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4173439	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20breweries%20in%20California	List of breweries in California	This list of breweries in California, both current and defunct, includes both microbreweries and larger industrial scale breweries. Brewing companies range widely in the volume and variety of beer produced, ranging from small breweries to massive multinational conglomerates. Since 1983, California has allowed breweries to sell beer on their premises, giving rise to numerous brewpubs and microbreweries. Breweries in California produce a wide range of beers in different styles that are marketed locally, regionally, nationally, and internationally. In 2012 California's 458 breweries, importers, brewpubs, and company-owned packagers and wholesalers employed over 7,000 people directly, and more than 109,000 others in related jobs such as wholesaling and retailing. Including people directly employed in brewing, as well as those who supply California's breweries with everything from ingredients to machinery, the total business and personal tax revenue generated by California's breweries and related industries was more than $5.1 billion. Consumer purchases of California's brewery products generated another $1.1 billion in tax revenue. In 2012, according to the Brewers Association, California ranked 1st in the number of craft breweries, and 19th per capita with 325. For context, at the end of 2013 there were 2,822 breweries in the United States, including 2,768 craft breweries subdivided into 1,237 brewpubs, 1,412 microbreweries and 119 regional craft breweries. In that same year, according to the Beer Institute, the brewing industry employed around 43,000 Americans in brewing and distribution and had a combined economic impact of more than $246 billion. Breweries by county Alameda County 21st Amendment Brewery in San Leandro Ale Industries in Oakland Altamont Beer Works in Livermore Bison Brewing in Berkeley (opened 1997, closed 2008) Buffalo Bill's Brewery in Hayward, the first brewpub licensed in California since Prohibition Cleophus Quealy Beer Company in San Leandro Diving Dog Brewhouse in Oakland Drake's Brewing Company in San Leandro Eight Bridges Brewing Company in Livermore Faction Brewing in Alameda Fieldwork Brewing Company in Berkeley Gilman Brewing Company in Berkeley Hoi Polloi Brewpub and Beat Lounge in Berkeley JP DasBrew in Fremont Oakland United Beerworks (formerly Linden Street Brewery) in Oakland Old Kan Beer & Co. in Oakland Pacific Coast Brewing Company in Oakland (opened 1988, closed 2017) Pyramid Breweries in Berkeley (opened in 1997, closed in 2015) The Rare Barrel in Berkeley Shadow Puppet Brewing Company in Livermore Triple Rock Brewery and Alehouse in Berkeley Trumer Brauerei in Berkeley Woods Bar & Brewery in Oakland Working Man Brewing Company in Livermore Amador County Amador Brewing Company in Plymouth Butte County Feather Falls Casino Brewing Company in Oroville Feather River Brewing Company in Magalia NorCal Brewing in Chico Mulberry Station Brewing in Chico Sierra Nevada Brewing Company in Chico Secret Trail Brewing in Chico Colusa County Farmers Brewing Co. in Princeton Contra Costa County Black Diamond Brewing Co. in Concord (Closed 2017) Calicraft in Walnut Creek Danville Brewing Company in Danville E.J. Phair Brewing Company in Pittsburg Farm Creek Brewing Company in Walnut Creek (Closed 2017) Elevation 66 Brewing Company in El Cerrito Schubros Brewery in San Ramon Epidemic Ales in Concord Del Norte County Seaquake Brewing in Crescent City El Dorado County The Brewery at Lake Tahoe in South Lake Tahoe Cold Water Brewery and Grill in South Lake Tahoe Cool Beerwerks in Cool El Dorado Brewing Company in Diamond Springs Gold Hill Winery and Brewery in Placerville HWY 50 Brewery in Camino Jack Russell Farm Brewery in Camino Lake Tahoe AleWorX in South Lake Tahoe Mraz Brewing Company in El Dorado Hills Outbreak Brewing Company in Placerville Outpost Brewing Company in South Lake Tahoe Placerville Brewing Company in Placerville Sidellis Lake Tahoe in South Lake Tahoe Solid Ground Brewing in Diamond Springs South Lake Brewing Company in South Lake Tahoe Stash Brewing Co. in Garden Valley Stateline Brewery and Restaurant in South Lake Tahoe Fresno County The Mad Duck Craft Brewery in Fresno Fresno Brewing Company in Fresno Full Circle Brewing in Fresno Pine & Palm Brewing in Fresno Tactical OPS Brewing in Fresno Tioga–Sequoia Brewing Company in Fresno Humboldt County Eel River Brewing Company in Fortuna Humboldt Brewing Company Lost Coast Brewery in Eureka Mad River Brewing Company in Blue Lake Redwood Curtain Brewing Company in Arcata Six Rivers Brewery in McKinleyville Inyo County Mountain Rambler Brewery in Bishop Kern County Crusader Brewing in Bakersfield Dionysus Brewing Company in Bakersfield Great Change Brewing in Bakersfield Kern River Brewing Company in Kernville Lengthwise Brewing in Bakersfield Local Craft Beer in Tehachapi Temblor Brewing Company in Bakersfield Kings County Bird Street Brewing in Lemoore Hop Forged Brewing Company in Hanford Lake County Kelsey Creek Brewing Company in Kelseyville Mount St. Helena Brewing Company in Middletown O'Meara Brothers Brewing Company in Lakeport Los Angeles County Absolution Brewing Company in Torrance Alosta Brewing Co in Covina Ambitious Ales in Long Beach Angel City Brewery in Los Angeles Beachwood BBQ and Brewery in Long Beach Bravery Brewing in Lancaster Brouwerij West in San Pedro Congregation Ale House in Azusa Cosmic Brewery in Torrance Claremont Craft Ales in Claremont The Dudes' Brewing Company in Torrance Eagle Rock Brewery in Los Angeles El Segundo Brewing Company in El Segundo Golden Road Brewery in Los Angeles Gordon Biersch Brewing Company in Burbank Hand-Brewed Beer in Chatsworth Highland Park Brewery in Los Angeles Homage Brewing in Pomona Karl Strauss Brewing Company in Universal City Kinetic Brewing Company in Lancaster King Harbor Brewing Company in Redondo Beach Lagunitas Brewing Company in Azusa Liberation Brewing Company in Long Beach Long Beach Beer Lab in Long Beach MacLeod Ale Brewing Company in Los Angeles MillerCoors brewery in Irwindale Monkish Brewing Company in Torrance Mumford Brewing in Los Angeles Ohana Brewing Company in Los Angeles Pacific Plate Brewing Company in Monrovia Progress Brewing in South El Monte Red Car Brewery in Torrance Sanctum Brewing Company in Pomona (closed 2020) Scholb Premium Ales in Torrance Smog City Brewing Company in Torrance Strand Brewing Company in Torrance Trademark Brewing Company in Long Beach Timeless Pints Brewing Company in Lakewood Three Weavers Brewing Company in Inglewood Madera County South Gate Brewing Company in Oakhurst Marin County Adobe Creek Brewing in Novato Indian Valley Brewing in Novato Iron Springs Pub & Brewery in Fairfax Marin Brewing in Larkspur Moylan's Brewery in Novato Pond Farm Brewing in San Rafael The State Room in San Rafael Mariposa County Yosemite Ale Werks in Mariposa Mendocino County Anderson Valley Brewing Company in Boonville Mendocino Brewing Company in Ukiah North Coast Brewing Company in Fort Bragg Merced County Bobcat Brewing Company in Merced Mono County Mammoth Brewing Company in Mammoth Lakes June Lake Brewing in June Lake Monterey County Alvarado Street Brewery in Monterey, Carmel, and Salinas English Ales in Marina Peter B's Brew Pub in Monterey Yeast of Eden in Carmel Napa County Calistoga Inn, Restaurant and Brewing in Calistoga Downtown Joe's Brewery in Napa Mad Fritz in St. Helena Napa Smith Brewery in Napa St. Clair Brown in Napa Stone Brewing in Napa Tannery Bend Beerworks in Napa Trade Brewing in Napa Nevada County 1849 Brewing Company in Grass Valley Boca Brewing Company in Boca (opened 1876, closed 1893) FiftyFifty Brewing Company in Truckee Grass Valley Brewing in Grass Valley Nevada Brewery in Nevada City Good Wolf Brewing Company in Truckee Three Forks Bakery & Brewing Company in Nevada City Orange County Anaheim Brewery in Anaheim Barley Forge Brewing Company in Costa Mesa (closed in 2019) Brewing Reserve of California in Costa Mesa Bootlegger's Brewery in Fullerton and Costa Mesa Bottle Logic Brewing, Anaheim The Bruery in Placentia Cismontane Brewing Company in Santa Ana Everywhere Beer in Orange The Good Beer Company in Santa Ana (closed in 2020) Green Cheek Beer Company in Orange and Costa Mesa Gunwhale Ales in Costa Mesa Laguna Beach Beer Company in Rancho Santa Margarita and Laguna Beach Left Coast Brewing Company in San Clemente and Irvine Network Brewery in Santa Ana Noble Ale Works in Anaheim Old Orange Brewing Company in Orange Radiant Brewing Co. in Anaheim Riip Beer Company in Huntington Beach Steelhead Brewing in Irvine (opened in 1995, closed in 2013) TAPS Brewery & Barrel Room in Tustin Tustin Brewing Company in Tustin Valiant Brewing Company in Orange Placer County Auburn Alehouse in Auburn Boneshaker Public House and Community Brewery in Rocklin Crooked Lane Brewing Company in Auburn GoatHouse Brewing Company in Lincoln Knee Deep Brewing Company in Auburn Loomis Basin Brewing Company in Loomis Moksa Brewing in Rocklin Moonraker Brewing Company in Auburn Out of Bounds Brewing Company in Rocklin Slice Beer Company in Lincoln The Monk's Cellar in Roseville Plumas County The Brewing Lair of the Lost Sierra (formerly UnderCover Ale Works) in Blairsden-Graeagle Waganupa Brewing in Chester Quintopia Brewing Co in Quincy Riverside County Aftershock Brewing Company in Temecula Area 51 Craft Brewery in Riverside (closed) Babe's BBQ & Brewhouse in Rancho Mirage Black Market Brewing Company in Temecula Blind Pig Brewing Company in Temecula (opened 1994, closed 1997) Brew Rebellion in Banning (closed 2020) Coachella Valley Brewing in Thousand Palms Craft Brewing Company in Lake Elsinore Desert Beer Company in Palm Desert 8 Bit Brewing in Murrieta Electric Brewing Company in Murrieta Euryale in Riverside Evans Brewing in Corona Garage Brewing in Temecula GreyWolf Brewing Co in Norco Heroes Restaurant & Brewery in Riverside Idyllwild Brewpub in Idyllwild Inland Empire Brewing Company in Riverside (closed) Inland Wharf Brewing in Murrieta Ironfire Brewing Company in Temecula Karl Strauss Brewing Company brewpub in Temecula La Quinta Brewing in Palm Desert Las Palmas Brewing in Palm Springs Main Street Brewery in Corona Mason Jar Brewing in Menifee Oscar's Brewing Company in Temecula Packinghouse Brewing in Riverside Refuge Brewery in Temecula Relentless in Temecula Route 30 Brewing in Riverside Skyland Ale Works in Corona Stone Church Brewing in Corona Storytellers Brewery & Meet House in Corona Temecula Brewing Company in Temecula Thompson Brewing in Riverside Wicks Brewing in Riverside Wiens Brewing Company in Temecula (2012 - 2021) Woody's Brewhouse in Moreno Valley Sacramento County Alaro Brewing in Sacramento At Ease Brewing in Sacramento Big Sexy Brewing in Sacramento Big Stump Brew Co. in Sacramento Buffalo Brewery in Sacramento (closed mid 1970s) Burning Barrel Brewing in Rancho Cordova Claimstake Brewing in Rancho Cordova Delta Borne Brewing in Sacramento Device Brewing Company in Sacramento Dreaming Dog Brewery in Elk Grove Flatland Brewing in Elk Grove Fort Rock Brewing in Rancho Cordova Fountainhead Brewing in Sacramento King Cong Brewing Company in Sacramento New Glory Craft Brewery in Sacramento New Helvetia Brewing in Sacramento Oak Park Brewing in Sacramento Palm Tree Brewing Company in Orangevale Porchlight Brewing in Sacramento Red Bus Brewing in Folsom River Rock Brewery in Galt Rubicon Brewing Company in Sacramento, opened in 1987, closed in 2017. Brewing in Sacramento Tower Brewing in Sacramento Track 7 Brewing Company in Sacramento Tilted Mash Brewing in Elk Grove Urban Roots Brewing in Sacramento San Bernardino County 3 Iron Brewing Co. in Colton Braemar Brewing in Ontario Brewcaipa in Yucaipa Desert Barn Brewery in Hesperia Dragon's Tale in Montclair Escape Craft Brewery in Redlands Hamilton Family Brewery in Rancho Cucamonga Hangar 24 Craft Brewery in Redlands Hops & Spokes Brewing in Yucaipa I & I Brewing in Chino Kings Brewing in Rancho Cucamonga Lake Arrowhead Brewing in Lake Arrowhead Last Name Brewing in Upland No Clue Brewing in Rancho Cucamonga Oak Hills Brewing Company in Hesperia Off the Grid Brewing in Apple Valley Our Brew in Redlands Rescue Brewing in Upland Revolt in Montclair Ritual Brewing Co. in Redlands Rök House Brewing in Upland Rowdy's Brew Co. in Rancho Cucamonga Sandbox Brewing in Montclair Solorio Brewing in Rancho Cucamonga Sour Cellars in Rancho Cucamonga The Stout House in Upland Strum Brewing in Ontario San Diego County San Francisco City and County 21st Amendment Brewery Acme Brewery (opened 1907; closed 1958) Albion Brewery (opened 1870; closed 1919) Almanac Beer Company Anchor Brewing Company Barrel Head Brewhouse Beach Chalet Brewery & Restaurant Black Sands Brewery Black Hammer Brewing Cellarmaker Brewing Company Eagle Brewery Enterprise Brewery Fort Point Beer Company Golden City Brewery Hamm's Brewery (opened 1954, closed 1972) Harmonic Brewing Hibernia Brewery Jackson Brewing Company (opened 1859, closed during Prohibition) Laughing Monk Brewing Lafayette Brewery Local Brewing Company Magnolia Brewing Company Rainier Brewing Company (opened 1933, closed 1953) San Francisco Brewing Company (opened 1985, closed 2009) Schuster's Railroad Brewery Seven Stills Southern Pacific Brewing Speakeasy Ales and Lagers Sunset Reservoir Brewing Company Thirsty Bear Brewing Company Triple Voodoo Brewing Washington Brewery Willow's Brewery San Joaquin County Dancing Fox Winery and Brewery in Lodi Five Window Beer Company in Lodi High Water Brewing Company in Lodi Idol Beer Works in Lodi Lodi Beer Company in Lodi Morgan Territory Brewing in Tracy San Luis Obispo County 927 Beer Company in Cambria Central Coast Brewing in San Luis Obispo Firestone Walker Brewing Company in Paso Robles Libertine Brewing Company in San Luis Obispo Liquid Gravity in San Luis Obispo Tap It Brewing Company in San Luis Obispo There Does Not Exist (∄) in San Luis Obispo San Mateo County Blue Oak Brewing Company in San Carlos Devil's Canyon Brewing Company in San Carlos Half Moon Bay Brewing Company in Princeton-by-the-Sea Highway 1 Brewing in Pescadero Hop Dogma Brewing in El Granada Sacrilege Brewery + Kitchen in Half Moon Bay Alpha Acid Brewing Company in Belmont Santa Barbara County Captain Fatty's Brewery in Goleta Draughtsmen Aleworks in Goleta Figueroa Mountain Brewing Company in Buellton Firestone Walker Brewing Company in Buellton Island Brewing Company in Carpinteria M. Special Brewing Company in Goleta Pure Order Brewing Company in Santa Barbara Solvang Brewing Company in Solvang Telegraph Brewing Company in Santa Barbara Third Window Brewing in Santa Barbara Santa Clara County Clandestine Brewing in San Jose El Toro Brewing Company in Morgan Hill Gordon Biersch Brewing Company in San Jose Hermitage Brewing Company in San Jose Kelly Brewing in Morgan Hill Mayfield Brewery (opened 1868, closed 1920) Santa Cruz County Discretion Brewing in Soquel Fruition Brewing Co. in Watsonville Greater Purpose Brewing Co. in Santa Cruz Humble Sea Brewing Co. in Santa Cruz New Bohemia Brewing Company in Capitola Private Press Brewing in Santa Cruz Santa Cruz Mountain Brewing in Santa Cruz Sante Adairius Rustic Ales in Capitola Seabright Brewery in Santa Cruz Shanty Shack Brewing in Santa Cruz Steel Bonnet Brewing Company in Scotts Valley Uncommon Brewers in Santa Cruz Woodhouse Brewing & Blending in Santa Cruz Siskiyou County Dunsmuir Brewery Works in Dunsmuir Etna Brewing Company in Etna Mt. Shasta Brewing Company in Weed Siskiyou Brew Works Solano County Anheuser-Busch InBev brewery in Fairfield Heretic Brewing Company in Fairfield Right Eye Brewery in Suisun Mare Island Brewing Company in Vallejo Sonoma County Bear Republic Brewing Company in Healdsburg Carneros Brewing Company in Sonoma Fogbelt Brewing Company in Santa Rosa Lagunitas Brewing Company in Petaluma Moonlight Brewing Company in Santa Rosa New Albion Brewing Company in Sonoma (opened 1976, closed 1982) Old Redwood Brewing Company in Windsor Petaluma Hills Brewing Company in Petaluma Russian River Brewing Company in Santa Rosa Sonoma Springs Brewing Company in Sonoma CUVER Belgian Brewers of Sonoma County in Windsor Stumptown Brewery in Guerneville Third Street Aleworks in Santa Rosa Stanislaus County Dust Bowl Brewing Company in Turlock St. Stan's Brewery in Modesto Tehama County Paskenta Brewery and Distillery in Corning Trinity County • Trinity County Brewing Company in Weaverville Ventura County Anacapa Brewing in Ventura Casa Agria Specialty Ales in Ventura Enegren Brewing Co. in Moorpark Flat Fish Brewing Company in Camarillo Institution Ale Co. in Camarillo Leashless Brewing Co. in Ventura MadeWest Brewing in Ventura Poseidon Brewing Company in Ventura. Red Tandem Brewery in Ventura Surf Brewery in Ventura Topa Topa Brewing Company in Ventura Ventura Coast Brew Co. in Ventura Westlake Brewing Co. in Westlake Village Yolo County Bike Dog Brewing Company in West Sacramento Dunloe Brewing in Davis Jackrabbit Brewing Company in West Sacramento Sudwerk Privatbrauerei Hubsch in Davis Super Owl Brewing in Davis Three Mile Brewing Company in Davis Yolo Brewing in West Sacramento See also Beer in the United States History of California wine List of breweries in the United States List of microbreweries References Further reading External links California breweries directory at RateBeer.com California Lists of buildings and structures in California Lists of companies based in California
4173706	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaligram	Shaligram	A shaligram, or shaligrama shila (), is a fossilized stone or ammonite collected from the riverbed or banks of the Kali Gandaki, a tributary of the Gandaki River in Nepal. It is also considered a form of Vishnu within Hinduism. Legends According to the Devi Bhagavata Purana, Brahmavaivarta Purana, and Shiva Purana, shilagrama shilas originated due to the following chain of events. A king named Vrishadhvaja had been cursed by Surya to endure poverty, due to his reluctance to worship any deity other than Shiva. To regain their lost prosperity, his grandsons Dharmadhvaja and Kusadhvaja performed austerities to appease the goddess Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity. Pleased with the austerities, she granted them prosperity, and the blessing of her being born as their daughters. Accordingly, Lakshmi incarnated as Vedavati, the daughter of Kusadhvaja and Tulasi, the daughter of Dharmadhvaja. Tulasi went to Badarikashrama to perform austerities in order to gain Vishnu as her husband, but was informed by Brahma that she would not get Vishnu as her husband in that life, and would have to marry the danava named Shankhachuda. In his previous birth, Shankhachuda was Sudama, a classmate (gurubandhu) of Krishna, a manifestation of Vishnu residing in Goloka. He had been created out of his body, and was cursed by Radha to be born as a danava. As a result, Shankhachuda was virtuous and pious by nature, and was devoted to Vishnu. He married Tulasi on the command of Brahma, as per the rules of the Gandharva marriage. After Shankhachuda's marriage, the danavas, under his leadership, waged a battle against their natural enemies, the devas, in which they won due to merit of Shankhachuda's virtue. The devas were subsequently driven out of Svarga by the victorious danavas. Demoralised and defeated, the devas approached Vishnu, who told them that Shankhachuda was destined to be killed by Shiva. On being requested by the devas, Shiva, along with his attendants and the devas, waged a battle against the danavas, led by Shankhachuda. However, neither side was able to outpower the other. An unembodied voice told Shiva that by the boon of Brahma, Shankhachuda was invincible in combat as long as he wore his armour, and his wife's chastity was not violated. Hence, Vishnu, assuming the form of an old Brahmin, asked Shankhachuda his armour while begging alms. Shankhachuda donated his armour to him. When he was busy fighting with Shiva, Vishnu, wearing Shankhachuda's armour, assumed the form of Shankhachuda, and cohabited with Tulasi. Thus, Tulasi's chastity was broken, and Shankhachuda was killed by Shiva's trishula, thereby reliving Sudama from the curse. At the moment of Shankhachuda's death, Tulasi became suspicious that the man who was with her at that time was not Shankhachuda. When she discovered that it was Vishnu who had deceived her, she cursed him to become a stone, as she believed that he had been emotionless like a stone in accomplishing the death of his devotee, Shankhachuda, and stealing her chastity, when she was also his devotee. Vishnu consoled Tulasi by stating that it was the result of her austerities performed in the past in order to gain him as her husband, and that she would again become his wife upon casting off her body. Thus, Lakshmi cast off the body of Tulasi, and assumed a new form (which became known by the name of Tulasi). The discarded body of Tulasi was transformed into the Gandaki river, and from her hairs emerged the tulasi shrub. Vishnu, on being cursed by Tulasi, assumed the form of a large rocky mountain known as shaligrama, on the banks of the Gandaki river where vajrakita, a type of worm having teeth as strong as the vajra, carved out various markings on his body. The stones carved by vajrakita which fall down from the surface of that mountain into the Gandaki river, came to be known as the . History Historically, the use of shaligrama shilas in worship can be traced to the time of Adi Shankara through the latter's works. Specifically, his commentary to the verse 1.6.1 in Taittiriya Upanishad, and his commentary to the verse 1.3.14 of the Brahma Sutras, suggest that the use of shaligrama shila in the worship of Vishnu has been a well-known Hindu practice. A good number of false shaligrama shilas, too, remain in circulation. The statue of Narasimha in Guru Narasimha Temple, Saligrama is said to be made completely of saligrama, and is said to be swayambhu (not carved by anyone, but occurred naturally). This seems to be the earliest mention of Saligrama as this temple was constructed prior to the birth of Adi Shankara. Vishnu in the Padmanabhaswamy Temple of Thiruvananthapuram and Badrinath Temple of Garhwal region, and that of Krishna in Krishna Matha of Udupi and Radha Raman Temple of Vrindavana are also believed to be made from shaligrama shilas. Configurations Quoting from sources like Viramitrodaya, Chaturvarga-chintamani, Matsyasukta, Vaishvanara Samhita, Puranasamgraha etc. the Pranatoshani Tantra cites the following varieties of shaligrama shilas on the basis of shape, colour, features of the chakra (imprint of the ammonite shell present on the outer surface or inside the stone, resembling Sudarshana Chakra, the main weapon of Vishnu) and mukha/vadana/dvara (a large aperture resembling an open mouth through which the chakra present within the stone can be seen from outside) and distinct markings like the vanamala (a linear white line running throughout the body of the stone, resembling a garland) ● Keshava: i) Marked with a single chakra, a vanamala and four bindus (circular markings present on the outer surface) of golden hue arranged like a square. ii) Marked with a shankha and chakra on the lower middle portion. Grants prosperity and fulfilment of all desires on being worshipped. ● Hayagriva: i) Blue in colour at the top, shaped like an elephant-goad or the head of a horse, marked with a linear mark present near the chakra and several bindus. ii) Marked with five linear marks, other characteristics being the same before. iii) Marked with a single chakra and a marking resembling a banner. iv) Has both yellow and red colours on its surface, endowed with two chakras, marked with markings resembling ear-rings and gems on the sides, shaped like an elephant-goad or lotus-bud. v) Shaped like a lotus-bud while the mukha shaped like the head of a horse, and marked with a marking resembling a rosary. vi) Green in colour, marked with a single chakra, the left side is elevated like that of a kapinjala bird. Grants knowledge, prosperity and wordly enjoyment on being worshipped. ● Parameshthin: i) Presence of a hole (which does not reach the other side of the stone, otherwise the stone would be unfit for worship) at the top, has a single chakra, marked with the markings resembling a lotus and several bindus. ii) White in colour, has a single chakra and markings resembling a lotus, shaped like a snake's hood/pearl necklace/sphere, the top is perforated and hard. iii) Reddish in colour, circular in shape with a single chakra and linear mark, perforated and hard. iv) Round in shape, yellow in colour with a hole at the top. v) Red/white in colour while the top surface is yellowish and perforated, marked with a single chakra and markings resembling a lotus. Grants enjoyment and liberation on being worshipped. ● Hiranyagarbha : i) The colour is yellow like that of honey and slightly elongated in shape, has several golden linear marks on the body with a crystal-like glow and shaped like the round moon. ii) Black in colour, round in shape, the vadana is glazed, marked with a single chakra and marking resembling srivatsa (a triangular mark on Vishnu's chest) on a of the top surface. Grants prosperity and increase in progeny on being worshipped. ● Chaturbhuja : The colour is blue like that of a rain cloud. It is round in shape and marked with four chakras. Grants fearlessness on being worshipped. ● Gadadhara : Circular in shape, yellow in colour, the chakra is situated towards the left, the middle part is marked with three linear marks, markings resembling a banner, a vajra and elephant-goad are present on it. ● Narayana :i) Shyama (dark colour of lighter tone) in complexion, the chakra is situated at middle portion, marked with a long linear mark, the right side is perforated. ii) The vadana is situated at the middle of the body, within which lies the chakra at the front, endowed with markings resembling ornaments like ear-rings, bracelets and necklaces. Grants all sorts of success on being worshipped. Lakshminarayana : i) Endowed with a single vadana, four chakras and a vanamala. ii) Circular in shape, the colour is yellow/blue like a fresh rain-cloud, the vadana is glazed and situated towards the left side within which lie four chakras, endowed with markings resembling a banner, a vajra and an elephant-goad, possesses vanamala, the top is raised and has some bindus on its surface. Grants enjoyment, liberation, fulfilment of all desires, four aims of human life (dharma, artha, kama, moksha), redemption from sins on being worshipped. Naranarayana : The chakra is red in colour while the body is green like the tamala tree with patches of golden colouration. Rupinarayana : Markings resembling pestle, gada, shankha are present alongside a single chakra while another marking resembling a bow is situated near the vadana. ● Madhava : With a colour similar to honey, marked with a gada and shankha, the chakra is situated at the middle and is glazed. Grants liberation on being worshipped. ● Govinda : i) Black in colour, shining in appearance, endowed with a single chakra alongside markings resembling a gada on that right side and that resembling a mountain on the left. ii) Black in colour, not much large in size, the central portion is raised upwards, endowed with a large vadana marked with five chakras situated towards the left ● Vishnu : Black in colour, possesses a large chakra, shaped like a gada, a linear mark is present on the top surface near the vadana. Grants liberation on being worshipped. ● Madhusudhana : Golden in colour with a lustrous appearance, has a single chakra and endowed with markings resembling a lotus and a shankha. Destroys enemies on being worshipped. ● Trivikrama : Shyama in colour, triangular in shape with shining appearance, has one or two chakras along with some bindus on the left-side and a linear mark on the right-side . Grants wealth on being worshipped. ● Shridhara : i) The shape is as round like the kadamba flower, endowed with vanamala and five linear marks at the top surface and sides. ii) Green in colour, round in shape with a flat upper surface, endowed with a single glazed chakra and markings resembling a lotus in the middle. iii) Small in size, has two chakras and a vanamala. iv) Glittering like a gem, endowed with a single chakra, vanamala, markings resembling a lotus/banner and another resembling an elephant-goad near the vadana. Grants prosperity to householders on being worshipped. ● Hrishikesha : Shaped like a half moon with a single chakra and also with markings resembling the hair of a boar. ● Padmanabha : Reddish in colour, endowed with a semicircular chakra and markings resembling a lotus and hairs of a mane. Causes poverty and sorrow, hence should not be worshipped. ● Damodara : i) Big in size, the colour is as green as durva grass with a small chakra situated in the middle, a small vadana and a single yellowish linear mark in the middle ii) Endowed with two chakras and a cracked outer surface. Grants auspiciousness on being worshipped. ● Sudarshana : i) Green in colour with gliterring appearance, the chakra and markings resembling a gada are situated on the left side while linear markings arranged like a lotus are found on the right side. ii) Black in colour, shaped like a lotus, endowed with a single chakra, a large vadana and lowered middle portion. Destroys all sins and grants results of all types of worship the on being worshipped. ● Vasudeva : White in colour, endowed with a single or two chakras at the dwara. Fulfills all desires on being worshipped. ● Pradyumna : i) Yellow in colour, has a small chakra and markings resembling a makara on the sides and top surface, endowed with many holes. ii) The colour is blue and has a small chakra and small mukha and many holes. Grants prosperity and happiness to householders on being worshipped. ● Aniruddha : i) Blue in colour, round in shape and glazed, has markings resembling a lotus at the top surface and three linear marks near the dvara. ii) Black in colour with a beautifully shaped dwara and having a chakra near the centre, another on the sides and a small chakra at the top surface. iii) Yellow in colour, round in shape. Grants happiness to householders on being worshipped. ● Purushottama : i) Golden in colour with a chakra at the middle portion and a bigger chakra at the front. ii) The colour is as yellow as the atasi flower and endowed with many bindus. iii) With mukhas on all directions (traditionally numbered to ten). Increases prosperity and grants enjoyment and liberation on being worshipped. ● Adhokshaja : Dark black in colour with patches of brown, circular in shape, endowed with a single chakra and red linear marks, maybe large or small in size. Grants auspiciousness to worshippers on being worshipped. ● Achyuta : Has four chakras on right and left sides and two red markings resembling ear-rings at the mukha, also marked with markings resembling shankha, gada, bow, arrow, pestle, banner, white umbrella and a red elephant-goad. ● Upendra : Green in colour with an lustrous appearance, has a glazed body with one or more chakras on the sides. ● Janardana : Has two dwaras; one on the eastern side and another on the western side, and four chakras; two on the top surface and other two in the middle. Grants prosperity and destroys enemies on being worshipped. ● Lakshmijanardana : The colour is blue with one dwara and four chakras. ● Hari : Green in colour, round in shape with one mukha at the top, the lower portion is marked with bindus. Fulfills all desires on being worshipped. ● Ananta: i) Marked with markings resembling the hood of a snake, has 20 red chakras, 14 dwaras and many bindus, has different colours on its bod. ii) The colour is as blue as a rain-cloud, circular in shape, has 27 chakras. Grants four aims of human life and results of all types of worship on being worshipped. ● Yogeshwara : Has a shivalinga like structure on its top surface. Grants redemption from the great sin of brahmahatya on being worshipped. ● Pundarikaksha : Has markings resembling a pair of eyes/lotuses on the left or top surface or sides. Can bring the entire world under control of the worshipper on being worshipped. ● Chaturmukha : Has four linear marks on the sides, and two chakras on the middle portion of the body. ● Yajnamurthi : Has both yellow and red colours on its surface, with a small dwara and two chakras; one at the middle and other on the right side. ● Dattatreya : i) Has white, red and black patches and markings resembling a rosary on the top surface. (Some versions state red and yellow colours) ● Shishumara : Long in shape, with a deep triangular opening and having one or two chakras on the front side and another on the back side. Grants all sorts of success on being worshipped. ● Hamsa : Shaped like a bow having both blue and white colours on its surface and has a chakra and markings resembling a lotus. Grants only salvation on being worshipped. ● Parahamsa : The colour is blue like the throat of a peacock, with a glazed body and round dwara within which lies a single chakra and a glittering patch resembling the sun on the right side of the chakra. There are also two linear marks forming the shape of a boar on the body. Grants four aims of human life on being worshipped. ● Lakshmipati : Black in colour while the sides or the front portion is blue like a peacock's throat, has a small chakra and large vadana. Grants prosperity and wealth on being worshipped. ● Garudadhvajalakshmipati : Round in shape, has golden marks resembling horns and hoofs on the body and a smooth chakra with black linear marks on it. ● Batapatrashayin : Round in shape with white, copper-red and blue colours on its surface, has a single vadana in the middle, four chakras and three bindus, markings resembling a shankha and a lotus lie to the left and right side of the chakra respectively. ● Vishvambhara : Has 20 chakras on the body. ● Vishvarupa : Circular in shape, has one or five dwaras and many chakras. Bestows children and grandchildren on being worshipped. ● Pitambara : Round like the udder of a cow or a human breast, has a single chakra. Grants happiness on being worshipped. ● Chakrapani : Round in shape and glazed, with a small chakra and many other prints. ● Saptavirashrava : Round in shape with a small chakra and several golden bindus all over the body. Increases all sorts of prosperity on being worshipped. ● Jagadyoni: A single red chakra is present within the dwara. Grants auspiciousness on being worshipped. ● Bahurupin : With multiple mukhas and single chakra alongside markings resembling a shankha present inside. Grants salvation on being worshipped. ● Harihara : Has four dwaras and two chakras with a shivanabhi (a special form of shivalinga) like structure on its top surface. Grants prosperity and happiness on being worshipped. ● Swayambhu : Blue in colour with a long and big mukha, and having the body encircled by linear marks. Grants only salvation on being worshipped. ● Shivanarayana : Has two mukhas and chakras. Destroys wealth, property and progeny, hence should not be worshipped. ● Shankaranarayana : Has a shivanabhi like structure either sideways or left side or right side. ● Pitamaha : Has four different dwaras with a chakra in each of them. ● Naramurti : The colour is yellow like the atasi flower with markings resembling a sacred thread on the sides. ● Shesha : Printed with linear marks forming the coiled body of a snake. Although red in colour, it is not considered inauspicious. ● Pralambaghna : Red in colour with the markings resembling the coiled body and hood of a snake. Causes death, hence should not be worshipped. ● Suryamurti : Has 12 different chakras either on the body surface or inside the dwara. Destroys illnesses on being worshipped. ● Haiheya : Has one mukha and multiple markings resembling hoods, out of which two are found on the right side of the dwara, shaped like a lotus petal with a golden mark resembling an arc. Grants all sorts of success on being worshipped. ● Vishnupanjara : Printed with several linear marks. ● Garuda : i) Shaped like a lotus with three marks one above the other the central line being longer, has four chakras. ii) Printed with markings resembling a pair of wings and having two, three or four golden linear marks on his body, green, blue or white in colour. Destroys all sins on being worshipped. ● Matsya : i) Elongated in shape, the colour is like gold/bell-metal, and marked with three bindus. ii) Elonhated in shape resembling a fish, green in colour with crystal-like glow, endowed with two chakras at the middle portion and three bindus. iii) Has three elongated dwaras each possessing a chakra while another chakra is situated at the posterior end shaped like the tail of a fish, the right side is shaped like a cart, the left side has a linear mark. iv) Has a long dwara at the right side, endowed with three bindus, a single chakra and markings resembling a shankha and lotus v) Shaped like a fish and a has markings resembling an elongated fish. Grants enjoyment, liberation, fulfilment of all desires and auspiciousness on being worshipped. ● Kurma : i) Shaped like a tortoise with the eastern side elevated. ii) Green in colour, round in shape resembling a tortoise, the top surface being elevated and endowed with red markings resembling Kaustubha, five circular markings resembling the sun and a chakra. iii) Endowed with structures resembling the feet of a bed on the sides. iv) Endowed with a single chakra, three golden bindus and markings resembling a shankha and a lotus. v) Elongated in shape with the mukha extending from left to right side, and endowed with five circular markings resembling the sun. vi) Triangular in shape like the inflorescence of a snuhi plant with chakras on both sides. vii) Round in shape resembling a tortoise, has both blue and red colours on its surface, has a long dwara and two chakras imprinted sideways at the middle portion of the body. Fulfills all sorts of desires and increases progeny on being worshipped. ● Varaha : i) Blue in colour, big in size, and printed with odd number of chakras and three linear marks. ii) Endowed with even number of chakras, of which at least one is situated on the right side, and vanamala. This last variety is called Lakshmi-Varaha. Grants enjoyment and liberation on being worshipped. ● Narasimha : Has a very large mukha, two chakras and linear marks resembling the mane of a lion. Creates detachment in the mind of the worshipper on being worshipped. Kapilanarasimha : Has three or five bindus, two large chakras in the middle, prominent linear marks, teeth-like projections in the large mukha, circular in shape and tawny in colour like jaggery or lac. Grants liberation, victory in combat, fulfilment of all desires, redemption from sins on being worshipped by a celibate, otherwise causes difficulties and pain. Lakshminarasimha : Has a large mukha, two chakras at the left side, three or five bindus and a vanamala. Grants happiness, liberation and enjoyment to householders on being worshipped. Vidarananarasimha : Has a very large mukha endowed with teeth-like projections and two chakras inside it. Causes fear and inflammation of residence on not being worshipped by a celibate. Sarvatomukhanarasimha : Golden in colour, has multiple mukhas and seven chakras. Patalanarasimha : Has multiple dwaras, multiple chakras (three at the dwara and ten at the sides) and multiple colours. Grants nectar of immortality to monks on being worshipped. Akashanarasimha : Has a large mukha and an elevated chakra in the middle. To be worshipped only by monks. Rakshasanarasimha : Golden in colour, has a large mukha and multiple holes. Causes inflammation of residence, hence should not be worshipped. Jihvanarasimha : Has two large mukhas, two chakras and an elevated front. Causes poverty, hence should not be worshipped. Adhomukhanarasimha : Has three chakras, one inside, other on the top surface and another on the sides. Grants liberation on being worshipped. Jwalanarasimha : Has a small mukha, two chakras and a vanamala. Grants freedom from the world on being worshipped. Mahanarasimha : Has two chakras and very beautiful, prominent linear marks. ● Vamana : i) Round in shape like the kadamba flower, small in size and marked with five linear marks. ii) Small in size with glittering appearance, the shape is circular or triangular like the inflorescence of the snuhi flower, has a chakra on both top and bottom surface with markings resembling the Brahminy kite beside the chakra. iii) Not very small in size, has a single prominent glazedchakra at the centre. iv) The colour is yellow like the atasi flower with an elevated top surface, white bindus at the mukha and an indistinct chakra. v) The colour is blue like the rain-cloud, round like the bilva fruit or seeds of the jujube fruit in shape, has two chakras, a vanamala and a small mukha. This last variety is called Dadhivamana. Grants fulfilment of all desires, happiness, prosperity; increase in property, progeny and wealth of householders on being worshipped. ● Parashurama : Yellow or black in colour and marked with markings resembling an axe, has a chakra on either left or right side and markings resembling teeth, either at the top surface or on the sides. Prevents untimely death on being worshipped. ● Ramachandra : The colour is green like the durva grass, endowed with a single chakra, markings resembling a staff on the top surface and two linear marks on the sides. Ranarama : Neither too large nor too small in size, circular in shape, endowed with two chakras and markings resembling an arrow and a quiver. Rajarajeshwara : Neither too large nor too small in size, circular in shape, endowed with two or seven chakras and perforated with holes that appear to have been created by arrows, has markings resembling an umbrella, an arrow and a quiver. Grants wealth and kingship on being worshipped. Sitarama : The colour is blue like a rain-cloud, has one or two dwaras, four chakras out of which one is situated at the left side, a vanamala and markings resembling a bow, an arrow, an elephant-goad, a banner, an umbrella and a chamara (fly-whisk made of yak-tail hair). Grants victory and prosperity on being worshipped. Dashakanthakulantakarama : Oval in shape like a chicken's egg, green in colour, the top surface is elevated, has two linear marks at the dwara and a marking resembling a bow at the sides. Virarama : Has a glazed chakra appearing like a lotus filament and markings resembling a bow, an arrow, a quiver, an ear-ring and a garland. Grants prosperity on being worshipped. Vijayarama : Has a single chakra appearing like a lotus filament, endowed with red bindus, a gaping vadana and markings resembling a bow, an arrow and a quiver. Ramamurti : Has a single chakra within the vadana, black in colour. Grants the ability to compose poetry on being worshipped. Dustarama : The colour is blue like a rain-cloud, has markings resembling a bow and an arrow on the top surface and that resembling hooves at the sides. ● Krishna : i) Black in colour, endowed with a single chakra at the dwara and a vanamala. ii) Has yellow patches, the dwara is situated at the middle, the top surface resembles a tortoise shell, endowed with yellow bindus at the sides. Grants wealth, crops, happiness and redemption from sins on being worshipped. Balakrisha : Has a long mukha and bindus on both top and bottom surface. Grants progeny and prosperity on being worshipped. Gopala : Deep black in colour, large in size, endowed with two chakras, a vanamala, triangular markings resembling shrivatsa, white teeth-like structure at the sides within the mukha resembling a smile. Grants property, crops and wealth on being worshipped. Madanagopala : A Gopala shila endowed with additional attributes - markings resembling full-bloomed lotuses on the sides, a garland and an ear-ring. Grants children, grandchildren, wealth and control over the world on being worshipped. Santanagopala : A Gopala shila whose mukha is shaped like a half-moon. Increases progeny on being worshipped. Govardhanagopala : Circular in shape, the front portion is lowered, endowed with bindus of silvery hue alongside markings resembling a staff and a garland on the sides, another resembling a venu at the mukha and a long linear mark on the right side. Grants fulfilment of all desires, destruction of all enemies, redemption from all sins, cattle and crops on being worshipped. Lakshmigopala : A Gopala shila which is oval in shape like a chicken's egg, endowed with markings resembling a venu, an ear-ring and a country plough. Grants progeny, spouse, property, enjoyment and liberation on being worshipped. Kaliyamardana : The sides are large and endowed with golden linear marks and three small bindus. Grants destruction of enemies, progeny and wealth on being worshipped. Syamantahari : The colour is white like the blade of a sword, has a large chakra, the top surface is endowed with a vanamala and triangular markings resembling shrivatsa. Increases progeny and fame on being worshipped. Chanuramardana : Green in colour with two red bindus, endowed with linear markings on both left and right sides, giving a resemblance to a fist. Destroys all enemies on being worshipped. Kamsamardana : Blue in colour, having a different colour either at the front or on a rear side. ● Sankarshana : Red in colour, has two chakras joined with each other on the top side, the eastern side is perforated. Grants happiness to householders on being worshipped. Balabhadra : Marked with seven chakras. Grants children and grandchildren on being worshipped. Balarama : Has five linear marks on the top side and markings resembling a bow and an arrow on the rear sides. Grants progeny on being worshipped. ● Buddha : Has a very small mukha but without any chakra. It is also called Nivita (hidden) Buddha. Grants the ultimate position (parama pada) on being worshipped. ● Kalki : i) The colour is black, has six chakras and markings resembling a sword/dagger over the mukha on the top surface. ii) Shaped like the face of a horse and marked with three chakras. Destroys all evil caused by kaliyuga on being worshipped. More detailed classification is provided in the Meru Tantra and in the book Shalagrama Kosha compiled by S. K. Ramachandra Rao from a manuscript named Shalagrama Pariksha written by a Telugu brahmin named Anupasimha and unpublished sections of the Sritattvanidhi dealing with shaligrama shilas. Use Shaligrama shilas are used as non-anthropomorphic representations of Vishnu alongside Dvaravati shilas, similar to the use of yantra and kalasha in the veneration of Devi and linga and Baneshvara shilas in the veenration of Shiva. The Pranatoshani Tantra states that worship of all deities can be conducted on a shaligrama shila. The Puranas unequivocally state that worship of Vishnu done through a shaligrama shila yields greater merit than that done through a murti (idol). Unlike murtis, shaligrama shilas can be worshipped in individual residencies alongside temples, can be carried away from one place to another easily and can be worshipped as long as the chakra inside it has not been broken or cracked. Apart from the traditional upacharas (articles of worship) whose number varies from five, 10, 16 to 18, worship of a shaligrama shila requires only tulasi leaves and water poured from a (special conchshell) for ablution compared to an murti which requires upacharas of monetary value like robes and jewellery. Hence worship of shaligrama shila can be afforded by people even in times of hardship and distress as the only mode of worship. Hindus hailing from South India bedeck idols of Vishnu with a garland made of 108 shaligrama shilas. Bengali Hindus observe a ceremony called Svastyayana in which 108 or 1008 tulasi leaves anointed with sandalwood paste are offered on a shaligrama shila with the aim of healing diseases or being delivered from troubles. This can be accompanied by Chandipatha (ritualistic recitation of the Devi Mahatmya) once, thrice or five times; worshipping one or four clay Shivalingas and chanting the mantras of Durga and Vishnu 108 or 1008 times. Literature The Pranatoshani Tantra states that: The merit gained by worshipping Vishnu in a Shalagrama shila once is equivalent to that of conducting a thousand Rajasuya yajnas and donating the entire earth. A person who is unable to undertake pilgrimage, donate articles to the needy and brahmins or conduct yajnas can gain mukti (liberation) by worshipping Vishnu in a Shalagrama shila. Land situated within the radius of three yojanas of a Shalagrama shila becomes sacred to Vishnu even if that land is inhabited by mlecchas (non-Hindus). A devout worshipper who dies in such an area is never reborn again. All sorts of auspicious activities (like taking ablution, donating articles to the needy and brahmins, undergoing austerities and conducting homa) grants merit for all eternity on being conducted in the vicinity of a Shalagrama shila. All sorts of sins whether perceived in mind or committed in deeds for an entire year are destroyed by donating a Shalagrama shila to a brahmin. The person who worships together 12 Shalagrama shilas for a single day earns the merit equivalent of worshipping 12 crore Shivalingas with lotuses made out of gold and residing in Varanasi for eight days. The person who worships together 100 Shalagrama shilas attains Maharloka after death and is reborn as an emperor. Moksha is undoubtedly obtained by the person who worships a Shalagrama shila and Dvaravati shila together. The material is also mentioned in the Skanda Purana and Padma Purana. Restrictions The Pranatoshani Tantra states that nobody except initiated brahmins are allowed to touch a Shalagrama shila. On being touched by somebody other than an initiated brahmin, the Shalagrama shila must be cleansed with panchagavya. However all persons are allowed to be the yajamana for the worship of a Shalagrama shila. The Padma Purana, Patala Khanda, Chapter 20 prohibits women of all castes from touching a Shalagrama shila both directly (by anointing sandalwood paste) and indirectly (by offering flowers). The Padma Purana, Patala Khanda, Chapter 79 states that person who buys and sells Shalagrama shilas is damned in hell as long as the sun exists in the sky. The same fate is destined for the person who approves of buying or selling Shalagrama shilas and the person who determines its monetary value. The Devi Bhagavata Purana, 9th Skandha, Chapter 10 states that the person who places the Shalagrama shila on ground is damned in hell for a hundred Manvantaras where he experiences the pain of being eaten by worms. The Devi Bhagavata Purana, 9th Skandha, Chapter 24 states that failing to keep one's promise or speaking lies while holding the Shalagrama shila in hand leads the person to be damned in hell for the life-time of Brahma. It also states that the person who removes a tulasi leaf from a Shalagrama shila is separated from his wife in his next birth. The Devi Bhagavata Purana, 9th Skandha, Chapter 35 states that the person who swears falsely while touching a Shalagrama shila experiences the pain of being burnt in red-hot coal for the lifetime of 14 Indras in hell and is reborn as a worm residing in faeces for seven consecutive births. References Forms of Vishnu Vaishnavism Hindu iconography Hindu symbols Objects used in Hindu worship Fossils
