891 was 3.3 – the only time he ranked among the top ten Offensive WAR ratings in his league. Defensively, McGuire led the American Association's catchers with 130 assists, 56 errors, 204 stolen bases allowed and 129 runners caught stealing. Despite McGuire's efforts, the Statesmen finished the 1891 season in last place in the American Association with a 44–91 record.
In 1892, the Statesmen were admitted to the National League and renamed the Senators. The Senators finished the season in 10th place (out of 12 teams) with a 58–93 record. McGuire's batting average, ever erratic, dropped 71 points from the prior year to .232. However, McGuire had almost as many bases on balls (61) as hits (73), giving him a more than respectable .360 on-base percentage. Factoring in all of his contributions, McGuire received a 2.4 WAR rating for 1892.
In 1893, McGuire caught only 50 games and, despite the limited playing time, ranked second in the National League's catchers with 27 errors. The 1893 season also generated McGuire's worst WAR rating (0.4) of the decade. The Senators as a team also suffered in 1893, finishing in 12th (last) place with a 40–89 record.
The Senators rebounded only slightly in 1894, finishing in 11th place with a 45–87 record. McGuire, on the other hand, improved markedly. His batting average jumped 49 points to .306, and his WAR rating increased to 1.5. Defensively, he led the league with 278 stolen bases allowed and finished second among the league's catchers with 114 assists, 127 runners caught stealing, 36 errors and 27 passed balls.
McGuire had the best season of his career in 1895 as he hit .336 with 48 extra bases hits (including 10 home runs), 97 RBIs and 17 stolen bases. His WAR rating of 4.0 was, by far, the highest of his career. Defensively, he set a new major league record by catching all 133 games. The Sporting News in October 1895 called McGuire's 133 games the "record of records":Catcher Jim McGuire's correct record of League games caught in this season is 133, 128 of which appear in the standing of the club, four were tie games and one the postponed Boston game. He is to-day in excellent condition. This is the record of records in the league, and many a year will roll by before it is equaled."
He also led the National League's catchers with 312 putouts, 180 assists, 40 errors, 12 double plays turned, 28 passed balls, 293 stolen bases allowed, and 189 runners caught stealing. Even with McGuire having his best season, the Senators continued to wallow near the bottom of the National League, finishing the 1895 season in 10th place with a 43–85 record.
In 1896, McGuire had another good season, and the Senators again finished near the bottom of the standings, in ninth place with a 58–73 record. McGuire hit .321, earning a 2.4 WAR rating. Defensively, he led the league's catchers in multiple categories for the second consecutive year, totaling 98 games at catcher (1st), 349 putouts (1st), 87 assists (2nd), 30 errors (1st), 14 double plays (1st), 205 stolen bases allowed (1st), and 97 runners caught stealing (2nd).
The 1897 season was one of modest improvement for the Senators, finishing in sixth place with a 61–71 record. McGuire appeared in fewer games, 73 at catcher and six at first base, compiled a .343 batting average (the highest of his career), and earned a 2.5 WAR rating.
In 1898, the Senators' improvement dissipated, as they finished in 11th place with a 51–101 record. McGuire appeared in 131 games for the Senators, 93 at catcher and 37 at first base. His batting average dropped by 75 points under the prior year to .268 with a WAR rating of 1.6. McGuire was also asked to serve as player-manager during the latter half of the 1898 season, compiling a record of 21–47 in the final 68 games of the season.
By 1899, McGuire was 35 years old and the ninth oldest player in the National League. He began the year for the ninth consecutive season with an overmatched Washington team that finished in 11th place. During the first half of the season, McGuire's performance ebbed, earning a 0.8 WAR rating.
Brooklyn Superbas
On July 14, 1899, McGuire received good news; he had been traded to the Brooklyn Superbas, a team managed by Ned Hanlon and competing for the National League pennant. The Brooklyn Daily Eagle praised the trade: "McGuire has always been looked upon as one of the best catchers in the league . . . he has no superior as a coacher of pitchers and for steady and uninterrupted work." The Washington correspondent for the Sporting Life wrote that the trade "marked the passing of the most consistent and reliable player that ever wore a Washington uniform" and called McGuire "the backbone of the Washington team."
Playing for a winning ball club for the first time in a decade, McGuire caught 46 games and blossomed. His batting average bounced back to .318 with a .385 on-base percentage, .446 slugging average and 1.4 WAR rating. The team finished strong with the addition of McGuire, compiling a 39–14 record after August 12 and winning the National League pennant by eight games.
In 1900, McGuire shared catching responsibility with Duke Farrell, McGuire handling 69 games at the position and Farrell 76. McGuire compiled a .286 batting average, .348 on-base percentage and 1.2 WAR rating. His performance helped the Superbas win their second consecutive pennant with an 82–54 record. During one game in 1900, McGuire threw out seven runners attempting to steal second base, caught another "asleep on second and nipped still another slumbering off third."
McGuire resumed his role as the Superbas' number one catcher in 1901. He caught 81 games and compiled a .296 batting average, .342 on-base percentage and 1.6 WAR rating. The Superbas remained competitive, finishing in third place with a 79–57 record.
Challenging the "reserve clause"
In March 1902, McGuire jumped to the still new American League, signing a two-year with the Detroit Tigers. The Brooklyn club sued McGuire for breaching his contract to play there and sought an injunction prohibiting him from playing anywhere else. The case went to trial in June 1902 in Philadelphia federal court. Brooklyn club president Charles Ebbets testified in court "to the extraordinary qualities of McGuire as a catcher." McGuire argued that his contract with Brooklyn was invalid on the ground that the "reserve clause" was a violation of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act.
After hearing the evidence, Judge George M. Dallas ruled in favor of McGuire, holding that the Brooklyn contract was unenforceable due to a lack of mutuality, and because Brooklyn had failed to prove that McGuire's services were unique and irreplaceable. Judge Dallas' opinion, in part, stated:The contract upon which this suit is founded provides that the party of the first part (the plaintiff) may end and determine all its liabilities and obligations thereunder upon giving the party of the second part (the defendant) ten days' notice of its option and intention to do so, and in Marble Company vs. Itipley, 10 Wall. 339, it was distinctly held that a contract which the plaintiff may abandon at any time on giving one year's notice is not enforceable in equity.... In short, I am of opinion that the decision in Marble Company against Ripley is binding upon this Court and is determinative of the present motion. A preliminary injunction should not be awarded in any case where the proofs leave the mind of the Court in serious doubt respecting the plaintiff's asserted right, and the testimony and affidavits submitted for and against the present application do not establish with reasonable certainty that the breach of contract of which the plaintiff complains could not be adequately compensated at law. The evidence adduced is by no means conclusive upon the question whether the services which the defendant contracted to render were so unique and peculiar that they could not be performed and substantially as well by others engaged in professional ball playing, who might be easily be obtained to take his place. The motion for a preliminary injunction is denied.
The Brooklyn correspondent for The Sporting News wrote that the court's decision did not change the fact that "McGuire played the Brooklyn management a low and cowardly trick", suggested that the team sue McGuire for damages, and opined that the Brooklyn public did not care "two cents whether McGuire never comes back." In 1914, the McGuire case became a significant precedent that was relied upon by players and Federal League officials when that league sought to entice players to its ranks.
Detroit Tigers
With the legal proceedings at an end, McGuire shared catching responsibility in Detroit with Fritz Buelow, McGuire catching 70 games in 1902 and Buelow 63. The Tigers' management valued McGuire not only for his playing ability, but also because his coaching "was figured on to aid greatly in developing the young material" that the Tigers were bringing together. At age 38, McGuire was the fourth oldest player in the American League, his batting average dropped to .227 – his lowest level since 1886 ---, and his WAR rating fell to 0.7. The Tigers finished in seventh place with a 52–83 record.
In February 1903, Ned Hanlon, manager of the Brooklyn club, claimed that Brooklyn still had the reserve rights to McGuire and challenged his contract with Detroit. Hanlon did not issue the threatened order to report for several weeks, then did so in April 1903. In the end, a deal was struck pursuant to which Brooklyn released any claim it had over McGuire.
During the 1903 season, McGuire again shared catching duties with Buelow – 69 games for McGuire and 63 for Buelow. McGuire hit .250 and earned a 1.2 WAR rating. The Tigers finished in fifth place with a 65–71 record.
New York Highlanders
In February 1904, Detroit sold McGuire to the New York Highlanders. He spent his final years as a full-time player with the Highlanders from 1904 to 1906. In 1904, at age 40, McGuire caught 97 games, his highest tally since 1899. He led the American League's catchers with 11 double plays turned and ranked second in the league with 530 putouts and 120 assists. His batting average fell to .208, but with Willie Keeler batting .343 and Jack Chesbro winning 41 games, the Highlanders compiled a 92–59 and finished one-and-a-half games behind Boston for the American League pennant.
In 1905, McGuire remained New York's number one catcher, appearing in 71 games at the position. He hit .219 and earned a 0.7 WAR rating. By 1906, McGuire, at age 42, was the second oldest player in the league. In his last season as a full-time player, he caught 51 games and hit .299 in 144 at bats.
Manager and coach
Boston Red Sox
McGuire was hired by the Boston Red Sox in early June 1906 and took over as the team's manager on June 10, 1907. He compiled a 45–61 (.425) record as manager in 1907 and returned in 1908, compiling a 53–62 (.461) record. McGuire also appeared in seven games as a player for Boston, principally as a pinch-hitter, and made three hits, including a home run, and scored a run in five plate appearances. He was released by the Red Sox on August 28, 1908.
Although McGuire's Boston teams did not achieve a winning record, his teams lacked batting strength. He had Cy Young as a pitcher, but his 1907 team finished with the lowest batting average (.234) in the American League. McGuire was credited with having "whipped the bunch of veterans and kids from tailenders into a fighting machine, laying the foundation for the whirlwind team" that went 88–63 in 1909.
Cleveland Naps
On September 18, 1908, McGuire signed as a free agent with the Cleveland Naps and appeared in only one game, at first base. McGuire served principally as a scout for Cleveland in 1908 and the first half of 1909. On August 21, 1909, he was hired as Cleveland's manager, replacing Nap Lajoie. Club officials at the time opined that McGuire "possesses the necessary ginger to bring about a different style of playing." McGuire led the team to a 14–25 (.359) record during the last weeks of the 1909 season. He returned in 1910 and led the team to a 71–81 (.467) record. In 1911, McGuire compiled a 6–11 (.353) record as Cleveland's manager. On May 3, 1911, he resigned as manager and was replaced by George Stovall. In resigning his post, McGuire stated that he was disappointed in the team's showing and hoped that better results could be achieved with a new man in charge.
Detroit Tigers
In February 1912, McGuire was hired as a pitching coach for the Detroit Tigers. He had been expected to serve as a scout during the regular season, but was assigned in May 1912 to remain with the club as a coach throughout the season, working alongside manager Hughie Jennings. The Sporting Life wrote: "With McGuire and Jennings on the coaching lines the Tigers would be better fortified in this department than any team in the league." In May 1912, when the Detroit players refused to play in protest over the suspension of Ty Cobb for attacking a fan, the club's management was forced to come up with a substitute team for a game in Philadelphia. McGuire took to the field as one of the Tigers' replacement players. He had a hit and scored a run in his final major league game, but the Tigers lost the game by a 24–2 score.
In January 1914, McGuire was assigned to coach Detroit's young pitchers during spring training with the understanding that he would then leave the club to assume "his regular duties as chief of scouts." In 1915, he returned to the Tigers as a scout. In January 1916, Detroit president Frank Navin released McGuire from the position he had held with the club as a scout and coach. McGuire stated at the time that he expected "to devote all his attention to his business In Albion, Mich." (Some accounts indicate that he continued to scout for the Tigers until 1926.)
Legacy
Padding the glove
In 1936, H. G. Salsinger wrote an article that was published in The Sporting News crediting McGuire as the "first catcher to pad a glove." Salsinger wrote that McGuire "resorted to a primordial method" by stuffing his glove with a piece of raw steak to absorb the shock. Salsinger wrote that manufacturers took a hint from McGuire and began padding catcher's mitts with felt and hair. Salsinger opined that modern catchers "should erect a monument" to repay the debt owed to McGuire's innovation.
McGuire claimed he came up with the idea when he was catching for pitcher Hank O'Day at Toledo in 1884. McGuire said that O'Day "threw the heaviest and hardest ball I ever caught", and that O'Day's pitches "came like a shell from a cannon." McGuire recalled: "The reinforced full-fingered catcher's glove had just come into use the year before. One day on my way to that old Toledo park on Monroe Street, I passed a butcher pounding round steak. It gave me an idea, and I went in and bought a lot of it. I put a piece of it in my glove at the start of every inning, and Hank's pitches beat that steak into a pulp." McGuire's wife recalled her husband using "a piece of beefsteak" and noted: "At game's end it would be hamburger."
Gnarled hands
McGuire played before the advent of most modern protective equipment, and his fingers were reportedly "gnarled, broken, bent, split and crooked" by the end of his career. One account, published in 1901, emphasized the physical beating:A picture of McGuire's hands would be an interesting and wonderful exhibit. The maimed and misshapen members which he will carry with him after he quits the game and to the grave are mute reminders of many a foul ticked off the bat, a wild thrown ball stopped with the finger tips after a leap into the air, or a low one clawed up out of the roots of the plate, and an occasional one caught full on the end of a digit, splitting the flesh and nail.
In 1904, former teammate Sam Crane called McGuire "a wonder – physically and mentally" and "a human octopus." Crane also described McGuire's hands:His big, brawny, strong hands, now grotesquely disfigured by the continuous battering they have received from the viciously wicked inshoots, curves, slants and benders of the speediest pitchers known in the long history of the game, have acted as an unflinchable barrier to the accumulation of momentum that if concentrated would have an irresistible force capable of crushing a battleship or of pulverizing a backstop construction of Harveyized steel armor plate.
In 1907, newspapers across the country published an x-ray of McGuire's left hand (pictured, above at right), showing "36 breaks, twists or bumps all due to baseball accidents." The text accompanying the widely published photograph noted: "When the picture was developed the photographer was amazed to see the knots, like gnarled places on an old oak tree, around the joints, and numerous spots showing old breaks. In several joints the bones are flattened and pushed to the side."
Career statistics and records
Despite the injuries and physical demands of a catcher's duties, McGuire showed remarkable longevity. In 26 years in the major leagues, McGuire compiled a .278 career batting average, .341 on-base percentage and .372 slugging percentage. He appeared in 1,781 games and totaled 770 runs scored, 1,750 hits, 300 doubles, 79 triples, 45 home runs, 840 RBIs, 118 stolen bases and 515 bases on balls.
McGuire's longevity enabled him to set numerous major league records, some of which are set forth below:
Most seasons. McGuire played in 26 major league seasons. That remained a major league record for many decades. Tommy John tied the record in 1989, and Nolan Ryan exceeded it in 1993 when he appeared in his 27th major league season.
Most teams. McGuire played for 11 different major league teams. That stood as a major league record until 2000 when Mike Morgan played for his 12th major league team.
Caught stealing. McGuire still holds the major league records for most runners caught stealing in a season (189 in 1895) and in a career (1,459).
Stolen bases allowed. While McGuire threw out a lot of base runners, he also allowed a lot of stolen bases. He holds the current major league record for most stolen bases allowed in a season (293 in 1895) and in a career (2,529).
Assists as catcher. McGuire broke the record for most career assists by a catcher in 1901. His final total of 1,860 assists remains the current major league record.
Games as catcher. McGuire set both season and career records for games at catcher. He set the season record in 1895 when he appeared in 133 games, and he became the career leader in 1900 by breaking Wilbert Robinson's record of 1,108 games. His final tally of 1,612 games as catcher remained a major league record until it was broken in 1925 by Ray Schalk.
Putouts as catcher. McGuire broke the career record for putouts as catcher in 1901. His final total of 6,856 putouts remained the major league record until it, too, was broken in 1925 by Ray Schalk.
Double plays as catcher. In 1904, McGuire broke Chief Zimmer's record for most double plays turned as catcher. McGuire's final total of 143 double plays remained the major league record until 1920 when it was broken by Steve O'Neill.
In The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract, sports historian Bill James ranked McGuire as the 40th best catcher of all time. The only 19th century catcher ranked higher than McGuire was Buck Ewing, whom James ranked 17th.
Family and later years
McGuire was married in 1893 to May K. Huxford. They had no children.
Even before retiring from baseball, McGuire made his home in Albion, Michigan, and had developed other business interests there. By 1901, McGuire and his brother owned a "well paying wet goods emporium" and an ice business in Albion. The "wet goods emporium" appears to refer to a saloon in Albion known as "McGuire Brothers", originally located at 204 S. Superior St., which moved in 1912 to 103 West Porter Street. McGuire worked in the saloon during the off-season, and his brother (George) operated it year round. In 1915, Albion "went dry", and McGuire Brothers became a restaurant and "sample room" and eventually closed. In 1906, McGuire and his wife also purchased a flour mill on the Kalamazoo River near Albion.
In 1914, a man who was believed to have gone insane twice attempted to kill McGuire. The first attempt was at McGuire's cabin in Duck Lake, Michigan, using both an axe and a revolver. The second attempt was at McGuire's home in Albion, using a repeating rifle. McGuire was reported to have narrowly escaped death.
After retiring from baseball, McGuire returned to his home in Albion. He coached the Albion College baseball team in 1926 and worked as a chicken farmer. McGuire died in 1936 at age 72. The cause of death was pneumonia, that developed after he suffered a stroke at his chicken ranch in Duck Lake, Michigan. He was buried at Riverside Cemetery in Albion.
Managerial record
See also
List of Major League Baseball player–managers
List of Major League Baseball players who played in four decades
References
Further reading
External links
1863 births
1936 deaths
19th-century American people
20th-century American people
Deaths from pneumonia in Michigan
Major League Baseball catchers
19th-century baseball players
Boston Red Sox players
Boston Americans players
Brooklyn Superbas players
Cleveland Blues (1887–88) players
Cleveland Naps players
Detroit Tigers players
Detroit Wolverines players
New York Highlanders players
Washington Senators (1891–1899) players
Washington Statesmen players
Philadelphia Quakers players
Rochester Broncos players
Toledo Blue Stockings players
Baseball players from Cleveland
Baseball players from Youngstown, Ohio
Boston Red Sox managers
Cleveland Naps managers
Washington Senators (NL) managers
Major League Baseball player-managers
Detroit Tigers coaches
Indianapolis Hoosiers (minor league) players
Toronto Canucks players
Washington Senators (1891–1899) managers
People from Albion, Michigan
Baseball coaches from Ohio |
4299450 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movie%20ranch | Movie ranch | A movie ranch is a ranch that is at least partially dedicated for use as a set in the creation and production of motion pictures and television shows. These were developed in the United States in southern California, because of the climate. The first such facilities were all within the studio zone, often in the foothills of the San Fernando Valley, Santa Clarita Valley, and Simi Valley in the U.S. state of California.
Movie ranches were developed in the 1920s for location shooting in Southern California to support the making of popular western films. Finding it difficult to recreate the topography of the Old West on sound stages and studio backlots, the Hollywood studios went to the rustic valleys, canyons and foothills of Southern California for filming locations. Other large-scale productions, such as war films, also needed large, undeveloped settings for outdoor scenes, such as battles.
History
To achieve greater scope, productions conducted location shooting in distant parts of California, Arizona, and Nevada. Initially production staff were required to cover their own travel expenses, resulting in disputes between workers and the studios. The studios agreed to pay union workers extra if they worked out of town. The definition of "out of town" was defined as a distance of greater than from the studio, or beyond the studio zone.
To solve this problem, many movie studios purchased large tracts of undeveloped rural land, in many cases existing ranches, that were located closer to Hollywood. The ranches were often located just within the perimeter, specifically in the Simi Hills in the western San Fernando Valley, the Santa Monica Mountains, and the Santa Clarita area of the Greater Los Angeles Area. The natural California landscape proved to be suitable for western locations and other settings.
As a result of post-war (WWII) era suburban development, property values and taxes on land increased, even as fewer large parcels were available to the studios. Los Angeles development was widespread, resulting in urban sprawl. Most of the historic movie ranches have been sold and subdivided. A few have been preserved as open space in regional parks, and are sometimes still used for filming. In addition, studios have developed movie ranches in other regions, such as New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas.
Below is a partial listing of some of the classic Southern California movie ranches from the first half of the 20th century, including some other and newer locations.
Classic movie ranches
Apacheland Movie Ranch (Apacheland Studio)
Located in the town of Apache Junction, Arizona, the Apacheland Movie Ranch and Apacheland Studio was developed from 1959 to 1960 and opened in 1960. Starting in late 1957, movie studios had been contacting Superstition Mountain-area ranchers, including the Quarter Circle U, the Quarter Circle W, and the Barkley Cattle Ranch, for options to use their properties as town sets. One notable production during this time was Gunfight at the O.K. Corral (1957) with Kirk Douglas and Burt Lancaster. Though historically inaccurate, it features the area known as Gold Canyon, with the Superstitions prominent behind the movie's representation of the Clanton ranch. During this time, Victor Panek contacted his neighbors in Apache Junction, Mr. and Mrs. J.K. Hutchens, to suggest the idea of building a dedicated studio in the Superstition area. Hutchens and Panek found a suitable site that was developed into Apacheland, intended to be the "Western Movie Capitol of the World".
Construction on the Apacheland Studio soundstage and adjacent "western town" set began on February 12, 1959, by Superstition Mountain Enterprises and associates. By June 1960, Apacheland was available for use by production companies and its first TV western Have Gun, Will Travel was filmed in November 1960, along with its first full-length movie The Purple Hills. Actors such as Elvis Presley, Jason Robards, Stella Stevens, Ronald Reagan, and Audie Murphy filmed many other western television shows and movies in Apacheland and the surrounding area, such as Gambler II, Death Valley Days, Charro!, and The Ballad of Cable Hogue. The last full-length movie to be filmed was the 1994 HBO movie Blind Justice with Armand Assante, Elisabeth Shue, and Jack Black.
On May 26, 1969, fire destroyed most of the ranch. Only a few buildings survived, but the sets were soon rebuilt to accommodate ongoing productions. A second fire destroyed most of Apacheland on February 14, 2004. The causes of both fires were never determined. On October 16, 2004, Apacheland was permanently closed. The Elvis Chapel and the Apacheland Barn, both of which survived the second fire, were donated to the Superstition Mountain Museum. Each structure was partially disassembled at the ranch, moved by truck, and reassembled on the museum grounds, where both stand today.
Columbia Ranch – Warner Bros. Ranch
Columbia Pictures purchased the original lot in 1934 as additional space to its Sunset Gower studio location, when Columbia was in need for more space and a true backlot/movie ranch. Through the years numerous themed sets were constructed across the movie ranch.
Formerly known as the Columbia Ranch and now the "Warner Brothers Ranch", this movie ranch in Burbank, California, served as the filming location for both obscure and well-known television series, such as Father Knows Best, Hazel, The Flying Nun, Dennis the Menace, The Hathaways, The Iron Horse, I Dream of Jeannie (which also used the Father Knows Best house exterior), Bewitched, The Monkees, Apple's Way, and The Partridge Family (which also filmed on ranch sound stages).
A short list of the many classic feature films which filmed scenes on the movie ranch would include; Lost Horizon, Blondie, Melody in Spring, You Were Never Lovelier, Kansas City Confidential, High Noon, The Wild One, Autumn Leaves, 3:10 to Yuma, The Last Hurrah, Cat Ballou, and What's the Matter with Helen?.
It is commonly believed, though not the case, that Leave It to Beaver was filmed here, ('Beaver' actually filmed (first season) at CBS Studio Center – née Radford Studios and later at Universal Studios). The Waltons originally filmed on the Warner Bros. main lot where the recognizable house facade was located until it burned down in late 1991. A recreation of the Walton house was built on the Warner Bros. Ranch lot, utilizing the woodland mountain set originally utilized by Apple's Way, and later occasionally used by Fantasy Island TV shows. The facade remains and has been used in numerous productions such as NCIS, The Middle, and Pushing Daisies.
On April 15, 2019, it was announced that Warner Bros. will sell the property to Worthe Real Estate Group and Stockbridge Real Estate Fund as part of a larger real estate deal to be completed in 2023 which will see the studio get ownership of The Burbank Studios in time to mark its 100th Anniversary.
Corriganville Movie Ranch
Circa 1937, Ray "Crash" Corrigan invested in property on the western Santa Susana Pass in California's Simi Valley and Santa Susana Mountains, developing his 'Ray Corrigan Ranch' into the 'Corriganville Movie Ranch.' Most of the Monogram Range Busters film series, which includes Saddle Mountain Roundup (1941) and Bullets and Saddles (1943), were shot here, as well as features such as Fort Apache (1948), The Inspector General (1949), Mysterious Island (1961), and hundreds more .
Corrigan opened portions of his vast movie ranch to the public in 1949 on weekends to explore such themed sets as a rustic western town, Mexican village, western ranch, outlaw hide-out shacks, cavalry fort, Corsican village, English hunting lodge, country schoolhouse, rodeo arena, mine-shaft, wooded lake, and interesting rock formations. This amusement park concept closed in 1966.
In spite of Corriganville's weekend tourist trade, production of films continued. The action TV series The Adventures of Rin Tin Tin used the Fort Apache set for many shots from 1954 to 1959. Roy Rogers, Lassie, and Emergency! production units also filmed scenes on the ranch. In 1966, Corriganville became 'Hopetown' when it was purchased by Bob Hope for real estate development. A wildfire destroyed the buildings in 1970.
About of the original is part of the Simi Valley Park system, open to the public as the Corriganville Regional Park. Though the original movie and TV sets are long gone, many of the building concrete foundations are still extant. Corriganville Regional Park.
Parts of the movie Once Upon a Time in Hollywood were filmed at Corriganville Park, as a stand-in for the Spahn Movie Ranch.
Iverson Movie Ranch
In the 1880s, Karl and Augusta Iverson homesteaded a family farm in the Simi Hills on Santa Susana Pass in what is now Chatsworth, eventually expanding their land holdings to about . They reportedly allowed a movie to be shot on the property as early as 1912, with the silent movies Man's Genesis (1912), My Official Wife (1914), and The Squaw Man (1914) being some of the productions often cited as among the earliest films shot on the site. Many of the earliest citations, though, have turned out to be incorrect. For example, The Squaw Man is now known to have filmed a scene elsewhere in Chatsworth, a short distance southwest of the Iverson property, but did not film on the Iverson Ranch.
By the late 1910s, what would become a long and fruitful association developed between Hollywood and the Iverson Movie Ranch, which became the go-to outdoor location for Westerns in particular and also appeared in many adventures, war movies, comedies, science-fiction films, and other productions, standing in for Africa, the Middle East, the South Pacific, and any number of exotic locations.
Buster Keaton's Three Ages (1923), Herman Brix's Hawk of the Wilderness (1938), Laurel and Hardy's The Flying Deuces (1939), John Wayne's The Fighting Seabees (1944), and Richard Burton's The Robe (1953) are just a handful of the productions that were filmed at the ranch. The rocky terrain and narrow, winding roads frequently turned up in Republic serials of the 1940s and were prominently featured in chases and shootouts throughout the golden era of action B-Westerns in the 1930s and 1940s. For the 1945 Western comedy Along Came Jones, producer and star Gary Cooper had a Western town built at the ranch; this set was subsequently used in many other productions until the town was dismantled in 1957.
Hollywood's focus began to shift to the medium of television beginning in the late 1940s, and Iverson became a mainstay of countless early television series, including The Lone Ranger, The Roy Rogers Show, The Gene Autry Show, The Cisco Kid, Buffalo Bill, Jr., Zorro, and Tombstone Territory.
An estimated 3,500 or more productions, about evenly split between movies and television episodes, were filmed at the ranch during its peak years. The long-running TV Western The Virginian filmed on location at Iverson in the ranch's later period, as did Bonanza and Gunsmoke.
By the 1960s, the ownership of the ranch was split between two of Karl and Augusta's sons, with Joe Iverson, an African safari hunter married to Iva Iverson, owning the southern half of the ranch (the Lower Iverson) and Aaron Iverson, a farmer married to Bessie Iverson, owning the northern half (the Upper Iverson). In the mid-1960s the state of California began construction on the Simi Valley Freeway, which ran east and west, roughly following the dividing line between the Upper Iverson and Lower Iverson, cutting the movie ranch in half. That separated the ranch, and also produced noise, making the property less useful for moviemaking. The waning popularity of the Western genre and the decline of the B-movie coincided with the arrival of the freeway, which opened in 1967, and greater development pressure, signaling the end for Iverson as a successful movie ranch. The last few movies that filmed some scenes here included Support Your Local Sheriff (1968) and Pony Express Rider (1976).
In 1982, Joe Iverson sold what remained of the Lower Iverson to Robert G. Sherman, who almost immediately began subdividing the property. The former Lower Iverson now contains a mobile-home park, the nondenominational Church at Rocky Peak, and a large condominium development. The Upper Iverson is also no longer open to the public, as it is now a gated community consisting of high-end estates along with additional condominiums and an apartment building.
Part of the ranch has been preserved as parkland on both sides of Red Mesa Road, north of Santa Susana Pass Road in Chatsworth. This section includes the famous "Garden of the Gods" on the west side of Red Mesa, in which many rock formations seen in countless old movies and TV shows are accessible to the public. This includes the area on the east side of Red Mesa that includes the popular Lone Ranger Rock, which appeared beside a rearing Silver, the Lone Ranger's horse, in the opening to each episode of The Lone Ranger TV show. This area has been owned by the Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy since 1987.
The location of the ranch was in the northwest corner of Chatsworth, along the western side of Topanga Canyon Boulevard where it currently intersects with the Simi Valley Freeway.
Lasky Ranch – San Fernando Valley Providencia Ranch
The First Lasky Ranch in the San Fernando Valley was located on the Providencia Ranch. In 1912, Universal purchased the property and named it Oak Crest Ranch. This old Universal ranch was built for the production of Universal 101Bison Brand Westerns.
Hunkins Stables and Gopher Flats are close to Old Universal/Lasky Ranch in the San Fernando Valley.
Lasky Movie Ranch – Ahmanson 'Lasky Mesa' Ranch
This area is noted for a filming location history of many important movies, including, The Thundering Herd (Famous Players–Lasky Co. 1925), Gone with the Wind (Selznick 1939) and They Died with Their Boots On, "Santa Fe Trail" (Warner Bros. 1940), and many others.
From The Moving Picture World, October 10, 1914 (page 622 relates to the Lasky ranch and page 1078 to the new Lasky Ranch):
"The Lasky company has acquired a 4,000-acre ranch in the great San Fernando valley on which they have built a large two-story Spanish casa which is to be used in The Rose of the Ranch" which has just been started. The new ground is to be used for big scenes and where a large location is needed. A stock farm is to be maintained on the ranch. It is planned to use 500 people in the story. There will be 150 people transported through Southern California for the mission scenes. The studio will be used for the largest scene ever set up, the whole state and ground space being utilized."
In 1963, the Ahmanson family's Home Savings and Loan purchased the property and adjacent land. Home Savings and Loan was the parent company of Ahmanson Land Company, and so the ranch became known as the Ahmanson Ranch. Washington Mutual Bank (WAMU) took over ownership of Home Savings and proceeded with the development plans for the ranch.
The public advocacy for undeveloped open space pressure was very strong, and development was halted further by new groundwater tests showing migrating contamination of the aquifer with toxic substances from the adjacent Rocketdyne Santa Susana Field Laboratory (SSFL) experimental Nuclear Reactor and Rocket Engine Test Facility. The Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy and the State of California purchased the land for public regional park. The Lasky Movie Ranch is now part of the very large Upper Las Virgenes Canyon Open Space Preserve, with various trails to the Lasky Mesa locale.
The property was sold to a conservancy in 2003 but some filming was done there afterwards, including some scenes for the 2006 film Mission: Impossible III. More recently, it has been a hiking area.
Monogram Ranch/Melody Ranch
Originally known as 'Placeritos Ranch', the ranch in lower Placerita Canyon was commonly referred to as the 'Monogram Ranch'. Russell Hickson owned the property from 1936 until his death in 1952, and built-reconstructed all original sets on the ranch. A year later in 1937, Monogram Pictures signed a long-term lease with Hickson for 'Placeritos Ranch', with terms that the ranch be renamed 'Monogram Ranch.'
After Gene Autry purchased the property in 1953, he renamed it as 'Melody Ranch.' It is located near Santa Clarita, California, just north of Newhall Pass. In 1962 a brush fire destroyed most of the western town sets on the ranch, and Autry sold , most of Melody Ranch.
The remaining property was purchased by the Veluzats in 1990 for the new Melody Ranch Studios movie ranch.
From 1926, early silent films were often shot in Placerita Canyon, including silent film westerns featuring Tom Mix. In 1931, Monogram Pictures took out a five-year lease on a parcel of land in central Placerita Canyon. The western town constructed there was located just east of what is now the junction of the Route 14 Antelope Valley Freeway and Placerita Canyon Road. Today this is part of Disney's Golden Oak Ranch (see below) near Placerita Canyon State Park.
In 1935, as a result of a Monogram-Republic studio merger, the 'Placerita Canyon Ranch' became owned by the newly formed Republic Pictures. In 1936, when the lease expired, the entire western town was relocated a few miles to the north at Russell Hickson's 'Placeritos Ranch' in lower Placerita Canyon, near the junction of Oak Creek Road and Placerita Canyon Road. The property was leased by the newly independent Monogram Pictures, and renamed as 'Monogram Ranch' in 1937.
Gene Autry, actor, western singer, and producer, purchased the 'Monogram Ranch' property from the Hickson heirs in 1953. He renamed the property 'Melody Ranch' after his 1940 film of the same name, and his following Sunday afternoon CBS radio show (1940–1956) and . A brushfire swept through 'Monogram Ranch' in August 1962, destroying most of the original standing western sets. The devastated landscape was useful for productions such as Combat!. A large Spanish hacienda, and a complete adobe village survived on the northeast section of the ranch.
In 1990, after the death of his horse 'Champion,' which Autry had kept in retirement there, the actor put the remaining ranch up for sale. It was purchased by Renaud and Andre Veluzat to be developed as an active movie ranch for location shooting. The Veluzats have a complex of sound stages, western sets, prop shop, and the backlots. They call it the 'Melody Ranch Motion Picture Studio' and 'Melody Ranch Studios.'
The ranch has a museum open year-round. One weekend a year the entire ranch is open to the public during the Cowboy Poetry & Music Festival, held at the end of April.
The Melody Ranch Studio was used in 2012 for filming some scenes for Quentin Tarantino's Django Unchained. The owners in 2019 were Renaud and Andre Veluzat.
Paramount Movie Ranch
In 1927, Paramount Studios purchased a ranch on Medea Creek in the Santa Monica Mountains near Agoura Hills, between Malibu and the Conejo Valley. The studio built numerous large-scale sets on the ranch, including a huge replica of early San Francisco, an Old West town, and a Welsh mining village (built by 20th Century Fox for (1941) How Green Was My Valley, and later redressed (with coal mine tipple removed) as a French village for use in (1943) The Song of Bernadette, and again used for (1949) The Inspector General). Western town sets posed as Tombstone, Arizona, and Dodge City, Kansas, as well as Tom Sawyer's Missouri, 13th-century China, and many other locales and eras around the world.
It is now Paramount Ranch Park in the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area. The National Park Service took over a section of the lot in 1980 and restored the sets, working from old black and white photographs. The NPS website lists movie and TV productions filmed there.
The Western Town was constructed during 1954 when Paramount purchased (Academy Award-winning) sets previously used at RKO Pictures Encino Movie Ranch, and was a location for some of the era's popular TV Westerns, including The Cisco Kid and Gunsmoke. This remaining set of buildings continued to be used in filming, notably for the Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman television series and the HBO series Carnivàle, and more recently Westworld.
Paramount Ranch was most recently used as a filming location for The Mentalist, Weeds, The X-Files, Hulu's Quickdraw, as well as season 1 and 2 of Westworld and season 3 of Escape the Night, a YouTube Premium show by Joey Graceffa.
The Paramount Ranch was also the home of the original Renaissance Pleasure Faire of Southern California from 1966 to 1989, the home of the Topanga Banjo•Fiddle Contest, held each May, and the eponymously titled Paramount Ranch, an alternative art fair founded from 2014 to 2016.
The Paramount Ranch structures suffered near-total destruction during the November 2018 Woolsey Fire. By that time, it was managed by the National Park Service but some filming had been done here for Westworld (TV Series) Seasons 1 and 2. Parts of the 2015 movie Bone Tomahawk were filmed here.
A campaign called The Paramount Project was launched as of November 16 to aid in the reconstruction efforts to rebuild Paramount Ranch.
RKO Encino Ranch
The RKO "Encino Ranch" was an movie ranch located on the outskirts of the city of Encino, California, in the San Fernando Valley, near the Los Angeles River and west of today's Sepulveda Basin Recreation Area on Burbank Boulevard. RKO Radio Pictures purchased the property, then still a ranch bordered by similarly undeveloped land, as a location to film their epic motion picture Cimarron (1931). The picture was a critical success, going on to win Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Writing, Best Art Direction, and Best Make-Up. Art Director Max Ree won the art direction award for creative design of the theme sets constructed on the former Jasmine Quinn Ranch, which consisted of both a complete western town and a three block modern main street built to represent the fictional Oklahoma town of Osage.
In addition to Cimarron scenery, RKO continued to create a vast array of diverse sets for their ever-expanding movie ranch, included a New York City avenue, brownstone street, English row houses, slum district, small town square, residential neighborhood, three working train depots, mansion estate, New England farm, western ranch, a mammoth medieval City of Paris, European marketplace, Russian village, Yukon mining camp, ocean tank with sky backdrop, Moorish casbah, Mexican outpost, Sahara Desert fort, plaster mountain range diorama, and a football field sized United States map which Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers danced across in The Story of Vernon and Irene Castle (1939). Also constructed were scenery docks, carpentry shop, prop storage, greenhouse, and three fully equipped soundstages averaging each.
Selected movies that contain scenes shot on the Encino Ranch include: What Price Hollywood? (1932), King Kong (1933), Of Human Bondage (1934), Becky Sharp (1935), Walking on Air (1936), Stage Door (1937), The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939), Kitty Foyle (1940), Citizen Kane (1941), Cat People (1942), Murder, My Sweet (1944), Dick Tracy film noir series (1945-1947), It's a Wonderful Life (1946) (Bedford Falls),They Live by Night (1948), and many more.
A Dragnet episode, shot in 1953 for an NBC 1954 broadcast, was the last project to film on the ranch. Entitled "The Big Producer", it featured the then crumbling lot as the fictitious "Westside Studio".
The ranch property was sold in 1954 to developers to put up the Encino Park housing tract, which featured modern home designs by architect Martin Stern, Jr.
Republic Pictures Ranch – Walt Disney Golden Oak Ranch
The former Republic Pictures Movie Ranch off Soledad Canyon became the Walt Disney Golden Oak Ranch in 1959. The ranch is located in central Placerita Canyon near Santa Clarita, California in the northern San Gabriel Mountains foothills. It was named for the Gold discovery by Francisco Lopez in the wild onion roots under the "Oak of the Golden Dream", in present-day Placerita Canyon State Park. The Ranch was still being used for occasional filming, when Walt Disney took an interest in the property. In 1959, driven by concern that the ranches of other movie studios were gradually being sub-divided, Disney purchased the ranch. During the next five years, the Walt Disney Studios also bought additional land which enlarged the property to .
The Walt Disney Company worked closely with the State of California when a portion of the western border of the ranch was purchased for the Antelope Valley Freeway. This construction was carefully planned so that it didn't intrude into the film settings. In 2009, Disney announced the expansion of the studio complex, with master planning and environmental impact studies commencing. The expanded site would be called Disney | ABC Studios at The Ranch.
Disney productions that have done filming at the Golden Oak Ranch over the past decades include Old Yeller, Toby Tyler, The Parent Trap, The Shaggy Dog, Follow Me Boys and more recently, The Santa Clause, Pearl Harbor, Princess Diaries II and Pirates of the Caribbean II & III.
Spahn Movie Ranch
The Spahn Movie Ranch is a property located on Santa Susana Pass in the Simi Hills above Chatsworth, California. The Spahn Movie Ranch, once owned by silent film actor William S. Hart, was used to film many westerns, particularly from the 1940s to the 1960s, including Duel in the Sun, and episodes of television's Bonanza and The Lone Ranger. A western town set was located at the ranch.
Dairy farmer George Spahn purchased the in 1953, from former owners Lee and Ruth McReynolds. Spahn added more sets and rental horses, making it a popular location for horseback riding among locals. This continued to be the location for various B movie and TV series film until the late 1960s. As the western genre became less popular, however, the ranch became almost deserted. The Spahn Ranch was the primary headquarters of the infamous Manson Family by 1968.
Spahn allowed the Manson group to live there rent-free in exchange for housework and sexual favors from the group's women, according to TIME. The ranch was the base for the group's murder of Sharon Tate and six others over a two-day period in August 1969. The ranch and some residents are depicted in the Quentin Tarantino film Once Upon a Time in Hollywood. The scenes for the movie were actually filmed at Corriganville Park in Simi Valley.
A 1970 mountain wildfire destroyed the film set and the residential structures. The site that was the Spahn Movie Ranch is now part of the Santa Susana Pass State Historic Park. Spahn died in 1974.
20th Century Fox Movie Ranch
Located in the Santa Monica Mountains, the 20th Century Fox Movie Ranch (aka: Century Movie Ranch & Fox Movie Ranch) was first purchased in 1946 by 20th Century Fox. One of the first sets was a working New England farmhouse built for (1948) Mr. Blandings Builds His Dream House. From 1956 to 1957, 20th Century Fox productions filmed their first television series there: My Friend Flicka for CBS television.