4173711	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20molecular%20biology	History of molecular biology	The history of molecular biology begins in the 1930s with the convergence of various, previously distinct biological and physical disciplines: biochemistry, genetics, microbiology, virology and physics. With the hope of understanding life at its most fundamental level, numerous physicists and chemists also took an interest in what would become molecular biology. In its modern sense, molecular biology attempts to explain the phenomena of life starting from the macromolecular properties that generate them. Two categories of macromolecules in particular are the focus of the molecular biologist: 1) nucleic acids, among which the most famous is deoxyribonucleic acid (or DNA), the constituent of genes, and 2) proteins, which are the active agents of living organisms. One definition of the scope of molecular biology therefore is to characterize the structure, function and relationships between these two types of macromolecules. This relatively limited definition will suffice to allow us to establish a date for the so-called "molecular revolution", or at least to establish a chronology of its most fundamental developments. General overview In its earliest manifestations, molecular biology—the name was coined by Warren Weaver of the Rockefeller Foundation in 1938—was an idea of physical and chemical explanations of life, rather than a coherent discipline. Following the advent of the Mendelian-chromosome theory of heredity in the 1910s and the maturation of atomic theory and quantum mechanics in the 1920s, such explanations seemed within reach. Weaver and others encouraged (and funded) research at the intersection of biology, chemistry and physics, while prominent physicists such as Niels Bohr and Erwin Schrödinger turned their attention to biological speculation. However, in the 1930s and 1940s it was by no means clear which—if any—cross-disciplinary research would bear fruit; work in colloid chemistry, biophysics and radiation biology, crystallography, and other emerging fields all seemed promising. In 1940, George Beadle and Edward Tatum demonstrated the existence of a precise relationship between genes and proteins. In the course of their experiments connecting genetics with biochemistry, they switched from the genetics mainstay Drosophila to a more appropriate model organism, the fungus Neurospora; the construction and exploitation of new model organisms would become a recurring theme in the development of molecular biology. In 1944, Oswald Avery, working at the Rockefeller Institute of New York, demonstrated that genes are made up of DNA(see Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment). In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase confirmed that the genetic material of the bacteriophage, the virus which infects bacteria, is made up of DNA (see Hershey–Chase experiment). In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the double helical structure of the DNA molecule based on the discoveries made by Rosalind Franklin. In 1961, François Jacob and Jacques Monod demonstrated that the products of certain genes regulated the expression of other genes by acting upon specific sites at the edge of those genes. They also hypothesized the existence of an intermediary between DNA and its protein products, which they called messenger RNA. Between 1961 and 1965, the relationship between the information contained in DNA and the structure of proteins was determined: there is a code, the genetic code, which creates a correspondence between the succession of nucleotides in the DNA sequence and a series of amino acids in proteins. In April 2023, scientists, based on new evidence, concluded that Rosalind Franklin was a contributor and "equal player" in the discovery process of DNA, rather than otherwise, as may have been presented subsequently after the time of the discovery. The chief discoveries of molecular biology took place in a period of only about twenty-five years. Another fifteen years were required before new and more sophisticated technologies, united today under the name of genetic engineering, would permit the isolation and characterization of genes, in particular those of highly complex organisms. The exploration of the molecular dominion If we evaluate the molecular revolution within the context of biological history, it is easy to note that it is the culmination of a long process which began with the first observations through a microscope. The aim of these early researchers was to understand the functioning of living organisms by describing their organization at the microscopic level. From the end of the 18th century, the characterization of the chemical molecules which make up living beings gained increasingly greater attention, along with the birth of physiological chemistry in the 19th century, developed by the German chemist Justus von Liebig and following the birth of biochemistry at the beginning of the 20th, thanks to another German chemist Eduard Buchner. Between the molecules studied by chemists and the tiny structures visible under the optical microscope, such as the cellular nucleus or the chromosomes, there was an obscure zone, "the world of the ignored dimensions," as it was called by the chemical-physicist Wolfgang Ostwald. This world is populated by colloids, chemical compounds whose structure and properties were not well defined. The successes of molecular biology derived from the exploration of that unknown world by means of the new technologies developed by chemists and physicists: X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, ultracentrifugation, and electrophoresis. These studies revealed the structure and function of the macromolecules. A milestone in that process was the work of Linus Pauling in 1949, which for the first time linked the specific genetic mutation in patients with sickle cell disease to a demonstrated change in an individual protein, the hemoglobin in the erythrocytes of heterozygous or homozygous individuals. The encounter between biochemistry and genetics The development of molecular biology is also the encounter of two disciplines which made considerable progress in the course of the first thirty years of the twentieth century: biochemistry and genetics. The first studies the structure and function of the molecules which make up living things. Between 1900 and 1940, the central processes of metabolism were described: the process of digestion and the absorption of the nutritive elements derived from alimentation, such as the sugars. Every one of these processes is catalyzed by a particular enzyme. Enzymes are proteins, like the antibodies present in blood or the proteins responsible for muscular contraction. As a consequence, the study of proteins, of their structure and synthesis, became one of the principal objectives of biochemists. The second discipline of biology which developed at the beginning of the 20th century is genetics. After the rediscovery of the laws of Mendel through the studies of Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak in 1900, this science began to take shape thanks to the adoption by Thomas Hunt Morgan, in 1910, of a model organism for genetic studies, the famous fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster). Shortly after, Morgan showed that the genes are localized on chromosomes. Following this discovery, he continued working with Drosophila and, along with numerous other research groups, confirmed the importance of the gene in the life and development of organisms. Nevertheless, the chemical nature of genes and their mechanisms of action remained a mystery. Molecular biologists committed themselves to the determination of the structure, and the description of the complex relations between, genes and proteins. The development of molecular biology was not just the fruit of some sort of intrinsic "necessity" in the history of ideas, but was a characteristically historical phenomenon, with all of its unknowns, imponderables and contingencies: the remarkable developments in physics at the beginning of the 20th century highlighted the relative lateness in development in biology, which became the "new frontier" in the search for knowledge about the empirical world. Moreover, the developments of the theory of information and cybernetics in the 1940s, in response to military exigencies, brought to the new biology a significant number of fertile ideas and, especially, metaphors. The choice of bacteria and of its virus, the bacteriophage, as models for the study of the fundamental mechanisms of life was almost natural - they are the smallest living organisms known to exist - and at the same time the fruit of individual choices. This model owes its success, above all, to the fame and the sense of organization of Max Delbrück, a German physicist, who was able to create a dynamic research group, based in the United States, whose exclusive scope was the study of the bacteriophage: the phage group. The phage group was an informal network of biologists that carried out basic research mainly on bacteriophage T4 and made numerous seminal contributions to microbial genetics and the origins of molecular biology in the mid-20th century. In 1961, Sydney Brenner, an early member of the phage group, collaborated with Francis Crick, Leslie Barnett and Richard Watts-Tobin at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge to perform genetic experiments that demonstrated the basic nature of the genetic code for proteins. These experiments, carried out with mutants of the rIIB gene of bacteriophage T4, showed, that for a gene that encodes a protein, three sequential bases of the gene's DNA specify each successive amino acid of the protein. Thus the genetic code is a triplet code, where each triplet (called a codon) specifies a particular amino acid. They also found that the codons do not overlap with each other in the DNA sequence encoding a protein, and that such a sequence is read from a fixed starting point. During 1962-1964 phage T4 researchers provided an opportunity to study the function of virtually all of the genes that are essential for growth of the bacteriophage under laboratory conditions. These studies were facilitated by the discovery of two classes of conditional lethal mutants. One class of such mutants is known as amber mutants. Another class of conditional lethal mutants is referred to as temperature-sensitive mutants. Studies of these two classes of mutants led to considerable insight into numerous fundamental biologic problems. Thus understanding was gained on the functions and interactions of the proteins employed in the machinery of DNA replication, DNA repair and DNA recombination. Furthermore, understanding was gained on the processes by which viruses are assembled from protein and nucleic acid components (molecular morphogenesis). Also, the role of chain terminating codons was elucidated. One noteworthy study used amber mutants defective in the gene encoding the major head protein of bacteriophage T4. This experiment provided strong evidence for the widely held, but prior to 1964 still unproven, "sequence hypothesis" that the amino acid sequence of a protein is specified by the nucleotide sequence of the gene determining the protein. Thus, this study demonstrated the co-linearity of the gene with its encoded protein. The geographic panorama of the developments of the new biology was conditioned above all by preceding work. The US, where genetics had developed the most rapidly, and the UK, where there was a coexistence of both genetics and biochemical research of highly advanced levels, were in the avant-garde. Germany, the cradle of the revolutions in physics, with the best minds and the most advanced laboratories of genetics in the world, should have had a primary role in the development of molecular biology. But history decided differently: the arrival of the Nazis in 1933 - and, to a less extreme degree, the rigidification of totalitarian measures in fascist Italy - caused the emigration of a large number of Jewish and non-Jewish scientists. The majority of them fled to the US or the UK, providing an extra impulse to the scientific dynamism of those nations. These movements ultimately made molecular biology a truly international science from the very beginnings. History of DNA biochemistry The study of DNA is a central part of molecular biology. First isolation of DNA Working in the 19th century, biochemists initially isolated DNA and RNA (mixed together) from cell nuclei. They were relatively quick to appreciate the polymeric nature of their "nucleic acid" isolates, but realized only later that nucleotides were of two types—one containing ribose and the other deoxyribose. It was this subsequent discovery that led to the identification and naming of DNA as a substance distinct from RNA. Friedrich Miescher (1844–1895) discovered a substance he called "nuclein" in 1869. Somewhat later, he isolated a pure sample of the material now known as DNA from the sperm of salmon, and in 1889 his pupil, Richard Altmann, named it "nucleic acid". This substance was found to exist only in the chromosomes. In 1919 Phoebus Levene at the Rockefeller Institute identified the components (the four bases, the sugar and the phosphate chain) and he showed that the components of DNA were linked in the order phosphate-sugar-base. He called each of these units a nucleotide and suggested the DNA molecule consisted of a string of nucleotide units linked together through the phosphate groups, which are the 'backbone' of the molecule. However Levene thought the chain was short and that the bases repeated in the same fixed order. Torbjörn Caspersson and Einar Hammersten showed that DNA was a polymer. Chromosomes and inherited traits In 1927, Nikolai Koltsov proposed that inherited traits would be inherited via a "giant hereditary molecule" which would be made up of "two mirror strands that would replicate in a semi-conservative fashion using each strand as a template". Max Delbrück, Nikolay Timofeev-Ressovsky, and Karl G. Zimmer published results in 1935 suggesting that chromosomes are very large molecules the structure of which can be changed by treatment with X-rays, and that by so changing their structure it was possible to change the heritable characteristics governed by those chromosomes. In 1937 William Astbury produced the first X-ray diffraction patterns from DNA. He was not able to propose the correct structure but the patterns showed that DNA had a regular structure and therefore it might be possible to deduce what this structure was. In 1943, Oswald Theodore Avery and a team of scientists discovered that traits proper to the "smooth" form of the Pneumococcus could be transferred to the "rough" form of the same bacteria merely by making the killed "smooth" (S) form available to the live "rough" (R) form. Quite unexpectedly, the living R Pneumococcus bacteria were transformed into a new strain of the S form, and the transferred S characteristics turned out to be heritable. Avery called the medium of transfer of traits the transforming principle; he identified DNA as the transforming principle, and not protein as previously thought. He essentially redid Frederick Griffith's experiment. In 1953, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase did an experiment (Hershey–Chase experiment) that showed, in T2 phage, that DNA is the genetic material (Hershey shared the Nobel prize with Luria). Discovery of the structure of DNA In the 1950s, three groups made it their goal to determine the structure of DNA. The first group to start was at King's College London and was led by Maurice Wilkins and was later joined by Rosalind Franklin. Another group consisting of Francis Crick and James Watson was at Cambridge. A third group was at Caltech and was led by Linus Pauling. Crick and Watson built physical models using metal rods and balls, in which they incorporated the known chemical structures of the nucleotides, as well as the known position of the linkages joining one nucleotide to the next along the polymer. At King's College Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin examined X-ray diffraction patterns of DNA fibers. Of the three groups, only the London group was able to produce good quality diffraction patterns and thus produce sufficient quantitative data about the structure. Helix structure In 1948, Pauling discovered that many proteins included helical (see alpha helix) shapes. Pauling had deduced this structure from X-ray patterns and from attempts to physically model the structures. (Pauling was also later to suggest an incorrect three chain helical DNA structure based on Astbury's data.) Even in the initial diffraction data from DNA by Maurice Wilkins, it was evident that the structure involved helices. But this insight was only a beginning. There remained the questions of how many strands came together, whether this number was the same for every helix, whether the bases pointed toward the helical axis or away, and ultimately what were the explicit angles and coordinates of all the bonds and atoms. Such questions motivated the modeling efforts of Watson and Crick. Complementary nucleotides In their modeling, Watson and Crick restricted themselves to what they saw as chemically and biologically reasonable. Still, the breadth of possibilities was very wide. A breakthrough occurred in 1952, when Erwin Chargaff visited Cambridge and inspired Crick with a description of experiments Chargaff had published in 1947. Chargaff had observed that the proportions of the four nucleotides vary between one DNA sample and the next, but that for particular pairs of nucleotides — adenine and thymine, guanine and cytosine — the two nucleotides are always present in equal proportions. Using X-ray diffraction, as well as other data from Rosalind Franklin and her information that the bases were paired, James Watson and Francis Crick arrived at the first accurate model of DNA's molecular structure in 1953, which was accepted through inspection by Rosalind Franklin. The discovery was announced on February 28, 1953; the first Watson/Crick paper appeared in Nature on April 25, 1953. Sir Lawrence Bragg, the director of the Cavendish Laboratory, where Watson and Crick worked, gave a talk at Guy's Hospital Medical School in London on Thursday, May 14, 1953, which resulted in an article by Ritchie Calder in the News Chronicle of London, on Friday, May 15, 1953, entitled "Why You Are You. Nearer Secret of Life." The news reached readers of The New York Times the next day; Victor K. McElheny, in researching his biography, "Watson and DNA: Making a Scientific Revolution", found a clipping of a six-paragraph New York Times article written from London and dated May 16, 1953 with the headline "Form of `Life Unit' in Cell Is Scanned." The article ran in an early edition and was then pulled to make space for news deemed more important. (The New York Times subsequently ran a longer article on June 12, 1953). The Cambridge University undergraduate newspaper also ran its own short article on the discovery on Saturday, May 30, 1953. Bragg's original announcement at a Solvay Conference on proteins in Belgium on 8 April 1953 went unreported by the press. In 1962 Watson, Crick, and Maurice Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their determination of the structure of DNA. "Central Dogma" Watson and Crick's model attracted great interest immediately upon its presentation. Arriving at their conclusion on February 21, 1953, Watson and Crick made their first announcement on February 28. In an influential presentation in 1957, Crick laid out the "central dogma of molecular biology", which foretold the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins, and articulated the "sequence hypothesis." A critical confirmation of the replication mechanism that was implied by the double-helical structure followed in 1958 in the form of the Meselson–Stahl experiment. Work by Crick and coworkers showed that the genetic code was based on non-overlapping triplets of bases, called codons, and Har Gobind Khorana and others deciphered the genetic code not long afterward (1966). These findings represent the birth of molecular biology. History of RNA tertiary structure Pre-history: the helical structure of RNA The earliest work in RNA structural biology coincided, more or less, with the work being done on DNA in the early 1950s. In their seminal 1953 paper, Watson and Crick suggested that van der Waals crowding by the 2`OH group of ribose would preclude RNA from adopting a double helical structure identical to the model they proposed - what we now know as B-form DNA. This provoked questions about the three-dimensional structure of RNA: could this molecule form some type of helical structure, and if so, how? As with DNA, early structural work on RNA centered around isolation of native RNA polymers for fiber diffraction analysis. In part because of heterogeneity of the samples tested, early fiber diffraction patterns were usually ambiguous and not readily interpretable. In 1955, Marianne Grunberg-Manago and colleagues published a paper describing the enzyme polynucleotide phosphorylase, which cleaved a phosphate group from nucleotide diphosphates to catalyze their polymerization. This discovery allowed researchers to synthesize homogenous nucleotide polymers, which they then combined to produce double stranded molecules. These samples yielded the most readily interpretable fiber diffraction patterns yet obtained, suggesting an ordered, helical structure for cognate, double stranded RNA that differed from that observed in DNA. These results paved the way for a series of investigations into the various properties and propensities of RNA. Through the late 1950s and early 1960s, numerous papers were published on various topics in RNA structure, including RNA-DNA hybridization, triple stranded RNA, and even small-scale crystallography of RNA di-nucleotides - G-C, and A-U - in primitive helix-like arrangements. For a more in-depth review of the early work in RNA structural biology, see the article The Era of RNA Awakening: Structural biology of RNA in the early years by Alexander Rich. The beginning: crystal structure of tRNAPHE In the mid-1960s, the role of tRNA in protein synthesis was being intensively studied. At this point, ribosomes had been implicated in protein synthesis, and it had been shown that an mRNA strand was necessary for the formation of these structures. In a 1964 publication, Warner and Rich showed that ribosomes active in protein synthesis contained tRNA molecules bound at the A and P sites, and discussed the notion that these molecules aided in the peptidyl transferase reaction. However, despite considerable biochemical characterization, the structural basis of tRNA function remained a mystery. In 1965, Holley et al. purified and sequenced the first tRNA molecule, initially proposing that it adopted a cloverleaf structure, based largely on the ability of certain regions of the molecule to form stem loop structures. The isolation of tRNA proved to be the first major windfall in RNA structural biology. Following Robert W. Holley's publication, numerous investigators began work on isolation tRNA for crystallographic study, developing improved methods for isolating the molecule as they worked. By 1968 several groups had produced tRNA crystals, but these proved to be of limited quality and did not yield data at the resolutions necessary to determine structure. In 1971, Kim et al. achieved another breakthrough, producing crystals of yeast tRNAPHE that diffracted to 2-3 Ångström resolutions by using spermine, a naturally occurring polyamine, which bound to and stabilized the tRNA. Despite having suitable crystals, however, the structure of tRNAPHE was not immediately solved at high resolution; rather it took pioneering work in the use of heavy metal derivatives and a good deal more time to produce a high-quality density map of the entire molecule. In 1973, Kim et al. produced a 4 Ångström map of the tRNA molecule in which they could unambiguously trace the entire backbone. This solution would be followed by many more, as various investigators worked to refine the structure and thereby more thoroughly elucidate the details of base pairing and stacking interactions, and validate the published architecture of the molecule. The tRNAPHE structure is notable in the field of nucleic acid structure in general, as it represented the first solution of a long-chain nucleic acid structure of any kind - RNA or DNA - preceding Richard E. Dickerson's solution of a B-form dodecamer by nearly a decade. Also, tRNAPHE demonstrated many of the tertiary interactions observed in RNA architecture which would not be categorized and more thoroughly understood for years to come, providing a foundation for all future RNA structural research. The renaissance: the hammerhead ribozyme and the group I intron: P4-6 For a considerable time following the first tRNA structures, the field of RNA structure did not dramatically advance. The ability to study an RNA structure depended upon the potential to isolate the RNA target. This proved limiting to the field for many years, in part because other known targets - i.e., the ribosome - were significantly more difficult to isolate and crystallize. Further, because other interesting RNA targets had simply not been identified, or were not sufficiently understood to be deemed interesting, there was simply a lack of things to study structurally. As such, for some twenty years following the original publication of the tRNAPHE structure, the structures of only a handful of other RNA targets were solved, with almost all of these belonging to the transfer RNA family. This unfortunate lack of scope would eventually be overcome largely because of two major advancements in nucleic acid research: the identification of ribozymes, and the ability to produce them via in vitro transcription. Subsequent to Tom Cech's publication implicating the Tetrahymena group I intron as an autocatalytic ribozyme, and Sidney Altman's report of catalysis by ribonuclease P RNA, several other catalytic RNAs were identified in the late 1980s, including the hammerhead ribozyme. In 1994, McKay et al. published the structure of a 'hammerhead RNA-DNA ribozyme-inhibitor complex' at 2.6 Ångström resolution, in which the autocatalytic activity of the ribozyme was disrupted via binding to a DNA substrate. The conformation of the ribozyme published in this paper was eventually shown to be one of several possible states, and although this particular sample was catalytically inactive, subsequent structures have revealed its active-state architecture. This structure was followed by Jennifer Doudna's publication of the structure of the P4-P6 domains of the Tetrahymena group I intron, a fragment of the ribozyme originally made famous by Cech. The second clause in the title of this publication - Principles of RNA Packing - concisely evinces the value of these two structures: for the first time, comparisons could be made between well described tRNA structures and those of globular RNAs outside the transfer family. This allowed the framework of categorization to be built for RNA tertiary structure. It was now possible to propose the conservation of motifs, folds, and various local stabilizing interactions. For an early review of these structures and their implications, see RNA FOLDS: Insights from recent crystal structures, by Doudna and Ferre-D'Amare. In addition to the advances being made in global structure determination via crystallography, the early 1990s also saw the implementation of NMR as a powerful technique in RNA structural biology. Coincident with the large-scale ribozyme structures being solved crystallographically, a number of structures of small RNAs and RNAs complexed with drugs and peptides were solved using NMR. In addition, NMR was now being used to investigate and supplement crystal structures, as exemplified by the determination of an isolated tetraloop-receptor motif structure published in 1997. Investigations such as this enabled a more precise characterization of the base pairing and base stacking interactions which stabilized the global folds of large RNA molecules. The importance of understanding RNA tertiary structural motifs was prophetically well described by Michel and Costa in their publication identifying the tetraloop motif: "..it should not come as a surprise if self-folding RNA molecules were to make intensive use of only a relatively small set of tertiary motifs. Identifying these motifs would greatly aid modeling enterprises, which will remain essential as long as the crystallization of large RNAs remains a difficult task". The modern era: the age of RNA structural biology The resurgence of RNA structural biology in the mid-1990s has caused a veritable explosion in the field of nucleic acid structural research. Since the publication of the hammerhead and P4-6 structures, numerous major contributions to the field have been made. Some of the most noteworthy examples include the structures of the Group I and Group II introns, and the Ribosome solved by Nenad Ban and colleagues in the laboratory of Thomas Steitz. The first three structures were produced using in vitro transcription, and that NMR has played a role in investigating partial components of all four structures - testaments to the indispensability of both techniques for RNA research. Most recently, the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Ada Yonath, Venkatraman Ramakrishnan and Thomas Steitz for their structural work on the ribosome, demonstrating the prominent role RNA structural biology has taken in modern molecular biology. History of protein biochemistry First isolation and classification Proteins were recognized as a distinct class of biological molecules in the eighteenth century by Antoine Fourcroy and others. Members of this class (called the "albuminoids", Eiweisskörper, or matières albuminoides) were recognized by their ability to coagulate or flocculate under various treatments such as heat or acid; well-known examples at the start of the nineteenth century included albumen from egg whites, blood serum albumin, fibrin, and wheat gluten. The similarity between the cooking of egg whites and the curdling of milk was recognized even in ancient times; for example, the name albumen for the egg-white protein was coined by Pliny the Elder from the Latin albus ovi (egg white). With the advice of Jöns Jakob Berzelius, the Dutch chemist Gerhardus Johannes Mulder carried out elemental analyses of common animal and plant proteins. To everyone's surprise, all proteins had nearly the same empirical formula, roughly C400H620N100O120 with individual sulfur and phosphorus atoms. Mulder published his findings in two papers (1837,1838) and hypothesized that there was one basic substance (Grundstoff) of proteins, and that it was synthesized by plants and absorbed from them by animals in digestion. Berzelius was an early proponent of this theory and proposed the name "protein" for this substance in a letter dated 10 July 1838 The name protein that he propose for the organic oxide of fibrin and albumin, I wanted to derive from [the Greek word] πρωτειος, because it appears to be the primitive or principal substance of animal nutrition. Mulder went on to identify the products of protein degradation such as the amino acid, leucine, for which he found a (nearly correct) molecular weight of 131 Da. Purifications and measurements of mass The minimum molecular weight suggested by Mulder's analyses was roughly 9 kDa, hundreds of times larger than other molecules being studied. Hence, the chemical structure of proteins (their primary structure) was an active area of research until 1949, when Fred Sanger sequenced insulin. The (correct) theory that proteins were linear polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds was proposed independently and simultaneously by Franz Hofmeister and Emil Fischer at the same conference in 1902. However, some scientists were sceptical that such long macromolecules could be stable in solution. Consequently, numerous alternative theories of the protein primary structure were proposed, e.g., the colloidal hypothesis that proteins were assemblies of small molecules, the cyclol hypothesis of Dorothy Wrinch, the diketopiperazine hypothesis of Emil Abderhalden and the pyrrol/piperidine hypothesis of Troensgard (1942). Most of these theories had difficulties in accounting for the fact that the digestion of proteins yielded peptides and amino acids. Proteins were finally shown to be macromolecules of well-defined composition (and not colloidal mixtures) by Theodor Svedberg using analytical ultracentrifugation. The possibility that some proteins are non-covalent associations of such macromolecules was shown by Gilbert Smithson Adair (by measuring the osmotic pressure of hemoglobin) and, later, by Frederic M. Richards in his studies of ribonuclease S. The mass spectrometry of proteins has long been a useful technique for identifying posttranslational modifications and, more recently, for probing protein structure. Most proteins are difficult to purify in more than milligram quantities, even using the most modern methods. Hence, early studies focused on proteins that could be purified in large quantities, e.g., those of blood, egg white, various toxins, and digestive/metabolic enzymes obtained from slaughterhouses. Many techniques of protein purification were developed during World War II in a project led by Edwin Joseph Cohn to purify blood proteins to help keep soldiers alive. In the late 1950s, the Armour Hot Dog Co. purified 1 kg (= one million milligrams) of pure bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A and made it available at low cost to scientists around the world. This generous act made RNase A the main protein for basic research for the next few decades, resulting in several Nobel Prizes. Protein folding and first structural models The study of protein folding began in 1910 with a famous paper by Harriette Chick and C. J. Martin, in which they showed that the flocculation of a protein was composed of two distinct processes: the precipitation of a protein from solution was preceded by another process called denaturation, in which the protein became much less soluble, lost its enzymatic activity and became more chemically reactive. In the mid-1920s, Tim Anson and Alfred Mirsky proposed that denaturation was a reversible process, a correct hypothesis that was initially lampooned by some scientists as "unboiling the egg". Anson also suggested that denaturation was a two-state ("all-or-none") process, in which one fundamental molecular transition resulted in the drastic changes in solubility, enzymatic activity and chemical reactivity; he further noted that the free energy changes upon denaturation were much smaller than those typically involved in chemical reactions. In 1929, Hsien Wu hypothesized that denaturation was protein unfolding, a purely conformational change that resulted in the exposure of amino acid side chains to the solvent. According to this (correct) hypothesis, exposure of aliphatic and reactive side chains to solvent rendered the protein less soluble and more reactive, whereas the loss of a specific conformation caused the loss of enzymatic activity. Although considered plausible, Wu's hypothesis was not immediately accepted, since so little was known of protein structure and enzymology and other factors could account for the changes in solubility, enzymatic activity and chemical reactivity. In the early 1960s, Chris Anfinsen showed that the folding of ribonuclease A was fully reversible with no external cofactors needed, verifying the "thermodynamic hypothesis" of protein folding that the folded state represents the global minimum of free energy for the protein. The hypothesis of protein folding was followed by research into the physical interactions that stabilize folded protein structures. The crucial role of hydrophobic interactions was hypothesized by Dorothy Wrinch and Irving Langmuir, as a mechanism that might stabilize her cyclol structures. Although supported by J. D. Bernal and others, this (correct) hypothesis was rejected along with the cyclol hypothesis, which was disproven in the 1930s by Linus Pauling (among others). Instead, Pauling championed the idea that protein structure was stabilized mainly by hydrogen bonds, an idea advanced initially by William Astbury (1933). Remarkably, Pauling's incorrect theory about H-bonds resulted in his correct models for the secondary structure elements of proteins, the alpha helix and the beta sheet. The hydrophobic interaction was restored to its correct prominence by a famous article in 1959 by Walter Kauzmann on denaturation, based partly on work by Kaj Linderstrøm-Lang. The ionic nature of proteins was demonstrated by Bjerrum, Weber and Arne Tiselius, but Linderstrom-Lang showed that the charges were generally accessible to solvent and not bound to each other (1949). The secondary and low-resolution tertiary structure of globular proteins was investigated initially by hydrodynamic methods, such as analytical ultracentrifugation and flow birefringence. Spectroscopic methods to probe protein structure (such as circular dichroism, fluorescence, near-ultraviolet and infrared absorbance) were developed in the 1950s. The first atomic-resolution structures of proteins were solved by X-ray crystallography in the 1960s and by NMR in the 1980s. , the Protein Data Bank has over 150,000 atomic-resolution structures of proteins. In more recent times, cryo-electron microscopy of large macromolecular assemblies has achieved atomic resolution, and computational protein structure prediction of small protein domains is approaching atomic resolution. See also History of biology History of biotechnology History of genetics References Fruton, Joseph. Proteins, Genes, Enzymes: The Interplay of Chemistry and Biology. New Haven: Yale University Press. 1999. Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Rise of the New Biology, Oxford University Press, Reprint 1996 Morange, Michel. A History of Molecular Biology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1998. Fry, Michael. Landmark Experiments in Molecular Biology. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. 2016. History of biology by subdiscipline History of chemistry
4174010	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port%20security	Port security	Port security is part of a broader definition concerning maritime security. It refers to the defense, law and treaty enforcement, and counterterrorism activities that fall within the port and maritime domain. It includes the protection of the seaports themselves and the protection and inspection of the cargo moving through the ports. Security risks related to ports often focus on either the physical security of the port, or security risks within the maritime supply chain. Internationally, port security is governed by rules issued by the International Maritime Organization and its 2002 International Ship and Port Facility Security Code. Additionally, some United States-based programs have become de facto global port security programs, including the Container Security Initiative and the Customs Trade Partnership against Terrorism. However, some businesses argue that port security governance measures are ineffective and costly and that it negatively impacts maritime transport costs. Maritime Supply Chain and Port Security Physical port security involves the risks to the perimeters of the port. Risks to port security involves natural risks such as hurricanes and flooding, man-made risks such as operator error, and weapon risks such as chemical, biological and nuclear material. It also involves adequate security systems within the port, such as security guards, video surveillance and alarm systems. Physical port security also falls under the umbrella of maritime terrorism. Ports are attractive targets for terrorists because ships and cargoes are fixed in time once they enter the port, which removes the uncertainty in relation to the location of the target. Apart from physical port security, the port is connected to a larger supply chain. There are various risks along this supply chain that can affect port security, such as explosives attached to the vessel or unwanted passengers on the vessel. Ports are "potential targets of illegal activity which may impact their ability to function as intended, and ports as conduits into and out of national borders and supply chains, which can be exploited in order to introduce or move illegal materials, persons, or activities". That involves increasing the number of vulnerabilities to port security to the supply chain. Port Security Risk Management Security risk management practices of ports reflect the divide between physical and maritime supply chain security. Physical Port Security Risk Management Examples of security risk management practices at ports are: employment of a security director, crisis leadership, contingency planning and the use of intelligence. Other measures include physical security barriers, such as CCTV cameras and adequate light at the port in order to ensure that cargo theft does not take place. Maritime Supply Chain Risk Management Examples of risk management practices within the maritime supply chain include ISPC (International Ship and Port Facility Security Code), CSI (Container Security Initiative) and whole-of-supply chain outcomes, CTPT (Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism). These efforts have been criticised as the use of quantitative and statistical approach to security in the maritime supply chain is argued to overlook low probability, high impact events. Privatisation of Port Security Port security is often in the literature depicted as a responsibility of the state, as it concerns national security. Yet, the emergence of private security actors has also influenced aspects of port security governance. In the case of a port in Indonesian, the involvement of so many different types of state and non- state agencies actually lessened security. Emerging Port Security Risks Cyber Risks Ports use a variety of sensors, such as Wi- Fi and satellite- based Internet systems which are increasingly automated. Such systems are vulnerable to penetration and manipulation and risk being misused for hacktivism and by terrorists. Not only can this affect port security in terms of the parameters of the surface of the port, but a possible hacking of data can be used to trace ships and mislead them for hijacking purposes. Liquefied Natural Gas Trade Technological developments coupled with the US Shale Revolution has allowed for increasing exports of liquefied natural gas (LNG). The commodity, consisting of 70-90 percent methane and 0-20 percent of butane, propane and ethane is similar to crude oil as it forms through pressurising and heating. LNG derives at onshore or offshore ports, where the infrastructure at the port contains terminals that bring the LNG further. It can either be attached to a gas liqufication or storage plant, a regasification and storage plant or just a storage and distribution plant. The infrastructure at LNG terminals are therefore concerned with highly flammable content that is of security risk to personnel. Onshore LNG ports that are located close to cities or dense populations are also a security risk to the area surrounding the port. Risks to port security will vary considerably and depend on the waiting position of a tanker, location of the port, and security risk management practices of each specific port. LNG is naturally linked to maritime terrorism, as disputed areas and chokepoints -such as the Strait of Malacca and Singapore Strait- has the potential to result in hijacking and bombs as the area becomes more active. As the new demand centres for LNG is most notably in Asian countries such as China, India, Japan and South Korea, new geopolitical tensions might increase in the region between LNG- exporting countries such as the US, Russia and Qatar. This also relates to energy security, as import dependent countries are vulnerable to a sudden stop in supply of LNG. Port Security in the United States Following the September 11 Attacks, the U.S. Government acknowledged the threat of unsecured ports and shipping containers. By 2001, the U.S. economy was already heavily reliant on maritime shipping, and that reliance was set to double by 2020. Former U.S. Coast Guard officer Stephen Flynn has stated that interest in shipping container security has seen a definitive shift pre and post-9/11. Shipping container and port security pre-9/11 was focused primarily on promoting the advancement of globalization. These interests were prioritised over sea and border defence. Additionally, prior to 9/11, the U.S. Customs and Border Protection was more focused on combating drug smuggling. The maritime suicide bombing carried out against the USS Cole in October 2000 by Al-Qaeda illustrated the probability of future maritime based terrorist attacks against the U.S. In response, terrorist groups such as Al-Qaeda were flagged as the largest threat to maritime supply chains; as their maritime skills were rapidly improving and U.S. maritime security regimes remained weak. However, post-9/11, the U.S. government realized the risks and threats associated with unsecured maritime transport - particularly the containerised transport of nuclear material into U.S. ports. Additionally, the U.S. government showed an interest in funding and developing homeland security, which has been critiqued by maritime experts as merely ‘constructing barricades to fend off terrorists’. In the years since, academics have called for the creation of an international security regime that allows the U.S. ‘to remain an open, prosperous, free and globally engaged society’ as more than 6000 international vessels and 100,000 seafarers visit U.S. ports every year. Shipping Container Surveillance Every year, the United States Marine Transportation System moves more than 2 billion tons of domestic and international goods. It imports 3.3 billion tons of domestic oil, transports 134 million passengers by ferry, serves the 78 million Americans engaged in recreational boating and hosts more than 5 million cruise ship passengers a year. Although shipping containers have been widely used since World War II, in 2002 it was estimated that less than 3% of the 20 million containers that entered U.S. ports were scanned or inspected. This statistic is made clearer when understood in the context of the U.S. Customs and Border Protection’s protocol. At Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal, 82% of the product passing through is "trusted" by the Customs agents as routine activity. Only 18% of the shipments are an "anomaly" to the known shipments. This, in addition to the requirements for shippers to provide cargo lists, explains the reasoning behind such low search figures. Federal Legislature In 2001, the Port and Maritime Security Act of 2001 was submitted to the House of Representatives, and subsequently referred to the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. Some changes were made to the bill, however it was passed into law in 2002 as the Maritime Transportation Security Act of 2002. Many of the provisions within the Maritime Transportation Security Act of 2002 call for additional attention to be paid to seaports as potential targets of terrorist attacks, and the coordination of the U.S. Coast Guard and government agencies to update their maritime counter terrorism plans. Some of the points include directives to develop anti-terrorism cargo identification tracking, improved screening systems to be used on containers being shipped to the U.S. from foreign ports and enhanced physical security of shipping containers including updates standards on seals and locks. Additionally, federal security standardizations were set for the first time regarding restrictions to specific areas, surveillance measures and developing security plans. In the 2005 109th Session of Congress, the most maritime security related bills were introduced since 9/11, showing a significant increase in interest in these issues among federal officials. All 7 bills, however, died in either the House of Representatives or the Senate. Security Initiatives The period following 9/11 demonstrates a broadening of security initiatives and focus on terrorist capabilities. Former U.S. Coast Guard officer John Harrald states that while there has been significant growth in container surveillance interest and initiatives from 2001 to 2005, in comparison to the growth of conventional national security and aviation security it is ‘dwarfed’. In 2001, the Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism (CTPAT) was created in an attempt to bolster the Bush Administration's post-9/11 multi-layered cargo enforcement strategy. The initiative is a voluntary partnership between principal stakeholders in the public and private sector (importers, shipping container carriers, customs brokers and manufacturers). A year later, in 2002, the Container Security Initiative (CSI) was launched by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection. Specifically focusing on containerised cargo entering U.S. ports, the bilateral information sharing initiative was intended to ‘extend the zone of security outward so that American borders are the last line of defence, not the first’. The reciprocal system between U.S. and foreign ports, makes it possible for U.S. bound shipping containers to be inspected at their host port, instead of upon arrival in the U.S. The 2002 RAND SeaCurity conference revealed that the European Commission ‘strongly opposes’ the Container Security Initiative (CSI) and particularly the Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism (CTPAT). One reason given was that the shipping container's safety seal is only required to be placed on its doors at the port of departure, not the port of origin. Therefore, the container is unsealed and exposed through most of its journey through international ports. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) was established in 1997, however expanded after 9/11 to include maritime crime and piracy. In 2015, the UNODC released the first annual report on their Global Maritime Crime Programme. The programme assists 18 countries in combating ‘the smuggling of migrants and people trafficking, wildlife and forestry crime, piracy and armed robbery, Somali charcoal smuggling, fisheries crime and the growing threat of narcotics trafficking on the high seas of the Indian Ocean’. However, neither the UNODC's annual reports, nor their Maritime Crime Manual for Criminal Justice Practitioners, make any mention of shipping container surveillance. The International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS) is an amendment of the Safety of Life at Sea Convention (SOLAS), which entered into force in July 2004. The code provides a security regime for international shipping and port security. Compliance is mandatory for the 148 contracting parties to SOLAS, however there are no consequences for non-compliance. ISPS is therefore a security framework for states, whereby 'each ship and each port facility will have to determine the measures needed to intensify its security measures to appropriately offset the threat by reducing its vulnerability. Maritime security expert Peter Chalk acknowledges that government initiatives up until 2008 have ‘conferred a degree of transparency' by laying the parameters - the 'rules, principles, and attendant responsibilities for international cooperation', providing a ‘common framework in which to further develop’. Chalk, however, is quick to point out that even by 2008, government initiatives were still limited in scope. Criticising the International Ship and Port Facility Security Code as a failure, since it includes countries who lack resources to properly comply and audit. Leaving many ports conducting "tick in the box" security verification procedures on container shipments which will eventually arrive in U.S. ports. Stating the U.S. must begin by working with like minded allies internationally. The U.S. government has taken a segmented approach to problem solving container surveillance weaknesses in an attempt to protect maritime commerce - ‘by necessity, domestic and international maritime security programs have been implemented in parallel to the creation of a coherent strategy and before the development of any measures of effectiveness. The result has been the collection of programs which overlap, interact and leave significant gaps. The overall effectiveness of national and international efforts is impossible to assess’. Radiation Portal Monitor Technology In 2002, the U.S. Government installed Radiation Portal Monitors at marine security checkpoints to check for neutron gamma rays. A small amount of HEU, or Highly Enriched Uranium is a substance that can be used to successfully create Weapons of Mass Destruction without much skill. It was later found that the Radiation Portal Monitors installed in 2002, did not scan for the total nuclear energy of the item or the characteristics of the item, which made it difficult to differentiate between harmless and harmful radioactive materials. This led to many false alarms and additional searches by the U.S. Customs and Border Patrol. Additionally, the poorly functioning portal monitors made it possible for successful experiments simulating the smuggling of nuclear material into ports to expose further issues with the machines. One of these experiments included hiding a lead lined steel pipe containing depleted uranium (simulating the properties of a nuclear weapon) in a suitcase. The suitcase passed through countries to simulate the journey of a potential terrorist and was ultimately packed into a container in Istanbul. When the container arrived in New York it was pulled to the side for additional screening, however customs officers did not detect the uranium. In response, the Department of Homeland Security developed a second generation model of the Radiation Portal Monitors, with hopes to lower the rate of false alarms. However, the machines were still not dependable and were unable to successfully detect Highly Enriched Uranium. In 2007, George W. Bush signed the recommendations from the 9/11 Commission Report, stating that within five years all maritime cargo was to be scanned before being loaded onto vessels in foreign ports headed to the U.S. He also ordered an increase in the use of the Radiation Portal Monitors despite their inconsistencies and reported issues. Federal Authorities' Homeland Security Initiatives Immediate federal responses to 9/11 included the establishment of the Department of Homeland Security in 2002; reorganising the leading federal port security agencies U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Customs Service and the Transportation Security Administration into 5 new separate offices. The Department of Homeland Security regards the U.S. Coast Guard as the ‘lead federal agency for maritime homeland security’. As the nation's principal maritime law enforcement authority, the U.S. Coast Guard is responsible for ‘evaluating, boarding, and inspecting commercial ships as they approach U.S. waters, for countering terrorist threats in U.S. ports, and for helping protect U.S. Navy ships in U.S. ports’. The U.S. Customs Service is responsible for inspecting commercial cargoes and cargo containers. Experts, however, have expressed discontent over the lack of clear roles and responsibilities of federal agencies - particularly their overlap and duplication. Flynn, particularly criticises the trend of ‘tweaking the roles and capabilities of agencies whose writ runs only to the nation's shores’. ‘There are many public and private stakeholders operating in a port environment motivated by conflicting agendas. A major concern for U.S. policy makers is assigning roles and responsibilities for maritime security among federal agencies; among federal, state, and local agencies; and between government agencies and private industry’.. Collaborative efforts between the U.S. Immigration and Naturalisation Service (INS), the U.S. Coast Guard, the U.S. Bureau of Consular Affairs and the U.S. Department of State have been attempted through a Memorandum of Agreement. However, in 2004, their intelligence was still only limited to ‘detecting a containserised WMD at its port of entry’. In a 2003 report made for Members of Congress, the Congressional Research Service stated that the U.S. Coast Guard and U.S. Customs and Border Protection's programs ‘represent only a framework for building a maritime security regime, and that significant gaps in security still remain’. The report concluded that there is administrative hesitancy within security agencies, specifically ’implementation issues’ regarding the "24 Hour Rule". Under Customs Regulations, U.S. Customs and Border Protection agents are required to ‘receive, by way of a CBP-approved electronic data interchange system, information pertaining to cargo before the cargo is either brought into or sent from the United States by any mode of commercial transportation (sea, air, rail or truck)’. However, U.S. Customs and Border Protection agents have noted this 'will greatly impact the balance between a prosperous economy and sea and land border defence’. In a 2007 report made for Members of Congress, the Congressional Research Service quoted former Department of Homeland Security Inspector General Richard Skinner, who stated that ‘overall resource hours devoted to USCG’s homeland security missions grew steadily from FY 2001 through FY 2005’. However the U.S. Coast Guard only achieved 5 out of 19 (26%) homeland security goals. Evaluated with reference to the expectations set out in the Ports and Waterways Safety Act of 1972 and the Maritime Transportation Security Act of 2002, the U.S. Coast Guard's homeland security operations fell short in 9 key areas: funding, assets and personnel levels for performing homeland and non-homeland security missions; division of budget between homeland and non-homeland security missions; coordination with other Department of Homeland Security offices, federal, state and local authorities involved in maritime security - including coordination of operations and intelligence; monitoring compliance with facility and vessel security plans; completing foreign port security assessments; implementing long-range vessel-tracking system required by MTSA; implementing Automatic Identification System (AIS); inland waterway security; and response plans for maritime security incidents. ‘The Coast Guard will be unable to increase total resource hours without the acquisition of additional aircraft, cutters, and boats. Consequently, the Coast Guard has a limited ability to respond to an extended crisis, and therefore must divert resources normally dedicated to other missions’. Marine Domain Awareness The adoption of Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) has been suggested by experts as a replacement for the Bush Administration's initial homeland security approach ‘Since FY 2001, more Coast Guard resource hours have been dedicated to homeland security missions than for non-homeland security missions.’ Loy and Ross insist that MDA collaboration between ‘military power, diplomatic influence, economic power... and the private sector’ is the only way to deal with potential security threats.’. Stating that current customs procedures were only ‘developed for economic protection’ by promoting ‘just-in-time delivery’. Whereby ‘final papers are not required to be submitted for a container shipped under customs bond until after the container arrives at its official port of entry, which can be as many as 30 days after it enters the country.’. Highlighting that the DHS’ security training programs and their creation of security plans have very little to no effect on reforming administrative procedures. Ronald O’Rourke, a specialist in U.S. naval affairs, who details the Coast Guard's self assessment for the fiscal year of 2006 and their subsequent trialing of Marine Domain Awareness (MDA) and Automated Identification Systems (AIS) nationwide. Known as Project Hawkeye, the trial was aimed at bringing maritime cargo transport security to the level of air cargo (O’Rourke 2–3). However the radars confused waves with boats and the long range surveillance cameras were only able to capture ‘a sliver of the harbor and coasts’. Due to their ineffectiveness ‘Coast Guard staff personnel have been told not to waste much time looking at it’. Additionally, the Automated Identification System can be turned off, or used to enter an incorrect vessel location and identity. Academic Discourse Admiral James Loy and Captain Robert Ross suggest a multilateral approach with U.S. trading partners (public and private) be pursued. Former US Coast Guard Commander Stephen Flynn also suggests extending current initiatives to include bilateral and multilateral international inspection zones. European stakeholders take a similar position to Loy, Ross and Flynn, encouraging the inclusion of the private sector in any counter-measure actions taken by the government, so as to avoid ‘affect container throughput – affecting the commercial imperative’. Maritime Terrorism and Piracy The importance of the container shipping industry is equally matched by its vulnerabilities to terrorist attack. The U.S. maritime system consists of over 300 sea and river ports with more than 3,700 cargo and passenger terminals. The United States and global economies depend on commercial shipping as the most reliable, cost efficient method of transporting goods, with U.S. ports handling approximately 20% of the maritime trade worldwide. The volume of trade throughout the U.S. and the world creates a desirable target for terrorist attack. An attack on any aspect of the maritime system, mainly major ports, can severely hamper trade and potentially affect the global economy by billions of dollars. The security of ports and their deficiencies are numerous and leave US ports vulnerable to terrorist attack. The vulnerabilities of our ports are many, leading to potential security breaches in almost all aspects of the container shipping industry. With the sheer volume of maritime traffic, there is serious concern of cargo/passenger ship hijackings and pirate attack, as well as accountability of the millions of shipping containers transported worldwide. Given the overwhelming number of ships and containers, there are many areas of concern regarding the security of U.S. ports. Terrorists can, and eventually may, exploit the shipping industry's deficiencies in port security. Potential threats include the smuggling of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), a radiological "dirty" bomb, a conventional explosive device, and transportation of terrorist operatives, as well. Studies have claimed a Hiroshima sized nuclear detonation at a major seaport would kill fifty thousand to one million people. It is common knowledge within the industry that security measures of major ports cannot have a significant effect on the movement of goods, thereby allowing exploitation of the system for terrorist use. The geographical/physical layout of the ports themselves is of concern. The protection and security of the landside perimeter of a port is difficult due to their large size. Ports located in highly urbanized areas allow terrorists a densely populated area in which to hide while infiltrating or escaping the port area at their perimeter. The high volume of trucks entering and exiting port facilities pose a threat to the port, as well as surrounding geographical areas. Exiting trucks may contain WMD or terrorist operatives that are to infiltrate a surrounding metropolitan area, i.e., transporting a chemical explosive device (from the Port of Los Angeles) to a more densely populated area (downtown Los Angeles). Container ships anchored at port facilities are particularly vulnerable to both highjacking and explosive devices as they are stationary targets. Most crews of cargo ships are unarmed, and would be defenseless to an armed attack. The disabling of a ship at port is enough to halt all activity at that port for an extended period of time, especially if the disabled ship is blocking a throughway for other vessels. The economic impact of such an attack would be disastrous on a global scale. An example of such an economic impact can be drawn from a labor-management dispute that closed ports along the west coast of the United States. These port closures cost the U.S. economy approximately $1 billion per day for the first 5 days, and rose exponentially thereafter. When the International Longshore and Warehouse Union strike closed 29 West Coast ports for 10 days, one study estimated that it cost the United States economy $19.4 billion. Many manufacturing companies of the world employ a just-in-time distribution model, allowing for lower inventory carrying costs and savings from warehouse space. The shipping industry is essential to this method, as its speed and reliability allow new inventory to be shipped and received precisely when it is needed. The adopting of the just-in-time method has dropped business logistics cost from 16.1% of U.S. GDP to 10.1% between 1980 and 2000. Although this method has dropped costs significantly, it has put a stranglehold on security options, as the shipping times of these shipments are exact and cannot afford delays from inspection. Other aspects of economic impact include costs of altering shipping routes away from a disabled port, as well as delays from ports operating over capacity that receive the rerouted ships. Most ports operate at near capacity and can ill afford an attack of this nature. Although there are many government sponsored agencies involved with port security, the responsibility of providing that security is of state and local governments. Allen (2007) states that 'under the protective principle, a state has jurisdiction to prescribe and enforce laws against acts that threaten vital state interests'. The protective principle 'recognizes that a state may apply its laws to protect vital state interests, such as the state's national security or governmental functions'. Some ports may enact their own police forces in addition to city law enforcement. There have been proposals to consolidate federal agencies responsible for border security. The consolidation may offer some long-term benefits, but three challenges may hinder a successful implementation of security enhancing initiatives at the nations ports: standards, funding, and collaboration. The first challenge involves implementing a set of standards that defines what safeguards a port should have in place. Under the Coast Guard's direction, a set of standards is being developed for all U.S. ports to use in conducting port vulnerability assessments. However, many questions remain about whether the thousands of people who have grown accustomed to working in certain ways at the nation's ports will agree to, and implement, the kinds of changes that a substantially changed environment will require. The second challenge involves determining the amounts needed and sources of funding for the kinds of security improvements that are likely to be required to meet the standards. Florida's experience indicates that security measures are likely to be more expensive than many anticipate, and determining how to pay these costs and how the federal government should participate will present a challenge. The third challenge is ensuring that there is sufficient cooperation and coordination among the many stakeholders to make the security measures work. Experience to date indicates that this coordination is more difficult than many stakeholders anticipate, and that continued practice and testing will be key in making it work. Policing Whilst the threat of terrorism cannot be totally be dismissed the day-to-day operations of port and harbour police more often deals with more mundane issues, such as theft (including pilferage by dock workers), smuggling, illegal immigration; health and safety with regards to hazardous cargoes, safe docking of vessels, and safe operation of vehicles and plant; environmental protection e.g. spillages and contaminated bilge water. See also Homeland security Infrastructure security Maritime Transportation Security Act of 2002 Supply chain security References Sources External links Center for Contemporary Conflict - "The Atlantis Garrison: A Comprehensive, Cost Effective Cargo and Port Security Strategy" by Dr. Michael J. Hillyard (PSP / Floating Airport technology could be used for Cost Effective Cargo & Port Security) PMSO.net Port Security Knowledgebase Law enforcement in the United States Security Water transportation in the United States