The Fox Ranch was used for most exteriors of the CBS-TV series Perry Mason (1957–66).
The Century Movie Ranch was the main filming location with outdoor sets for the original 1970 MASH film and subsequent M*A*S*H (TV series). It was used as a location in dozens of films, including a number of the Tarzan movies, Robin Hood: Men in Tights, the original Planet of the Apes film and subsequent television series.
The Fox Movie Ranch property was purchased and preserved in the new state park, Malibu Creek State Park, opened to the public in 1976. A few productions continued to be filmed there.
Other original locations
Bell Moving Picture Ranch
The Bell Moving Picture Ranch, later renamed the Bell Location Ranch, is off the Santa Susana Pass in the Simi Hills above the Spahn Movie Ranch site and Santa Susana Pass State Historic Park.
Among the many movies to film at Bell Ranch were Gunsight Ridge (1957), starring Joel McCrea; Escort West (1959), starring Victor Mature; Hombre (1967), starring Paul Newman; Gun Fever (1958), starring Mark Stevens; and Love Me Tender (1956), the first movie of Elvis Presley.
The climactic sequence in the Elvis movie Love Me Tender, a Western that also starred Richard Egan and Debra Paget, was filmed on a rugged slope at Bell Ranch known as the "Rocky Hill," with its exact location remaining a mystery for almost 60 years until it was discovered on an expedition by film historians in early 2015. The Victor Mature movie Escort West (1959) filmed at the same location, and shots from the two movies were combined to help find the site.
Many of the television Westerns used the ranch, including Bonanza, Gunsmoke, Zorro, The Monroes, How the West Was Won, Dundee and the Culhane, The Big Valley and Have Gun – Will Travel. Even McCloud used the Western street and surrounding area for an episode with Dennis Weaver. An episode of the original Star Trek series, "A Private Little War" (1968), was partly shot at Bell Ranch's Box Canyon using it to stand in for an alien world.
In 1990, all of the sets were removed but some filming continued.
Big Sky Ranch
Big Sky Ranch is a cattle ranch located in Simi Valley, California. It has been used for the filming of Western television shows and film productions. Some of the past television episodes and productions filmed there include: Rawhide, Gunsmoke, Bonanza, Little House on the Prairie, Highway to Heaven, Father Murphy, The Thorn Birds, Jericho and Carnivàle.
A fire in 2003 destroyed most of the standing sets, including a replica of the farm house from Little House on the Prairie and sets used in the TV series Gunsmoke and many movies.
, the ranch's web site indicated that it was still available as a filming location, "with rolling hills and great vistas and .. with secluded canyons, undulating valleys and a grand mesa. Credits in the past few years include "The Office", "Saving Mr. Banks", "Captain America", "Django Unchained", "Agents of SHIELD", "Hail Caesar", "The Revenant"
Jack Ingram Movie Ranch
Formerly the estate of Charles Chaplin, the ranch was purchased by Jack Ingram in 1944 from James Newill and Dave O'Brien, who had purchased the goat ranch in order to avoid the draft during World War II. When they were declared 4F unfit for military service, they sold the ranch to Ingram. Ingram purchased a bulldozer, and with the help of his friends including actors Pierce Lyden and Kenne Duncan built a western town of two streets on the site. The ranch included a house that Ingram lived in that could occasionally be seen in the background of some scenes shot at the ranch. In 1947 the Ingram ranch became the first movie ranch open to the public
In 1956, he sold the ranch to Four Star Television Productions. The Ranch Remains Abandoned.
Pioneertown
Pioneertown, California, in the Morongo Basin region of Southern California's Mojave Desert in San Bernardino County, California. The town started as a live-in Old West motion picture set on a movie ranch, built in the 1940s. The movie set was designed to also provide a place for the actors to live, while having their homes used as part of the movie set. A number of Westerns and early television shows were filmed in Pioneertown, including The Cisco Kid and Edgar Buchanan's Judge Roy Bean. Roy Rogers, Dick Curtis, and Russell Hayden were among the original developers and investors, and Gene Autry frequently filmed his show at the six-lane Pioneer Bowl bowling alley.
The sets have been retained as a tourist attraction which remained open as of April 2019.
Red Hills Ranch
Red Hills Ranch is a movie ranch in Sonora, California, which served as a location for Bonanza, The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr., Little House on the Prairie and other productions. The outdoor sets built for Back to the Future Part III (1990) and used in Bad Girls (1994) were destroyed by a lightning strike wildfire in 1996. It is no longer an area for filming.
Will Rogers State Historic Park
Will Rogers State Historic Park includes the former Pacific Palisades estate of American humorist Will Rogers, complete with his historic residence, equestrian ranch, and regulation polo field. Stradling Rustic Canyon, the scenic property was a popular location for film shoots.
Situated in the Santa Monica Mountains in western Los Angeles, the property was given to the state in 1944, and is open to the public. Extensive restoration was undertaken in 2010.
The property was closed indefinitely to filming because of fires in the area in November 2018.
Newer movie ranches
J.W. Eaves Movie Ranch
Located in Santa Fe, New Mexico, the J.W. Eaves Movie Ranch was opened in the early 1960s with their first production being the CBS television series Empire in 1962. Over 250 other productions have filmed here over the years including The Cheyenne Social Club, Chisum, Easy Rider and Young Guns II. In 1998, a tornado touched down one mile from the film crew of Wishbone's Dog Days of the West as they were shooting the western scenes. It dissipated as it headed toward the set.
The Eaves Ranch is open to the public and has been home to the Thirsty Ear roots music festival. Other festivals have also been held here, but some movie-making continues. For example, some scenes for the 2018 Cohen Brothers anthology film, The Ballad of Buster Scruggs, were filmed here.
Skywalker Ranch
The Skywalker Ranch is not a movie ranch in the conventional sense, but rather is the location of the production facilities for film and television producer George Lucas in Marin County, California. Based in secluded but open land near Nicasio in Northern California, the property encompasses over , of which all but remain undeveloped.
In 2019, the Skywalker Ranch web site stated that it "occupied the Technical Building, which features a world-class scoring stage, six feature mix stages, 15 sound design suites, 50 editing suites, an ADR stage, two Foley stages, and the 300-seat Stag Theater. The property also includes the iconic Main House and the beautiful Lake Ewok".
Southfork Ranch
Southfork Ranch is a working ranch in Parker, Texas, a northern suburb of Dallas, that is used for some location filming. It was the backdrop for the 1980s prime time soap opera Dallas and its 2010s continuation.
As of 2019, it was a tourist attraction.
Circle M City
Circle M City, in Sanford, North Carolina, is the set for the Christian movie Cowboy Trail. Backing up to of land, this town features a church that seats 50 people, a mercantile, bank, saloon, livery, jail, costumes, and horses.
In 2019, it was a venue for various events and weddings.
Other Santa Clarita ranches
In addition to the original Monogram Ranch/Melody Ranch and Republic Pictures Ranch/Disney Golden Oak Ranch, a number of other movie ranches have been established in the Santa Clarita Valley. According to the L.A. Times in 2012 there were about 10 movie ranches there, including Blue Cloud Movie Ranch, Rancho Deluxe, and Sable Ranch.
Productions that have done some filming at the Rancho Deluxe studio include "SWAT", "Timeless", "LA to Vegas", "MasterChef", and seasons one and two of HBO's "Westworld". A 2016 fire destroyed trees and brush but not the structures.
Sable Ranch is a 400-acre property in Santa Clarita that featured lakes, a western town, a hacienda, barn, fields, and a train. The large field enabled the construction of large sets and has been used by numerous film and television series including The A-Team and in subsequent years 24 and Wipeout. The ranch was destroyed in the Sand Fire wildfire on July 24, 2016.
However, by 2019, Sable Ranch was at least partially back in business, serving as the filming site for the Wipeout-inspired mini-golf competition Holey Moley. In May 2019, fires caused additional damage to some of the movie sets.
See also
Studio zone
History of cinema
Cinema & Film
Sound stage
Backlot
Location shooting
List of productions using the Vasquez Rocks as a filming location
References
Further reading
External links
Apacheland Movie Ranch official website
Columbia Ranch history website
Corriganville history website
Ray 'Crash' Corrigan; bio & photos at Corriganville.
Corriganville Regional Park.
Golden Ranch
Santa Fe movie ranch
Circle M City movie ranch
Iverson Movie Ranch history website
Iverson Movie Ranch: History, vintage photos.
Iverson Movie Ranch: Filmography.
Iverson Movie Ranch Analyzes virtually every rock seen in a movie, includes pictures of the site today.
nps.gov-SMMNRA: Maps
The Old Corral – Homepage
ProductionHUB : Directory : Apacheland Movie Ranch
Kalamazoo Living History Show – Official Web Site
Panoramic and aerial views of the Iverson Movie Ranch 1955 and before.
J.W.Eaves at Monument Gallery
Will Rogers State Historical Park
Lasky Mesa in the Movies
Comprehensive Lasky Mesa Filmography
Lasky Mesa
Red Hills Ranch at The Internet Movie Database
Red Hills Ranch at Bonanza: Scenery of The Ponderosa
Melody Ranch:
Melody Ranch: historical sets and filming photos
IMDB: Melody Ranch; Cinema & TV Filmography.
"Movie Magic in Placerita Canyon" Melody Ranch history website
contemporary 'Melody Ranch Motion Picture Studio' website
www.melodyranchstudio. Melody Ranch Studio Museum
Paramount Movie Ranch Links:
National Park Service: 'Paramount Ranch'
Paramount Ranch visitor guide
IMDB: Paramount Movie Ranch: Cinema & TV Filmography.
Paramount Movie Ranch: filming history
Paramount Ranch history website
Film location shooting
Film production
Scenic design
Cinema of Southern California
Cinema of the United States
Ranches in the United States
San Fernando Valley
Culture of Hollywood, Los Angeles
History of Simi Valley, California
History of Los Angeles County, California
History of Ventura County, California |
4299607 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%AA%20L%E1%BB%A3i | Lê Lợi | Lê Lợi (, chữ Hán: 黎利; c. 10 September 1384/1385 – 5 October 1433), also known by his temple name as Lê Thái Tổ (黎太祖) and by his pre-imperial title Bình Định vương (平定王; "Prince of Pacification"), was a Vietnamese rebel leader who founded the Later Lê dynasty and became the first king of the restored kingdom of Đại Việt after the country was conquered by the Ming dynasty. In 1418, Lê Lợi and his followers rose up against Ming rule. He was known for his effective guerrilla tactics, including constantly moving his camps and using small bands of irregulars to ambush the larger Ming forces. Nine years later, his resistance movement successfully drove the Ming armies out of Vietnam and restored Vietnamese independence. Lê Lợi is among the most famous figures of Vietnamese history and one of its greatest heroes.
Background
From the mid-1300s, Đại Việt faced serious troubles that damaged much of the kingdom. The fourteenth century ecological breakdown led to a social crisis as the ruling Trần dynasty weakened. Even in the capital, Thăng Long, turmoil broke out in 1369–70, provoking a princely coup and a short, bloody civil war. From the south, the Chams under Chế Bồng Nga repeatedly fought against Đại Việt, and even sacked Thăng Long in 1371. In 1377 Champa defeated and killed Đại Việt's king Trần Duệ Tông in a battle near Vijaya, then marched north and against sacked Thăng Long four more times from 1378 to 1383. The repeated destruction of a radical intellectual and reformer, Hồ Quý Ly (c. 1336 – 1408). In 1399 Hồ Quý Ly deposed the Trần royal family and declared himself as ruler of Đại Việt. This provoked a response from the Ming dynasty, who invaded Vietnam under the pretext of restoring the deposed Trần dynasty. In 1406 215,000 Chinese troops crossed the border commanded by generals Zhang Fu and Mu Sheng; they quickly defeated Hồ Quý Ly's army, conquered Vietnam, and renamed the country Jiaozhi.
The Ming Chinese began building up their colonial administration in Jiaozhi Province, encouraging the Ming Confucian ideology, bureaucratic and Classic Chinese study to the local people, forced the Vietnamese to wear Chinese clothes and adopt Chinese culture. The Ming government enjoyed some support from the Vietnamese, at least in the capital of Thăng Long, but their efforts to assert control in the surrounding countryside were met with stiff resistance. A general popular dissatisfaction with the colonial arrangement seems clear. Between 1415 and 1424, 31 uprising and revolt leaders against the Ming emerged in Lạng Giang, Nghệ An, Hanoi, Ninh Kiều, Lạng Sơn and other prefecture capitals where the Ming troops were stationed.
Early life
Lê Lợi was born on the sixth day of August, 1385 in Lam Giang village, Lam Sơn, Thanh Hóa province in a noble family, and he was the youngest among three sons. His father Lê Khoáng, was a wealthy Vietnamese aristocrat nobleman/land owners in the village, although there is some evidence to suggest his family was Hmong in origin. The Lê/Lê Duy clan was the powerful clan in Lam Sơn for hundreds of years. The area of Lam Sơn, Thanh Hóa back then in the late 14th century was a mixed region with various ethnic groups such as Vietnamese, Hmong and Tai villagers.
During Lê Lợi's early adult time, the Ming invasion and occupation suddenly happened. During two Trần princes's revolts against the Chinese rules (1408 – 1414), Lê Lợi joined the revolt as nominally in charge of the royal guard. He was arrested and imprisoned by the Chinese from 1413 to 1415 after the Trần princes were defeated, and other revolts were suppressed in 1411 and 1420. After his release, he worked as a tutor officer and translator for the Ming colonial administrator in Ngã Lạc county, Lạng Sơn (modern-day Bình Gia District, Lạng Sơn Province). He then became involved in a feud with a neighboring strongman who denounced him as a rebel to the Ming. The Ming chased him back to his village. It was widely reported that when Lê Lợi's daughter was nine years old, a Chinese eunuch, Ma Ji (fl. 1410–1427) had taken her away from her parents and sent her into Yongle's harem. Yongle's grand secretary Yang Shiqi noted that Zhang Fu time and again criticized Ma Ji's wanton behavior in Jiaozhi. Although Ma Ji did the bidding of His Majesty, his conduct provided the catalyst that brought the new uprising. The Chinese also said that Lê Lợi escaped to Laos and Cambodia several times. In early 1418, Lê Lợi again raised the flag of resistance at his home village of Lam Sơn, declaring himself Bình Định vương (平定王, Prince of Pacification).
Revolt against Ming rule
Lam Sơn revolt (1418–1423)
Lê Lợi began his revolt against the Ming Chinese on the day after Tết (New Year) February 1418. He was supported by several prominent families from his native Thanh Hóa, most famously were the Trịnh and the Nguyễn families. Initially, Lê Lợi campaigned on the basis of restoring the Trần family to power. A relative of the Trần king was chosen as the figurehead of the revolt but within a few years, the Trần pretender was removed and the unquestioned leader of the revolt was Lê Lợi himself.
From the start, the Ming had tried to ensure that local opposition forces would not obtain the new weapons technology, including the Chinese
musket known as the magic handgun. The Yongle Emperor had ordered all firearms counted and well-guarded. The Ming occupying army of Jiaozhi consisted 87,000 regulars, scattered in 39 citadels and towns in Northern Vietnam, but clustered in the Red River Delta areas. They also employed a significant number of local auxiliaries. Chinese armies had employed firearms before the fifteenth century, but they came to possess superior weapons from Annam during the Vietnamese campaigns of the early fifteenth century. They also captured one of the leading Vietnamese firearms experts, Hồ Nguyên Trừng (1374—1446), the eldest son of Hồ Quý Ly, who was charged with manufacturing their superior muskets and explosive weapons. The Artillery Camp was thus built around these Vietnamese firearm specialists, who instructed Ming soldiers under the supervision of palace eunuchs. The first record of firearm usage in Đại Việt was in 1390 when Vietnamese soldiers used cannons and killed the Cham king Chế Bồng Nga. Lê Lợi's Lam Son rebels employed firearms, copied in rebel-built arsenals from Ming weapons used against Hồ Quý Ly army ten years earlier.
When the Lam Son uprising took place, the Ming commanding officer was Marquis Li Bin, who stern attitude toward the Annamites of Jiaozhi and disregard for their sensibilities and political aspirations only intensified their hatred for the Chinese. In early 1418, Lê Lợi and his men successful managed and ambushed a Ming patrol column on the upper Chu River, near Lam Son but was then betrayed by a turncoat who showed Ming units a way to attack him by surprise from the rear. His partisan party scattered and he briefly went into hiding before regaining enough strength to ambush the Ming patrol and force it to withdraw. In 1419 Lê Lợi attacked and seized a Ming outpost near Lam Son held by a local noble who was working for the Chinese, and beheaded 300 enemies captured here. In the next year, Lê Lợi spent time marching around the western highlands to recruit more men. In late 1420 his force ambushed a Ming patrol. The Chinese marquis, Li Bin responded by mobilizing Ming and local military forces to against him, but Lê Lợi defeated them, gained the control over Quan Hoa district on the upper Mã River.
In late 1421, a large Ming army marched to the Mã River valley to attack Lê Lợi and the Vietnamese rebels. A Laotian army with 30,000 men and 100 elephants from Lan Xang approached down the valley from the opposite direction. Lê Lợi was under the illusion that the Laotians were his allies. However, they sided with the Ming and joined the Chinese to laid siege on Lê Lợi. By the end of 1422, Lê Lợi was utterly defeated and sued for peace. In 1423 he was forced to return to Lam Son. The Ming army offered a peace treaty, in which Lê Lợi paid an indemnity with unspecified amounts of gold and silver in return for food, salt, rice, and farm implements. However, the Ming arrested the messenger Lê Trăn. This raised suspicion to Lê Lợi and he cancelled the peace pact.
Capture of Nghệ An
Within a month of taking the throne, Emperor Zhu Gaozhi (r. 1424–1425), Zhu Di's son and successor, issued a proclamation indicating a dramatic change of Ming policy in Jiaozhi. calling for "reform", he abolished the collection of commodities. In other initiatives, he moved to end Zheng He's voyages, and he downgraded the role of the military. He wanted to consolidate the core of what had been achieved by his father and grandfather but had no taste for costly adventures. He recalled Huang Fu from Jiaozhi and lowered the priority of holding that distant place. After only one year as emperor, Zhu Gaozhi died suddenly of a heart attack, but his son and successor, Zhu Zhanji (r. 1425–1435), continued his father policies.
In late 1424, news of the new emperor's proclamation and of Huang Fu's recall prompted Lê Lợi to set out on a new trajectory. He returned the resistance movement as the rebel leader in the Thanh Hoa highlands. Lê Lợi rebuilt his partisan army, follow his comrade, Nguyễn Chích to march south through the mountains into Nghệ An, where they ambushed a Ming force in Quỳ Châu district. The Lam Son partisans advanced to Con Cuong district on the upper Cả River. By the end of 1424, Le Loi's rebels had forced the Ming army being clustered in Vinh, which is provincial capital of Nghệ An. Le Loi recruited thousands soldiers from ethnic minority in the highland west of the Cả River delta for his army. His forces then defeated an army of ethnic minority troops who had joined the Ming cause. Then they headed east down into the coastal lowlands of Nghệ An. He sought to convince the densely ethnic-Kinh population areas in Nghe An by demonstrating discipline and refraining from exactions.
In 1425, as the Ming court was preoccupied with the death of one emperor and the accession of another, Lê Lợi led armies both to the south and to the north. In the south, his soldiers under Trần Nguyên Hãn defeated a Ming army in modern Quảng Bình and then marched through modern Quảng Trị and Thừa Thiên, and gained control of the southern land. In the north, Lê Lợi's men captured a Ming supply fleet in northern Nghệ An, then pursued the Ming force in Thanh Hoa and besieged them at Tây Đô. Nguyễn Trãi, a Confucian scholar who was a comrade of Lê Lợi, helped him mapped the army's strategy and tactics.
By the end of 1425, Lê Lợi's Vietnamese rebels liberated all land from Thanh Hoa to the south, and besieged all the Ming forces in the region.
Pushing north
In 1425, the Ming Emperor Zhu Zhanji expressed his opinion that it would be better to restore the Trần dynasty and return to the old tributary relationship. In the next year, Zhang Fu requested permission to resume command of Ming Jiaozhi army to deal with the worsening situation there, the emperor refused. In 1426, Zhu Zhanji proclaimed a general amnesty and abolished all taxes in Jiaozhi except for land taxes to be paid in rice, needed to supply Ming garrisons.
In 1426 Lê Lợi sent his armies led by his generals, Trịnh Khả, Lý Triện, Đỗ Bí, Lưu Nhân Chú, Bùi Bị, Đinh Lễ and Nguyễn Xí through the mountains north of Tây Đô to emerge at the head of the Red River plain, threatening Dongguan and cutting it off from the road to Yunnan. When Ming soldiers were recalled from Vinh to reinforce Dongguan, Lê Lợi, leaving some troops to besiege Vinh, followed the Ming forces as they moved north, rallying thousands of men from Thanh Hoa as he went. Pushing into the Red River Delta he proclaimed as king a certain Trần Cảo, supposedly a Trần prince. Men and scholars from the Red River Delta began to join his army as he called for those who had favored the Ming to come to his side and arrested those who did not. The Chinese general, Wang Tong, at Dongguan as Huang Fu's replacement, was prepared to surrender, but local people who were loyal to Ming persuaded him to resist. Civilians in the Red River Delta welcomed and supported the Lam Son army where they came.
In early December 1426, Lý Triện and Đinh Lễ's 3,000 Vietnamese rebels achieved a surprise victory over the Ming army led by Wang Tong with about 30,000 Chinese soldiers were killed or captured in Tốt Động (32 km south of Hanoi) while countless horses,
supplies, weapons, and so on fell into Vietnamese hand. Among these Ming troops were 510 soldiers armed with firearms, led by the regional military commander of the Firearms Battalion, Xie Rong, whom had been sent on May 8, 1426, by the Ming emperor to follow Wang Tong.
By 1427, captured northern and Muslim prisoners also furnished the Vietnamese with siege techniques, primitive tanks, flying horse carts, Muslim trebuchets (hui hui pao 回回砲), and another artillery piece that the Chinese called a "thousand-ball thunder cannon".
By the beginning of 1427, five major Ming strongholds were under siege. These were Dongguan and Tây Đô; Cổ Long, a fortress built to guard the southern entrance to the Red River delta in Y Yen district, near Vu Ban in Nam Định Province, on the road between Dongguan and Tây Đô; a fortress at Chí Linh, near Phả Lại, that guarded the eastern part of the Red River delta; and Xương Giang, a citadel at the modern city of Bắc Giang that guarded the route out of the Red River Delta to the northern border. All the Ming garrisons south of Tay Do had surrendered. Lê Lợi established his headquarters at Bồ Đề, in Gia Lâm district, directly across the Red River from Dongguan.
Final victories
In late March 1427, around 120,000 Chinese reinforcements led by Liu Sheng and Mu Sheng advanced into Jiaozhi from Yunnan and Guangxi, included 10,000 crack troops who had followed Zheng He on his expeditions.
At first, Lê Lợi commanded the residents be moved Lạng Giang, Bắc Giang, Quy Hoa, Tuyên Quang to segregate Ming troops. He knew Liu Sheng kept the main forces, so he sent Le Sat, Le Nhan Chu, Le Van Linh, Dinh Liet to wait at Chi Lang, and at the same time commanded Le Van An, Le Ly to take alternative forces to support. With Mu Sheng's forces, he knew Thanh was an experienced general and will be waiting for Liu Sheng's results before taking actions, so Lê Lợi commanded Pham Van Xao and Trinh Kha entrenched all time. In September, Liu Sheng's 90,000-strong army was defeated in Chi Lang, himself was executed.
Mu Sheng heard Liu Sheng was killed and beheaded so he scared and ran away. Pham Van Xao and Trinh Kha followed, killed 10,000 soldiers, arrested 1,000 ones and horses.
Le Loi understood that Ming Jiaozhi was at its end. The Ming were unlikely to make any serious effort to reassert their control in Jiaozhi.
By making Trần Cảo king, Lê Lợi satisfied the aim of restoring the Trần that had ostensibly led to the initial Ming intervention and that Zhu Zhanji now eagerly want to terminate further intervention. With imperial forces under siege, Ming could not be idle. Maintaining the appearance of empire required efforts to reinforce or to rescue the besieged remnants of Jiaozhi.
After a six-month siege on the Ming-held citadel of Xương Giang, the citadel fell to Lê Lợi in October 1427, ended the war. The Xuande Emperor of the Ming dynasty decided to withdraw his army from Northern Vietnam. After this final victory, the Vietnamese repatriated 86,640 Ming prisoners to China and confiscated all their weapons. The defeat is considered by historian Ben Kiernan as the greatest policy disaster suffered by the early Ming empire. China would not again invade its southern neighbor for 360 years. According to a Ming report, Le Bi (黎秘), the chief eunuch of Lê Lợi and 10,000 Vietnamese were killed after Ming forces crushed and defeated their invasion in 1427 of a Chinese town in Guangxi.
Restoring Đại Việt
In 1427, after 10 years of war, Đại Việt regained its independence and the Ming Empire officially acknowledged Đại Việt as an independent state (Annam). On April 15, 1428, Lê Lợi took the throne and claimed himself King of the restored Dai Viet kingdom. He chose his reign name Thuận-Thiên (順天), literally "To obey Heaven."
Lê Lợi's proclamation of independence reflected the Sino-Vietnamese tensions as well as Vietnamese pride and patriotism:
Reign
Lê Lợi formally re-established Đại Việt as the Xuande Emperor of the Ming Empire officially recognized Lê Lợi as the king of Dai Viet in 1431. In return, Lê Lợi sent diplomatic messages to the Ming imperial court, promising his loyalty as a nominate tributary state of China and cooperation, and paid 50,000 gold taels for obtaining investiture. The Ming imperial court accepted this arrangement, much as they accepted the vassal status of Korea under the Joseon dynasty. Lê Lợi briefly established good relations with Champa's king, Indravarman VI (r. 1400–1441).
Lê Lợi renamed the capital, Thăng Long, to Đông Kinh, which later known as Tonkin. He embarked on a significant reorganization of the Vietnamese government, based on the old system of government which was developed during the late 14th century. He also elevated his longtime comrades and generals such as Nguyễn Trãi, Tran Nguyen Han, Lê Sát, Pham Van Sao, and Trịnh Khả to high official rank.
The Le government rebuilt the infrastructure of Vietnam: roads, bridges, canals. Land distribution were awarded to soldiers that contributed in the war against the Ming Empire. He revived the classical examination and devised good administrative laws. With the peace returned, men released from the army service, included non-Viet soldiers, were encouraged to settle in low density areas in the country, increasing rice production led population expansion during his reign, particularly in the coastal areas.
From 1430 to 1432, the king and his army fought a set of campaigns in the hills to the west of the coastal area. Then, in 1433, he became sick and his health declined. On his deathbed he appointed his prince Lê Sát as the regent for his second son, who would rule after him as Lê Thái Tông. He was posthumously named as Thái Tổ.
Internal palace politics quickly decimated the ranks of Lê Lợi's trusted counselors, Trần Nguyên Hãn committed suicide when he was being taken to the capital for investigating his suspected betrayal, Phạm Văn Xảo was executed in 1432 and Lê Sát, who ruled as regent for five years, was executed in 1438. Nguyễn Trãi was killed in 1442 (it was claimed he was involved in or responsible for the death of Lê Thái Tông). Only Trịnh Khả survived to an old age and even he was executed in 1451.
Myths and legends
Many legends and stories were told about Lê Lợi (magical sword, escaped death thanks to fox,...). In story help from fox, Lê Lợi was fighting Ming dynasty for Vietnam's independence. When he was defeated and ran, he saw a corpse of a woman on the way. Lê Lợi then dug a hole and gave her a proper burial, saying that if she protected him from getting captured, he would repay her.
When the Ming soldiers were close, he hid in the bushes. The Chinese soldiers then sent dogs to sniff him out, but spotted within the bushes was a fox with a human face. The fox ran away and the dog followed, but those Ming soldiers killed the dogs for not doing their proper jobs. The soldiers then left, and Lê Lợi escaped capture.
After he became king, he would return to that area and set up a shrine, conferring the woman the title of Hộ Quốc Phu Nhân, or Lady Protector of the Nation. The fox spirit eventually became a local god of the area.
The most famous story concerns his magical sword. Much like King Arthur and his sword Excalibur, Lê Lợi was said to have a magic sword of wondrous power. One story tells that he obtained the sword, inscribed with the words 'The Will of Heaven' (Thuận Thiên) from the Dragon King (Vietnamese: Long Vương), a demi-god to the local people, who decided to lend his sword to Lê Lợi. But there was a catch: the sword did not come straight to him in one piece.
It was split into two parts: a blade and a sword hilt. First, in Thanh Hóa province, there was a fisherman named Lê Thận, who was not related to Lê Lợi in any way. One night, his fishing net caught something heavy. Thinking of how much money he would get for this big fish, he became very excited. However, his excitement soon turned into disappointment when he saw that his catch was a long, thin piece of metal which had somehow become entangled to the net. He threw it back into the water, and recast the net at a different location. When he pulled the net in, the metal piece had found its way back into the net. He picked it up and threw it far away with all its strength. The third time the fishing net came up, the same thing happened, the metal piece was once again caught in the net. Bewildered, he brought his lamp closer and carefully examined the strange object. Only then did he notice that it was the missing blade of a sword. He took the blade home and not knowing what to do with it, put it in the corner of his house. Some years later, Lê Thận joined the rebel army of Lê Lợi, where he quickly rose in ranks. Once, the general visited Lê Thận's home. Lê Thận's house lacked lighting, so everything was dark. But as though it was sensing the presence of Lê Lợi, the blade at the corner of the house suddenly emitted a bright glow. Lê Lợi held up the blade and saw two words manifesting before his very eye: Thuận Thiên (Will of Heaven). With Lê Thận's endorsement, Lê Lợi took the blade with him.
One day, while on the run from the enemy, Lê Lợi saw a strange light emanating from the branches of a banyan tree. He climbed up and there he found a hilt of a sword, encrusted with precious gems. Remembering the blade he found earlier, he took it out and placed it into the hilt. The fit was perfect. Believing that the Heaven had entrusted him with the great cause of freeing the land, Lê Lợi took up arms and rallied people under his banner. For the next few years, the magic sword brought him victory after another. His men no longer had to hide in the forest, but aggressively penetrated many enemy camps, captured them and seized their granaries. The sword helped them push back the enemy, until Vietnam was once again free from Chinese rule. Lê Lợi ascended the throne in 1428, ending his 10-year campaign, and reclaimed independence for the country. The stories claim Lê Lợi grew very tall when he used the sword and it gave him the strength of many men. Other stories say that the sword blade and the sword hilt came together from different places, the blade fished out of a lake, the hilt found by Lê Lợi himself.
The stories largely agree on what happened to the sword: One day, not long after the Chinese had accepted Vietnam as independent, Lê Lợi was out boating on a lake in Hanoi. The golden turtle, Kim Quy, advanced toward the boat and the king, then with a human voice, it asked him to return the magic sword to his master, Long Vương (Dragon King), who lived under the water. Suddenly it became clear to Lê Lợi that the sword was only lent to him to carry out his duty, but now it must be returned to its rightful owner, lest it corrupt him. Lê Lợi drew the sword out of its scabbard and lobbed it towards the turtle. With great speed, the turtle opened its mouth and snatched the sword from the air with its teeth. It descended back into the water, with the shiny sword in its mouth. Lê Lợi then acknowledged the sword had gone back to the Long Vương (Dragon King) and caused the lake to be renamed 'The Lake of the Returned Sword' (Hoan Kiem Lake) located in present-day Hanoi.
Countless poems and songs were written about Lê Lợi, both during his lifetime and in later years. Lê Lợi is looked upon as the perfect embodiment of the just, wise, and capable leader. All future Vietnamese kings were measured against the standard of Lê Lợi and most were found wanting.
Every town in Vietnam has one of the major streets named after Lê Lợi, but in Hanoi the name is Lê Thái Tổ Street.
In popular culture
In video games
The video game Age of Empires II HD: Rise of the Rajas contains a six-chapter campaign depicting Lê Lợi.
The Japanese video game "Hero * Senki WW" features a playable female version of Lê Lợi.
The name of Vietnamese MMORPG video game Thuận Thiên kiếm is named after the mythical sword of Lê Lợi.
In anime
Japanese anime "Fate/Grand Order x Himuro's Universe: Seven Most Powerful Great Figures Chapter".
Ancestry
Notes
Sources
Bibliography
See also
List of Vietnamese dynasties
External links
Short biography of Le Loi from Vietmedia.com
The Legend of Le Loi from JourneyFromTheFall.com
Ho Quoc Phu Nhan (It is for reference only, need more reference source)
1380s births
1433 deaths
Vietnamese rebels
Lê dynasty emperors
Vietnamese Buddhists
Vietnamese Confucianists
Vietnamese nationalists
Vietnamese revolutionaries
15th-century Vietnamese monarchs
Vietnamese monarchs
Founding monarchs |
4300161 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement%20Higham | Clement Higham | Sir Clement Higham, or Heigham, (pre-1495 – 9 March 1571) of Barrow, Suffolk, was an English lawyer and politician, a Speaker of the House of Commons in 1554, and Chief Baron of the Exchequer in 1558–1559. A loyal Roman Catholic, he held various offices and commissions under Queen Mary, and was knighted in 1555 by King Philip, but withdrew from politics after the succession of Queen Elizabeth I in 1558.
Background and early career
Clement Heigham was the son and heir of Clement Heigham of Lavenham, Suffolk, the fourth son of Thomas Heigham of Heigham (died 1492). His mother was Matilda (Maud), daughter of Lawrence Cooke of Lavenham. His exact birth date is not known, but (if we follow Metcalfe's edition) he was the first of five sons, also Thomas, John, William and Edmond. His father died on 29 August 1500, and was buried under a marble slab in the Braunches chapel on the north side of the chancel of Lavenham church, with a brass figure in full armour, a brief Latin inscription, and above it a single shield for Heigham displaying Sable a fess componée or and azure, between 3 horses' heads erased argent. (The brasses are long since lost.)
It is suggested that Clement may have received early education from the monks of Bury St Edmunds. He was admitted at Lincoln's Inn in July 1517, but, being appointed an officer for the Inn's celebration of Christmas in 1519, failed to turn up, and was fined. He was called to the bar in 1525. In around 1520 he married Anne Monnynge, of a mid-Suffolk family, and over the next years she had five daughters, and one son (who died in infancy). In 1521 Clement Heigham, Roger Reve (brother of John Reve, Abbot of Bury St Edmunds 1513–1539) and Thomas Munning were among the feoffees for 2nd Duke of Norfolk and others in lands at Stow Bardolph and Wimbotsham, Norfolk.
By 1528, however, his first wife was dead, and he remarried to the widow Anne Bures, daughter of George Waldegrave of Smallbridge, Suffolk and Anne Drury, with whom he had a further three sons and two daughters. Anne had previously been the wife of Sir Henry Bures (died 1528), of Acton Hall, Suffolk, and by him had four daughters, Joan, Bridget, Anne and another, who were small children at the time of the second marriage. They were therefore the step-sisters of Heigham's elder daughters, and of similar ages to them, and were to become the half-sisters of the Heigham children by the second marriage. Estimates of the birthdate of John Higham, his first son by Anne, range between c. 1530 and c. 1540.
His attainments as a lawyer, and perhaps the example of the Abbot's bailiff Thomas Heigham during the 1470s, had by 1528 recommended Clement Heigham to the office of Bailiff to the Abbey of Bury St Edmunds. In 1529 he first received commission as justice of the peace for Suffolk, and remained in the Suffolk magistracy for the rest of his life. He became Pensioner at Lincoln's Inn in 1531 and was called to the Bench in 1534. On the east side of the county of Suffolk, farm of the site of the manor of Semer was leased to him in 1532 under the Convent seal for 30 years. On the west side he developed tenures around the Abbey's manor and park of Chevington, not far from Gazeley and the hamlet of Heigham from which his family took its name. In his chambers at Lincoln's Inn Heigham was presented as Autumn Reader in 1537/38 (when he was also appointed Marshall, but fined £7 for not acting), and Keeper of the Black Book in 1538/39. Through this time the monastic closures occurred, and Bury Abbey was dissolved in 1539.
Dissolution and Edwardian period
Following the death in 1539 of Roger Reve, the Court of Augmentations instructed Clement Heigham of Chevington to pay £220 to Abbot John Reve (Roger's executor), and in March 1540, shortly before his death, John Reve made his own testament appointing Heigham his executor and disposing of the sum in many small legacies, not forgetting his sister Elizabeth Munning and her daughter. Reve gave to Heigham his valuable hangings in his great chamber at Horningsheath, and to Anne Heigham his best ring set with turkey stones. The manor and park of Chevington were among those granted to Sir Thomas Kytson in March 1540.
Serving as Treasurer of Lincoln's Inn in 1540–41, in December 1540 Heigham completed the purchase of the manor of Barrow, near Chevington, from Sir Thomas Wentworth (died 1551) of Nettlestead, by deed of Sir William Waldegrave of Smallbridge Hall (Anne Heigham's brother), Sir William Drury of Hawstead (her uncle) and Sir Thomas Jermyn of Rushbrooke Hall (her stepfather). Here he built his residence of Barrow Hall, which remained in the family of his descendants for more than two centuries. An illustration of the Hall, copied in 1779 from a 1597 original, survives. John Gage wrote of it, "Barrow Hall... stood on the south side of the church, and was a large brick building, moated. In the summer of 1775, the ground plan of the building was traceable. It was evident that the front had been broken by a central gatehouse, and several bay windows." The rectory of Barrow was then newly occupied as the benefice of a notable academic in the University of Cambridge, Dr Thomas Bacon, presented by the King in 1539. Heigham purchased the manor of Semer from the King for £426 in 1543.
Queen Katheryn's letter from Hampton Court of 25 July 1544 to the King in Calais, advising His Majesty that Clement Higham had been appointed by the Council and the High Treasurer of the Wars for the wafting of £40,000 unto His Majesty on the following Monday, indicates the high level of trust now reposed in him. He was again appointed Autumn Reader at Lincoln's Inn at All Souls 1545, but he was reported to be "sykke and disseased", and Giles Townsend had to read for him. The Solicitor-General (Edward Griffith) called an immediate council which appointed Heigham Lent Reader next coming if willing, or to pay a fine of 20 nobles, and wrote at once for his decision. He read at Lent 1547/48. Following the death of King Henry and the accession of Edward VI in 1547, the Autumn vacation of 1548 was not kept owing to a death from plague in the Inn, but at the Council at All Saints' Day 1548 Clement Heigham first sat as a Governor of Lincoln's Inn, and regularly thereafter through the reigns of Edward and of Mary, where he was often in company with Edward Griffith.
During the 1540s Anne Heigham's daughters were married: three of them were married to three brothers, the sons and coheirs of the royal physician William Butts (1486-1545) and his wife Margaret, heiress of the Cambridgeshire family of Bacon. Joan Bures married (Sir) William Butts the younger, lord of Thornage, Norfolk, who died in 1583; Bridget Bures married Thomas Butts, lord of Ryburgh Magna, Norfolk, who took part in the 1536 voyage of Richard Hore to Newfoundland; and Anne married Edmund Butts, of Barrow, Suffolk in 1547, and had a daughter Anne Butts. The fourth daughter, Mary, married Thomas Barrow of Shipdham, Norfolk, and was mother of the separatist, Henry Barrowe.
Abbot John had, until the dissolution of St Edmund's, been responsible for the collecting of the tenths in the diocese of Norwich (which Bishop Reppes had not blushed to spend), and in Edward's reign Heigham was still being held accountable for £972 outstanding so on the abbot's account. However, after an Act was introduced in 1549 to regulate and restore monastic pensions, in September 1552 Heigham was appointed a commissioner, together with Sir William Drury, Sir Thomas Jermyn (deceased), Sir William Waldegrave and others, to investigate abuses. They interviewed the late priors of Woodbridge and Eye, the abbot of Leiston and the prioress of Redlingfield, the Master and three fellows of Wingfield College, and many priests, former monks and lay annuitants. It was found that Ambrose Jermyn (son of Sir Thomas) had accepted the transfer of an annuity as an inducement for the granting of a benefice; Edward Reve had sold his annuity to John Holt, one of the commissioners.<ref>J.C. Cox, 'Ecclesiastical History' in W. Page (ed.), Victoria History of the County of Suffolk, Volume II (Archibald Constable and Company Limited, London 1907), pp. 1-53, at pp. 31-32 (Internet Archive).</ref> Heigham was given two geldings and named an executor in the will of Sir Thomas Jermyn, written September, proved December 1552.
Marian advancement
In the succession crisis of the following summer, on 8 July 1553 Queen Mary wrote to Sir George Somerset, Sir William Drury, Sir William Waldegrave and Clement Heigham, informing them of the death of King Edward and commanding them to repair to her at Kenninghall in Norfolk. They, together with the Earl of Bath, Sir John Sulyard, Sir Henry Bedingfield, Henry Jerningham and others were with her on 12 July, in preparation for her journey to London: their swift loyalty to her was afterwards remembered. Bedingfield and Drury had sat in March for the county of Suffolk; but it was in the parliament of October 1553 that Heigham sat first, initially for Rye, and was placed in charge of some important legislation, including an Act to avoid unlawful risings. Wyatt's rebellion intervened in February 1554. In April 1554 Heigham was returned to parliament for Ipswich, Suffolk, and had responsibility for the bill concerning Ordinances for Cathedral churches in late April. This parliament was dissolved in May 1554, and soon afterwards he was admitted to the Privy Council of England.