4174285	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Real	The Real	In continental philosophy, the Real refers to the remainder of reality that cannot be expressed, and which surpasses reasoning. In Lacanianism, it is an "impossible" category because of its opposition to expression and inconceivability. The Real Order is a topological ring (lalangue) and ex-ists as an infinite homonym. In human geography and depth psychology The Real is the intelligible form of the horizon of truth of the field-of-objects that has been disclosed. As the Real Order of the Borromean knot in Lacanianism, it is opposed in the unconscious to the Symbolic, which encompasses fantasy, dreams and hallucinations. In depth psychology and human geography, the Real can be described as a "negative space", analogous to a "black hole", a philosophical void of sociality and subjectivity, a traumatic consensus of intersubjectivity, or as an absolute noumenalness between signifiers. Lewis states that the Real can be a presence or is a substance and cites Derrida's claim that the real is authenticity. Jacques Lacan defines the Real as a plenum, a nature beyond culture that is contradistinct from the ontic. The Lacanian real is a section of the triadic, Borromean knot: the Imaginary, the Symbolic, and the Real; the center of the knot is the sinthome (monad-soul). Thing-ness Felluga states that Bill Brown's Thing is conceptually close to the Real, as it is a type of unreliableness of the relation between subject and object that is neither subject nor object. Discourse of the subject A master signifier (S1) organizes narrative (S2): a defensive form of discourse that is an ideological reaction to the Real: i.e., mythic explanation, hero's journey, storytelling, theme, pathos, ethos, plot, conflict, closure. The real subject (as id) is repressed (via aphanisis) by the imaginary-signified ego's ideologizing overtop of the real instincts. Narrative speech (parole) is an attempt to resolve the Real-Imaginary aporia (langue) concerning events. Psychotic discourse Felluga states that Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe's term antagonism, as a societal limit that sits outside of society's articulation, functions similarly to the Real. Hurst states that, in principle, self-analysis (analyst's discourse) might prevent an analyst from retrogressing to the ideological position of the master's discourse (i.e., King in The Purloined Letter). The phallic signifier and castration The ineffable, unary signifier of lack (phallus) stitches the unconscious drives to jouissance, dialectically bridging language and desire (logos and eros, the Apollonian and the Dionysian). Drives Barthes reflects that the inner voice of the subject is structured in a triad of "Presence" (frustration) created by the maternal Other, "Intermittence" (castration anxiety) over the loss of the phallus as an imaginary object taken by the real father, and "Absence" (privation) that occurs from losing the phallus from the imaginary father; (symbolic desire separates from real need and becomes imaginary demand) (q.v., Lacan's graph of desire). In neurosis Hurst argues that the Lacanian Real parallels Derrida's concept of différance. Lewis states that lalangue is the arche-writing repetition that reveals the real subject through différance. Guattari states that temporal différance is secreted from obsessional neurosis. Hysteric's discourse The hysteric's discourse is driven by the Real, where object (a) is at an impossible-to-find truth. Neither individuation nor differentiation can happen in the stagnancy of the Real. The three categories of hysteria — conversion hysteria, anxiety hysteria, and traumatic hysteria — have a basis in alienation, with an identification to those-without-the-phallus, and a self-sacrifice through displacement. Hurst states that masculine libidinal hysteria breaches the paranoid-schizoid position of masculine fanaticism by attempting to make the Real appear, whereas feminine libidinal hysteria breaches the Nietzschean radical nihilism of Hegel's "eternal irony" by resisting the Symbolic Order. Artistic discourse Artistic discourse is a pneuma of neurosis-psychosis hallucinatory hysteria, a poetic-real microcosm of the True-Real. Signs of the real Tuché is an Aristotelian-borrowed term to describe the traumatic encounter-kernel of the Real and automaton to describe the repetitive transference process of symbolizing the Real. The Symbolic introduces "a cut in the Real" in the process of signification: "it is the world of words that creates the world of things." Thus the Real emerges as that which is outside language, making it "that which resists symbolization absolutely". The logos of the Symbolic creates the Order of the Real; the Real and kairos divide the logos, resist symbolization, and anticipate being symbolized. Signifiers of this experience are Lacan's jouissance, Marx's theory of alienation, the numinous, psychological trauma, transcendence, the sublime or a fractured ideology; particularly, it can be a narrative that separates signifiers from conscious desire-quest (i.e., narcissistic injury). Jouissance Julia Kristeva, particularly in her 1980 essay Powers of Horror, posits that the super-ego's abjection facilitates a subjective traumatic limit between subject and objects, with the Real, through ego-object loss and castration of surplus jouissance. Hurst references Žižek: for any event that converges on a collapsed Symbolic Order, is a where Antigone becomes the Thing. Lacanian Being-for-death is a death drive for its telos (i.e., sublimity). Unreal vs real(2) The unreal-unnameable organ called a lamella (or libido as a symbiotic, pre-Oedipal, pre-symbolic Real(1) before-signified-who-ness) is distinct from the Real(2) after-signifier-what-ness, which a subject experiences at the limits of the Imaginary and Symbolic. Real(1) is a continuous, "whole" reality that is undivided by language, while Real(2) is the space of the possibility of abjection being raised wherever there is interference in the path of the object of the ego, including the experience of surplus jouissance which threatens to surpass a subject's boundaries; Kristeva remarks that this experience "takes the ego back to its source", i.e., the id. Somatization Malcolm Bowie interprets the Lacanian real as ineffable (i.e., uncanny). Historical materialism Fredric Jameson interprets Lacan's real through a Marxist-Hegelian lens as meaning "History itself", a narrative symptom of the event. In afro-pessimism Marriott examines Fanon: white people's gaze and dehumanization of black people through objectification, creating a desire for the absent object-of-identity in marginalized individuals that is destroyed through racist signification. George states that race is an objet a confrontation with jouissance and lack. George posits that the history of slavery in the United States and racism are within the Real (e.g., Beloved). Crockett references W. E. B. Du Bois in relation to a Real critique of the Symbolic through a point of view from the angle of double consciousness. Sinthome In practice, Lacanian psychoanalysis derives the event by gazing at the resistance and transference to identify the automaton mechanisms of the Thing (viz., foreclosure, repression, and disavowal) that are utilized to anamorphosically read where the signifiers are hiding the symptomatic objet petit (a), rendering the real subject. Subject-as-metaphor The void is what the subject finds through interrogation of oneself. The subject existentially navigates an inward, metaphorical and vacuous desert or ocean, unguided by the psychoanalytic metaphor of God's "Original Presence". Premodern philosophers also thought up a formless chora, a pre-universal "chaos", and the experience of horror vacui; these conceptions of an unguided ego confronting the void informed psychoanalysis. It prefigured Lacan's outline of how the subject-as-metaphor, later the analysand, encounters the Real and how this experience is slated in analysis to give rise to pathologies, particularly anxieties and traumas. In psychoanalysis, the subject appears either as transference, repression or as the barrier separating the signifier over the signified. Subjective experience is a paradoxical extension inseparable from the experience of place, landscape, and body, which can be conveyed as utopia, dystopia, or pantheon. Philosophers reveal the Real engulfing the ego in a comparatively unfamiliar and defamiliarizing space, and the subject's dystonic feelings of confrontation. The geographical self as described in human geography, or alternatively the "makanthropos" as described by Schopenhauer, feels Cartesian anxiety, a confusion of certainty in reason, from the experience of this formless void. Resistance An impasse is the resistance between the real and the imaginary that affects the therapeutic alliance, wherein the client is at odds with the Transcendent Function of the therapist's mind as mediation to the Symbolic Order by way of the Signifier-as-God (i.e., discrepancy). Analysis reveals the kernel at the core of the Real through resistance. The finite ego resists the unconscious's infinite lattice of signifiers. Passe Lacan gave the name passe to the analysand's dualistic experience of uncertainty, becoming eclipsed and challenged by a subjective confrontation, that gives way to a feeling of certainty with the Real, e.g. in the temptation of Christ or the desolation of saints; it is "the moment of crisis in a speaking cure in which all subjectivity, the last imaginary residue [of the ego], all self-love falls away" and is replaced by acceptance from the analyst. Michael Eigen states that a paradox of faith comes from subject-attacking-object (such as in Jung's Answer to Job). The Real, as analogized as an aporia in experience or an encompassing black hole of reality, relates to the Jungian archetype of the Death Mother, the shadow of the Mother archetype, articulated in Neumann's The Great Mother. The becoming produced under therapy sessions can lead to an ineffable and oceanic experience of the Thing (White interpreting Bion, Eigen, Ogden); the analyst in the Bion school seeks to be an empty container, or empty subject of the void, of the client's projections. God as the real Lerner states that Spinoza's God may be interpreted as the real, with the attribute of Thought as the symbolic. Interpretations of the real With Muller, psychosis has no word-thing symbolic mediation: figurative communications function as reified Real objects (e.g., projective identification and bizarre objects). Marriott states that foreclosure is directly connected to ressentiment. Brenner cites Laurent, claiming autistic foreclosure leads to Real castration through manifesting a synthetic mOther (The Death of the Author or barring the subject), as opposed to Symbolic castration within an organic nomos; this existential crisis could theoretically lead to the emergence of a schizoid personality style (dissociation, isolation, and intellectualization); q.v., enantiodromia. Under autistic foreclosure, the autistic subject is un-barred, wherein the signifier feels Real (q.v., synesthesia). Leeb conjectures that Theodor W. Adorno's concept of the non-identical and Lacan's Real fall under immanent critique. In schizoanalysis In critical overviews of the work of Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, the Real has been identified, particularly in readings of A Thousand Plateaus, as the plane of defamiliarized and deterritorialized empty signifiers that approach the uncanny valley, destroyed signs of an imploding gaze, and a-temporal semiotic black holes of faciality. In both the construction and destruction of the "face", a system that "brings together a despotic wall of interconnected signifiers and passional black holes of subjective absorption", there is a split in subjectivity and a confrontation with the Real. The uncanny, the plane of empty signifiers, is found in relations between intersections of the interior-self and exterior-Other, a "return of the repressed" as an eternal return of the path of the objet petit a that disturbs familiarity and further deterritorializes the subject. Guattari, who throughout the development of his philosophy was critical of Lacan, wrote in the 1979 essay "Logos or Abstract Machines?" that: When the monad-soul finds inner stability, the autopoietic objet petit a does not lead to introjection (oral stage) nor projection (anal stage): this state is the body without organs, a virtuality of becoming within the plane of immanence. The real is a diagrammatic virtuality of reality (or Nature), onticly surpassing all regimes of signs by the merging of content and expression in the body without organs. Modalities of the real in Žižek Slavoj Žižek divides the gist of the Lacanian Real into "three modalities":<ref>{{cite journal \| last1 = Luque \| first1 = Juan Luis Pérez de \| date = August 2013 \| title = Lovecraft, Reality, and the Real: A Žižekian Approach \| url = A Žižekian Approach \| journal = Lovecraft Annual \| issue = 7 \| pages = 187–203 \| jstor = 26868476 \| access-date = 2022-01-16 \| quote = Žižek...divides the Real into three different categories, which coincide with the imaginary/real/symbolic division: 'There are thus THREE modalities[...]the 'real Real'[...]'symbolic Real'[...]'imaginary Real'[...]On Belief 82’’}}</ref> The "symbolic Real" (Phallus): signifier of signification, Lacan's impossible "Other of the Other" symbolic historicity (Clotho) perpetually quilting the chain of signifiers (Lachesis) with a new master signifier (Atropos); i.e., dialectically ideological narrative-punctuation (hermeneutic circle/monad): when kairos castrates the logos with the Real. The "imaginary Real" (Objet petit a): Lewis states that real-traces of each signifier are rendered intelligible through the no-image signified a parallax-ic ego-split, deriving an ego-ideal object (a '), creating a poetic-real mental image of horror and terror, deriving the uncanny: méconnaissance. The "real Real" (Event): a semiotic negative-image object (e.g., woodblock printing), neither symbolic signifier nor imaginary signified a fissure of the Symbolic; an absence-of-absence (~~p); a reified psychological projection, sublimated as a Thing (viz., transference-object, analysand, identification, and nondualism). Lewis states that the real-of-the-symbolic is the letter (referenced in Lacan's schemas), and the real-of-the-imaginary is objet petit a. Žižek cites, as literary examples of the Real which he identifies as "the primordial abyss which swallows everything, dissolving all identities", the eldritch experience of Pip in the ocean in Herman Melville's Moby-Dick, regression and the repetition compulsion of characterological desire in death drive within Poe's Maelström, and the climax of Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness where Kurtz is in the throes of death. Meanwhile, in his use of film analysis, Žižek states that the real Real can be found in The Full Monty and surreptitiously in The Sound of Music''. Glyn Daly also provided a further elaboration of Žižek's three modalities through his pre-established examples from pop culture: The real Real is the hard limit that functions as the horrifying Thing (the Alien, Medusa's head, maelstrom and so on) - a shattering force of negation. The symbolic Real refers to the anonymous symbols and codes (scientific formulae, digitalisation, empty signifiers...) that function in an indifferent manner as the abstract "texture" onto which, or out of which, reality is constituted. In The Matrix, for example, the symbolic Real is given expression at the point where Neo perceives "reality" in terms of the abstract streams of digital output. In the contemporary world, Žižek argues that it is capital itself that provides this essential backdrop to our reality and as such represents the symbolic Real of our age. With the "imaginary real" we have precisely the (unsustainable) dimension of fantasmatic excess-negation that is explored in Flatliners. This is why cyberspace is such an ambiguous imaginary realm. Notable figures See also Notes Further reading External links Chronology of Jacques Lacan The Seminars of Jacques Lacan An Introductory Dictionary of Lacanian Psychoanalysis - Dylan Evans Psychoanalytic terminology Jacques Lacan Post-structuralism Structuralism
4174311	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodian%20campaign	Cambodian campaign	The Cambodian campaign (also known as the Cambodian incursion and the Cambodian liberation) was a series of military operations conducted in eastern Cambodia in mid-1970 by South Vietnam and the United States as an expansion of the Vietnam War and the Cambodian Civil War. Thirteen operations were conducted by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) between April 29 and July 22 and by U.S. forces between May 1 and June 30, 1970. The objective of the campaign was the defeat of the approximately 40,000 troops of the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the Viet Cong (VC) in the eastern border regions of Cambodia. Cambodian neutrality and military weakness made its territory a safe zone where PAVN/VC forces could establish bases for operations over the border. With the US shifting toward a policy of Vietnamization and withdrawal, it sought to shore up the South Vietnamese government by eliminating the cross-border threat. A change in the Cambodian government allowed an opportunity to destroy the bases in 1970, when Prince Norodom Sihanouk was deposed and replaced by pro-U.S. General Lon Nol. A series of South Vietnamese–Khmer Republic operations captured several towns, but the PAVN/VC military and political leadership narrowly escaped the cordon. The operation was partly a response to a PAVN offensive on March 29 against the Cambodian Army that captured large parts of eastern Cambodia in the wake of these operations. Allied military operations failed to eliminate many PAVN/VC troops or to capture their elusive headquarters, known as the Central Office for South Vietnam (COSVN) as they had left a month earlier, but the haul of captured materiel in Cambodia prompted claims of success. Preliminaries Background The PAVN had been utilizing large sections of relatively unpopulated eastern Cambodia as sanctuaries into which they could withdraw from the struggle in South Vietnam to rest and reorganize without being attacked. These base areas were also utilized by the PAVN and VC to store weapons and other material that had been transported on a large scale into the region on the Sihanouk Trail. PAVN forces had begun moving through Cambodian territory as early as 1963. Cambodian neutrality had already been violated by South Vietnamese forces in pursuit of political-military factions opposed to the regime of Ngô Đình Diệm in the late 1950s and early 1960s. In 1966, Prince Norodom Sihanouk, ruler of Cambodia, convinced of eventual communist victory in Southeast Asia and fearful for the future of his rule, had concluded an agreement with the People's Republic of China which allowed the establishment of permanent communist bases on Cambodian soil and the use of the Cambodian port of Sihanoukville for resupply. During 1968, Cambodia's indigenous communist movement, labeled Khmer Rouge (Red Khmers) by Sihanouk, began an insurgency to overthrow the government. While they received very limited material help from the North Vietnamese at the time (the Hanoi government had no incentive to overthrow Sihanouk, since it was satisfied with his continued "neutrality"), they were able to shelter their forces in areas controlled by PAVN/VC troops. The US government was aware of these activities in Cambodia, but refrained from taking overt military action within Cambodia in hopes of convincing the mercurial Sihanouk to alter his position. To accomplish this, President Lyndon B. Johnson authorized covert cross-border reconnaissance operations conducted by the secret Studies and Observations Group in order to gather intelligence on PAVN/VC activities in the border regions (Project Vesuvius). Menu, coup and North Vietnamese offensive The new commander of the US Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV), General Creighton W. Abrams, recommended to President Richard M. Nixon shortly after Nixon's inauguration that the Cambodian base areas be bombed by B-52 Stratofortress bombers. Nixon initially refused, but the breaking point came with the launching of PAVN's Tet 1969 Offensive in South Vietnam. Nixon, angered at what he perceived as a violation of the "agreement" with Hanoi after the cessation of the bombing of North Vietnam, authorized the covert air campaign. The first mission of Operation Menu was dispatched on March 18 and by the time it was completed 14 months later more than 3,000 sorties had been flown and 108,000 tons of bombs had been dropped on eastern Cambodia. While Sihanouk was abroad in France for a rest cure in January 1970, government-sponsored anti-Vietnamese demonstrations were held throughout Cambodia. Continued unrest spurred Prime Minister/Defense Minister Lon Nol to close the port of Sihanoukville to communist supplies and to issue an ultimatum on March 12 to the North Vietnamese to withdraw their forces from Cambodia within 72 hours. The prince, outraged that his "modus vivendi" with the communists had been disturbed, immediately arranged for a trip to Moscow and Beijing in an attempt to gain their agreement to apply pressure on Hanoi to restrain its forces in Cambodia. National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger wrote in his memoirs that "historians rarely do justice to the psychological stress on a policy-maker", noting that by early 1970 President Nixon was feeling very much besieged and inclined to lash out against a world he was believed was plotting his downfall. Nixon had vowed to end the Vietnam War by November 1, 1969 and failed to do so while in the fall of 1969 he had seen two of his nominations to the Supreme Court rejected by the Senate. Nixon had taken the rejection of his nominations to the Supreme Court as personal humiliations, which he was constantly brooding over. In February 1970, the "secret war" in Laos was revealed, much to his displeasure. Kissinger had denied in a press statement that any Americans had been killed fighting in Laos, only for it to emerge two days later that 27 Americans had been killed fighting in Laos. As a result, Nixon's public approval ratings fell by 11 points, causing him to refuse to see Kissinger for the next week. Nixon had hoped that when Kissinger secretly met Lê Đức Thọ in Paris in February 1970 that this might lead to a breakthrough in the negotiations and was disappointed that proved not to be so. Nixon had become obsessed with the film Patton, a biographical portrayal of controversial General George S. Patton, Jr., which he kept watching over and over again, seeing how the film presented Patton as a solitary and misunderstood genius whom the world did not appreciate, a parallel to himself. Nixon told his chief of staff, H.R. Haldeman, that he and the rest of his staff should see Patton and be more like the subject of the film. Feeling that events were not working in his favor, Nixon sought some bold, audacious action that might turn his fortunes around. In particular, Nixon believed that a spectacular military action that would prove "we are still serious about our commitment in Vietnam" might force the North Vietnamese to conclude the Paris peace talks in a manner satisfactory to American interests. In 1969, Nixon had pulled out 25,000 U.S. troops from South Vietnam and was planning to pull out 150,000 in the near future. The first withdrawal of 1969 had led to an increase in PAVN/VC activities in the Saigon area, and General Abrams had warned Nixon that to pull out another 150,000 troops without eliminating the PAVN/VC bases over the border in Cambodia would create an untenable military situation. Even before the coup against Sihanouk, Nixon was inclined to invade Cambodia. On March 18, the Cambodian National Assembly removed Sihanouk and named Lon Nol as provisional head of state. Sihanouk was in Moscow, having a discussion with the Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin, who had to inform him mid-way in the conversation that he had just been deposed. In response, Sihanouk immediately established a government-in-exile in Beijing allying himself with North Vietnam, the Khmer Rouge, the VC and the Laotian Pathet Lao. In doing so, Sihanouk lent his name and popularity in the rural areas of Cambodia to a movement over which he had little control. Sihanouk was revered by the Khmer peasantry as a god-like figure and his endorsement of the Khmer Rouge had immediate effects in rural areas (Silhanouk was less popular in the more educated urban areas of Cambodia). The reverence for the royal family was such that after the coup Lon Nol went to the Royal Palace, knelt at the feet of the queen mother Sisowath Kossamak and asked for her forgiveness for deposing her son. In the rural town of Kampong Cham, farmers enraged that their beloved ruler had been overthrown lynched one of Lon Nol's brothers, cut out his liver, cooked it and ate it to symbolize their contempt for the brother of the man who overthrew Sihanouk, who was viewed as the rightful once and future king. Sihanouk was enraged by the vulgar media attacks by Lon Nol against himself and his family, saying in interview with Stanley Karnow in 1981 that despite the fact that the Khmer Rouge slaughtered much of the royal family including several of his children he still had no regrets about allying himself with the Khmer Rouge in 1970. His voice raising in fury, Sihanouk told Karnow: "I had to avenge myself against Lon Nol. He was my minister, my officer and he betrayed me". Sihanouk left Moscow for Beijing, where he was greeted warmly by Zhou Enlai, who assured him that China still recognized him as the legitimate leader of Cambodia, and would back his efforts at restoration. Sihanouk went on Chinese radio to appeal to his people to overthrow Lon Nol, whom he depicted as a puppet of the Americans. Lon Nol was an intense Khmer nationalist, who detested the Vietnamese, the ancient archenemies of the Khmer nation. Like many other Khmer nationalists, Lon Nol had not forgotten the southern half of Vietnam was part of the Khmer empire until the 18th century nor had he forgiven the Vietnamese for conquering an area that historically was part of Cambodia. Though Cambodia had a weak army, Lon Nol had given Hanoi 48 hours to pull its forces out of Cambodia and began the hasty training of 60,000 volunteers to fight the PAVN/VC. By late March 1970, Cambodia had descended into anarchy as Karnow noted: "Rival Cambodian gangs were hacking each other to pieces, in some instances celebrating their prowess by eating the hearts and livers of their victims." The North Vietnamese response was swift; they began directly supplying large amounts of weapons and advisors to the Khmer Rouge and Cambodia plunged into civil war. Lon Nol saw Cambodia's population of 400,000 ethnic Vietnamese as possible hostages to prevent PAVN attacks and ordered their roundup and internment. Cambodian soldiers and civilians then unleashed a reign of terror, murdering thousands of Vietnamese civilians. Lon Nol encouraged pogroms against the Vietnamese minority and the Cambodian police took the lead in organizing the pogroms. On 15 April for example, 800 Vietnamese men were rounded up at the village of Churi Changwar, tied together, executed, and their bodies dumped into the Mekong River. They then floated downstream into South Vietnam. Cambodia's actions were denounced by both the North and South Vietnamese governments. The massacres of Cambodia's Vietnamese minority greatly enraged people in both Vietnams. Even before the supply conduit through Sihanoukville was shut down, PAVN had begun expanding its logistical system from southeastern Laos (the Ho Chi Minh trail) into northeastern Cambodia. Nixon was taken by surprise by the events in Cambodia, saying at a National Security Council meeting: "What the hell do those clowns do out there in Langley [CIA]?". The day after the coup, Nixon ordered Kissinger: "I want Helms [the CIA director] to develop and implement a plan for maximum assistance to pro-U.S. elements in Cambodia". The CIA began to fly in arms for the Lon Nol regime, through the Secretary of State William P. Rogers told the media about Cambodia on March 23, 1970 "We don't anticipate that any request will be made". Realizing that he had lost control of the situation, Lon Nol did a volte-face and suddenly declared Cambodia's "strict neutrality". On March 29, 1970 the PAVN launched an offensive (Campaign X) against the Cambodian Khmer National Armed Forces (FANK), quickly seizing large portions of the eastern and northeastern parts of the country, isolating and besieging or overrunning a number of Cambodian cities including Kampong Cham. Documents uncovered from the Soviet archives revealed that the offensive was launched at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge following negotiations with Nuon Chea. In early-April South Vietnamese Vice President Nguyễn Cao Kỳ twice visited Lon Nol in Phnom Penh for secret meetings to reestablish diplomatic relations between the two countries and agree on military cooperation. On April 14, 1970, Lon Nol appealed for help, saying that Cambodia was on the verge of losing its independence. On April 17 the Khmer Republic announced that North Vietnam was invading Cambodia and appealed for assistance in countering North Vietnamese aggression. The U.S. responding immediately, delivering 6,000 captured AK-47 rifles to the FANK and transporting 3–4,000 ethnic Cambodian Civilian Irregular Defense Group program (CIDG) troops to Phnom Penh. On April 20 the PAVN overran Snuol, on April 23 they seized Memot, on April 24 they attacked Kep and on April 26 they began firing on shipping along the Mekong River, attacked Chhloung District northeast of Phnom Penh and captured Ang Tassom, northwest of Takéo. After defeating the FANK forces, the PAVN turned the newly won territories over to local insurgents. The Khmer Rouge also established "liberated" areas in the south and the southwestern parts of the country, where they operated independently of the North Vietnamese. Planning In mid-April 1970 Abrams and Chief of the South Vietnamese Joint General Staff (JGS) General Cao Văn Viên discussed the possibility of attacking the Cambodian base areas. Cao passed on these discussions to South Vietnamese President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu who verbally ordered the JGS to instruct ARVN III Corps to liaise with MACV for operations in Cambodia. In late April Thiệu sent a secret directive instructing the JGS to conduct operations in Cambodia to a depth of from the border. By April 1970, the PAVN/Khmer Rouge offensive in Cambodia was going well and they had taken all five of Cambodia's northeastern provinces and Kissinger predicated to Nixon that the Lon Nol regime would not survive 1970 on its own. In response to events in Cambodia, Nixon believed that there were distinct possibilities for a U.S. response. With Sihanouk gone, conditions were ripe for strong measures against the base areas. He was also adamant that some action be taken to support "The only government in Cambodia in the last twenty-five years that had the guts to take a pro-Western stand." As the poorly-trained FANK went from defeat after defeat, Nixon was afraid that Cambodia would "go down the drain" if he did not take action. Nixon then solicited proposals for actions from the Joint Chiefs of Staff and MACV, who presented him with a series of options: a naval quarantine of the Cambodian coast; the launching of South Vietnamese and American airstrikes; the expansion of hot pursuit across the border by ARVN forces; or a ground invasion by ARVN, U.S. forces, or both. Nixon went to Honolulu to offer his congratulations to the Apollo 13 astronauts who had survived a malfunction on their spacecraft and while there, met the Commander in Chief, Pacific Command, Admiral John S. McCain Jr., who was the sort of aggressive, pugnacious military man he admired the most. McCain drew for Nixon a map of Cambodia that depicted the bloody claws of a red Chinese dragon clutching half of the country and advised Nixon that action was needed now. Impressed by Admiral McCain's performance, Nixon brought him back to his house in San Clemente, California to repeat it for Kissinger who was unimpressed. Kissinger was upset that Thọ had temporarily ended their secret meetings in Paris and shared Nixon's inclinations to lash out against an enemy. Kissinger regarded Thọ like all Vietnamese as "insolent". During a televised address on April 20, Nixon announced the withdrawal of 150,200 U.S. troops from South Vietnam during the year as part of the Vietnamization program. This planned withdrawal implied restrictions on any offensive U.S. action in Cambodia. By early 1970, MACV still maintained 330,648 U.S. Army and 55,039 Marine Corps troops in South Vietnam, most of whom were concentrated in 81 infantry and tank battalions. On April 22 Nixon authorized the planning of a South Vietnamese incursion into the Parrot's Beak (named for its perceived shape on a map), believing that "Giving the South Vietnamese an operation of their own would be a major boost to their morale as well as provide a practical demonstration of the success of Vietnamization." At the meeting of April 22, both Rogers and the Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird proposed waiting to see if the Lon Nol regime could manage to survive on its own. Kissinger took an aggressive line, favoring having the ARVN invade Cambodia with American air support. The Vice President, Spiro Agnew, the most hawkish member of Nixon's cabinet, forcefully told Nixon to avoid "pussyfooting" around and invade Cambodia with American troops. On April 23, Rogers testified before the House Appropriations Subcommittee that "the administration had no intentions...to escalate the war. We recognize that if we escalate and get involved in Cambodia with our ground troops that our whole program [Vietnamization] is defeated." Nixon then authorized Abrams to begin planning for a U.S. operation in the Fishhook region. A preliminary operational plan had actually been completed in March, but was kept so tightly under wraps that when Abrams handed over the task to Lieutenant general Michael S. Davison, commander of II Field Force, Vietnam, he was not informed about the previous planning and started a new one from scratch. Seventy-two hours later, Davison's plan was submitted to the White House. Kissinger asked one of his aides to review it on April 26, and the National Security Council staffer was appalled by its "sloppiness". The main problems were the pressure of time and Nixon's desire for secrecy. The Southeast Asia monsoon, whose heavy rains would hamper operations, was only two months away. By the order of Nixon, the State Department did not notify the Cambodian desk at the US Embassy, Saigon, the Phnom Penh embassy, or Lon Nol of the planning. Operational security was as tight as General Abrams could make it. There was to be no prior U.S. logistical build-up in the border regions which might serve as a signal to the communists. U.S. brigade commanders were informed only a week in advance of the offensive, while battalion commanders got only two or three days' notice. Decisions Not all of the members of the administration agreed that an invasion of Cambodia was either militarily or politically expedient. Laird and Rogers were both opposed to any such operation due to their belief that it would engender intense domestic opposition in the U.S. and that it might possibly derail the ongoing peace negotiations in Paris (they had both opposed the Menu bombings for the same reasons). Both were castigated by Henry Kissinger for their "bureaucratic foot-dragging." As a result, Laird was bypassed by the Joint Chiefs in advising the White House on planning and preparations for the Cambodian operation. Through relations between Laird and Kissinger were unfriendly, the latter felt that it was not proper for the Defense Secretary to be unaware that a major offensive was about to be launched. Laird advised Kissinger not to inform Rogers, who was due to testify before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, whose chairman, J. William Fulbright, was an opponent of the war. Laird wanted Rogers to honesty say he was unaware of plans to invade Cambodia to avoid having him indicted for perjury. Once Laird learned that Nixon was determined "to do something", he suggest only invading the "Parrot's Beak" area with ARVN forces. Nixon in his 1978 memoirs wrote this recommendation was "the most pusillanimous little nitpicker I ever saw". Nixon had decided to go for "the big play" for "all the marbles" since he anticipated "a hell of an uproar at home" regardless of what he did. Lon Nol was not informed in advance that American and South Vietnamese forces were about to enter his nation. On the evening of April 25 Nixon dined with his friend Bebe Rebozo and Kissinger. Afterward, they screened Patton, which Nixon had seen five times previously. Kissinger later commented that "When he was pressed to the wall, his [Nixon's] romantic streak surfaced and he would see himself as a beleaguered military commander in the tradition of Patton." The following evening, Nixon decided that "We would go for broke" and gave his authorization for the incursion. The joint U.S./ARVN campaign would begin on May 1 with the stated goals of reducing allied casualties in South Vietnam, assuring the continued withdrawal of U.S. forces, and enhancing the U.S./Saigon government position at the peace negotiations in Paris. The task of providing a legal justification was assigned to William Rehnquist, the assistant attorney general, who wrote a legal brief saying in times of war the president had the right to deploy troops "in conflict with foreign powers at their own initiative". Nixon had testy relations with Congress, so he had Kissinger inform Senators John C. Stennis and Richard Russell Jr. of the plans to invade Cambodia. Both Stennis and Russell were conservative Southern Democrats who were chairmen of key committees and both were expected to approve of their invasion as indeed they did. In this way, Nixon could say he did inform at least some leaders of Congress about what was being planned. Congress as a body was kept uninformed of the planned invasion. On April 29, press reports stated that ARVN troops had entered the "Parrot's Beak" area, leading to demands from anti-war senators and congressmen that the president should promise no American troops would be involved, only for the White House to say the president would be giving a speech the next day. Nixon ordered Patrick Buchanan, his speechwriter, to start composing a speech to justify the invasion. Nixon speaks In order to keep the campaign as low-key as possible, Abrams had suggested that the commencement of the incursion be routinely announced from Saigon. At 21:00 on 30 April, however, Nixon appeared on all three U.S. television networks to announce that "It is not our power but our will and character that is being tested tonight" and that "the time has come for action." Nixon's speech began 90 minutes after American troops entered the "Fishhook" area. He announced his decision to launch American forces into Cambodia with the special objective of capturing COSVN, "the headquarters of the entire communist military operation in South Vietnam." Nixon's speech on national television on April 30, 1970 was called "vintage Nixon" by Kissinger. Nixon announced that nothing less than America's status as a world power was at stake, saying he had spurned "all political considerations", as he maintained he rather be a one-term president than "be a two-term president at the cost of seeing America become a second-rate power". Nixon stated: "If, when the chips are down, the world's most powerful nation, the United States of America, acts like a pitiful helpless giant, then the forces of totalitarianism and anarchy will threaten free nations and free institutions throughout the world". Karnow wrote that Nixon could have presented the invasion as a relatively minor operation designed to speed up the withdrawal of American forces from South Vietnam by eliminating PAVN/VC bases, but instead by presenting the invasion as necessary to maintain America as a world power made it sound like a far bigger operation than what it really was. On May 1, 1970, Nixon visited the Pentagon where he received the news that 194 PAVN/VC troops had been killed since the previous day, most by air strikes. Upon seeing a map, Nixon noticed there other PAVN/VC sanctuaries besides the "Parrot's Beak" and the "Fishhook. When Nixon asked if they were being invaded as well, he was told that Congress might object. His response was: "Let me be the judge as far as the political reactions are concerned. Knock them all out so they can't be used against us again Ever". Lon Nol learned of the invasion when an American diplomat told him, who had in turn learned about it from a Voice of America radio broadcast. Kissinger sent his deputy, Alexander Haig, to Phnon Penh to meet Lon Nol. Dressed in battle fatigues, Haig refused to share any information with the U.S. embassy staff, instead meeting Lon Nol alone. Lon Nol complained that the invasion had not helped as it only pushed the PAVN/VC forces deeper into Cambodia and broke down in tears when Haig told him that the Americans would be withdrawing from Cambodia in June. Operations Escape of the Provisional Revolutionary Government Planning for any eventuality the North Vietnamese started planning emergency evacuation routes in the event of a coordinated assault by Cambodians from the west and South Vietnamese from the east. After the Cambodian coup, COSVN was evacuated on 19 March 1970. While the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (PRG) and PAVN/VC bases were preparing to also move to the north and safety they came under aerial bombardment from B-52 bombers on 27 March. As laid out by the evacuation plans General Hoàng Văn Thái planned to have three divisions to cover the escape. The 9th Division would block any movement from the ARVN, the VC 5th Division would screen any FANK forces and the 7th Division would provide security to the civilian and military members of the PAVN/VC bases. Moving across the border in Cambodia on 30 March, elements of the PRG and VC were surrounded in their bunkers by ARVN forces flown in by helicopter. Surrounded, they waited until nightfall and then with security provided by the 7th Division they broke out of the encirclement and fled north to unite with the COSVN in Kratie Province in what would come to be known as the "Escape of the Provisional Revolutionary Government". Trương Như Tảng, then Minister of Justice in the PRG, recounts that the march to the northern bases was a succession of forced marches, broken up by B-52 bombing raids. Years later Trương would recall just how "Close [South Vietnamese] were to annihilating or capturing the core of the Southern resistance – elite units of our frontline fighters along with the civilian and much of the military leadership". After many days of hard marches the PRG reached the northern bases, and relative safety, in the Kratie region. Casualties were light and the march even saw the birth of a baby to Dương Quỳnh Hoa, the deputy minister of health in the PRG. The column needed many days to recover and Trương himself would require weeks to recover from the long march. The Angel's Wing – Operation Toan Thang 41 On 14 April ARVN III Corps units launched a three-day operation into the "Angel's Wing" area of Svay Rieng Province called Operation Toan Thang (Complete Victory) 41. Mounted by two ARVN armor-infantry task forces, the units began their advance at 08:00 on 14 April. One task force met heavy resistance and killed 182 PAVN and captured 30 for the loss of seven killed. The next day the task forces skirmished with PAVN/VC and uncovered food and material caches and claimed 175 PAVN killed and one captured for losses of one killed. On 16 April, the task forces began their withdrawal, returning to South Vietnam by 12:10 on 17 April. Total PAVN losses, according to the ARVN, were 415 killed or captured and over 100 weapons captured. ARVN losses were 8 killed and one Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) A-1H Skyraider shot down. Documents captured during the operation and prisoner interrogations revealed that the area was the base for the PAVN 271st Regiment, 9th Division and other support units. The Crow's Nest – Operation Cuu Long/SD9/06 On 20 April, elements of the ARVN 9th Infantry Division attacked into Cambodia west of the "Crow's Nest" in Operation Cuu Long/SD9/06. The ARVN claimed 187 PAVN/VC killed and over 1,000 weapons captured for a cost of 24 killed. Thirty CH-47 sorties were flown to remove captured weapons and ammunition before it was decided to destroy the remainder in situ. The ARVN force returned to South Vietnam on 23 April. On 28 April, Kien Tuong Province Regional Forces with support from the 9th Division attacked into the "Crow's Nest" again in a two-day operation, reportedly killing 43 PAVN/VC and capturing two for the loss of two killed. During the same period the Regional Forces also raided northwest of Kampong Rou District killing 43 PAVN/VC and capturing 88 for the loss of 2 killed. On 27 April, an ARVN Ranger battalion advanced into Kandal Province to destroy a PAVN/VC base. Four days later other South Vietnamese troops drove 16 kilometers into Cambodian territory. On 20 April, 2,000 ARVN troops advanced into the Parrot's Beak, killing 144 PAVN troops. On 22 April, Nixon authorized American air support for the South Vietnamese operations. All of these incursions into Cambodian territory were simply reconnaissance missions in preparation for a larger-scale effort being planned by MACV and its ARVN counterparts, subject to authorization by Nixon. The Parrot's Beak – Operation Toan Thang 42 On 30 April ARVN forces launched Operation Toan Thang 42 (Total Victory), also labeled Operation Rock Crusher. 12 ARVN battalions of approximately 8,700 troops (two armored cavalry squadrons from III Corps and two from the 25th and 5th Infantry Divisions, an infantry regiment from the 25th Infantry Division, and three Ranger battalions and an attached ARVN Armored Cavalry Regiment from the 3rd Ranger Group) crossed into the Parrot's Beak region of Svay Rieng Province. The offensive was under the command of Lieutenant General Đỗ Cao Trí, the commander of III Corps, who had a reputation as one of the most aggressive and competent ARVN generals. Tri's operation was to have begun on the 29th but Trí refused to budge, claiming that his astrologer had told him "the heavens were not auspicious". During their first two days in Cambodia, ARVN units had several sharp encounters with PAVN forces losing 16 killed while killing 84 PAVN and capturing 65 weapons. The PAVN, forewarned by previous ARVN incursions, however, conducted only delaying actions in order to allow the bulk of their forces to escape to the west. Phase II of the operation began with the arrival of elements of IV Corps, consisting of the 9th Infantry Division, five armored cavalry squadrons and one Ranger group. Four tank-infantry task forces attacked into the Parrot's Beak from the south. After three days of operations, ARVN claimed 1,010 PAVN troops had been killed and 204 prisoners taken for the loss of 66 ARVN dead. On 3 May the III Corps and IV Corps units linked up and searched the area for supply caches. Phase III began on 7 May with one ARVN task force engaging the PAVN north of Prasot killing 182 and capturing 8, while another task force found a 200-bed hospital. On 9 May the two task forces linked up southwest of Kampong Trach, crossed the Kompong Spean River and searched the area for supply caches until 11 May. On 11 May Thiệu and Kỳ visited ARVN units in the field and Thiệu ordered III Corps to clear Route 1 and be prepared to relieve Kampong Trach in order to facilitate the evacuation of Vietnamese civilians from Phnom Penh. On 13 May Trí launched Phase IV, moving all three III Corps task forces west along Route 1 from Svay Rieng to meet up with IV Corps forces at Kampong Trabaek. To replace the departing units, Tây Ninh Province Regional Force units were moved into the area. On 14 May the task forces killed 74 PAVN/VC and captured 76. On 21 May a task force killed 9 PAVN and captured 26 from the PAVN 27th Regiment, 9th Division. By 22 May Route 1 was considered secured. On 23 May III Corps began Phase V to relieve Kampong Cham, headquarters of FANK's Military Region I, which had been under siege by the PAVN 9th Division, which had occupied the Chup rubber plantation northeast of the city and had begun bombarding the city from there. Two task forces moved along Routes 7 from Krek and 15 from Prey Veng to converge on the Chup plantation. The ARVN 7th Airborne Battalion engaged PAVN forces outside of Krek killing 26 and capturing 16. On 25 May armored and Ranger units clashed with the PAVN south of Route 7. On 28 May one task force engaged a PAVN unit killing 73 while the other task force located various supply caches. As the task forces converged on the Chup plantation heavy fighting began which continued until 1 June. Meanwhile, on 25 May Tây Ninh Province RF units and CIDG forces engaged PAVN/VC forces in the Angel's Wing area killing 38 and capturing 21. On 29 May a task force was sent to assist in the Angel's Wing area. PAVN/VC anti-aircraft fire was particularly heavy, downing one RVNAF A-1H, one USAF F-100 Super Sabre and one U.S. Army AH-1 Cobra gunship. On 3 June the ARVN began rotating units for rest and refit, withdrawing from around Kampong Cham to Krek. The PAVN quickly moved back into the area and renewed their siege of the city. On 19 June Thiệu ordered III Corps to relieve Kampong Cham once again and on 21 June three task forces moved towards Chup along Route 7 from Krek. By 27 June the PAVN had left the Chup area. On 29 June Task Force 318 was engaged by a PAVN force on Route 15 and the ARVN killed 165 PAVN for losses of 34 killed and 24 missing. Results for the operation were 3,588 PAVN/VC killed or captured and 1,891 individual and 478 crew-served weapons captured. The Fishhook – Operations Toan Thang 43-6/Rock Crusher On 1 May an even larger operation, in parallel with Toan Thang 42, known by the ARVN as Operation Toan Thang 43 and by MACV as Operation Rock Crusher, got underway as 36 B-52s dropped 774 tons of bombs along the southern edge of the Fishhook. This was followed by an hour of massed artillery fire and another hour of strikes by tactical fighter-bombers. At 10:00, the 1st Cavalry Division, the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment (11th ACR), the ARVN 1st Armored Cavalry Regiment and the ARVN 3rd Airborne Brigade then entered Kampong Cham Province. Known as Task Force Shoemaker (after General Robert M. Shoemaker, the Assistant Division Commander of the 1st Cavalry Division), the force attacked the PAVN/VC stronghold with 10,000 U.S. and 5,000 South Vietnamese troops. The operation utilized mechanized infantry and armored units to drive deep into the province where they would then link up with ARVN airborne and U.S. airmobile units that had been lifted in by helicopter. Opposition to the incursion was expected to be heavy, but PAVN/VC forces had begun moving westward two days before the advance began. By 3 May, MACV reported only eight Americans killed and 32 wounded, low casualties for such a large operation. There was only scattered and sporadic contact with delaying forces such as that experienced by elements of the 11th ACR three kilometers inside Cambodia. PAVN troops opened fire with small arms and rockets only to be blasted by tank fire and tactical airstrikes. When the smoke had cleared, 50 dead PAVN soldiers were counted on the battlefield while only two U.S. troops were killed during the action. The North Vietnamese had ample notice of the impending attack. A 17 March directive from the headquarters of the B-3 Front, captured during the incursion, ordered PAVN/VC forces to "break away and avoid shooting back...Our purpose is to conserve forces as much as we can". The only surprised party amongst the participants in the incursion seemed to be Lon Nol, who had been informed by neither Washington nor Saigon concerning the impending invasion of his country. He only discovered the fact after a telephone conversation with the U.S. Ambassador, who had found out about it himself from a radio broadcast. The only conventional battle fought by American troops occurred on 1 May at Snuol, the terminus of the Sihanouk Trail at the junction of Routes 7, 13 and 131. Elements of the 11th ACR and supporting helicopters came under PAVN fire while approaching the town and its airfield. When a massed American attack was met by heavy resistance, the Americans backed off, called in air support and blasted the town for two days, reducing it to rubble. During the action, Brigadier general Donn A. Starry, commander of the 11th ACR, was wounded by grenade fragments and evacuated. On the following day, Company C, 1st Battalion (Airmobile), 5th Cavalry Regiment, entered what came to be known as "The City", southwest of Snoul. The two-square mile PAVN complex contained over 400 thatched huts, storage sheds, and bunkers, each of which was packed with food, weapons and ammunition. There were truck repair facilities, hospitals, a lumber yard, 18 mess halls, a pig farm and even a swimming pool. The one thing that was not found was COSVN. On 1 May a tape of Nixon's announcement of the incursion was played for Abrams, who according to Lewis Sorley "must have cringed" when he heard the President state that the capture of the headquarters was one of the major objectives of the operation. MACV intelligence knew that the mobile and widely dispersed headquarters would be difficult to locate. In response to a White House query before the fact, MACV had replied that "major COSVN elements are dispersed over approximately 110 square kilometers of jungle" and that "the feasibility of capturing major elements appears remote". After the first week of operations, additional battalion and brigade units were committed to the operation, so that between 6 and 24 May, a total of 90,000 Allied troops (including 33 U.S. maneuver battalions) were conducting operations inside Cambodia. Due to increasing political and domestic turbulence in the U.S., Nixon issued a directive on 7 May limiting the distance and duration of U.S. operations to a depth of and setting a deadline of 30 June for the withdrawal of all U.S. forces to South Vietnam. The final results for the operation were 3,190 PAVN/VC killed or captured and 4,693 individual and 731 crew-served weapons captured. Operations Toan Thang 44, 45 and 46 On 6 May the U.S. 1st and 2nd Brigades, 25th Infantry Division, launched Operation Toan Thang 44 against Base Areas 353, 354 and 707 located north and northeast of Tây Ninh Province. Once again, a hunt for COSVN units was conducted, this time around the Cambodian town of Memot and, once again, the search was futile. On 7 May the 2nd Battalion, 14th Infantry Regiment engaged a PAVN force killing 167 and capturing 28 weapons. On 11 May brigade units found a large food and material cache. The operation ended on 14 May. Results for the operation were 302 PAVN/VC killed or captured and 297 individual and 34 crew-served weapons captured. Another source states that the division killed 1,017 PAVN/VC troops while losing 119 of its own men killed. Simultaneous with the launching of Toan Thang 44, two battalions of the U.S. 3rd Brigade, 9th Infantry Division, crossed the border 48 kilometers southwest of the Fishhook into an area known as the "Dog's Face" from 7 through 12 May. The only significant contact with PAVN forces took place near Chantrea District, where 51 PAVN were killed and another 21 were captured. During the operation, the brigade lost eight men killed and 22 wounded. On 6 May the 2nd Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division, launched Operation Toan Thang 45 against Base Area 351 northwest of Bù Đốp District. On 7 May the Cavalry located a massive supply cache, nicknamed "Rock Island East" after the U.S. Army's Rock Island Arsenal in Illinois, the area contained more than 6.5 million rounds of anti-aircraft ammunition, 500,000 rifle rounds, thousands of rockets, several General Motors trucks, and large quantities of communications equipment. A pioneer road was constructed to aid the evacuation of the captured weaponry. On 12 May the 5th Battalion, 12th Infantry Regiment, was attacked overnight by a PAVN force losing one killed while claiming 50 PAVN killed. The Cavalry continued searching for supply caches until returning to South Vietnam on 29 June. Results for the operation were 1,527 PAVN/VC killed or captured and 3,073 individual and 449 crew-served weapons captured. Also on 6 May the ARVN 9th Regiment, 5th Infantry Division, launched Operation Toan Thang 46 against Base Area 350. On 25 May, after being engaged by a PAVN/VC force, the 9th Regiment discovered a 500-bed hospital. The Regiment continued searching for supply caches before starting a withdrawal towards Route 13 on 20 June, returning to South Vietnam on 30 June. Results for the operation were 79 PAVN/VC killed or captured and 325 individual and 41 crew-served weapons captured. Operations Binh Tay I–III In the II Corps area, Operation Binh Tay I (Operation Tame the West) was launched by the 1st and 2nd Brigades of the U.S. 4th Infantry Division and the ARVN 40th Infantry Regiment, 22nd Infantry Division against Base Area 702 (the traditional headquarters of the PAVN B-2 Front) in northeastern Cambodia from 5–25 May. Following airstrikes, the initial American forces, the 3rd Battalion, 506th Infantry (on loan from the 101st Airborne Division), assaulting via helicopter, were driven back by intense anti-aircraft fire. On 6 May following preparatory airstrikes the assault was resumed. Helicopters carrying the 3rd Battalion, 8th Infantry were met again by intense anti-aircraft fire and were diverted to an alternative landing zone, however only 60 men were landed before intense PAVN fire (which shot down one helicopter and damaged two others) shut down the landing zone, leaving them stranded and surrounded overnight. On 7 May, the division's 2nd Brigade inserted its three battalions unopposed. On 10 May, Bravo Company, 3/506th Infantry, was ambushed by a much larger PAVN force in the Se San Valley. Eight U.S. soldiers were killed and 28 wounded, among those killed was Specialist Leslie Sabo, Jr. (posthumously promoted to Sergeant), who was recommended for the Medal of Honor, but the paperwork went missing until 1999. Sabo was awarded the Medal of Honor on 16 May 2012 by President Barack Obama. After ten days the American troops returned to South Vietnam, leaving the area to the ARVN. Historian Shelby Stanton has noted that "there was a noted lack of aggressiveness" in the combat assault and that the division seemed to be "suffering from almost total combat paralysis." The operation ended on 25 May, U.S./ARVN losses were 43 killed while PAVN/VC losses were 212 killed and 7 captured and 859 individual and 20 crew-served weapons captured. During Operation Binh Tay II, the ARVN 22nd Division moved against Base Area 701 from 14 to 27 May. No significant combat occurred but the ARVN killed 73 PAVN/VC and captured 6 and located supply caches containing 346 individual and 23 crew-served weapons, ammunition and medical supplies. The operation ended on 27 May. Operation Binh Tay III, was carried out by ARVN forces between 20 May and 27 June when elements of the ARVN 23rd Division conducted operations against Base Area 740. During Phase 1 from 20 May to 3 June the ARVN killed 96 PAVN/VC and captured one while losing 29 killed. Phase 2 took place from 4 to 12 June with limited results. During Phase 3 from 19 to 27 June and resulted the ARVN killed 149 PAVN/VC and captured 3 and 581 individual and 85 crew-served weapons for the loss of 38 killed. Operations Cuu Long I–III On 9 May ARVN IV Corps launched Operation Cuu Long, in which ARVN ground forces, including mechanized and armored units, drove west and northwest up the eastern side of the Mekong River from 9 May to 1 July. A combined force of 110 Republic of Vietnam Navy and 30 U.S. vessels proceeded up the Mekong to Prey Veng, permitting IV Corps ground forces to move westward to Phnom Penh to aid ethnic Vietnamese seeking flight to South Vietnam. During these operations South Vietnamese and American naval forces evacuated about 35,000 Vietnamese from Cambodia. Those who did not wish to be repatriated were then forcibly expelled. Surprisingly, North Vietnamese forces did not oppose the evacuation, though they could easily have done so. It was already too late for thousands of ethnic Vietnamese murdered by Cambodian persecution, but there were tens of thousands of Vietnamese still within the country who could be evacuated to safety. Thiệu arranged with Lon Nol to repatriate as many as were willing to leave. The new relationship did not, however, prevent the Cambodian government from stripping the Vietnamese of their homes and other personal property before they left. Subsequent operations conducted by IV Corps included Operation Cuu Long II (16–24 May), which continued actions along the western side of the Mekong. Lon Nol had requested that the ARVN help in the retaking of Kampong Speu, a town along Route 4 southwest of Phnom Penh and inside Cambodia. A 4,000-man ARVN armored task force linked up with FANK troops and then retook the town. Operation Cuu Long III (24 May – 30 June) was an evolution of the previous operations after U.S. forces had left Cambodia. Operation Cuu Long II was initiated by IV Corps on 16 May to assist the FANK in restoring security around Takéo. ARVN forces committed included the 9th and 21st Infantry Divisions, 4th Armor Brigade, 4th Ranger Group and the Châu Đốc Province Regional Forces. The weeklong operation resulted in 613 PAVN/VC killed and 52 captured and 792 individual and 84 crew-served weapons captured. ARVN losses were 36 killed. Operations continued under the name Operation Cuu Long III starting 25 May in the same area with the same forces less the 21st Division which had returned to South Vietnam. While the PAVN/VC generally avoided contact, the ARVN located 3,500 weapons in a storage area. Evacuation of Ratanakiri – Operation Binh Tay IV In late June the FANK asked the U.S. and South Vietnam for assistance in evacuating two isolated garrisons at Ba Kev and Labang Siek in Ratanakiri Province. On 21 June the ARVN 22nd Division was given the mission of facilitating the evacuation of the bases. On 23 June the division moved to Đức Cơ Camp and was organized into four task forces which would then advance west along Route 19 to Ba Kev, protected by U.S. air cavalry units. The FANK units at Labang Siek would then move east along Route 19 to Ba Kev and would then be flown or trucked to Đức Cơ across the border to South Vietnam. The operation began on 25 June and was successfully completed by 27 June with 7,571 FANK troops, their dependents and refugees evacuated. ARVN losses were 2 killed while PAVN losses were 6 killed and 2 weapons captured. Air support and logistics Aerial operations for the incursion got off to a slow start. Reconnaissance flights over the operational area were restricted since MACV believed that they might serve as a signal of intention. The role of the United States Air Force (USAF) in the planning for the incursion itself was minimal at best, in part to preserve the secrecy of Menu which was then considered an overture to the thrust across the border. On 17 April, Abrams requested that Nixon approve Operation Patio, covert tactical airstrikes in support of MACV-SOG reconnaissance elements in Cambodia. This authorization was given, allowing U.S. aircraft to penetrate into northeastern Cambodia. This boundary was extended to along the entire frontier on 25 April. Patio was terminated on 18 May after 156 sorties had been flown. The last Menu mission was flown on 26 May. During the incursion itself, U.S. and ARVN ground units were supported by 9,878 aerial sorties (6,012 USAF/2,966 RVNAF), an average of 210 per day. During operations in the Fishhook, for example, the USAF flew 3,047 sorties and the RVNAF 332. These tactical airstrikes were supplemented by 653 B-52 missions in the border regions (71 supporting Binh Tay operations, 559 for Toan Thang operations and 23 for Cuu Long). 30 May saw the inauguration of Operation Freedom Deal (named as of 6 June), a continuous U.S. aerial interdiction campaign conducted in Cambodia. These missions were limited to a depth of 48 kilometers between the South Vietnamese border and the Mekong River. Within two months, however, the limit of the operational area was extended past the Mekong and U.S. tactical aircraft were soon directly supporting Cambodian forces in the field. These missions were officially denied by the U.S. and false coordinates were given in official reports to hide their existence. Defense Department records indicated that out of more than 8,000 combat sorties flown in Cambodia between July 1970 and February 1971, approximately 40 percent were flown outside the authorized boundary. The real struggle for the U.S. and ARVN forces in Cambodia was the effort at keeping their units supplied. Once again, the need for security before the operations and the rapidity with which units were transferred to the border regions precluded detailed planning and preparation. Abrams was fortunate, had the PAVN/VC fought for the sanctuaries instead of fleeing, U.S. and ARVN units would have rapidly consumed their available supplies. This situation was exacerbated by the poor road network in the border regions and the possibility of ambush for nighttime road convoys demanded that deliveries only take place during daylight. The tempo of logistical troops could be mind numbing. The U.S. Third Ordnance Battalion for example, loaded up to 150 flatbed trucks per day with ammunition. Logisticians were issuing more than 2,300 short tons (almost five million pounds) of supplies every day to support the incursion. Aerial resupply, therefore, became the chief method of logistical replenishment for the forward units. Military engineers and aviators were kept in constant motion throughout the incursion zone. Due to the rapid pace of operations, deployment, and redeployment, coordination of artillery units and their fires became a worrisome quandary during the operations. This was made even more problematic by the confusion generated by the lack of adequate communications systems between the rapidly advancing units. The joint nature of the operation added another level of complexity to the already overstretched communications network. Regardless, due to the ability of U.S. logisticians to innovate and improvise, supplies of food, water, ammunition, and spare parts arrived at their destinations without any shortages hampering combat operations and the communications system, although complicated, functioned well enough during the short duration of U.S. operations. Aftermath The North Vietnamese response to the incursion was to avoid contact with allied forces and, if possible, to fall back westward and regroup. PAVN/VC forces were well aware of the planned attack and many COSVN/B-3 Front military units were already far to the north and west conducting operations against the Cambodians when the offensive began. During 1969 PAVN logistical units had already begun the largest expansion of the Ho Chi Minh trail conducted during the entire conflict. As a response to the loss of their Cambodian supply route, PAVN forces seized the Laotian towns of Attopeu and Saravane during the year, pushing what had been a corridor to a width of and opening the entire length of the Kong River system into Cambodia. A new logistical command, the 470th Transportation Group, was created to handle logistics in Cambodia and the new "Liberation Route" ran through Siem Pang and reached the Mekong at Stung Treng. The majority of the PAVN/VC forces had withdrawn deeper into Cambodia before the invasion with a rearguard left to stage a fighting retreat to avoid charges of cowardice. PAVN/VC losses in manpower were minimal, but much equipment and arms were abandoned. The allied forces captured a vast haul of weapons and equipment and the for the rest of 1970 PAVN/VC activities in the Saigon area were notably reduced. However, by 1971 all of the weapons and equipment had been replaced while the PAVN/VC returned to their frontier bases in the summer of 1970 after the withdraw of the Americans in June 1970. General Abrams was frustrated with the invasion, saying: "We need to go west from where we are, we need to go north and east from where we are. And we need to do it now. It's moving and-goddam, goddam". When one officer asked "Time to exploit?", Abrams replied: "Christ! It's so clear. Don't them pick up the pieces. Don't let them pick up the pieces. Just like the Germans. You give them 36 hours and, goddam it, you've got to start the war all over again". As foreseen by Laird, fallout from the incursion was quick in coming on the campuses of America's universities, as protests erupted against what was perceived as an expansion of the conflict into yet another country. On 4 May the unrest escalated to violence when Ohio National Guardsmen shot and killed four unarmed students (two of whom were not protesters) during the Kent State shootings. Two days later, at the University at Buffalo, police wounded four more demonstrators. On 15 May city and state police killed two and wounded twelve at Jackson State College in Jackson, Mississippi. Earlier, on 8 May 100,000 protesters had gathered in Washington and another 150,000 in San Francisco on only ten days notice. Nationwide, 30 ROTC buildings went up in flames or were bombed while 26 schools witnessed violent clashes between students and police. National Guard units were mobilized on 21 campuses in 16 states. The student strike spread nationwide, involving more than four million students and 450 universities, colleges and high schools in mostly peaceful protests and walkouts. Simultaneously, public opinion polls during the second week of May showed that 50 percent of the American public approved of Nixon's actions. Fifty-eight percent blamed the students for what had occurred at Kent State. On both sides, emotions ran high. In one instance, in New York City on 8 May, pro-administration construction workers rioted and attacked demonstrating students. Such violence, however, was an aberration. Most demonstrations, both pro- and anti-war, were peaceful. On 20 May 100,000 construction workers, tradesmen, and office workers marched peacefully through New York City in support of Nixon's policies. Reaction in the U.S. Congress to the incursion was also swift. Senators Frank F. Church (Democratic Party, Idaho) and John S. Cooper (Republican Party, Kentucky), proposed an amendment to the Foreign Military Sales Act of 1971 that would have cut off funding not only for U.S. ground operations and advisors in Cambodia, but would also have ended U.S. air support for Cambodian forces. On 30 June the U.S. Senate passed the act with the amendment included. The bill was defeated in the House of Representatives after U.S. forces were withdrawn from Cambodia as scheduled. The newly amended act did, however, rescind the Southeast Asia Resolution (better known as the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution) under which Presidents Johnson and Nixon had conducted military operations for seven years without a declaration of war. The Cooper–Church Amendment was resurrected during the winter and incorporated into the Supplementary Foreign Assistance Act of 1970. This time the measure made it through both houses of Congress and became law on 22 December. As a result, all U.S. ground troops and advisors were barred from participating in military actions in Laos or Cambodia, while the air war being conducted in both countries by the USAF was ignored. In June 1970 Thiệu met with Lon Nol, Prince Sirik Matak and Cheng Heng at Neak Loeung where the ARVN had established an operational base. On 27 June 1970 Thiệu gave a televised speech in which he outlined South Vietnam's Cambodia policy: (1) South Vietnamese forces would continue to operate on Cambodian territory after the withdrawal of U.S. forces to prevent the PAVN/VC from returning to their base areas; (2) South Vietnamese forces would continue to evacuate Vietnamese who wished to be repatriated; (3) The South Vietnamese government would support the Cambodian government in meeting PAVN/VC aggression; (4) future activities in Cambodia would be conducted without U.S. support; (5) the bulk of South Vietnamese forces would be withdrawn from Cambodia; and (6) the object of South Vietnamese actions was to improve South Vietnamese security and ensure the success of Vietnamization. The South Vietnamese military established a liaison office in Phnom Penh and monthly meetings of the JGS, FANK command and MACV were instituted. South Vietnamese operations into the border areas of Cambodia continued. Operation Toan Thang 42 Phase VI was conducted along Routes 1 and 7 with limited success due to the onset of the rainy season. Operation Cuu Long 44-02 was conducted from 13 to 25 January 1971 to reopen Route 4 which had been closed by the PAVN 1st Division occupying the Pich Nil Pass (). The operation was successful with PAVN/Khmer Rouge losses of 211 killed while ARVN losses were 16 killed. In mid-1971 the Cambodian government requested the abrogation of South Vietnam's zone of operations in Cambodia and the South Vietnamese agreed to reducing the zone to a depth of , which reflected the inability of the South Vietnamese to conduct deeper incursions without U.S. support. South Vietnam mounted its last major operation in Cambodia from 27 March to 2 April 1974 culminating in the Battle of Svay Rieng. Following that action the severe constraints on ARVN ammunition expenditures, fuel usage, and flying hours permitted no new initiatives. Conclusion Nixon proclaimed the incursion to be "the most successful military operation of the entire war." Abrams was of like mind, believing that time had been bought for the pacification of the South Vietnamese countryside and that U.S. and ARVN forces had been made safe from any attack out of Cambodia during 1971 and 1972. A "decent interval" had been obtained for the final American withdrawal. ARVN General Tran Dinh Tho was more skeptical: John Shaw and other historians, military and civilian, have based the conclusions of their work on the incursion on the premise that the North Vietnamese logistical system in Cambodia had been so badly damaged that it was rendered ineffective. However this was only temporary as shown by the sustained PAVN attacks on An Loc supported out of Cambodia during the 1972 Easter Offensive. The U.S. and ARVN claimed 11,369 PAVN/VC soldiers killed and 2,509 captured. The logistical haul discovered, removed, or destroyed in eastern Cambodia during the operations was indeed prodigious: 22,892 individual and 2,509 crew-served weapons; 7,000 to 8,000 tons of rice; 1,800 tons of ammunition (including 143,000 mortar shells, rockets and recoilless rifle rounds); 29 tons of communications equipment; 431 vehicles; and 55 tons of medical supplies. MACV intelligence estimated that PAVN/VC forces in southern Vietnam required 1,222 tons of all supplies each month to keep up a normal pace of operations. The official PAVN history claims that from April to July they eliminated 40,000 enemy troops, destroyed 3,000 vehicles and 400 artillery pieces and captured 5,000 weapons, 113 vehicles, 1,570 tons of rice and 100 tons of medical supplies. Due to the loss of its Cambodian supply system and continued aerial interdiction in Laos, MACV estimated that for every 2.5 tons of materiel sent south down the Ho Chi Minh trail, only one ton reached its destination. However, the true loss rate was probably only around ten percent. Due to lack of verifiable sources in North Vietnam, this figure is, at best, an estimate. The official PAVN history noted: Regardless, the PAVN's Group 559 successfully countered these efforts through camouflage tactics and the construction of thousands of kilometers of "bypass" roads to avoid choke points that frequently came under enemy attack. Per the same history, The USAF's best estimate for the same time period was that one-third of the total amount was destroyed in transit. South Vietnamese forces had performed well during the incursion but their leadership was uneven. Trí proved a resourceful and inspiring commander, earning the sobriquet the "Patton of the Parrot's Beak" from the American media. Abrams also praised the skill of General Nguyễn Viết Thanh, commander of IV Corps and planner of the Parrot's Beak operation. Unfortunately for the South Vietnamese, both officers were killed in helicopter crashes, Thanh on 2 May in Cambodia and Trí in February 1971. Other ARVN commanders, however, had not performed as well. Even at this late date in the conflict, the appointment of ARVN general officers was prompted by political loyalty rather than professional competence. As a test of Vietnamization, the incursion was praised by American generals and politicians alike, but the Vietnamese had not really performed alone. The participation of U.S. ground and air forces had precluded any such claim. When called on to conduct solo offensive operations during the incursion into Laos (Operation Lam Son 719) in 1971, the ARVN's continued weaknesses would become all too apparent. The Cambodian government was not informed of the incursion until it was already under way. The Cambodian leadership however welcomed the intervention against PAVN bases and the resulting weakening of PAVN military capabilities. The leadership had hoped for permanent U.S. occupation of the PAVN sanctuaries because FANK and ARVN forces were unable to fill the vacuum in these territories following U.S. withdrawal and instead the PAVN and Khmer Rouge moved quickly to fill the void. It has been argued that the incursion heated up the civil war and helped the insurgent Khmer Rouge gather recruits to their cause. References Notes Sources Vietnam, July 1970 – January 1972 Vietnam, January 1969 – July 1970 MACV Command History 1970 Volume III 1970 in Cambodia Cambodia–United States relations Conflicts in 1970 Invasions by the United States Invasions of Cambodia Battles and operations of the Vietnam War in 1970 April 1970 events in Asia May 1970 events in Asia June 1970 events in Asia July 1970 events in Asia
4174431	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem%20%28Mendelssohn%20book%29	Jerusalem (Mendelssohn book)	Jerusalem, or on Religious Power and Judaism () is a book written by Moses Mendelssohn, which was first published in 1783 – the same year when the Prussian officer Christian Wilhelm von Dohm published the second part of his Mémoire Concerning the amelioration of the civil status of the Jews. Moses Mendelssohn was one of the key figures of Jewish Enlightenment (Haskalah) and his philosophical treatise, dealing with social contract and political theory (especially concerning the question of the separation between religion and state), can be regarded as his most important contribution to Haskalah. The book which was written in Prussia on the eve of the French Revolution, consisted of two parts and each one was paginated separately. The first part discusses "religious power" and the freedom of conscience in the context of the political theory (Baruch Spinoza, John Locke, Thomas Hobbes), and the second part discusses Mendelssohn's personal conception of Judaism concerning the new secular role of any religion within an enlightened state. In his publication Moses Mendelssohn combined a defense of the Jewish population against public accusations with contemporary criticism of the present conditions of the Prussian Monarchy. Historical background In 1763 some students of theology visited Moses Mendelssohn in Berlin because of his reputation as a man of letters, and they insisted that they wanted to know Mendelssohn's opinion about Christianity. Three years later one of them, the Swiss Johann Caspar Lavater, sent him his own German translation of Charles Bonnet's Palingénésie philosophique, with a public dedication to Mendelssohn. In this dedication he charged Mendelssohn with the decision to follow Bonnet's reasons by converting to Christianity or to refute Bonnet's arguments. The very ambitious priest Lavater published his dedication to Mendelssohn and Mendelssohn's response together with other letters which were dated to the year 1774—including a prayer of Dr. Kölbele "baptizing two Israelites as a consequence of the Mendelssohn dispute". He abused the reputation of Mendelssohn and of his letters about religious tolerance to fashion himself as a kind of Christian Messiah of contemporary Judaism, disregarding the Haskalah as a conversion to Christianity. This intrigue was transferred to the times of the medieval Crusades in the allegorical drama Nathan der Weise of Mendelssohn's friend Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: Lessing replaced the young priest Lavater with the historical figure Saladin who appeared as the tolerant hero of the Crusades in the perspective of contemporary enlightened historiography. The motive of Nathan who replied with the ring parable, was taken from Boccaccio's "Decamerone" and Lessing intended to create his drama as a monument of tolerance and enlightenment dedicated to Moses Mendelssohn. Lessing was an open-minded and modern type of freemason and he himself had a public theological dispute (Fragmentenstreit) about the historical truth of the New Testament with the orthodox Lutheran Hauptpastor Johann Melchior Goeze in Hamburg during the 1770s. Finally he was banned in 1778 by Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Lessing's new way to ask about the fundament of a certain religion and to regard its efforts on religious tolerance was intended as a reflection of the current political practice. In 1782, after the declaration of the so-called "Toleranzpatent" in the Habsburg monarchy under Joseph II and the realization of the «lettres patentes» in the French Monarchy under Louis XVI, religion and especially the Jewish emancipation became a favorite subject of private debates in Alsace–Lorraine and these debates were often followed by publications of Christian clerics and Abbés. Mendelssohn's Jerusalem or on Religious Power and Judaism may be regarded as his contribution to the debate. During the 1770s, Mendelssohn was frequently asked to act as a mediator by Jews in Switzerland and Alsace – and once Lavater supported Mendelssohn's intervention. About 1780, there was another antisemitic intrigue in Alsace, when François Hell accused the Jewish population of exhausting the peasants. The contemporary Alsatian Jews had no permission to buy land, but they often existed as innkeepers and moneylenders in rural areas. Moses Mendelssohn was asked by Herz Cerfberr, the communal leader of the Alsatian Jews, to react with a Mémoire about the legal discrimination of the Jewish population as it was common practice of the Prussian administration. Moses Mendelssohn arranged a Mémoire by the Prussian officer and freemason Christian Wilhelm von Dohm in which both authors tried to relate the confirmation of the unenlightened condition with a demand for a general improvement of the civil condition. In this respect Moses Mendelssohn proved in his book Jerusalem which was published in the same year, that the "amelioration" of the civil status of the Jews could not be separated from an urgent need to modernize the Prussian Monarchy as a whole. The reason, why Moses Mendelssohn as one of the most recognized philosophers of Haskalah was from the Kingdom of Prussia, has to be understood by the fact that the state of Jewish emancipation there was on the lowest level in comparison with the neighbour countries. So the Jewish population was more forced to assimilate than in other countries during the 19th century: The Hohenzollern Monarchy followed with their edicts into the footsteps of the Habsburg monarchy—with 10 years delay. In 1784, one year after the publication of Mendelssohn's book Jerusalem, the administration of the Habsburg monarchy prohibited rabbinic jurisdiction and submitted the Jewish population to its own jurisdiction, but with an inferior legal status. This first step of the monarchy was expected to be done in a direction towards intolerance. In 1791 the National Assembly of the French Revolution declared the full civil rights for the Jewish population of the French Republic (Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen). Moses Mendelssohn's treatise "On Religious Power" and its composition Moses Mendelssohn was a highly educated scholar and teacher, who devoted much effort to the German translation of classical Hellenic and Roman philosophers and poets as a young man, and he became a very famous and influential philosopher of Haskalah. His book Jerusalem oder über religiöse Macht und Judentum can be regarded as one of the main works of Jewish Enlightenment. Often this text which explains the real subject of "amelioration" in Dohm's defense, is still underestimated as a contribution to philosophy—probably because it was directly connected with the historical situation and the social conditions of the author's life. On the other hand, a lot of historians concerned about Haskalah criticized the heroic image about Moses Mendelssohn in which he appears as the starting point of Jewish enlightenment without any respect to earlier attempts around the beginning of the 18th century. Regarding the present accusations and complaints concerning the current state of Judaism as a modern Christian prejudice which just had replaced the medieval ones (like poisoning fountains, ritual slaughtering of Christian children on Pessah etc.), his subject of amelioration was the religion and especially the one which has to be separated from the state. The two parts of his books have no titles except Erster and Zweiter Abschnitt ("first" and "second section"), and the first one treated clearly the contemporary conflicts of the state and the second those of religion. In the first the author developed his political theory towards a utopia of a just and tolerant democracy, which he identified with the political attempt of the Mosaic Law: therefore the title "Jerusalem". In the second part he worked out a new pedagogic charge which every religion has to fulfill in the private sector. It was reduced to it, because the tolerant state should be separated from any religion. Hence the Mosaic law and the traditional practice of jurisdiction was no longer the business of Judaism, if there would be a tolerant state. Instead the new charge of religion would be the education of just and tolerant citizens. The book as a whole summarizes Moses Mendelssohn's critic concerning the contemporary conditions of the Prussian Monarchy and the legal status of the different religions, which finally means the civil status of its inhabitants according to their faith—the subject of Christian Wilhelm von Dohm's Mémoire. The philosophical issue (first part) Mendelssohn's concept of political theory has to be understood from the historical situation in Prussian Monarchy and he formulated his theory before Kant. In 1771 he was also chosen by Johann Georg Sulzer, who wanted him as a member of the philosophical department at the Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften. But Sulzer's call was prohibited by Frederick the Great. The royal intervention clearly showed the borders of enlightenment and tolerance within Prussian monarchy, as far as the separation between religion and state was concerned. In 1792 Immanuel Kant used in Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft a conventional theological argument about the inferiority of the Mosaic law which would violently force mankind to a moral attitude, so it could not be really understood as a religion. Despotism (Spinoza and Montesquieu) Moses Mendelssohn opened the first part of his treatise which was published in 1783, with a very similar understanding of religion, but he chose as political example the "Roman Catholic despotism". Although his description of the conflict between state and religion as a conflict between common sense and religion was very close to that of Baruch Spinoza in his Tractatus theologico-politicus, Mendelssohn mentioned Spinoza only briefly, by a comparison of his merits in metaphysics that corresponded to Hobbes' in the field of moral philosophy. Montesquieu's more recent political theory remarked a change in the contemporary situation, when this conflict caused finally the decline of the church and also hopes and fears about the expected end of the ancient régime: Despotism has the advantage that it is consistent. How inagreeable its demands might be commonsense, they are coherent and systematic. […] As well as the church constitution according to Roman Catholic principles: […] As long as you follow all its demands, you know what to do. Your edifice is founded, and perfect silence reigns in all its parts. Certainly only that terrifying kind of silence, as Montesquieu has objected, that you will find in a fortress, before it will be taken by storm at nightfall. […] But as soon as liberty dares to move something in this edifice, it will threaten disruption everywhere. So at the end you do not know which part of the building will not be ruined. The natural condition of man is intolerance (Thomas Hobbes) From this libertarian point of view, he drew nearer to Thomas Hobbes' scenario of the "war of every man against every man" (bellum omnium contra omnes) which Hobbes had described as the "natural condition of mankind" in his book Leviathan: From this natural human condition, which was banned by a religious fear of God (in Bosse's frontispiece made up by a crowd of people), Mendelssohn defined the role of the state (the left column under the sword) and the role of the religion (the right column under the crook) and the way, how they both had to be brought into harmony: The state gives orders and coerces; the religion educates and convinces; the state declares laws, religion offers precepts. The state has physical power and uses it, when it is necessary; the power of religion is charity and beneficience. But, whatever the religion might be which had to be kept in harmony with the state, the state as a secular authority should never have the right to decide about the faith and the conscience of its citizens. In Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan the argument that the fear of God also committed the state as an inferior power, was borrowed from a theological tradition which was also very common in Christian Patristic and its reception of the Tanakh. Mendelssohn obviously used Hobbes' moral philosophy to address the present conditions in the French and the Habsburg monarchy and its Roman Catholic constitution, but his main address was probably Prussia and its "philosopher king". But Mendelssohn's "triumph" over Hobbes did not mean that Hobbes' condition of human nature was not important for his own political theory. Hobbes' impressive justification of a social contract was much more useful for the rhetorical needs of Haskalah than Rousseau's contrat sociale, because his moral philosophy reflected very deeply the consequences of the abuse of political power. And all contemporaries who had another faith than that of state religion, were quite familiar with these consequences. The contract of tolerance (John Locke) Through the category "freedom of conscience" (Gewissensfreiheit) Mendelssohn turned from the dark side ("war of every man against every man") to John Locke's enlightened definition of "tolerance" and to his concept of the separation between religion and state: Locke who lived in the same time full of confusion [as Hobbes], looked for another way to protect the freedom of conscience. In his letters on the tolerance he founded his definition as follows: A state should be an association of humans, who agreed to support together their temporal welfare. From this follows quite naturally that the state should not take care of the citizen's attitude concerning their eternal faith, it should rather tolerate everybody who behaves with civil respect — i.e. it should not obstruct its fellow citizens in respect of their temporal faith. The state, as civil authority, had not to observe the divergence; because religion in itself had not necessarily any influence on the temporal, it was just related with it by the arbitrariness of the humans. Locke's proposed relation between a tolerant state and the humans, who were associated to it as citizens, had to be granted by a social contract. Moses Mendelssohn followed a simple judicial advice, when he described the subject of this contract as "perfect" and "imperfect" "rights" and "responsibilities": There are perfect and imperfect, as well responsibilities — as rights. The former are called "coercive rights" and "coercive responsibilities" and the latter "requirements" (requests) and "responsibilities of conscience". The former are formal, the latter only inner. It is allowed to enforce coercive rights, but also to refuse requests. The neglect of coercive responsibilities is an insult and an unfairness; but the neglect of responsibilities of the conscience is only an inequity. According to Mendelssohn's social contract the separation between state and religion was based on the distinction of the "formal" and the "inner" side. Therefore, religion in itself was no "formal" subject of the social contract, only the acts of a citizen had to be judged, as long as they had violated a "formal right" or "responsibility". Despite this separation of the religion from the political theory and its reduction to the private sphere, every religion had its own "inner" power which Mendelssohn described in the second part. The religious issue (second part) In his political theory, Moses Mendelssohn had to criticize the present conditions of the Prussian state, and he did without mentioning it, partly for reasons of censorship and partly for rhetorical reasons. This was his polite way to say that its regent was centuries behind his own philosophy: I have the fortune to live in a state in which my opinions are neither new nor very extraordinary. Its wise regent who rules it, paid always, since the beginning of his reign, attention, that mankind gets its full right concerning all affairs of faith [literally: believe, confession]. […] With wise moderateness he preserved the privilege of the formal religion as he had found it. There are still centuries of civilization and preparation before us, when man will finally understand that privileges of a certain religion are neither based on law nor on the religion's own fundament, so that it will be a real benefit to abolish simply any civil divergence in favour of one religion. However under the rule of this Wise the nation got so accustomed to tolerance and compatibility in respect to other religions, that at least force, bann and the right to exclude are no longer popular terms. In consequence, the second part on religious power had to criticize the present conditions of that religion which he always had to defend during his life. For these critics he needed the idea that state and religion should be divided, but kept in harmony, as well as the utopic postulation of a just state which should be the political target of a religious community. After this preparation, the finding of the preconditions in his political theory (the key or better: the ring in his whole argumentation), the first step was to comment the misconceived points of view: the adaptation to despotism, as it was postulated by many Christians discussing the "amelioration of the Jews". Falling to the upper floor (Lavater and Cranz) Therefore, Moses Mendelssohn refers to his older arguments which he used in his dispute with Lavater – and more recently in response to an anonymous recension of Mendelssohn's introduction to Menassah Ben Israel's Vindication of the Jews. With the medieval metaphor of masonry for the art of memory (often represented allegorically as "prudence") and its reference to religious education as a moral and sentimental education, he tried to turn back Lavater's projection. While Christians like to regard the crisis of Judaism, Mendelssohn regards the present situation – in the eve of the French revolution – as a general crisis of religion: If it is true, that the cornerstones of my house had become so weak, that the building might tumble down, shall I follow the advice to save my goods from the ground to the upper floor? Will I be safer there? As you know, Christianity is built upon Judaism and so, if the latter tumbles, the former will necessarily fall over it in one heap of rubble. Mendelssohn's house metaphor from the beginning of the first part reappears at the beginning of the second part. Here he used it to reflect the historical fact that Christianity never developed its own ethics independent from the ten commandments, which are still part of the canonic redaction of the Christian Bible. Lavater serves here as a more or less moderate example of the hypocritic religious man, whose religion is the favoured and the dominating one within the political system. Like in Hobbes' scenario he likes, what the system allows him to do – at least in this case: forcing another citizen to convert to the dominating religion. Jews as equal citizens and the crisis of Judaism (the reform of Haskalah) But this hypocrisy reflects once more the radicalism of Moses Mendelssohn's contract of tolerance: If the religion's business has to be reduced to the "inner side" and religion itself cannot be the formal subject of this contract, it simply means that state affairs like executive, legislature and judiciary will be no longer religious affairs. Nevertheless, he was denying the contemporary practice of rabbinic jurisdiction, which was hardly acceptable for a lot of orthodox Jews. And one year after the publication of his book the denial of rabbinic jurisdiction became political practice in the Habsburg monarchy, when a state edict, added to the "tolerance patent", submitted Jewish subjects to its own law court without regarding them on an equal footing with Christian subjects. Moses Mendelssohn is supposed to be the first Maskilim of his time who denied the present conditions and the rabbinic practice attached to it. This condition was that each Jewish community had its own jurisdiction and that the coexistence of several communities often corrected judges. His proposition must not only regarded as very modern, it turned out to be substantial during the discussions of the French Legislative Assembly concerning the Jewish emancipation during the 1790s. In these debates Judaism was often supposed to be an "own nation within the nation" and the Jewish representatives had to abandon this former status, so that the Jewish population will gain the new status as equal citizens and that they will participate in the new law of the French constitution. In his pragmatism Mendelssohn had to convince the Jewish population that they have to abandon the tradition of rabbinic jurisdiction, but in the same time they have no reason to feel inferior, because some Christians believe that the moral conditions of Jewish tradition has to be regarded as inferior to their theological concept of absolution. It was up to the Christians to find the way back to their fundament, which was the Mosaic law. But it was up to the Jews to face the present situation, in which Jewish communities were abandoned by a wealthy and privileged minority, so that poverty was increasing rapidly – especially in the town ghettos. In his philosophy Moses Mendelssohn reacted to the change from medieval conditions among the communities, when an elite between rich and rabbinic families was ruling the community. New privileges were granted by the Prussian state to rich members of the community, so that they finally left the community by conversion. But Mendelssohn regarded beneficence less as a "coerce responsibility" than as a voluntary act of wealthy members. The ring (Lessing and deism) Moses Mendelssohn created a syncretism which combined contemporary humanistic idealism and its deistic concept of a natural religion based on rational principles with the living tradition of Ashkenasic Judaism. His adoration of the Mosaic law should not be misunderstood as a kind of historical criticism, it was based on an own politically motivated interpretation of the Torah as a divine revelation which was offered to the prophet Moses, so that he will save Judaism from its materialistic decline, symbolized in worshipping the golden calf and idolatry, by the divine law. For Moses Mendelssohn the Mosaic law was "divine", as long as the community following its principles would be just. The attribute "divine" was simply given by the law's function to create a just social fabric: the social contract in itself. The eternal truth of the law was bound to this function, and it was so less achievable, that any judgement of a rabbi had to be judged according to Salomonic Wisdom. Mendelssohn referred to an anecdote of the Hillel school of Mishnah which has in itself an own theological formulation of the categorical imperative as Kant would later call it on: A goy said: "Rabbi, teach me the whole law, on which I stand with one foot!" Shammai to whom he addressed before with the same impertinence, disregardfully refused him. But Hillel who was famous for his insuperable serenity and mildness, replied: "Son! love thy neighbour as thyself. [Leviticus 19:18] This is the text of the law, the rest is commentary. Now go and learn!" With this biblical proverb, often quoted in the New Testament including the beatitudes, Mendelssohn returned to the deistic adoration of the Mosaic law as the Jewish-Christian contribution to universal ethics: The constitution had been here only once: you may call it the mosaic Constitution, which was its name. It has disappeared, and only the Almighty knows, in which nation and in which century something similar will appear again. "Mosaic Constitution" was just the Jewish name of the democratic constitution, as it was called by their ancestors. And probably some Jews were waiting for it like for a Messiah who would once unban them from feudal slavery. The argument through which he inspired Lessing in his drama Nathan der Weise, was the following: Each religion has not to be judged in itself, but only the acts of a citizen who keeps faith with it, according to a just law. This kind of law constitutes a just state, in which the people of different faith may live together in peace. According to his philosophy the new charge of any religion in general was not jurisdiction, but education as a necessary preparation to become a just citizen. Mendelssohn's point of view was that of a teacher who translated a lot of classical rabbinic authors like Maimonides from Hebrew into German, so that a Jewish child would be attracted to learn German and Hebrew in the same time. Moses Mendelssohn's estimation of the civil conditions (1783) At the end of his book Mendelssohn returns to the real political conditions in Habsburg, French and Prussian Monarchy, because he was often asked to support Jewish communities in their territories. In fact none of these political systems were offering the tolerant conditions, so that every subject should have the same legal status regardless to his or her religious faith. (In his philosophy Mendelssohn discussed the discrimination of the individuum according to its religion, but not according to its gender.) On the other hand, a modern education which Mendelssohn regarded still as a religious affair, required a reformation of the religious communities and especially their organization of the education which has to be modernized. As long as the state did not follow John Locke's requirement concerning the "freedom of conscience", any trial of an ethic education would be useless at all and every subject would be forced to live in separation according to their religious faith. Reflecting the present conditions Mendelssohn addresses – directly in the second person – to the political authorities: You should think, that you are not allowed to return our brotherly love, to unite with us as equal citizens, as long as there is any formal divergence in our religious rite, so that we do not eat together with you and do not marry one of yours, which the founder of your religion, as far as we can see, neither would have done, nor would have allowed us? — If this has to be and to remain your real opinion, as we may not expect of men following the Christian ethos; if a civil unification is only available on the condition that we differ from the law which we are already considering as binding, then we have to announce – with deep regret – that we do better to abstain from the civil unification; then the philanthropist Dohm has probably written in vain and everything will remain on the awkward condition – as it is now and as your charity has chosen it. […] We cannot differ from the law with a clear conscience and what will be your use of citizens without conscience? In this paragraph it becomes very evident, that Moses Mendelssohn did not foresee the willingness of some Jewish men and women who left some years later their communities, because they do not want to suffer from a lower legal status any longer. History of reception Moses Mendelssohn risked a lot, when he published this book, not only in front of the Prussian authority, but also in front of religious authorities – including Orthodox Rabbis. The following years some of his famous Christian friends stroke him at his very sensible side: his adoration for Lessing who died 1781 and could not defend his friend as he always had done during his lifetime. Mendelssohn and Spinoza in the Pantheism Controversy The strike was done by Lavater's friend Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi who published an episode between himself and Lessing, in which Lessing confessed to be a "Spinozist", while reading Goethe's Sturm und Drang poem Prometheus. "Spinozism" became quite fashionable that time and was a rather superficial reception, which was not so much based on a solid knowledge of Spinoza's philosophy than on the "secret letters" about Spinoza. These letters circulated since Spinoza's lifetime in the monarchies, where Spinoza's own writings were on the index of the Catholic Inquisition, and often they regarded Spinoza's philosophy as "atheistic" or even as a revelation of the secrets of Kabbalah mysticism. The German Spinoza fashion of the 1780s was more a "pantheistic" reception which gained the attraction of rebellious "atheism", while its followers are returning to a romantic concept of religion. Jacobi was following a new form of German idealism and later joined the romanticist circle around Fichte in Jena. Later, 1819 during the hep hep riots or pogroms, this new form of idealism turned out to be very intolerant, especially in the reception of Jakob Fries. The fashion pantheism did not correspond to Mendelssohn's deistic reception of Spinoza and Lessing whose collected works he was publishing. He was not so wrong, because Spinoza himself developed a fully rational form of deism in his main work Ethica, without any knowledge of the later pantheistic reception of his philosophy. Mendelssohn published in his last years his own attitude to Spinoza – not without his misunderstandings, because he was frightened to lose his authority which he still had among rabbis. On his own favor Goethe fashioned himself as a "revolutionary" in his Dichtung und Wahrheit, while he was very angry with Jacobi because he feared the consequences of the latter's publication using Goethe's poem. This episode caused a reception in which Moses Mendelssohn as a historical protagonist and his philosophy is underestimated. Nevertheless, Moses Mendelssohn had a great influence on other Maskilim and on the Jewish emancipation, and on nearly every philosopher discussing the role of the religion within the state in 19th century Western Europe. The French Revolution and the early Haskalah reform of education Mendelssohn's dreams about a tolerant state became reality in the new French Constitution of 1791. Berr Isaac Berr, the Ashkenazic representative in the Legislative Assembly, praised the French republic as the "Messiah of modern Judaism", because he had to convince French communities for the new plans of a Jewish reform movement to abandon their autonomy. The French version of Haskalah, called régénération, was more moderate than the Jewish reform movement in Prussia. While better conditions were provided by the constitution of the French Republic, the conflict between Orthodox Rabbis and wealthy and intellectual laymen of the reform movement became evident with the radical initiatives by Mendelssohn's friend and student David Friedländer in Prussia. He was the first who followed Mendelssohn's postulations in education, since he founded 1776 together with Isaak Daniel Itzig the Jüdische Freischule für mittellose Berliner Kinder ("Jewish Free School for Impecunious Children in Berlin") and 1778 the Chevrat Chinuch Ne'arim ("Society for the Education of Youth"). His 1787 attempt of a German translation of the Hebrew prayerbook Sefer ha-Nefesh ("Book of the Soul") which he did for the school, finally became not popular as a ritual reform, because 1799 he went so far to offer his community a "dry baptism" as an affiliation by the Lutheran church. There was a seduction of free-thinking Jews to identify the seclusion from European modern culture with Judaism in itself and it could end up in baptism. As Heinrich Heine commented it, some tend to reduce Judaism to a "calamity" and to buy with a conversion to Christianity an "entré billet" for the higher society of the Prussian state. By the end of the 18th century there were a lot of contemporary concepts of enlightenment in different parts of Europe, in which humanism and a secularized state were thought to replace religion at all. Israel Jacobson, himself a merchant, but also an engaged pedagogue in charge of a land rabbi in Westphalia, was much more successful than David Friedländer. Like Moses Mendelssohn he regarded education as a religious affair. One reason for his success was the political fact, that Westphalia became part of France. Jacobson was supported by the new government, when he founded in 1801 a boys' school for trade and elementary knowledge in Seesen (a small town near Harz), called "Institut für arme Juden-Kinder". The language used during the lessons was German. His concept of pedagogy combined the ideas of Moses Mendelssohn with those of the socially engaged Philantropin school which Basedow founded in Dessau, inspired by Rousseau's ideas about education. 