Speaker of the House of Commons
It was then in November 1554, following solemnization of the marriage of Philip and Mary, that, being returned for West Looe (Cornwall), Heigham was elected Speaker of the House of Commons. The Bishop of Winchester, Lord Chancellor, opened the proceedings by declaring that the parliament was called for the confirmation of true (i.e. Catholic) religion. Then Heigham, being chosen Speaker, "in an excellent oration, comparing the body politic to the body natural, introduced the three usual petitions, for freedom of speech, etc., and was accepted." He presided over very weighty affairs. Cardinal Pole, his attainder reversed, spoke before both houses. The schemes of Stephen Gardiner were accomplished: the Acts against the Pope were repealed, and those against Heresy revived. Almost forty members of the Commons rose and left the house when they saw that the majority were minded to capitulate: Heigham's colleague Edward Griffith, since May 1552 Attorney-General, was ordered to indict them.
The parliament was dissolved on 16 January 1555, and shortly afterwards, 27 January, Heigham was knighted by King Philip in his chamber, together with the Lord Mayor of 1554-1555 John Lyon, Robert Broke (Lord Chief Justice of the Common Pleas), Edward Saunders, John Whiddon and William Staunford, Justices. In a legal notice issued in July 1555, in which he legitimizes the heir of a priest of Mildenhall who had married in the time of King Edward, it is expressed that Philip and Mary "per Clementum Heigham militem Senescallum suum concesserunt...", Senescallus or steward presumably referring to his position in the Privy Council. At Lincoln's Inn, at the All Saints' Day Council of 1554, Mr. Hygham's name appeared second in precedence among the six Governors, between Edward Griffith, Attorney-General of the King and Queen, and William Cordell, Solicitor-General: one year later, Clement Hygham, Knight, headed the list. Sir William Waldegrave died during that year, leaving £20 among the children of his sister Anne wife of Clement Higham.
Heretics
According to Heigham's own epitaph,"In punishment unto the pore which ded their cryme lamentHe wold with pyty mercyfull from rigour soone relent:But unto them which wilfully contynude in offence,A terro[r] unto them he was in Justice true defence." Advancement to the summit of his career depended, for Heigham, upon the favour of Mary and her Chancellor, which came with expectations. Inevitably he was an instrument of their persecutions, and as a justice and magistrate he must frequently have given the first hearings to cases of religious delinquency. His reputation for severity towards common people as heretics seems borne out by a few stories in John Foxe's Acts and Monuments.
Hooper and Mountain
He was plunged directly into the full political force of Gardiner's intentions within hours of receiving his knighthood. On 28 and 29 January 1554/55 Heigham was in St Mary Overie where Stephen Gardiner with Edmund Bonner presided over a solemn company of the bishops, many lords, knights and others, to witness the public inquisition and excommunication of John Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester. Hooper was condemned, sentenced and handed over to the Sheriffs of London for burning. Many, including Sir Clement Heigham and Sir Richard Dobbs, were required to witness the notarial certificate of the proceedings. John Rogers (Prebendary of St Paul's), Dr. Rowland Taylor and Laurence Saunders (brother of Sir Edward) were condemned in the same session: Hooper was burned on 9 February 1554/55. On 5 March 1555, Queen Mary rewarded Heigham for his loyalty to her at Framlingham, and for his services as Speaker, by the grant in chief of the reversion of the manor and rectory of Nedging, Suffolk, with its lands in Semer, Bildeston, Whatfield and Chelsworth.
Heigham was also on the Cambridge Castle Bench with Sir Robert Broke, Edward Griffith and others when Thomas Mountain, the troubled minister of Whittington College was brought into the August sessions of 1555, after a long imprisonment, and was found to have no accusers. The County Sheriff for November 1554 to 1555, Sir Oliver Leader, spoke up for Mountain, and then said he had forgotten to bring with him the writ against the man. Griffith, in the meantime, was telling Mountain that he was a traitor and a heretic, and likely to be hanged. However without a writ or an accuser Broke and his fellow-justices were obliged in all equity to release Mountain on bail, which was immediately put up by his acquaintances, and he was later able to make an escape.
East Anglian martyrs
In Ipswich in summer 1555 Robert Samuel, a minister of East Bergholt, was imprisoned, and burnt at the stake on 31 August. During his confinement two devout women of reformist views, Agnes Potten and Joan Trunchfield, visited Samuel and gave him encouragement. Immediately after his execution they were arrested and imprisoned, and the accounts of the Chamberlains of Ipswich show that Sergeant Holmes made two journeys to the home of Sir Clement Heigham in that connection before they were burned in a single fire at Ipswich on 19 February 1555/56.
At about this time information had been given against Robert Pygot, a painter from Wisbech, for non-attendance at church. He was called into the sessions, and Heigham said to him, "Ah, are you the holy father the painter? How chance you came not to the church?": to which Pygot answered, "Sir, I am not out of the church; I trust in God." "No, sir", said Heigham, "this is no church: this is a hall." "Yea, sir", said Pygot, "I know very well it is a hall: but he that is in the true faith of Jesus Christ, is never absent, but present in the church of God." "Ah sirrah", said the judge, "you are too high for me to talk with, wherefore I will send you to them that are better learned than I." So he was taken to jail in Ely and interrogated, and was burned there on 16 October 1555.
Heigham was present at the examination of John Fortune alias Cutler, a blacksmith of Hintlesham who had influenced Roger Bernard (a man burned at Bury St Edmunds on 30 June 1556). The Bishop of Norwich interviewed him, and Heigham intervened at a critical point in the dialogue. The bishop told Fortune he should be burned like a heretic, and Fortune asked "who shall give judgement upon me?" The bishop said, "I will judge a hundred such as thou art", and Fortune asked again, "Is there not a law for the spiritualty as well as for the temporalty?" Sir Clement Heigham said, "Yes, what meanest thou by that?" Fortune told the bishop he was a perjured man, because he had taken an oath to resist the Pope, in King Henry's time: and therefore, like a perjured lawyer, he should not be allowed to sit in judgement. 'Then sayde maister Hygham: "it is tyme to weede out suche fellowes as you bee in deede".' (This is from Fortune's own account.) Fortune was condemned.
Foxe also mentions John Cooper of Wattisham, who was arraigned at a Bury Lent Assize in 1557 before Sir Clement Heigham for allegedly having said that he should pray "if God would not take away Queen Mary, that then the devil would take her away." This accusation, for a treasonable saying, was made by one Fenning, who is thought to have borne false witness: Cooper denied it. Heigham told Cooper "he should not escape, for an example to all heretics", and sentenced him to be hanged, drawn and quartered, which was accordingly done.
In July 1558 the outspoken country wife Alice Driver of Grundisburgh, near Woodbridge, who had been pursued for her Protestant views into hiding in the countryside, appeared before Sir Clement at the Bury Assizes. Before him her principal offence was to compare Queen Mary to Jezebel, and to call her by that name, for which Heigham then and there commanded that her ears be cut off, which was done. He then committed her to be interrogated by Dr Spenser, Chancellor of Norwich, at Ipswich, where her spirited defence led to her condemnation and death at the stake in November 1558. It is said that he issued a writ for the burning of three men at Bury St Edmunds about a fortnight before the death of Queen Mary, when it was already known that she was beyond hope of recovery.
Chief Baron of the Exchequer
In the parliament beginning 20 January 1557/58, in which William Cordell was chosen Speaker, Sir Clement Heigham sat for Lancaster. When the session rose on 7 March, Heigham had a few days earlier (2 March) received appointment "during good behaviour" to be Chief Baron of the Exchequer (though he had never held the rank of Serjeant-at-law), in succession to Sir Robert Broke. The great matter then in preparation was the indictment against John Harleston (Captain of Ruysbank Castle), Edward Grymeston (Comptroller of Calais), Sir Ralph Chamberlain (Lieutenant of Calais Castle), Nicholas Alexander (Captain of Newenham Bridge Castle) and Thomas Lord Wentworth (Deputy of Calais), that they had become adherents of the King of the French and had treasonably conspired to deprive Her Majesty of Calais and the other castles and to surrender them to the French during the preceding January. The indictment was found before Thomas Curtis (lord mayor), Sir John Baker (Chancellor of the Exchequer), Sir Clement Heigham and Sir Robert Broke on 2 July 1558. The Queen ordered Heigham and Sir John Sulyard to take inventories of the goods of the accused, and an account of their revenues since the loss of Calais, on 15 July 1558.
Elizabethan years
Heigham received a new patent as Chief Baron of the Exchequer upon the accession of Queen Elizabeth, but he resigned it on 22 January 1559, and so served only 10 months in the office in all, making way for Sir Edward Saunders to succeed him. The reversal of Mary's religious policy and the abhorrence of her persecutions was such that he withdrew from public office, and retired to Barrow Hall. He last appeared as Governor at the All Saints' Day 1557 Council of Lincoln's Inn, when his son-in-law Robert Kempe was Keeper of the Black Book. In November 1559 he was granted the arrears of an annuity relating to the wardship of his daughter Elizabeth Kempe's first marriage, to Henry Eden. His son and heir John Heigham, who had matriculated from Trinity Hall, Cambridge in 1555, was admitted to Lincoln's Inn on 7 May 1558. Sir Clement however retained his place in the Suffolk magistracy, and is said, in his epitaph, to have been beloved by his neighbours for his effectiveness in settling their disputes peaceably. On 22 June 1559, following the death of Dr Thomas Bacon (Master of Gonville Hall, Cambridge), incumbent, he presented John Crosyer, Cambridge B.A. (1535-1536), M.A. (1538), to the Rectory of Barrow.C.H. Cooper and T. Cooper, Athenae Cantabrigienses, I: 1500-1585 (Deighton, Bell & Co., Cambridge 1858), p. 191 and p. 282 (Google).
Heigham retained until his death the office of Chief Bailiff to the town of Bury St Edmunds, as he had held it since the time of Sir Robert Drury. He drew support from his long connection with Sir Nicholas Bacon, appointed Lord Keeper of the Great Seal and Lord Privy Seal to Elizabeth in 1558, who in the 1560s was building his residences at Old Gorhambury, Hertfordshire and Redgrave Hall, Suffolk. During the 1540s Heigham was connected with Bacon in the manors of Ingham, Ampton and Culford."Sir Nicholas Bacon Collection of English Court and Manorial Documents, 1200-1785", MSS 3211 (1543) and 3271 (1547) University of Chicago Library. In 1562 Bacon was recruited by Heigham, Ambrose Jermyn, John Holt and others, to assist in their attempts to obtain a charter for Bury St Edmunds. He wrote supportively, but expressing doubt as to the prospects of success.
John Heigham, the heir, married in 1562. It was in 1564 that Sir Nicholas Bacon's son and heir, Nicholas Bacon the younger, married Anne Butts, Dame Anne Heigham's granddaughter. Sir Thomas Kytson the younger (1540-1603), of Hengrave Hall, described to the Duke of Norfolk how he accompanied Sir Clement Heigham and other gentlemen of the county to meet the Lord Keeper between Bury and Newmarket, in his progress to Redgrave Hall. In August 1566 Sir Thomas Gresham wrote from Ringshall to William Cecil telling how he had met the Lord Keeper at Sir Clement Heigham's house, where "his Lordshipe sealed the Quene's Maiestie's bonds" before proceeding to St Albans. A letter of 1569 survives in which the Lord Keeper instructs his son to send a brace of bucks from Redgrave to Sir Clement Heigham. When Heigham died in 1571, the office of Bailiff of Bury St Edmunds was granted to Nicholas Bacon "as fully as it was formerly held by Robert Drury, Kt., or Clement Heigham, Kt."
John Crosyer, rector of Barrow, died in December 1569 leaving a charitable request to the poor of the village and to its church, arising from the rents of 13 acres of land in Bury St Edmunds. He was buried in front of the altar at Barrow under a stone with his effigy in brass, and a long English verse inscription referring (in the third person) to his education, his teaching, his example and his benefaction. There were also short inscribed scrolls, and six lines of prayer in Latin verse (in the first person), which have now gone.H.K. Cameron and
J.C. Page-Phillips, 'The Brass of John Crosyer at Barrow, Suffolk', Transactions of the Monumental Brass Society, XIII, pt. 3 (1982), pp. 224-31. Then on 28 May 1570 Sir Clement presented as rector another University of Cambridge academic, Dr Humphrey Busby, who had been (the second) Regius Professor of Civil Law in Cambridge from c. 1545 to c. 1550. He was apparently deputy as Vice-Chancellor to Walter Haddon (1549–50). Like Crosyer he was originally of Trinity Hall: in 1557-1558 he served at St Stephen Walbrook, but during the 1560s he was, as Dr Bacon had been, a member of Gonville Hall, and he established scholarships at both colleges. In 1573 Gabriel Harvey considered Busby to be senile, disputative, and over-fond of "seavenoclocke dinnars".
Heigham made his will on 10 November 1570. It opens with a lengthy prayer of repentance for his many sins, hoping for and trusting in forgiveness, so that he may have Grace to receive the body and blood in the form of bread, "the whiche after the consecracion thereof I steadfastly belive to be the verie bodie and bludd of our Saviour Jhu Christe, the whiche was crucified for me uppon the Crosse for the redempcon of me and all sinners", etc., thus professing his continued adherence to the mysteries of the Old English Religion. Naturally he could not make arrangements for a chantry, but he made numerous bequests to the poor people dwelling on his estates. The will, making his widow Anne and son John his executors, amply describes the family relationships, settling Barrow with all its appurtenances and other lands upon his widow Anne for life: they are to remain thereafter to his son John, who in his own right is to have the manor of Semer, or in default of issue it is to pass by entail through Sir Clement's heirs, all of whom are in other ways provided for. Sir Clement died on 9 March 1571 and was buried as he requested at Barrow, in the tomb described below. His son John received licence to enter upon his father's lands on 2 June 1571.
Marriage and children
Sir Clement married twice.
His first wife, Anne, is in some sources said to have been Anne Moonines daughter of John de Moonines of Semer Hall, near Bildeston, Suffolk, but in others to have been the daughter of Thomas Monnynge or Munninge of Bury St Edmunds. By her Sir Clement had one son, who died without issue, and five daughters:
Vincent Heigham (died in infancy).
Elizabeth Heigham, living 1570, married (1) Henry Eden of St Edmundsbury, and (2) Robert Kempe of Finchingfield, Essex.
Margaret Heigham, living 1570, married Humphrey Moseley, of Tunstall, Staffordshire; died 1606 aged 78, buried at Wolverhampton.
Anne Heigham, living 1570, married Thomas Turner of Wratting, Suffolk.
Frances Heigham, living 1570, married ----- Warren.
Lucy Heigham, living 1570, married (1) John Bokenham, of Snetterton, Norfolk, and (2) Francis Stonar, of Stapleford, Essex.
His second wife, whom he married after 1528, was Anne Waldegrave (1506–1590), widow of Sir Henry Bures of Acton, Suffolk, and daughter of Sir George Waldegrave (1483–1528) of Smallbridge in the parish of Bures St. Mary, Suffolk and his wife Anne Drury (d. 1572). (Anne Drury was a daughter of Sir Robert Drury, Lord of the Manors of Thurston and Hawstead, both in Suffolk (1455–1536)). (See also the Waldegrave family.) By Anne Waldegrave (who died in 1589 aged 84, and whose ledger stone survives in All Saints Church, Thornage, Norfolk) he had several children, including:
Sir John Heigham, eldest son and heir, an M.P. for Ipswich.J.P. Ferris, Heigham (Higham), Sir John (c.1540-1626), of Barrow and Bury St. Edmunds, Suff.', in A. Thrush and J.P. Ferris (eds), The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1604-1629 (from Cambridge University Press 2010), History of Parliament Online. He married (1), 1562, Anne, daughter of Edmund Wright (died 1583), of Sutton Hall, Bradfield Combust, Suffolk, and (2), Anne, daughter of William Poley of Boxted, Suffolk.
Thomas Heigham, buried Ampton, Suffolk, 1597.
William Heigham, of East Ham, Essex, died 1620 aged 73. He married Anne, daughter of Richard Stoneley, Teller of the Exchequer.
Judith Heigham, died 1571, married John Spelman, of Narborough, Norfolk.
Dorothy Heigham, married (1561) Sir Charles Framlingham, of Crowes Hall, Debenham, Suffolk.
Monument
Sir Clement is buried in the Church of All Saints at Barrow, Suffolk. Against the south wall of the chancel is a tomb-chest surmounted by a low canopy with a flat-arched roof, ornamented within with quatrefoils and Tudor flowers. Externally the canopy has a horizontal frontage carved with quatrefoils (three enclosing shields, two enclosing double roses) between coursed mouldings, crowned above with a frieze of lozenge-formed crinkled foliage between the slender octagonal columnar quoins which rise at the corners as turrets. The front of the tomb-chest has three lozenges enclosing quatrefoil tracery with a heraldic shield at the centre of each.
Beneath the canopy, a brass memorial of composite construction is set into the upright wall at the back. In the lower part are two large brass rectangular plates set adjacent, containing an epitaph to Sir Clement Heigham in 44 lines of English rhymed heptameter couplets, engraved in very controlled gothic lettering. Directly surmounting these are three figural groups separately mounted. Sir Clement, in full plate armour and with sword, appears centrally: he kneels in prayer at a desk with an open book upon it, his helmet beside it and his gauntlets hanging in front of it. He faces sinister (to the right as viewed), towards a separate group facing towards him, representing his second wife (Anne Waldegrave) kneeling at another desk, and behind her their two daughters, Judith and Dorothy.
Sir Clement faces away from a third group on the dexter side (left as viewed), representing his first wife Anne Munnings kneeling at another desk, with their five daughters, Elizabeth, Margaret, Anne, Frances and Lucy, kneeling behind her. Between Sir Clement and this group is a gap with three rivet holes in the wall, representing a missing fourth group directly behind him which should have shown his sons by his second wife, John, Thomas and William Heigham. Vincent, the son of the first marriage who died in infancy, is shown by a kneeling shrouded chrisom child just behind Sir Clement himself.
Above these images are three heraldic shields. The central one, engraved on a square plate of latten, bears the arms of Heigham (quarterly 1st and 4th Heigham; 2nd and 3rd Francys), including the crest of a horse's head erased, argent''. The other two escutcheons are shield-shaped plates. The shield to the right as viewed, above the second wife, contains the arms of Waldegrave, 1st and 4th (shown as a quartering with Montchency, Creake, Vauncy and Moyne), quartered with Fray, 2nd and 3rd. The shield to the left as viewed represents the impalement of the Heigham quartering (as before) on the dexter side, with the Waldegrave quartering (as before) on the sinister side: it is the heraldic representation of the second marriage.
The arms of Heigham (not quartered with Francys) are displayed in a window at Lincoln's Inn.
References
1571 deaths
People from the Borough of St Edmundsbury
Speakers of the House of Commons of England
Members of the pre-1707 English Parliament for constituencies in Cornwall
Chief Barons of the Exchequer
English barristers
Members of Lincoln's Inn
Year of birth uncertain
English MPs 1553 (Mary I)
English MPs 1554
English MPs 1554–1555
English MPs 1558
Members of the Parliament of England (pre-1707) for Ipswich
16th-century English lawyers
1495 births |
4300317 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/84th%20Regiment%20of%20Foot%20%28Royal%20Highland%20Emigrants%29 | 84th Regiment of Foot (Royal Highland Emigrants) | The 84th Regiment of Foot (Royal Highland Emigrants) was a British regiment in the American Revolutionary War that was raised to defend present day Ontario, Quebec and Atlantic Canada from the constant land and sea attacks by American Revolutionaries. The 84th Regiment was also involved in offensive action in the Thirteen Colonies; including North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Virginia and what is now Maine, as well as raids upon Lake Champlain and the Mohawk Valley. The regiment consisted of 2,000 men in twenty companies. The 84th Regiment was raised from Scottish soldiers who had served in the Seven Years' War and stayed in North America. As a result, the 84th Regiment had one of the oldest and most experienced officer corps of any regiment in North America. The Scottish Highland regiments were a key element of the British Army in the American Revolution. The 84th Regiment was clothed, armed and accoutred the same as the Black Watch, with Lieutenant Colonel Allan Maclean commanding the first battalion and Major General John Small of Strathardle commanding the second. The two Battalions operated independently of each other and saw little action together.
First Battalion
Historical context - Quebec and Ontario
The British Province of Quebec (which included much of the present-day provinces of Quebec and Ontario) was the target of an invasion by Continental Army forces in 1775.
Lieutenant Colonel Allan Maclean, Commander, 1st Battalion
The distinguished war hero, Lieutenant Colonel Allan Maclean of Torloisk (1725–83), was authorized by Lieutenant General Thomas Gage to raise a regiment from Scottish communities in Canada, New York and the Carolinas. The 84th Highland Regiment was the first to be raised from American Loyalists. The soldiers were drawn from those who had served Britain in the Seven Years' War – the 42nd Regiment of Foot (Black Watch), 77th Regiment of Foot (Montgomerie's Highlanders), and 78th Fraser Highlanders.
The prospect of raising regiments in the Thirteen Colonies was a dangerous mission. Only two battalions of the five originally requested were raised because of the difficulty of recruiting. When Maclean arrived in New York not long after the war broke out, he was warned not to disembark in his uniform for fear of attack. As a result, when travelling alone he dressed as a doctor. The dangers of recruiting American Loyalists became even clearer after the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge, a patriot victory, in North Carolina.
Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge, North Carolina
Members of the 84th Highland Regiment were in the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge, North Carolina, in early 1776. On 27 February 1776, the 84th Regiment, with a number of new recruits, was marching to the port of Wilmington, North Carolina. There they were to join with a force arriving from Europe and participate in operations in the southern colonies. The recruited force, at first numbering 1,600 American Loyalists but reduced during the march by desertions to fewer than 800, faced off against 1,000 American Patriots. The American Loyalists' movement was blocked by Patriot forces on two occasions, but the Loyalists managed to bypass them to reach the bridge over Widow Moore's Creek. Captain McLeod, who had survived the Battle of Bunker Hill, was killed leading the charge at Moore's Creek Bridge. Half of the regiment was captured and thirty were killed; with ninety six officers and men taken prisoner. The majority of the Carolina recruits were never able to join the regiment since the Loyalist forces were scattered after the battle.
Lt. Col. Donald MacDonald helped with the recruiting in North Carolina and fought in the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge. Both MacLean and MacDonald were taken prisoner.
Sorel, Quebec, Headquarters, 1st Battalion
In 1777 the Headquarters moved from Quebec to Sorel.
Military operations – Quebec
Under McLean's command, the First Battalion acted primarily to defend Quebec from American Patriot forces. It marched from Quebec in an attempt to repel Brigadier General Richard Montgomery's invasion in the Siege of Fort St. Jean, Quebec. The regiment made two attempts to relieve the fort, but eventually returned to Quebec, where it helped to stiffen the resolve of the civil population until Carleton's return from Montreal.
The regiment was also involved in the Battle of Quebec. Montgomery and Benedict Arnold, who led an expedition through the wilderness of what is now Maine, combined forces and mounted attack on Quebec City. At a crucial moment in the battle, Captain McDougal led 120 of the 84th and 60 Royal Navy sailors against a force of New Hampshire troops commanded by Henry Dearborn. They overwhelmed Dearborn's men, forcing the survivors to surrender.
Military operations – Thirteen Colonies
Later in the war, they took part in raids upon Lake Champlain in 1778 and into the Mohawk Valley in 1780, 1781 and 1782.
Second Battalion
Historical context – Atlantic Canada
The 84th was tasked with defending British maritime provinces from American Revolutionary attacks by land and sea. Throughout the war, American privateers devastated the maritime economy by raiding many of the coastal communities. There were constant attacks by American privateers, such as the Sack of Lunenburg, Nova Scotia (1782), numerous raids on Liverpool, Nova Scotia (October 1776, March 1777, September, 1777, May 1778, September 1780) and a raid on Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia (1781). There was also a naval engagement with a French fleet at Sydney, Nova Scotia, near Spanish River, Cape Breton (1781).
In the fall of 1775 General George Washington authorized some ship's captains to engage in privateering activities. In violation of their charter (which allowed the taking of ships but not raids on land targets), the privateering ships Hancock and Franklin made an unopposed landing at Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, on 17 November 1775. Three days later, they sailed to Nova Scotia and raided Canso, Nova Scotia. In 1779, American privateers returned to Canso and destroyed the fisheries, which were worth £50,000 a year to Britain.
To guard against such attacks, the 84th was garrisoned at forts around the maritime provinces. One such fort was Fort Howe, at the mouth of the Bay of Fundy at what is now Saint John, New Brunswick. As soon as the fort was built, it was immediately pillaged and burned by American privateers (August, 1775). Saint John was raided three more times in the span of two months (1777) before the 84th was able to rebuild Fort Howe.
In Newfoundland, American privateers sacked numerous ports such as Chateau Bay (1778) and Twillingate (1779). Off the coast of Newfoundland, the 84th Regiment were the first to defeat an American privateer in the Battle of the Newcastle Jane (1776). Major Small also had companies from the 84th Regiment stationed in Fort Frederick, Placentia, Newfoundland.
The 84th Regiment also defended Nova Scotia, attacking an American privateer off Lunenburg, Nova Scotia (1775). The 84th was led by Captain John MacDonald. They boarded the warship when part of its crew were ashore seeking plunder. They captured the crew and sailed her into Halifax.
There were also Patriot attacks on Nova Scotia by land, such as the Battle of Fort Cumberland (also known as the Eddy Rebellion). There was the constant fear that American Patriots would attack Halifax, Nova Scotia, by land. The threat involved American Patriots landing in Windsor and marching to Halifax. As a result, in the summer of 1778, Major John Small moved the headquarters of the 84th Regiment from Halifax to Fort Edward (Nova Scotia) in Windsor.
Major General John Small, Commander, 2nd Battalion
When Col. Allan Maclean landed in America, he discovered that Major General John Small, was already mobilizing American Loyalists from the 13 Colonies as well as present day Ontario, Quebec and Atlantic Canada to create a Highland Regiment. Along with getting soldiers who fought in 77th Regiment of Foot (Montgomerie's Highlanders) and 78th Regiment of Foot (Fraser's Highlanders), Small was recruiting soldiers from the 42nd Regiment of Foot (Black Watch); the same regiment that he had served with in the Seven Years' War. The regiment was known as the "Young Royal Highlanders" until it turned into the 84th Regiment.
Small was involved with also recruiting new immigrants as they arrived off transports from the British Isles. On one occasion, the transport George arrived in New York with 172 immigrant Highlanders. Major Small went aboard, explained the situation, and pressed the men into service. Small gave them assurance that their families would be well taken care of by the regiment. The same thing happened on October 3, 1775, with Scottish immigrants arriving in New York on the ship Glasgow. On that occasion, there were 255 immigrants (men and their families). Upon Small redirecting the immigrants to Halifax, the officer in command in Halifax reported that their amount of luggage was enough to "fill St. Paul's Church."
Battle of Bunker Hill, Boston
Major John Small was engaged to establish the Royal Highland Emigrants on 13 June 1775. Five days later, on June 17, before recruits could be found, Small and a number of other officers of the 84th Regiment were in the Battle of Bunker Hill. Small was a central figure in the battle, leading the 38th and 43rd Regiments in storming the hill. Along with three other members of the 84th Regiment who were wounded, Small was also wounded in the arm by cannon fire. He relayed his experience to John Trumbull, who then painted his famous painting The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill, in which Major Small is one of the central figures in the painting. Although the British won the battle, it was very costly: 226 were killed and 828 were wounded.
Fort Edward, Headquarters, 2nd Battalion
Fort Edward (Nova Scotia) in Windsor was the Headquarters for the 84th Regiment in Atlantic Canada.
Initially, the headquarters for the 84th Regiment was in Halifax. During the nine years of the war, members of the Battalion served on Detachments around Halifax: the Redoubt & Fort Needham (Halifax), Fort Sackville (Bedford), Fort Charlotte (Georges Island (Nova Scotia), Fort Clarence (Eastern Battery, Dartmouth). The 84th Regiment was also stationed at four locations around the Bay of Fundy: Fort Edward (Windsor), Fort Anne (Annapolis), Fort Cumberland (Amherst), and Fort Howe (Saint John). There were also forts that the 84th were stationed at on Cape Sable, Fort Cornwallis (Kentville, Nova Scotia), Sydney Mines Battery (Spanish River, Sydney), Fort Frederick (Placentia, Nfld.). The Regiment was also at Fort Hughes (New Brunswick) (Oromocto, New Brunswick). As well the 84th Regiment was stationed at forts in the 13 Colonies: Brooklyn Heights (New York) and Ft. Augusta (Georgia).
Because of the threat of a land assault on Halifax by landings in Windsor, Small moved the headquarters for the 84th Highland Regiment from Halifax to Fort Edward, Windsor (1778). The 84th operated on land and sea. In June 1779, for example, the 84th Regiment at Fort Edward had captured twelve American privateers, who had plundered many small vessels and neighbouring inhabitants on the Bay of Fundy. The prisoners were wounded. The prisoners were almost rescued by another American privateer vessel the Statagem, from Marblehead which had a crew of nine. Upon seeing the fate of the prisoners, however, they abandoned the rescue mission for fear of sharing the same fate. One report stated, "It is to be hoped that if they dare return they will fare no better."
Small assigned Captain Allan Macdonald, husband of the famous Scottish heroine Flora MacDonald, to be the commander of Fort Edward for five years.
Flora MacDonald
Captain Allan Macdonald had fought in the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge in North Carolina, where he was captured. He was imprisoned for two years until a prisoner exchange in 1777, when he was sent to New York and then to Fort Edward in Windsor, Nova Scotia. Major Small gave him command of the Second Battalion, 84th Regiment, at Fort Edward (Nova Scotia). He served there along with two of his sons, Ranald and Charles, who were among the young officers of the regiment.
In 1750, at the age of 28, Flora married Captain Allan Macdonald of Kingsburgh, and in 1773 together they emigrated to Montgomery County (formerly Anson), North Carolina. Flora actively participated in recruiting men for the 84th Highland Regiment, displaying once more her resolution. She exhorted the 84th Regiment at Cross Creek, North Carolina (present-day Fayetteville) before they went off to fight in the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge. After Flora's husband was taken prisoner, Flora remained in hiding while the American Patriots ravaged her family plantation and she lost all her possessions. When her husband was released from prison, she travelled with him out of North Carolina to New York and then to Fort Edward in Windsor, Nova Scotia, in the fall of 1778. Flora only stayed in Nova Scotia for one year at Fort Edward, Windsor. In 1779 Flora returned home to Dunvegan Castle in Isle of Skye, Scotland. After the war, in 1784, Allan followed her.
There is a plaque at Fort Edward which reads:
"Flora MacDonald: A name that will be mentioned in history, and if courage and fidelity be virtures, mentioned with honour" - Samuel Johnson
The preserve of Bonnie Prince Charlie spent the winter of 1779 here with her husband, Captain Allan Macdonald of the Royal Highland Emigrants, when returning to her old home in Skye. After exile from her home in North Carolina. Her loyalty and devotion in the midst of troubled days have long been told in Scottish song and story.
Military operations – Atlantic Canada
Battle of Newcastle Jane, Newfoundland
On October 23, 1776, under the Captain Murdock MacLaine, the 84th Regiment was in the Battle of the Newcastle Jane. This battle was the first in which a merchant British vessel defeated an American Privateer vessel. The 84th Regiment was on the transport ship Newcastle Jane off the coast of Cape Race, Newfoundland. On board the ship was 20,000 pounds sterling and 3,000 sets of uniforms, much of which was for the 84th Regiment. On October 23 at 4:00 am American privateer came within 30 yards of Newcastle Jane. The American had ten carriage guns and twelve swivel guns and Newcastle Jane had only 6 three-pound carriage guns and a few swivels. The ships opened fire on each other. After a 24-hour standoff, the 84th Regiment had outmanoeuvred the Americans, leaving them with many wounded and a damaged vessel. By the time the battle was over, Newcastle Jane only had two rounds of shot left.
Lachlan Macquarie
One of the crew in the Battle of Newcastle Jane was a young recruit Lachlan Macquarie, who eventually became known as "the Father of Australia." Macquarie began his military career in 1776 at the age of fourteen when he sailed from Scotland to the New World. The attackers were repulsed and, six months later, on 9 April 1777, he obtained an ensigncy in the 84th Regiment. He did garrison duty, first in Nova Scotia, and then in New York and Charleston. He was commissioned a lieutenant in the 71st Regiment in January 1781. In 1784 he returned to Scotland from his posting in Jamaica, and was reduced to half-pay.
Siege of Saint John (1777)
Machias, Maine was used as a base for privateering against Nova Scotia and as a staging and supply point for American Patriot attacks on Fort Frederick, Saint John and Fort Cumberland. In 1776, privateers from Machias had burned Fort Frederick at Saint John to the ground. In 1777, American forces briefly controlled Saint John. In response, Major John Small personally led a force to drive out the Americans. When the 84th Regiment landed at Saint John on June 30, 1777, the Americans retreated to the woods. The 84th marched through the woods and were ambushed by the American. Twelve Americans and one member of the regiment were killed. Weeks later, on July 13, 1777, American privateers again attacked Saint John and were repulsed by the 84th. In August 1777, the Americans attacked yet again and were successful, carrying off 21 boatloads of plunder. The 84th immediately began to replace the low-lying Fort Frederick with Fort Howe, which overlooked the settlement. Fort Howe became instrumental in curtailing privateer action and was used as an assembly point for attacks on the 13 Colonies.
Raid on Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia
On September 4, 1778, the 84th Regiment, under the command of Ranald MacKinnon, was in the Raid of Cape Sable Island. Privateers were threatening Cape Sable Island when the 84th arrived; they surprised the ship in the night and destroyed it. For his aggressive action, MacKinnon was praised highly by Brigadier General Eyre Massey. In response, one of his friends, Captain MacDonald, wrote to Major John Small, "McKinnon was embarrassed by the praise of the General and requested it not be inserted in the record since he only did his duty."
Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia
On October 2, 1778, the 84th Regiment, under the command of Captain MacDonald, was involved in the defeat of an American privateer at Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia. Captain MacDonald arrived at Annapolis by ship, only to find a large privateer ship raiding the port. He destroyed the privateer vessel, which mounted ten carriage guns. Captain MacDonald also caught the attention of General Massey, who wrote that he "highly approved" of his conduct.
Captain Campbell of the 84th Regiment, in December 1778, took seven men with him to retrieve an American privateer that was abandoned on Partridge Island. They returned the ship safely to Annapolis Royal.
In 1780, Rev. Jacob Bailey was appointed the Deputy Chaplain to the 84th Regiment.
In another raid on Annapolis Royal in 1781, prisoners were captured by the crew of an American privateer and later released on parole on promise of exchange for an American prisoner at Halifax.
Military operations – Thirteen Colonies
Maine
In November 1777, the 84th Regiment was involved in the raid of a fort at Castine, Maine, a privateering port at the mouth of the Penobscot River. The capture of this vital port interrupted its use as a staging area by privateers to attack Nova Scotia.
Southern theatre
Upon leaving New York, the Second Battalion, 84th Regiment was engaged in the Southern theatre of the American Revolutionary War. The Southern theater was the central area of operations in the second half of the American Revolutionary War. During the first three years of the conflict, the primary military encounters had been in the north, focused on campaigns around the cities of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. Earlier in the war, the 2/84th Regiment was involved in trying to take Charleston, South Carolina, in the Battle of Sullivan's Island. On June 24, companies of the 2/84th Regiment from Boston and New York left their ports to descend upon Fort Sullivan (later renamed Fort Moultrie), South Carolina. Four days later the 84th Regiment from New York, on June 28, 1776, engaged in the Battle of Fort Sullivan (see Fort Moultrie National Monument). The fleet bombarded the fort and suffered excessive damage by return fire. The attack was a failure; 38 of the regiment died.
The 2/84th Regiment was involved in a skirmish at Wiboo Swamp, Savannah River, Clarendon County, South Carolina (1781). 3 of the 84th Regiment were killed as were about 18 American Patriots.
The 2/84th Regiment was then involved in protecting the Loyalist stronghold of Augusta, Georgia. The first skirmish was at Wiggin's Hill, Savannah River, Georgia, in April 1781. The Patriots surprised the regiment at Wiggin's Hill, but were twice repulsed. The 84th then took prisoners, killed many of them and burned their homes. Captain McKinnon tried to stop what he considered his own regiments "barbarity". The 84th was also involved with trying to protect Fort Motte in the Siege of Fort Motte, Georgia (1781). The 2/84th Regiment was forced to surrender on May 12 and were taken prisoner.
Siege of Ninety-Six, South Carolina
On June 18, 1781, the 2/84th Regiment was involved with the relief of the American Loyalists besieged by Americans Patriots in the Siege of Ninety-Six. The American Patriots were trying to defeat the American Loyalists who were trapped in an earthen fortification known as the Star Fort. The American Patriots had 1,000 troops in a siege against the 550 American Loyalists. On the 28th day of the siege, Lord Rawdon, along with the 2/84th Regiment arrived. The American Patriots retreated and those in the Star Fort were saved, although Ninety-Six was abandoned by the British not long after.
John Bond
One of those in the Star Fort who belonged to the Ninety-Six Militia was Captain John Bond. Along with the rest of the American Loyalists from Ninety-Six, John Bond eventually left South Carolina and settled in Rawdon Township (see Rawdon, Nova Scotia), the place being named after Lord Rawdon who had saved them in the siege.
Battle of Eutaw Springs
The American Patriots attacked Orangeburg, South Carolina, with 2,600 troops. The 2/84th were part of a British force of 2,300, which stopped their advance at the Battle of Eutaw Springs on September 8, 1781. In the battle, the 84th Regiment lost 6 killed, 22 wounded and 2 missing.
Skirmish at Fair Lawn
In the last months of the war, the Second Battalion, 84th Regiment, defending Charleston, was involved in the Skirmish at Fair Lawn (also known as Fair Lawn Barony, Colleton House, "below Monck's Corner"). The battalion was in the area of the hospital where many of their fellow wounded soldiers were located. They were also stationed at a blockhouse near Baggen's Bridge, which lead directly to Charleston. They had few soldiers in the area and the captain in charge was forced to choose between either protecting the hospital or protecting the bridge that led to Charleston. He chose to protect the bridge. On November 17, 1781, the American Patriots attacked the undefended hospital; pillaging it and then burning the building to the ground. Most of the wounded were dragged into the surrounding woods and swamps, where they died from exposure and maltreatment.
After this incident, the 2/84th Regiment went to Georgia, Florida and Jamaica. In Georgia, they were involved in the skirmish on the Ogeechee River, Burke County (1781).
Uniform and equipment
The 84th was the only Highland regiment to keep and use its traditional highland uniform; plaids and swords, for the duration of the war. General Gage specified that the new military unit would be "cloathed Armed and accoutred in like manner with His Majesty's Royal Highland Regiment", indicating that they would wear the Highland Scots military uniform, unlike the more conventional uniforms worn by other Provincial units.
The original uniform of the first battalion was the green Provincial uniform, consisting of a long, green coat, tri-cornered black hat, breeches, and gray hose. They were armed with surplus King's Long Land Muskets from the Seven Years' War. In the second quarter of 1777, they received kilts, belted plaids (or perhaps both) in the government sett and wore these with their green Provincial coats (which were shortened) until these wore out, at which time they were replaced with the red coats of regulars.
The Second Battalion did not do as well; having to provide for their own uniforms until the local governor was formally ordered to clothe and arm them in the autumn of 1776. Upon their incorporation into the Regular Establishment, their uniform was standardized to the short Highland- style coat with dark blue facings and white turnbacks. The regimental lace is presumed to have been white tape, with one blue worm between two red ones: but this description is based on a later 84th Regiment's practices. No contemporary descriptions of the regimental lace have been discovered. Buttons had one of three variations; all of which incorporated "84th" with the customary Highland embellishment. The men were issued plaids or kilts of government sett. Each man was also issued a bonnet, multiple shirts and a white wool waistcoat with regimentally marked buttons. (In addition, each man was issued two pairs of gaitered trousers, one of linen for the summer and one of blue wool for the winter. - this statement not currently supported by documentation). Companies in the South Theatre were issued brown wool gaitered trousers for the winter instead of blue wool. Officers' uniforms used gold lace and buttons. In winter, it was common for the men to wear trousers and plaids simultaneously. Members stationed in Canada were issued a wool waistcoat, a blanket coat, overshoes, a watch cape, mittens, ice creepers, and snow shoes.
Disbanded
After the American Revolution, the soldiers of the 2nd Battalion, 84th Regiment became part of the migration of the United Empire Loyalists to Nova Scotia. The 2/84th Regiment evacuated Charlotte, North Carolina, and went to New York in April 1782 and then on to Halifax, arriving on October 24, 1782. Major Small followed them, arriving on the frigate Jason on November 12. Small arrived with a number of the settlers that the 84th Regiment had saved in the Siege of Ninety-Six. These men founded Rawdon Township (currently, Rawdon, Nova Scotia, and area). After the 2nd Battalion was disbanded at the headquarters for the 84th Regiment Fort Edward (Nova Scotia) on October 10, 1783, many of the 84th Regiment settled beside Rawdon Township in the newly formed Douglas Township (Kennetcook, Nova Scotia and surrounding area).
Major Small purchased Malachy Salter's grant (present day Selma, Nova Scotia) and built a manor house on an estate which he named "Selma", after which the community is named. Small had hoped to establish the Feudal Barony of Straloch in Selma but his last will and testament was not honoured.
The First battalion settled mainly in Kingston, Ontario. A few took passage, instead, to Britain. This unit, the "old 84th", was completely disbanded and has no direct descendants in the military of the modern United Kingdom. Later regiments to bear this number (84th (York and Lancaster) Regiment of Foot) have no historical nor traditional connection to it. However, the Canadian Army considers the 84th to be continued in the Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders.
84th Regiment soldiers in Hants County, Nova Scotia
The following is a list of the soldiers from the 84th Regiment who settled in Douglas Township in Hants County, Nova Scotia, after the war:
Hector Maclean (politician), Kennetcook, Nova Scotia
Abraham Blois, Gore, Nova Scotia
Alexander Cameron, Minasville, Nova Scotia
James Dalrymple, Kennetcook, Nova Scotia
Lewis Ettinger, Kennetcook, Nova Scotia
Christian Hennigar, Kennetcook, Nova Scotia
Thomas Laffin, Kennetcook, Nova Scotia
For list of the 84th Regiment soldiers who settled in the Douglas Township see Duncanson, John (1989). Rawdon and Douglas: Two Loyalists Townships in Nova Scotia. Ontario: Mika Publishing Company.
84th Regiment soldiers in Eastern, Ontario
Patrick Sinclair
William Brannan, E. District
Richard Campbell, Marysburgh Township, Ontario
Donald Cameron, Charlottenb'g
William Cameron, Cornwall
James Chavassey, Marysburgh Township, Ontario
Michael Conlon, Kingston
Link to site of all the 84th Regiment who settled in Eastern Ontario
See also
Military history of Nova Scotia
King's Orange Rangers
Nova Scotia in the American Revolution
References
Primary Texts
Notes
External links
Index to Royal Highland Emigrants History - The On-Line Institute for Advanced Loyalist Studies
Re-enactment Group, Maryland, USA
History of the 84 Regiment by Kim Stacy
84th Regiment of Foot - Historical Documents
Military regiments raised in Nova Scotia
Infantry regiments of the British Army
Highland regiments
Military units and formations established in 1775
Military units and formations disestablished in 1784
Regiments of the British Army in the American Revolutionary War
Military units and formations of Nova Scotia
Military units and formations of New Brunswick
Loyalist military units in the American Revolution |
4300364 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest%20L.%20Wilkinson | Ernest L. Wilkinson | Ernest Leroy Wilkinson (May 4, 1899 – April 6, 1978) was an American academic administrator, lawyer, and prominent figure in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). He was president of Brigham Young University (BYU) from 1951 to 1971, simultaneously overseeing the entire LDS Church Educational System (CES). He is credited with the expansion of BYU. Under his presidency, the student body increased six times to over twenty-five thousand students due to the physical growth of the university and his aggressive recruiting policies. The number of colleges at the university increased from five to thirteen and the number of faculty members increased four-fold. Wilkinson focused on recruiting more faculty and convincing current faculty to receive education outside the university. As a result, the number of teachers with doctorate degrees increased from 50 to 500. Associate and doctoral programs were created for BYU.
The J. Reuben Clark Library (now the Harold B. Lee Library (HBLL)) was built, and library resources were expanded by 500 percent. The number of buildings on BYU campus increased from 6 to over 300, representing an increase in floor space of about 4.2 million square feet. He initiated the construction of various student housing options to accommodate over 6,000 students. Additionally, he increased the number of student religious congregations. During his twenty-year presidency, the number of congregations increased from 1 student branch to 98 wards and 10 stakes for LDS students. Under Wilkinson's presidency, the BYU Honor Code was more clearly established and was designed to include a strict dress code.
Wilkinson was a strongly conservative Republican. He unsuccessfully ran for the U.S. Senate in 1964, while he was president of BYU. Prior to his career in education, Wilkinson was a lawyer in Washington, D.C. and New York City, his most well-known and lucrative case being a $32 million settlement from the U.S. government for the Ute Indian Tribes.
Background and education
Ernest Leroy Wilkinson was born in Ogden, Utah, on May 4, 1899. He was one of seven children of Robert Brown Wilkinson and Annie Cecilia Anderson. Robert Wilkinson was a Scottish immigrant who arrived in the United States as a young boy and later married Annie Anderson. Robert Wilkinson worked for the Southern Pacific Railroad for 25 years. Robert Wilkinson supported the union and according to family, at one time ran for mayor of Ogden as a Socialist candidate. During Ernest Wilkinson's childhood, he associated mostly with older boys and men, as there were few boys his age. He became involved in cock fighting, buying a few cocks with the money he made from delivering Desert News, but stopped after police started persecuting offenders.
In order to cultivate his faith as a member of the LDS Church, his mother suggested he attend Weber Academy in Ogden, which was then owned by the church. Before his graduation, he won the Dr. Edward S. Rich oratorical contest with his speech entitled, "American Ideals". He graduated from Weber Academy in 1917. He continued his studies at the expanded Weber Academy, then known as Weber College. During his time at Weber, he organized the Public Service Bureau (a service organization), was editor of the yearbook, and was president of the student body for two years. He competed in forensics meets and won the state championship with his team. He received the Lewis Efficacy Medal for students excelling in scholarship and public service and was valedictorian of his class. After a year at Weber College, Wilkinson became a member of the Student Army Training Corps unit located at BYU. Wilkinson attributed his success to what he learned at Weber Academy and became interested in the idea of offering a religiously affiliated education to more LDS youth. After the war, he became a regular student at BYU and among other things served as the editor of the weekly newspaper White and Blue and was president of his senior class. Wilkinson and a few colleagues received special recognition when they beat the Princeton debate team. He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree at BYU in 1921.
He married Alice Valera Ludlow, a native of Spanish Fork, whom he had met while they were both students at BYU. They were married in the Salt Lake Temple on August 16, 1923. The ceremony was performed by James E. Talmage. Alice was elected vice president of the student body with Wilkinson as her campaign manager and had studied drama at BYU. The Wilkinsons had five children.
Career
After graduation, Wilkinson began teaching English and speech at Weber College. During this time, Wilkinson began to take an active interest in politics. He ran as a Democrat for county auditor and lost.
Law School
In 1923, Wilkinson was involved with the campaign of William H. King for United States Senate. King invited Wilkinson to be his secretary (administrative assistant) in Washington D.C. He agreed so that he could take evening classes at George Washington University. When he arrived in Washington D.C., he was informed by King's current secretary that he was to arrange for another position for him. He was offered the position of assistant architect of the Capitol Building. Uninterested in architecture, Wilkinson found a job as a teacher of a business high school teaching shorthand and typing, still able to attend law school at night. He earned a law degree from George Washington University summa cum laude in 1926. He was admitted to the Washington D.C., Utah, and New York bar associations. He studied at Harvard Law School on scholarship for his graduate studies. Even though five years of teaching were prerequisite for entering in the doctoral program, he was granted exception from Dean Roscoe Pound of the law school due to his academics at George Washington University. In 1927, Wilkinson graduated from Harvard Law School with a Doctor of Juridical Science.
Teaching law
He initially accepted a position teaching law at the University of California, but quickly resigned in order to pursue another offer to teach at the more prestigious New Jersey Law School, the largest law school in the United States at the time, where he taught from 1927 to 1933. After aiding Hughes, Schurman, and Dwight law firm with a challenging tax problem, he was invited to join their law firm in New York City. He began practicing there as well as teaching at New Jersey Law School, where he was known as a notoriously difficult professor.
Practicing law
After working for future Supreme Court chief justice Charles Evans Hughes, and working with Moyle & Wilkinson in Washington D.C., Wilkinson opened up a private firm in 1940 where he practiced for 11 years. One case involved a young, American soldier in Japan who was sentenced to death for accidentally killing a child in a motorcycle accident. He succeeded in lowering the sentence to only the time in jail that the man had already served. Even though he received no compensation for the case, he considered it the most gratifying case he ever worked on. He served as attorney for the Ute Indian Tribes in their suit to be compensated for land never paid for by the U.S. government as part of the Treaty of 1880. In 1950, this suit was upheld by the United States Court of Claims and as a result, the Ute tribes were awarded $32 million. Due to Wilkinson's work, the Indian Claims Commission was signed in 1946 by Harry S. Truman. This opened up more claims to be filed and prosecuted by Wilkinson, making his firm the most active in the country for tribal cases. Wilkinson's share of the Ute Indian settlement as the plaintiff's attorney made him independently wealthy and allowed him to give up his law practice to pursue his interests in education. When he became the 7th president of BYU, Wilkinson created a new law firm: Wilkinson, Cragun, and Barker. He was the senior partner, but management was left to his brother, Glen Wilkinson, Cragun, and Barker.
Political
Wilkinson was heavily interested in politics. Influenced by his socialist father from a young age, his viewpoints shifted to conservatism in his adult years. During the Cold War, LDS Church leaders were particularly fearful of the influence of communism in the United States. This was manifest in their choice of strictly conservative Wilkinson as the next BYU president. LDS Church leader Stephen L. Richards hoped in Wilkinson's inauguration that Wilkinson would, "implant in youth a deep love of country and a reverential regard for the Constitution of the United States." Wilkinson made it clear that he supported the Republican party and disliked communism. Some students at BYU criticized his "unabashed partisanship". Despite his interest in politics during the beginning of his presidency at BYU, he did not seriously consider running for the U.S. Senate. Though his law career had taught him how to navigate federal bureaucracy, he did not feel that he had the skills to win a congressional race. In addition, he was more concerned, at the time, in the work he could accomplish in Utah as BYU president rather than in Washington. Several times during the 1950s and 1960s, Wilkinson approached church president David O. McKay for his permission to run for public office. He was advised not to run until 1964 when he was given a one-year leave of absence to run for the senate. In his absence, duties of the president and chancellor were taken up by Earl C. Crockett and Harvey L. Taylor, respectively. In 1964, Wilkinson won the Republican Party nomination for the United States Senate, defeating Sherman P. Lloyd. Wilkinson lost in the general election to incumbent Senator Frank Moss. Within a month after his defeat, Wilkinson returned to BYU, but members of the Board of Trustees maintained that Harvey Taylor remain chancellor. As consolation, Wilkinson was granted a $20,000 salary, the largest salary of any BYU employee at the time.
BYU presidency
The First Era: 1951–1957
Beginnings
After Howard S. McDonald resigned from his position as BYU president, Christian Jensen served as interim president for about ten months. In 1949, at a dinner for Jensen, Wilkinson gave a speech asserting the ways in which he believed BYU could excel. He expressed that he had high aspirations for the school and believed in the values of combining a spiritual and secular education. After the dinner, Wilkinson was invited to share his ideas with the church's First Presidency and the Board of Trustees. The favorite candidate of J. Reuben Clark to fill the vacancy of BYU president was the vocally conservative Wilkinson, who lobbied LDS Church leaders to be appointed as president of BYU and was offered the position in July 1950. Wilkinson refused to be paid a salary, which attracted church officials in the aftermath of tense financial negotiations with previous president, McDonald. In September 1950, Wilkinson changed the members of the board of trustees from local members to the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles with the First Presidency serving as president and vice presidents, respectively, of the board. Wilkinson wanted a direct line of communication to McKay, the church president at the time. Wilkinson would frequently counsel directly with McKay, avoiding the Board of Trustees. From 1951 to the end of 1952, Wilkinson had no official assistants besides William F. Edwards, the dean of the College of Commerce, and William E. Berrett, a professor of religion. At the end of 1952, Harvey L. Taylor became Wilkinson's first administrative assistant. Wilkinson was considered by most of his subordinates difficult to work with, citing him as dictatorial and inconsiderate. At 5'5", his nicknames among colleagues were "Little General" or "Little Napoleon". Aware of his difficulty getting along with his employees, he claimed he "[didn't] have time to be polite".
Unification and CES
In 1953, in an attempt to unify church schools, Wilkinson was named administrator of the church's schools. Besides his duties at BYU, he oversaw the administrative duties of Ricks College (now Brigham Young University-Idaho), LDS Business College, the McCune School of Music, and Juarez Academy in Mexico, along with seventeen institutes and 193 seminaries. Wilkinson proposed that the name CES be changed to University of Deseret, but his proposal was rejected for multiple reasons, one of them being that people were unwilling to drop the name of Brigham Young from their school. After this expansion of CES and thus Wilkinson's duties, he appointed Edwards and Berrett as vice presidents of the LDS Department of Education. In 1953, CES considered reacquiring Weber College, Snow College, and Dixie College in order to expand its influence. A referendum was included on the November 1954 ballot to transfer these three junior colleges from the State of Utah back to CES. The controversial referendum was defeated in the election with less than 40% of voters in favor. Still interested in pursuing junior colleges, CES established the Church College of Hawaii (CCH) (now Brigham Young University-Hawaii) in 1955 in Laie, Hawaii. Shortly thereafter, CCH and other LDS institutions in the Pacific were removed from CES, considered to be closer to "missionary operations", and the presidents of the institution were subject to the local school systems rather than CES.
Enrollment and the establishment of colleges
The next concern for Wilkinson was increasing the enrollment of BYU. He instituted a program in which members of BYU faculty would travel with general authorities to stake conferences. They attended nearly 180 conferences, emphasizing the benefits of a BYU education. Enrollment increased by more than twenty-five percent in fall of 1952. After discontinuing the program in 1952, Wilkinson continued to recruit for BYU by sending representatives to high schools and church missions, which received some criticism from mission presidents and was terminated by the First Presidency shortly after. Despite the criticisms, Wilkinson's tactics were successful, and enrollment increased to over 10,000 by the 1956–57 school year. Colleges were reorganized in order to group similar studies together and allow for the most growth and success of students. For example, the College of Arts and Sciences and the College of Applied Sciences were broken into multiple colleges in 1954 including, but not limited to, the College of Biological and Agricultural Sciences and the College of Humanities and Social Sciences. The Department of Physical Education, Health, and Athletics was separated from the College of Education and established as its own college and the College of Education was forced to relinquish its monopoly on the training of teachers and made to be a college specific to teaching methods. Wilkinson improved the salaries of faculty in order to recruit more talented professors and staff members to BYU. The Army and Air Force ROTC program at BYU was established by Wilkinson in 1951 for the Air Force and 1968 for the Army. An engineering program with its own building was established by Wilkinson with the help of Harvey Fletcher, and in 1956, broke into three programs: civil, mechanical, and electrical. Wilkinson also established a College of Family Living in late 1951, alleged to be the first in the United States, however, Purdue University had opened a Department of Family Life in 1946. In order to increase the size and quality of the graduate program at BYU, Wilkinson instituted a policy that encouraged faculty to pursue graduate studies at other universities. Through the policy, the university could obtain faculty qualified to teach graduate students as well as faculty who have attended other universities and thus obtained a more well-balanced education, preventing the "academic inbreeding" that had been a problem at the institution. The number of professors that held doctorates, especially from other universities, increased significantly.
Building construction
Wilkinson sought to increase the size and the beauty of the BYU campus. The first construction project during his presidency commenced July 1952. The Student Service Center, or unofficially, the bookstore, was dedicated in March 1953. After the planning committee devised a "master plan" for building and expansion of BYU campus, and the LDS Church appropriated $500,000 for the acquisition of more land in pursuit of the building projects proposed in the master plan. Wilkinson received ten million dollars from the board of trustees in order to build student housing and academic buildings. In order to accommodate more students, student housing was expanded. Heritage Halls were apartment-style dormitories that included a kitchen were built for girls, and Helaman Halls, which included a large dining hall, were built for men. With these additions, the number of women's accommodations increased to 2,000 students while the men's accommodations increased to 1,600 students. 150 homes were bought from the Mountain Home Air Force Base in Idaho and transported to Provo. Considered a fairly temporary solution, the complex was named Wyview Village and was intended to accommodate married students. Construction of the Harvey Fletcher Building was completed in 1953 in order to house the new engineering program, though other departments, namely the English department was allowed to share the space due to the lack of buildings. The David O. McKay Building was completed in 1954 for the College of Education. The college shared its walls with some other humanities disciplines until the campus was expanded more in later years. The Benjamin Cluff Jr. Building, along with two greenhouses, was built to house the laboratories for the College of Biological and Agricultural Sciences in 1955. These buildings were torn down for the new Life Science Building completed in 2014. The Howard S. McDonald Student Health Center, which also housed the Air Force ROTC program, was completed in 1955 and contained an x-ray room and a hydrotherapy room. A separate Student Health Center now exists. The Howard S. McDonald Building now contains BYU's MRI Research Facility. The Joseph F. Smith Family Living Center was built in 1957 to house the College of Family Living. Dedicated in 2005 and still home to the College of Family, Home and Social Sciences, the Joseph Fielding Smith Building took the place of the Family Living Center. A number of other smaller, miscellaneous buildings were built in the 1950s, including a ticket office for the football stadium and a poultry laboratory for the Animal Science Department. Significant effort was also put into improving the campus utilities and landscaping. The Department of Physical Plant was established in 1954. Due to the nearly seventy hours of work he was putting in per week, Wilkinson suffered a heart attack in October 1956. He was permitted to return to work in January 1957. Taylor, Edwards, and Berrett took over his responsibilities while he was recovering.
The Second Era: 1957–1971
Building construction
With the continuous growth of the student body, Wilkinson understood the need to continue expanding campus. The first large project was the BYU Motion Picture Studio (now the LDS Motion Picture Studios), built in 1958. In 1961, At a cost of nearly $4,000,000, the J. Reuben Clark Jr. Library (now the HBLL) was built due to lack of library resources and space in the Heber J. Grant Library. The library was built to accommodate 3,000 people and house one million books. The Jesse Knight Building was completed in 1960 to house the College of Commerce. Plans were made in early 1960 for a new student center; student costs were raised by ten dollars each student to raise the funds for the project. The building cost $7 million, and two-thirds of the funds came directly from students. The building was six stories and contained a bookstore, cafeteria, two theaters, lounges, a bowling alley, and a barber shop. A consensus hadn't been reached on the name of the building. Students were interested in naming the building "Memorial Union" to honor BYU students killed in war. Shortly before the dedication, the board of trustees revealed they intended to name the building the Ernest L. Wilkinson Student Center. Although some students believed that they should have had the right to name the building since they paid for most of it, the board of trustees named the building after Wilkinson. During his presidency, church appropriations to the school increased from $1 million to $22 million annually, while university expenditures increased from $2 million to $65 million annually.
The Honor Code
Wilkinson felt that his job was to prevent the decay of moral values of the students and increase administrative control of the BYU Honor Code. He instituted a strict dress code meant to prevent students from dressing like "go-go girls" or "surfers". Women's skirts and dresses were required to be below the knee and they were prohibited from wearing pants. Upon protestation, female students achieved a small victory when they were permitted to wear slacks at the university's bowling alley. Men were required to keep their hair cut short. Wilkinson pushed to increase the social interaction among the students, believing that it would be facilitated if every student was required to wear a name tag. Due to the unpopularity of the plan among students, this was never enforced. Wilkinson attempted to weed out students who were not following the honor code, because he felt that they prevented other worthy students from attending the university. Wilkinson also instituted a rule against male facial hair with the exception of a small, well-trimmed mustache.
The 1966 BYU spy ring controversy
Extremely conservative and anti-communist, Wilkinson was not bashful in expressing his political philosophy to BYU students and faculty. After his unsuccessful run for U.S. Senate in 1964, he "returned to campus with a vengeance". Some of the employees publicly supported his opponent Sherman Lloyd in the primaries, which Wilkinson felt was disloyal. When he returned to BYU, he became aware of a group of "liberal" teachers who were interested in changing the social and political atmosphere at BYU. He invited right-wing speakers to BYU and gave highly political speeches on campus. Wilkinson gave a lengthy May 1965 commencement address in which he attributed the beginning of moral decay of American values to Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal as well as criticizing the current president Lyndon B. Johnson's views of social security. Hoping to incite controversy, Wilkinson planned to give another politically charged speech in April 1966. He asked his comptroller, Joseph Bentley, to find students to report on professors' reactions to the speech. Bentley in turn asked student Stephen Hays Russell to report on professors' reactions unofficially. The two made a list of professors to surveil, and Russell recruited ten students to take notes on what their professors said about Wilkinson's speech in their classes. Political science professor Ray Hillam was one of Bentley and Russell's targets. He was notified of the spy ring by one of his students and requested a formal hearing be arranged. In the first hearing on September 15, presided over by vice presidents of the university, Hillam was formally charged for being pro-communist and disloyal to the university, with information gathered by the student spies used as evidence. Hillam rejected the charges and questioned the motives of all involved. The vice presidents formally issued a report on October 17. The report did not address that Hillam was the target of a spy ring, only accusing him of "minor indiscretions". Ronald Hankin, one of the students involved, went to local television and radio stations to inform them of the spying scandal and Wilkinson's involvement in it. Wilkinson admitted that he recruited students to report on faculty members in an official statement. In the official history of BYU, Wilkinson included information about the spy ring, but omitted any information that led him to appear guilty.
End of presidency
Wilkinson considered the most important accomplishment of his term as president to have been the organization of student wards and stakes. Wilkinson was the ninth Commissioner of Church Education of the LDS Church. During his tenure, he also bore the title "Administrator–Chancellor of the Unified Church Schools System". On April 21, 1966, Wilkinson gave an address to the student body of BYU, entitled "The Changing Nature of American Government from a Constitutional Republic to a Welfare State". This was published in booklet form by Deseret Book Company. After McKay died in 1970, Neal A. Maxwell was named the new commissioner of CES. Wilkinson had relied on McKay as a buffer in interacting with Harold B. Lee, a senior member of the Board of Trustees with whom Wilkinson differed greatly in educational and administrative philosophies. Sensing a lack of support among the church leaders, Wilkinson resigned from his position as BYU president in mid-1970 and was released at the beginning of 1971. Even though he was no longer president, Wilkinson hoped to be involved in the establishment of the J. Reuben Clark Law School. Due to his domineering reputation, school officials were unsure that he should continue to be so closely involved in administration of BYU, so they asked him to edit the university's official centennial history. Published in 1976, Brigham Young University: The First One Hundred Years was composed of four volumes.
Death
Wilkinson died of a heart attack April 6, 1978. Before he died, he had been supervising the work on his biography, Ernest L. Wilkinson: Indian Advocate and University President.
LDS Church service
In the early 1930s, Wilkinson served as branch president in New York and Queens, and later, bishop of the Queens Ward. His colleagues in the Hughes law firm called him the "Bishop of Wall Street". In 1940, he served as second counselor to Ezra Taft Benson in the presidency of the Washington Stake and as first counselor from 1944 to 1948 to a later president of the stake. He represented the church on the General Commission for Chaplains of the Army and Navy.
Legacy
During the twenty years of Wilkinson's presidency at BYU, the student body increased from 4,004 students in 1951 to over 25,000 in 1971. The university went from having five colleges with 37 departments to 13 colleges with 71 departments. The number of faculty members increased by from 244 to 932, while the number of them holding a doctoral degree increased from 50 to more than 500. The first associate and doctoral programs were organized. The quarter system was changed to the semester system. The number of resources in the library increased by 500%. The number of buildings increased from six permanent buildings to 254 permanent buildings and 85 temporary buildings, an increase from 800,000 to 5 million square feet of floor space. After 1972, student housing could accommodate almost 6,000 students, an increase from the 1,200 student accommodations in 1951. The achievement Wilkinson was most proud of was the creation of student wards and stakes. In 1951, there was one branch for LDS students and in 1971, there were 98 wards and 10 stakes for LDS students.
Notes
References
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External links
Wilkinson's presidential profile listed at BYU
Wilkinson resources available through BYU
Ernest L. Wilkinson Papers at BYU
Ernest L. Wilkinson scrapbook of Brigham Young University buildings, UA 5529 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University
Wilkinson, Cragun, and Barker papers, MSS 2382 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University
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4300405 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Sea%20Mine%20Barrage | North Sea Mine Barrage | The North Sea Mine Barrage, also known as the Northern Barrage, was a large minefield laid easterly from the Orkney Islands to Norway by the United States Navy (assisted by the Royal Navy) during World War I. The objective was to inhibit the movement of U-boats from bases in Germany to the Atlantic shipping lanes bringing supplies to the British Isles. Rear Admiral Lewis Clinton-Baker, commanding the Royal Navy minelaying force at the time, described the barrage as the "biggest mine planting stunt in the world's history." Larger fields with greater numbers of mines were laid during World War II.
Concept
The idea of a mine barrage across the North Sea was first proposed in the summer of 1916 by Admiral Reginald Bacon and was agreed at the Allied Naval Conference on 5 September 1917. The Royal Navy—and in particular Admiral Beatty as Commander in Chief of the Grand Fleet—was skeptical about the value of the operation and did not feel it justified the large logistical and manufacturing commitment required. A minefield across the North Sea would require mining water deep, while no previous minefield had been established in waters more than deep. A minefield across the North Sea had been estimated to require 400,000 conventional anchored mines. An "antenna" mine developed in July 1917 was effective at the assumed maximum submarine depth of , and 100,000 of these new Mk 6 mines would be adequate to form the North Sea mine barrage.
The United States was altogether more enthusiastic about the operation, as the loss of trans-Atlantic shipping was a major domestic concern and this plan allowed the United States to play an active part in tackling this, while playing to their industrial strength and with minimal risk of American casualties. Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt appealed directly to President Woodrow Wilson to overcome opposition to the project from Vice Admiral William Sims, who commanded all United States naval forces in Europe. The U.S. Navy tendered an order for the Mk 6 mines in October 1917 with of steel wire rope required to moor the mines to the seabed. Project spending of $40 million was shared among 140 manufacturing contractors and over 400 sub-contractors. All mine components other than wire rope, explosives, and detonating circuitry were manufactured by Detroit automobile firms. Eight civilian steamships were converted to minelayers; and another 24 mine-carrying freighters, sailing at a rate of two or three per week, were required to transport manufactured mine components to assembly depots in Scotland.
Objectives
The objective was to prevent U-boats from operating in the North Atlantic and preying on trans-Atlantic shipping. A similar barrage had already been placed across the English Channel, which had resulted in U-boats diverting north around Scotland. The North Sea Mine Barrage was intended to close this alternative route, and it also made it hard for the U-boats to get supplies.
Mark 6 Mines
The Mk 6 mine was a steel sphere containing a buoyancy chamber and of TNT. Each mine was constructed of two steel hemispheres welded together. A Toxyl bursting charge was cast into the lower hemisphere. Toxyl was a mixture of 60% trinitroxylene (TNX) with 40% TNT used because the United States Army controlled United States TNT production and would not release sufficient quantities for the naval mine barrage. For transport, the mine rested atop a box-shaped steel anchor approximately square. The anchor box had wheels allowing the mine assembly to be moved along a system of rails aboard the minelayer. The mine was connected to its anchor box by a wire rope mooring cable stored on a reel. The depth of the mine below the water surface was controlled by allowing the steel mooring cable to unwind from its reel as the mine was dropped from the minelayer until a sensor suspended beneath the anchor reached the bottom. The sensor locked the cable reel so the falling anchor would pull the buoyant mine below the surface; and the float extended the antenna above the mine.
Each mine had two hydrostatic safety features intended to render the mine safe if it detached from its mooring cable and floated to the surface. The first was an open switch in the detonation circuit closed by hydrostatic pressure. The second was a spring pushing the detonator away from the explosive charge into the buoyancy chamber unless compressed by hydrostatic pressure. The mines were intended to be safe at depths less than . The mines contained a dry cell battery each with an electrical detonating circuit which could be initiated by any one of five parallel fuzes. Four of the fuzes were conventional horns in the buoyant upper hemisphere of the mine. Each horn contained a glass ampoule of electrolyte which would connect an open circuit if an ampoule was broken by bending the soft metal horn. The novel fifth fuze was a copper wire antenna with a float to extend it above the mine. A ship's steel hull touching the copper antenna would form a battery, and seawater acted as an electrolyte completing a circuit with an insulated copper plate on the mine surface to actuate a detonating relay within the mine. The relay armature was initially set to complete the detonating circuit at 25 to 40 millivolts. The Bureau of Ordnance subsequently increased sensitivity to 10 to 25 millivolts, but this was later readjusted on the basis of field experience. Each mine had five separate spring-loaded safety switches in the detonating circuit held open by salt pellets which took about 20 minutes to dissolve in sea water after the mine was dropped overboard from the minelayer. Battery life for the detonating circuit was estimated at greater than two years.
Laying the minefield
The mine barrage was within a belt long and to wide divided into area B off the east coast of Orkney, area C near the Norwegian coast between Utsira and Bergen, and the longest central area A connecting the two coastal areas between 0° 50′ West and 3° 10′ East. The Royal Navy laid mines in areas B and C while the United States Navy mined area A. The Royal Navy left a channel open for navigation adjacent to Orkney. Because of neutrality regulations no mines were laid within Norwegian territorial waters. The United States North Sea Mine Force was commanded by Rear Admiral Joseph Strauss aboard the Atlantic Fleet Mine Force flagship . Strauss was an ordnance specialist and had been chief of the Bureau of Ordnance from 1913 to 1916. Mine Squadron One, under the command of Captain Reginald R. Belknap, assembled at Inverness, Scotland in June 1918. Over the following five months, these ships planted 56,571 of the 70,177 mines laid to form the North Sea mine barrage.
The WWI Mine Memorial on Boston Common, Massachusetts, United States
(old protected cruiser converted in 1911 to carry 170 mines) (flagship)
(old protected cruiser converted in 1915 carry 180 mines)
(former Eastern steamship Bunker Hill carried 320 mines on one deck)
USS Shawmut (former Eastern steamship Massachusetts carried 320 mines on one deck)
(former Southern Pacific freighter El Siglo carried 830 mines on 3 decks)
(former Southern Pacific freighter El Dia carried 830 mines on 3 decks)
(former Southern Pacific freighter El Cid carried 830 mines on 3 decks)
(former Southern Pacific freighter El Rio carried 830 mines on 3 decks)
(former Old Dominion steamship Hamilton carried 612 mines on 2 decks)
(former Old Dominion steamship Jefferson carried 612 mines on 2 decks)
The mine barrage consisted of 18 rows of mines laid in an east–west direction. Ten rows of mines were laid at a depth of to be detonated by ships traveling on the surface. Submerged submarines were targeted by four rows of mines at , and another four rows at . Since Utsira is slightly north of Orkney, alignment of minefields within the central area A was skewed east-northeasterly from Orkney. Where possible, longitude was determined from a calibrated taut-wire anchored near a landmark and unreeled from a spool of piano wire aboard one of the cruisers acting as the minelaying formation guide. Latitude was checked from the elevation of the sun when atmospheric conditions permitted. The mine barrage required multiple missions, called "excursions", laying parallel rows of mines partway across the North Sea between Norway and Orkney. Mine Squadron One made thirteen two-day minelaying excursions laying parallel rows of mines while steaming in columns apart, with the last ship in each column dropping mines at intervals. As a minelayer exhausted its supply of mines, another minelayer in that column would drop back to the last position to continue the minelaying sequence. The minelayers were preceded by Royal Navy destroyers sweeping for enemy mines and submarines. A covering force of battleships with Royal Navy cruiser squadrons maneuvered nearby to defend the minelaying formation, but no German surface warships attempted engagement. Buoys were dropped temporarily marking the end point of a mining excursion to avoid leaving an unmined gap when the next excursion started. These buoys were subject to potential movement by storms or enemy action.
Three to five percent of the new mines dropped into the North Sea detonated as soon as the salt pellets dissolved; and hydrophones detected premature detonations continuing for a week after minelaying. These premature detonations were initially attributed to activation of the horn fuze detonation circuits by seawater leaking into the mines; and mine spacing was increased from on the first minelaying excursion to on subsequent excursions to minimize leakage caused by detonation of nearby mines. About one percent of the mines deployed during the first excursion broke free of their mooring cables and washed ashore in Norway within a month. Mines used for the last eleven excursions had springs installed at the mine mooring cable attachment points to buffer wave loading during storms. Premature detonations increased to 14 percent for the fourth minelaying excursion; because some mines had been assembled with the more sensitive antenna fuze relay settings made by the Bureau of Ordnance. The fifth minelaying excursion was halted when 19 percent of the mines detonated prematurely. San Francisco identified relay armature sensitivity as a major cause of premature detonations during a comparative field test minelaying excursion on 12 August. Subsequent investigations revealed copper sulfate deposits caused by antenna corrosion created a weak battery, increasing the probability of relay activation by shock wave accelerations when nearby mines detonated. Premature detonations dropped to four to six percent when sensitivity was adjusted to 30 to 45 millivolts for mines deployed by the last five minelaying excursions.
Results
Supply problems and technical difficulties caused some delays. More minelaying excursions to complete the barrage were cancelled when the approaching end of hostilities was recognized after the thirteenth minelaying excursion on 26 October 1918. The design of the minefield meant there was a theoretical 66 per cent chance of a surfaced U-boat triggering a mine and a 33 per cent chance for a submerged U-boat. On the basis of the number of effective mines observed while sweeping the barrage, the actual odds were assessed at being closer to 20 per cent for a surfaced U-boat and 10 per cent for a submerged one. As the final mines were laid only a matter of days before the end of the war, it is impossible to assess the success of the plan. Some contend the minefield was a major cause of the declining morale of the Imperial German Navy through the final months of the war, while others suggest Germany easily swept safe channels through the large, unguarded minefield.
The official statistics on lost German submarines compiled on 1 March 1919 credited the North Sea mine barrage with the certain destruction of four U-boats, presumed destruction of two more and possible destruction of another two.
19 August 1918 unknown - possibly sunk by the North Sea mine barrage
9 September 1918 presumed sunk by the North Sea mine barrage area B (confirmed in 2007)
9 September 1918 sunk by the North Sea mine barrage area B
25 September 1918 sunk by the North Sea mine barrage area A
September 1918 presumed sunk by the North Sea mine barrage area B (confirmed in 2006)
19 September 1918 sunk by the North Sea mine barrage area B
September 1918 unknown - possibly sunk by the North Sea mine barrage
18 October 1918 sunk by the North Sea mine barrage area A
Eight more boats were known to have been damaged by the mines and some Admiralty personnel assumed the field might be responsible for five more U-boats which disappeared without explanation.
Cleanup
United States participation in the minesweeping effort was overseen by Rear Admiral Strauss aboard the repair ship Black Hawk, from which he had commanded the minelaying operation. Tugs and towed Admiralty wooden sailing smacks Red Rose and Red Fern out to conduct the first trial sweep in December. Sweeping was accomplished by suspending a serrated wire between two ships on a parallel course. While held underwater by planing devices called "kites", the wire would foul the cables suspending the buoyant mines above their anchors. If the serrated wire parted the mine mooring cable, the mine would bob to the surface to be destroyed by gunfire. The smacks swept and destroyed six mines before winter weather halted further work at sea. The winter was spent testing an electrical protective device to reduce the risk of sweeping the antenna mines with steel-hulled ships. Patapsco and Patuxent tested the protective device by sweeping 39 mines in March. Royal Navy minesweeping efforts involved 421 vessels manned by 600 officers and 15,000 men from 1 April to 30 November 1919.
Twelve Lapwing class minesweepers and 18 submarine chasers were available for the first routine sweep of the United States minesweepers on 29 April 1919. After the first sweep took two days to clear 221 mines, Strauss requested more ships in the hope of clearing the mine barrage that summer. Twenty Admiralty trawlers with American crews, 16 more Lapwing class minesweepers, and another repair ship were assigned to his command. Panther was given responsibility for tending trawlers William Ashton, Thomas Blackhorne, Thomas Buckley, Richard Bulkeley, George Burton, Pat Caharty, William Caldwell, George Clarke, John Clay, George Cochrane, John Collins, William Darnold, Sam Duffy, John Dunkin, John Fitzgerald, John Graham, Thomas Graham, Thomas Henrix, William Johnson, Thomas Laundry, and submarine chasers SC-37, 38, 40, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 95, 110, 164, 178, 181, 182, 206, 207, 208, 254, 256, 259, 272, 329, 354 and 356. Blackhawk provided tender services for the larger ships operating as six divisions.
Mine Division 1: , , , , ,
Mine Division 2: , , , , , , ,
Mine Division 3: , , , , ,
Mine Division 4: , , , , ,
Mine Division 5: , , , ,
Buoying Division: , Patapsco, Patuxent, ,
Common difficulties with the sweeping procedure involved mine cables becoming entangled in the kites attached to the sweeping wires. Sweeping gear was often lost if the mine detonated and cut the sweeping cables. Approximately one-third of the ships were damaged by exploding mines. Two men were killed in separate incidents while attempting to haul mines aboard to clear fouled sweeping kites. It had been assumed the Mk 6 mine hydrostatic safety devices would minimize the risks of this procedure, but sweeping gear losses increased after unreliability of these safety devices was recognized. Countermining sequences initiated by destruction of a swept mine causing detonation of an undetected mine closer to one of the minesweepers were another source of damage. Some of this countermining was attributed to acceleration of the antenna fuze relay armature or seawater leaking into damaged mines rather than sympathetic detonation of explosives. The minesweepers were sometimes able to continue sweeping, but the trawlers were less durable. Seven men drowned when the Richard Bulkeley was sunk by a mine detonation on 12 July. Strauss discontinued use of the trawlers for minesweeping, but retained six for transporting replacement sweeping gear to minesweepers when wires were destroyed by exploding mines. The remaining 13 trawlers were returned to the Admiralty. Most damaged ships were repaired, but SC-38 was declared a total loss. Three more men of the minesweeping force were killed in individual accidents involving sweeping gear before Strauss declared the barrage cleared on 30 September 1919. The minesweepers found only about 25 to 30 percent of the mines laid a year earlier; but it was assumed the others had either broken free, sunk to the bottom, or been destroyed by premature explosions. Strauss was recognized as a Knight Commander of St Michael and St George for his efforts; but doubts about effectiveness of the minesweeping effort persisted into the 21st century.
Post war
As 1919 drew to a close, the onset of winter forced the suspension of sweeping for moored buoyant mines, but the Royal Navy resumed minesweeping operations the following spring, continuing to clear sunken mines from fishing grounds, and maintaining a destroyer patrol to track down mines that had broken free of their moorings and gone adrift. Losses of civilian ships to North Sea mines continued; the origin of the mine in these cases was often difficult to determine. In 1919, twenty crewmen drowned when the Swedish steamship Hollander sank, minutes after striking a mine in October; and the steamer Kerwood struck a mine and sank on 1 December.
See also
Otranto Barrage
Notes
Bibliography
Conflicts in 1918
North Sea operations of World War I
Naval mines |
4300418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Hero%3A%20Love%20Story%20of%20a%20Spy | The Hero: Love Story of a Spy | The Hero: Love Story of a Spy is a 2003 Indian Hindi-language spy thriller film directed by Anil Sharma and produced by Time Magnetics. It stars Sunny Deol, Preity Zinta and Priyanka Chopra in her Bollywood film debut. Written by Shaktimaan, the film tells the story of an undercover Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) agent who must gather intelligence about cross-border terrorism and stop the terrorist responsible for it and his separation from his fiancé.
Sharma had long contemplated making a spy film but felt this was not economically viable for the Indian market because Indian films did not have sufficient budgets. He first planned a film about India's spy network set in the early 2000s but made the 2001 film Gadar: Ek Prem Katha, which became one of the highest-grossing Indian films of all time. Following the record-breaking success of that film, Sharma decided to make The Hero: Love Story of a Spy. The Shah Brothers were engaged to produce the film, which was touted to have a huge budget and scale, unlike previous Bollywood films. Aiming for high production values, a sizeable amount of money was spent on the film. Several large sets were created to give the film a feeling of grandeur, and international stunt experts were hired to coordinate action sequences new to Bollywood. Principal photography was done at Indian locations, including Kullu and Manali, and in locations in Canada and Switzerland. Uttam Singh composed the soundtrack with lyrics written by Anand Bakshi and Javed Akhtar.
The film's production cost was very high, with trades suggesting that it was the most expensive Indian film ever made at that point; this was the most talked-about aspect of the film. The Hero: Love Story of a Spy was released on 11 April 2003 to mixed to positive reviews from critics. It grossed over 451 million at the box office against a production and marketing budget of 350 million, becoming the third-highest-grossing film of the year. Chopra won the Stardust Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance.
Plot
Arun Khanna is an army intelligence officer working for the Indian Secret Service agency Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) who has been sent to the Indo-Pakistan border in Kashmir. Under the identity of Major Ravi Batra, he sets up a spy network to obtain information about Pakistani terrorist activities across the border. In a nearby village, he meets Reshma, an orphan. Reshma joins the network to help Batra, and they fall in love. He reluctantly sends her into Pakistan to work as an undercover maid in Colonel Hidayatulla's house. Hidayatulla is associated with ISI head Isaq Khan and terrorist Maulana Azhar.
Reshma begins passing information to Batra. Khan, Azhar, and a group of nuclear scientists meet Hidayatulla's house, where they reveal plans to make a nuclear bomb for a terrorist attack in Kashmir. Reshma is exposed; she escapes and is chased but is saved by Batra and returns to India. Batra proposes marriage. Their engagement ceremony is cut short when terrorists attack. Reshma goes missing after falling into the river, and Batra is presumed dead.
Batra realizes Khan and Azhar are responsible for the attack. He fakes his own death and plans to infiltrate their terrorist network. In disguise, he follows Khan and Azhar to Canada and discovers they are planning to create a nuclear bomb. Reshma is found alive on the shore in Lahore, Pakistan, where she is rescued by Salman. She loses the ability to walk after learning about the deaths of Batra and her parents. Salman takes her to Canada for treatment under the care of doctor Shaheen Zakaria, the daughter of Muslim fundamentalist Mr. Zakaria, an associate of Khan. In a shopping mall, Reshma finds a muffler she had knitted for Batra, and realizes he is alive and in Canada.
Batra changes his identity to that of a nuclear scientist named Wahid. To infiltrate Zakaria's group, he wins Zakaria's trust and marries Shaheen. Reshma sees Batra as Wahid at his wedding with Shaheen and recognizes him. Batra tells Reshma they cannot be together because he is now married to Shaheen. Reshma is heartbroken and returns to India. Overhearing their conversation, Shaheen learns the truth and is heartbroken. Batra tells Shaheen the truth about her father, but she does not believe the news about her father's terrorist links.