1802 also poor Christian boys were allowed to attend the school and it became one of the first schools, which coeducated children of different faith. Since 1810 religious ceremonies were also held in the first Reform Temple, established on the school's ground and equipped by an organ. Before 1810 the Jewish community of the town had their celebrations just in a prayer room of the school. Since 1810 Mendelssohn needed the instrument to accompany German and Hebrew songs, sung by the pupils or by the community in the "Jacobstempel". He adapted these prayers himself to tunes, taken from famous Protestant chorales. In the charge of a rabbi he read the whole service in German according to the ideas of the reformed Protestant rite, and he refused the "medieval" free rhythmic style of chazzan, as it was common use in the other Synagogues. 1811 Israel Jacobson introduced a "confirmation" ceremony of Jewish boys and girls as part of his reformed rite. Conflicts in Prussia after the Viennese Congress Since Westphalia came under Prussian rule according to the Congress of Vienna 1815, the Jacobson family settled to Berlin, where Israel opened a Temple in his own house. The orthodox community of Berlin asked the Prussian authorities to intervene and so his third "Jacobstempel" was closed. Prussian officers argued, that the law allows only one house of Jewish worship in Berlin. In consequence a reformed service was celebrated as minyan in the house of Jacob Herz Beer. The chant was composed by his son who later became a famous opera composer under the name Giacomo Meyerbeer. In opposition to Israel's radical refuse of the traditional Synagogue chant, Meyerbeer reintegrated the chazzan and the recitation of Pentateuch and Prophets into the reformed rite, so that it became more popular within the community of Berlin. Johann Gottfried Herder's appreciation of the Mosaic Ethics was influenced by Mendelssohn's book Jerusalem as well as by personal exchange with him. It seems that in the tradition of Christian deistic enlightenment the Torah was recognized as an important contribution to the Jewish-Christian civilization, though contemporary Judaism was often compared to the decadent situation, when Aaron created the golden calf (described in Exodus 32), so enlightenment itself was fashioning itself with the archetypical role of Moses. But the contemporary Jewish population was characterized by Herder as a strange Asiatic and selfish "nation" which was always separated from others, not a very original conception which was also popular in the discussions of the National Assembly which insisted that Jewish citizens have to give up their status as a nation, if they want to join the new status as equal citizens. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel whose philosophy was somehow inspired by a "Mosaic" mission, was not only an important professor at the University in Berlin since 1818, he also had a positive influence on reform politics of Prussia. Though his missionary ambitions and his ideas about a general progress in humanity which can be found in his philosophy, Hegel was often described by various of his students as a very open minded and warm hearted person who was always ready to discuss controversially his ideas and the ideas opposed to it. He was probably the professor in Prussia who had the most Jewish students, among them very famous ones like Heinrich Heine and Ludwig Börne, and also reform pedagogues like Nachman Krochmal from Galicia. When Hegel was still in Heidelberg, he was accusing his colleague Jakob Fries, himself a student of Fichte, for his superstitious ideas concerning a German nation and he disregarded his antisemitic activities as a mentor of the Burschenschaft which organized the Wartburgfest, the murder of August von Kotzebue and the hep hep riots. In 1819 he went with his students to the hep hep riot in Heidelberg and they were standing with raised arms before the people who lived in the poverty of the Jewish ghetto, when the violent mob was arriving. As result he asked his student Friedrich Wilhelm Carové to found the first student association which also allows access for Jewish students, and finally Eduard Gans founded in November the Verein für Kultur und Wissenschaft der Juden [Society for Culture and Science of the Jews] on the perspective that the ideas of enlightenment must be replaced by a synthesis of European Jewish and Christian traditions. This perspective followed some fundamental ideas which Hegel developed in his dialectic philosophy of history, and it was connected with hopes that finally an enlightened state will secularize religious traditions and fulfill their responsibility. In some respect this synthesis was expected as a kind of revolution, though an identification with the demagogues was not possible—as Heinrich Heine said in a letter 1823: Even though I am a Radical in Britain and a Carbonari in Italy, I do certainly not belong to the demagogues in Germany—just for the very simple reason that in case of the latter's victory some thousand Jewish throats will be cut—the best ones first. In the last two years Prussia passed many restrictive laws which excluded Jews from military and academic offices and as members of parliament. The expectation that the Prussian state will once follow the reasons of Hegel's Weltgeist, failed, instead it was turning backwards and the restrictions increased up to 1841, whereas the officer Dohm expected a participation as equal citizens for 1840. Moses Mendelssohn who was regarded as a Jewish Luther by Heinrich Heine, made several predictions of the future in Jerusalem. The worst of them became true, and finally a lot of Jewish citizens differed from the law and became what Mendelssohn called "citizens without conscience". Because there was no "freedom of conscience" in Prussia, Heinrich Heine left the Verein without any degree in law and finally—like Eduard Gans himself—converted to the Lutheran church 1825. Moses Mendelssohn's Jerusalem and the rise of revolutionary antisemitism Karl Marx was not a direct student of Hegel, but Hegel's philosophy, whose lectures were also frequented by Prussian officers, was still very present after his death in 1831 as well among conservatives as among radicals who were very disappointed about the present conditions and the failed reform of the state. 1835, when Karl inscribed as a student, Hegel's book Leben Jesu was published posthumously and its reception was divided into the so-called Right or Old and the Left or Young Hegelians around Bruno Bauer and Ludwig Feuerbach. Karl had grown up in a family which were related to the traditional rabbinic family Levi through his mother. Because the Rhine province became part of the French Republic, where the full civil rights were granted by the Constitution, Marx's father could work as a lawyer (Justizrat) without being discriminated for his faith. This changed, when the Rhine province became part of Prussia after the Congress of Vienna. In 1817 Heinrich Marx felt forced to convert to the Lutheran church, so that he could save the existence of his family continuing his profession. In 1824 his son was baptized, when he was six years old. The occasion that the Jewish question was debated again, was the 7th Landtag of the Rhine province 1843. The discussion was about an 1839 law which tried to withdraw the Hardenberg edict from 1812. 1839 it was refused by the Staatsrat, 1841 it was published again to see what the public reactions would be. The debate was opened between Ludwig Philippson (Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums) and Carl Hermes (Kölnische Zeitung). Karl Marx was thinking to join the debate with an own answer of the Jewish question, but he left it to Bruno Bauer. His later answer was mainly a reception of Bauer's argument. Marx's and Bauer's polemic style was probably influenced by Heinrich Heine's Damascus letters (Lutetia Teil 1, 1840) in which Heine was calling James Mayer de Rothschild a "revolutionary" and in which he used phrases such as: For French Jews as well for all the other French gold is the God of the day and industry the dominating religion! Whereas Hegel's idea of a humanistic secularization of religious values was deeply rooted in the idealistic emancipation debates around Mendelssohn in which a liberal and tolerant state has to be created on the fundament of a modern (religious) education, the only force of modernization according to Marx was capitalism, the erosion of traditional values, after they had turned into material values. The difference between the ancien régime and Rothschild, chosen as a representative of a successful minority of the Jewish population, was that they had nothing to lose, especially not in Prussia where this minority finally tended to convert to Christianity. But since the late 18th century the Prussian Jews were merely reduced to their material value, at least from the administrative perspective of the Prussian Monarchy. Marx's answer to Mendelssohn's question: "What will be your use of citizens without conscience?" was simply that: The use was now defined as a material value which could be expressed as a sum of money, and the Prussian state like any other monarchy finally did not care about anything else. Bauer's reference to the golden calf may be regarded a modern form of antisemitism. But Karl Marx turned Bauer's reference into a "syncretism between Mosaic monotheism and Babylonian polytheism". His answer was antisemitic, as far as it was antisemitic that his family was forced to leave their religious tradition for very existential reasons. He hardly foresaw that the rhetorical use of Judaism as a metaphor of capitalism (originally a satirical construction of Heinrich Heine, talking about the "prophet Rothschild") will be constantly repeated in a completely unsatirical way in the history of socialism. Karl Marx used these words in a less satirical than in an antihumanistic way. Its context was the controversy between Old and Young Hegelian and his polemic aimed the "Old Hegelian". He regarded their thoughts as a Prussian form of the ancien régime, figured and justified as the humanists, and himself as part of a Jewish privileged minority which was more adapted to modern citizenship than any representative of the Prussian ancien régime. While the humanists felt threatened by the industrial revolution, also because they simply feared to lose their privileges, it was no longer the parvenu (as Bernard Lazare would call the rich minority later) who needed to be "ameliorated". Moses Mendelssohn was not mentioned in Marx's answer to the Jewish question, but Marx might have regarded his arguments as an important part of the humanists' approach to ameliorate the Prussian constitution. Nevertheless, Mendelssohn had already discussed the problem of injustice caused by material needs in his way: In Jerusalem he advised to recompense politicians according to the loss of their regular income. It should not be lower for a rich man, and not higher for a poor. Because if anyone will have a material advantage, just by being a member of parliament, the result cannot be a fair state governing a just society. Only an idealistic citizen who was engaging in politics according to his modern religious education, was regarded as a politician by Moses Mendelssohn. Mendelssohn's philosophy during the Age of Zionism Karl Marx's point of view that the idealistic hopes for religious tolerance will be disappointed in the field of politics, and soon the political expectations will disappear in a process of economical evolution and of secularization of their religious values, was finally confirmed by the failure of the 1848 revolution. Though the fact that revolutionary antisemitism was used frequently by left and right wing campaigners, for him it was more than just rhetoric. His own cynical and refusing attitude concerning religion was widespread among his contemporaries, and it was related to his biography and a personal experience full of disappointments and conflicts within the family. Equal participation in political decisions was not granted by a national law as they hoped, the participation was merely dependent on privileges which were defined by material values and these transformations cause a lot of fears and the tendence to turn backwards. Even in France where the constitution granted the equal status as citizens since 100 years, the Dreyfus affair made evident that a lot of institutions of the French Republic like the military forces were already ruled by the circles of the ancien régime. So the major population was still excluded from participation and could not identify with the state and its authorities. Social movements and emigration to America or to Palestine were the response, often in a combination. The utopies of these movements were sometimes secular, sometimes religious, and they often had charismatic leaders. 1897 there was the First Zionist Congress in Basel (Switzerland), which was an initiative by Theodor Herzl. The Zionist Martin Buber with his rather odd combination of German Romanticism (Fichte) and his interest in Hasidism as a social movement was not very popular on the Congress, but he finally found a very enthusiastic reception in a Zionist student association in Prague, which was also frequented by Max Brod and Franz Kafka. In a time when the Jewish question has become a highly ideological matter mainly treated in a populistic way from outside, it became a rather satirical subject for Jewish writers of Yiddish, German, Polish and Russian language. Franz Kafka learned Yiddish and Hebrew as an adult and he had a great interest for Hasidism as well as for rabbinic literature. He had a passion for Yiddish drama which became very popular in Central Europe that time and which brought Yiddish literature, usually written as narrative prosa, on stage mixed up with a lot of music (parodies of synagogue songs etc.). His interest corresponded to Martin Buber's romantic idea that Hasidism was the folk culture of Ashkenazi Jews, but he also realized that this romanticism inspired by Fichte and German nationalism, expressed the fact that the rural traditions were another world quite far from its urban admirers. This had changed since Maskilim and school reformers like Israel Jakobson have settled to the big towns and still disregarded Yiddish as a "corrupt" and uneducated language. In the parable of his romance Der Process, published 1915 separately as short story entitled Vor dem Gesetz, the author made a parody of a midrash legend, written during the period of early Merkabah mysticism (6th century), that he probably learned by his Hebrew teacher. This Pesikhta described Moses' meditation in which he had to fight against Angelic guardians on his way to the divine throne in order to bring justice (the Torah) to the people of Israel. Somehow it also reflected Mendelssohn's essay in the context of the public debate on the Jewish question during the 1770s and 1780s, which was mainly led by Christian priests and clerics, because this parable in the romance was part of a Christian prayer. A mysterious priest prayed only for the main protagonist "Josef K." in the dark empty cathedral. The bizarre episode in the romance reflected the historical fact that Jewish emancipation had taken place within Christian states, where the separation between state power and the church was never fully realized. There were several similar parodies by Jewish authors of the 19th century in which the Christians dominating the state and the citizens of other faith correspond to the jealous guardians. Unlike the prophet Moses who killed the angel guarding the first gate, the peasant ("ein Mann vom Lande") in the parable is waiting to his death, when he finally will be carried through the gate which was only made for him. In the narration of the romance which was never published during his lifetime, the main protagonist Josef K. will finally be killed according to a judgement which was never communicated to him. Hannah Arendt's reception of the Haskalah and of the emancipation history Hannah Arendt's political theory is deeply based on theological and existentialist arguments, regarding Jewish Emancipation in Prussia as a failure – especially in her writings after World War II. But the earliest publication discussing the Haskalah with respect to the German debate of the Jewish Question opened by Christian Wilhelm von Dohm and Moses Mendelssohn dates to 1932. In her essay Hannah Arendt takes Herder's side in reviving the debate among Dohm, Mendelssohn, Lessing and Herder. According to her Moses Mendelssohn's concept of emancipation was assimilated to the pietist concept of Lessing's enlightenment based on a separation between the truth of reason and the truth of history, which prepared the following generation to decide for the truth of reason and against history and Judaism which was identified with an unloved past. Somehow her theological argument was very similar to that of Kant, but the other way round. For Kant as a Lutheran Christian religion started with the destruction and the disregard of the Mosaic law, whereas Herder as a Christian understood the Jewish point of view in so far, that this is exactly the point where religion ends. According to Hannah Arendt the Jews were forced by Mendelssohn's form of Haskalah to insert themselves into a Christian version of history in which Jews had never existed as subjects: In consequence the Jews have become without history in history. According to Herder's understanding of history they are separated from their own past. So again they are in front of nothing. Within a historical reality, within the European secularized world, they are forced to adapt somehow to this world, to educate themselves. They need education for everything which is not part of the Jewish world. The actual reality has come into effect with all its power, because they are separated from their own past. Culture is the only way to endure this present. As long as culture is the proper perception of the past, the "educated" Jew is depending on a foreign past. One will reach it through a certain present, just because one participated in it. Although her point of view was often misunderstood as a prejudice against Judaism, because she often also described forms of opportunism among Jewish citizens, her main concern was totalitarianism and the anachronistic mentality of the ancien régime, as well as a postwar criticism, which was concerned with the limits of modern democracy. Her method was arguably idiosyncratic. For instance, she used Marcel Proust's romance "À la recherche du temps perdu" as a historical document and partly developed her arguments on Proust's observations of Faubourg de Saint Germain, but the publication of her book in 1951 made her very popular, because she also included an early analysis of Stalinism. Seven years later she finally published her biographical study about Rahel Varnhagen. Here she concludes that the emancipation failed exactly with Varnhagen's generation, when the wish to enter the Prussian upper society was related with the decision to leave the Jewish communities. According to her, a wealthy minority, which she called parvenues, tried to join the privileges of the ruling elite of Prussia. The term "parvenu" was taken from Bernard Lazare and she regarded it as an alternative to Max Weber's term "pariah." See also Baruch Spinoza's Tractatus theologico-politicus Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan John Locke's A Letter Concerning Toleration, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding Immanuel Kant's Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft Haskalah Christian Wilhelm von Dohm Moses Mendelssohn Gotthold Ephraim Lessing Salomon Maimon Hartwig Wessely David Friedländer Johann Caspar Lavater Johann Gottfried Herder Israel Jacobson Notes Bibliography Editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . English translation . . . . . . . . . Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External links Moses Mendelssohn's books completely visible at Google Books Moses Mendelssohn Zentrum für europäisch-jüdische Studien e.V. (Potsdam) Articles in the Jewish Encyclopedia Daniel Dahlstrom: Moses Mendelssohn, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry (2006) A version of this work, lightly edited for easier reading Curtis Bowman: “Moses Mendelssohn and the Haskalah - Correspondence with Kant” (2004) Eliezer Segal about “Jerusalem” (University of Calgary) 1783 non-fiction books Haskalah Reform Judaism Education reform Jewish philosophical and ethical texts Books in political philosophy Separation of church and state Religion and the French Revolution Jews Jews and Judaism in Europe Jewish German history History of Prussia Judaism in Germany Antisemitism in Germany Jews and Judaism in Berlin Treatises
4174517	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algaculture	Algaculture	Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae. The majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of microalgae (also referred to as phytoplankton, microphytes, or planktonic algae). Macroalgae, commonly known as seaweed, also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and the specific requirements of the environment in which they need to grow, they do not lend themselves as readily to cultivation (this may change, however, with the advent of newer seaweed cultivators, which are basically algae scrubbers using upflowing air bubbles in small containers). Commercial and industrial algae cultivation has numerous uses, including production of nutraceuticals such as omega-3 fatty acids (as algal oil) or natural food colorants and dyes, food, fertilizers, bioplastics, chemical feedstock (raw material), protein-rich animal/aquaculture feed, pharmaceuticals, and algal fuel, and can also be used as a means of pollution control and natural carbon sequestration. Global production of farmed aquatic plants, overwhelmingly dominated by seaweeds, grew in output volume from 13.5 million tonnes in 1995 to just over 30 million tonnes in 2016. Cultured microalgae already contribute to a wide range of sectors in the emerging bioeconomy. Research suggests there are large potentials and benefits of algaculture for the development of a future healthy and sustainable food system. Uses of algae Food Several species of algae are raised for food. While algae have qualities of a sustainable food source, "producing highly digestible proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates, and are rich in essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals" and e.g. having a high protein productivity per acre, there are several challenges "between current biomass production and large-scale economic algae production for the food market". Micro-algae can be used to create microbial protein used as a powder or in a variety of products. Purple laver (Porphyra) is perhaps the most widely domesticated marine algae. In Asia it is used in nori (Japan) and gim (Korea). In Wales, it is used in laverbread, a traditional food, and in Ireland it is collected and made into a jelly by stewing or boiling. Preparation also can involve frying or heating the fronds with a little water and beating with a fork to produce a pinkish jelly. Harvesting also occurs along the west coast of North America, and in Hawaii and New Zealand. Algae oil is used as a dietary supplement as the plants also produce Omega-3 (and Omega-6) fatty acids, which are commonly also found in fish oils, and which have been shown to have positive health benefits, including for cognition and against brain aging. Dulse (Palmaria palmata) is a red species sold in Ireland and Atlantic Canada. It is eaten raw, fresh, dried, or cooked like spinach. Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) is a blue-green microalgae with a long history as a food source in East Africa and pre-colonial Mexico. Spirulina is high in protein and other nutrients, finding use as a food supplement and for malnutrition. Spirulina thrives in open systems and commercial growers have found it well-suited to cultivation. One of the largest production sites is Lake Texcoco in central Mexico. The plants produce a variety of nutrients and high amounts of protein. Spirulina is often used commercially as a nutritional supplement. Chlorella, another popular microalgae, has similar nutrition to spirulina. Chlorella is very popular in Japan. It is also used as a nutritional supplement with possible effects on metabolic rate. Irish moss (Chondrus crispus), often confused with Mastocarpus stellatus, is the source of carrageenan, which is used as a stiffening agent in instant puddings, sauces, and dairy products such as ice cream. Irish moss is also used by beer brewers as a fining agent. Sea lettuce (Ulva lactuca), is used in Scotland, where it is added to soups and salads. Dabberlocks or badderlocks (Alaria esculenta) is eaten either fresh or cooked in Greenland, Iceland, Scotland and Ireland. Aphanizomenon flos-aquae is a cyanobacteria similar to spirulina, which is used as a nutritional supplement. Extracts and oils from algae are also used as additives in various food products. Sargassum species are an important group of seaweeds. These algae have many phlorotannins. Cochayuyo (Durvillaea antarctica) is eaten in salads and ceviche in Peru and Chile. Both microalgae and macroalgae are used to make agar (see below), which is used as a gelling agent in foods. Lab manipulation Australian scientists at Flinders University in Adelaide have been experimenting with using marine microalgae to produce proteins for human consumption, creating products like "caviar", vegan burgers, fake meat, jams and other food spreads. By manipulating microalgae in a laboratory, the protein and other nutrient contents could be increased, and flavours changed to make them more palatable. These foods leave a much lighter carbon footprint than other forms of protein, as the microalgae absorb rather than produce carbon dioxide, which contributes to the greenhouse gases. Fertilizer and agar For centuries seaweed has been used as fertilizer. It is also an excellent source of potassium for manufacture of potash and potassium nitrate. Some types of microalgae can be used this way as well. Both microalgae and macroalgae are used to make agar. Pollution control With concern over global warming, new methods for the thorough and efficient capture of CO2 are being sought out. The carbon dioxide that a carbon-fuel burning plant produces can feed into open or closed algae systems, fixing the CO2 and accelerating algae growth. Untreated sewage can supply additional nutrients, thus turning two pollutants into valuable commodities. Waste high-purity as well as sequestered carbon from the atmosphere can be used, with potential significant benefits for climate change mitigation. Algae cultivation is under study for uranium/plutonium sequestration and purifying fertilizer runoff. Energy production Business, academia and governments are exploring the possibility of using algae to make gasoline, bio-diesel, biogas and other fuels. Algae itself may be used as a biofuel, and additionally be used to create hydrogen. Microalgae are also researched for hydrogen production – e.g. micro-droplets for algal cells or synergistic algal-bacterial multicellular spheroid microbial reactors capable of producing oxygen as well as hydrogen via photosynthesis in daylight under air. Microgeneration Carbon sequestration Other uses Chlorella, particularly a transgenic strain which carries an extra mercury reductase gene, has been studied as an agent for environmental remediation due to its ability to reduce to the less toxic elemental mercury. Cultured strains of a common coral microalgal endosymbionts are researched as a potential way to increase corals' thermal tolerance for climate resilience and bleaching tolerance. Cultured microalgae is used in research and development for potential medical applications, in particular for microbots such as biohybrid microswimmers for targeted drug delivery. Cultivated algae serve many other purposes, including cosmetics, animal feed, bioplastic production, dyes and colorant production, chemical feedstock production, and pharmaceutical ingredients. Growing, harvesting, and processing algae Monoculture Most growers prefer monocultural production and go to considerable lengths to maintain the purity of their cultures. However, the microbiological contaminants are still under investigation. With mixed cultures, one species comes to dominate over time and if a non-dominant species is believed to have particular value, it is necessary to obtain pure cultures in order to cultivate this species. Individual species cultures are also much needed for research purposes. A common method of obtaining pure cultures is serial dilution. Cultivators dilute either a wild sample or a lab sample containing the desired algae with filtered water and introduce small aliquots (measures of this solution) into a large number of small growing containers. Dilution follows a microscopic examination of the source culture that predicts that a few of the growing containers contain a single cell of the desired species. Following a suitable period on a light table, cultivators again use the microscope to identify containers to start larger cultures. Another approach is to use a special medium which excludes other organisms, including invasive algae. For example, Dunaliella is a commonly grown genus of microalgae which flourishes in extremely salty water that few other organisms can tolerate. Alternatively, mixed algae cultures can work well for larval mollusks. First, the cultivator filters the sea water to remove algae which are too large for the larvae to eat. Next, the cultivator adds nutrients and possibly aerates the result. After one or two days in a greenhouse or outdoors, the resulting thin soup of mixed algae is ready for the larvae. An advantage of this method is low maintenance. Growing algae Water, carbon dioxide, minerals and light are all important factors in cultivation, and different algae have different requirements. The basic reaction for algae growth in water is carbon dioxide + light energy + water = glucose + oxygen + water. This is called autotrophic growth. It is also possible to grow certain types of algae without light, these types of algae consume sugars (such as glucose). This is known as heterotrophic growth. Temperature The water must be in a temperature range that will support the specific algal species being grown mostly between 15˚C and 35˚C. Light and mixing In a typical algal-cultivation system, such as an open pond, light only penetrates the top of the water, though this depends on the algae density. As the algae grow and multiply, the culture becomes so dense that it blocks light from reaching deeper into the water. Direct sunlight is too strong for most algae, which can use only about the amount of light they receive from direct sunlight; however, exposing an algae culture to direct sunlight (rather than shading it) is often the best course for strong growth, as the algae underneath the surface is able to utilize more of the less intense light created from the shade of the algae above. To use deeper ponds, growers agitate the water, circulating the algae so that it does not remain on the surface. Paddle wheels can stir the water and compressed air coming from the bottom lifts algae from the lower regions. Agitation also helps prevent over-exposure to the sun. Another means of supplying light is to place the light in the system. Glow plates made from sheets of plastic or glass and placed within the tank offer precise control over light intensity, and distribute it more evenly. They are seldom used, however, due to high cost. Odor and oxygen The odor associated with bogs, swamps, and other stagnant waters can be due to oxygen depletion caused by the decay of deceased algal blooms. Under anoxic conditions, the bacteria inhabiting algae cultures break down the organic material and produce hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, which causes the odor. This hypoxia often results in the death of aquatic animals. In a system where algae is intentionally cultivated, maintained, and harvested, neither eutrophication nor hypoxia are likely to occur. Some living algae and bacteria also produce odorous chemicals, particularly certain cyanobacteria (previously classed as blue-green algae) such as Anabaena. The most well known of these odor-causing chemicals are MIB (2-methylisoborneol) and geosmin. They give a musty or earthy odor that can be quite strong. Eventual death of the cyanobacteria releases additional gas that is trapped in the cells. These chemicals are detectable at very low levels – in the parts per billion range – and are responsible for many "taste and odor" issues in drinking water treatment and distribution. Cyanobacteria can also produce chemical toxins that have been a problem in drinking water. Nutrients Nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) serve as fertilizer for algae, and are generally necessary for growth. Silica and iron, as well as several trace elements, may also be considered important marine nutrients as the lack of one can limit the growth of, or productivity in, a given area. Carbon dioxide is also essential; usually an input of CO2 is required for fast-paced algal growth. These elements must be dissolved into the water, in bio-available forms, for algae to grow. Methods Farming of macroalgae Open system cultivation An open system of algae cultivation involves the growth of algae in shallow water streams which could originate from a natural system or artificially prepared. In this system, algae can be cultivated in natural water bodies like lakes, rivers, and in oceans, as well as artificial ponds made up of concrete, plastic, pond liners or variety of materials. The open system of algae cultivation is simple and cost-effective, making it an attractive option for commercial production of algae-based products. Open ponds are highly vulnerable to contamination by other microorganisms, such as other algal species or bacteria. Thus cultivators usually choose closed systems for monocultures. Open systems also do not offer control over temperature and lighting. The growing season is largely dependent on location and, aside from tropical areas, is limited to the warmer months. Open pond systems are cheaper to construct, at the minimum requiring only a trench or pond. Large ponds have the largest production capacities relative to other systems of comparable cost. Also, open pond cultivation can exploit unusual conditions that suit only specific algae. For instance, Dunaliella salina grow in extremely salty water; these unusual media exclude other types of organisms, allowing the growth of pure cultures in open ponds. Open culture can also work if there is a system of harvesting only the desired algae, or if the ponds are frequently re-inoculated before invasive organisms can multiply significantly. The latter approach is frequently employed by Chlorella farmers, as the growth conditions for Chlorella do not exclude competing algae. The former approach can be employed in the case of some chain diatoms since they can be filtered from a stream of water flowing through an outflow pipe. A "pillow case" of a fine mesh cloth is tied over the outflow pipe allowing other algae to escape. The chain diatoms are held in the bag and feed shrimp larvae (in Eastern hatcheries) and inoculate new tanks or ponds. Enclosing a pond with a transparent or translucent barrier effectively turns it into a greenhouse. This solves many of the problems associated with an open system. It allows more species to be grown, it allows the species that are being grown to stay dominant, and it extends the growing season – if heated, the pond can produce year round. Open race way ponds were used for removal of lead using live Spirulina (Arthospira) sp. Water lagoons A lagoon is a type of aquatic ecosystem that is characterized by a shallow body of water that is separated from the open ocean by natural barriers such as sandbars, barrier islands, or coral reefs. The Australian company Cognis Australia is a well-known company that specializes in producing β-carotene from Dunaliella salina harvested from hypersaline extensive ponds located in Hutt Lagoon and Whyalla. These ponds are primarily used for wastewater treatment, and the production of D. salina is a secondary benefit. Open sea Open sea cultivation is a method of cultivating seaweed in the open ocean, as well as on a costal line in shallow water. Seaweed farming industry serves commercial needs for various products such as food, feed, pharma chemicals, cosmetics, biofuels, and bio-stimulants. Seaweed extracts act as bio-stimulants, reducing biotic stress and increasing crop production. Additionally, it presents opportunities for creating animal and human nutrition products that can improve immunity and productivity. Open ocean seaweed cultivation is an eco-friendly technology that doesn't require land, fresh water, or chemicals. It also helps mitigate the effects of climate change by sequestering CO2. Open sea cultivation method involves the use of rafts or ropes anchored in the ocean, where the seaweed grows attached to them. This method is widely used for commercial seaweed farming, as it allows for large-scale production and harvesting. The process of open sea cultivation of seaweed involves several steps. First, a suitable site in the ocean is identified, based on factors such as water depth, temperature, salinity, and nutrient availability. Once a site is chosen, ropes or rafts are anchored in the water, and the seed pieces of seaweed are attached to them using specialized equipment. The seaweed is then left to grow for several months, during which it absorbs nutrients from the water and sunlight through photosynthesis. Raceway ponds Raceway-type ponds and lakes are open to the elements. They are one of the most common and economic methods of large-scale algae cultivation, and offer several advantages over other cultivation methods. An open raceway pond is a shallow, rectangular-shaped pond used for the cultivation of algae. Because it is designed to circulate water in a continuous loop or raceway, allowing algae to grow in a controlled environment. Open system is a low-cost method of algae cultivation, and it is relatively easy to construct and maintain. The pond is typically lined with a synthetic material, such as polyethylene (HDPE) or polyvinyl chloride, to prevent the loss of water and nutrients. The pond is also equipped with paddlewheels or other types of mechanical devices to provide mixing and aeration. HRAPs High-Rate Algal Ponds (HRAPs) are a type of open algae cultivation system that has gained popularity in recent years due to their efficiency and low cost of operation. HRAPs are shallow ponds, typically between 0.1 to 0.4 meters deep, that are used for the cultivation of algae. The ponds are equipped with a paddlewheel or other type of mechanical agitation system that provides mixing and aeration, which promotes algae growth. HRAP system is also recommended in wastewater treatment using algae. Photobioreactors Algae can also be grown in a photobioreactor (PBR). A PBR is a bioreactor which incorporates a light source. Virtually any translucent container could be called a PBR; however, the term is more commonly used to define a closed system, as opposed to an open tank or pond. Because PBR systems are closed, the cultivator must provide all nutrients, including . A PBR can operate in "batch mode", which involves restocking the reactor after each harvest, but it is also possible to grow and harvest continuously. Continuous operation requires precise control of all elements to prevent immediate collapse. The grower provides sterilized water, nutrients, air, and carbon dioxide at the correct rates. This allows the reactor to operate for long periods. An advantage is that algae that grows in the "log phase" is generally of higher nutrient content than old "senescent" algae. Algal culture is the culturing of algae in ponds or other resources. Maximum productivity occurs when the "exchange rate" (time to exchange one volume of liquid) is equal to the "doubling time" (in mass or volume) of the algae. PBRs can hold the culture in suspension, or they can provide a substrate on which the culture can form a biofilm. Biofilm-based PBRs have the advantage that they can produce far higher yields for a given water volume, but they can suffer from problems with cells separating from the substrate due to the water flow required to transport gases and nutrients to the culture. Flat panel PBRs Flat panel PBRs consist of a series of flat, transparent panels that are stacked on top of each other, creating a thin layer of liquid between them. Algae are grown in this thin layer of liquid, which is continuously circulated to promote mixing and prevent stagnation. The panels are typically made of glass or plastic and can be arranged in various configurations to optimize light exposure. Flat panel PBRs are generally used for low-to-medium density cultivation and are well-suited for species that require lower light intensity and maximum surface area for optimum light exposure. The temperature control in Flat panel PBR system is carried out by cooling down the culture in reservoir chamber using chilled water jacket as well as by sprinkling cold water on the flat panel surface. Tubular PBRs Tubular PBRs consist of long, transparent tubes that are either vertically or horizontally oriented. Algae are grown inside the tubes, which are typically made of glass or plastic. The tubes are arranged in a helical or serpentine pattern to increase surface area for light exposure. The tubing can be either continuously or intermittently circulated to promote mixing and prevent stagnation. Tubular PBRs are generally used for high-density cultivation and are well-suited for species that require high light intensity. The temperature control in tubular PBR is a difficult task which is generally achieved by external sprinkling of deionized water which allow cooling of the tubes and subsequently reduces the temperature of culture circulating inside the tubes. Biofilm PBRs Biofilm PBRs include packed bed and porous substrate PBRs. Packed bed PBRs can be different shapes, including flat plate or tubular. In Porous Substrate Bioreactors (PSBRs), the biofilm is exposed directly to the air and receives its water and nutrients by capillary action through the substrate itself. This avoids problems with cells becoming suspended because there is no water flow across the biofilm surface. The culture could become contaminated by airborne organisms, but defending against other organisms is one of the functions of a biofilm. Plastic bag PBRs V-shaped plastic bags are commonly used in closed systems of algae cultivation for several reasons. These bags are made from high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and are designed to hold algae cultures in a closed environment, providing an ideal environment for algae growth. V-shaped plastic bags are effective for growing a variety of algae species, including Chlorella, Spirulina, and Nannochloropsis. The growth rate and biomass yield of Chlorella vulgaris in V-shaped plastic bags was found to be higher than any other shaped plastic bags. Different designs of plastic bags based PBR is developed from sealing the plastic bags at different places that generated, flat bottom hanging plastic bags, V-shaped hanging plastic bags, horizontally laying plastic bags that serves kind of flat PBR system, etc. Many plastic bag-based designs are proposed but few are utilized on commercial scale due to their productivities. Operation of plastic bags is tedious as they need to be replaced after every use to maintain the sterility, which is a laborious task for large scale facility. Harvesting Algae can be harvested using microscreens, by centrifugation, by flocculation and by froth flotation. Interrupting the carbon dioxide supply can cause algae to flocculate on its own, which is called "autoflocculation". "Chitosan", a commercial flocculant, more commonly used for water purification, is far more expensive. The powdered shells of crustaceans are processed to acquire chitin, a polysaccharide found in the shells, from which chitosan is derived via deacetylation. Water that is more brackish, or saline requires larger amounts of flocculant. Flocculation is often too expensive for large operations. Alum and ferric chloride are used as chemical flocculants. In froth flotation, the cultivator aerates the water into a froth, and then skims the algae from the top. Ultrasound and other harvesting methods are currently under development. Oil extraction Algae oils have a variety of commercial and industrial uses, and are extracted through a variety of methods. Estimates of the cost to extract oil from microalgae vary, but are likely to be around three times higher than that of extracting palm oil. Physical extraction In the first step of extraction, the oil must be separated from the rest of the algae. The simplest method is mechanical crushing. When algae is dried it retains its oil content, which then can be "pressed" out with an oil press. Different strains of algae warrant different methods of oil pressing, including the use of screw, expeller and piston. Many commercial manufacturers of vegetable oil use a combination of mechanical pressing and chemical solvents in extracting oil. This use is often also adopted for algal oil extraction. Osmotic shock is a sudden reduction in osmotic pressure, this can cause cells in a solution to rupture. Osmotic shock is sometimes used to release cellular components, such as oil. Ultrasonic extraction, a branch of sonochemistry, can greatly accelerate extraction processes. Using an ultrasonic reactor, ultrasonic waves are used to create cavitation bubbles in a solvent material. When these bubbles collapse near the cell walls, the resulting shock waves and liquid jets cause those cells walls to break and release their contents into a solvent. Ultrasonication can enhance basic enzymatic extraction. Chemical extraction Chemical solvents are often used in the extraction of the oils. The downside to using solvents for oil extraction are the dangers involved in working with the chemicals. Care must be taken to avoid exposure to vapors and skin contact, either of which can cause serious health damage. Chemical solvents also present an explosion hazard. A common choice of chemical solvent is hexane, which is widely used in the food industry and is relatively inexpensive. Benzene and ether can also separate oil. Benzene is classified as a carcinogen. Another method of chemical solvent extraction is Soxhlet extraction. In this method, oils from the algae are extracted through repeated washing, or percolation, with an organic solvent such as hexane or petroleum ether, under reflux in a special glassware. The value of this technique is that the solvent is reused for each cycle. Enzymatic extraction uses enzymes to degrade the cell walls with water acting as the solvent. This makes fractionation of the oil much easier. The costs of this extraction process are estimated to be much greater than hexane extraction. Supercritical CO2 can also be used as a solvent. In this method, CO2 is liquefied under pressure and heated to the point that it becomes supercritical (having properties of both a liquid and a gas), allowing it to act as a solvent. Other methods are still being developed, including ones to extract specific types of oils, such as those with a high production of long-chain highly unsaturated fatty acids. Algal culture collections Specific algal strains can be acquired from algal culture collections, with over 500 culture collections registered with the World Federation for Culture Collections. See also Sources References External links www.sas.org How to Rear a Plankton Menagerie (home grow micro algae in soda bottles) io.uwinnipeg.ca breeding algae in batch and continuous flow systems on small scale Making Algae Grow www.unu.edu Indian experience with algal ponds Blog Posts \| gerd-kloeck-141049 \| Renewable Energy World List of companies involved in microalgae production. Photobioreactors : Scale-up and optimisation PhD thesis Wageningen UR. Research on algae within Wageningen UR Photobioreactor using polyethylene and chicken wire . Instructables.com - Simple Home Algae Culture and Breeding Microphyt - Microalgae Production and Photobioreactor Design