Batra tricks the group into revealing the location of the bomb's parts, which have been kept at a high-altitude facility owned by Zakaria. The group reveals the codes to him, and he transmits a signal to the Canadian and Indian governments. Shaheen learns about the group's plan, exposing them. Khan learns about "Wahid's" true identity and attempts to kill him, but Batra survives. Soldiers arrive, forcing the terrorists toward a train station. They hijack a train and take the passengers hostage. Shaheen, on board, tries to disarm Khan, but he kills her. Before dying, she forgives Batra. Batra kills the other terrorists and Khan. He returns to Kashmir and reunites with Reshma.
Cast
Credits adapted from Bollywood Hungama.
Sunny Deol as Ajay Chakravarty/Arun Khanna/Major Ravi Batra/Wahid Khan/Roshanlal/Taneja
Preity Zinta as Reshma
Priyanka Chopra as Dr. Shaheen Zakaria
Kabir Bedi as Mr. Zakaria
Amrish Puri as Isaq Khan
Shahbaz Khan as Capt. Idris Malik
Rajpal Yadav as Lt. Dorjee
Parvin Dabas as Dr. Salman
Deep Dhillon as Colonel Hidayatullah
Pradeep Rawat as the head of RAW.
Shri Vallabh Vyas as Reshma's Guardian.
Rajat Bedi as Wasim
Arif Zakaria as Karimuddin.
Gene Snitsky as a Russian terrorist.
Big Guido as Lab's security guard.
Production
Director Anil Sharma had planned to make The Hero: Love Story of a Spy before the release of his blockbuster film Gadar: Ek Prem Katha (2001). Sharma said he wanted to make a spy film and had contemplated making something like a James Bond film for a long time but realised Indian films did not have the budget needed to make a film on such a scale. Sharma then thought of making a film based on India's spy network and, unlike his last historical film, set it in the early 2000s. His idea was to make a family film with no sex and violence. After the success of Gadar: Ek Prem Katha, Sharma decided to make The Hero: Love Story of a Spy which Shaktimaan had written. As part of his research for the film, Sharma interacted with Army personnel to understand the working methods of its intelligence section.
The Shah brothers of Time Magnetics—Dhirajlal Shah, Hasmukh Shah, and Pravin Shah—were engaged to produce the film. Aiming for high production values, Sharma mounted the film on a sizable budget and the scale he said was needed for a story of this proportion. He said the film was a risk, especially when the Indian film industry was going through a slump. Sharma defended the budget, saying, "But everything is risky; even walking on the street is risky. I knew before I started how much it would cost. I think the two years I gave to the film are more important than the budget. The money may come back, the time won't. Films these days don't work because filmmakers don't give enough time to them."
Sharma cast Sunny Deol, who also starred in Gadar: Ek Prem Katha, in the role of an Indian spy. The director felt that the film differed greatly from their previous collaboration because Deol played a "subtle spy" who did not "scream and shout" (Deol's trademark in his films). Deol streaked his hair blond and wore several disguises in the film, which made him uncomfortable. Preity Zinta was cast in the female lead as a naive Kashmiri village girl, while Miss World 2000 Priyanka Chopra was cast in the supporting role of a Pakistani-born Canadian doctor. Chopra's other 2003 film Andaaz was supposed to be her debut Bollywood film, but The Hero: Love Story of a Spy ended up releasing a month before and thus became the actress' debut Bollywood film. Zinta thought that the film had "a terrific script" and she identified with her character thanks to Zinta's Himachal Pradesh roots. Chopra thought the film had "a very emotional subject" and being a part of a big film like this seemed like a good option for her. Kabir Bedi and Amrish Puri completed the cast. Simple Kapadia, Abu Jani, Sandeep Khosla, Neeta Lulla and Sheetal India designed the cast's costumes. Sanjay Dhabade was the film's production designer. Several huge sets were constructed, including a massive glass house on water. Kabir Lal handled the cinematography.
Principal photography took place in Kullu and Manali in India with filming in Lonavala and Film City where half the film was shot. The rest half was filmed at locations in Canada and Switzerland. Filming in freezing weather in Canada and Switzerland proved to be difficult for the cast who had to be transported to rooms with heaters every five minutes. Sometimes, the temperatures fell to . Allan Amin designed the action set pieces, and international action experts coordinated the stunts. In one of the "heavy duty" action scenes, eight helicopters were used in the filming. The film's producers cast professional wrestler Big Guido as Bedi's bodyguard for an action sequence. For one scene, Deol had to jump off an tall peak, which he felt was difficult. The climax of the film was shot at Jungfrau in temperatures of . To shoot the scene, Lal propped himself on top of an open helicopter to capture the Jaungfrau Heights from in . The shot took two hours to film. After landing, he collapsed and was rushed to a hospital immediately. Ganesh Acharya choreographed the songs, and Suresh Urs edited the film.
Budget and trade analysis
After the record-breaking success of Deol's and Sharma's previous collaboration Gadar: Ek Prem Katha, which had become the highest-grossing Indian film of all time at that point, their next collaboration was highly anticipated and a lot was expected from it. According to Taran Adarsh, there were "gargantuan" expectations for the new film. The Hero: Love Story of a Spy was much talked about for its budget and scale. Adarsh said the producers had spared no expense in making it a film of "epic proportions" and "grand production values", writing, "The money spent is visible in every frame, the grand look of the film just cannot be overlooked." The film was also talked about for including stunts that were new to Bollywood cinema.
Industry experts and trade analysts declared The Hero: Love Story of a Spy the most expensive Indian film ever made at that point, with some estimating its budget as being between 500 and 600 million. According to Box Office India, the film had a budget of 350 million, including production and marketing costs. Sharma refused to confirm the exact budget but agreed it was an expensive film, telling Subhash K. Jha: "The producers have gone on record about the budget. I cannot tell you the exact cost. But yes, it is an expensive film." The director, however, was extremely unhappy with the hype around the film's budget because he did not want to raise audience expectations. Rajesh Thadani said the film should have been made on a lower budget because the economics of film-making had changed and that restraining a film's budget was "the need of the hour". A distributor told Rediff.com "making such a costly film in the 2000s was not a viable proposition and that audiences had become extremely unpredictable". He added: "Devdas, with all its hype, barely managed to recover its cost. For The Hero to succeed, it will have to do better than Devdas."
When The Hero: Love Story of a Spy was in production, the Hindi film industry's revenues were declining, and many were hopeful the film would help to revive the industry. The film's trailers and promos created "enormous" to "positive" buzz in the public and the media, but some trade analysts were skeptical about its high budget and its potential box-office earnings. An editor of Box Office India said the recovery of the cost of a film like this, filmed on "an extra-large canvas", was impossible from the Indian market alone. He said big-budget films like this mostly rely on overseas markets, which was uncertain for this film because it offered nothing new to overseas audiences as a "James Bond type of movie" that had been done several times before. Trade analyst Amod Mehra was more optimistic about the film, saying he hoped it would help revive the Bollywood film industry, which had "virtually gone dead", and that "the public is anticipating something as thrilling and fast-paced as Gadar. If he has kept the pulse of the public in mind, I see no reason why [the film] won't run well."
Soundtrack
Uttam Singh composed the soundtrack for The Hero: Love Story of a Spy with lyrics written by Anand Bakshi and Javed Akhtar. Initially, Bakshi was the sole lyricist on the soundtrack, but during production he fell ill. He wrote the lyrics for a few songs after his recovery, but after his death, Akhtar was brought in to write the lyrics for the rest of the songs. The film contains eight original tracks with vocals provided by Vital Signs, Udit Narayan, Alka Yagnik, Jaspinder Narula, Sunidhi Chauhan, Sardool Sikander and Hariharan. Times Music released the soundtrack on 4 January 2003.
Bollywood Hungama said the soundtrack did not have "anything great or extraordinary to offer" and that the music is below expectations considering the budget and scale of the film. Planet Bollywood rated the album 6 out of 10, calling it "simply passable, nothing spectacular" and saying the music is not what was expected from such a big film. The reviewer said "Dil Main Hai Pyar" is the best song on the album, noting "its enjoyable characteristics" and saying it had "the potential to become very popular".
Release
As The Hero: Love Story of a Spy was nearing its release, the 2003 Bollywood Producers' strike prevented the release of new Hindi films in theaters after 1 April 2003. Deol was unhappy about the strike because he felt postponing a big film like this was not an affordable option, saying: "When a producer has spent so much money promoting and publicising a film like The Hero, how is he expected to scrap his campaign, postpone his film and start from scratch?" The Hero: Love Story of a Spy was released on 11 April 2003 on 500 screens despite the ongoing ban on the release of Hindi films.
The film had a good opening at the box office, collecting 22.2 million on its opening day and 63.1 million in its opening weekend in India with worldwide opening-weekend revenue of over 111.5 million. In its first week, the film collected over 107 million at the domestic box office and over 188.2 worldwide. In a report published in Rediff.com, Jha said the strike proved to be beneficial for The Hero: Love Story of a Spy because it had sustained a steady second-week run. During its box office run, the film grossed 414.5 million in India and over 36.8 million in the overseas market, making a worldwide gross of over 451.3 million. It was the third-highest-grossing Indian film of the year, but the film's box-office gross was considered to be below expectations due to high production costs.
Time released The Hero: Love Story of a Spy as a single-disc, NTSC-format DVD on 8 July 2003 across all regions. A DVD version released by Venus Records contains some bonus features, including a "making-of" documentary and a collection of Deol's songs. A Video CD version was released at the same time. Tip Top Video released the film internationally on an all-regions, PAL-Widescreen format DVD. A VHS version was released on 1 September 2003. Moser Baer later released another version of the DVD across all regions on an NTSC-format single disc.
Reception
The Hero: Love Story of a Spy garnered mixed to positive reviews from critics. Deepa Gumaste of Rediff.com praised the film, calling it a "comicbook spy movie", comparing it to Die Another Day (2002) and Mission: Impossible (2000), and wrote, "At last an original desi spy who combines the guile and charm of James Bond and the raw appeal of Rambo!" She said the cinematography is a "treat for the eyes with exquisite footage of the picturesque landscapes" and wrote, "For once in a Hindi film, foreign locations have actually been put to good use." Lawrence Van Gelder of New York Times was appreciative of the film, noting its "multiple pleasures" and writing, "Stretching from the snow-capped peaks of Kashmir to the ski slopes of Canada, mingling gunplay, spectacular explosions and chases with songs, dances and romance, this colorful Indian spy adventure constitutes the cinematic equivalent of the delightful and inconsequential escapism of a 700-page summer beach novel."
Sify gave The Hero: Love Story of a Spy film three out of five, writing, "The central theme gets more spice with a love story giving much role to play for Zinta and Chopra. The action sequences are well shot and Deol essays his role with his usual skill." Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times called the film "straightforward escapist fare" with the sensibility of an "old-fashioned comic-book", and said it "may be corny" and "unintentionally amusing at times" but it is also "a lot of fun" and has "all the classic elements of a Bollywood blockbuster taken to a spectacular level". The BBC's Manish Gajjar called the film "great escapist" cinema and praised the performances, writing that, "the role of Ravi Khanna was tailor-made for Deol. He got a chance to exhibit the various looks of a secret agent ... Zinta is radiantly refreshing throughout the film, whilst ex-Miss World Chopra appears natural considering that this is her debut film."
Derek Elley of Variety said The Hero: Love Story of a Spy is "wildly over-the-top" but "undeniably entertaining". Praising the performances, Elley wrote, "Deol makes a solid, rather than exciting hero, better in military duds than his increasingly outre disguises, and Puri overacts wildly as the villain. The female leads are much more engaging, with Zinta typically sparky and likable, and mega-looker Chopra making a solid screen debut as a modern urban miss." Anupama Chopra of India Today said the narrative has flair, noting the love story, including the courtship and consequent separation that has "emotional vigour" works to some extent but the spying part is a problem. She wrote: "The leads try hard—Deol appears suavely sincere and Zinta, vulnerable—but Shaktimaan's script doesn't hold. The incendiary dialogue got whistles but the comic-book discussions on nuclear bombs were a sleeping pill." Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama criticized the "superficial" writing but praised the technical aspects of the film, such as the "terrific" visuals and "awe-inspiring" action sequences, and said it "lacks the soul to make you cry and make your heart go out for the on-screen characters ... [the film] has gloss and hype as its trumpcards, but ... lacks in emotions, music and a taut screenplay".
Accolades
Notes
References
External links
2000s Hindi-language films
2000s spy thriller films
2003 action thriller films
2003 drama films
2003 films
Films about the Research and Analysis Wing
Films directed by Anil Sharma
Films scored by Uttam Singh
Films set in Canada
Films set in Jammu and Kashmir
Films shot in Quebec
Films shot in India
Films shot in Switzerland
India–Pakistan relations in popular culture
Indian action thriller films
Indian spy thriller films
Kashmir conflict in films
Military of Pakistan in films
Indian spy action films
Films about nuclear technology
Films about nuclear war and weapons
Films shot in Toronto |
4300454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Bathurst | Robert Bathurst | Robert Guy Bathurst (born 22 February 1957) is an English actor. Bathurst was born in The Gold Coast (now Ghana) in 1957, where his father was working as a management consultant. In 1959 his family moved to Ballybrack, Dublin, Ireland and Bathurst attended school in Killiney and later was enrolled at Headfort, an Irish boarding school. In 1966, the family moved back to England and Bathurst transferred to Worth School in Sussex, where he took up amateur dramatics. At the age of 18, he read law at Pembroke College, Cambridge, and joined the Footlights group.
After graduating, he took up acting full-time and made his professional stage debut in 1983, playing Tim Allgood in Michael Frayn's Noises Off, which ran for a year at the Savoy Theatre. To broaden his knowledge of working on stage, he joined the National Theatre. He supplemented his stage roles in the 1980s with television roles, appearing in comedies such as the aborted pilot episode of Blackadder, Chelmsford 123, The Lenny Henry Show and the first episode of Red Dwarf. In 1991, he won his first major television role playing Mark Taylor in the semi-autobiographical BBC sitcom Joking Apart, written by Steven Moffat. Although only thirteen episodes were made (between 1991 and 1995), the role remains Bathurst's favourite of his whole career. After Joking Apart concluded, he was cast as pompous management consultant David Marsden in the ITV comedy drama Cold Feet, which ran for five series from 1998 to 2003 and again for four further series from 2016 to 2020.
Since 2003, Bathurst has played a fictional prime minister in the BBC sitcom My Dad's the Prime Minister, Mark Thatcher in the fact-based drama Coup! and a man whose daughter goes missing in the ITV thriller The Stepfather. He also made a return to theatre roles, playing Vershinin in The Three Sisters (2003), Adrien in the two-hander Members Only (2006), government whip Alistair in Whipping it Up (2006–07), and the title role in Alex (2007, 2008). In the following years, he starred in the television dramas The Pillars of the Earth (2010), Downton Abbey (2010), Hattie (2011) and joined the cast of Wild at Heart in 2012. Bathurst appeared in his first Noël Coward play, Present Laughter in 2010 and followed it with a role in Blithe Spirit that same year and again in 2011. He is married and has four children.
Early life
Robert Guy Bathurst was born in Accra, Gold Coast (modern-day Ghana), on 22 February 1957 to Philip Charles Metcalfe Bathurst, a descendant of politician Charles Bathurst and kinsman of the Earls Bathurst and Viscounts Bledisloe, and his wife Gillian (née Debenham). His father was a major in the Royal Engineers during the Second World War and was working in West Africa as a management consultant. His mother was a physiotherapist. They had two other children, Nicholas and Charlotte. The family lived in Ghana until 1959, when they moved to Ballybrack, Dublin, Ireland. Bathurst and his brother attended two schools in Dublin – the Holy Child School in Killiney and a school in Ballsbridge – before being sent to Headfort, a preparatory school in Kells, County Meath. He compared the time he and his brother, who were Catholics, spent at the Anglican boarding school to Lord of the Flies; "we were incarcerated in a huge, stinking, Georgian house, where we were treated very brutally".
In 1966, the family moved to England and Bathurst was sent to board at Worth School in Sussex. At the age of 13, he began acting in minor skits and revues and read old copies of Plays and Players magazine, "studying floor plans of theatres and reading about new theatres being built". He had first become interested in acting when his family saw a pantomime at the Gaiety Theatre in Dublin and he watched actors waiting for their cues in the wings.
Bathurst left Worth at the age of 18 to read law at Pembroke College, Cambridge. He spent much of his time there performing in the Cambridge Footlights alongside Hugh Laurie, Rory McGrath and Emma Thompson. From 1977 to 1978, he was the secretary of the group and, from 1978 to 1979, he was the president. Among the Footlights Revues in which he participated were Stage Fright in 1978, which he also co-wrote and Nightcap in 1979. He also directed and appeared in the Footlights pantomime Aladdin as Widow Twankey during the 1978–79 season. He took the Bar Vocational Course at the University of Law, in London, which allowed him to go on to become a practising barrister, but stuck to acting instead.
Acting career
Early career
After leaving Cambridge, Bathurst spent a year touring Australia in the Footlights Revue Botham, The Musical, which he described as "a bunch of callow youths flying round doing press conferences and chat shows". Although he enjoyed his work with Footlights, he did not continue performing with the group, worrying that he would be "washed up at 35 having coat-tailed on their success through the early part of [his] career". After leaving, he found that he was considered a dilettante, which resulted in it taking him longer than expected to be accepted as a serious actor. His first professional role out of university was in the BBC Radio 4 series Injury Time, alongside fellow Footlights performers Rory McGrath and Emma Thompson. His first role for television came in 1982, when he appeared as Prince Henry in the pilot episode of Blackadder. He had already appeared in a training video by director Geoff Posner and got the role of Henry by way of thanks. The character was recast and downgraded when the series was commissioned as The Black Adder.
Bathurst's professional stage debut came the next year when he joined the second cast of Michael Frayn's Noises Off at the Savoy Theatre. He replaced Roger Lloyd-Pack as Tim Allgood and stayed at the Savoy for a year. Between roles, he worked as a television presenter for BBC East. After declining an offer to be a presenter of That's Life! he joined the National Theatre in 1984, where he appeared as a background actor in Saint Joan. He regards it as "the most demoralising" job he has ever had but was grateful for the theatre experience it gave him. The following year, he appeared at The Man in the Moon, a pub theatre in Chelsea, in Judgement, a two-hour monologue on cannibalism. The opening night audience was made up of three people but after good reviews in the national press the audience grew to an average of fifteen.
A casting director for the James Bond film The Living Daylights persuaded Bathurst to audition for Bond. Bathurst believes that his "ludicrous audition" was only "an arm-twisting exercise" because the producers wanted to pressure Timothy Dalton to take the role by telling him they were still auditioning other actors. Bathurst noted "I could never have done it – Bond actors are always very different from me".
He continued to make minor appearances in television throughout the 1980s; in 1987, he auditioned for the role of Dave Lister in the BBC North science fiction sitcom Red Dwarf. The part eventually went to Craig Charles but Bathurst was given a role in the first episode of the first series as Frank Todhunter, second officer on the ship, who is killed in the first ten minutes. Ten years later, Bathurst was invited to reprise the role when a storyline in the series allowed former characters to return, but filming commitments prevented him from appearing. In 1989, he appeared in Malcolm Bradbury's Anything More Would Be Greedy for Anglia Television, playing Dennis Medlam, MP. The programme was broadcast in 1990 to little fanfare. In 1990, he performed on Up Yer News, a live topical programme broadcast on BSB.
Joking Apart
While working on Up Yer News, Bathurst auditioned for a one-off television comedy called Joking Apart. Earlier in the day, he noticed a fellow Up Yer News performer reading the script to prepare for his own audition. As Bathurst went into the audition room, his colleague was leaving and told Bathurst he would "break his legs" if he got the part, a threat that seemed not to be "entirely jocular". Bathurst got the part and the pilot of Joking Apart was broadcast as an installment of the BBC 2 Comic Asides strand. It returned for two series in 1993 and 1995. Bathurst appeared as sitcom writer Mark Taylor in the series. After the first series was broadcast, a critic called Bathurst the "Best Comedy Newcomer of 1993".
The show was punctuated by fantasy sequences in which his character performed his thoughts as a stand-up routine in a small club. In the commentary and the interview on the DVD, Bathurst says that he was told that they would be re-shot after filming everything else, an idea abandoned because of the expense. He has an idea of re-filming the sequences 'now', as his older self, to give them a more retrospective feeling. He has also said that he believes Mark was too "designery" and wishes that he had "roughened him up a bit". The role is his favourite of his whole career; he has described it as "the most enjoyable job I will ever do" and considers several episodes of the series to be "timeless, beautifully constructed farces which will endure". Bathurst is often recognised for his appearance in this series, mentioning that "Drunks stop me on public transport and tell me details of the plot of their favourite episode". As punishment for arriving late for the series one press launch at the Café Royal in Regent Street, London, writer Steven Moffat pledged to write an episode in which Mark is naked throughout. To a large extent, this vow is realised in the second series.
Between 1991 and 1995, Bathurst also appeared on television in No Job for a Lady, The House of Eliott and The Detectives and on stage in The Choice, George Bernard Shaw's Getting Married at Chichester with Dorothy Tutin and Gogol's The Nose adapted by Alastair Beaton, which played in Nottingham and Bucharest. He also filmed a role in The Wind in the Willows (Terry Jones, 1996) as St John Weasel.
Wider recognition
In 1996, while appearing in The Rover at the Salisbury Playhouse, Bathurst got an audition for the Granada Television comedy pilot Cold Feet. He arrived for the audition "bearded and shaggy", on account of his role in the play, and did not expect to win the role of upper-middle class management consultant David Marsden. The role in the pilot was only minor and created at the last minute to support characters played by James Nesbitt and Helen Baxendale; the only character note in the script about David related to his high salary. Bathurst identified the character as merely a "post-Thatcherite whipping boy".
Bathurst reprised the role in the Cold Feet series, which ran for five years from 1998 to 2003. He described the character of David as an "emotional cripple", originally with little depth. The third series features an affair between David and a political activist played by Yasmin Bannerman. Bathurst appreciated the opportunity to bring some depth to a previously one-dimensional character, but was more impressed with the storylines that came out of the affair, rather than the affair itself: "It was the deception, the guilt and the recrimination rather than the actual affair, which was neither interesting nor remarkable". Like other cast members, Bathurst was able to suggest storylines as the series went on; one episode features David celebrating his fortieth birthday and Bathurst suggested the character could get a Harley-Davidson motorbike. Granada paid for him to take motorcycle lessons and a test. On the day before taking his test, the filming of a scene where David takes off on his new bike was scheduled. Bathurst "wobbled, missed the camera and crashed into the pavement", leading director Simon Delaney to exclaim it was the funniest thing he had ever seen. In another episode, David buys a racehorse – ostensibly as a birthday present for his wife – in a plot born out of Bathurst's own love of horseracing. The role made him more widely recognisable and he often received prospective scripts that were "obvious rewrites of the character". He turned them down, preferring to play a "good person", which would be more interesting from a dramatic point of view.
Between 1998 and 2003, he made television appearances in Goodbye, Mr Steadman (2001), starring opposite Caroline Quentin as a shy and unassuming teacher who has been declared dead after one of his pupils erases all computer records relating to him and in the adaptation of White Teeth (2002). On stage, in 1998 he appeared in Michael Frayn's Alarms and Excursions and in 1999 in Hedda Gabler, which was his last theatre role for several years. In the Daily Telegraph, Charles Spencer described his role as Tesman as a "weird casting choice" but called his acting "a brave stab". In 2001, Bathurst appeared in the music video for Westlife's Comic Relief single "Uptown Girl".
In 2002, straight after finishing Cold Feet, Bathurst went straight into filming My Dad's the Prime Minister, a series in which he portrays fictional British prime minister Michael Philips. The first series was broadcast in a Sunday afternoon CBBC slot in 2003. He watched debates in the House of Commons to prepare for the role but did not base his portrayal on Tony Blair. In 2003, he returned to theatre for the first time in four years to play Vershinin in The Three Sisters, opposite Kristin Scott Thomas and Eric Sykes. He had not seen The Three Sisters before starring in it. Director Michael Blakemore advised him to turn this to his advantage, as he would not feel he had to live up to previous portrayals. After its run concluded, a special edition of The Three Sisters was filmed with the same cast for television broadcast on BBC Four. In 2005, the second series of My Dad's the Prime Minister was broadcast, now moved to a Friday night time slot to take advantage of the adult humour. The same year, he starred in the ITV thriller The Stepfather playing Christopher Veazey, a man whose daughter goes missing. Bathurst was pleased that this white-collar worker had an emotional side, in comparison to David Marsden, whom he used as a yardstick when accepting those sorts of roles. Also in 2005, he played Mr Sesseman in an adaptation of Heidi and Dottore Massimo in The Thief Lord.
2006–present
In 2006, he played Mark Thatcher in Coup!, a dramatisation of the attempted coup in Equatorial Guinea. He also starred as Adrien opposite Nicholas Tennant in the UK premiere of Members Only at the Trafalgar Studios. He accepted the part because it was "funny, plausible, plausibly absurd and cruel" and he liked that it was a translation from an original French play. He enjoyed working on it, telling What's on Stage: "Nick is a really good actor and really good to work with in that you can have completely frank discussions about tiny issues and it's totally ego-free. We're all just discussing the point and not playing games with each other. It does make the working practice easier. If there's only two of you in a play, you are equally responsible – there's nobody else to blame if it goes wrong. So its a greater risk and there's no hiding". At the end of the year, he appeared opposite Richard Wilson in Whipping it Up, a play about whips in a fictional David Cameron government. To research his role, he watched more Commons debates. In 2006, Bathurst also appeared in an episode of Agatha Christie's Poirot 2005 where he played Gilbert Entwhistle in After the Funeral.
After a season at the Bush Theatre at the end of 2006, Whipping it Up transferred to the New Ambassadors Theatre from March to June 2007. The tour coincided with his appearance as the titular character in Alex, based on the comic in The Daily Telegraph. The play ran at the Arts Theatre between October and November 2007 and featured Bathurst interacting with other characters projected onto a screen behind him. He was attracted to the role because of the "duplicity and guile" Alex uses to get himself out of tight situations. The role won him a nomination for Best Solo Performance at the What's on Stage Awards. He reprised the role in an international tour from September to November 2008, playing in Melbourne, Sydney, Hong Kong, Singapore and Dubai. As Alex he presented a ten-part series on Classic FM, which won a Gold Award at the Sony Radio Academy Awards in 2012. He now performs Alex as a corporate after-dinner entertainment. 2007 also saw Bathurst perform as linguist Charles in the first series of the BBC Radio 4 sitcom Hut 33. He reprised the role for two more series in 2008 and 2009.
In 2009, he made his third and final appearance as art dealer James Garrett in My Family. He also played the role of Mr Weston in the BBC costume drama Emma, which was broadcast in October 2009 on BBC One. He previously played Weston in a two-part adaptation of Emma for BBC Radio 4 in 2000. Between January and April 2010, Bathurst starred as Garry Essendine in a national touring revival of Noël Coward's Present Laughter. He had not seen Present Laughter before, though had seen several Coward plays in his 20s and did not imitate Coward's speech patterns while performing. Present Laughter was the first time Bathurst had appeared in a Coward play and he was cast in another, Blithe Spirit, later in the year, as Charles Condomine. The play toured theatres around southern England in 2010 and early 2011 before beginning a three-month run at the Apollo Theatre in London.
On television in 2010, Bathurst starred as Percy Hamleigh in the German-Canadian miniseries The Pillars of the Earth and had a recurring role as widower Sir Anthony Strallan in the period drama Downton Abbey. In 2011 he starred as John Le Mesurier in the Hattie Jacques biopic Hattie, and joined the cast of the long-running ITV drama Wild at Heart.
He also has a recurring role in the comedy series Toast of London.
In 2014 he appeared in the Midsomer Murders “The Flying Club” as Perry Darnley. Bathurst is to star as Andy in the upcoming Sky1 television film television film adaptation of the M. C. Beaton novel Agatha Raisin: The Quiche of Death as Andy Cummings-Browne (2014).
In September 2016, Bathurst reprised his role of David Marsden in Cold Feet.
In 2019 Bathurst portrayed Sergeant Wilson in Dad's Army: The Lost Episodes, a recreation of three missing episodes of the BBC comedy Dad's Army. And portrayed Jeffrey Bernard in Jeffrey Bernard Is Unwell at the Coach and Horses in Greek Street, Soho. Bathurst said he jumped at the opportunity: "It’s so obviously a good idea, and appealingly odd. It brings Jeffrey Bernard’s journalism on to the stage, his own version of himself, not necessarily how others saw him." He added: "It’s a brilliantly funny, sour and surprisingly moving manifesto for the right of people to destroy their liver and wallet in any way they choose."
Personal life
Bathurst met artist Victoria Threlfall through mutual friends and they married in 1985. They have four daughters: Matilda, Clemency, Oriel and Honor.
Filmography
Robert Bathurst filmography
Radio
Richard Barton: General Practitioner! (1997)
Bathurst portrayed Professor Charles Gardner – the ultra-conservative snob and don who rejected Archie from Oxford for not knowing how to use a fish knife at the dinner table – in Hut 33 for BBC Radio 4.
The Golden Age (2012) 3 episodes. Written by Arthur Mathews
Written works
Bathurst, Robert (4 December 2001). "Yes, Cold Feet beat Trollope, but at what cost?". The Daily Telegraph: p. 17.
Bathurst, Robert (25 October 2008). "Alex tour: Getting Brezhnev to smile would have been easier". The Daily Telegraph: p. 26 (Review section)
Bathurst, Robert (7 March 2009). "It's their loss (but our pain)". The Independent
References
External links
Robert Bathurst at the British Film Institute
1957 births
Alumni of Pembroke College, Cambridge
Robert Guy
English male film actors
English male radio actors
English male stage actors
English male television actors
Living people
People educated at Worth School
Actors from Accra |
4301082 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon%20State%20Penitentiary | Oregon State Penitentiary | Oregon State Penitentiary (OSP), also known as Oregon State Prison, is a maximum security prison in the northwest United States in Salem, Oregon. Originally opened in Portland in 1851, it relocated to Salem fifteen years later. The 2,242-capacity prison is the oldest in the state; the all-male facility is operated by the Oregon Department of Corrections (ODOC). OSP contains an intensive management wing, which is being transformed into a psychiatric facility for mentally ill prisoners throughout Oregon.
History
Prior to the construction of prisons in Oregon, many convicted of crimes were either hanged or pardoned. Oregon State Penitentiary was originally built in Portland in 1851. Operating this facility proved difficult because it spanned two blocks, with a city street running through the middle. In 1859, the facility was leased to private contractors (Robert Newell and L. N. English), who instituted a system of prison labor. This new system led to many escapes.
In 1866, the state officially moved the penitentiary to a site in Salem, enclosed by a reinforced concrete wall averaging in height. The prison also began using a device called the "Gardner shackle" (later called the "Oregon Boot"), a heavy metal device attached to prisoners' legs to impede movement.
Escapes continued at the new facility, despite the wall and the Boot. The most famous of these occurred in 1902, when Harry Tracy and David Merrill killed three guards with a gun. Details about this period can be read in Thirteen Years in Oregon State Penitentiary, a book written by Joseph "Bunko" Kelly. Kelly describes scenes of extreme brutality, particularly floggings, which he recounts happening to whites, blacks, Indians, and a Chinese "half boy and half woman". He describes negligent doctors and a lack of mental health care, and complains that whiskey drinking affects the behavior of the guards. He also identifies a five-year period in which the warden stopped newspaper deliveries to prevent convicts from learning of pardons. The prison announced in 1904 that it would end the use of flogging, and instead punish prisoners by spraying them with cold water from a garden hose.
The prison experimented briefly in 1917–1918 with an "honor system" in which 130 prisoners were paroled with certain conditions. The prisoners were released into jobs outside the prison during the daytime. After 66 of these absconded, Governor James Withycombe announced that he would find a way for them to work jobs within the prison facility.
In the 1920s, the Penitentiary created a flax plant which employed more than half of its inmates. Inmates worked on construction and in the fields, and were paid $0.50–$1.00 per day. The plant was touted nationally as a way to make the prison financially self-sustaining, and to rehabilitate prisoners by giving them something to do and preparing them to work. In 1925, OSP had the largest flax scutching mill in the world, with 175 workers producing 100–150 tons of flax per day.
With assistance from the Federal Bureau of Education, OSP ran a unique and successful adult education program during the same era. With Prohibition in effect, 80 of the prison's 575 inmates at this time were moonshiners. Nine prisoners were shot in a 1926 riot beginning in the prison cafeteria.
Seven hundred inmates were involved in a riot on August 1, 1936, in response to a court ruling that made it more difficult for prisoners to be released after serving their minimum sentence. The riot was put down by armed guards; one prisoner, Thomas Baughn, was killed and two were wounded. After being deprived of their weapons (and of food, in punishment), prisoners began to break windows and throw projectiles from their cells.
Inmates at OSP attempted a mass escape in December 1951, after receiving weapons from a sympathetic guard. The plan was foiled by an informant, John Edward Ralph, who was quickly transferred to Folsom Prison for his own protection. Unrest continued through 1952 with civil disobedience and more escape attempts. Over 1300 prisoners conducted an eight-day hunger strike in August to protest alleged brutality of a guard named Morris Race. In October 1952, an escape attempt involving armed conflict with guards was suppressed with gunfire. On January 1, 1953, prison officials announced the discovery of an escape tunnel being dug by prisoner Robert Green. The tunnel was 12 feet underground and 50 feet long, reaching within 15 feet of the world outside OSP walls.
A major insurrection erupted in July 1953 when prisoners stopped working, on strike for better food and medical care. They barricaded themselves in the cafeteria. Under instructions from Warden Clarence T. Gladden, guards used tear gas to prevent the prisoners from reaching food supplies. The angry prisoners gained control of most of the prison and started fires in the flax plant, laundry room, tailor room, and machine shop. Ultimately the prisoners were subdued by guards with tear gas, shotguns, and rifles. 1100 Rebels were confined to a baseball diamond without food or water, with Warden Gladden saying they would stay there until "I am sure they are repentant". They stayed on the diamond for two days and one night, until twenty ringleaders identified by prison authorities were surrendered, and prisoners agreed to be individually searched.
In what may have been the first sex reassignment surgery officially conducted in a prison, a DMAB prisoner changed her sex to female, through surgery and hormones, in a period prior to release in 1965.
Discontent continued in the 1960s. The public became aware that only 200 of the 1200 inmates at OSP actually had sentences calling for maximum security incarceration; yet all inmates were treated according to maximum security standards. Prisoners continued to complain about medical care, dental care, and visitation rights.
Unrest culminated in March 1968, in an uprising which began with a surprise takeover of the prison's control center. 700 prisoners took control of the facility, started a fire in the flour shop, and held 40 guards and prison employees hostage. The hostages were freed after prison officials announced the resignation of Warden Gladden (then 73 years old), as well as immunity for the rioters. Prisoners were criticized for damaging facilities that supported them. Ron Schmidt, press secretary of Governor Tom McCall, said: "It's pure devastation. The men destroyed everything that was of any benefit to them." Two inmates were stabbed during the riot: Delmar DuBray, 30, was stabbed in the right kidney; Melvin Newell, 36, was stabbed in the abdomen and groin.
In November 1968, a work stoppage by 81 prisoners in the laundry room was controlled by guards with clubs, and the prisoners placed in isolation
Also in 1968, OSP inmates founded UHURU, an organization dedicated to Afro-American culture, history, and community service. Although the prison establishment was skeptical at first, UHURU gained official support and had a membership of several hundred in 1982. OSP prisoners were politically active in the following decades, holding forums on politics and communicating with the Oregon NAACP. OSP began to recruit African American staff in 1981 in response to pressure from activist black prisoners.
In September 1988, 28 female inmates at the Oregon Correctional Center staged a sit-down protest that prison Superintendent Robert H. Scheidler described as the first of its kind in the facility's history. On October 1, between four and eight women staged a hunger strike—inmate Jody Bedell fasted for 24 days before ending the strike. Both the sit-down protest and hunger strike were meant to call attention to overcrowding, poor medical care, inadequate education programs and the shortage of showers and laundry machines. At the time, the prison was built for 80 women but was housing over 140 women and had only one shower for every 43 inmates. The women who participated in the hunger strike were ordered to spend a year in a segregation unit and were fined $214.
In May 2020, ODOC announced that the state will close its death row. On December 13, 2022, Governor Kate Brown commuted the death sentences of everyone on Oregon's death row to life without parole. She also instructed the Department of Corrections to dismantle the state's death chamber.
Facility and programs
The prison is located on of land in the southeast of Salem, Oregon. The facility itself consists of , surrounded by a wall which is patrolled by armed correctional officers.
Most housing in the penitentiary is in large cell blocks with most inmates housed in single man cells that have been converted to double man cells to increase capacity. The penitentiary also has a full service infirmary.
Intensive Management Unit
Oregon State Penitentiary was the site of Oregon's first supermax unit, the "Intensive Management Unit" (IMU), constructed in 1991. The 196-bed self-contained Intensive Management Unit provides housing and control for male inmates who disrupt or pose a substantial threat to the general population in all department facilities. In 2006, this facility held 147 people (out of a total of 784 across Oregon) in solitary confinement.
Conditions in the IMU were the object of public criticism, triggered particularly by multiple suicide of mentally ill prisoners. Former warden Brian Belleque also expressed doubts about the possibility of rehabilitation in the IMU, saying: "We realize that 95 to 98 percent of these inmates here are going to be your neighbor in the community. They are going to get out." Prisoners in the OSP IMU were moved in 2009 to Snake River Correctional Institution in Ontario, Oregon.
In 2010, ODOC began to convert the IMU into a psychiatric facility, which will serve mentally ill prisoners from across Oregon. Some advocates for the mentally ill have argued that the IMU facility is not suitable for treating the mentally ill because it is "dark" and "crowded", and generally designed for solitary confinement.
Death row
OSP was the site of death row in Oregon and contained the lethal injection chamber where prisoners were executed. Governor John Kitzhaber announced an official moratorium on executions in November 2011. In May 2020, ODOC announced that the state will close its death row. On December 13, 2022, Governor Kate Brown commuted the death sentences of everyone on Oregon's death row to life without parole and instructed the Department of Corrections to dismantle the state's death chamber.
Executions in Oregon were conducted in public by counties until 1902, when they were centralized (and made less spectacular) at the State Penitentiary. Since the US Supreme Court reaffirmed the death penalty in Gregg v. Georgia (1976), Oregon has executed only two people: Douglas Franklin Wright, in 1996, and Harry Charles Moore, in 1997.
Hospice
Oregon State Penitentiary is home to a hospice, which is staffed by volunteers from among the prison population. The current incarnation of the hospice began in 1999, and won "Program of the Year Award" from the National Commission on Correctional Health Care in 2001. The OSP hospice was at the forefront of a national trend of prison hospices—reacting to increased prison deaths resulting from the HIV/AIDS epidemic and from harsher sentencing laws. The program's volunteer-based structure has served as a model for other institutions.
Minimum security annex
Oregon State Penitentiary has a separate minimum security facility located on its grounds. It was first opened in 1964 as Oregon's first women's prison, and was called Oregon Women's Correctional Center. In 2010, the state closed the minimum security annex.
Criticism and legal actions
Prisoners and advocates have charged the OSP system with racism, saying that the system discriminates against black inmates—both by placing them in worse conditions and by failing to protect them from racially motivated violence. They cite the case of Pete Wilson, a black prisoner who was stabbed by ten white inmates while white guards looked on. Black inmates also charged the OSP library with showing racial bias in access and employment. One black inmate described their opinion on the causes and effects of this bias:
Black and other minorities at OSP have an acute problem with the librarian when it comes to their gaining access to courts. First we recognize racism is an ingrained traditional attitude. And second, prisons are reflections of those views. Therefore, Blacks and others in their own wherewithal struggle towards the path of freedom through redress in our courts. But quite often the librarian tries to preclude these efforts in many different ways. Such as telling prisoners his notary seal is broken and of course this tactic will go on for two or three weeks until one of the counselors puts a stop to it, being that if the librarian doesn't notarize documents they will have to do his job.
Prisoners have accused OSP guards of homophobia, censoring homosexual materials in the men's prison and contact among inmates in the women's prison (closed in 2010). In 1982, prisoners filed a class-action lawsuit against the prison, charging that their rights to receive mail were being violated. In particular, they charged prison officials with censoring the mail by withholding "not approved" material, including material related to homosexuality. District Judge Owen Panner decided for the prisoners and the ACLU, ruling that blacklisting certain publications and materials (including those related to homosexuality) violated the First and Fourteenth Amendment rights of the prisoners. However, some advocates believed that the legal ruling would have little effect. Carole Pope, a former prisoner at OSP, said: "We've had five major law suits. After each one, there was a token change, then it went back to the way it was. They [prison officials] don't take any of this seriously."
In 1977, three inmates (two current and one former) filed a lawsuit alleging that they had been harmed by medical experiments using drugs and radiation. The experiments were voluntary and affected 67 prisoners, who were paid $125 each.
In popular culture
Oregon State Prison appears in the opening scene of the 2001 film Bandits, during an escape scene in which the two protagonists forcibly break out of the prison and then proceed on a bank robbing spree. The "Gardner shackle" (later called the "Oregon Boot") is featured in the March 16, 1960, episode of Wagon Train, "The Alexander Portlass Story", and in the January 27, 1957, episode of Alfred Hitchcock Presents, "The Manacled."