4175082	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20Waziristan%20District	South Waziristan District	South Waziristan District (, ) was a district in the Dera Ismail Khan Division of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province before splitting into the Lower South Waziristan District and the Upper South Waziristan District on April 13, 2022. It covers around 11,585 km2 (4,473 mi2). Waziristan is located in the southwest of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. It is situated between two rivers. The Tochi River is flowing on its north and the Gomal River is flowing on its south. The region was an independent tribal territory from 1893, separated from both Afghanistan the British-ruled empire in the subcontinent. Raiding the tribal areas was a constant problem for the British, requiring frequent punitive expeditions between 1860 and 1945. Troops of the British Raj coined a name for this region "Hell's Door Knocker" in recognition of the fearsome reputation of the local fighters and inhospitable terrain. The district headquarter of the South Waziristan district is Wanna. South Waziristan is divided into three administrative subdivisions of Ladha, Sarwakai, and Wanna. These three subdivisions are further divided into eight Tehsils: Ladha, Makin, Sararogha, Sarwakai, Tiarza, Wanna, Barmal, and Toi Khula. The Waziristan was divided into two "agencies": North Waziristan and South Waziristan. Primarily, two big tribes live there. The Wazir tribe lives in the North Waziristan while Mahsud tribe inhibits the South Waziristan. Both the tribes are the subgroups of the Waziri tribe, after whom the region "Waziristan" is named, and speak a common Waziristani dialect. They have a reputation as warriors and are known for their frequent blood feuds. Traditionally, feuding local Waziri religious leaders have enlisted outsiders in the Pakistani government, and more recently the U.S. forces hunting al-Qaeda fugitives—in attempts at score-settling. The tribes are divided into sub-tribes governed by male village elders who meet in a tribal jirga. Socially and religiously, Waziristan is an extremely conservative area. Women are carefully guarded and every household must be headed by a male figure. Tribal cohesiveness is strong through so-called Collective Responsibility Acts in the Frontier Crimes Regulation. In terms of area, South Waziristan was the largest agency in the erstwhile FATA region(now merged with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) being 6,619 km2. It has been functioning since 1895. After it was merged with the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province in 2018, it received the status of a district. It is bordered with the North Waziristan district on the north, Bannu and Lakki Marwat districts on the northeast, Tank and Dera Ismail Khan districts on the east, Zhob District of the Balochistan on the south and Afghanistan on the west. History Located near the site of the ancient Indus Valley civilization and Harappa, the region was annexed as part of a far flung satrapy by the old Persian Achaemenid Empire before 500 B.C. The Macedonians under Alexander the Great marched on the area around 330 B.C., the later Greco-Bactrians establishing an independent Indo-Greek Kingdom following a split with the Seleucid Empire to the west. Afterwards, it came under Mauryan rule. The Saka arrived around 97 B.C., before the Indo-Parthians of Arsacid affinity ruled under Gondophares to about A.D. 75. The following few centuries A.D. brought at least nominal Kushan, Ephthalite, Kidarite and Sassanian Persian rule, the last of which fell to the forces of the Arab Rashidun Caliphate, which introduced Islam to the East Iranian borderlands in the seventh century. Islam was spread further east under the Saffarid dynasty which, under Ya'qub-i Laith Saffari, pressed deep into the Khyber hinterlands. The succeeding centuries saw Ghaznavid, Ghorid, and Babar control of the area, where regional Pashtoon tribes living in and around the Hindu-Kush later battled the encroaching British India northwest of the Punjab. From then onward, the region remained under British Indian Empire rule after the 1893 Durand Line agreement, until the state of Pakistan was created. Up to 1895, the Deputy Commissioner of Dera Ismail Khan and Bannu had controlled all political matters in Waziristan since the taking over of the Frontier from the Sikhs. These areas did not come under British control until November 1893, when the Amir of Afghanistan signed a treaty renouncing all claims to these territories. After an attack on the Delimitation Commission Escort at Wanna in 1894 and subsequent large military operations in 1894–95, a Political Agent for South Waziristan was permanently appointed with its headquarters at Wanna; another was appointed for the Tochi area (North Waziristan) with headquarters at Miramshah. The post of Resident in Waziristan was created in 1908. The Political Agent in North Waziristan was subordinate to the Resident, who was directly responsible to the Chief Commissioner of North Western Frontier Province. With the withdrawal of Indian government to the settled districts, the regular armed forces were withdrawn and, instead, a local militia was raised in 1900. However, large scale disturbances occurred in 1904 resulting in the murder of the Political Agent and Militia Commandant at Sarwakai. Later, a plot to murder all the British officers, seize the Wanna fort; and hand it over to Mullah Powindah, the self-styled king of Waziristan, was discovered. The Political Agent and the Commandant, on the same night, disarmed and dismissed all the Mahsuds from the Militia. A few months later, they were again enlisted, but were once again disbanded in 1906. In 1925 the Royal Air Force pacified Mahsud tribesmen by means of the Pink's War bombing campaign. In the 20th century, Mirzali Khan (Faqir of Ipi), although based in Gurwek, North Waziristan, had also many followers from South Waziristan. Geography The Agency is mostly a mass of rugged and complex hills and ridges. There are no regular mountain alignments. The land rises gradually from south and east to north and west. The dominating range is the Preghal in the west along the border with Afghanistan. It is the highest peak which is 3,515 metres high. Zarmelan, Wanna, Shakki, Zalai, Spin and Tiarza are the main plains of the Agency. Direction of water courses, in general, are from west to south i.e. from the watersheds of Sulaiman Mountains to the Indus. There are two principal rivers in the Agency, Gomal of Luni and Tank Zam. Some important rivulets are Khaisora, Shaktu, Siplatoi, Toi Khwla, Shuza, Shinkai and Shahur. The rest are mountain streams which can become dangerous and impassable during heavy rains which frequently occur during the months of July and August. The Gomal River rises in two branches in the eastern slopes of the western Sulaiman range in the Barmal District of Afghanistan not far from the source of the Tochi River. The Tank Zam is formed by the junction of the Tauda China and the Baddar Toi, at Dwa Toi, south of Razmak. Administration South Waziristan District is currently subdivided into eight Tehsils. Birmil Tehsil Ladha Tehsil Makin Tehsil Sararogha Tehsil Serwekai Tehsil Tiarza Tehsil Toi Khulla Tehsil Wana Tehsil Climate The Agency has hot summers and very cold winters. In winter, temperatures go below freezing point in places of high altitude. The summer season starts in May and ends by September. June is generally the warmest month when the mean maximum temperature rises slightly over 30 degrees Celsius. The winter starts in October and continues until April. December, January and February are the coldest months. The mean maximum and minimum temperatures for this period are 10 and −2 degrees Celsius, respectively. The Agency is outside the monsoon zone, yet at higher altitudes a fair amount of rainfall is received. South Waziristan Agency has an arid climate, receiving minimal precipitation. The western portion, bordering Afghanistan, receives more rainfall than the eastern portion touching Tank and D.I.Khan districts due to high altitude. Most of the Agency receives mean annual rainfall of 6 inches, while a small area in the southeastern corner receives less than of rainfall annually. Demographics At the time of the 2017 census the district had a population of 675,215, of which 355,611 were males and 319,554 females. The population was entirely rural. The literacy rate was 34.46% - the male literacy rate was 50.43% while the female literacy rate was 16.59%. 362 people in the district were from religious minorities. Pashto was the predominant language, spoken by 96.55% of the population. The two main tribes of the agency are the Ahmadzai Wazir and the Mahsud. The other significant tribal populations are the Ormur (Burki or Baraki), Dotani, Sulaimankhel, Ghilji, Khomia and Taji. Some Bettani tribal people live in a strip on the south-east border, while the Ghilji are mainly settled in the south-west corner. The Dotani and Sulaimankhel tribes mainly live in Toi Khwla and Gulkuch. Dress and ornaments The tribal people of this area wear distinctive dress. The dress of men consists of a turban smock; Shalwar and Chaddar. The smock is generally white or grey and occasionally embroidered on the chest with silk or cotton. Their Shalwars are baggy and big. Maliks and the wealthy wear white cotton smocks and carry Chaddar on their shoulders. The young educated males wear modern dress as worn by people elsewhere in the country. Women wear different colored clothes as to be identified. Married women put on dark-blue or dark-red smocks of coarse cotton. The spinsters invariably of both married and unmarried women are similar and fit closely below the knee. The married women usually wear a very huge firak called "ganr khat". The unmarried wear simple shalwar and qamees. One can easily differentiate between married and unmarried by this firak. Currently trends are changing of people and they adopt the new culture as well. in wazir etan the trend is slowly emerging but those people who migrated to other Urban areas of Pakistan they changed the fashion and also adopt the other culture. these tribe consist mainly on Mehsud and Wazir tribe. but still two main tribe of wazir e stan not change the way of living and they prefer the simplicity and traditional life ( Dotani and Suleman Khel tribe). Food The people of South Waziristan eat simple food of wheat and maize bread. They are also fond of chai (tea) and rice cooked with mutton. Pulao, a rice pilaf, with roasted meat are served on special occasions. But the main one is Sohbat of Mahsud tribals. The famous food of Dotani and suleman khel tribe is "Korrat", the half white rice mix up with "ghee" which is made from cow milk and second is Bar be Q of Goat. Economy The majority of Wazirs Mahsuds, Dotani and suleimankhail of South Waziristan are pastoral. The Wazirs breed cows and sheep and earn their livelihood from sheep-rearing. Suleimankhail are also horses and sheep and some go to different parts of Punjab in summers and most of them are in Iran to earn their livelihood. A large number of Mahsuds are employed in the Army, as levies and Khassadars in militia and scouts. Mahsuds have also taken to business in Tank and Dera Ismail Khan driving buses and trucks. The Agency also produces or trades charcoal, wool, potatoes, chilghozas and a few varieties of locally grown fruit. Mining There is hardly significant mining to be mentioned. Coal mines have been discovered in the Wazir area of Neeli Kach Tehsil Wanna. Copper is found in Preghal and Spin Kamar. Chromite in area Sarah Khuara near Dre Nashter. Places of interest Wanna is the summer headquarters of the Agency.The Historic Gomal Pass is mentioned by a famous diplomats and writer Dr Shamshad as a entery point of the Shahab- u- Din Ghouri's attacking army in 1192 AD. Ghouris travelled through south Waziristan and attacked india. Moreover, Musa Qala fort or the house of Pir Bagdadi near WANA bazar is also important place in SWD. Likewise, the check posts of British army built on various immensely tall mountains give evidence of the expertise of British army. The Red Bridge,locally known as seer Pall , at Tiarza is a remarkable sign of UK construction in the region.The Village Ghowa Khawa is also a very important place. Ali wazir who is the MNA and leader of PTM belongs to this village . Besides, famous lawyers of SWD Bar like Advocate Fida Hussain wazir were born here in Ghowa Khawa. It is an important tehsil and a camp similar to Razmak. The population is mostly of Ahmadzai Wazirs. It has a vast plain with extensive valleys surrounded on all sides by hills. It is an important industrial and agricultural center. Khaisur, Osspass, karama, Ladha, Makin, Sararogha, Azamwarsak and Angur Ada are also important places of the Agency. Kaniguram is inhabited principally by a tribe called Burki. There are some Mahsuds who also live there but no others. Recently in a local clash the Malik din Khel clan of Mahsuds annexed many parts of Burkis on which the Malik Din Khels have built their own houses. It is, population-wise, the largest habitation in South Waziristan at above sea level. The tribesmen manufacture small arms and knives, which are most known for their finish and performance and much-liked by tourists and foreigners. Administration The civil administration of South Waziristan Agency has been functioning since 1895 under a Political Agent who administers civil criminal and revenue cases in accordance with the Frontier Crimes Regulations and Customary Law. The Agency is divided into the three administrative subdivisions of Ladha, Sarwakai, and Wanna. These three subdivisions are further divided into eight Tehsils: Ladha, Makin, Sararogha, Sarwakai, Tiarza, Wanna, Barmal, and Toi Khwla. The subdivision of Sarwakai is administered by Assistant Political Officer, whereas the subdivisions of Ladha and Wanna are administered by Assistant Political Agents. Each tehsil is headed by a Political Naib Tehsildar. The Malik system introduced by the British government is functioning Agency. Maliks used to work like media between administrations and the (Qaum) or Tribe. A Maliki is hereditary and devolves on the son and his son so on and so forth for which regular benefits and subsidies are sanctioned from time to time. Lungi system known as Sufaid Resh is slightly lower form of Maliki. Provincial Assembly Pakistan's new Waziristan strategy On June 4, 2007, the National Security Council of Pakistan met to decide the fate of Waziristan and take up a number of political and administrative decisions to control "Talibanization" of the area. The meeting was chaired by President Pervez Musharraf and it was attended by the Chief Ministers and Governors of all four provinces. They discussed the deteriorating law and order situation and the threat posed to state security. The government decided to take a number of actions to stop the "Talibanization" and crush the armed militancy in the Tribal regions and Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa. The NSC of Pakistan has decided the following actions will be taken to achieve the goals: Deployment of unmanned reconnaissance planes Strengthening law enforcement agencies with advanced equipment Deployment of more troops to the region Operations against militants on fast-track basis Focused operations against militant commanders Action against madrasahs preaching militancy Appointment of regional coordinators Fresh recruitment of police officers in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa The Ministry of Interior has played a large part in the information gathering for the operations against militants and their institutions. The Ministry of Interior has prepared a list of militant commanders operating in the region and they have also prepared a list of seminaries for monitoring. The government is also trying to strengthen the law enforcement in the area by providing Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Police with weapons, bulletproof jackets and night-vision devices. The paramilitary Frontier Corps will be provided with artillery and Armored Personnel Carriers (APCs). The state agencies are also studying ways to block broadcasting of illegal FM radio channels. A major military offensive was launched in the area by the Pakistani army on 17 October 2009. ISPR on 2 November told the media about involvement of Indian's in South Waziristan had been found. A Qari Imran training camp was located in South Waziristan. The Taliban has been dislodged from the area. However, reports that appeared in 2012 suggested that only one out of six subdivisions has been de-notified as conflict zone. Army has control over the main roads and strategic hilltops while TTP militants have safe havens in the valleys. See also Battle of Wanna Dera Ismail Khan Division Bannu District North Waziristan District References External links This includes an Empire-centric view of the politics and demographics. Waziristan and Mughal empire Nehru in Waziristan Sketch map of Waziristan Mehsuds and Wazirs, the King-makers in a game of thrones Lawrence of Arabia in Waziristan Waziristan Districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Districts of Pakistan Historic districts in Pakistan
4175170	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikonos	Nikonos	Nikonos is the brand name of a series of 35mm format cameras specifically designed for underwater photography launched by Nikon in 1963. The early Nikonos cameras were improvements of the Calypso camera, which was an original design by Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Belgian engineer Jean de Wouters. It was produced in France by La Spirotechnique (currently Aqua Lung) until the design was acquired by Nikon to become the Nikonos. The Nikonos system was immensely popular with both amateur and professional underwater photographers. Its compact design, ease of use, and excellent optical quality set the standard for several decades of underwater imaging. Nikon ceased development and manufacture of new Nikonos cameras in 2001, but the camera remains popular, and there is a large and active secondary market. History Nippon Kogaku trace their underwater camera history back to 1956, when the company developed an underwater housing for the Nikon S2 rangefinder camera, which was marketed in May as the Nikon Marine. At approximately the same time, Jean de Wouters was building the first prototypes of the Calypso for La Spirotechnique, which went into serial production in 1961. However, La Spirotechnique was not experienced with camera design and manufacture, so they approached Nippon Kogaku to license the production and sales rights in June 1961; the two companies signed a contract in February 1962 granting the worldwide sales and distribution rights to Nikon outside France and the European Economic Community. Nippon Kogaku acquired the patent to the Calypso in 1963 and began manufacturing the Nikonos (later designated the Nikonos I) equipped with Nikkor optics instead of the original SOM Berthiot and Angenieux lenses. The "Workhorse of the War" Because of its waterproof housing, lens options, and toughness, the Nikonos was an important tool for photographers working in the steaming jungles, flooded rice paddies, and rain-lashed battlefields of the Vietnam War. The wire services loaded their Nikonos cameras with Tri-X, Ektachrome-X or High-Speed Ektachrome. Discontinued Nikon continued to manufacture Nikonos V bodies until 2001, when it formally announced it was terminating the series. Without any new models in years and with digital imaging taking over the market, Nikon saw no reason to continue the series. However, in the French Magazine "Focus-Numerique" Mr. Tetsuro Goto, the Director of Laboratory Research and Development at Nikon Japan said on the future of Nikonos: “personally I think the Nikonos will be reborn in the future.” Design and operation The numbered Nikonos cameras are often called rangefinder cameras, but in truth they are scale focus cameras as there is no rangefinder. The viewfinder is used purely to compose the shot, and to display exposure information on bodies with internal metering (Nikonos IV-A and V). Focus distance is set with an outsized dial mounted on the left side of the lens barrel (as seen from the operator's point of view), and the aperture is set with a dial mounted on the right. Refraction affects the estimated distance underwater by making objects appear 25% closer than they actually are; for example, an object that appears to be three feet away underwater (judged by size) is actually four feet away. Nikon assumed the user did not compensate for appearances underwater, so the distance markers on the lens are marked for apparent (not actual) distance. Thankfully the Nikonos wide-angle lenses have ample depth of field, so these discrepancies are often not a noticeable problem. The depth of field indicators on most Nikonos Nikkor lenses mechanically adjust with aperture. The numbered Nikonos models all had rugged construction, simple controls, and were waterproof to . The camera is made waterproof by a simple system of o-rings at all the crucial joints. Each new model brought various improvements such as light metering, flash circuitry, and improved shutter and film advance design. Notes First generation Calypso derivatives The initial Nikonos line consisted of three models that were improved versions of Cousteau's Calypso of 1961: Nikonos (1963), renamed Nikonos I after the Nikonos II was released Nikonos II (1968) Nikonos III (1975) The Nikonos was introduced at Photokina 1963; in the beginning, each camera was individually tested for water-tightness. In Europe, under the terms of the licensing agreement, the Nikonos was known as the Calypso/Nikkor. In July 1966, Nikon began marketing the Nikonos as an all-weather camera and sold a limited number of cameras with a white finish, which consisted of Nikonos cameras with white leather body panels. It is estimated that less than 150 examples of the white-finished Nikonos were made. In total, approximately 200,000 Nikonos I, II, and III cameras were manufactured between 1963 and 1983. The three Calypso-based Nikonos models share the same basic structure where the complete camera consists of three modules: lens, housing, and shutter/film transport assemblies. Film is loaded in the shutter/film assembly, which is inserted into the housing, and the mounting of the lens locks the three pieces together. The strap lugs are used to pry the shutter/film assembly out of the housing. The Nikonos II was cosmetically and dimensionally similar to the original Nikonos, but the shutter speed dial has an additional rewind setting, and the rewind knob is equipped with a lever to facilitate operation. Internally, all parts of the Nikonos II were coated to avoid corrosion; in case of leakage, the internal parts could be rinsed in fresh water and dried, leading some to call the Nikonos II indestructible. The film transport mechanism was redesigned for the Nikonos III to use the sprocket holes for positive framing; the original Calypso design did not count sprocket holes which sometimes resulted in overlapping frames. This resulted in a noticeably larger body. In addition, the flash sync port gained an extra pin to support electronic flash units. Second generation metered cameras A second viewfinder line was Nikon's complete re-design and included a through-the-lens (TTL) light meter with automatic exposure: Nikonos IV-A (1980) Nikonos V (1984) In contrast to the prior Nikonos line, the Nikonos IV-A introduced a one-piece body using a hinged back for film loading; sealing was accomplished through numerous o-rings, including a large gasket for the back. The film transport mechanism for the IV-A was adapted from the contemporary Nikon EM. Like the EM, the Nikonos IV-A primarily operated in aperture-priority autoexposure mode using stepless quartz-controlled shutter speeds between and , but the camera also offered two mechanical shutter speeds ([B]ulb and , marked as M90) in case of battery failure. In addition, the shutter speed dial can be set to "R"ewind. The viewfinder is equipped with a LED indicator, which glows steadily when the shutter speed is in the operating range ( – ), and blinks when the range is exceeded. The Nikonos V retained the new features of the IV-A and added manual control to set discrete shutter speeds. The V was released to address specific criticisms of the IV-A, namely that the flat gasket design was prone to failure, and that the new flash sync shutter speed of was too fast, especially since slower speeds could not be set manually to use fill-flash. The Nikonos V was capable of off-the-film-plane flash metering with the SB-102 speedlight, which was introduced alongside the camera at the Photo Marketing Association Show in Las Vegas, held April 1984. Third generation autofocus SLR Nikonos RS (1992) waterproof to 320 ft (100m) (World's first underwater Auto-Focus SLR camera) The 1992 Nikonos RS introduced an entirely new concept. Unlike its predecessors, the RS was a complete amphibious single lens reflex camera, with auto-focus, waterproof to and its own set of unique lenses that also utilized water-contact optics. They are, a 50mm 2.8 macro, 28mm wide, 13mm fisheye, and the world's first underwater zoom lens, a 20-35mm. The body features considerable automation, with a built-in motor drive for film advance and rewinding, an autofocus system with multiple modes, DX film speed detection, and an aperture-priority autoexposure mode. It is equipped with a high-eyepoint "action" finder, with an eye relief of , allowing the user to wear a typical underwater mask. Previous Nikonos models used lens-mounted knobs for aperture and focus; these controls were moved to the top deck and front grip of the Nikonos RS, respectively. The RS represented the pinnacle of Nikon's commitment to underwater imaging, and generated significant interest at the time. Although groundbreaking in many ways, it was also very expensive, putting it out of reach of all but the most dedicated (or best funded) underwater photographers. According to Brian Long, the RS was a development of Japan's bubble economy of the late 80s, which saw a number of cost-no-object consumer products and automobiles produced. Unfortunately, early versions also had a tendency to flood if not maintained perfectly. Flooding was attributed to many factors, one of which was the change to orange-colored silicone o-rings that could swell and fail if third-party silicone grease was applied instead of the Nikonos grease that was petroleum-based. Non-Nikon (third party) silicone grease was commonly used without problems on black Nikonos o-rings by underwater photographers for several decades. Nikon replaced all these floods at first, but in the end, it clearly became not worth the trouble. The RS was quietly discontinued about 5 years later, and no subsequent models were ever designed or manufactured. Digital Nikonos No Digital Nikonos has ever been made, but the Commercial & Government Systems division of Kodak modified a small number of Nikonos RS cameras for the United States Navy to create a digital unit known as the "Nikon/Kodak DCS 425". The digital imaging portion was housed in an extended rear door and were largely identical to the options available for the contemporary Kodak DCS 420 cameras based on the Nikon F90. Nikon celebrated the Nikonos legacy when the Nikon 1 AW1 was released, a waterproof interchangeable-lens digital camera. Reviewers compared the features of the AW1 to the Nikonos line. Lenses Nikonos mount With the exception of the above-water only LW-Nikkor 28mm, all Nikonos Nikkor lenses use two knobs to facilitate focus and aperture operation with gloved hands. In later years, these knobs were colored differently to allow the photographer to more clearly distinguish between their functions; for these lenses, the silver or chrome knob sets the focus distance, and the black knob controls the aperture. The LW-Nikkor uses conventional concentric focus and aperture rings. The two most common Nikonos lenses are the UW 28mm (for underwater use only) and the W 35mm (which is amphibious) with the UW 28mm being considered the better lens. Because water and air have significantly different indices of refraction, the 35mm lens is considered slightly wide on land, but is equivalent to a standard ~50mm lens under water. The nominal focal length can be multiplied by 1.33× to determine the equivalent angle of view underwater. These were also the first two lenses to be introduced with the Nikonos; the design of the W-Nikkor 35mm is based on the Nikkor 35mm 2.5 lens for M39 mount first sold in 1952; it is a symmetric Double-Gauss lens behind an optical flat to make the assembly water-tight. This improves lens speed compared with the original lens fitted to the Calypso, the SOM Berthiot 35mm 3.5, which had a Tessar-type construction. The Nikonos lenses designated "UW-Nikkor" were specifically designed for underwater photography only. It is said that, even to this day, no underwater lens matches the Nikonos "UW" lenses for sharpness and color saturation underwater. A brief explanation from Nikon about the difference between underwater-only lens and standard/"amphibious" lens can be found at Nikon official site, under the section "2. Rendition characteristics and lens performance". Nikon also created two lenses for use both above and under water, and one of them, the 35mm 2.5, can be thought of as the "kit" lens. They made the Nikonos useful for aquatic activities such as kayaking, canoeing, or for foul weather situations. These two lenses, the W-35mm and W-80mm, were also fully waterproof, but because they utilized a flat port, they did not have the benefit of the specialized water-contact optics. Notes Nikonos RS mount The Nikonos RS mount is physically identical to the older Nikon F mount, but an additional external bayonet was added for sealing, and the claws are slightly offset compared to the venerable still camera mount. The electronic signaling is also different from regular AF Nikon bodies. The sharpness of a remounted R-UW AF Fisheye-Nikkor 13mm was tested and found to be superior to an equivalent AF Fisheye-Nikkor 16mm using a dome port. Notes Third party lenses Lenses were made for the original Nikonos mount (for example, by Sea&Sea), which included both prime lenses as well as focal length converters which attached to the front of a Nikonos lens. Notes Accessories Closeup Extension tubes mounted with a Nikonos lens for macro photography, most commonly with the 35mm Nikonos lens to produce 2:1, 1:1 and 1:2 macro image ratios, with 1:3 occasionally seen as well. Offered by third parties; no Nikon extension tubes were produced. Nikon Close Up Kit, which included a close-up lens that attached to the front of either the UW 28 mm, W 35 mm, or W 80mm Nikonos lenses, a frame support bracket, and three field frames (one for each lens) to produce near-macro image ratios (approx range of 1:5 to 1:3, depending on the lens in use). Third-party close-up lenses Because the numbered Nikonos cameras did not offer through-the-lens viewing, the extremely shallow depth of field for macro photography pragmatically required a focusing aid. The extension tube and Close Up Kit systems used a framer, which attached to the lens assembly and provided a direct physical index for the camera-to-subject distance, as well as its approximate width/height. The Nikon Close Up Kit provided a complete rectangular frame, but most third-party extension tube kits typically only indexed the bottom and two sides, not the top, and because of this shape, a slang term for Nikonos framers were Goal Posts. For various reasons (such as concern for potential damage to the reef), some alternative products were developed over time to minimize or replace the basic framer design. One example (Fred Dion; Underwater Photo Tech) consisted of a bracket that held two small flashlights whose beams aligned at the focus plane. Nikonos light meter The Nikonos light meter accessory houses the selenium-celled Sekonic L-86 Auto-Lumi. An underwater light meter is necessary for the Nikonos I, II, and III, which do not have metering in the body. Flash Because light becomes monochromatic as depth increases, a portable light source is required for underwater photography. The first Calypso-based Nikonos cameras (I and II) were equipped with two-pin sync ports for flashbulb units. The Nikonos III added a third pin to support electronic flash units; although a prototype was exhibited (SB-11), the first electronic Nikonos flash unit, the SB-101, was introduced with the Nikonos IV-A; both the IV-A and III supported the SB-101, but the IV-A dropped support for the flashbulb units. The SB-102 and -103 were introduced with the Nikonos V, with the SB-103 a more compact version of the SB-102, which in turn was an updated version of the SB-101. The SB-104 and -105 were introduced with the Nikonos RS; all four of these units (SB-102 through -105) supported TTL flash operation. The SB-103 was recalled in September 1998; hydrogen gas could potentially build up and be ignited by the flash tube, which would eject the front lens and flash tube assembly from the unit. Owners of recalled units were offered the SB-105 as a replacement. Because the SB-103 housing was designed to be pressure-resistant, Nikon was unable to crush the recalled units and instead drilled a hole through the "103" marking on the side of the flash. Some of the recalled units were subsequently resold on the secondary market. The recall was still active as of October 2017; because the SB-105 is no longer being manufactured, SB-103 owners will instead receive a voucher. Notes In popular culture An unbranded Nikonos was operated by James Bond in the 1965 film Thunderball. References External links Evolution of the Nikonos, by Nikon The Nikonos System, Andew[sic] Dawson, Photo.net, 2003 Underwater photography range, Nikon USA Nikonos underwater camera models, Photography In Malaysia Underwater cameras Nikon cameras
4175462	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore%20Tugboat	Theodore Tugboat	Theodore Tugboat is a Canadian children's television series about a tugboat named Theodore who lives in the Big Harbour with all of his friends. The show originated (and is set) in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada as a co-production between the CBC (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation), and the now defunct Cochran Entertainment, and was filmed on a model set using radio controlled tugboats, ships, and machinery. Production of the show ended in 2001, and its distribution rights were later sold to Classic Media (now DreamWorks Classics). The show premiered in Canada on CBC Television, then went to PBS (Public Broadcasting Service), was on Qubo in the United States, and has appeared in eighty different countries. The show deals with life learning issues portrayed by the tugs or other ships in the harbour. Most often, the tugs have a problem, or get involved in a struggle with each other or another ship, but they always manage to help one another resolve these problems and see them through. Their main focus however, is to always make the Big Harbour the friendliest harbour in the world, and to always do a good job with their work related tasks. Origins The original idea for the series came to Halifax native Andrew Cochran, as he tried to explain the unique characteristics and work of Halifax Harbour vessels to his three-year-old son while walking along the Halifax waterfront. According to Cochran, "When you are with kids, you tend to give human characteristics to buildings, cars and boats." Cochran and his production company, Cochran Entertainment, went on to lead the development of the series with the CBC in Canada, starting in 1989. Production commenced in 1992 with the first broadcasts aired on CBC in 1993. Cochran Entertainment produced all 130 original episodes with Cochran as the executive producer. Jeff Rosen served as the Executive Story Editor and Principal Writer of the series. The designs and faces for most of the characters were created by art director and master model maker Fred Allen. CBC Art Director Tom Anthes designed the set, which featured buildings and structures of Halifax Harbour. More than 60 of the 130 episodes were directed by Robert Cardona, the co-creator of the television show Tugs and producer of Thomas & Friends. These series employed techniques later used in Theodore Tugboat such as humanized vehicles, life lessons and the use of a 1960s pop culture figure as narrator. Characters The show has one human character, The Harbourmaster, and five central tugboat characters, led by the show's namesake, Theodore Tugboat. Other ships, of all sizes, provide a large number of regular and occasional characters along with a few talking structures. The Harbourmaster Along with all the duties of a real-life harbourmaster, The Harbourmaster is the host and narrator of the series, and provides voices for the entire cast of characters. He is the only human on the show to be played live by a screen actor (other on-screen humans being small figurines, much like the first twelve seasons of Thomas and Friends), and is portrayed in the Canadian and US versions by the late Denny Doherty, formerly of The Mamas & the Papas, and by other performers internationally. The Harbourmaster introduces the theme at the beginning of every episode by addressing an issue that he has in common with the tugs. He also loves to play the tuba and is a good friend of a man named "Rodney" (who is never seen). The role, and the person playing the role, is similar to that of Shining Time Station, the American series that featured Thomas & Friends; like Theodore Tugboat, that series initially starred (and was narrated by) an entertainment figure associated with the 1960s. Ringo Starr (of The Beatles), and later, comedian George Carlin, both played the role of "Mr. Conductor". He also, like the narrator of TUGS, but unlike the narrators of Thomas the Tank Engine (Starr & Carlin at least) – can communicate on screen with the Tugboats. Tugboats Theodore Tugboat: Theodore is the title character who lives in the Big Harbour with all of his friends. He's one of the smaller tugs who wears a red baseball cap, and is sometimes offended if someone calls him "cute" or "small". He and his closest friend Hank are the only two harbour tugs (tugs that are not yet eligible to work outside harbour boundaries). They both share the harbour tug side of the dock and love working together. He's a kind little tugboat that is always friendly to the other ships in the harbour, with the goal of befriending everyone he meets. His biggest dream is to become an ocean tug and to travel across the sea to different harbours, but before he does, he works as hard as he can to make the Big Harbour the friendliest harbour in the world. That's why he is always there whenever someone needs him. Hank: Hank (the Volcano, as he sometimes calls himself) is the smallest, funniest, fastest tugboat in the Big Harbour. He wears a blue toque and loves to make funny faces and noises as a way of getting attention. He can be very sensitive too, and usually gets ignored for being the smallest. Whenever he feels down, he always turns to Theodore for help or guidance. Hank was afraid of the dark once, but overcomes his fear when Theodore tells him that he was once afraid of the dark too. Sometimes Hank is the one to give a good idea without even knowing it. He always forgets to tuck in his anchor, so the other tugs always remind him every now and then. He has the tendency to use the word "fresh" to describe something. Out of all the other tugboats, Hank is special because of his good humour and nature to learn and grow from his mistakes. Emily "the Vigorous": Emily is the only female tug in the fleet. She wears an old turquoise fishing hat that is very special to her. She loves to travel to different countries and discover new cultures and languages. Emily likes to be admired, but hates to look silly in front of her friends thinking they always have high expectations for her, and look up to her as a leader. Still, she always comes to find that her friends are there to help her, even if she doesn't ask for their help. She usually gets into arguments with George, but they always resolve their differences in the end. No matter how upset Emily gets, she always shows her kind spirits and strength. George "the Valiant": George is the largest and strongest tugboat in the Big Harbour. He wears a purple baseball cap on his head backwards. George loves to show off and can sometimes be a little rude without knowing it. He's somewhat stubborn and always struggles to admit that he is sometimes wrong. He especially loves to tell stories to the other tugs, mostly about himself. Whenever he gets irritated, he blows up a lot of smoke from his smokestack and makes loud noises with his powerful engines. Most of all, George is a hard worker, never leaves a job until it's done, and always stands up for his friends. Foduck "the Vigilant": Foduck is the harbour's safety tug. He wears a dark red firefighter's hat and is equipped with extra bright spotlights, sonar transceiver and a fire hose. Foduck is always very serious and makes sure all jobs are being performed safely. Foduck is a V tug like George and Emily, meaning he is fully qualified to make ocean voyages, but is content with staying in the harbour to keep it safe. Because of his strong work ethic, Foduck usually doesn't express his feelings, but deep inside, he has a soft spot in his heart for everything and everyone in the harbour. The Dispatcher: The tugboat Dispatcher is a rotating building on the "Great Ocean Tug and Salvage Company" wharf, who assigns the tugs their jobs for the day. He has a black moustache and a flag on his head. He is usually very serious and strict with the tugs, but they are always respectful to him because of his authority-like figure. He shows that he cares for the tugs by disciplining them for their faults, and by counselling them for their mistakes. And like a father, he always has a gentle side to him, and is always there when the tugboats need his help the most. Regular characters A number of ships based in the Big Harbour appear as recurring characters. They include Phillip and Philmore the Ferry Twins, Pearl and Petra, the Pilot Boats, as well as Northumberland Submarine, Rebecca the Research Vessel, and Bluenose the Sailing Ship. A number of barges appear frequently, most notably the grumpy Guysborough the Garbage Barge and Barrington Barge as well as a few regular talking structures such as Benjamin Bridge and Donald Dock. Visiting characters Many visiting ships such as Kingston the Cargo Ship, Queen Stephanie the cruise ship, and Canso Colossus the supertanker appear in several episodes along with a large number of named visiting cargo ships and some rare special visitors such as Snorri the Viking Ship and Kulu the Canoe. Episodes The program's formula Each episode always follows the same format within the series. Opening sequence The show always opens with the theme song, and the opening title dissolves into the Harbourmaster's office. The Harbourmaster is normally doing something or thinking about something, which prompts him to remember when one of the tugboats was involved in a similar scenario. Main sequence As the Harbourmaster starts telling the story, the camera shot dissolves into a shot of the tugs working somewhere, or getting their orders from the Dispatcher. In the first few minutes of the episode, the tugs encounter a problem, and they use their heads to solve it. "It is the classic three-act structure," said series creator Andrew Cochran, "Theodore encounters a problem, the problem gets worse, he solves the problem." Other times, the tugs have to conquer an emotional problem, such as not feeling good enough, or having to say goodbye to a friend. As each episode continues, the tugs resolve their problems, and life returns to normal in the Big Harbour. Closing sequence The scene again dissolves into a shot of the Harbourmaster's office, with the Harbourmaster deciding to pay attention to the lesson learned by the tugs. During this time, he sometimes communicates with the tugs through his office window (they reply with the sound of their whistles), plays his tuba, or listens to his friend Rodney playing bagpipes. The Harbourmaster finally says "Thanks for visiting us here in the Big Harbour, and we'll see you all again next time.", and the credits roll. On the half-hour PBS series, following the first story, the Harbourmaster's goodbye is instead followed by a voice-over, reminding viewers to stay tuned for the next story, and prompting them to visit the PBS website. Production The series was filmed in the former Alexander McKay School on Russell Street in Halifax's North End, which Doherty (the Harbourmaster) had attended as a child. At the peak of production, the show employed forty people. The characters, including Theodore, were designed and built by Fred Allen, a Halifax artist and set designer who strove to balance expressive human faces with realistic and weathered industrial details. Allen and three model assistants built the models in a workshop adjacent to the large set located in a water-filled gymnasium. The radio controlled models were driven by propellers and used underwater wheels to provide guidance and avoid drifting out of shots. Blue food colour was used to give an ocean look to the water. While Allen built the vessel models, the background set, inspired by the cityscape of Halifax and Dartmouth buildings, was built by the art department at CBC Halifax. Many of the original models used to film the series can now be seen at Halifax's Maritime Museum of the Atlantic, while a few others were sold on eBay in 2010. Real names and locations The characters are loaded with references to Halifax Harbour, Nova Scotia, the Maritimes, and Atlantic Canada in general. Many of the references are obvious (such as Bedford buoy) while others are more obscure. The following is a list of other references: The Big Harbour itself is modelled after Halifax Harbour, in Nova Scotia. The tugs occasionally visit a fishing village called Ceilidh's Cove, which is loosely modelled from Peggys Cove, a real-life fishing community in Nova Scotia. Some of the tugboat characters' V-names are derived from actual tugboats that operate in Halifax Harbour, including Point Vigour and Point Valiant. Annapolis (a cargo ship) is named after Annapolis Royal in southwestern Nova Scotia. Baddeck (the buoy boat) is named after the village of Baddeck, Nova Scotia Barrington (the smallest barge) is likely named after the municipality of Barrington, Nova Scotia, which is located in the southwestern region of the province near Shelburne. He may have also gotten his name from one of Halifax's best-known streets, Barrington Street, which runs straight through the downtown core parallel to the harbour. Bedford (the buoy by Willy's Island) is based on both the name (Bedford Basin), part of Halifax Harbour, and the former town of Bedford located at the head of the basin. Blandford (the buoy at the harbour entrance) is named after the fishing community of Blandford, Nova Scotia, which later gained international fame as a base from which the rescue efforts of Swissair Flight 111 were carried out. Bluenose (a sailing ship) is named after the famous racing schooner of the 1920s, the Bluenose. A replica of the "Bluenose", the "Bluenose II" sails as a promotional vessel for Nova Scotia. Bluenose is also the name of the naval tug in Tugs. Bonavista (one of the barges) is named after the fishing town of Bonavista, located in the province of Newfoundland. Brunswick Barge shares his name with both Brunswick Street in downtown Halifax and the province of New Brunswick Cabot (the cargo ship) is named after the Cabot Trail, a highway that takes sight-seeres through the scenic mountainous regions of northern Cape Breton Island. Canso Colossus (the supertanker) is named after the small fishing town of Canso, Nova Scotia on the southeast coast. Caraquet (the container ship) shares her name with the town of Caraquet, New Brunswick, located on the shores of Chaleur Bay, in the Acadian Peninsula. "Caraquet" is a native Mi'kmaq word, meaning "junction (or meeting) of two rivers". Chester (the container ship) gets his name from the seaside village of Chester, Nova Scotia. Cobequid Cove (visited in the episode "The Dark and Scary Cove") shares its name with both the Cobequid Bay and the Cobequid Hills mountain range of mainland Nova Scotia. Cobequid is a proud, historic, and distinctly Nova Scotian name, derived from the native Mi'kmaq word "Wakobetgitk", meaning "end of the rushing or flowing water" (in reference to the Bay of Fundy). Cumberland gets his name from Cumberland County, Nova Scotia, which is located in the province's northwest region. Dartmouth (a visiting cable ship) is named after the former city of Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, which lies on the eastern shore of Halifax Harbour. Dartmouth's municipal government was amalgamated into the Halifax Regional Municipality in 1996, but the area still retains its original name. Digby (the cable ship) is named after Digby, Nova Scotia, a seaside community on the northwest shore of Nova Scotia, famous for its scallop fishing. Ecum Secum Circle (visited in the episode "Theodore's Big Decision") shares its name with the rural community of Ecum Secum, Nova Scotia, which is located along the shores of Ecum Secum Harbour. Named in the language of the Mi'kmaq, First Nations people, "Ecum Secum" translates to English as "a red house". Fundy (the fishing boat) gets his name from the Bay of Fundy, the body of water that separates southern Nova Scotia from southern New Brunswick and eastern Maine, and is the body of water with the world's largest tides, that can exceed . Guysborough (the garbage barge) is named after Guysborough County on the south shore of Nova Scotia. Inverness (the cargo ship) gets her name from the community of Inverness, Nova Scotia, which is located on the west coast of Cape Breton Island. Lunenburg (the lighthouse by Shipwreck Rock) is named after the port town of Lunenburg, Nova Scotia, which is where the original Bluenose was built and the Bluenose II calls home. Margaree Pride (a container ship) shares her name with the communities of Upper, East, Northeast, and Southwest Margaree, Margaree Centre, Margaree Valley, Margaree Forks, Margaree Harbour, and the Margaree River, all in Inverness County, Nova Scotia. Northumberland (the submarine) is named after the Northumberland Strait, a body of water that lies between New Brunswick, Nova Scotia mainland, and Prince Edward Island. Pictou Peaks (a cluster of giant rocks poking up out of the water near the shallow shore). Seen in the episode "Emily Goes Overboard", The 'Pictou Peaks' share their name with the historic port Town of Pictou, located in Pictou County, Nova Scotia. It is believed the name is derived from the word "Piktook", which means "an explosion of gas" in the language of the local Mi'kmaq, First Nations people. Pugwash (the little yellow mini-sub) shares her name with the fishing and salt mining village of Pugwash, Nova Scotia, located on the Northumberland Strait at the mouth of the Pugwash River. The village takes its name from the word "pagwe’ak", a native Mi'kmaq word meaning "deep water". Seabright (the cargo ship) is named after the tiny community of Seabright, Nova Scotia, which is located southwest of Halifax. Shediac (a supply shed at the shipyard dock) shares his name with the town of Shediac, New Brunswick, which holds the nickname "Lobster Capital of the World". Shelburne (the giant sea-going barge) is named after the town of Shelburne, Nova Scotia, which lies on the southwest shore of the province. Stewiacke (the salvage ship) gets his name from the town of Stewiacke, Nova Scotia, which is located halfway between the equator and the north pole. It was also the hometown of Fred Allen, the artist who designed and built the characters and set of Theodore Tugboat. Truro (the fishing trawler) gets his name from the town of Truro, Nova Scotia, which is known as the Hub of Nova Scotia for its central location and historical importance to the province's railroad network. It was also revealed in the episode "Hank's New Name" that Emily's middle name is Annapolis, after Annapolis County in northwest Nova Scotia. Media Theodore Tugboat VHS tapes Canadian VHS tapes The Canadian Theodore VHS tapes were made by Children's Group and PolyGram Video. They contained stickers of all the tugboats and two episodes. The list Theodore to the Rescue – "Theodore to the Rescue" and "Theodore and the Northern Lights" Theodore's Whistle – "Theodore's Whistle" and "George's Ghost" Theodore's Big Adventures – "Theodore and the Oil Rig" and "Hank and the Hug" Whale of a Tug – "Whale of a Tug" and "Carla the Cool Cabin Cruiser" Hank and the Nightlight – "Hank and the Nightlight" and "Theodore Hugs the Coast" Theodore and the Harbour Crane – "Theodore and the Harbour Crane" and "Hank's Wheezy Whistle" Theodore and the Treasure Team – "Northumberland is Missing" and "All Quiet in the Big Harbour" Emily Goes Overboard – "Emily Goes Overboard" and "Dartmouth Says Goodbye" US tapes The US Theodore Tugboat tapes were released through PBS Home Video and Warner Home Video. Most of these tapes are common on online sites. They usually contain three episodes, with the exception of "Theodore's Big Adventure" with two, and "Theodore's Exceptional Friends" which has five, also containing a special handbook. The list Theodore's Big Adventure (July 29, 1997) (PBS version) – "Theodore and the Big Oil Rig", and "Hank and the Hug" Big Harbour Bedtime (July 14, 1998) – "Emily and the Sleep Over", "Theodore's Bright Night", and "Foduck and the Shy Ship" Theodore Helps a Friend (July 14, 1998) – "Theodore and the Hunt for Northumberland", "Bedford's Big Move", and Guysborough Makes a Friend" Theodore's Friendly Adventures (July 14, 1998) – "Theodore and the Unsafe Ship", "A Joke too Far", and "Hank and the Sunken Ship" Theodore's Exceptional Friends (October 26, 1999) – "Snorri the Viking Ship", "Guysborough's Garbage", "Hank Hurts a Ship", Theodore and the Ice Ship", and "Dartmouth Says Goodbye" Nighttime Adventures (April 4, 2000) – "Night Shift", "Rebeca and the Big Snore", and "Hank Stays Up Late" Underwater Mysteries (April 4, 2000) – "Theodore's Big Decision", "George and the Underwater Mystery", and "Pugwash is Gone!" Theodore Tugboat DVDs The Murphy's Company Store in Halifax has copies of some US releases on DVD. These include; Big Harbor Bedtime, Nighttime Adventures, and Theodore's Friendly Adventures. In 2007, 2 DVD volumes were released in Norway, Denmark, Sweden, and Finland. A DVD was released in The Netherlands in 2012, followed by a second volume in 2013. Theodore Tugboat books In a deal Cochran did with Random House in 1998, the following Theodore Tugboat books were published Theodore and the Whale by Mary Man-Kong, illustrated by Bernat Serrat as part of the Please Read to Me series [9780679894216] Released March 16, 1999, Trade Paperback Theodore and the Scary Cove by Mary Man-Kong as part of the Early Step Into Reading series [9780375805080 and 9780375905087] Released July 25, 2000, Trade Paperback and Library Binding Theodore and the Treasure Hunt by Mary Man-Kong; illustrated by Francesc Mateu [9780375800863] Released December 10, 1999, Board Book Theodore to the Rescue by Random House; illustrated by Ken Edwards as part of the Jellybean books series for preschoolers.[9780375803253] Released June 27, 2000 Theodore's Best Friend by Mary Man-Kong, illustrated by Ken Edwards as part of the Jellybean books series for preschoolers. [9780679894094 and 9780679994091] Released September 1, 1999, Hardcover Theodore's Splash! by Mary Man-Kong, illustrated by Ken Edwards [9780679894100] Released February 16, 1999, A bath time book Theodore's Whistle by Man-Kong, Mary [9780679894193] Released January 9, 1998, Trade Paperback Theodore and the Stormy Day by Ivan Robertson, illustrated by Ken Edwards as part of the Jellybean books series for preschoolers. [9780375800764] Released July 20, 1999, Hardcover Theodore's Birthday Surprise illustrated by Phil Gleaves as part of the Jellybean books series for preschoolers.[9780375802492] Released January 25, 2000, Hardcover In the late 2000s Nimbus Publishing released a series of books featuring Theodore Too. Theodore Too and the Too-Long Nap By Michelle Mulder; Illustrated By: Yolanda Poplawska [9781551095714] Published April 15, 2006 Theodore Too and the Shipwreck School By Michelle Mulder; Illustrated By: Yolanda Poplawska [9781551096094] Published June 8, 2007 Theodore Too and the Mystery Guest By Michelle Mulder; Illustrated By: Yolanda Poplawska [9781551096599] Published May 14, 2008 Theodore Too and the Excuse-Me Monster By Michelle Mulder; Illustrated By: Yolanda Poplawska [9781551098074] Published April 6, 2011 Merchandise There were several tie-ins linked with the series. Notably, the producers, Cochran Entertainment, worked out a marketing deal with European toy manufacturer BRIO to produce wooden toy replicas of some of the main characters, as well as a line of scale die-cast models and bathtub toys manufactured by Ertl. The characters were retired in 2000. A set of squeezy toys were made by Alpi. Puzzles and games were made by International Playthings. A life-sized replica of Theodore Tugboat (called Theodore Too) was constructed by the series producers in the late 1990s, that went on a fifty-city tour of harbours from Tampa, Florida, through the Great Lakes to Chicago, Illinois, and back again to Halifax. It resided in Halifax Harbour for 21 years. In mid-2020, the touring company, Ambassatours Gray Line, announced plans to sell the replica boat for CAD$496,000. Response from the public was generally nostalgic and emotional, as many, especially haligonians who had not only grown up with the show, but with the boat as well. The boat was purchased in March 2021 by Blair McKeil. Theodore Too left Halifax harbour on June 10, 2021 for the Port of Hamilton, Hamilton, Ontario where it will be used to promote water conservation in the Great Lakes. Theodore Tugboat merchandise can still be purchased from many on-line auction and shopping websites. Retail merchandise can also be purchased from the Theodore Tugboat Gift Shop, on the waterfront in downtown Halifax, near Theodore Too and the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic. Theodore Tugboat toys/games Ertl Ertl released a number of Theodore Tugboat toys, including die-cast boats, a set of rubber boats that float, and a "Press'n Roll" series of plastic boats (where pressing the smokestack then releasing it makes the boat move). Characters Theodore Emily Foduck Hank George Carla Brunswick The Great Ocean Dock Playset Constance Rebecca Northumberland Owan The Oil Rig Playset Shelburne Bayswater Bobby Bath Tub Toys Theodore Hank Emily George Foduck Northumberland Guysborough Pugwash Digby Changing Faces Hank Theodore Press and Roll Emily Foduck Sets The Great Ocean Dock Playset (with Donald Dock and Brunswick) Owan The Oil Rig Playset Cancelled Phillip Sigrid Filmore Barrington Oliver BRIO BRIO released many Theodore Tugboat toys for interaction with its toy trains. Other than the tugboats, Brio released Benjamin Bridge, Clayton the Crane, Chester the Container Ship, Barrington, Bonnavista, and the Dispatcher. The tugs and the Dispatcher feature moving eyes. Characters Made Theodore Hank Emily George Foduck The Dispatcher Barrington Benjamin Bridge Clayton Chester Sets The Great Ocean Dock and Dispatcher Cargo Docks Play Set and Bonnavista Barge International Playthings International Playthings released the Theodore Tugboat Cargo Game. See also Theodore Too, the life-size replica of Theodore Tugboat Thomas & Friends, another show Robert Cardona worked on Tugs (TV series), another show Robert Cardona worked on References External links Theodore Too Tugboats in fiction Television shows set in Nova Scotia Television shows filmed in Halifax, Nova Scotia PBS original programming CBC Kids original programming 1993 Canadian television series debuts 2001 Canadian television series endings 1990s Canadian children's television series 2000s Canadian children's television series Television characters introduced in 1993 Canadian preschool education television series 1990s preschool education television series 2000s preschool education television series PBS Kids shows Television series by Universal Television Canadian television shows featuring puppetry DreamWorks Classics Anthropomorphic vehicles
4175955	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeman%20Freeman-Thomas%2C%201st%20Marquess%20of%20Willingdon	Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon	Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon (12 September 1866 – 12 August 1941), styled as the Earl of Willingdon between 1931 and 1936, was a British Liberal politician and administrator who served as Governor General of Canada and as Viceroy and Governor-General of India. Freeman-Thomas was born in England and educated at Eton College and then the University of Cambridge before serving for 15 years in the Sussex Artillery. He then entered the diplomatic and political fields, acting as aide-de-camp to his father-in-law when the latter was Governor of Victoria and, in 1900, was elected to the British House of Commons. He thereafter occupied a variety of government posts, including secretary to the British prime minister and, after being raised to the peerage as Lord Willingdon, as Lord-in-waiting to King George V. From 1913, Willingdon held gubernatorial and viceregal offices throughout the British Empire, starting with the governorship of Bombay and then the governorship of Madras, before he was in 1926 appointed as the Governor-General of Canada to replace the Viscount Byng of Vimy, occupying the post until succeeded by the Earl of Bessborough in 1931. Willingdon was immediately thereafter appointed as Viceroy and Governor-General of India to replace Lord Irwin (later created Earl of Halifax), and he served in the post until succeeded by the Marquess of Linlithgow in 1936. After the end of his viceregal tenure, Willingdon was installed as the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and was elevated in the peerage as the Marquess of Willingdon. After representing Britain at a number of organisations and celebrations, Willingdon died in 1941 at his home in London, and his ashes were interred in Westminster Abbey. Early life and education Freeman Thomas was born the only son of Freeman Frederick Thomas, an officer in the rifle brigade of Ratton and Yapton, and his wife, Mabel, daughter of Henry Brand, Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury (later Speaker of the House of Commons, who retired as 1st Viscount Hampden). Before he was two, Thomas' father had died and he was raised thereafter by his mother, who sent him to Eton College. There, he acted as President of the Eton Society and was for three years a member of the school's cricket team, serving as captain of the playing eleven during his final year. He carried this enthusiasm for sport on to the University of Cambridge, where he was accepted to Trinity College after leaving Eton, and was drafted into the Cambridge playing eleven, playing for Sussex and I Zingari. His father had also played for Sussex. Upon his general admission from university, Freeman-Thomas then volunteered for fifteen years for the Sussex Artillery, achieving the rank of major. Marriage and political career In 1892, Freeman-Thomas assumed the additional surname of Freeman by deed poll and married the Hon. Marie Brassey, the daughter of Thomas Brassey, then recently created Baron Brassey. Freeman-Thomas often cited her as a source of support, stating once: "My wife has been a constant inspiration and encouragement." The couple had two sons: Gerard, born 3 May 1893, and Inigo, born 25 July 1899. Gerard was killed in World War I on 14 September 1914, and Inigo eventually succeeded his father as Marquess of Willingdon. In 1897 Freeman-Thomas was appointed aide-de-camp to his father-in-law, who was then the Governor of Victoria, Australia. Upon his return to the United Kingdom, Freeman-Thomas joined the Liberal Party and in 1900 was elected to the British House of Commons to represent the borough of Hastings. He then served as a junior lord of the Treasury in the Liberal Cabinet that sat from December 1905 to January 1906. Though he lost in the January 1906 elections, Freeman-Thomas returned to the House of Commons by winning the by-election for Bodmin, and, for some time, served as a secretary to the prime minister, H. H. Asquith. For his services in government, Freeman-Thomas was in 1910 elevated to the peerage as Baron Willingdon of Ratton in the County of Sussex, and the following year was appointed as Lord-in-waiting to King George V, becoming a favourite tennis partner of the monarch. His father-in-law was created Earl Brassey at the coronation in that year. Governorship of Bombay Willingdon was on 17 February 1913 appointed as the Crown Governor of Bombay, replacing the Lord Sydenham of Combe, and to mark this event, Willingdon was on 12 March 1913 honoured with induction into the Order of the Indian Empire as a Knight Grand Commander (additional). Within a year, however, the First World War had erupted, and India, as a part of the British Empire, was immediately drawn into the conflict. Lord Willingdon strove to serve the Allied cause, taking responsibility for treating the wounded from the Mesopotamian campaign. In the midst of those dark times, Mahatma Gandhi returned to Bombay from South Africa and Willingdon was one of the first persons to welcome him and invite him to Government House for a formal meeting. This was the first meeting Willingdon had with Gandhi and he later described the Indian spiritual leader as "honest, but a Bolshevik and for that reason very dangerous." In 1917, the year before Willingdon's resignation of the governorship, a severe famine broke out in the Kheda region of the Bombay Presidency, which had far reaching effects on the economy and left farmers in no position to pay their taxes. Still, the government insisted that tax not only be paid but also implemented a 23% increase to the levies to take effect that year. Kheda thus became the setting for Gandhi's first satyagraha in India, and, with support from Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Narhari Parikh, Mohanlal Pandya, and Ravishankar Vyas, organised a Gujarat sabha. The people under Gandhi's influence then rallied together and sent a petition to Willingdon, asking that he cancel the taxes for that year. However, the Cabinet refused and advised the Governor to begin confiscating property by force, leading Gandhi to thereafter employ non-violent resistance to the government, which eventually succeeded and made Gandhi famous throughout India after Willingdon's departure from the colony. For his actions there, in relation to governance and the war effort, Willingdon was on 3 June 1918 appointed by the King as a Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India. Governorship of Madras Willingdon returned to the United Kingdom from Bombay only briefly before he was appointed on 10 April 1919 as the governor of Madras. This posting came shortly after the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms of 1918 were formalised by the Government of India Act, which distributed power in India between the executive and legislative bodies. Thus, in November 1920, Willingdon dropped the writs of election for the first election for the Madras Legislative Council; however, due to their adherence to Gandhi's non-cooperation movement, the Indian National Congress party refused to run any candidates and the Justice Party was subsequently swept into power. Willingdon appointed A. Subbarayalu Reddiar as his premier and Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (a former Governor General of Canada), opened the first meeting of the Legislative Assembly. The following year, the Governor found himself dealing with a series of communal riots that in August 1921 broke out in the Malabar District. Following a number of cases of arson, looting, and assaults, Willingdon declared martial law just before the government of India sent in a large force to quell the riots. At around the same time, over 10,000 workers in the Buckingham and Carnatic Mills of Madras city organised for six months a general strike contemporaneous with the non-cooperation movement, which also sparked riots between pro- and anti-strike workers that were again only put down with police intervention. When he returned once more to the United Kingdom at the end of his tenure as the Governor of Madras, Willingdon was made a viscount, becoming on 24 June 1924 the Viscount Willingdon, of Ratton in the County of Sussex. Governor General of Canada It was announced on 5 August 1926 that George V had, by commission under the royal sign-manual and signet, approved the recommendation of his British prime minister, Stanley Baldwin, to appoint Willingdon as his representative in Canada. The sitting Conservative British Cabinet had initially not considered Willingdon as a candidate for the governor generalcy, as he was seen to have less of the necessary knowledge of affairs and public appeal that other individuals held. However, the King himself put forward Willingdon's name for inclusion in the list sent to Canada, and it was that name that the then Canadian prime minister, William Lyon Mackenzie King, chose as his preference for the nomination to the King. George V readily accepted, and Willingdon was notified of his appointment while on a diplomatic mission in China. This would be the last Canadian viceregal appointment made by the monarch in his or her capacity as sovereign of the United Kingdom, as it was decided at the Imperial Conference in October 1926 that the Dominions of the British Empire would thereafter be equal with one another, and the monarch would operate for a specific country only under the guidance of that country's ministers. Though this was not formalised until the enactment of the Statute of Westminster on 11 December 1931, the concept was brought into practice at the start of Willingdon's tenure as Governor General of Canada. The Balfour Declaration of 1926, issued during the Imperial Conference, also declared that governors-general would cease to act as representatives of the British government in diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and individual dominions. Accordingly, in 1928, the United Kingdom appointed its first High Commissioner to Canada thus effectively ending the governor general's, and Willingdon's, diplomatic role as the British government's envoy to Ottawa. Willingdon arrived at Quebec City in late 1926, and on 2 October was sworn in as governor general in a ceremony in the salon rouge of the parliament buildings of Quebec. His following journey to Ottawa to take up residence in the country's official royal and viceroyal home, Rideau Hall, was just the first of many trips Willingdon took around Canada, meeting with a variety of Canadians and bringing with him what was described as "a sense of humour and an air of informality to his duties." He also became the first governor general to travel by air, flying from Ottawa to Montreal and back, as well as the first to make official visits abroad; not only did he tour the Caribbean in 1929, but he further paid a visit to the United States, going there in 1927 to meet with and receive state honours from President Calvin Coolidge. On that visit, the Governor General was welcomed in Washington by the King's emissary to the US, Vincent Massey, who would later himself be appointed as Governor General of Canada. In Canada, Willingdon hosted members of the Royal Family, including the King's two sons, Prince Edward, Prince of Wales, and Prince George, who, along with Baldwin, came to Canada to participate in the celebrations of the Diamond Jubilee of Confederation. The Princes resided at Rideau Hall and the Prince of Wales, accompanied by Willingdon, dedicated at the Peace Tower both the altar of the Memorial Chamber and the Dominion Carillon, the first playing of which on that day was heard by listeners across the country on the first ever coast-to-coast radio broadcast in Canada. This dedication marked the completion of the Centre Block of Parliament Hill, and the following year, Willingdon moved the annual governor general's New Year's levée to that building from the East Block, where the party had been held since 1870. A few months before the end of his viceregal tenure in Canada, Willingdon was once more elevated in the peerage, becoming on 23 February 1931 the Earl of Willingdon and Viscount Ratendone. In their time the viceroyal couple, the Earl and Countess of Willingdon fostered their appreciation of the arts, building on previous governor general the Earl Grey's Lord Grey Competition for Music and Drama by introducing the Willingdon Arts Competition, which dispensed awards for painting and sculpture. They also left at Rideau Hall a collection of carpets and objets d'art that they had collected during their travels around India and China, and many of which were restored in 1993 to the Long Gallery of Rideau Hall. However, Willingdon's tastes also included sports, particularly fishing, tennis, skating, skiing, curling, cricket, and golf. For the latter, he in 1927 donated to the Royal Canadian Golf Association the Willingdon Cup for Canadian interprovincial amateur golf competition, which has been contested annually since that year. During his residence in Ottawa, Willingdon was a regular attendee at home matches of the Ottawa Senators, continuing a tradition of patronage by sitting Governors-General of the local professional club. In 1930, he donated a trophy to be awarded to the Senators player "of the greatest assistance to his team", which the organization cheekily interpreted as an award for the player to lead the team in assists and dubbed the Willington Trophy. Viceroy and Governor-General of India He had not been Governor General of Canada for five years before Willingdon received word that he was to be sent back to India as that country's viceroy and governor general. After being appointed to the British Privy Council on 20 March 1931, he was sworn in as such on 18 April 1931, merely two weeks after he was replaced in Canada by the Earl of Bessborough. When Willingdon arrived again in India, the country was gripped by the Great Depression and was soon leading Britain's departure from the gold standard, seeing thousands of tonnes of gold shipped to the United Kingdom through the port of Bombay. Of this, Willingdon said: "For the first time in history, owing to the economic situation, Indians are disgorging gold. We have sent to London in the past two or three months, £25,000,000 sterling and I hope that the process will continue." Jailing leaders of Congress Simultaneously, Willingdon found himself dealing with the consequences of the nationalistic movements that Gandhi had earlier started when Willingdon was Governor of Bombay and then Madras. The India Office told Willingdon that he should conciliate only those elements of Indian opinion that were willing to work with the Raj. That did not include Nehru and the Indian National Congress, which launched its Civil Disobedience Movement on 4 January 1932. Therefore, Willingdon took decisive action. He imprisoned Gandhi. He outlawed the Congress, he rounded up all members of the Working Committee and the Provincial Committees and imprisoned them, and banned Congress youth organizations. In total he imprisoned 80,000 Indian activists. Without most of their leaders, protests were uneven and disorganized, boycotts were ineffective, illegal youth organizations proliferated but were ineffective, more women became involved, and there was terrorism, especially in the North-West Frontier Province. Gandhi remained in prison until 1933. Willingdon relied on his military secretary, Hastings Ismay, for his personal safety. Construction projects It was also by Willingdon's hand, as Governor-in-Council, that the Lloyd Barrage was commissioned, seeing £20 million put into the construction of the barrage across the mouth of the Indus River, which not only provided labour but also brought millions of hectares of land in the Thar Desert under irrigation. Further, Willingdon established the Willingdon Airfield (now known as Safdarjung Airport) in Delhi and, after he was denied entry to the Royal Bombay Yacht Club because he was accompanied by Indian friends, despite his being the viceroy, Willingdon was motivated to establish the Willingdon Sports Club in Bombay, with membership open to both Indians and British and which still operates today. As he had been in Canada, Willingdon acted for India as Chief Scout of the Bharat Scouts and Guides and took this role as more than an ex-officio title. Convinced that Scouting would contribute greatly to the welfare of India, he promoted the organisation, especially in rural villages, and requested that J. S. Wilson pay special attention to cooperation between Scouting and village development. Post-viceregal life Once back in the United Kingdom, Willingdon associated with Roland Gwynne. Willingdon was one of the notable guests of parties at Gwynne's East Sussex estate, Folkington Manor. He was also honoured by George V, not only by being appointed as the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports—one of the higher honours bestowed by the sovereign and normally reserved for members of the Royal Family and former prime ministers—but he was also elevated once more in the peerage, being created Marquess of Willingdon by Edward VIII on 26 May 1936, making him the most recent person to be promoted to such a rank. Willingdon did not cease diplomatic life altogether: he undertook a goodwill mission to South America, representing the Ibero-American Institute, and chaired the British committee on the commissioning of army officers. In 1940, he also represented the United Kingdom at the celebrations for the centennial of the formation of New Zealand. The next year, however, on 12 August, the Marquess of Willingdon died at 5 Lygon Place, near Ebury Street, in London, and his ashes were interred in Westminster Abbey. Honours Titles 110px100px 97px110px Appointments 18 July 191131 January 1913: Lord-in-Waiting to His Majesty the King 12 March 1913 – 21 July 1941: Knight Grand Commander of the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire (GCIE) 3 June 1918 – 21 July 1941: Knight Grand Commander of the Most Exalted Order of the Star of India (GCSI) 20 July 1926 – 21 July 1941: Knight Grand Cross of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (GCMG) 5 August 1926 – 4 April 1931: Chief Scout for Canada 5 August 1926 – 4 April 1931: Honorary Member of the Royal Military College of Canada Club 20 March 1931 – 21 July 1941: Member of His Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council (PC) 4 December 1917 – 21 July 1941: Knight Grand Cross of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (GBE) Medals 1902: King Edward VII Coronation Medal 1911: King George V Coronation Medal 1935: King George V Silver Jubilee Medal 1937: King George VI Coronation Medal Honorary military appointments 5 August 1926 – 4 April 1931: Colonel of the Governor General's Horse Guards 5 August 1926 – 4 April 1931: Colonel of the Governor General's Foot Guards 5 August 1926 – 4 April 1931: Colonel of the Canadian Grenadier Guards 1936 – 21 July 1941: Colonel of the 5th battalion of the Royal Sussex Regiment Honorific eponyms Awards : Willingdon Arts Competition : Willingdon Cup Organizations : Willingdon Club, Mumbai Geographic locations : Mount Willingdon : Willingdon : Willingdon Avenue, Burnaby : Willingdon Heights, Burnaby : Willingdon Dam, Junagadh : Willingdon Airport, New Delhi (later renamed Safdarjung Airport) : IAF Willingdon, New Delhi : Willingdon Island Schools : Willingdon Secondary School, Burnaby : Willingdon College, Sangli : Willingdon Elementary School, Montreal Arms See also List of alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge References External links Website of the Governor General of Canada entry for Freeman Freeman-Thomas The Canadian Encyclopedia entry for Freeman Freeman-Thomas Viceroys of India 1930s in British India Governors of Bombay 1866 births 1941 deaths Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Governors General of Canada Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire Liberal Party (UK) Lords-in-Waiting Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports Freeman-Thomas, Freeman Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire Freeman-Thomas, Freeman Freeman-Thomas, Freeman UK MPs who were granted peerages Scouting and Guiding in India Freeman-Thomas, Freeman English cricketers Cambridge University cricketers Sussex cricketers Chief Scouts of Canada Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Marquesses of Willingdon Barons created by George V Viscounts created by George V Burials at Westminster Abbey People educated at Eton College
4176008	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20al-Askari%20mosque%20bombing	2006 al-Askari mosque bombing	The 2006 al-Askari Shrine bombing occurred on 22 February 2006 at approximately 6:44 a.m. local Iraqi time, and targeted the al-Askari Shrine in the city of Samarra, Iraq. The attack on the mosque, one of the holiest sites in Shia Islam, has not been claimed by any group; the then President of the United States, George W. Bush, claimed that the bombing was an al-Qaeda plot. Although the mosque was severely damaged from the blast, there were no casualties. The attack was followed by retaliatory violence, with over a hundred dead bodies being found the next day and well over 1,000 deaths in the days following the bombing; some counts place the death toll at over 1,000 on the first day alone. Already-prevalent communal violence between Iraqi Sunnis and Shia armed groups eventually escalated into a full-scale civil war. The attack and response On February 22, 2006, at 6:44 a.m. (0344 UTC), explosions occurred at al-Askari Mosque, effectively destroying its golden dome and severely damaging the mosque. Several men wearing military uniforms, had earlier entered the mosque, tied up the guards there and set explosives, resulting in the blast. Two bombs were set off by five to seven men dressed as personnel of the Iraqi special forces who entered the shrine during the morning. No injuries were reported following the bombing. However, the northern wall of the shrine was damaged by the bombs, causing the dome to collapse and destroying three-quarters of the structure along with it. Following the blast, American and Iraqi forces surrounded the shrine and began searching houses in the area. Five police officers responsible for protecting the mosque were taken into custody. The dome had been repaired by April 2009 and the shrine reopened to visitors. Responsibility and accusations No group immediately claimed responsibility for the attack on the mosque. Al-Qaeda in Iraq Although Al-Qaeda in Iraq denied any involvement in statements released, in June 2006, it was reported that Iraqi commandos and troops had captured and seriously wounded Yousri Fakher Mohammed Ali, a Tunisian also known as Abu Qudama al-Tunesi, after he and 15 other foreign fighters stormed an Iraqi checkpoint 25 miles north of Baghdad, according to Iraqi National Security Adviser Mouwafak al-Rubaie. Abu Qudama confessed to taking part in the attack on al-Askari mosque in Samarra and gave a detailed account of how the attack took place. Al-Rubaie said Iraqi security forces had yet to capture the mastermind of the mosque attack, Haitham al-Badri, an Iraqi and leader of one of Al Qaeda in Iraq's cells, who was later killed in an airstrike on August 2, 2007. Al-Rubaie said al-Badri, Abu Qudama, four Saudi nationals and two other Iraqis stormed the mosque Feb. 21, rounded up the shrine's guards, members of Iraq's Facility Protection Service, and bound their hands. The group then spent the rest of the night rigging the mosque with bombs. At dawn the next day, they detonated the explosives, bringing down the dome. In an August 2006 press conference U.S. President George W. Bush stated "it's pretty clear – at least the evidence indicates – that the bombing of the shrine was an Al Qaida plot, all intending to create sectarian violence." In May 2007, also 'Iraqi officials' blamed Al Qaeda of the attack. Before his death, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi listed among his goals the incitement of a civil war between Iraq's Shiites and Sunnis. In September 2006, Iraqi officials announced the capture of Hamid Juma Faris Jouri al-Saeedi in connection with the bombing, allegedly done on his orders by Haitham al-Badri. Al-Badri was killed in August 2007. United States and Israel Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad blamed the United States and Israel for the attack. He claimed that "these heinous acts are committed by a group of Zionists and occupiers that have failed." He warned, amid a crowd of protesters, that the United States would "not be saved from the wrath and power of the justice-seeking nations" by resorting to bombings like the one that occurred at Al Askari Mosque. According to Alertnet, Hezbollah leader Sayyed Hassan Nasrallah, speaking from the Lebanese capital, Beirut, echoed the opinions of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and accused the United States of attacking the shrine to cause tension between the Sunnis and Shi'ites in the Middle East. Post-bombing violence against Sunnis As a result of the bombing, there was widespread violence throughout Iraq. According to the Sunni Clerical Association of Muslim Scholars, 168 mosques were attacked in the two days following the bombing, while ten imams were murdered and fifteen others kidnapped. The Shi'ite controlled Interior Ministry said it could only confirm figures for Baghdad, where it had reports of 19 mosques attacked, one cleric killed and one abducted. The normal daily patrols of US coalition forces and Iraqi security forces were temporarily suspended in Baghdad during the few days following the bombing. February 22 In Najaf, shops were closed, while residents gathered at the city's 1920 Revolution Square for demonstrations. In Al Diwaniyah, all mosques, shops and markets were closed. Three Sunni Muslim clerics were shot dead by Shi'a militiamen. A civilian, Hameed Rasheed, was shot dead by random shooting in Baghdad Attacks on Sunni mosques especially in eastern Baghdad started right away after the news of the bombing spread on the afternoon. Groups of armed men in civil vehicles seen in the streets. February 23 Up to 21 Sunni mosques were attacked in reprisals for the bombing. The attacks included shootings and acts of arson. Three mosques were completely destroyed by explosives. In the mainly Shia city of Basra, armed men in police uniforms seized eleven Sunni Muslim men, including some Saudi, Turkish and Egyptian nationals, from the Mina prison. The seized men were later found dead and were believed to have been tortured. Ninety reprisal attacks on mosques were reported. Iraq's Kurdish Sunni President Jalal Talabani warned that Iraq was on the brink of civil war. Shia militiamen killed 47 Sunni civilians and left their bodies in a ditch near Baghdad on February 23. All of the bodies had their hands bound together. Three journalists, including Atwar Bahjat, working for Al-Arabiya television were kidnapped and killed by Sunni insurgents while covering the bombing. Their bodies were found on the outskirts of Samarra. The journalist and her crew were Sunni Muslims. February 24 Baghdad was relatively calm on February 24, despite reports of minor clashes between members of a Shia militia and Sunni insurgents in the south of the city. In Basra, where the curfew was not in effect, on Friday Sunni insurgents kidnapped three children of a Shia legislator and prominent member of the Shi'a Islamic Da'awa Party. In the city of Madain (Ctesiphon), Sunni insurgents fired two rockets at the tomb of Salman the Persian, causing damage but no casualties. February 25 Fierce sectarian violence erupted on February 25 despite an extraordinary daytime curfew, killing more than 24 people in a series of incidents around the country, including a brazen attack by Sunni insurgents on the funeral procession of an Iraqi television journalist Atwar Bahjat. The violence took place even though a daytime curfew emptied the streets of Baghdad and three neighboring governorates for a second day. The government extended the daylight security clampdown with a ban on cars on February 27. According to KarbalaNews.net and Juan Cole, Sunni insurgents blew up a Shiite shrine in Bashir, south of Tuz Khurmato. 20 insurgents attacked the shrine of Salman the Persian. They killed the guards and placed explosives at the tomb, then blew it up, damaging the shrine. February 26 Five days of violence left more than 200 people dead and many Sunni mosques smashed, despite daytime curfews on Baghdad and surrounding provinces. There were further ominous signs of the "ethnic cleansing" of once mixed neighbourhoods in and around Baghdad. Scores of Shi'a families were reported to have fled homes in the restive western Sunni suburb of Abu Ghraib. Shi'a community leaders said they were being housed temporarily in schools and other buildings in Shia areas. In the latest round of attacks, a bomb destroyed a minibus as it was leaving a bus station in the Shi'a town of Hilla, 60 miles south of Baghdad, killing five people and wounding three. February 27 According to Al Jazeera, the Iraqi government said that since the bombing 379 people had been killed and 458 wounded. The Baghdad morgue confirmed they had received 309 bodies since the bombing, most of them victims of violence. Morgue data showed this was double the average – it handled 10,080 bodies in 2005. Political reactions Iraq Prime Minister Ibrahim al-Jaafari has urged Iraqis to stay unified and peaceful, saying the attack was an effort to incite violence. He has also called for three days of national mourning. However, talks between him and a prominent Sunni Muslim group are put on hold as the Sunni Iraqi Accord Front quits discussions on forming a new government due to the recent violence. At the same time, a government organization called the Sunni Endowments that maintains Sunni mosques and shrines condemned the attack. On Feb 25, al-Jaafari blamed terrorists for the crisis: "The Iraqi people have one enemy; it is terrorism and only terrorism. ... There are no Sunnis against Shiites or Shiites against Sunnis." Despite the Sunni boycott, President Jalal Talabani pressed ahead with a meeting that he had called to avert a descent toward a civil war. After discussions with Shiites, Kurds and leaders of a smaller Sunni group, he warned about the danger of all-out war. The government is extending a curfew it imposed in parts of the country on Friday to calm tensions sparked by an attack on a Shia shrine. Iraqi defence minister Saadoun al-Dulaimi warned about the danger of a long civil war. Also, he said that Iraq would not hesitate to dispatch tanks to the streets to end violence and impose security. The minister also denied any involvement by what he called Interior Ministry commandos in the attack that targeted Harith Sulayman al-Dari, leader of the Association of Muslim Scholars. Sunni and Shiite clerics in Iraq have agreed to prohibit killings and to ban attacks on each other's mosques in an effort to ease sectarian violence. International U.S. President George W. Bush warned about the threat of civil war and expressed support for the Iraqi government. On February 25, Bush called seven Iraqi political leaders in an extraordinary round of telephone diplomacy aimed at getting talks restarted about forming a permanent government. On February 28, Bush decried the latest surge in sectarian violence and said that for Iraqis "the choice is chaos or unity." In congressional testimony, National Intelligence Director John Negroponte said a civil war in Iraq could lead to a broader conflict in the Middle East, pitting the region's Sunni and Shiite powers against one another. UK Foreign Secretary Jack Straw called the bombing a "criminal and sacrilegious act", urging Iraqis to show restraint and avoid retaliation. Zalmay Khalilzad, Washington's ambassador to Iraq, and the top US commander in the country, Gen. George Casey, issued a joint statement saying the US would contribute to the shrine's reconstruction. Religious reactions Iraq Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani sent instructions to his followers forbidding attacks on Sunni mosques, especially the major ones in Baghdad, and calling for seven days of mourning. He hinted that religious militias could be given a bigger security role if the government was incapable of protecting holy shrines. On February 25 Sistani called for Iraq's powerful tribes to be deployed to protect the country's holy places after three attacks on Shia shrines in four days: "Ayatollah Sistani, who received a tribal delegation from Kufa, asked that the Iraqi tribes reclaim their role of protecting the shrines," said an official in Sistani's office in the Shia clerical center of Najaf. ... After the crimes against the places of worship, including the blowing up of the mausoleum in Samarra and the attacks against the tombs of Salman the Persian and Imam Ali bin Mussa al-Rida, the tribes must take a stand and claim a role in the protection of these sites." Shiite cleric Muqtada al-Sadr condemned the attack and called for calm. Having called to stop mutual attacks, Sadr ordered members of his militia to protect Sunni mosques in majority Shia areas in southern Iraq. Sadr called for Iraqi unity and warned against "a plan by the occupation to spark a sectarian war". He called on Sunni groups such as the Association of Muslim Scholars to form a joint panel and ordered his militia to defend Shiite holy sites across Iraq. On February 25 Sunni and Shiite clerics agreed to prohibit killing members of the two sects and banning attacks on each other's mosques in an effort to ease tension between Iraq's Muslim communities following sectarian violence after the bombing of a Shi'ite shrine. The agreement was made during a meeting between representatives of Sadr and Shiite cleric Jawad al-Khalisi and members of the influential Sunni Association of Muslim Scholars at the Abu Hanifa Mosque, a Sunni place of worship. According to Juan Cole, three Iraqi clerics all employed their influence and authority among the Shiite rank and file to make the Samarra bombing work for them politically. Sistani expanded his militia and stayed at the forefront of the movement by encouraging peaceful rallies. Abdul Aziz al-Hakim used the explosion in Samarra to bolster his own authority. He remonstrated with the American ambassador, saying it was not reasonable to expect the religious Shiites, who won the largest bloc of seats in parliament, to give up their claim on the ministry of interior, and that, indeed, Khalilzad had helped provoke the troubles with his assertions to that effect earlier. Muqtada al-Sadr used the incident to push for a U.S. withdrawal from Iraq, something he has wanted since the fall of Saddam. Iran Grand Ayatollah and Supreme Leader of Iran Ali Khamenei, urged Shi'ites not to take revenge on Sunni Muslims for the attack on the Samarra shrine and deflected blame to the United States and Israel. India Syed Ali Nasir Saeed Abaqati a leading Shia cleric from Lucknow, India held al-Qaeda responsible for destruction of the Al-Askari Mosque in Samarra, Iraq. Analysts' views "I think this is probably the most dangerous event that has occurred since the fall of Saddam Hussein," former CIA Middle East specialist Reuel Marc Gerecht told CNN. "It risks our entire enterprise in Iraq." "We may be on the verge of taking communal violence to the next level," warned Juan Cole, professor of Middle-Eastern history at the University of Michigan, who called Wednesday "an apocalyptic day in Iraq". "It's very clear that the Shiites are interpreting this chain of events as evidence that the Americans are weak and can't protect Shiite interests," said Cole. "And now Americans are having to come back to the Shiites and ask them to be magnanimous and give away a lot of what they've won in elections." "It was always going to be a very hard sell, but now it's an impossible argument; Shiites aren't going to give away any power at all at this point," he said, adding that "it's possible that there could be a hung parliament, the government would collapse, and you'd have to go to new elections. And that would be a disaster in the present circumstances." William F. Buckley, Jr. considered the bombing as an indication of a general failure of the US policy in Iraq. WikiLeaks data The October 2010 Iraq War documents leak shed new light on the events of February–March 2006. In particular, the logs reveal that U.S. soldiers immediately reported an "explosion of retaliatory killings, kidnappings, tortures, mosque attacks, and open street fighting," even as U.S. commanders including Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld were downplaying media reports of a surge in killings. The previous "official" death toll for post-bombing sectarian fighting, of 3–400, was based on information from the Shiite-led government and the Sadr-run Health Ministry, which was directly involved in atrocities according to the logs. According to The Washington Post reporter Ellen Knickmeyer, her contemporary report of 1,300+ casualties, dismissed at the time as an outlier, was in fact an undercount; the actual deaths, she says, exceeded 3,000. References External links In pictures: Iraq shrine bombing Al-Qaeda activities in Iraq Explosions in 2006 Shia–Sunni sectarian violence Islamic terrorist incidents in 2006 Al-Askari Mosque bombing Battles and conflicts without fatalities Samarra Attacks on Shiite mosques February 2006 events in Asia Mosque bombings by Islamists Attacks on religious buildings and structures in Iraq Mosque bombings in Iraq Burned buildings and structures in Iraq
4176189	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josiah%20Edward%20Spurr	Josiah Edward Spurr	Josiah Edward Spurr (1870–1950) was an American geologist, explorer, and author. Born in Gloucester, Massachusetts, he was considered something of a failure as a youth, unsuited for the family fishing business, since on a voyage he invariably became seasick. Since he could not be a productive fisherman like his brothers, his parents decided he might as well go to college. After working his way through Harvard, he began his career with the Minnesota Geological Survey, making the first-ever geological map of the great Mesabi Range in Minnesota. J. E. Spurr led two expeditions of historic importance in Alaska for the United States Geological Survey in 1896 and 1898, made without the benefit of telephones, airplanes, the internal combustion engine, or electrical appliances. In 1896 he led the first expedition to map and chart the interior of Alaska, exploring the Yukon Territory, where gold had been discovered. In 1898 Spurr went down the length of the Kuskokwim River, naming as he traveled previously undiscovered mountains, mountain ranges, creeks, rivers, lakes and glaciers. At the end of the Kuskokwim expedition he made the first scientific observations of the Mount Katmai volcano, and the valley that later became known as the "Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes." During these expeditions he encountered Native Americans, Aleuts, traders, missionaries, prospectors, whiskey smugglers and various con artists. His books were seen as the definitive work on Alaskan minerals during the Alaska Gold Rush. They read like an adventure including the expedition's experiences with ice dams bearing down on them and lost provisions, as well as interactions with native Indians and missionaries. After charting these regions, Spurr became the world's leading geological consultant, working for clients including the Sultan of Turkey, Bernard Baruch, and the Guggenheims. He was generally regarded as one of the world's foremost geologists, and probably the leader in the field of economic geology (the application of geology to mining). At the age of 68 he became interested in the origin of craters of the Moon, and published four books that made a major contribution to the field. His last book, Geology as applied to Selenology, published just a year before his death, has been criticised, but was influential in the new field. He was considered a superb and pithy writer. He published well over a hundred articles in scientific journals, books and monographs, as well as poetry and books for a general audience. He has named after him, Mount Spurr, a very active volcano near Anchorage; Spurr crater on the Moon; and a mineral, spurrite. Many of his papers, correspondence and photographs are in the American Heritage Center of the University of Wyoming; others are preserved in the Anchorage office of the United States Geological Survey. His children were Edward "Ted" Spurr, an entrepreneur; John Spurr, a publishing executive; William Alfred Spurr, Professor of Statistics at Stanford; Robert A. Spurr, professor of chemistry at the University of Maryland; and Stephen H. Spurr, an authority on forestry and forest ecology and former president of the University of Texas at Austin. There is a recent biography of him by Stephen J. Spurr, an economist who is his grandson. Publications of Josiah Edward Spurr 1894 The iron-bearing rocks of the Mesabi range in Minnesota: Minnesota Geological and Natural History Survey, v. B10, 268 p., reviewed in XIV The American Geologist 251–252 (October 1894). The iron ores of the Mesabi Range (Minnesota); American Geologist, v. 13, p. 335–345. Preliminary report on field work done in 1893: Minnesota Geological and Natural History Survey, Annual Report 22, pp. 115–133. The stratigraphic position of the Thomson slates (Minnesota), American Journal of Science, v. 3, p. 159–166. False bedding in stratified drift deposits: American Geologist, v. 13, p. 43–47. Oscillation and single current ripple marks: American Geologist, v. 13, p. 201–206. Abstract: Minnesota Univ. Quarterly Bulletin, v. 2, p. 54–55. 1895 Economic geology of the Mercur mining district, Utah, (with introduction by S. F. Emmons): U.S. Geological Survey Annual Report 16, pt. 2, p. 343–455. 1896 Gold resources of the Yukon region of Alaska (abstract): Science, new ser., v. 4, p. 801. 1897 The measurement of faults: Journal of Geology, v. 5, p. 723–729. Abstract: Science, new ser., v. 5, p. 238. 1898 Geology of the Yukon gold district, Alaska (with an introductory chapter on the history and condition of the district to 1897 by Harold Beach Goodrich) : U.S. Geological Survey Annual Report 18, pt, 3, p. 87–392. Geology of the Aspen mining district, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Mon. No. 31. XXXV, 260 p. and atlas. 1899 (Contributions to) Maps and descriptions of routes of explorations in Alaska in 1898: (by G. H. Eldridge, and others): U.S. Geological Survey Annual Report, 138 p. 1900 Quartz-muscovite rock from Belmont, Nevada; the equivalent of the Russian beresite: American Journal of Science, 4th ser., v. 10, p. 351–358. Ore deposits at Monte Cristo, Washington (abstract); Science, new ser., v. 12, p. 884,885. Classification of igneous rocks according to composition: American Geologist, v. 25, p. 210–234. Scapolite rocks from Alaska: American Journal of Science, 4th ser., v. 10, p. 310–315. A reconnaissance in southwestern Alaska in 1898: U.S. Geological Survey Annual Report 20, pt. 7, p. 31-264. Succession and relation of lavas in the Great Basin region: Journal of Geology, v. 8, p. 621–646. Structure of the Basin ranges (abstract): Science, new ser., v. 11, p. 229. Through the Yukon Gold Diggings; a narrative of personal travel: Boston, Eastern Publishing Co., 276 p. The Exploration of the Kuskoquim River and the Valley of the Ten Thousand Smokes, privately printed, Boston. 1901 Origin and structure of the Basin ranges: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 12, p. 217,270. Abstract: Science, new ser., v. 13, p. 98. Variations of texture in certain Tertiary igneous rocks of the Great Basin: Journal of Geology, v. 9, p. 586–606. The ore deposits of Monte Cristo, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Annual Report 22, pt. 2, p. 777–865. Reviewed by H. V. Winchell in American Geologist, v. 30; p. 113–118 (1902). 1902 The original source of the Lake Superior iron ores: American Geologist, v. 29, p. 335–349. Application of geology to mining: Mining and Sci. Press, v. 85, p. 145–146. 1903 Descriptive geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel and adjacent portions of California: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 208, 229 p. (2d ed., 1905). A consideration of igneous rocks and their segregation or differentiation as related to the occurrence of ores (with discussion by A. N. Winchell): American Institute of Mining Engineers Transactions, v. 33, p. 288–340. The ore deposits of Tonopah, Nevada (preliminary report): U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 219, 31 p. Abstract: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 76, p. 54–55. (Contributions to) Ore deposits; a discussion by Thomas Arthur Rickard: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 75, p. 256–258, 476–479, 594–595. (Contributions to) A genetic classification of ore deposits by Walter H. 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Coal deposits between Silver Peak and Candelaria, Esmeralda County, Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 225, p. 289–292. Geology applied to mining; a concise summary of the chief geological principles, a knowledge of which is necessary to the understanding and proper exploitation of ore-deposits, for mining men and students, New York: Engineering and Mining Journal, 326 p. Alum deposit near Silver Peak, Esmeralda County, Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 225, p. 501–502. Faulting at Tonopah, Nevada (abstract): Science, new ser., v. 19, p. 921–922. Ore deposits of Silver Peak quadrangle, Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 225, p. 111–117. Notes on the geology of the Goldfield district, Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 225, p. 118–119. Preliminary report on the ore deposits of Tonopah, Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 225, p. 89–110. 1905 Geology of the Tonopah mining district, Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Prof. Paper 42, 295 p. Abstract: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 80, p. 922–923. Descriptive geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel and adjacent portions of California: Mining Report, v. 52, p. 232–233. (with George H. Garrey) Preliminary report on ore deposits in the Georgetown, Colo¬rado, mining district: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 260, p. 99–120. The ores of Goldfield, Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 260, p. 132–139. Developments at Tonopah, Nevada, during 1904: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 260, p. 140–149. Tonopah mining district (western Nevada): Franklin Institute Journal, v. 160, p. 1–20. Enrichment in fissure veins: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 80, p. 597–598. Genetic relations of the western Nevada ores: American Institute of Mining Engineers Bimonthly Bulletin 5, p. 939–969. 1906 What is a fissure vein?: Economic Geology, v. 1, p. 282–285. Genetic relations of the western Nevada ores: American Institute of Mining Engineers Transactions, v. 36, p. 372–402. Ore deposits of the Silver Peak quadrangle, Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Prof. Paper 55, 174 pages. The southern Klondike district, Esmeralda County, Nevada; a study in metalliferous quartz veins of magmatic origin: Economic Geology, v. 1, p. 369–382. (with George H. Garrey) The Idaho Springs mining district, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 285, p. 35–40. 1907 How should faults be named and classified?: Economic Geology, v. 2, p. 182–184; p. 601–602. The Goldfield district, Nevada (abstract): Franklin Institute Journal, v. 164, p. 155–160. A theory of ore deposition: Economic Geology, v. 2, p. 781–795. 1908 A theory of ore deposition: Mining and Sci. Press, v. 96, p. 261–265, 662–663. A theory of the origin of ore deposits: Mining World, v. 28, p. 489–490, 519, 660. (with George H. Garrey) Economic geology of the Georgetown quadrangle (together with the Empire district), Colorado, with general geology by Sydney H. Ball: U.S. Geological Survey Prof. Paper 63, 422 p. (with George H. Garrey) Ore deposits of the Velardena district, Mexico: Economic Geology, v. 3, p. 688–725. 1909 Ore deposition at Aspen, Colorado: Economic Geology, v. 4, p. 301–320; Mining World, v. 31, p. 749–752. Scapolite rocks of America: American Journal of Science 4th ser., v. 24, p. 154. 1911 Tonopah geology (Nevada): Mining and Sci. Press, v. 102, p. 560–562. 1912 Theory of ore deposition: Economic Geology, v. 7, p. 485–492. 1913 (with J. E. Garrey and C. N. Fenner) Study of a contact-metamorphic ore deposit, The Dolores Mine, at Matehuala, S.L.P., Mexico: Economic Geology, v. 7, p. 444–484. Abstract: Washington Academy of Sciences Journal, v. 3, no. 4, p. 116. Genetic relations of the western Nevada ores (see 1905), in Emmons, S. F., Ore Deposits: New York, American Institute of Mining Engineers, p. 590–620. A consideration of igneous rocks and their segregation or differentiation as related to the occurrence of ores (see 1903), in Emmons, S. F., Ore Deposits: New York, American Institute of Mining Engineers, p. 251–304. 1915 Geology and ore deposition at Tonopah, Nevada: Economic Geology, v. 10, p. 713–769. Origin of certain ore deposits (lead and zinc, Mississippi Valley): Economic Geology, v.10, p. 472–475. 1916 The relation of ore deposition to faulting: Economic Geology, v. 11, p. 601–622. 1918 War minerals: Economic Geology, v. 13, p. 500–511. 1919 Commercial control of the mineral resources of the world (abstract): Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 30, p. 108–109. 1920 (Editor) Political and commercial geology and the world's mineral resources; a series of studies by specialists: New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 562 p. The copper ores of Lake Superior: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 110, p. 355–357. The origin of iron ores: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 109, p. 1053. 1922 Origin of desert ranges of Mexico: Pan-American Geologist, v. 37, p. 79. The zonal theory of ore deposition: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 113, p. 489. 1923 The ore magmas; a series of essays on ore deposition: New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 2 vols., 915 p. The filling of fissure veins: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 116, p. 329–330. The gold ores of Porcupine (Ontario): Engineering and Mining Journal v. 116, p. 633–638. The pre-Cambrian veins of Kirkland Lake, Ontario: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 116, p. 671–672. The origin of metallic concentrations by magmation: Economic Geology, v. 18, p. 617–638. (Contribution to) Economic application of zonal theory of primary deposition ores (by John Carter Anderson): American Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Engineers Transactions, v. 96, p. 22–35. (Contributions to) An Arizona asbestos deposit (by Alan M. Bateman): Economic Geo¬logy, v. 18, p. 663–683. (Contributions to Necrology) Horace Vaughn Winchell (by John P. Gray): Mining and Metallurgy, v. 4, p. 463–464. 1924 The content of metals in intrusive magmas: Economic Geology, v. 19, p. 89–92. Upper Mississippi lead and zinc ores: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 118, p. 246–250, 287–292. (Contributions to) The gold ores of Grass Valley, California (by E. Howe): Economic Geology, v. 19, p. 595–622. (Necrology) Alfred Hulse Brooks: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 118, p. 891. (Contributions to) Angular inclusions and replacement deposits (by Alan M. Bateman) : Economic Geology, v. 19, p. 504–520. (Contributions to) Primary downward changes in ore deposits (by W. H. Emmons) : American Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Engineers Transactions, v. 70, p. 964–997. Ore injection at Edwards, New York: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 117, p. 684–689. Ore deposition at the Creighton nickel mine, Sudbury, Ontario: Economic Geology, v. 19, p. 275–280. Ore magmas (abstract): Canadian Mining Journal, v. 45, p. 1099. Application of the zonal theory: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 117, p. 393. The microscope and the decadence of geology: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 118, p. 82–83. 1925 (with J. Volney Lewis) Ore deposition at Franklin Furnace, New Jersey: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 119, p. 317–328. (Co-editor with Felix Edgar Wormser) The marketing of metals and minerals; a series of articles by specialists: New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company. The Camp Bird (Colorado) compound veindike: Economic Geology, v. 20, p. 115–152; Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 119, p. 517–529. Ore magmas versus magmatic waters: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 119, p. 890. Development of the ore magma theory: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 119, p. 874–875. The ghost of the molten magma: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 120, p. 322. The natural history of the pegmatites: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 120, p. 402–403. What is a magma?: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 120, p. 562. Mining for shooting stars: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 120, p. 1001–1002. Angular inclusions in ore deposits (discussion): Economic Geology, v. 20, p. 766–767. Basic dike injections in magmatic vein sequences (with discussion by J. F. Kemp): Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 36, p. 545–582, (abstract), p. 167. Abstracts reprinted in Pan-American Geologist, v. 43, p. 145, 1927. 1926 Geology applied to mining; a first book of general geology and metallology: New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 361 p. Review of geology and ore deposits of the Randsburg quadrangle, California (1925) – California State Mining Bur. Bulletin, v. 95, 152 p.; Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 121, p. 463–464. (Contribution to) Discussion: Magmas, dikes and veins (by W. Lindgren): American Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Engineers Transactions, v. 74, p. 71–126. Alkaline sulphides as collectors of metals: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 120, p. 975–977; Bol. Minero, t. 21, no. 1, p. 12–16. Ore deposits or ore injection: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 121, p. 475. Essentials of the ore magma theory: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 121, p. 634–635. Formation of Porcupine quartz veins (discussion): Economic Geology, v. 21, p. 95–96. Magmas, dikes, and veins: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 122, p. 134–140. Lead-zinc chimneys in limestone: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 122, p. 296–298. Crystallization temperature of veins near the surface (discussion): Economic Geology, v. 21. p. 619–621. Successive banding around rock fragments in veins: Economic Geology, v. 21, p. 519–537; Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 122, p. 491–498. The Kentucky-Illinois ore magmatic district: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 122, p. 695–699. The southeast Missouri ore magmatic district: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 122, p. 968–975. Ore deposition in the Tri-State district: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 121, p. 913. 1927 Ores of the Joplin region Pitcher district (Oklahoma): Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 123, p. 199–209. A feldspar-chalcopyrite rock-ore from Sonora: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 123, p. 604–605. Iron ores of Iron Mountain and Pilot Knob: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 123, p. 363–366. Dikes and ores of the Mississippi Valley: Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 123, p. 82. 1939 Diaschistic dikes and ore deposits: Economic Geology, v. 34, p. 41.48. 1944 Geology applied to selenology: I. The Imbrian Plain region of the Moon: Lancaster, Pennsylvania, Science Press Pub. Co., 112 p. 1945 Geology applied to selenology: II. The features of the Moon: Lancaster, Pennsylvania, Science Press Pub. Co., 318 p. 1946 Autobiography, unpublished manuscript, 295 p. 1948 Geology applied to selenology: III. Lunar catastrophic history: Concord, New Hampshire, Rumford Press, 253 p. 1949 Geology applied to selenology: IV. The shrunken Moon: Concord, New Hampshire, Rumford Press, 207 p. 1975 Into an unknown country: the recollections and journals of an Alaskan expedition, 1898: manuscript written in 1928, based on the diaries J.E. Spurr kept during the Kuskokwim expedition, subsequently edited by Ray Naddy, illustrated by Robert Wandesforde, and published in seven parts in Alaska Magazine (May–November 1975). References Books by Josiah Edward Spurr in the University of Washington Libraries Southwest Alaska Chapter 3 1867–1912 The Era of American Exploitation Alaska History and Cultural Studies course Memorial Resolution William A. Spurr (1905–1975) at Stanford University, in PDF format Spurrite mineral data from mindat.org External links 1870 births 1950 deaths American geologists American explorers United States Geological Survey personnel Harvard University alumni Economic geologists