Notable inmates
List of inmates (with dates of incarceration) at Oregon State Penitentiary:
Richard Laurence Marquette (1961–1973, since 1975)
Randall Woodfield (since 1981) – "The I-5 Killer"; injured at OSP in 1983; filed suit (unsuccessfully) in 1987 against author Ann Rule for publishing a libelous account of his case
Gary Haugen (since 1981) – killed David Polin, another OSP inmate, in 2003
Dayton Leroy Rogers (since 1989) – serial killer linked to the murders of seven women
Bradly Morris Cunningham (since 1995) – serving a life sentence for murdering his ex-wife and mother of his three sons Cheryl Keeton. True crime writer and author Ann Rule wrote a best selling book titled "Dead by Sunset" in the year 1995. The book focused on Bradly and Cheryl's bitter divorce and custody battle over their sons as well as Bradly's murder of Cheryl. A made-for-television movie also titled "Dead by Sunset" premiered on the MSNBC television network in the year 1995 too. The film was based on Anne Rule's book. Bradly also wrote and published an ebook titled "Ann Rule Deconstructed". In his ebook, Bradly accused Anne Rule of being a liar and having exaggerated with regards to her "Dead By Sunset" book.
Keith Hunter Jesperson (since 1995) – the "Happy Face Killer"
Christian Longo (since 2003) – murdered his wife and three children
William Perry Jackson – murdered five people with two accomplices during robberies in Washington and Oregon between May and August 1980.
Former inmates
Hank Vaughan (1865–1870) – moved with the prison from Portland to Salem, narrowly avoiding a lynch mob; paroled early for good behavior, moved to Nevada, and became a blacksmith
Joseph "Bunko" Kelly (1895–1908) – released; author of Thirteen Years In The Oregon Penitentiary
Harry Tracy (1901–1902) – escaped, committed suicide when threatened with capture
Carl Panzram (1915–1918) – escaped, assumed a false identity, committed more crimes, captured in 1928 in Washington, D.C., incarcerated at USP Leavenworth and executed there in 1930
Albert Rosser (1938, 1939–1943) – held then released with a stay, facing a 12-year sentence from the Oregon Supreme Court; imprisoned in 1939; released after minimum sentence of four years with good behavior; secretary of the Oregon teamsters, dubbed a "labor terrorist" and convicted of complicity with arson at the West Salem Box plant; delivered testimony while imprisoned for the Harry Bridges trial
John Omar Pinson (1947–1959) – paroled after six years of good behavior; accused of killing police officer Delmond E. Rondeau and setting fire to the flax plant in 1949; profiled on the television show Gang Busters!
Gary Gilmore (1962, 1964–1972, 1972–1975) – released to halfway house, quickly convicted of new crimes, re-incarcerated, transferred to USP Marion for bad behavior, paroled to Utah in April 1976, committed multiple murders in July 1976, executed in January 1977
Jerry Brudos (1969–2006) – died of liver cancer; OSP's longest-term resident
Randal Krager (1992–1994, 1995–1996) – released, re-arrested, pardoned; founded Volksfront in 1994 while incarcerated
Harry Charles Moore (1993–1997) – executed by lethal injection
Bobby Jack Fowler (1996–2006) – connected to the Highway of Tears murders, died in prison of lung cancer
George Hayford (1858–?), attorney and swindler
Diane Downs – convicted in the 1983 shooting of her three children, transferred to Clinton Correctional Facility for Women after her 1987 escape
John Arthur Ackroyd – Died in December 2016
Sebastian Shaw – Died in October 2021
See also
List of Oregon prisons and jails
Harry Minto
References
Bibliography
Hubert Howe Bancroft, History of Oregon Vol. II: 1848-1888''', San Francisco: The History Company, 1888.
Joseph "Bunko" Kelly, Thirteen Years in Oregon State Penitentiary'', 1908
External links
ODOC official site
Prisons in Oregon
Buildings and structures in Salem, Oregon
Capital punishment in Oregon
Execution sites in the United States
1851 establishments in Oregon Territory |
4301379 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiddie%20ride | Kiddie ride | A kiddie ride is a child-sized, themed, mildly interactive coin-operated ride that can be ridden by young children for amusement. Kiddie rides are commonly available in amusement parks, arcades, malls, hotel game rooms, outside supermarkets, and large department stores. Less commonly, they may also appear in other venues such as restaurants, food courts, grocery shops, and auto dealerships. When activated by a coin, a kiddie ride entertains the rider for a short time with a mild motion that replicates the theme of the ride. Most rides also include sounds and music. Some even feature flashing lights, pedals, and/or buttons. Commercial kiddie rides are often very colorful with an animal, vehicle, or popular cartoon character theme which appeals to young children. They are usually driven by a heavy-duty electric motor, which is usually disguised inside or underneath the metal, fiberglass, or vacuum formed plastic body of the ride.
History
The kiddie ride was first invented in 1930 by James Otto Hahs of Sikeston, Missouri. Originally called the Hahs Gaited Mechanical Horse, the ride was originally conceived as a Christmas present for his children. However, Hahs soon realized the money-making potential and set about commercializing it. Initially, he used wooden horses, not unlike those found on a carousel, and commissioned carousel makers to make the horses. However, he found these horses to be too heavy and decided that aluminum would be a more suitable material. When told it couldn't be done, however, Hahs went ahead and invented a process to form horses out of metal. The rides would be manufactured at Hahs Machine Works in Sikeston, and they were recognized as the most original invention of the year in 1932. In 1933, Hahs struck a deal with Exhibit Supply Company to distribute his horses, with a 5% cut going to Hahs. When the patent on the ride eventually ran out, he retired from the wealth he had amassed from sales. In 1953, Billboard magazine called it "1953's fastest growing business". Years later, aluminum horses would be replaced by fiberglass.
Developed around the same time, the Link Trainer was initially intended for use as a coin-operated entertainment device as well as a tool for training pilots.
Music
Many very old rides do not feature music; also, some vehicle rides may favor engine sounds instead of music. However, on rides that feature music, early rides (and cheaper modern rides that imitate more well-known rides) are equipped with simple integrated circuits that continually playback one melody or repeat a set of melodies in sequence. These have evolved in the sense that the earliest musically-enabled rides played back only a single monophonic melody repetitively. In contrast, later ones played multiple polyphonic melodies whilst sometimes including short sound or speech samples. Later rides could also use a tape deck, while more recent rides may have a solid-state audio playback device akin to flash-based MP3 players. Usually, the music chosen is generic children's songs, while on licensed rides, the theme song for the licensed character would be used. However, in rare cases, some rides play traditional pop music, and for private rides, the owner may request a song that has personal relevance to be programmed into the ride.
Many modern rides are programmed to play multiple melodies, with the music changing each time the ride is used, the logic being to prolong the interest of the child on the ride. However, some modern rides, in particular licensed character ones, are usually programmed to play a single melody or song, which is usually the theme song of the character's television show or film. There are also some exceptions where there are licensed rides playing totally unrelated pieces of music or non-licensed rides that play only one particular tune, for example, a song about cars on a car-themed ride, the Thomas theme tune on a Thomas the Tank Engine ride, the Postman Pat theme tune on a Postman Pat ride and the Fireman Sam theme tune on a Fireman Sam ride.
Certain rides exist that do not emphasize music but play a running narration or tell a story instead. They usually have generic instrumental music running softly in the background while the story is being told.
Modern rides
Newer, more advanced rides do not usually start as soon as coins are inserted; instead they prompt the rider, parent or guardian to press a start button, so as to allow the rider to seat him/herself comfortably before starting the ride. Often, these rides will also play a message before movement begins and may also play an ending message once the ride ends, to let the rider know that it is safe to disembark.
Other safety precautions commonly found in more advanced rides include:
allowing use of the start button to pause the ride, so the rider can reposition themselves or even disembark safely if desired;
safety sensors that detect if anything is potentially obstructing the ride's movement and stop the ride accordingly until the obstruction is removed;
overload sensors that stop the ride from moving if the weight limit on the ride is exceeded;
a slow start/stop action so as not to shock or frighten younger riders.
To attract attention, most rides occasionally flash their lights or play a sound, or both, at set intervals, although many older rides, as well as low-cost, or knockoff, rides do not have an attract mode.
Some rides may, as mentioned above, narrate a story through sound or using a video monitor, the latter providing limited interaction with the video displayed.
Common themes
Arthur
Batmobile
Barney the Dinosaur
Bear in the Big Blue House
Boat
Brum
Bumble Bee
Bunny / Rabbit
Bus
Campervan (introduced by the TV series Sooty & Co.)
Clifford the Big Red Dog (introduced by the TV series of the same name)
Digger (introduced by the TV series Bob the Builder as Scoop)
Dinosaur (introduced by the TV series The Flintstones as Dino)
Dog
Dolphin
Elephant
Fire truck
Garfield
Helicopter
Horse or pony - Perhaps the most popular kiddie ride.
Ice cream truck
Jay Jay the Jet Plane
Jeep
Jumbo jet or other airplanes
Ladybug or Caterpillar
Larrymobile
Mickey Mouse
Miniature carousel
Motorcycle
Muppet Babies
My Little Pony
Panda (usually in the form of a small ship with a panda sitting facing the rider)
Peacock
Police car
Police motorcycle
Post van (introduced by the TV series Postman Pat)
Roller coaster
Sailor Moon
School bus
Sesame Street
Space Shuttle
SpongeBob SquarePants
Sports car
Stagecoach
Steam Roller (introduced by the TV series Bob the Builder as Roley)
Swan
Taxi
Teletubbies
Thomas & Friends
Tractor
Train (usually stationary and not on a track, but train kiddie rides that move on a small track do exist)
Types of rides
Track rides
Track rides are usually rides in the form of a train on a track; in most coin-operated train-type track rides, the coin mechanism is on the locomotive unit of the ride and it can seat two to three toddlers. In general, the ride is powered by a low-voltage current passing through the tracks but sometimes the rides are powered by batteries. Most versions of these rides are specifically designed to carry young children, due to the low-voltage used and the size of the ride, although it is possible to find bigger models designed for older children.
Track rides are not necessarily restricted to trains; animal track rides that feature horses or frogs have also been documented. In a similar fashion, another type of ride that would classify as a track ride would be one with an elongated base where the figure paces the length of the base, then turns and moves in the opposite direction on reaching its limit.
Carousel rides
Another common type of kiddie ride is the miniature carousel type. These rides are usually in the form of a small-sized carousel and newer models have the coin-box on the main pillar whereas older units have the coin box on a pole sticking out of the side of the ride.
Carousel rides featuring licensed characters (see below) are not common, but do exist. A Thomas the Tank Engine carousel ride is known to exist, as is one from a British television show for children called Play School. Carousel rides featuring the characters from The Wiggles, Bob the Builder, Sesame Street and Hi-5 have also been documented.
Hydraulic rides
More commonly built by European kiddie ride manufacturers like Automatic Toys Modena (ATM) from Italy, hydraulic rides are kiddie rides situated on a hydraulic arm that raise and lower the ride during their activation. Usually, the rider is given limited interaction with the ride in the form of up/down buttons or levers so that the rider can instruct the ride to fly higher or lower, giving the user the impression of some control over their experience.
Base rides
This kind of ride is perhaps the most common type, an animal or vehicle situated on a vacuum-formed base that moves up-and-down or side-to-side, or even both, when activated; some even move in a slithering-like motion. Usually, rides of this configuration have the motor hidden in the base, although some larger rides have the motor hidden in the ride-on figure instead.
One of the most popular rides is a horse ride. Recent developments have included the "Pony Express" ride, first manufactured by Italian company Cogan. These feature a complicated mechanism that alternates between galloping and trotting motions during the ride, mimicking the movements of a real-life horse. This type of ride has become very popular, that this base has been adapted by both the Spanish manufacturer Falgas for their own version of the "Pony Express" and Memo Park, another Italian based company, for their own type of Western style horse. Both companies have added unique features to the original Cogan version of the ride, Falgas adds horse sounds to the soundtrack whilst a more innovative function on the Memo Park version is the use of rider interactivity, in where if the rider pulls back on the reins, the horse stops for a few seconds before continuing to either gallop or trot depending at what pace it is travelling at when the reins are pulled.
Another one of the most popular rides is the Kiddie Coaster. The first edition was manufactured by Amutec and released in 2000. Another edition was manufactured by Innovative Concepts in Entertainment and released in 2002. This ride simulates one of two different roller coasters. The Innovative Concepts in Entertainment edition simulates Blue Streak and Gemini while the Amutec edition simulates two different Six Flags coasters. Innovative Concepts in Entertainment’s edition of the ride is one of the most common kiddie rides that can be found in malls and shopping outlets.
Free movement (bumper car-like) rides
These kinds of rides are usually in the form of animals or vehicles. These are most common in Asian countries, particularly China. Unlike a real bumper car ride commonly found at funfairs, the coin-operated variant uses batteries instead of drawing electricity off of an overhead mesh, and one can ride it anytime, instead of having to wait for the operator to start the ride for them.
Teeter totter rides
These rides are generally teeter totters for one person. An inanimate figure typically sits at the opposite end of the ride. The rides moves on a gentle up-and-down motion mimicking that of a standard teeter-totter. Jolly Roger Amusement Rided has made three of these: one featuring Mr. Bump from The Mr. Men Show, one featuring the Pink Panther and one featuring Mr. Blobby.
Video game hybrids
These rides are a hybrid of kiddie ride and arcade video games. The rides usually incorporate a video display and, while the motion is synchronized to the events happening on the screen, the ride will start and end following the events on the screen. The ride is usually interactive and there are push-buttons to allow the rider to interact with the on-screen actions.
These rides should not be mistaken for simulators, which reproduce the action of a video game without offering further interactivity. Furthermore, the video-game hybrid is time-based and ends at a pre-determined time, regardless of the actions of the user.
An example of a hybrid ride would be the Waku Waku Sonic Patrol Car ride and other waku-waku and wanpaku series of rides manufactured by Sega. Another example is a Mario Kart ride manufactured by OMC Electronics. It was released sometime in the 1990s and features Mario climbing on the back of the kid's seat and plays the Super Mario World TV series theme song when in motion.
Character rides
In many cases, kiddie rides in the likes of well-known copyrighted characters or objects from films or television shows can also be found, usually at bigger shopping malls that can afford them due to the higher purchasing costs. A classic example would be the Batmobile rides.
Another example of a character kiddie ride would be a Clifford the Big Red Dog kiddie ride, manufactured by Jolly Roger Amusement Rides of the United Kingdom. This ride costs around $5000 in the US when purchased new. It plays the theme song from the PBS Kids TV series when in motion. The push button on the ride triggers Clifford barking sounds.
Yet another example would be a Bob the Builder ride, which features Bob climbing onto Scoop with 4 sounds and Pilchard in his shovel. This ride was also manufactured by Jolly Roger Amusement Rides and released around January 2000.
In 2015, Northern Leisure released a SpongeBob SquarePants kiddie ride based on the Krabby Patty Wagon from The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie. This ride has SpongeBob seated next to the "rider's seat", and his pet snail Gary rides on the back of the ride. This SpongeBob-themed ride also includes a screen displaying the lyrics to the SpongeBob SquarePants theme song. The lyrics to the theme song have to be sung out by whoever rides it (known as sing-along). The attract mode is also the SpongeBob theme song, and each of the 3 buttons on the ride plays a sound effect: a horn, bubble noises (commonly used in transitions from a scene to another in SpongeBob), and a dolphin noise.
In 1994, R.G. Mitchell released a Thomas the Tank Engine kiddie ride with 4 push buttons which trigger "You're a really useful engine!" (Thomas: blue), "I need you to help the other engines" (Sir Topham Hatt: yellow), a whistle sound (James: red) and a steam sound (Percy: green). There is also a mini version of the aforementioned ride for places that don't have enough space. In 2006, Jolly Roger Amusement Rides of the UK released their version of the Thomas the Tank Engine kiddie ride in two options - standard and video.
Jolly Roger Amusement Rides is also known for making other licensed kiddie rides, including a fire truck and an airplane featuring Woody Woodpecker and Chilly Willy, a seesaw, train and police van featuring the Pink Panther and Inspector Clouseau, and a sailboat featuring Popeye.
Another example would be a Superman kiddie ride featuring the Man of Steel "stopping" the train you're in (meant to look like it's emerging from a tunnel into a rockfall.) When in motion, it plays the Superman: The Animated Series theme (in a lower pitch, the PAL version) and has four buttons: "Look! Up in the sky! It's a bird... it's a plane... it's Superman!!" "Superman! Faster than a speeding bullet!" "Superman! More powerful than a locomotive!" "Superman! Able to leap tall buildings in a single bound!" (these are all taken from the Superman radio show, but voiced by Don Kennedy.) Like some of the above examples, it was manufactured by Jolly Roger Amusement Rides. This ride was released in January 2000, although it was copyrighted in 1999.
Kiddie's Manufacturing made three kiddie rides based on The Flintstones: the Flintmobile, Dino and Loggin Continental. All three play "Meet The Flintstones" when the ride is in motion and were released in 1994. Dino is probably one of the most common character rides.
Character rides costs much more than generic rides when purchased new. The higher cost stems from the royalty of the voice samples and theme song as well as character licensing fees.
Knockoff rides that feature figures that look like those of famous cartoon characters exist. Commonly knocked off characters include: Pikachu from Pokémon, Disney's Donald Duck and Mickey Mouse, Despicable Me'''s Minions and Hello Kitty. They are cheaper than real licensed rides, and are found at smaller establishments. However, as the name suggests, they are not licensed, and in certain areas with high intellectual property rights recognition, purchasers of knockoff rides can potentially get themselves entangled with legal complications. Furthermore, the ride figure might not be designed to look as close to a licensed character compared to genuinely licensed rides, possibly resulting in diminished recognition. Occasionally, there are some countries where knockoff characters are found in fairground rides. These feature paint jobs of popular characters that are featured on the rides without a license from their respective owners. Some vehicles in said rides can also be based on popular cartoon characters, including Disney's Mickey Mouse and Goofy, Looney Tunes' Bugs Bunny, the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and Bart Simpson from The Simpsons.
Kiddie rides and personal use
While kiddie rides are primarily used to garner extra income for commercial areas like shopping malls, supermarkets and amusement centers, like classic arcade game machines they are becoming increasingly common in homes in many developed countries, usually bought by game collectors and families. This renaissance is being led by Denver-based Kiddie Rides USA, and has received coverage in many magazines including Time, Fortune, United Airline's Hemispheres, and on CNBC.
Many of the rides are ex-location units which have been written off by the original owner, usually to make way for newer games or rides, and bought for a fraction of what they would cost brand new, either directly from the previous owner or on online auction sites like eBay.
Free play
Usually, older rides would be slightly modified; the coin mechanism is replaced by a push button switch to allow for free play, while more sophisticated rides that have a mode switch would be set permanently to free play.
References
External links
"Rise and Fall of the American Kiddie Ride"- Jake Swearingen, The Atlantic, Dec.2014.
"Remember vintage coin-operated rides?" Click Americana'', Jan. 1953.
Amusement rides
Amusement rides by type |
4301442 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Forks%2C%20Winnipeg | The Forks, Winnipeg | The Forks () is a historic site, meeting place, and green space in downtown Winnipeg located at the confluence of the Red River and the Assiniboine River.
The Forks was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1974 due to its status as a cultural landscape that had borne witness to six thousand years of human activity. The site's grounds are open year-round.
History
Pre-colonial era
Numerous archaeological digs have shown that early Indigenous groups arrived at The Forks site around 6,000 years ago. The digs conducted between 1989 and 1994 discovered several Indigenous camps. Artifacts related to the bison hunt and fishing were unearthed. Evidence showed that Nakoda (Assiniboins), Cree, Anishinaabe (Ojibwa) and Sioux (Dakota) visited the site. Seasonal migration routes from northern forests to southern plains featured the Forks area as a rest stop, and the location became a key transcontinental trade link.
The Assiniboine River has followed its modern course for approximately 700 years. The Assiniboine River formerly met the Red River near the present-day mouth of the La Salle River.
1734–1880
European fur traders arrived at the site and initiated trade with the local peoples, using the Assiniboine people as fur trade middlemen.
Europeans arrived by canoe in 1738. La Vérendrye erected Fort Rouge, the first of a long line of forts and trading posts erected in the area. The Red River Colony and the forts were all established near The Forks. The area remained the hub of the fur trade up until the 1880s. At that time, grain production became Western Canada's principal industry and the main transportation for that industry was rail rather than waterways.
From 1760 to 1821, the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) and North West Company competed for furs. Both companies used The Forks to store and ship supplies and furs. By 1821, competing fur companies were amalgamated into the HBC.
1886–1923
The rail yards of the Northern Pacific and Manitoba Railway Company, the Canadian Northern, the Grand Trunk Pacific Railroad, and the Canadian National Railway were dominant facets of the Forks site, and this era is responsible for some of the buildings still standing at The Forks.
The Forks Market was formed by joining together the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway stable and the Great Northern Railway stable. What is now the Johnston Terminal was originally known as the National Cartage Building.
The Manitoba Children's Museum is housed in what used to be the Northern Pacific and Manitoba Railway Company's Buildings and Bridges (B & B) Buildings. Union Station is still in operation.
Across the Prairies, the Canadian government began actively promoting immigration, settlement, and railway development in the late 1800s. The Canadian government erected two immigration sheds at The Forks, each accommodating up to 500 people.
The Forks today
On July 24, 1987, the Forks Renewal Corporation (FRC) was incorporated as a wholly-owned subsidiary of the North Portage Development Corporation (NPDC). The objective of FRC was to provide a mechanism for implementing the redevelopment of the former CN East Yards area. The result was The Forks as its known today. (The operations of FRC and NPDC were merged in 1994 to form The Forks North Portage Partnership.)
Following the opening of the Forks National Historic Site in 1989, the Forks became the location of an interpretive park, and later public space for celebrations and recreation, revitalized historic and new buildings containing shops and restaurants, as well as a skateboard park and historic port. The Forks attracts over four million visitors each year.
Facilities
The Forks Market
Beginning as two adjacent stables for competing rail companies (Grand Trunk Pacific and Great Northern), the horse stalls were joined by a courtyard and bridges, and became what is now known as The Forks Market.
The Forks Market features a six-storey tower with viewing platform, which is accessible by stairs or elevator and features interpretive panels with information on the site's history.
The market also comprises two storeys of vendors selling everything from fresh fruit, bread, meat, and wine to cigars and aromatherapy products to crafts and artworks from 300 local and Canadian artisans.
In mid-2016, the Forks completed a $2.5-million renovation of the food hall into a feature called The Common, including a new beer and wine kiosk.
Outside, located directly in between The Forks Market and Johnston Terminal, The Forks Market Plaza features fountains, canopies, dancing programs, several open performance spaces and patios. In the winter, the Plaza is home to an artificially-cooled skating rink, under a canopy and lights.
Johnston Terminal
Across the courtyard from the Forks Market is the four-storey Johnston Terminal building.
It was constructed in 1928 by Carter-Halls-Aldinger Company, and cost an estimated $134,700. Originally named the National Cartage Building, it was built as a warehouse and freight-forwarding facility for the Canadian National Railway (CNR).
After a substantial addition in 1930, the warehouse was at the time one of the largest in Winnipeg, containing over of usable space. It was occupied by National Storage and Cartage, a wholly-owned CNR subsidiary, until 1961, and was leased to the Johnston National Cartage Company (later known as the Johnston Terminals Company) for the next 15 years.
Vacated in 1977, the building was unoccupied until the redevelopment of the site into The Forks as a retail space. The developers, Artis REIT, continue to own and manage Johnston Terminal.
The building is now a municipally-designated historic site, and is now home to a variety of specialty boutiques, stores, offices, and restaurants. The main and second floor tenants are retailers, including The Old Spaghetti Factory; while the third and fourth floors are leased to office tenants. The basement of the building hosts the Johnston Terminal Antique Mall, which has more than 30 consigners and of new merchandise brought in daily.
Travel Manitoba Visitor Information Centre
Travel Manitoba Visitor Information Centre is the visitor information centre for Manitoba, offering travel counselling and trip planning services. The centre also acts as a meeting point for the "6,000 Years in 60 Minutes!" Parks Canada interpretive program offered throughout the summer months.
Manitoba Children's Museum
Located next to the Oodena Celebration Circle, the Manitoba Children's Museum is a non-profit, charitable children's museum featuring twelve permanent galleries. Originally opened at a different location in 1986, the museum's moved to its current building at the Forks in 1994. The museum is now housed in the former Kinsmen Building, which is the oldest surviving train repair facility in Manitoba, having been built in 1889.
The museum underwent $10 million in renovations in 2011, including the addition of the Buhler Welcome Centre.
Shaw Performing Arts Center
The Manitoba Theatre for Young People (MTYP) is a theatre for children and young adults, located at the Canwest Performing Arts Centre (now the Shaw Performing Arts Center) in The Forks. The location provides of space for the theatre to use towards its missions of producing entertaining professional theatre, providing training in theatre and portraying the experience of Canadian children.
MTYP's Theatre School offers Fall, Winter, and Spring sessions, as well as spring break and summer camps, including classes for children as young as three years old. MTYP offers free acting, performing and film training classes to Winnipeg's Indigenous youth between the ages of 12 and 18.
Canadian Museum for Human Rights
The Forks is the location of the Canadian Museum for Human Rights, the first national museum in Canada located outside of Ottawa. Its construction was completed in 2014.
The site for the museum is one of archaeological importance relating to First Nations history.
Inn at the Forks
Inn at the Forks is a five-storey hotel located at the Forks. It has 117 guest rooms and suites, meeting and reception space for up to 200 people, fitness facilities, and features The Current Restaurant & Lounge and Riverstone Spa. The hotel features natural slate floors in the main lobby, glass vanities in the suite washrooms, heated floors, and a water wall in the spa.
The Inn at the Forks project was the first Canadian application of the "Redi-Maid" system that links ensuite occupancy sensors, lighting and mechanical system controls to staff PDAs with the goal of maximizing energy efficiency. The hotel was completed with a construction cost of $16 million in May 2004.
Winnipeg Railway Museum
The Winnipeg Railway Museum is located at the historic Union Station adjacent to the Forks. It is home to the Countess of Dufferin, the first steam locomotive on the Canadian Prairies or to enter western Canada. The museum closed on 31 December 2021.
Outdoor features
The Forks features numerous outdoor facilities, sculptures, and landscape features open to the public.
Arctic Glacier Winter Park
During winter, the following skating rinks, trails, and snow park structures are erected at the Forks:
The Plaza Skating Rink
An Olympic-sized Skating Rink
Rink under Scotiabank Stage
1.2 km of skating trails
The Snowboard Fun Park
The Toboggan Run
In January 2008, the Guinness Book of World Records recognized The Forks as the home of the longest skating rink in the world. The 8.54-kilometre-long River Trail on the Assiniboine River and the Red River is almost 1-kilometre longer than the previous record-holding rink. The 7.8-kilometre long rink on the Rideau Canal in Ottawa, Ontario had lost its World Record title which it had held since 1971. Then in 2008 the rivers beat their own record which made the longest rink go to about 9.3-kilometres. The Rideau Canal still held the record for the "world's largest naturally frozen ice rink" by the Guinness Book of World Records because "its entire length receives daily maintenance such as sweeping, ice thickness checks and there are toilet and recreational facilities along its entire length". In 2013, the Assiniboine Credit Union River Trail lost its record to the Lake Windermere Whiteway at Invermere, British Columbia.
The length of the skating trail at The Forks changes each year, depending on river and ice conditions, although a concerted effort is made to make it as long as possible. In the winter of 2010/2011, conditions on The Assiniboine River made it impossible to safely create skating westward, so the path extended instead south on the Red River. Essentially, the water level and the weather at the time of freeze-up will impact the way the ice forms (see frazil ice, for example), how stable it will be, and how smoothly it can be made for skating. Much of the local river ice in Winnipeg in the winter of 2010/2011 was too rough to form a skating surface. There is also a skating trail made overland which is not impacted by river conditions. There are also walking and ski trails running parallel to the skating trail.
Warming Huts: An Art + Architecture Competition on Ice is an open competition endorsed by the Manitoba Association of Architects. Started in 2010, the first iteration of the competition saw five local architects building outdoor structures to protect people from winter weather. In 2011, competition was opened up to international participants and included work by Frank Gehry's firm Gehry Partners. The competition has been awarded a Downtown Merit Award from the International Downtown Association.
Assiniboine Riverwalk
The Assiniboine Riverwalk follows along the Assiniboine riverbanks from underneath Esplanade Riel to the grounds of the Manitoba Legislative Building.
The Riverwalk is often closed due to river flooding in springtime. From the construction of the walkway to the summer of 2011, the walkway has been submerged beyond access for part of the summer for 16 out of 21 years.
Broadway Promenade
The Broadway Promenade is a pedestrian walkway connecting the Esplanade Riel pedestrian bridge to Union Station and Broadway. Designed by Scatliff+Miller+Murray, the design incorporates two pathways which cross the site. One pathway re-established the historic Broadway/Provencher Boulevard connection, and the other is a winding pathway representing pre-European contact era.
Esplanade Riel
Named in honor of Louis Riel, Esplanade Riel is a pedestrian-only side-spar cable-stayed bridge which spans the Red River connecting downtown Winnipeg with St. Boniface, and it is paired with a vehicular bridge, the Provencher Bridge.
Co-designed by architects Guy Préfontaine and Étienne Gaboury of Gaboury Préfontaine Perry Architects Inc., Esplanade Riel is the only bridge with a restaurant in North America, and since July 2015 is occupied by Mon Ami Louis. Former leasees include Salisbury House, a local Winnipeg chain restaurant, and Chez Sophie.
CN Stage and Festival Park
The CN Stage is an outdoor stage with adjoining greenspace, built along the Broadway Promenade.
Many concerts and events in Winnipeg are held here. In the past, events have included annual Canada Day celebrations, 2017 Canada Summer Games Festival, Queen Elizabeth's 2010 visit, the 1999 Pan Am Games mainstage concerts, etc. In 2012, the signature events at the stage included Winnipeg's Pride Parade festival, Aboriginal Day Live hosted by APTN, and the Folklorama Kick-Off.
In the summer of 2004, a new pathway opened through Festival Park, connecting the Esplanade Riel pedestrian bridge with Union Station on Main Street.
The Forks Historic Port
Positioned along the Assiniboine Riverwalk, the historic port offers river vessel docking and rental, as well as access to the Splash Dash Water Bus.
During times of flooding Splash Dash Water Bus employs a movable ramp and floating dock system that allows it to operate in high water conditions.
Historic Rail Bridge
Built in 1888, the rail bridge was abandoned and eventually converted into a lighted crossing for pedestrians, cyclists and skaters. The mural on the side of the rail bridge is entitled "Jackson Beardy – Woodlands Group of Seven Tribute", and was painted in 2006 for Graffiti Gallery's Winnipeg International Mural Festival. The 30-foot wide and 20-foot tall mural pays tribute to Cree artist Jackson Beardy as well as the other members of the Indian Group of Seven.
Oodena Celebration Circle
Oodena Celebration Circle is a natural shallow amphitheatre located between Johnston's Terminal, the Manitoba Children's Museum, and the Red River Riverwalk. Oodena is Ojibwe for 'centre of the city'. Commissioned in 1993, the site was designed by the firm of Hilderman Thomas Frank Cramm. The location features sculptures, a sundial, interpretive signage, a naked-eye observatory, and a ceremonial fire pit.
The circular amphitheatre is in diameter and deep. The excavation for the site unearthed what is referred to by local archaeologists as "the archaic horizon", a 3,000-year-old layer of soil rich in artifacts.
There are eight unique steel armatures that rest on cobblestone formations surrounding the bowl. Each armature points at a specific constellation, according to dates and times indicated on the panels surrounding the central stage. Sighting rings on the armatures identify specific stars within the constellations. The supporting cobblestone formations bear inscriptions of various legends about the stars their armatures focus upon. The amphitheatre marks the vernal and autumnal equinox and the summer and winter solstices. "The south armature features a shadow rod that casts solstice shadows on ground markers, the west armature is fitted with a wind sculpture, and the northeast armature features an aeolian harp." (Hilderman Thomas Frank Cramm – Oodena Celebration Circle)
The site has been used as a meeting grounds for such varied events as "No Stone Unturned", a free concert in honour of Manitoba's missing and murdered women, as well as the 2011 opening night location for THIN AIR, the Winnipeg International Writers Festival and as the meeting location for Winnipeg's Zombie Walk 2012.
Gardens and orchard
The Forks' Prairie Garden is a garden featuring Manitoba's natural heritage. It was developed in 1999 in partnership with Nature Conservancy of Canada as a demonstration garden, in anticipation of it being a showcase for visitors at the 1999 Pan Am Games. The prairie garden is a natural wild garden with over 10,000 plants in over 150 native plant species, including 38 prairie plants such as prairie crocus, wild iris, bergamot, purple prairie clover, and wild columbine.
The Public Orchard, in collaboration with Winnipeg-CORE, contains 61 fruit trees including apple, apricot, cherry, pear, and plum, which the public can pick to eat from when the fruit is ripe. There are as many as 75 fruit bearing shrubs packed with all types of berries to pick from during the summer days. There are also many education sessions through Winnipeg-CORE that are open to the public, as part of The Fork's Target Zero initiative.
In collaboration with Citigrow, the Urban Garden contains vegetables and herbs to be harvested by the Inn at The Forks and integrated into their menu.
Skatepark
Officially opened 30 June 2006, "The Plaza" is the largest urban skate plaza and bowl complex in Canada. Announced in 2005, it was built with money donated from the J.W. Burns Family Foundation. The skatepark includes a skate plaza, and an 'bowl complex'.
The design features 'skateable' artwork, and is built to tolerate the regular use and enjoyment of skateboarders and cyclists. The park was also designed to integrate into the urban architecture of the city. It was designed by landscape architecture firm van der Zalm + associates inc. of Vancouver, BC with key team members, New Line Skateparks and Scatliff Miller Murray as the local landscape architects.
"Skate Patrol" are experienced skateboarder staff members that tour the park from dawn to dusk to educate skaters on the park's etiquette.
In winter, this area features a small snowboarding facility.
In 2006, the park was visited by professional skateboarder Tony Hawk to shoot scenes for his movie release Secret Skatepark Tour 3.
Landmarks and other features
The Alloway Arch, located just east of Union Station, was constructed from the façade of the original Alloway and Champion Bank, which once stood at 362 Main Street and was the largest private bank in Western Canada in its time. One of the bank's owners, William Forbes Alloway, went on to establish The Winnipeg Foundation in 1921.
"Balance of Spirit Within" is a granite stone sculpture weighing approximately 10 tonnes, and is located on the north side of the Forks Historic Rail Bridge.
There are often buskers in and around The Forks. Buskers perform at stations known as "Busk Stops". They are paid by donation, but are prohibited from suggesting donation amounts or requesting contributions. There is an annual competition called the "Scotiabank Busker's Festival" at which it is decided who will be allowed to Busk.
The posts on the canopy between The Forks Market and Johnston Terminal have bands on them to commemorate the peak water levels of major floods. Starting from the bottom of the posts, the bottom marker represents the 1950 flood, the middle marker represents both the 1852 and 1997 floods, and the top the flood of 1826. The flood line markers on one of the posts have historic plaques with information on the floods they represent.
Niimaamaa is a stylized sculpture of a pregnant woman, made by artists KC Adams, Jaimie Isaac, and Val Vint. Created in 2018, the sculpture is made of painted steel, copper, and corten metal. The word niimaamaa is recognized by Cree, Ojibwe, and Métis speakers as 'My mother', and is meant to represent "motherhood, Mother Earth and new beginnings".
The "Peace Meeting" interpretive site is a landscaped resting area along the Broadway Promenade, featuring Indigenous and European elements, notable for having two gigantic Adirondack chairs. The site was created via a grant from The Winnipeg Foundation.
Just outside The Forks Market are two completely restored turn-of-the-century rail cars. One car is for display, while the other is home to "Sugar Mountain Express", a candy store.
The Variety Heritage Adventure Playground is an educational play structure for children, featuring water park elements.
"Wall Through Time" is a sculpture depicting the history of the Forks, which features two bronze shells and a limestone centrepiece. The sculpture is located on the western edge of a major North American archeological find.
Pan Am Games Monument
Located beside the Inn at the Forks, the Pan Am Games Monument recognizes the governments, companies, and individuals who supported the 1999 Pan American Games in Winnipeg. The monument served as the flame cauldron for the games. The 1999 Pan Am Games mainstage concerts were held at the Forks' Stage and Festival Park.
Events
The Forks hosts over 200 third-party and signature events throughout the year, most of which are free.
Canada Day
Canada Day at the Forks is an all day event, with activities happening throughout the Forks grounds, and culminating in a fireworks show.
Salsa Sundays
Salsa Sundays is a weekly event run at the Forks under the canopy during the summer, featuring free dance instruction and demonstrations set to live Latin music and DJ mixes.
Winnipeg International Children's Festival
The Winnipeg International Children's Festival is a children's festival held annually at The Forks National Historic Park. Founded in 1983, it was held at Assiniboine Park, then at Kildonan Park from 1984 through 1989, and eventually moving to its present location in 1990. The festival is made up of over 30 acts, held over four days, totalling about 120 performances.
Future projects
The following projects are part of the ten-year revitalization plan for The Forks.
Rail Side Lot
Upper Fort Garry Heritage Park
South Point
Promenade Lighting Strategy
The Forks Sculpture Program
Waterfront Vision
Climate
References
External links
The Forks
Children's Museum
Winnipeg CORE
Canadian Museum for Human Rights
Inn at the Forks
Manitoba Theatre for Young People
Culture of Winnipeg
Neighbourhoods in Winnipeg
Tourist attractions in Winnipeg
National Historic Sites in Manitoba
Historic districts in Canada
Assiniboine River
Red River of the North
Downtown Winnipeg |
4301597 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9%20Balcer | René Balcer | René Balcer (born February 9, 1954) is a Canadian-American television writer, director, producer, and showrunner.
Early life
He was born in Montreal, Quebec, and attended Lower Canada College in Montreal. He studied creative writing at Concordia University under noted Canadian poet Deborah Eibel, and earned his BA magna cum laude in Communication Studies from Concordia in 1978. While a student, he took a six-month lecture-seminar with Jean-Luc Godard and worked as director John Huston's personal assistant during the filming of Angela. He began his media career covering the 1973 Yom Kippur War as a cameraman. He later worked as a reporter, editor and film critic for various Canadian publications, and made documentary films at the National Film Board of Canada. In 1980, he moved to Los Angeles, where he collaborated with cult film director Monte Hellman on a number of film projects. He later wrote screenplays for a variety of film producers including Francis Coppola, Lawrence Gordon, Steve Tisch, Michael Gruskoff, Martin Poll and Mace Neufeld. In 1988, he helped adapt Miguel Pinero's play Midnight Moon at the Greasy Spoon for KCRW radio, starring Ed Asner and Peter Falk. In 1989 he wrote his first television project, the movie of the week Out on the Edge which won the American Psychological Association Award of Excellence. This led to writing assignments on other movies of the week and for the series Star Trek: The Next Generation, Capital News, Veronica Clare and Nasty Boys.
Career
Balcer is noted for writing and showrunning the television series Law & Order, and for creating and showrunning its spin-off series Law & Order: Criminal Intent. He was hired as staff writer on Law & Orders first season in 1990, becoming showrunner in the show's seventh season in 1996. During his tenure as showrunner, Law & Order won the Emmy for Outstanding Drama Series; became a Top Ten drama in the Nielsen ratings; was syndicated to TNT Network in a deal which at the time was the most expensive off-network series sale ever to cable; received an unprecedented five-season pick-up from NBC; and tied Gunsmoke for longest-running TV drama.
Balcer won an Emmy in 1997 as Showrunner and Executive Producer of Law & Order. He has also won a Peabody Award, a Writers Guild of America Award, four Edgar Awards from the Mystery Writers of America (three for his writing for Law & Order, and a fourth for Law & Order: Criminal Intent), a Career Award from the Reims International Television Festival, and a Career Angie Award from the International Mystery Writers Festival.
In writing about legal issues, Balcer has drawn on his own experiences with law enforcement and his first-hand encounter with the brutal application of authoritarian power - at age 16, he was picked up as a suspected FLQ sympathizer during Quebec's October Crisis in 1970 and held overnight in the Montreal Police's infamous Station 10 where he was interrogated and beaten, before being released the next day. That experience, he says, gave him a harsh introduction to the reality lived by many disadvantaged communities.
His work has been recognized outside the entertainment community: in 1999 and 2000, he received the Silver Gavel Award from the American Bar Association for his Law & Order episodes "DWB" and "Hate"; in 2004, he received a Margaret Sanger Award from Planned Parenthood for his Law & Order: Criminal Intent episode "The Third Horseman"; in 2010, he received the Champion of Justice award from the Washington-based Alliance for Justice, for his work on the Law & Order episode "Memo from the Dark Side". In 2004, he was awarded the Alumnus of the Year from Concordia University. On November 17, 2008, he received an honorary Doctorate of Laws (LLD) from Concordia at their fall convocation and delivered the Commencement Address.
Balcer has received additional recognitions, including being commissioned a Kentucky Colonel by Kentucky Governor Steve Beshear in 2008; in the Season Five episode of The Sopranos, "In Camelot", Chris's writing friend JT (played by Tim Daly) tells Chris that he has a meeting with René Balcer about a writing job. Balcer's altercation with a Fox employee during the Writers Guild strike on January 10, 2008 became the subject of a joke by David Letterman during his monologue on January 12, 2008. At the North Dakota Museum of Art, Balcer's Law & Order episodes are played in a continuous loop in the installation Barton Benes Period Room: 21st Century Artist Studio.
In October 2009, Balcer came under attack by right-wing bloggers for an episode of Law & Order about the Bush Administration's Enhanced Interrogation policy. Writing in Breitbart, former Law & Order star Michael Moriarty accused Balcer of being a "Marxist agent provocateur." Balcer said of the attacks, "What many of these critics fail to realize is that Law & Order has always been an equal-opportunity offender, and if a Democratic administration had implemented this despicable (torture) policy, our show would have taken them to task for it."
Balcer was showrunner for Law & Order: Criminal Intent through the fifth season. In March 2007, Balcer returned to Law & Order at the end of its 17th season as executive producer and head writer. He continued on as showrunner through the show's 20th and final season, writing and directing the show's series finale "Rubber Room", which the New York Times called the "best finale of all" that season's TV series. In June 2010, he was hired as showrunner of the Law & Order spinoff, Law & Order: Los Angeles. LOLA, as it was called, was cancelled after one season, with Balcer again writing and directing the series finale. Balcer then rewrote the series finale of Law & Order Criminal Intent, bringing to a close his long association with the Law & Order franchise.
In 2012, Balcer created the series Jo, an English-language cop drama set in Paris and starring Jean Reno, Wunmi Mosaku and Celyn Jones. Shot in Paris, the eight-episode series premiered internationally in January 2013. Jo was ranked fourth in a listing of the Top 30 Best French Detective Series. In 2013, he served as showrunner and executive producer of the CBS pilot, The Ordained, with Charlie Cox.
In 2013, Balcer made two short videos: Watching Tea Leaves in Shanxi, was shot in China and is a zen meditation on the dynamics of tea leaves in fluid, the video is available on Vimeo and YouTube; the other, Blue Sky, was shot in Nice, France and is an "unhinged zen piece" featuring the music of Chinese contemporary composer Huang Ruo, the video is available on Vimeo and YouTube.
In 2015, Balcer wrote and produced For Justice, a pilot for CBS directed by Ava DuVernay, and developed a series about the porn world in the early 1980s with Owen Wilson for the Starz channel entitled WonderWorld,. In 2016, the CBC and NBC green lighted Balcer's environmental thriller The Council set in the Canadian Arctic.
In 2017, Balcer co-directed, co-wrote and produced the documentary Above the Drowning Sea, narrated by Julianna Margulies and Tony Goldwyn. The documentary tells the epic story of thousands of Austrian Jewish refugees who escaped the Holocaust and found refuge in Shanghai. The film has been the Official Selection at 31 international film festivals, winning the Golden Dragon Award for Best Documentary at the Ferrara Film Festival along with other awards and nominations at other festivals.
In the summer of 2017, Balcer wrote and produced the limited series Law & Order True Crime: The Menendez Murders, a kaleidoscopic take on the notorious 1989 murders of Beverly Hills socialites by their sons. Created by Balcer, the series stars Edie Falco, Heather Graham, Josh Charles, Elizabeth Reaser and Anthony Edwards. The eight-episode series aired in the Fall of 2017 on NBC.
In 2019, Balcer created FBI: Most Wanted. The series stars Julian McMahon, Kellan Lutz, Keisha Castle-Hughes, Roxy Sternberg and Nathaniel Arcand, and premiered on CBS on January 7, 2020. It was that season's highest-rated new drama. FBI: Most Wanted was renewed for a fourth and fifth season on May 9, 2022.
Balcer has served on the jury for Best Drama Series at the 2013 Monte-Carlo Television Festival, and on the jury for Best Television Miniseries or Film at the 2014 Shanghai Television Festival.
During his early days in Hollywood, Balcer was an usher at the Tiffany Theater in 1981 for its famous midnight and 2 am screenings of the cult classic Rocky Horror Picture Show.
Balcer is a distant cousin of actress Alana de la Garza, sharing a common relative Juan Cortina, a Mexican folk hero known as the Rio Grande Robin Hood.
Other activities
In the summer of 2011, Balcer collaborated with Chinese artist Xu Bing on an artwork that was part of Xu Bing's exhibition Tobacco Project Virginia at the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts in September of that year. The Washington Post named Tobacco Project Virginia one of the Top Ten art exhibitions of 2011. Balcer's contribution—a poem entitled Backbone using Virginia tobacco plantation brand names as a tribute to the enslaved black women who picked the tobacco—was integrated by Xu Bing into an installation. The work is now part of the VMFA's permanent collection.
Balcer later turned the poem into a blues song, Backbone (Mattawin Music), featuring the blues artists Captain Luke on vocals and Big Ron Hunter on guitar and produced by Michael Sackler-Berner. Backbone was exhibited at the Aldrich Museum of Contemporary Art in Connecticut in 2012, the Taipei Fine Arts Museum and the Asia Society Hong Kong Center in 2014, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art in 2015 at SCADA in 2015-16, and at the Ullens Center for Contemporary Art in Beijing in the fall of 2018. Balcer produced a film documenting Xu Bing's Tobacco Project: Virginia (2011).
In 2006, Balcer donated a collection of works by the Japanese woodblock artist Kawase Hasui to the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts. The René and Carolyn Balcer Collection comprises some 800 works and includes woodblock prints, watercolors, screens, sketches and other works and writings by Hasui. A major exhibit of the collection, Hasui: Water & Shadow, opened at the VMFA in November 2014 and ran until March 2015.
In 2010, through his Mattawin Company, Balcer sponsored the publication of a 13-volume catalogue of the works of the Wuming (No Name) Group, a cooperative of underground Chinese artists during the Cultural Revolution. In the fall of 2011, Balcer and his wife Carolyn organized and sponsored the exhibition Blooming in the Shadows: Unofficial Chinese Art 1974–1985 at New York's China Institute, featuring works from the Wuming, Stars and Grass groups of experimental artists. A larger iteration of the exhibit, Light Before Dawn, opened at the new Asia Society Museum in Hong Kong in May 2013.
The exhibit was accompanied by a new documentary written and produced by Balcer, The No Name Painting Association, about the Wuming Group. The documentary was an official selection at some thirty festivals in the US, Canada, Europe and Australia, garnering a dozen awards and nominations.
In 2011, Mattawin sponsored the publication of a book of photographs by Chinese artist Ai Weiwei, Ai Weiwei New York 1983–1993. In 2014, it sponsored the art exhibit Oil and Water: Reinterpreting Ink at New York's Museum of Chinese in America.
Mattawin also co-published A Token of Elegance (2015), a historical and photo survey of cigarette holders as objets d'art; Chow! Secrets of Chinese Cooking (2020), an updated edition of a timeless classic about Chinese cuisine and culture and winner of a 2021 Gourmand World Cookbook Award; and the historical biographies Kuo Ping-Wen, Scholar, Reformer, Statesman (2016) and C.T. Wang: Looking Back and Looking Forward (2008).
Balcer has contributed essays to Impressions: The Journal of the Japanese Art Society of America, and It Begins with Metamorphosis: Xu Bing.
Balcer has lectured widely about writing, art and the duties of artists in free societies, notably at Columbia, NYU, Harvard, UCLA, UPenn, and Loyola Marymount; at Internews (Moscow), the Sorbonne (Paris), Central Academy of Fine Arts (Beijing), Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Museum of Fine Arts Boston, Canadian Film Centre (Toronto), Deauville American Film Festival, Banff World Media Festival, Monte Carlo TV Festival, International Ukiyo-e Society (Tokyo), and SPAA Conference (Brisbane).
Filmography
Averbach Vs. Zak (1976) Short
Solid State (1976) Short
Turcot Interchange (1978) Short
Twist of Fate (1979) Short
Out on the Edge (1989) TV movie
Nasty Boys (1990) TV series
Solar Crisis (1990) Feature Film - Uncredited Rewrite
Stranger in the Family (1991) TV movie
Law & Order (1990–2010) TV series
Star Trek:The Next Generation (1992) TV Series
The Crow (1994) Feature Film - Uncredited Rewrite
Judge Dredd (1995) Feature Film - Uncredited Rewrite
People V (1995) TV movie
Mission Protection Rapprochée (1997) TV series
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (1999) TV series
Hopewell (2000) TV movie
Law & Order: Criminal Intent (2001–2011) TV series
Proof of Lies (2006) TV movie
Paris Criminal Inquiries (2007–2008) TV series
Law & Order Criminal Intent Russia (2007–2009) TV series
Law & Order: UK (2009–2014) TV series
Xu Bing Tobacco Project Virginia (2011) Documentary Short
Law & Order LA (2011) TV series
The Ordained (2013) TV movie
Watching Tea Leaves in Shanxi (2013) Video Short
Jo (2013) TV series
The No Name Painting Association (2013) Documentary Short
Blue Sky (2013) Video Short
For Justice (2015) TV Movie
Big Orange Predator (2016) Video Short
The Legend of Embroidery (2017) Documentary Short
Law & Order True Crime: The Menendez Murders (2017) Mini-series
Above The Drowning Sea (2017) Documentary Feature
FBI (2019) TV series
FBI: Most Wanted (2020) TV series
Awards and nominationsEmmy Award 1994 Nominated for Best Drama Series Law & Order as producer
1995 Nominated for Best Drama Series Law & Order as supervising producer
1996 Nominated for Best Drama Series Law & Order as co-executive producer
1997 Won for Best Drama Series Law & Order as executive producer
1998 Nominated for Best Drama Series Law & Order as executive producer
1999 Nominated for Best Drama Series Law & Order as executive producer
2000 Nominated for Best Drama Series Law & Order as executive producerWriters Guild of America 1998 Won for Best Episode Episodic Drama
2000 Nominated for Best Episode Episodic DramaPeabody Award 1997 Won for Law & OrderGolden Globes 1998 Nominated for Best Television Series - Drama Law & Order as executive producer
1999 Nominated for Best Television Series - Drama Law & Order as executive producerEdgar Award – Mystery Writers of America 1993 Won for Best Television Episode + One Nomination
1994 Nominated for Best Television Episode
1995 Nominated for Best Television Episode
1998 Two Nominations for Best Television Episode
1999 Won for Best Television Episode
2000 Won for Best Television Episode + Two Nominations
2003 Nominated for Best Television Episode
2004 Nominated for Best Television Episode
2005 Won for Best Television Episode + Three NominationsProducers Guild of America Award 1997 Won for Outstanding Producer of Episodic TelevisionAmerican Psychological Association 1989 Award of ExcellenceAdvocates for Youth 1995 Nancy Susan Reynolds AwardInternational Monitor Award 1999 Best Achievement for Film Originated Television SeriesABA Silver Gavel Award for the Media & the Arts 1999 Silver Gavel Award for Television
2000 Silver Gavel Award for TelevisionPlanned Parenthood2004 Margaret Sanger AwardBanff Television Festival 2006 Nominated for Banff Rockie Award for Best Television SeriesReims International Television Festival 2006 Best Series or Serial
2006 Career AwardInternational Mystery Writers Festival2010 Career Angie AwardAlliance for Justice 2010 Champion of Justice AwardAlliance for Children's Rights 2010 National Champion for Children AwardIndie Fest 2013 Award of Merit for Best Documentary ShortCalifornia International Shorts Festival 2013 Won for Best Documentary ShortAccolade Competition 2013 Award of Merit for Best Short DocumentaryBest Shorts Competition 2013 Award of Excellence for Best Short DocumentaryKansas City Film Festival 2014 Won for Best US/International Short DocumentaryRichmond International Film Festival 2014 Best of Festival for Documentary Short FilmUSA Film Festival 2014 Nominated for Grand Prize Best Documentary ShortWilliamsburg Independent Film Festival 2014 Distinctive Honors for Best Documentary ShortPortsmouth International Film Festival 2014 Won for Best Short DocumentaryMadrid International Film Festival 2014 Nominated for Best Documentary Short
2018 Nominated for Best Director of a Feature Documentary
2018 Nominated for Scientific and Educational AwardMiami Film Festival 2018 Nominated for Knight Documentary Achievement AwardPasadena International Film Festival 2018 Nominated for Best DocumentaryFerrara Film Festival 2018 Golden Dragon Award for Best Documentary
2018 Nominated for Best Cinematography for a FeatureNew Jersey International Film Festival 2018 Honorable Mention, Best DocumentaryHamilton Film Festival 2018 Best DocumentarySunrise Film Festival 2019 Best DocumentaryColumbus International Film & Video Festival'
2019 Honorable Mention for Best Documentary
See also
List of famous Montrealers
List of Quebec actors and actresses
Other Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood
References
External links
Rene Balcer on Cop Shows, Black Lives Matter and more by Adi Tantimedh Bleeding Cool News
The apocrypha Interview: Rene Balcer by Kitteridge
Balcer debates FCC commissioner on TV Violence Wall Street Journal
Rene Balcer on NPR's Talk of the Nation
Vanity Fair Article
CBC Interview with Rene Balcer and Tonight Show's Peter Sears
September 25 2009 interview by Salon.com's Glenn Greenwald on torture and L & O 20th Season premiere
NPR Interview with Rene Balcer and Walter Moseley
NPR interview with Balcer re:choosing stories
Harper's Magazine Interview with Rene Balcer
America Magazine Interview with Rene Balcer
Article on Balcer's Beijing Speech
NPR interview with Balcer on 5/24/10 re: series finale
Concordia University Honorary Degree Citation, November 2008, Concordia University Records
1954 births
Anglophone Quebec people
Canadian male screenwriters
Canadian television producers
Canadian male television writers
Concordia University alumni
Living people
Edgar Award winners
Primetime Emmy Award winners
Writers from Montreal
Writers Guild of America Award winners
Showrunners
20th-century Canadian screenwriters
20th-century Canadian male writers
21st-century Canadian screenwriters
21st-century Canadian male writers |
4302088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1932%20in%20baseball | 1932 in baseball |
Champions
World Series: New York Yankees over Chicago Cubs (4-0)
Awards and honors
MLB Most Valuable Player Award
Jimmie Foxx, Philadelphia Athletics, 1B
Chuck Klein, Philadelphia Phillies, OF
Statistical leaders
Major league baseball final standings
American League final standings
National League final standings
Negro leagues final standings
East-West League standings
Negro Southern League standings
1932 was the only time the Negro Southern League was considered a major league. Chicago won the first half while Nashville won the second half. They matched up against each other in a best-of-seven postseason series, which Chicago won four to three.
Events
January–May
January 23 – The St. Louis Cardinals trade Hack Wilson to the Brooklyn Dodgers for a minor leaguer and $45,000.
February 27 – Waite Hoyt joins the Brooklyn Dodgers.
March 14 – The Brooklyn Dodgers trade Wally Gilbert, Babe Herman and Ernie Lombardi to the Cincinnati Reds for Tony Cuccinello, Joe Stripp and Clyde Sukeforth.
April 11 – The first game of the season goes extra innings. Heinie Manush's tenth inning double carries the Washington Senators to a 1–0 victory over the Boston Red Sox.
April 17 – New York Giants First baseman Bill Terry ties a National League record with 21 putouts in the New York Giants' 6–0 victory over the Boston Braves.
May 12 – Carey Selph of the Chicago White Sox collects his ninth strikeout of the season. But it won't happen again. Selph will go another 89 games without striking out, to set a major league record, hitting a .283 average in 396 at-bats in his second and last season. Selph's record will last until when another White Sox, Nellie Fox, sets a new mark with 98 consecutive games without striking out.
May 16 – The New York Yankees defeat the Cleveland Indians, 8–0, for their fourth shut out in a row.
May 19 – With first place in the American League on the line, the Washington Senators sweep both games from the New York Yankees to advance to first place by half a game. The Yankees, however, win the following day's game, and both games of the May 21 double header to end the series up 2.5 games. They maintain first place for the rest of the season.
May 20 – The Pirates' Paul Waner hits four doubles, tying a major league record held by many players.
May 30 – The New York Yankees unveil a plaque dedicated to former manager Miller Huggins. It is the first of what will eventually be a large number of plaques and other monuments to Yankee personnel.
June–July
June 3:
Lou Gehrig hits four home runs and narrowly misses a fifth, while Tony Lazzeri hits for the cycle as the New York Yankees beat the Philadelphia Athletics, 20–13. Gehrig becomes the third player to accomplish the feat in Major League history and the first to do so in the American League in 36 years. The Yankees set a major league record for total bases with 50 and both teams set a still-standing record for extra bases with 41.
New York Giants manager John McGraw resigns. He had been the team's manager since the 1902 season.
June 9 – In a pitchers transaction, the St. Louis Browns send Dick Coffman to the Washington Senators in exchange for Carl Fischer. Both teams trade the two hurlers back for each other on December 13.
June 22 – National League club presidents approve the addition of numbers on player uniforms. The New York Yankees had initiated the concept in in the American League.
June 23 – Pitcher Waite Hoyt joins the New York Giants.
July 10 – Philadelphia Athletics, manager Connie Mack brings only two pitchers to face the Cleveland Indians. As luck would have it, Philadelphia's starter Lew Krausse is lifted after giving up four hits in the first inning, and is replaced by Eddie Rommel. A slugfest emerges, with the Athletics taking a 15–14 lead in the ninth inning only to have the Indians tie it in the bottom of the inning. The A's score two more in the sixteenth only to have Cleveland score two as well in the bottom of the inning. The A's eventually win it in eighteen, 18–17. While Rommel gives up 29 hits, he is still the winning pitcher. Johnny Burnett goes 9-for-11 for the Indians, setting a Major League record for most hits in a single game.
July 31 – The Cleveland Indians lose the inaugural game in Cleveland Municipal Stadium, 1–0, to the Philadelphia Athletics.
August–September
August 2 – Rogers Hornsby is fired as manager of the Chicago Cubs.
August 5 – Against the Washington Senators at Navin Field, Tommy Bridges of the Detroit Tigers has a bid for a perfect game broken up with two out in the ninth on a Dave Harris single. The hit is the only one Bridges allows in defeating the Senators 13–0.
August 14 – Despite a woeful 27–85 record, the Boston Red Sox defeat the Philadelphia Athletics 2-0 behind the pitching of Johnny Welch. It is one of only two shut outs the A's endure all season (July 9 against the Chicago White Sox).
August 17 – The New York Yankees defeat the Detroit Tigers, 8–3, for their tenth victory in a row.
September 11 – The St. Louis Browns defeat the Boston Red Sox 7–1 in the first game of a double header to give Boston their 100th loss of the season. The BoSox come back to win the second game, but go on to lose 111 games by the end of the season.
September 13 – The New York Yankees defeat the Cleveland Indians 9-3 for their 100th win of the season.
September 18 – The St. Louis Browns defeat the New York Yankees 2–1. It is the eleventh time all season the Yankees are held to just one run. The Yankees are never shut out all season.
September 19 – The Chicago White Sox lose their 100th game of the season, 9–6 to the Philadelphia Athletics.
September 28
The Chicago Cubs jump out to a 2–0 lead in game one of the 1932 World Series, however, a three-run fourth inning capped off by a two-run home run by Lou Gehrig gives the Yankees the lead, as they take game one, 12–6.
The Philadelphia A's sell Mule Haas, Al Simmons & Jimmy Dykes to the Chicago White Sox for $100,000.
September 29 – The Cubs again score in the first; however, their lead is short lived, as the Yankees score two in the bottom of the inning, and go on to win 5–2.
October–December
October 1 – Lou Gehrig hits two home runs, as does teammate Babe Ruth, as the New York Yankees defeat the Chicago Cubs, 7–5 in Game 3 of the World Series. It is Ruth's second home run that is historic. Batting against Charlie Root in the fifth inning, with two strikes, Ruth is seen to gesture, according to some toward the outfield fence, before hitting the home run. While it is not universally accepted that Ruth was predicting a home run, it is referred to as "Babe Ruth's called shot".
October 2 – The New York Yankees defeat the Chicago Cubs, 13–6, in Game four of the World Series to win their fourth World Championship, four games to none. This would be Ruth's tenth, and final, World Series appearance.
October 19 – The Baseball Writers' Association of America MVP awards are announced, with Athletics' Jimmie Foxx winning in the American League and Phillies' Chuck Klein in the National League.
October 25 – Rogers Hornsby rejoins the St. Louis Cardinals.
November 10 – Donie Bush, who managed the Minneapolis Millers to the American Association this past season, is named to manage the Cincinnati Reds the next year.
November 22 – St. Louis Cardinals shortstop Charlie Gelbert shatters his leg in a hunting accident. He will return as a part-time infielder in 1935, playing until 1940.
November 29 – The New York Giants release pitcher Waite Hoyt.
December 12 – In a rarity for 1932, a three team trade is struck between the New York Giants, Philadelphia Phillies and Pittsburgh Pirates. The Phillies send Kiddo Davis to the Giants, and receive Chick Fullis from the Giants. The Giants sent Freddie Lindstrom to the Pirates, and the Pirates sent Glenn Spencer to the New York Giants and Gus Dugas to the Phillies.
December 15 – Farm systems, originally known as "Chain store baseball" is approved by a joint meeting of American and National League owners despite objections by Baseball Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis.
December 17 – The St. Louis Cardinals trade Jim Bottomley to the Chicago Cubs for Ownie Carroll and Estel Crabtree.
Births
January
January 3 – George Piktuzis
January 15 – Georges Maranda
January 18 – Mike Fornieles
January 24 – Ernie Oravetz
February
February 6 – Bill Koski
February 9 - Tatsuro Hirooka
February 10 – Jim Stump
February 15 – Footer Johnson
February 19 – Don Taussig
February 23 – Jim Bolger
March
March 1 – Dom Zanni
March 2 – Chico Fernández
March 9 – Ron Kline
March 9 – Paul Martin
March 16 – Don Blasingame
March 18 – Anna Kunkel
March 18 – Lee Tate
March 22 – Nancy DeShone
March 22 – Al Schroll
March 23 – Jack Meyer
March 23 – Helen Nordquist
March 25 – Walt Craddock
March 25 – Woodie Held
March 27 – Wes Covington
May
May 1 – Félix Torres
May 1 – Kazuhiro Yamauchi
May 2 – Eddie Bressoud
May 5 – Chuck Locke
May 6 – Charlie Rabe
May 9 – Tony Bartirome
May 9 – Tom Yewcic
May 16 – Isora del Castillo
May 16 – Mary Louise Kolanko
May 17 – Billy Hoeft
May 17 – Ozzie Virgil, Sr.
May 21 – Earl Hersh
May 25 – Jim Archer
May 26 – Joe Altobelli
May 26 – Delores Brumfield
May 27 – Mack Pride
May 28 – Carl Thomas
June
June 1 – Chuck Templeton
June 2 – Lou Skizas
June 4 – John McNamara
June 7 – Mary Moore
June 13 – Tom Gastall
June 13 – Billy Williams
June 17 – Bennie Daniels
June 18 – Ron Necciai
June 20 – Cuno Barragan
June 27 – Eddie Kasko
July
July 9 – Bud Black
July 9 – Tex Clevenger
July 9 – Coot Veal
July 22 – Carl Duser
July 25 – Jack McMahan
July 26 – Dick Brodowski
July 27 – Johnny Kucks
August
August 2 – John Pregenzer
August 4 – Jim Coates
August 6 – Donna Becker
August 8 – Vicente Amor
August 11 – Steve Korcheck
August 15 – Jim Snyder
August 24 – Hal Woodeshick
August 27 – Jim King
August 29 – Eric MacKenzie
August 29 – Roger McCardell
September
September 6 – Marguerite Pearson
September 8 – Casey Wise
September 11 – Donna Jogerst
September 18 – Barbara Payne
September 29 – Paul Giel
September 30 – Johnny Podres
October
October 2 – Maury Wills
October 3 – Phil Clark
October 7 – Bud Daley
October 10 – Hal Raether
October 13 – Dick Barone
October 27 – Dolores Moore
November
November 1 – Jim Pyburn
November 6 – John Oldham
November 7 – Dick Stuart
November 9 – Connie Grob
November 18 – Bob Mitchell
November 14 – Marty Kutyna
November 16 – Harry Chiti
November 18 – Danny McDevitt
November 21 – Bill Valentine
November 24 – Betty Jane Cornett
December
December 10 – Ed Donnelly
December 22 – Norma Berger
Deaths
January
January 1 – Tom Parrott, 63, pitcher who played from 1893 through 1896 for the Chicago Colts, Cincinnati Reds and St. Louis Browns.
January 6 – George Sharrott, 62, pitcher for the Brooklyn Grooms between the 1893 and 1894 seasons.
January 17 – Mark Stewart, 42, backup catcher for the 1913 Cincinnati Reds.
January 22 – Bob Hogan, 71, pitcher for the St. Louis Brown Stockings in the 1882 season.
January 27 – Ed Appleton, 39, pitcher for the Brooklyn Robins in the 1915 and 1916 seasons.
February
February 5 – Barney Dreyfuss, 66, Hall of Fame executive and owner of the Pittsburgh Pirates since 1900; the main force behind creation of the World Series in ; his Pirates won six National League pennants and two World Series titles (, ); constructed Forbes Field, the first modern steel and concrete ballpark (); previously owned the Louisville Colonels when they were a major-league team.
February 6 – Lyman Drake, 79, outfielder for the 1884 Washington Nationals.
February 12 – John Shearon, 61, outfielder who played with the Cleveland Spiders in the 1891 and 1896 seasons.
February 21 – John Peters, 48, catcher for the Detroit Tigers, Cleveland Indians and Philadelphia Phillies between 1915 and 1922.
March
March 3 – Ed Morris, 32, pitcher for the Chicago Cubs and Boston Red Sox between 1922 and 1931, who won 19 games for the last place Red Sox in 1928.
March 7 – Bill Carrick, 58, curveball specialist pitcher for the New York Giants and the Washington Senators of the National League between 1898 and 1902, who started the most games in 1899 (43) and 1900 (41), while leading in complete games in 1899 (40) and for the most games pitched in 1900 (45).
March 13 – Sammy Strang, 55, utility-man who played all-positions except pitcher and catcher for the New York Giants, Brooklyn Superbas, Chicago WhiteSox, Chicago Orphans and Louisville Colonels in a span of 10 years from 1896 to 1908.
March 23 – Charles F. Daniels, 83, one of the original umpires of the National League in its inaugural 1876 season, whose umpiring career of 25 years included ten major league seasons.
April
April 2 – John Graff, 65, pitcher who played for the Washington Senators during the 1893 season.
April 2 – John Morrill, 79, versatile sort who could play every position and one of the first ten players to reach 1000 hits, who also managed the Boston Red Stockings to the 1877 National League title while batting a .319 average during the season.
April 5 – Harry Koons, 69, third baseman who played with the Altoona Mountain City and the Chicago Browns in the 1884 season.
April 10 – Fred Pfeffer, 72, outstanding second baseman who played from 1882 through 1907 for four National League teams, principally with the Chicago Cubs, who in 1884 became one of the first players to hit 25 home runs in a season, while leading the National League in putouts nine times, assists four times, and double plays seven times.
April 18 – Ike Benners, 75, left fielder who played for the Brooklyn Atlantics and the Wilmington Quicksteps during the 1884 season.
April 23 – Lon Knight, 78, right fielder and manager of Philadelphia's 1883 American Association champions.
May
May 23 – Doug Neff, 40, infielder for the Washington Senators in the 1914 and 1915 seasons.
May 25 – Henry Boyle, 71, pitcher who played from 1884 through 1889 for the St. Louis Maroons and Indianapolis Hoosiers.
May 29 – Frank Lobert, 48, first baseman for the 1915 Baltimore Terrapins of the Federal League.
May 30 – Tom Lipp, 61, pitcher for the Philadelphia Phillies during the 1897 season.
June
June 10 – Frank Berkelbach, 78, outfielder for the 1884 Cincinnati Red Stockings.
June 19 – Alonzo Breitenstein, 74, pitcher for the Philadelphia Quakers in the 1883 season.
June 19 – Charlie Getzien, 68, German pitcher who won 145 games from 1884 to 1892 for the Detroit Wolverines, Indianapolis Hoosiers, Boston Beaneaters, Cleveland Spiders and St. Louis Browns.
June 25 – Pop Tate, 71, catcher who played from 1885 through 1890 for the National League Boston Beaneaters and the American Association Baltimore Orioles.
July
July 18 – Howard Freigau, 29, third baseman who played from 1922 through 1928 for the St. Louis Cardinals, Chicago Cubs, Brooklyn Robins and Boston Braves.
July 21 – Bill Gleason, 73, shortstop for three different teams of the American Association from 1882 to 1889, and a member of three St. Louis Browns champion teams from 1885 to 1887.
July 24 – Tom Quinn, 68, backup catcher who played for the Pittsburgh Alleghenys, Baltimore Orioles and Pittsburgh Burghers in parts of three seasons spanning 1886–1890.
August
August 1- Haddie Gill, 33, pitcher who played for the Cincinnati Reds during the 1923 season.
August 2 – Dan Brouthers, 74, Hall of Fame first baseman considered the greatest slugger in the 19th century, who led the National League in home runs twice, in doubles three times, becoming the third player to hit 100 home runs and the fourth to reach 2000 hits. In addition, batted a .338 average and scored a league-leading 153 runs for the 1887 Detroit Wolverines champion team, while retiring with a .342 career average and a slugging of .519, which was the highest recorded until the 1920s.
August 6 – Ducky Holmes, 63, outfielder and a fine hitter and basestealer for seven teams between 1895 and 1905, better known as a notorious troublemaker that led him to be suspended several times during his 10-season career.
August 8 – Steve Bellán, 82, Cuban third baseman who played from 1868 through 1873 with four different teams, most prominently for the Troy Haymakers, who is regarded as the first Hispanic ballplayer to play in the majors.
August 12 – Jake Boyd, 58, utility infielder/outfielder and pitcher who played from 1894 to 1896 for the Washington Senators of the National League.
August 16 – Candy LaChance, 63, first baseman for four teams between 1893 and 1905 and a member of the 1903 Boston Americans World Series champions, who hit .280 and drove in 693 runs in 1265 career games, while leading the American League in putouts from 1902 to 1904.
August 17 – James E. Gaffney, 64, owner of Boston's National League franchise from 1912 to 1916, responsible for nicknaming the club the Braves; under his ownership, the 1914 "Miracle Braves" won the World Series, and Braves Field was built, opening in 1915.
September
September 6 – Frank West, 59, relief pitcher for the 1894 Boston Beaneaters.
September 14 – Henry Jackson, 71, first baseman who played with the Indianapolis Hoosiers in 1887.
September 15 – Harry Kane, 49, pitcher who played for the St. Louis Browns, Detroit Tigers and Philadelphia Phillies in parts of four seasons spanning 1902–1906.
September 19 – Otto Neu, 38, shortstop for the 1917 St. Louis Browns.
September 22 – Hughie Hearne, 59, catcher for the Brooklyn Superbas from 1901 to 1903.
September 23 – Oliver Brown, outfield for the Brooklyn Atlantics in the 1872 and 1875 seasons.
September 26 – Henry Gruber, 68, pitcher who played from 1887 through 1891 for the Detroit Wolverines and the Cleveland Spiders/Infants clubs.
October
October 11 – Ed Spurney, 60, shortstop for the 1891 Pittsburgh Pirates.
October 16 – Frank Eustace, 58, catcher for the Louisville Colonels during the 1896 season.
October 18 – Mac MacArthur, 70, Scottish pitcher who played in 1884 for the Indianapolis Hoosiers.
November
November 2 – Frank Cross, 59, outfielder for the 1901 Cleveland Blues of the American League.
November 13 – Willie Clark, 60, first baseman who played from 1895 through 1899 for the New York Giants and Pittsburgh Pirates.
November 14 – Boss Schmidt, 52, catcher who played six seasons with the Detroit Tigers from 1906 to 1911, helping them to clinch three American League pennants from 1907 to 1909.
November 24 – Redleg Snyder, 77, outfielder who played for the 1876 Cincinnati Reds and the 1884 Wilmington Quicksteps.
November 25 – Charlie Carr, 55, first baseman who played for six teams in three different leagues between 1898 and 1914, mostly for the Cleveland Indians and Detroit Tigers, and a member of the Indianapolis Hoosiers team that won the 1914 Federal League pennant.
December
December 8 – Bill Gray, 61, valuable utility who played all positions except pitcher for the Philadelphia Phillies, Cincinnati Reds and Pittsburgh Pirates in a span of five seasons from 1890 to 1898.
December 12 – Jim Long, 70, outfielder for the 1891 Baltimore Orioles and the 1893 Louisville Colonels.
December 15 – Bill Bishop, 62, pitcher for the Pittsburgh Alleghenys and Chicago White Stockings over parts of three seasons from 1886 to 1889.
December 27 – Pop Schriver, 67, solid catcher who retired a 40% of potential basestealers in a 14-season career from 1886 to 1901, while playing for the Brooklyn Grays, Chicago Colts, Reds, New York Giants, Phillies, Pirates and Cardinals.
December 27 – Andy Piercy, 76, backup infielder who played for the 1881 Chicago White Stockings.
References |
4302172 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agatha%20Christie%3A%20And%20Then%20There%20Were%20None | Agatha Christie: And Then There Were None | Agatha Christie: And Then There Were None (With 16 Chapters) (also known simply as And Then There Were None) is a 2005 point-and-click adventure game developed by AWE Productions and published by The Adventure Company for Microsoft Windows. It was the first in The Adventure Company's Agatha Christie series. The game is a detective murder-mystery; it begins with nine people, including Patrick Narracott, the playable character, who meet and journey to the fictional Shipwreck (Soldier) Island. There, two additional onscreen characters are introduced, and the story then follows the events that unfold.
And Then There Were None retains most of the basic plot elements of Agatha Christie's 1939 novel of the same name; the major differences are the inclusion of the playable character, Patrick Narracott, and the creation of a range of possible endings. To further the connection between the game and its source material, Christie's novel was included in the North American PC release of the game. Agatha Christie: And Then There Were None was followed by two more games, Agatha Christie: Murder on the Orient Express and Agatha Christie: Evil Under the Sun. Since they were based on their respective novels, their plots were unrelated to this first game.
Reactions to the game were mixed, with many reviewers polarized in their opinions: some calling it a good adaptation of the novel; others, an extremely poor adventure game. Several reviews harshly criticized the game's character design and graphics as being archaic and outdated, whereas others praised aspects such as character dialogue and a captivating story.
Gameplay
And Then There Were None is a point-and-click adventure game, played from a third-person perspective. Most of the interactive elements of And Then There Were None consist of asking other characters questions, and collecting and combining items. The player can carry items using an inventory system, consisting of screens which can show up to twelve items. New items go into the first available slot, and these items can be combined or examined throughout the game. The game's cursor is context-sensitive, and changes into a rotating gear when held over an item the player can interact with and use. And Then There Were None features a 2.5D graphics engine, which combines pre-rendered backgrounds with 3D-modelled characters.
And Then There Were None is divided into 10 chapters. After completing a certain trigger event, the next chapter begins. The developers ensured that nothing essential to the game could be missed during the player's progression, although large sections of gameplay are optional, and the player may ignore many of the side-quests. This divided progression adds another dimension to gameplay, as not only does the player have to be in the right place to find a clue or solve a puzzle, but must be there at the right time. For example, an empty room in one act could hold a vital clue in the next.
And Then There Were None features a journal system to aid in the collection and piecing together of clues. The in-game journal records everything that the player needs to advance in the game, in order to prevent the player wandering aimlessly, unable to proceed. For example, the journal records conversations the player has with other characters, so that if they forget what was said, it will still be accessible. The developers also created the journal so that players did not have to use external resources, such as pen and paper. The journal is separated by content into several categories, such as a characters page, which lists all the characters by name and includes details about them, as well as separate pages for important items, documents and books. This information can be referenced at any time by the player.
Another feature of And Then There Were None is the "Suspicion Meter", which measures the player's relationship with other characters, starting from a neutral position at the start of the game. There are negative consequences if the player is caught doing things that other characters deem inappropriate, which directly affects the "Suspicion Meter": falling one point for every negative action and raising one point for each positive act. Depending on which of three positions the meter is in regarding a particular character, dialogue actions with that character are affected. The player is also able to regain approval points by solving "Suspicion Meter" puzzles; multiple inventory items and combining items and can be quite complicated.
After completing the game, the player is given one final puzzle. Completing it shows the original ending of the novel.
Synopsis
Setting and characters
And Then There Were None is set in 1939, taking place at "a beautiful mansion on the deserted Soldier Island." A quote by one of the characters, Emily Brent, in the first chapter sets the month as August ("This same week of August 4 years ago.") The player can explore the two-storey Art Deco-style mansion, which includes a secret room behind a bookcase in the library. The exterior of Soldier Island, including a beach, a forest, and an apiary, may also be explored.
The player character is Patrick Narracott. Patrick is the only character not mentioned in Christie's original novel, although his brother — Fred Narracott — is the one who ferries the guests to the island in the original book. The other characters are the guests: Judge Lawrence John Wargrave; Vera Catherine Claythorne; Philip Lombard; General John Gordon MacArthur; Emily Caroline Brent; Anthony James Marston; William Henry Blore; the butler, Thomas Gregg Rogers; and his wife, Ethel Maria Rogers.
Plot
The events of the book, with the exception of the killer's identity and the player character, are closely retained in the game. The game begins with eight of the characters (all but the two servants) arriving at the fictional seaside town of Sticklehaven, where they are to be ferried to Shipwreck Island by Patrick Narracott (who is substituting for his brother who is "under the weather"). When they arrive on the island, the other two characters are introduced, but when Patrick returns to his boat he finds it sabotaged, forcing him to stay on the island. Later, Blore confesses to Patrick that he is the one who damaged the boat, believing Patrick to be his brother Fred, who he thought was a thief. At dinner that night, the guests discover that none of them have met, or are familiar with, "U.N. Owen", the enigmatic host who invited most of them to the party.
After dinner, a gramophone record accuses the ten non-player characters of getting away with murder. Moments later, Anthony Marston dies after drinking a poisoned cocktail. That night, Ethel Rogers dies of a drug overdose in her sleep. The deaths are initially thought to be suicides or accidents until, after the death of General MacArthur, Judge Wargrave determines that they are actually murders and that the host, U.N. Owen, is most likely the killer. Wargrave further speculates that Owen must be one of the remaining 8, and is following the pattern of the nursery rhyme over the fireplace, "Ten Little Sailor Boys". After each murder, one of the ten figurines in the dining room goes missing. Narracott is now established as the detective of the group since his presence on the island was not expected by the killer. It is also discovered that Lombard has brought a revolver to the island.
After the deaths of Thomas Rogers by axe and Emily Brent from anaphylactic shock from multiple bee stings, Lombard announces that his revolver has been stolen, and a search for it is fruitless. Narracott discovers he has been poisoned with the fictional drug Solidamide, but he obtains a remedy: a bottle of the fictional "Bellman's Universal Application", found near the site of Miss Brent's death. During a blackout after dinner that night, Wargrave is killed by a shot to the head. Later in the night, however, Wargrave's body goes missing along with Armstrong, whose drowned body washes up on the shore. Wargrave's body turns up later in the screening room, but looks to have been bludgeoned to death, rather than shot. Blore is also found to have been killed, his head caved in by a marble clock.
Narracott returns to the house to find that the killer is Emily Brent, who is really the famous actress Gabrielle Steele, a previous owner of the island who has been mentioned several times. Steele wanted Wargrave killed because he sentenced her love, Edward Seton, to death. She would torture him first by killing those around him first, all criminals who had gotten away with their crimes, and explains how she had faked her own death earlier, using an overdose of the Bellman's Universal Application found earlier to simulate a fatal allergic reaction to the bee stings.
There are four different endings depending on whether Vera and Phillip – one, both, or neither – are saved. If Phillip is saved, he will reveal that his name is actually Charles Morley, a friend of Lombard's who assumed his identity when the real Phillip Lombard committed suicide out of guilt for his past crime. If Vera is saved, she and Narracott return to Sticklehaven (with Morley, if he also survives), where Vera explains her innocence of the crime the gramophone accused her of. If either Vera or Morley (or both) are saved, their statements to the police will clear Narracott and his brother. If neither of them survive, the Naracott brothers make their escape from the police. If Vera survives, she and Naracott decide to get married.
Following the game's completion, the player is given one last challenge that will reward them with the original ending to the book, where Wargrave is the killer. Dying, he wants to mete out justice personally to criminals who have escaped punishment, who he has invited to the island. The alternate ending details the events of the book, And Then There Were None, wherein all the guests on the island are killed by Wargrave except for the last two, Vera and Lombard. Vera then shoots Lombard, thinking him the murderer (since Wargrave has faked his own death), and then hangs herself. Wargrave then shoots himself.
Development
And Then There Were None was announced on February 3, 2005, as the first in a series of games based on novels by Agatha Christie. For the release, The Adventure Company collaborated with developer AWE Productions. Lee Sheldon was named Lead Designer and writer for the game, while Scott Nixon, from AWE, was appointed managing director. The Adventure Company chose the novel And Then There Were None as the first game, instead of other Christie novels involving famous detectives Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple, for several reasons. Among them was the popularity of the novel, which would help with marketing; and the island nature of the story which would provide a natural barrier, while allowing more freedom of movement for the players within that confined area.
One major obstacle in the development of And Then There Were None was gaining the approval of aspects of the game from Chorion, the company which owned the rights to Agatha Christie's works. The development team met with Mathew Prichard, Christie's grandson, and other members of Chorion. While protective of Christie's license, Chorion was quite open about changes to the plot, as long as they were within the style of Christie's novels. These included a change to the identity of the killer, the addition of a player character, and changes to the figurines at the table – renaming them "sailor boys", to fit in with the boat motif of being moored on the island. Chorion did not accept all the changes proposed by the developers, for example rejecting the idea of a one-man submarine the player could operate as not being in the style of Christie's work. The survival of Vera and Lombard, and the change of the General's name from MacArthur to MacKenzie, were both used by Christie herself in a 1943 stage adaptation of the novel. Patrick Narracott as the eleventh character was a major plot change, and was done to explore a semi-romance between him and Vera Claythorne, as well as the developers' desire to have players connect to a more human character, rather than a nameless one.
The main concern designer Lee Sheldon had was the emphasis placed on story and dialogue. He had considered the idea that the killer could change every time a player played the game; this idea of open-ended, modular gameplay was quickly discarded, as Sheldon thought it didn't pay homage to Christie's work. The orders of the murders forced Sheldon down a linear path, and the numerous cut scenes, cinematics and long dialogues were needed because the novel is composed largely of dialogue. Sheldon strived to make the puzzles a seamless part of the game's environment and plot, and not simply tacked on for the sake of a puzzle.
The designers of And Then There Were None decided to leave the game in its original time period, the 1930s. Sheldon was firmly against updating the game to a modern time period, calling this "a futile attempt to attract an audience that really doesn't care anyway." One of the main attractions to the past for Sheldon was the ability to explore its culture and mores. The mansion in the game was researched using architecture and Art Deco books as references. Christie described the mansion in the novel as stark and modern, and this made Sheldon turn to the work of famous architect Frank Lloyd Wright, and in particular his house Fallingwater.
And Then There Were None was shipped to North American stores on October 27, 2005. The Adventure Company announced on March 19, 2007, that the game would be ported to the Wii console, which would feature an ability to spin the Wii Remote to turn safe handles, and the ability to unearth clues by imitating a digging action.
Reception
And Then There Were None has received widely varying reviews since its release. Metacritic's weighted average score for the game was 68 out of 100 on the PC and 50 out of 100 on the Wii, indicating "mixed or average reviews", with individual reviews falling between 20% and 90%. One aspect of the game which has garnered some criticism are the graphics. 2404 denounced the game's environments, commenting that "there are graphically better games that were made two years ago." An aspect of the game's graphics more heavily criticized was the character models, with GameSpy decrying them, saying: "The 3D models used for Mr. Owen's guests are crude and simplistic, with silly, sausage-like fingers, hair that looks like blocks of wood, lousy animation, poor lip-synching, and bland faces with barely any facial expression."
Adventure Gamers found many faults with the character designs, describing them as ugly, and no more realistic than the characters from Sierra's Gabriel Knight 3, released six years previously. However, Just Adventure commented that the characters are nicely designed, with detailed facial expressions during close-ups, but could have been better by current standards. Opinions on the character voice acting were generally positive: praised by Adventure Gamers for injecting life into the wooden character models, and ICGames commented that the voice acting made the characters convincing. However, GameSpy denounced the game for not allowing readers to skip through dialogue, instead forcing them to sit through hours of spoken words. Sound in And Then There Were None received mixed reactions as well, with Game Chronicles calling the sound decent, with realistic weather and animal sounds. 2404, in contrast, said that the game's music is pleasant and unannoying, but never captures the emotions and tensions in the game.
The puzzle aspects also received varying reactions. Game Over Online called the few puzzles bad, complaining that often the solutions were obscure and illogical, and did not advance the plot. GameSpot criticized the puzzles, saying that the player is "regularly tasked with backtracking back and forth across the island with only a vague notion of what to do in order to progress the story." 2404 was more encouraging, saying that although the game was formulaic, there was a welcome lack of mazes and slider puzzles in the game, making it more accessible to a wider audience.
References
External links
Agatha Christie: And Then There Were None official site* at The Adventure Company
Agatha Christie: And Then There Were None at AWE Productions
2005 video games
Adventure games
Single-player video games
The Adventure Company games
Detective video games
And Then There Were None
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set in 1939
Video games set in Devon
Wii games
Windows games |
4302190 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A1l%20nAraidi | Dál nAraidi | Dál nAraidi (; "Araide's part") or Dál Araide, sometimes latinised as Dalaradia or anglicised as Dalaray, was a Cruthin kingdom, or possibly a confederation of Cruthin tribes, in north-eastern Ireland during the Middle Ages. It was part of the over-kingdom of Ulaid, and its kings often contended with the Dál Fiatach for the over-kingship of the province. At its greatest extent, the borders of Dál nAraidi roughly matched those of County Antrim, and they seemed to occupy the same area as the earlier Robogdii of Ptolemy's Geography, a region shared with Dál Riata. Their capital was Ráth Mór outside Antrim, and their eponymous ancestor is claimed as being Fiachu Araide.
Territory
The Mythological Dál nAraidi was centered on the northern shores of Lough Neagh in southern County Antrim. Dál nAraidi was one of the more prominent sub-kingdoms of Ulaid, with its kings contending with the Dál Fiatach for the over-kingship of the province for some centuries.
To the north of Dál nAraidi in County Antrim lay the Dál Riata, the boundary between which was marked out by the River Bush to Dál Riata's west, and the southern boundary running from Ravel Water to just north of Glynn on the east Antrim coast.
Branches
In Tuaiscirt
In the mid-7th century the Dál nAraidi of Magh Line, ruled by the Uí Chóelbad dynasty, conquered Eilne (alias Mag Eilne) to their north-west and a branch of their dynasty seems to have settled there. This branch of the Uí Chóelbad descended from Fiachra Cáech (d. 608), brother of Fiachnae Lurgan, king of Dál nAraidi and over-king of Ulaid.
Dungal Eilni, great-grandson of Fiachra Cáech and king of Dál nAraidi, was possibly the first of this branch to be based in Eilne, however in 681 was killed at Dún Ceithern (modern-day Giant's Sconce in parish of Dunboe, west of the River Bann). This branch of the Magh Line Dál nAraidi eventually became known as the Dál nAraidi in Tuaiscirt (Dál nAraidi of the North) and . The first reference to Dál nAraidi in Tuaiscirt can be found in the Annals of Ulster under the year 824.
Between 646 and 792, the Dál nAraidi in Tuaiscirt held the overkingship of Dál nAraidi seven times, with two of that number becoming overkings of Ulaid. Cathussach mac Ailello, king of Eilne and Dál nAraidi, and claimed as having ruled the over-kingdom of Ulaid for sixteen years, was killed at Ráith Beithech (Rathveagh, County Antrim) in 749. Eochaid mac Bressal, who died in 832, was the last known king of the Dál nAraidi in Tuaiscirt to hold the over-kingship of the Dál nAraidi. The last known king of Dál nAraidi in Tuaiscirt is recorded in 883.
The church (or monastery) of Cuil Raithin on the shore of the River Bann lay in Eilne and was said to have been founded by Cairbre, who subsequently became its bishop. According to the Tripartite Life of St. Patrick, written in the 9th century, the Dál nAraidi had granted this church to Saint Patrick.
The Airgíallan dynasty of Uí Tuirtrí that lay west of the River Bann had been active east of it from as early as 776, and by the 10th century had taken control of Eilne.
Dál nAraidi in Tuaiscirt is said to have corresponded to the later baronies of Dunluce Lower and North East Liberties of Coleraine, and appears to correspond to the trícha cét of An Tuaiscert. It also became an Anglo-Norman cantred called Twescard, which later would absorb the cantred (county subdivision) of Dalrede (based on Dál Riata), with these two combined cantreds forming the basis for the rural deanery of Twescard. A sub-division of in Tuaiscirt called Cuil an Tuaiscirt, meaning the "nook/corner" of Dál nAraidi in Tuaiscirt, was located in the north-west of the petty-kingdom near Coleraine. Its territory would form the basis of the later barony of North East Liberties of Coleraine.
Magh Line
The Dál nAraidi Magh Line, or the Dál nAraidi of Moylinny (modern-Irish Maigh Line, meaning "plain of Line") was the predominant dynasty of the Dál nAraidi. It was centered in southern County Antrim, with Ráith Mór its royal seat. In the 10th century they are counted as one of twelve tuatha (a territory or its people) of Ulaid. Line may represent the name of an original population grouping. It was also known as Mocu Aridi.
Their territory at its height spanned southern County Antrim and northern County Down containing the tuatha of Magh Line, Dál mBuinne, and Dál Sailni. It was later known as Trian Congaill, meaning the "third of Congal Claen" (Caech), and became an alias for the territory of Clandeboye, named as such after the Clandeboye O'Neill's who conquered the area in the late 14th century. By the 10th century Dál mBuinne was counted amongst the twelve tuatha of Ulaid. After the Viking era, Dál Sailni and its church at Connor, the principal church of Dál nAraidi was lost to the encroaching Uí Tuirtri.
The royal seat of the Dál nAraidi Magh Line was Ráith Mór (meaning "great fort", anglicised as Rathmore), located near Lough Neagh in the civil parish of Donegore. It is first recorded in the Annals of the Four Masters under the date 680 as Ratha moiré Maighe Line. Neighbouring Ráith Mór was Ráith Beag (meaning "little fort", anglicised as Rathbeg), and is attested location where Áed Dub mac Suibni, king of Dál nAraidi and Ulaid, killed High King Diarmait mac Cerbaill in 565. By the 16th century Ráith Mór became known as Ráth Mór Mag Ullin, meaning "great fort of the MacQuillans", and was burnt to the ground by Art mac Hugh O'Neill in 1513 after which it was never restored.
Cráeb Telcha, usually linked to modern-day Crew Hill near Glenavy, was the inauguration site of the Dál Fiatach kings of Ulaid, however it appears to have also been the same for the Dál nAraidi prior to the 9th-century contraction of their territory.
Magh Cobo (Uí Echach Cobo)
By the late 8th century, Dál Fiatach expansion had cut off the County Antrim and Down branches of the Cruthin from each other. As a result, the County Down branch consolidated into the kingdom of the Uí Echach Cobo, based at Magh Cobo, "the plain of Cobo". They were styled as kings of Cuib. According to the medieval genealogies they are descended from the Dál nAraidi, though this link is tenuous. By the 10th century Uí Echach Cobo was counted amongst the twelve tuatha of Ulaid.
Uí Echach Cobo's territory formed the basis of the medieval deanery and Norman cantred of Oveh, as well as the diocese of Dromore. Their territory was later anglicised as Iveagh. Their 14th-century expansion formed the basis for the later barony of Iveagh.
Uí Erca Céin
Also spelt as Uí Dercco Céin and Uí Dearca Chein, the Uí Erca Céin where a branch of the Dál nAraidi, and according to the 10th-century Lebor na Cert, one of the twelve minor principalities under the king of Ulaid. They appear to have been based near Semne in Latharna, with their base possibly being Carrickfergus, and a list of Uí Erca Céin kings are given as having ruled Latharna until the mid-7th century, though there are records of kings down to around 900 AD. A branch of the Uí Erca Céin line of kings, the Síl Fingín, also twice held the overkingship of Dál nAraidi. After 750, the Uí Erca Céin became associated with the church of Bangor.
At some point they disappear from Latharna and by the 14th century are found in the territory of Leath Cathail in central County Down.
The Uí Erca Céin had five vassal tribes all of different origins: the Cenél Talain and Dál Fhocha nUchtar, both of whom appear to also have been of the Cruthin, and possibly refugees driven from their home that went to "Dercco Chen". A tradition of the Cenél Talain mentions that they had an ancestor who fought alongside Fiacha Araide, the eponymous ancestor of the Dál nAraidi; the Crothraidi, who according to tradition descended from the western province of Connacht, however migrated to Ulaid and after 600AD had joined the Uí Erca Céin; Crothraidi Buaingine, who are said to descend from Munster; and the Dál Coirb Fobair, a portion of whom where located in the south Antrim territory of Dál mBuinne, and are claimed to have descended from a Leinster (southern province) prince called Cú Corb.
History
By the start of the historic period in Ireland in the 6th century, the over-kingdom of Ulaid was largely confined to east of the River Bann in north-eastern Ireland. The Cruthin however still held territory west of the Bann in County Londonderry, and their emergence may have concealed the dominance of earlier tribal groupings.
In 563, according to the Annals of Ulster, an apparent internal struggle amongst the Cruthin resulted in Báetán mac Cinn making a deal with the Northern Uí Néill, promising them the territories of Ard Eólairg (Magilligan peninsula) and the Lee, both west of the River Bann. As a result, the battle of Móin Daire Lothair (modern-day Moneymore) took place between them and an alliance of Cruthin kings, in which the Cruthin suffered a devastating defeat. Afterwards the Northern Uí Néill settled their Airgíalla allies in the Cruthin territory of Eilne, which lay between the River Bann and the River Bush. The defeated Cruthin alliance meanwhile consolidated itself within the Dál nAraidi dynasty.
In 565, Áed Dub mac Suibni, king of Dál nAraidi and Ulaid, killed High King Diarmait mac Cerbaill at Raith Bec (Rathbeg, County Antrim).
The Dál nAraidi king Congal Cáech took possession of the over-kingship of Ulaid in 626, and in 628 killed the High King of Ireland, Suibne Menn of the Northern Uí Néill in battle. In 629, Congal led the Dál nAraidi to defeat against the same foes. In an attempt to have himself installed as High King of Ireland, Congal made alliances with Dál Riata and Strathclyde, which resulted in the disastrous Battle of Moira in 637, in modern-day County Antrim, which saw Congal slain by High King Domnall mac Áedo of the Northern Uí Néill and severely weakened both Dál nAraidi and Dál Riata.
The Annals of Ulster record that in 668, the battle of Bellum Fertsi (modern-day Belfast) took place between the Ulaid and Cruthin, both terms which then referred to the Dál Fiatach and Dál nAraide respectively. Meanwhile, the Dál nAraidi where still resisting the encroaching Northern Uí Néill. In 681, the Dál nAraidi led by Dúngal Eilni of the In Tuasicirt branch, along with their allies, the Cianachta Glenn Geimin of northern County Londonderry led by Cenn Fáelad, were killed at Dún Cethirinn by Máel Dúin mac Máele Fithrich of the Cenél Meic Ercae of Cenél nEógain.
Some form of combination of the Dál nAraidi, the Cianachta Glenn Geimin and the Cenél Feradaig was suspected of involvement in the death of Eochaid mac Domangairt, king of the Cenél nGabráin of Scottish Dál Riata in 697.
Throughout the 7th century, the Cruthin had gradually lost their lands west of the River Bann, allowing Dál nAraidi to become the sole Cruthin dynastic grouping in County Antrim. After 776, the annals no longer refer to the Dál nAraidi as being of Cruthin stock, but to be of the Ulaid population-grouping instead, being called the fir-Ulaid, the "men of Ulster".
In the 8th century the kingdom of Dál Riata was overrun by the Dál nAraidi. Concurrently the Dál Fiatach extended their territory cutting off the Dál nAraidi from the Uí Echach Cobo. By the end of the 9th century the Dál nAraidi had taken control of Ulaid from the Dál Fiatach. This however only lasted until 972, when Eochaid mac Ardgail restored Dál Fiatach's dominance.
In 1005, Brian Boru, marched north to accept submissions from the Ulaid, which including marching upon the Dál nAraidi capital Ráith Mór where he received only the submissions of their king.
By the beginning of the 12th century the Dál nAraidi, ruled by the Ó Loingsigh (O'Lynch), had lost control of most of Antrim to the Uí Fhloinn (O'Lynn) and became restricted to the territory of Magh Line. The Uí Fhloinn were the ruling sept of the Airgíallan Uí Tuirtri as well as rulers of Fir Lí, and in a process of gradual infiltration by marital and military alliances as well as growing pressure from the encroaching Cenél nEógain, they moved their power east of the Bann. Once they had come to prominence in Antrim the Ua Flainn styled themselves as king of Dál nAraidi (in Tuaiscirt), Dál Riata, and Fir Lí, alongside their own Uí Tuirtri.
Tribes and relations
Tribes and septs of the Dál nAraidi include amongst others:
Locations
Tuatha
Latharna, alias Latharne, meaning the "descendants of Lathar", present-day Larne. Lathar, alias Lath, is claimed as being the son of Úgaine Mór. Semne, modern-Irish Seimhne, now known as Island Magee, is located within Latharna and was the name of an early tribal grouping, which became the name of a petty-kingdom.
Maige Damoerna, alias Mag Damairne. Modern-Irish Machaire Morna, meaning "plain of Morna", and anglicised as Magheramorne. Located west of Larne Lough.
Dál mBuinne, alias Dál Buain. Also known as Mic Ui Buan, Maccu Boin, and Tuath Búain, an aithechthúatha (client-people) of Dál nAraidi Magh Line.
Dál Sailni, alias Dál Selle, Dál Sailne, and Tuath Selle. They descended from Fedhlim Sailne, and were possibly a former sóerthúatha (free-people), however became an aithechthúatha of Dál nAraidi Magh Line. Whilst the ruling dynasty of the Dál nAraidi Magh Line, the Uí Choelbad, supplied the principal kings, Dál Sailni held the principal church of Connor. In the post-Viking era, Dál Sailni and its church was taken over by the encroaching Uí Tuirtri.
Tuath Sine, cited as a aithechthúatha of Dál nAraidi Magh Line.
Religious foundations
Cell Glass, alias Cell Glas. A church said to have been founded by St. Patrick. Located in Eilne, east of Domnach Mór.
Lathrach Pátraic, also spelt as Leitir. Meaning "St. Patrick's site", the place is now known as Glenavy, modern-Irish Lann Abhaigh, meaning "church of the dwarf". Called "Lathrach Pátraic" in the Tripartite Life of Saint Patrick, the church referenced was said to have been founded by St. Patrick who left his disciple Daniel, who was of diminutive size, in charge.
Domnach Combair. Possibly Comber in County Down, modern-Irish An Comar, meaning "the confluence". Domnach means "church/monastery", and refers to a monastery said to have been built by Conla who had encountered St. Patrick.
Domnach mór Maige Damoerna. Domnach mór means "great church", and was located in the petty-kingdom of Maige Damoerna.
Telach or Cell Conadain. Possibly Saint Cunning, parish of Carncastle, barony of Glenarm Upper
Gluare. Modern-Irish Gluaire, meaning "brightness, purity", and anglicised as Glore. Located in the petty-kingdom of Latharna, it was a church founded by St. Patrick.
Cell Boetáin, alias Cell Baedáin and Cell Scoba. Said to be within the territory of the Cland Sogain mic Fiachrach Araidi.
Cell Fhindsiche, alias Cell Finnische. Possibly modern Killinchy in barony of Dufferin in County Down.
Cell Ruad. Modern-Irish Cill Ruaidh, meaning "church of the red land", anglicised as Kilroot. Located on the banks of Loch Laigh, it is associated with St. Colmán.
Luidh Pátraic.
Cell Ciannáin, located in Semne.
Domnach Cainri, a church located in Cothraighe.
Forts and symbolic places
Raith Sithe. Modern-Irish Ráth Sí, meaning "fairy fort", modern-day Rashee, a church alleged to have been founded by St. Patrick. Its earliest mention is in the Annals of Ulster, which mentions the death of Bishop Eoghan of "Ratha Sithe" in 618AD.
Raith Epscuip Fhindich in Húi Darca-chein.
Rath Aidhne, located in Semne.
Ráith Cimaeith, located in Semne.
Ráith Cind Con.
Ráith Line, located in Magh Line, possibly an alternate name for Ráith Mór.
Ráith Bacain, located in Latharna.
Ráith Bachall, located in Latharna.
Dún Daen Hi Fidbaid and Dún dá Én i fFiodhbhaidh. Modern-Irish Dún Dá Éan, meaning "fort of the two birds", present day Duneane. Hi Fidbaid may represent Uí Fidbaid, a possible tribe. Otherwise Fiodhbhaidh means "forest".
Other places
The following locations have all been cited to have been within Dál nAraidi:
Imlech Cluane. Located in Semne.
Cúil Raithin. Meaning "corner/nook of ferns". Modern-day Coleraine. Located in Eilne, it was once an episcopal see. A church had been founded here by St. Patrick. It has been suggested that it lost its status after the Ui Choelbad ruling dynasty of the Dál nAraidi of Magh Line conquered Eilne in the mid-7th century, and a prince of theirs settled there. Their own church in Magh Line, at Domnach Combair, was also an episcopal see and they may have been content to see Cúil Raithin lose its status.
Ross Torathair, also spelt as Ros/Rois Torothair. Situated near Cúil Raithin, a battle for this place between St. Columba and St. Comgall is referenced to in the Amra Choluim Chille, the Elegy of St. Columba.
Druim Dáganda.
Echdruim Brecain. Modern-Irish Eachdhroim, meaning "horse ridge", anglicised Aughrim. It was situated according to O'Donovan along the border of Dál nAraidi and Dál Riata.
Airther Maigi Cobhai. Modern-Irish Oirthear Maí, meaning "the east of the plain", and anglicised as Armoy. St. Patrick is alleged to have baptised St. Olcan here and installed him as bishop of its church. It was located in the kingdom of Dál Riata.
Scirit, also known as Scirec Archaile, meaning (Arcail: great valley). Now known as Skerry. Located near Slemish in Dál nAraidi in Tuaiscirt, it was an ancient burial place.
Inber Olarba, also spelt Inver Olarba, the estuary of the river Olarba, present-day Larne.
Laethet. The site of a battle between the Dál nAraidi and Dál Fiatach, possibly modern-day Knocklayd, in the north of County Antrim. Knocklayd derives from Cnoc Leithid, meaning "hill of the slope".
Linn Dóe, alias Linn Uachaill, which formed part of the boundary of Dál nAraidi. Said to belong to the Clanna Conall Cearnach.
Linn in Goban, alias Linn na nGobann, Cenn Guba, and Cnoc Glinne. Said to have been where the legendary figure Tuathal Techtmar was slain. Stated as being a hill at Móin an Chatha in Magh Line.
.
Fid átha luain, alias Fedha baile atha luain. Linked with Dún Daen Hi Fidbaid.
Cairloegh, alias Carrlóig. Claimed as being located near Na Lee in what became the barony of Coleraine. Said to have been granted to Fiachra for defeating Ailill in the battle of Ocha.
Cothraighe, alias Cothrugi. Located in Dál Riata, the name preserved in the barony of Cary.
Cúl Cáel, alias Cúl Cóil. Where Fiacha mac Baetain, king of Dál nAraidi killed Fiacha mac Demain, king of Dál Fiatach. Possibly Kilkeel in County Down, which derives from Cill Chaoil, meaning "Caol's church" or "church of the narrow place".
Cúl Fothirbi, alias Cell Fuithirbi.
Alt na n-Ingen, located in Crích Dalaraide.
Geographical features
Buas. Modern-Irish An Bhuais, meaning "the cow-like one", modern-day River Bush. A river in north-western County Antrim that was the boundary between west of Dál Riata and the east of Eilne.
Fregabhail. Modern-Irish Freabhal, meaning "towards the fork", modern-day Glenravel River. Formed the northern border between Dál nAraidi and Dál Riata. It also formed part of the boundary between the medieval deaneries of Tuaisceart and Ui Tuirtre.
hi nDíthruib Slébi Mis. Modern-Irish Sliabh Mis, meaning "Mis's mountain", modern-day Slemish.
Fertais Tuama. Modern-Irish Fearsaid Thuama, meaning the "ford of Toome", present-day Toome. The ford referenced crossed the River Bann near Lough Neagh.
Conaire, also spelt as Condaire and Connere. Modern-Irish Coinnire, meaning "(wild-)dog oak-wood", and anglicised as Conner. It is the location of the medieval cathedral for the diocese of Connor. Its patron is stated as being St. Mac Nissi.
Glenn Indechta. Modern-Irish Gleann Fhinneachta, meaning "Finneacht's glen", anglicised as Glynn. St. Patrick is said to have founded a church here. Glenn Indechta also marked the southern boundary of the kingdom of Dál Riata.
Magh Latrainn, alias Lathraind, Latharrne, and Latharna, the plain of Latharna running from the hills to the sea.
Ollarba, alias Olarba. Modern-day River Larne, which empties into Larne Lough. Some claim it is instead the Six Mile Water, which starts near Larne and empties into Lough Neagh. It was located to the south-east of Magh Line, running past Ráith Mór.
Olar. A river that like the Olarba starts at Móin an Chatha but instead flows into Lough Neagh.
Móin an Chatha, the bog of which the rivers Olar and Ollarba start.
Sliab Cáin, located at "Glenn in Scáil".
Glenn in Scáil, alias Muintir Diugna. Near Slemish, it is where Milchú kept St. Patrick as a slave.
Magh Monaich.
Magh Séle, located in Semne.
Men, alias Mena, Main, Myn, modern-Irish An Mhin, meaning "the river/water", now known as the River Maine. This river flowed into "Rubha Mena", now known as Mainwater Foot, at Lough Neagh.
Monai, a bog located somewhere in Dál nAraidi.
Loch Daim Deircc. A lake located west of Tráig Fhirgrinne Mic Dheagaid and of Uisce Labrainde, both west of Slemish.
Inber n-Ailinne.
Loch Laigh, alias Loch Lóig and Loch Láig. Modern-Irish Loch Lao, meaning "sea-inlet of the calf", now known as Belfast Lough.
Cluain Beoan and Cluain Fiachna.
Cnoc Cennghaba, alias Cnoc Glinne-an-Gabhann and Cnoc Glindi Ui Gaband, located in Magh Line. A prince of Fremand Fini was also slain here.
Crich Araide Adruiad. One of the mountains of Ulaid, seen from County Louth.
Slebe Ulad. Mountains of Ulaid, containing .
Arcail, a great glen located to the north of Sliabh Mis. Now known as the Braid Valley.
Arda Corrain. A battle occurred here between the Dál nAraidi and Dál Riata. Fiachna mac Demmain, king of Dál nAraidi and Ulaid was slain here. Possibly the hill above "the Corran of Larne".
See also
Dál Fiatach
Dál Riata
Iveagh
Kings of Dál nAraidi
List of kings of Ulster
Red Branch
Ulaid
References
Bibliography
Byrne, Francis John, Irish Kings and High-Kings. Batsford, London, 1973.
Duffy, Seán (ed.), Atlas of Irish History. Gill & Macmillan, Dublin, 2nd edn, 2000.
Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí, Early Medieval Ireland: 400–1200.'' Longman, London, 1995.
Cruthin
Ulaid
Ancient Irish dynasties
People from County Antrim |
4302332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campylobacter%20fetus | Campylobacter fetus | Campylobacter fetus is a rod-shaped, gram-negative species of bacteria within the genus Campylobacter of phylum Pseudomonadota. Identification of C. fetus species in infected animals or people is routinely performed by culture on blood or cefoperazone deoxycholate agar. Subspecies of C. fetus commonly causes reproductive disease in ruminants and gastrointestinal disease in humans. Transmission of C. fetus subspecies venerealis occurs mainly through venereal contact while transmission of C. fetus subspecies fetus occurs mainly through ingestion of bacteria in a contaminated environment. Infertility in cattle and abortion in sheep are common outcomes of infection associated with C. fetus subspecies venerealis and C. fetus subspecies fetus, respectively. Disease in humans occurs through zoonotic transmission of C. fetus mainly via ingestion of contaminated food or water sources. C. fetus can be diagnosed with polymerase chain reaction assays, enzyme linked immunosorbent assays and vaginal mucus agglutination testing. As vaccines are typically not efficient in preventing future spread, infected bulls are often culled. Human infections may be treated with erythromycin as antimicrobial resistance has been emerging for the fluoroquinolones.
Morphology and identification
On cytology, C. fetus is a gram-negative rod, though may present coccoid under suboptimal conditions. A distinguishing feature of C. fetus is the "S-shape" of the rod, resembling thin, helical spirochaetes. C. fetus can be a highly motile organism by means of a single, unsheathed flagellum. Genus identification based on motility may be possible due to their characteristic corkscrew-like movement. C. fetus are non-spore forming and microaerophilic organisms that are both catalase and oxidase-positive, but non-fermentative.
Identification of C. fetus requires aseptic sample collection, followed by culture and potentially further biochemical and molecular methods. To increase the likelihood of successful growth, cultures on blood agar should be performed as soon as possible following collection. If samples are likely to be contaminated or faster growth is required, selective media or the use of antibiotics can be employed to inhibit growth of contaminants. Modified charcoal cefoperazone deoxycholate (CCD) agar is a growth medium designed to isolate Campylobacters from feces. On CCD agar, C. fetus will grow as grey colonies that may appear moist. Growth of C. fetus can be seen within 40–48 hours of incubation between 25-37 °C under microaerophilic conditions. Some, but not all species of C. fetus will grow at 42 °C. Because C. fetus is a fastidious organism to grow, positive cultures can be considered diagnostic, however negative cultures cannot rule out the possibility of infection.
Additional methods of identification may be used to diagnosis C. fetus to the subspecies level. Biochemical methods can identify subspecies of C. fetus, though may be considered unreliable. Campylobacter fetus subspecies fetus (Cff) can grow in 1% glycine and produce H2S, while C. fetus subspecies venerealis (Cfv) cannot. Growth of Cff will not occur in 3.5% NaCl. To increase reliability of identification, molecular methods such as polymerase chain reaction or DNA sequencing may be utilized. Other methods of identification include histology, immunohistochemistry, direct immunofluorescence, agglutination and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.
Virulence factors
Campylobacter spp. in general possess membrane lipopolysaccharide (LPS) with low biological activity compared to other bacteria (i.e. Enterobacteriaceae), subsequently avoiding detection by the host immune system and which may explain why persistent infections can occur. In terms of subspecies, C. fetus subspecies venerealis and C. fetus subspecies fetus have a unique structural component that prevents host-mediated phagocytosis; this "S-layer" is a microcapsule of high molecular weight proteins arranged in a lattice formation. The S-layer prevents complement-mediated bacterial killing by impairing the binding of C3b to the surface of the bacteria. The S-layer is critical in the pathogenicity of C. fetus, as it allows for a significant bacteremic phase for hematogenous dissemination. Additionally, Cfv has long LPS side chains (O-antigens) that may resist complement-mediated bacterial killing. Aside from complement-mediated mechanisms, C. fetus has also evolved variation in its S-layer proteins (SLPs) of the S-layer to subvert the host antibody response.
Pathogenesis and disease
There are two subspecies of C. fetus that cause reproductive disease in ruminants; C. fetus subspecies fetus and C. fetus subspecies venerealis. These subspecies are associated with abortion in sheep and cattle and infertility in cattle, respectively. C. fetus subspecies fetus is a zoonotic pathogen that has been reported to cause disease in immunocompromised humans. Similar to C. fetus subspecies jejuni, C. fetus subspecies fetus can be acquired via fecal-oral route and resides mostly in the gastrointestinal tract. Other means of transmission include the ingestion of infected fluid or placentas. Infections with Cff appear to be more detrimental in ewes than in cows, spreading readily through a flock resulting in abortion storms.
Bovine
Campylobacter fetus subspecies venerealis
Bovine infectious infertility is a reproductive disease caused by infection of Cfv that leads to early embryonic mortality in cattle. Other names for this disease in cattle include campylobacteriosis, bovine venereal campylobacteriosis (BVC), bovine genital campylobacteriosis. The disease is also referred to more colloquially as "vibriosis", based on the former classification of the bacteria under the Vibrio genus. Bovine venereal campylobacteriosis is primarily a problem in beef cattle breeding stock. C. fetus subspecies venerealis is an obligate colonizer of the bull penile and preputial mucosa. Infection of bulls with Cfv is a chronic, asymptomatic infection that leads to the development carrier bulls in the breeding herd. Infection of the prepuce can persist for years in bulls and is often undetected due to the lack of any visible lesions on the penis or prepuce. Younger bulls are more likely to clear the Cfv infection than older bulls, therefore transmission risk increases with bull age. Transmission of Cfv to cows occurs through mating with an infected bull. Alongside Tritrichomonas foetus, bovine venereal campylobacteriosis considered an important sexually transmitted disease (STD) of cattle. However, transmission can occur by artificial insemination with semen from an infected bull. Transmissibility from carriers to naïve cows is high, such that outbreaks of Cfv in the herd can often be traced to the introduction of a new bull. Infection sites in the cow include the vagina, cervix, endometrium, and oviducts. If the cow becomes pregnant, the placenta can also be a site of infection. Rather than the bacterial colonization itself, the ensuing inflammatory response in the uterus and oviducts is often the cause of early embryonic mortality. Loss of embryos is generally within the first 15 to 21 days of conception, indicating infection occurred near mating. Late term abortions have been reported for Cfv infections in cows, but are much less likely than early embryonic loss. Cows with BVC display irregular estrus cycles, signs of heat when presumed to be pregnant, and increased returns to service, but often lack any outward signs of infection. On a herd level, Cfv leads to widespread infertility, wide variability in calf age, longer calving seasons, and decreased calf crops. Infected cows may return to estrus up to five times before pregnancy can be maintained. Infections and pregnancy loss in subsequent calving seasons is substantially less severe than the first season of infection, as cows can mount a sufficient immune response. However, the bacteria can persist in the vaginal mucosa for years in some cows, leading to infection of bulls upon mating. It is also reported that Cfv can become endemic in cow herds, leading to a low incidence of embryonic loss every 4 to 5 years; in these cases, heifers appear to be most vulnerable to Cfv infection as they lack sufficient immunity. Cow- to-cow transmission of Cfv has not been reported. A major risk factor for introduction of Cfv-infection in a breeding herd is the introduction of new animals with unknown Cfv-status, whether these be cows or bulls. Economic losses from Cfv infections can be substantial - such losses include culling non-pregnant cows, culling infected bulls, decreased calves born, decreased weaning weights, and prolonged calving seasons.
Campylobacter fetus subspecies fetus
Campylobacter fetus subspecies fetus is a commensal organism of the bovine gastrointestinal tract. Campylobacter fetus subspecies fetus is a cause of sporadic abortions in cattle and sheep, but is more of a serious problem in sheep production. Ingestion of fecal-contaminated food or water, rather than venereal transmission as with Cfv, is the route of exposure for cattle. Infection arises from hematogenous spread of the bacteria from the gastrointestinal tract through the uterus to infect the placenta of pregnant cows. Often, this will lead to failure of pregnancy and, more commonly, late-term abortions (i.e., between months 4 to 7 of gestation). Infection of the fetus leads to death, however the fetus is retained for a period of time prior to expulsion. Retention of the deceased fetus causes necrosis of the placenta and placental lesions are not easily distinguished from Brucella abortus, characterized by cotyledon colour change from pink/red to yellow/brown. Other pathologic characteristics of placental necrosis include placental edema and leathery texture.
Ovine
Campylobacter fetus subspecies fetus
Campylobacter fetus subspecies fetus is a normal member of the sheep gastrointestinal microbiome. Transmission occurs through the fecal-oral route or by hematogenous spread from the intestine to the reproductive tract and placenta. Infection from ingestion of Cff-contaminated placenta is also a possible route of infection. Ewes that appear to be particularly sensitive to Cff infection are those with underlying immunosuppression or are naïve to the flock. Campylobacter fetus subspecies fetus localizes in the placenta of the pregnant ewe and may lead to fetal hepatitis. Specifically, in sheep and goats, fetuses aborted due to campylobacteriosis, are often accompanied with an edematous placenta, friable cotyledons and upon necropsy exhibit necrotic foci on their livers. Late-term abortion is the main outcome of a Cff infection. Abortion outbreaks can be seen with Cff in a susceptible ewe herd, where few sporadic abortions are followed by large numbers of abortions in the herd. In naïve herds, the incidence of abortions can reach 70%. Abortions occur within 3 to 4 weeks of infection. Infected ewes rarely show systemic disease, but may include diarrhea, fever, and vaginal discharge. If infection occurs near-term, weak lambs are born and often die within several days. In rare cases, a fetus may die in utero and cause an ascending infection from the placenta, septicemia and possibly death in the ewe. Ewes can often mount sufficient immune responses following infection, therefore subsequent lambing seasons are not as severely affected. Campylobacter jejuni, another gastrointestinal tract commensal of ruminants, is another important cause of abortion in ewes.
Zoonosis/interspecies transmission
Campylobacter fetus subspecies fetus infections are associated with gastroenteritis and, rarely, sepsis in people. Although most infections are self-resolving of particular concern are those individuals with underlying conditions (e.g., HIV), seniors, as well as pregnant women. Clinically relevant transmission between humans generally involve neonates. Zoonotic transmission of Cff occurs mainly by ingestion of food and water contaminated by feces from infected ruminants, or ingestion of unpasteurized dairy products from infected cows. Ingestion of raw ovine or bovine liver has also been linked to sources of infection. Likewise, cross-contamination due to improper food safety has resulted in similar infections. Symptoms of acute gastroenteritis associated with Cff infections include abdominal cramping, nausea, diarrhea and fever. When sepsis does occur, Cff can cause a myriad of infections in accidental hosts such as perinatal, neurological and endocardial infections. Occasionally, abortion in humans can occur, similar to that in sheep, as a result of placental infection through septic spread of Cff from the gastrointestinal tract. The fetus can either undergo spontaneous abortion or be born with an ongoing infection which can eventuate in the infiltration of nervous tissues. Campylobacter fetus subspecies venerealis rarely causes sepsis in immunocompromised individuals.
Diagnosis
Epidemiological clues in the breeding herd or flock can indicate Campylobacter fetus infections. Often, C. fetus may not be suspected until herd level changes are noticed, generally at the end of the breeding season (Cfv) or end of herd gestation (Cff) (e.g., high incidence of open cows, multiple returns to service, high incidence of abortions in ewes). If suspected, C. fetus can be diagnosed through basic culturing and laboratory tests such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays, enzyme linked immune sorbent assays (ELISA), and vaginal mucus agglutination test (VMAT). Diagnosis depends on isolation of the causative agent under microaerophilic conditions. C. fetus is extremely delicate to environmental conditions including sunlight, dehydration, increased temperature, and high O2. In adverse conditions, the spiral rods degenerate to a coccoid morphology, making diagnosis based on morphology difficult. In addition, C. fetus can be quickly outgrown by competing microbes, indicating that timely culture and sample submission are important.
For reproductive diseases, samples may include vaginal mucus swabs, preputial washes or scrapings with buffered sterile saline, stomach contents or tissue of abortuses. Samples should be immediately transported to the lab and enrichment needs to be provided to allow accurate diagnosis. Samples should be kept at 25-37 °C and supplied on mediums such as Clarks Transport Medium (contains gas and fresh bovine serum) or Amies Medium (contains charcoal). Antibiotics can be used to inhibit competing microbes for faster growth of C. fetus.
Prior to diagnosis, labs will culture the organism from samples. Diagnosis is most commonly done using blood agar, where growth is presented after incubation over 4–5 days at 25-37 °C. Colonies will appear as gamma-hemolytic, round, and light pink. A microaerophilic environment with reduced oxygen (5-10%) and carbon dioxide (3-5%) is needed through the use of specialized gas packs. Once cultured, molecular tests can be performed to obtain a more accurate diagnosis.
ELISA
Measuring IgA antibodies in vaginal mucus is used as a diagnostic test. Specificity of ELISA may reach 98.5%, however antibody fluctuations in cattle can result in false positives. In an ELISA test using murine monoclonal antibodies, 66 preputial samples were collected. 49 of these were positive for ELISA and culture and 16 were positive by ELISA only making it useful as a diagnostic test for C. fetus.
Vaginal Mucus Agglutination Test
Agglutination can detect the binding of antibodies and antigens, resulting in clumped bacterial cells. Since antibodies to the target organism may cross-react with other organisms, autoagglutination may occur. Agglutination is primarily used when the sample is obtained from a vaginal mucous wash, and the test may reach a sensitivity of 50%.
PCR
Real time PCR techniques using ISCfe1 insertion site is the most sensitive technique for diagnosis of Cfv-associated abortion. ISCfe1 is a newly discovered insertion site used in PCR to differentiate between Cfv and Cff. It only occurs in Cfv strains, so it is essential for the implementation of efficient Cfv control and eradication. Samples from stomach contents and vaginal discharges allow accurate diagnosis of C. fetus and its subspecies for epidemiological and pathogenic purposes.
ELISA and VMAT are good diagnostic tests, although they are usually used for screening purposes and a proper diagnosis requires further tests via PCR. The PCR assay differentiates between subspecies of C. fetus, which important to determine pathogenesis and develop an effective treatment plan. However, diagnosis of C. fetus may be problematic due to poor growth in atmospheric conditions and the ability to be outcompeted by contaminating microbes. To overcome this, multiple samples are to be collected from each animal and multiple tests may be used simultaneously to increase sensitivity and the probability of a correct diagnosis.
Treatment
Venereal campylobacteriosis is more commonly found in herds where natural mating is allowed. Infected bulls are typically removed from the herd or culled as treatment can be difficult and may result in persistent carriers. Antibiotic treatment of infected bulls and cows with Cfv is considered impractical. Artificial insemination may reduce the prevalence of infection if a Cfv-free source bull is used. As cows can recover from these infections, they are not culled but kept from mating naturally for at least two calving seasons. Vaccines can be used to reduce the occurrence of campylobacteriosis but will not eradicate infections. For example, vaccination of bulls, cows, and heifers against Cfv has some efficacy but does not consistently prevent transmission. C. fetus may evade complete detection and eradication by the immune system as chronic and relapse cases have been noted. The majority of C. fetus infections have been specifically linked to Cff. The ovine Cff vaccine has likewise been found ineffective in preventing future infections in ewes given that it does not provide protection against all strains of Cff.
In zoonotic cases of Campylobacter, infections will often resolve without treatment. Should there be underlying conditions or risk factors, patients may be treated with erythromycin. Fluoroquinolones are often avoided as antimicrobial resistance has been emerging. Often in these cases of interspecies infections, proper hygienic protocols of food safety and hand hygiene can prevent infection.
See also
Campylobacteriosis
References
External links
Type strain of Campylobacter fetus subsp. fetus at BacDive – the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase
Type strain of Campylobacter fetus subsp. venerealis at BacDive – the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase
Campylobacterota
Bacteria described in 1919 |
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