4176279	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol%20Jackson	Carol Jackson	Carol Jackson is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders, played by Lindsey Coulson. The character was introduced in 1993 as the mother of the Jackson family. Coulson decided to quit the role in 1997, but she returned temporarily in 1999 within a storyline that contributed to both the introduction of her boyfriend Dan Sullivan (Craig Fairbrass) and the departure of her daughter Bianca (Patsy Palmer); in the storyline, Carol discovers that Bianca had previously had a relationship with Dan and they resumed their affair - which prompted her to end her relationship with Dan, disown Bianca, and leave the square on her own. On 25 October 2009, it was confirmed that she would return along with other members of the Jackson family - Sonia (Natalie Cassidy), Robbie (Dean Gaffney) and Billie (Devon Anderson), on 15 February 2010, although her first appearance in 2010 is in EastEnders: Last Tango in Walford, an episode released exclusively to DVD on 8 February 2010. Coulson chose to leave the show for a third time in June 2015, with her exit airing on 2 October 2015. Carol is depicted as a tough, working-class grafter, fiercely defensive of her four children. Her storylines include relationships with several men including David Wicks (Michael French), eventual husband Alan Jackson (Howard Antony), Connor Stanley (Arinze Kene), Eddie Moon (David Essex) and Masood Ahmed (Nitin Ganatra), the death of her youngest son Billie, and her breast cancer diagnosis in January 2014. Storylines 1993–1997 Carol Jackson first came to Albert Square in 1993, working alongside Pauline Fowler (Wendy Richard) as the replacement of her best-friend Dot Cotton (June Brown) in the launderette. She soon moves to the Square with her family, which consists of her partner Alan Jackson (Howard Antony) and his grandmother Blossom Jackson (Mona Hammond) - along with her four children, Bianca (Patsy Palmer), Robbie (Dean Gaffney), Sonia (Natalie Cassidy) and Billie (Devon Anderson), all of whom have different fathers but have taken Alan's surname despite Carol and Alan not being married. Carol is soon forced to tell her childhood sweetheart, David Wicks (Michael French), that he is Bianca's father when it looks like they are about to start a relationship. David agrees to keep this a secret from Bianca, but is forced to tell her when she tries to seduce him. Carol and Alan attend the wedding of Carol's sister April Branning (Debbie Arnold) to Nikos (Yorgos Glastras), where their father Jim Branning (John Bardon) and brother Derek Branning (Terence Beesley) show their disapproval of Carol and Alan's interracial relationship. After April is jilted by her fiancé, Alan decides he wants to marry Carol there and then. However, Alan grows jealous of Carol's renewed friendship with David and embarks on an affair with singer Frankie Pierre (Syan Blake), moving out of the Jacksons' house, leaving Carol to reignite a romance with David. Both affairs are short lived and Carol and Alan soon reunite. Billie is the only witness to an armed robbery and is kidnapped to prevent him from testifying in court. He is eventually returned safely, but Carol and the rest of her family (bar Bianca) are placed in a witness protection programme and move away from Walford for their safety. 1999 In her time away, Carol separates from Alan due to his mental breakdown and starts a relationship with Dan Sullivan (Craig Fairbrass). Carol, Robbie and Sonia return to Walford with Dan, and it is revealed that Dan was in a relationship with Bianca when she was 15 and he was married. Bianca keeps this a secret from Carol, but they begin an affair during a family holiday. The affair only ends when Carol becomes pregnant with Dan's baby, however, Carol finds an old photo of Bianca and Dan and quizzes him about it. He tells only part of the truth and says that they had a relationship long before he ever met Carol. Carol believes this but is angry at Bianca for not telling her. Carol confronts Bianca who reveals the affair, not knowing what Dan had said. Carol throws Dan out, tells Bianca's husband Ricky Butcher (Sid Owen) about the affair and disowns her daughter. She aborts Dan's child and leaves Albert Square in October 1999 to care for her critically ill mother, Reenie (Joy Graham), who dies. Following Reenie's funeral, Carol reconciles with Alan and returns to him and Billie in Balham. She tends to her father in 2007 following his stroke, but remains estranged from Bianca and her children. 2010–2015 Carol turns up uninvited to Bianca and Ricky's second wedding to stop her son Billie attending. Despite initial animosity, Carol and Bianca make amends for the past and Carol moves back to Walford, having lost her job in Balham as a school secretary. Billie and Carol regularly clash regarding Carol's controlling parenting and Billie's connection with a gang. When a gang member attempts to shoot Billie, Carol's brother Jack (Scott Maslen) is accidentally shot instead. Blaming himself, Billie joins the army and despite initial opposition, Carol gives her blessing. Billie is given leave on his birthday, so Carol arranges a party for him and his friends. Copious amounts of alcohol are consumed by Billie and the next day he is found dead on the settee. Distraught, Carol pushes away her family, suggesting they are responsible for Billie's death, until her brother Max (Jake Wood) tells her Billie only joined the army to get away from her. When Carol sees a video on Billie's laptop in which he says she is a control freak and wants her to die, she is devastated. She bans her family from attending Billie's funeral, and it is only she, Alan and Blossom who attend. In her grief, Carol attempts to kiss Alan, but he rejects her as he is now married with a young son. Struck by sadness, Carol plans to commit suicide by overdose, but is interrupted by Connor Stanley (Arinzé Kene), one of Billie's friends and a gang member; they comfort each other and end up having sex. Carol disapproves of Connor's criminality and so their relationship ends and reignites several times. On one break, Connor begins dating Bianca's stepdaughter, Whitney Dean (Shona McGarty). Connor sleeps with Carol and Whitney simultaneously, until Bianca finds out and attacks Connor with a metal pole. Bianca is imprisoned and Connor's mother Kendra (Sharon D. Clarke) warns Carol to leave Connor alone. In 2011, Carol meets a love-interest, Eddie Moon (David Essex), but their relationship ends when Carol discovers Eddie has been seeing Vanessa Gold (Zöe Lucker). Old feelings resurface between Carol and David when he returns to Walford in 2012 after years away, to visit his dying mother Pat (Pam St Clement). Derek (now Jamie Foreman) still loathes David because of the rivalry in their youth over David getting Carol pregnant; he forbids Carol and David's reunion. David's feud with Derek escalates to violence. After convincing Carol to leave Walford with him, David changes his mind when he sees how much their grandchildren need her; he devastates Carol by leaving without her. Upon being released from prison, Bianca struggles to support her family and gets into debt. In desperation, she steals money from a market trader; the police are called and Bianca is sent back to prison, in Suffolk, for six months. Wanting to be near Bianca, Carol temporarily moves to Suffolk with her grandchildren. She returns to prepare for Bianca's return and discovers Derek is using the house for criminal activities. She orders him to get rid of his merchandise, but he just stocks it in the garage. Derek dies of a heart attack. Carol and Masood Ahmed (Nitin Ganatra) bond and arrange a date, but it is not a success, and Carol starts a relationship with Bianca's probation officer, Steve Lowe (Michael Simkins). Bianca objects and Masood breaks up the relationship on Carol's behalf. Carol and Masood then arrange another date and eventually their relationship becomes more serious. David returns to Walford penniless, so Carol allows him to stay at her house. David attempts to charm Carol again, and tries to interfere in her romance with Masood. This does not work initially and Carol moves in with Masood, but soon moves out. Carol finds a lump in her breast and is diagnosed with breast cancer. She then resumes her relationship with David. After ending her relationship with Masood and a heated argument between David and Masood, Carol visits Sonia and her daughter Rebecca (Jasmine Armfield) to tell her about the cancer. Carol worries about being tested for the BRCA2 gene, rebuffing David's advances and rejecting his marriage proposal, though this leads to David inadvertently revealing to her friends and neighbours that she has cancer. David kisses Nikki Spraggan (Rachel Wilde) but accepts Carol's later proposal of marriage and moves back in with her. Carol tests positive for the gene, and her daughters are also tested. Sonia has inherited the gene, causing tension between her and Bianca and Carol, who is undergoing intensive chemotherapy, is forced to step in, but she collapses. Carol is told she has an infection because of her weak immune system, but is released and recovers ahead of her upcoming wedding. On the day of the wedding, David disappears to find her "something blue", and Carol believes he is scared by the idea of commitment and jilted her. However, he has suffered a heart attack. Distraught, Carol shares a heart to heart with her long-time employer Ian Beale (Adam Woodyatt) and realises that she and David must be honest with each other. Carol visits David in hospital but they argue and she decides that they cannot continue their relationship. After sharing one last dance to "Misty Blue" — the "something blue" David had promised — he moves out of the home and leaves Walford. When Carol is due to undergo her mastectomy, Bianca persuades her to only have a single mastectomy. Bianca reveals that the family are in debt, so Carol goes back to work and sells some of her and her family's possessions. Carol confides in her colleague Tina Carter (Luisa Bradshaw-White) about her money problems, and Tina proposes that they sell marijuana. Carol is appalled but later accepts the proposal because of the debt. Carol and Bianca then attend Sonia's health class, where many of the locals try to persuade Carol to have a double mastectomy. This infuriates Carol, but after talking to Pam Coker (Lin Blakley), she decides to have a double mastectomy, much to Sonia's delight, and calls off her marijuana deal with Tina. While Carol is preparing for her operation, Bianca gets in trouble with social services when Liam accidentally gives Tiffany hash brownies to take to school for the last day of term. When Liam confesses that he got them from the cafe, Carol realises that the brownies were Tina's and she is dealing drugs despite saying that she was calling the deal with her aunt off. Carol furiously threatens to expose Tina's deals to help Bianca get social services off her back, exposing Tina's actions to her devastated girlfriend, Fiona "Tosh" Mackintosh (Rebecca Scroggs). Carol asks the grandson of her stepmother Dot Branning (June Brown), Charlie Cotton (Declan Bennett), to talk to Liam about what to say with the police, and after he leaves she answers his discarded phone and discovers his supposedly dead father, Dot's estranged son Nick Cotton (John Altman), on the other end of the line. Carol confronts Charlie about deceiving Dot, and despite his pleas for her to keep his actions quiet to salvage his relationship with his grandmother, Carol tells him she will tell Dot after her operation. She then has her double mastectomy, after receiving advice from the hospital's vicar. To try to keep her quiet, Charlie pays off Bianca's debt, and the rest of the Butchers hail him as the family's hero. However, Carol is initially determined that he still needs to tell the truth, until she sees how happy Dot is by his side, and agrees to keep quiet. She orders Charlie to take a DNA test to confirm he is Dot's grandson, which proves positive. She then discovers she no longer has cancer, but is upset that Bianca is planning to move away with her family. Carol later begins behaving erratically for no apparent reason. During a friendly outing with Billy Mitchell (Perry Fenwick), she drunkenly kisses him and then abruptly walks off. When she catches Liam having sex with Cindy Williams (Mimi Keene), she allows it despite Sonia's protests. Wanting to understand Carol better, Sonia has a counselor visit her. Carol then admits to the counselor, who also had a double mastectomy, that she is scared of her cancer possibly coming back. Later, Carol receives a phone call from Jim's home informing her of Jim's death. Despite wanting to tell Dot, she ends up putting off her visit and concentrating on organizing Jim's clothes and then her work in the cafe. It soon becomes apparent that she is unable to process her grief properly, due to some resentment to Jim, when she lashes out at Max, and Whitney, Liam and Sonia's daughter Rebecca catch her doing so. Carol later befriends Buster Briggs (Karl Howman), but when Buster's girlfriend, Shirley Carter (Linda Henry), sees them together, she punches Carol. When Carol is informed of the option for breast reconstruction, she rejects her family and has drinks with Buster at his and Shirley's home. When she admits that she wishes she had remained rebellious and adventurous after having her children, Buster encourages her to make her own free choices and she returns home later as a more rebellious woman, alienating her family. Later in the day, Shirley finds a bra behind her sofa, and confronts Carol, who lies that she had sex with Buster. She later admits it was a lie to Shirley, who helps her come to terms with her mastectomy scars to regain her confidence. Carol is upset when Max is charged with the murder of Lucy Beale (Hetti Bywater) and starts drinking when unable to raise legal fees. She is angered by gossip and loses faith in Max's innocence when Lucy's blood is found on his shoes, particularly when he doesn't defend Abi. She soon realises the extent of Max's innocence when many of his insecurities are brought to light during the trial. After coming home the same day from court, she is surprised to find Robbie in her kitchen. Robbie tries to persuade Carol to go and live in Milton Keynes with him and Bianca, but Carol refuses and decides to go on the run with Max, who has escaped from court after being found guilty, however, Max is arrested before they can. Recent events culminate in Carol realising that she will always be relied upon by her family; she decides to take her father's motorbike and ride away from Walford, not knowing where she will end up, embracing her newfound freedom. Before she leaves, she buys a dog for Robbie and his son Sami Jackson (Shiven Shankar), named Wellard II (Panther). She visits Tiffany in December 2022 in Germany and therefore, cannot attend Dot’s funeral. However, she inherits Dot’s engagement ring. Creation 1994 was a historic year for EastEnders, as in April, a third weekly episode was introduced. Due to the programme's increased frequency, a number of new characters were introduced to the regular cast in the latter part of 1993 and early 1994. Among them were the Jackson family: mother Carol (Lindsey Coulson), her four children, Bianca (Patsy Palmer), Robbie (Dean Gaffney), Sonia (Natalie Cassidy), and Billie (Devon Anderson), as well as Carol's partner Alan Jackson (Howard Antony). Though Carol and Alan were not initially married in the serial, and though Alan was only the biological father of Billie, the whole family took on Alan's surname. The family was created by writer Tony McHale. None of the actors cast as the Jackson family were matched for appearance or screen compatibility. Cassidy has commented, "it was all decided without doing that. I don't think it particularly mattered that none of us Jackson kids looked like each other because all our characters had different dads!" Carol was Coulson's first major television role. Various members of the family began to appear sporadically from November 1993 onwards, but in episodes that aired early in 1994, the Jacksons moved from Walford Towers, a block of flats, to the soap's focal setting of Albert Square. Their slow introduction was a deliberate attempt by the programme makers to introduce the whole family over a long period. The Jacksons have been described by EastEnders scriptwriter Colin Brake as a "classic problem family". Development Characterisation In an interview from 1995 that was published by Larry Jaffee in 2009, Coulson described Carol as "fiery, loud and determined". However, Coulson added that she played Carol as possibly more approachable as time progressed, adding, "It's difficult to find a level when you step into a soap, it's so fast-moving. You're not really sure who you are or what you're doing. I think as the actor relaxes, maybe the character softens a little. Everybody's trying to find their level." Author Kate Lock has suggested that "Carol always looked careworn and sounded snappish, but then, as pointed out repeatedly, she's had to make a lot of sacrifices in her life, raising four kids single-handedly, missing out on any chance of a career". Carol is depicted as a grafter who is fiercely protective of her problematic children. Discussing Carol's role as a mother, Coulson has said, "I think a lot of mothers find their adolescent children hard work, and with four children well, what more can I say? She's out working, trying to get money. She's always tired - it's hard being a mum." Coulson argued with the production team over Carol's attire. She felt that Carol should not have a bad dress sense just because she is poor. David Wicks In the character's backstory, Carol became pregnant with Bianca and her boyfriend David Wicks (Michael French) moved away. A sixteen-year-old Carol faced life as a single mother. His mother, Pat Butcher (Pam St. Clement) never forgave David for sleeping with Carol. The feud between the Jackson and Butcher families became a prominent storyline in December 1994. Bianca's boyfriend was Pat's step-son Ricky Butcher (Sid Owen) and those who knew about Bianca's paternity were desperate to keep the duo apart. Both Carol and Pat invite Ricky around for Christmas dinner. But he planned to bring the two warring clans together. Owen told Victoria Ross from Inside Soap that Ricky convinces Carol to call a truce and invite Pat and David over for Christmas dinner. She agrees for Bianca's sake and they all gather in Carol's home. However, Owen warned that the feud may never end, "I don't think it's possible for Pat and Carol to become friends very easily because too much has been said on both sides." St. Clement claimed that Pat is willing to use violence; she added that Pat "will do anything to protect her family. It just takes someone like Carol Jackson to bring it out." Carol's family secret is revealed in 1994. When they first meet, David develops an attraction to Bianca. An Inside Soap writer stated that Carol "flipped" at the sight of Bianca flirting with David. Carol is forced to inform him that he is her father. He vows to keep the secret hidden from Bianca. But in March 1995, the show played Bianca making a drunken attempt to seduce David and the truth has to be revealed. Over Christmas 1995, Carol rejects David's advances and he remains solitary over the festive period. David thinks that Carol still has feelings for him. David enjoys meddling in other character's lives and his favourite target is Alan. As an Inside Soap reporter noted, David would have no qualms about destroying what he cannot have. French told the reporter that "I think it'd be nice if David ended up with Carol. They may be at it hammer and tongs most of the time but the old spark's still there." Alan Jackson Carol is married to Alan Jackson (Howard Antony), together they share a son, Billie (Devon Anderson). Alan meets soul-singer Frankie Pierre (Syan Blake) but she has a "scheming" persona. The storyline develops into infidelity when Alan kisses Frankie. Having been with Carol for ten years, Alan feels trapped and enticed into having fun. He then leaves for Spain abandoning Carol and the children. Antony told Simon Timblick from Inside Soap that Alan is trying to discover more about himself and subsequently acts selfish towards Carol. The actor explained that "he's been in this relationship with Carol all these years, and he hasn't had the chance to go out and have a wild time like most people have." When Alan reflects on his behavior he wants Carol back for the sake of the children. But Frankie has trapped him in a dilemma. Author Lock has suggested that it was Carol's "constant bitching" at Alan that caused the affair. Return (1999) In May 1999, it was announced that Coulson would be return to the series, with a new love interest, Dan Sullivan (Craig Fairbrass) and was reported to have been filming scenes on Southend Pier along with co-stars Palmer, Gaffney, Cassidy and Owen in scenes that aired the following month. Reintroduction (2010) Having originally appeared between 1993 and 1997 and again in 1999 and despite Coulson ruling out a return to the programme in 2008, it was announced on 25 October 2009 that Carol would return to the show in 2010 along with her children Robbie, Sonia and Billie. Coulson is quoted as saying, "I'm thrilled to be returning to EastEnders after all these years. I'm also excited and intrigued to find out what Carol and her family have been up to since we last saw her and where she will be going next." A source told entertainment website Digital Spy: "Everything's being kept hush-hush about the Jacksons' return at the moment, but there are certainly a load of questions to be answered. Will the frosty relationship between Carol and Bianca thaw? Are Sonia and Martin still together? And how will Robbie react when he learns of his beloved Wellard's death? Everyone's so pleased to have them back." The family will return for Bianca's second wedding to Ricky Butcher (Sid Owen) as part of the show's 25th anniversary. Executive producer Diederick Santer explained that he wanted great stories to get people talking, saying "The wedding is the perfect opportunity for us to bring back the much-loved Jackson characters – Carol, Sonia, Robbie and Billie." Grief and reinvention In September 2010 it was revealed that Billie would be killed from alcohol poisoning, leaving Carol devastated. Although Coulson felt Anderson's departure was premature, she praised the storyline's "huge shock value". Coulson felt heartbroken when she was filming Billie's death scenes, of this she stated during an interview with Inside Soap: "When we had to play the scene where Carol sees Billie lying dead in the living room, it was really sad - not just because a mum had lost her son in tragic circumstances, but also because I felt almost as though I was losing Devon too." Coulson revealed that she was exhausted from playing Carol's grief for a period of six weeks. She added she was pleased because upon her return she had hope for a demanding storyline. Asked how it felt to portray the storyline Coulson stated: "Incredibly satisfying, For them to give me that lovely storyline is a compliment, and it was wonderful." The storyline progresses into Carol realising Bianca is her biggest support, of this Coulson claims: "I think there’s a bit of Bianca going, 'What about me? I’m still here.' Carol’s projected so much of her love onto Billie, because nobody else needed her." After the episode aired it received a great deal of praise from fans on Digital Spy. Carol's grief makes her lash out at those nearest to her and she tries to end her own life by taking an overdose, but later changes her mind. Speaking of the development in the storyline, Coulson commented: "It's a journey Carol goes on and she makes some terrible decisions." Coulson later revealed she wanted Carol to have more friends. Carol is then paired with Glenda Mitchell (Glynis Barber) as they strike an "unlikely friendship" and move in together, after she feels unable to live at the home her son died in. Coulson felt that Carol was reinventing herself, she also stated: "It's a strange pairing, but it'll be interesting to see if they can find common ground." Barber also admitted she is a fan of the pairing, expressed her desire for Glenda to lead Carol astray and stated: "The characters are very different but actually have a lot in common." Coulson has also admitted she felt it important viewers could see how strong Carol can be, she added: "I'd like to show viewers that Carol is strong enough to transcend all of this, because people have to - but it won't just go away." Carol then starts sleeping with Billie's old friend Connor Stanley (Arinze Kene). Discussing the storyline, Coulson stated: "For her, though, this is a brief moment where she doesn't have to think about Billie's death. It's not even lovely sex - it happens in a fit of loss and grief." Coulson feels at this point Carol crosses a major boundary because he was Billie's friend. Masood Ahmed In 2013, Carol starts a relationship with Masood Ahmed (Nitin Ganatra) which is soon affected by the return of her ex-boyfriend David. Coulson told Jon Peake from TV Choice that Carol had accepted that David had left her and moved on. David's return is unexpected and Coulson stated that he has never been good for her character. She added "her heart is probably with David, he was her first love, but as a grown-up woman she should be with Masood - someone who treats her well." David reveals that he missed Carol and it is clear she still cares about him. Coulson believed that Carol hates her feelings and does not want "this complication in her life". Ganatra told Peake that David's manipulative and clever personality develops a rivalry for Carol's attention. He explained that Carol's theme of falling in love with David upsets Masood. He wants reassurance but Carol fails to notice Masood's problem with David and even nurses him following an assault. Ganatra concluded that "he's at the stage where he loves Carol, and then David comes back and ruins everything [...] but she's worth fighting for." Coulson believed that Carol and Masood could have a successful relationship. David finds it more difficult to "play her" because knows his tricks. She noted that Carol changed and is no longer a victim. David uses his grandchildren Morgan and Tiffany to guilt Carol into letting him stay. Ganatra told Allison Jones that David then causes more trouble - but Carol and Masood are in love, find each other attractive and he will fight David for Carol. Breast cancer On 24 November 2013, it was announced that EastEnders would feature breast cancer in December, with Carol finding a lump in her breast. Carol's daughter Sonia will return as the storyline begins. Coulson said, "This is a very important storyline as breast cancer is something that affects so many people. Through Carol's story I hope we can raise awareness of the impact of breast cancer on the people that have it and their families." Executive producer Dominic Treadwell-Collins said: "EastEnders has a long tradition of dealing with social issues and breast cancer is one that the majority of people have been affected by in some way. And this is not just a story about breast cancer. This is a story about women, about mothers and daughters, and ultimately about family. And with Lindsey Coulson, Michael French, Patsy Palmer and Natalie Cassidy giving powerhouse performances at its centre, this is a storyline that will inform, move, and shake up the audience as it shakes up the Jackson family." Producers worked with charities such as Macmillan Cancer Support, whose Head of Health and Social Care, Jacqui Graves, congratulated the show "for helping to raise awareness of the condition." Departure (2015) On 21 June 2015, it was announced that Coulson had decided to leave, speaking of her departure she said: "I've had a fantastic time playing the formidable Carol Jackson and although I'll miss everything about EastEnders, I feel the time is right for me to move on". Carol's exit aired on 2 October 2015, with Julia's Theme being played as she rides on Jim's motorbike down the market. The episode was watched by 5.6 million viewers on the night of its broadcast. Reception In March 1995, a reporter from Inside Soap said "The Square's toughest mum, and David's ex-girlfriend Carol Jackson, has got a few secrets of her own, considering she's had four children by four different men." They predicted that it would not be long before Carol's past caught up with her. In July 2015, Gary Gillatt of Inside Soap praised Coulson's acting as Carol came to terms with her mental and physical scars following her mastectomy, "Wasn't Lindsey Coulson amazing in EastEnders this week? The script was uncompromising, the acting first rate. Bravo EastEnders!" Since Carol's exit in 1999, writer Dorothy Hobson used Carol's continued absence on-screen despite numerous upsets in her children's lives as indicative of lack of realism in soaps. She believed Carol's absence during Sonia's motherhood detracted from the storyline. She added "you knew she might be judgemental towards Sonia, but she would have sorted out her problems and supported her as a mother." Coulson was nominated for "Best Supporting Actress" at the 1997 Inside Soap Awards. She was nominated in the Best Serial Drama Performance category at the 16th National Television Awards in 2011 for her portrayal of Carol. Coulson won 'Best Dramatic' performance at the 2000 British Soap Awards. She was also nominated for 'Best Actress' and 'Best Dramatic Performance' at the 2011 awards, and for 'Best Actress' at the 2011 Inside Soap Awards. In March 2011, EastEnders won in the Soaps and Continuing Drama category at the Royal Television Society Programme Awards, and the judges praised Coulson's portrayal of Carol, saying the soap was "A real class above the rest with a stunning central performance from Lindsay Coulson." Anne Leask from the Sunday Mirror branded Carol a "dark and brooding put-upon single mum" who was desperate to get married. During the episode dated 30 July 2015, Carol visited Max in prison. Carol called Max a "bastard", which sparked complaints. In 2020, Sara Wallis and Ian Hyland from The Daily Mirror placed Carol 48th on their ranked list of the Best EastEnders characters of all time, calling her a "tough-as-boots mum who'd punch your lights out if you crossed her". In 2020, Sara Wallis and Ian Hyland from The Daily Mirror placed Carol 48th on their ranked list of the best EastEnders characters of all time, calling her a "tough-as-boots mum" and saying that she would "punch your lights out if you crossed her". References External links EastEnders characters Television characters introduced in 1993 Fictional waiting staff Fictional bookmakers Fictional characters with cancer Fictional attempted suicides British female characters in television Fictional teenage parents Branning family
4176378	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn%20%22El%20Chapo%22%20Guzm%C3%A1n	Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán	Joaquín Archivaldo Guzmán Loera (; born 4 April 1957), commonly known as "El Chapo" () and "JGL", is a Mexican former drug lord and a former leader within the Sinaloa Cartel, an international crime syndicate. He is considered to have been one of the most powerful drug traffickers in the world. Guzmán was born in Sinaloa and raised in a poor farming family. He endured much physical abuse at the hands of his father, and he also entered the drug trade through his father, helping him grow marijuana for local dealers during his early adulthood. Guzmán began working with Héctor Luis Palma Salazar by the late 1970s, one of the nation's rising drug lords. He helped Salazar map routes to move drugs through Sinaloa and into the United States. He later supervised logistics for Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo, one of the nation's leading kingpins in the mid 1980s, but Guzmán founded his own cartel in 1988 after Félix's arrest. Guzmán oversaw operations whereby mass cocaine, methamphetamine, marijuana, and heroin were produced, smuggled into, and distributed throughout the United States and Europe, the world's largest users. He achieved this by pioneering the use of distribution cells and long-range tunnels near borders, which enabled him to export more drugs to the United States than any other trafficker in history. Guzmán's leadership of the cartel also brought immense wealth and power; Forbes ranked him as one of the most powerful people in the world between 2009 and 2013, while the Drug Enforcement Administration estimated that he matched the influence and wealth of Pablo Escobar. Guzmán was first captured in 1993 in Guatemala and then was extradited and sentenced to 20 years in prison in Mexico for murder and drug trafficking. He bribed multiple prison guards and escaped from a federal maximum-security prison in 2001. His status as a fugitive resulted in an $8.8 million combined reward from Mexico and the U.S. for information leading to his capture, and he was arrested in Mexico in 2014. He escaped prior to formal sentencing in 2015, through a tunnel dug by associates into his jail cell. Mexican authorities recaptured him following a shoot-out in January 2016, and extradited him to the U.S. a year later. In 2019, he was found guilty of a number of criminal charges related to his leadership of the Sinaloa Cartel, was sentenced to life imprisonment, and incarcerated in ADX Florence, Colorado, United States. Early life Joaquín Archivaldo Guzmán Loera was born on 4 April 1957 into a poor family in the rural community of La Tuna, Badiraguato, Sinaloa, Mexico. His parents were Emilio Guzmán Bustillos and María Consuelo Loera Pérez. His paternal grandparents were Juan Guzmán and Otilia Bustillos, and his maternal grandparents were Ovidio Loera Cobret and Pomposa Pérez Uriarte. For many generations, his family lived at La Tuna. His father was officially a cattle rancher, as were most in the area where he grew up; according to some sources, however, he might also have been a gomero, an opium poppy farmer. He has 2 younger sisters named Armida and Bernarda and four younger brothers named Miguel Ángel, Aureliano, Arturo, and Emilio. He had three unnamed older brothers who reportedly died of natural causes when he was very young. Few details are known about Guzmán's upbringing. As a child, he sold oranges and dropped out of school in third grade to work with his father and as a result is functionally illiterate. He was known for being a practical joker and enjoyed playing pranks on his friends and family when he was young. He was regularly beaten, and he sometimes fled to his maternal grandmother's house to escape such treatment. However, he stood up to his father to protect his younger siblings from being beaten. It is possible that Guzmán incurred his father's wrath for trying to stop him from beating them. His mother was his "foundation of emotional support". The nearest school to his home was about away, and he was taught by traveling teachers during his early years. The teachers stayed for a few months before moving to other areas. With few opportunities for employment in his hometown, he turned to the cultivation of opium poppy, a common practice among local residents. During harvest season, Guzmán and his brothers hiked the hills of Badiraguato to cut the bud of the poppy. Once the plant was stacked in kilos, his father sold the harvest to other suppliers in Culiacán and Guamúchil. He sold marijuana at commercial centers near the area while accompanied by Guzmán. His father spent most of the profits on liquor and women and often returned home with no money. Tired of his mismanagement, Guzmán cultivated his own marijuana plantation at age 15 with cousins Arturo, Alfredo, Carlos, and Héctor Beltrán Leyva, and he supported his family with his marijuana production. When he was a teenager, his father kicked him out of the house, and he went to live with his grandfather. It was during his adolescence that Guzmán gained the nickname "El Chapo", Mexican slang for "shorty", for his stature and stocky physique. Most people in Badiraguato worked in the poppy fields of the Sierra Madre Occidental for most of their lives, but Guzmán left his hometown in search of greater opportunities through his uncle Pedro Avilés Pérez, one of the pioneers of Mexican drug trafficking. He left Badiraguato in his twenties and joined organized crime. Early career During the 1980s, the leading crime syndicate in Mexico was the Guadalajara Cartel, which was headed by Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo (alias "El Padrino" or "The Godfather"), Rafael Caro Quintero, Ernesto Fonseca Carrillo (alias "Don Neto"), Juan José Esparragoza Moreno (alias El Azul, "The Blue One") and others. In the 1970s, Guzmán first worked for the drug lord Héctor "El Güero" Palma by transporting drugs and overseeing their shipments from the Sierra Madre region to urban areas near the U.S.–Mexico border by aircraft. Since his initial steps in organized crime, Guzmán was ambitious and regularly pressed on his superiors to allow him to increase the share of narcotics that were smuggled across the border. He also favored a violent and serious approach when doing business; if any of his drug shipments were not on time, Guzmán would simply kill the smuggler himself by shooting him in the head. Those around him learned that cheating him or going with other competitors—even if they offered better prices—was unwise. The leaders of the Guadalajara Cartel liked Guzmán's business acumen, and in the early 1980s introduced him to Félix Gallardo, one of the major drug lords in Mexico at that time. Guzmán worked as a chauffeur for Félix Gallardo, before being put in charge of logistics, where Guzmán coordinated drug shipments from Colombia to Mexico by land, air, and sea. Palma ensured the deliveries arrived in the United States. Guzmán earned enough standing and began working for Félix Gallardo directly. Throughout most of the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Mexican drug traffickers were also middlemen for the Colombian trafficking groups, and transported cocaine through the U.S.-Mexico border. Mexico, however, remained a secondary route for the Colombians, given that most of the drugs trafficked by their cartels were smuggled through the Caribbean and the Florida corridor. Félix Gallardo was the leading drug baron in Mexico and friend of Juan Ramón Matta-Ballesteros, but his operations were still limited by his counterparts in South America. In the mid-1980s, however, the U.S. government increased law enforcement surveillance and put pressure on the Medellín and Cali cartels by effectively reducing the drug trafficking operations in the Caribbean corridor. Realizing it was more profitable to hand over the operations to their Mexican counterparts, the Colombian cartels gave Félix Gallardo more control over their drug shipments. This power shift gave the Mexican organized crime groups more leverage over their Central American and South American counterparts. During the 1980s, however, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) was conducting undercover groundwork in Mexico, where several of its agents worked as informants. One DEA agent, Enrique Camarena Salazar, was working as an informant and grew close to many top drug barons, including Félix Gallardo. In November 1984, the Mexican military—acting on the intelligence information provided by Camarena—raided a large marijuana plantation owned by the Guadalajara Cartel and known as "Rancho Búfalo". Angered by the suspected betrayal, Félix Gallardo and his men exacted revenge when they kidnapped, tortured, and killed Camarena in February 1985. The death of Camarena outraged Washington, and Mexico responded by carrying out a massive manhunt to arrest those involved in the incident. Guzmán took advantage of the internal crisis to gain ground within the cartel and take over more drug trafficking operations. In 1989, Félix Gallardo was arrested; while in prison and through a number of envoys, the drug lord called for a summit in Acapulco, Guerrero. In the conclave, Guzmán and others discussed the future of Mexico's drug trafficking and agreed to divide the territories previously owned by the Guadalajara Cartel. The Arellano Félix brothers formed the Tijuana Cartel, which controlled the Tijuana corridor and parts of Baja California; in Chihuahua state, a group controlled by Carrillo Fuentes family formed the Juárez Cartel; and the remaining faction left to Sinaloa and the Pacific Coast and formed the Sinaloa Cartel under the traffickers Ismael "El Mayo" Zambada, Palma, and Guzmán. Guzmán was specifically in charge of the drug corridors of Tecate, Baja California, and Mexicali and San Luis Río Colorado, two border crossings that connect the states of Sonora and Baja California with the U.S. states of Arizona and California. When Félix Gallardo was arrested, Guzmán reportedly lived in Guadalajara, Jalisco for some time. One of his other centers of operation, however, was in the border city of Agua Prieta, Sonora, where he coordinated drug trafficking activities more closely. Guzmán had dozens of properties in various parts of the country. People he trusted purchased the properties for him and registered them under false names. Most of them were located in residential neighborhoods and served as stash houses for drugs, weapons, and cash. Guzmán also owned several ranches across Mexico, but most of them were located in the states of Sinaloa, Durango, Chihuahua, and Sonora, where locals working for the drug lord grew opium and marijuana. The first time Guzmán was detected by U.S. authorities for his involvement in organized crime was in 1987, when several protected witnesses testified in a U.S. court that Guzmán was in fact heading the Sinaloa Cartel. An indictment issued in the state of Arizona alleged that Guzmán had coordinated the shipment of of marijuana and about of cocaine from 19 October 1987 to 18 May 1990, and had received roughly US$1.5 million in drug proceeds that were shipped back to his home state. Another indictment alleged that Guzmán earned US$100,000 for trafficking of cocaine and an unspecified amount of marijuana in a period of three years. In the border areas between Tecate and San Luis Río Colorado, Guzmán ordered his men to traffic most of the drugs overland, but also through a few aircraft. By using the so-called piecemeal strategy, in which traffickers kept drug quantities relatively low, risks were reduced. Guzmán also pioneered the use of sophisticated tunnels to move drugs across the border and into the United States. Aside from pioneering the tunnels, Palma and Guzmán packed cocaine into chili pepper cans under the brand "La Comadre" before they were shipped to the U.S. by train. In return, the drug lords were paid through large suitcases filled with millions of dollars in cash. These suitcases were flown from the U.S. to Mexico City, where corrupt customs agents at the airport made sure the deliveries were not inspected. Large sums of that money were reportedly used as bribes for members of the Attorney General's Office. Tijuana Cartel conflict: 1989–1993 When Félix Gallardo was arrested, the Tijuana corridor was handed over to the Arellano Félix brothers, Jesús Labra Áviles (alias "El Chuy"), and Javier Caro Payán (alias "El Doctor"), cousin of the former Guadalajara Cartel leader Rafael Caro Quintero. In fears of a coup, however, Caro Payán fled to Canada and was later arrested. Guzmán and the rest of the Sinaloa Cartel leaders consequently grew angry at the Arellano Félix clan about this. In 1989, Guzmán sent Armando López (alias "El Rayo"), one of his most trusted men, to speak with the Arellano Félix clan in Tijuana. Before he had a chance to speak face-to-face with them, López was killed by Ramón Arellano Félix. The corpse was disposed of in the outskirts of the city and the Tijuana Cartel ordered a hit on the remaining members of the López family to prevent future reprisals. That same year, the Arellano Félix brothers sent the Venezuelan drug trafficker Enrique Rafael Clavel Moreno to infiltrate Palma's family and seduce his wife Guadalupe Leija Serrano. After convincing her to withdraw US$7 million from one of Palma's bank accounts in San Diego, California, Clavel beheaded her and sent her head to Palma in a box. It was known as the first beheading linked to the drug trade in Mexico. Two weeks later, Clavel killed Palma's children, Héctor (aged 5) and Nataly (aged 4), by throwing them off a bridge in Venezuela. Palma retaliated by sending his men to kill Clavel while he was in prison. In 1991, Ramón killed another Sinaloa Cartel associate, Rigoberto Campos Salcido (alias "El Rigo"), and prompted bigger conflicts with Guzmán. In early 1992, a Tijuana Cartel-affiliated and San Diego-based gang known as Calle Treinta kidnapped six of Guzmán's men in Tijuana, tortured them to obtain information, and then shot them in the back of their heads. Their bodies were dumped on the outskirts of the city. Shortly after the attack, a car bomb exploded outside one of Guzmán's properties in Culiacán. No injuries were reported, but the drug lord became fully aware of the intended message. Guzmán and Palma struck back against the Arellano Félix brothers (Tijuana Cartel) with nine killings on 3 September 1992 in Iguala; among the dead were lawyers and family members of Félix Gallardo, who was also believed to have orchestrated the attack against Palma's family. Mexico's Attorney General formed a special unit to look into the killings, but the investigation was called off after the unit found that Guzmán had paid off some of the top police officials in Mexico with $10 million, according to police reports and confessions of former police officers. In November 1992, gunmen of Arellano Félix attempted to kill Guzmán as he was traveling in a vehicle through the streets of Guadalajara. Ramón and at least four of his henchmen shot at the moving vehicle with AK-47 rifles, but the drug lord managed to escape unharmed. The attack forced Guzmán to leave Guadalajara and live under a false name under fears of future attacks. He and Palma, however, responded to the assassination attempt in a similar fashion; several days later, on 8 November 1992, a large number of Sinaloa Cartel men posing as policemen stormed the Christine discothèque in Puerto Vallarta, spotted Ramón, Francisco Javier Arellano Félix, David Barron Corona, and opened fire at them. The shooting lasted for at least eight minutes, and more than 1,000 rounds were fired by both Guzmán's and Arellano Félix's gunmen. Six people were killed in the shootout, but the Arellano Félix brothers were in the restroom when the raid started and reportedly escaped through an air-conditioning duct before leaving the scene in one of their vehicles. On 9 and 10 December 1992, four alleged associates of Félix Gallardo were killed. The antagonism between Guzmán's Sinaloa Cartel and the Arellano Félix clan left several more dead and was accompanied by more violent events in the states of Baja California, Sonora, Sinaloa, Durango, Jalisco, Guerrero, Michoacán and Oaxaca. The war between both groups continued for six more months, yet none of their respective leaders was killed. In mid-1993, the Arellano Félix clan sent their top gunmen on a final mission to kill Guzmán in Guadalajara, where he moved around frequently to avoid any possible attacks. Having no success, the Tijuana Cartel hitmen decided to return to Baja California on 24 May 1993. As Francisco Javier was at the Guadalajara International Airport booking his flight to Tijuana, informant tips notified him that Guzmán was at the airport parking lot awaiting a flight to Puerto Vallarta. Having spotted the white Mercury Grand Marquis car where Guzmán was thought to be hiding, about 20 gunmen of the Tijuana Cartel descended from their vehicles and opened fire at around 4:10 p.m. However, the drug lord was inside a green Buick sedan a short distance from the target. Inside the Mercury Grand Marquis was the cardinal and archbishop of Guadalajara Juan Jesús Posadas Ocampo, who died at the scene from fourteen gunshot wounds. Six other people, including the cardinal's chauffeur, were caught in the crossfire and killed. Amidst the shootout and confusion, Guzmán escaped and headed to one of his safe houses in Bugambilias, a neighborhood 20 minutes away from the airport. Flight and first arrest 1993 The night the cardinal was killed, Mexican President Carlos Salinas de Gortari flew to Guadalajara and condemned the attack, stating it was "a criminal act" that targeted innocent civilians, but he did not give any indications of the involvement of organized crime. The death of Cardinal Posadas Ocampo, a high-profile religious figure, outraged the Mexican public, the Catholic Church, and many politicians. The government responded by carrying out a massive manhunt to arrest the people involved in the shootout, and offered about US$5 million bounties for each of them. Pictures of Guzmán's face, previously unknown to the public, started to appear in newspapers and television across Mexico. Fearing his capture, Guzmán fled to Tonalá, Jalisco, where he reportedly owned a ranch. The drug lord then fled to Mexico City and stayed at a hotel for about ten days. He met with one of his associates in an unknown location and handed him US$200 million to provide for his family in case of his absence. He gave that same amount to another of his employees to make sure the Sinaloa Cartel ran its day-to-day activities smoothly in case he was gone for some time. After obtaining a passport with the fake name of Jorge Ramos Pérez, Guzmán was transported to the southern state of Chiapas by one of his trusted associates before leaving the country and settling in Guatemala on 4 June 1993. His plan was to move across Guatemala with his girlfriend María del Rocío del Villar Becerra and several of his bodyguards and settle in El Salvador. During his travel, Mexican and Guatemalan authorities were tracking his movements. Guzmán paid a Guatemalan military official US$1.2 million to allow him to hide south of the Mexican border. The unnamed official, however, passed information about Guzmán's whereabouts to law enforcement. On 9 June 1993, Guzmán was arrested by the Guatemalan Army at a hotel near Tapachula, close to the Guatemala–Mexico border. He was extradited to Mexico two days later aboard a military airplane, where he was immediately taken to the Federal Social Readaptation Center No. 1 (often referred to simply as "La Palma" or "Altiplano"), a maximum-security prison in Almoloya de Juárez, State of Mexico. He was sentenced to 20 years, nine months in prison on charges of drug trafficking, criminal association and bribery. Initially jailed at Federal Social Readaptation Center No. 1, on 22 November 1995, he was transferred to another maximum security prison, Federal Center for Social Rehabilitation No. 2 (also known as "Puente Grande") in Jalisco, after being convicted of three crimes: possession of firearms, drug trafficking and the murder of Cardinal Ocampo (the charge would later be dismissed by another judge). He had been tried and sentenced inside the federal prison on the outskirts of Almoloya de Juárez, Mexico State. While he was in prison, Guzmán's drug empire and cartel continued to operate unabated, run by his brother, Arturo Guzmán Loera, known as El Pollo, with Guzmán himself still considered a major international drug trafficker by Mexico and the U.S. even while he was behind bars. Associates brought him suitcases of cash to bribe prison workers and allow the drug lord to maintain his opulent lifestyle even in prison, with prison guards acting like his servants. He met his longtime mistress and later Sinaloa associate, former police officer Zulema Hernández, while in prison, where she was serving time for armed robbery. Hernández later controlled Sinaloa's expansion into Mexico City, but in 2008 her body was found in a trunk, carved with multiple Zs, signifying Los Zetas, Sinaloa's archrivals. Drug empire Guzmán's Sinaloa Cartel, at the time of his arrest, was the wealthiest and most powerful of Mexico's drug cartels. It smuggled multi-ton cocaine shipments from Colombia through Mexico to the United States by air, sea and road, and had distribution cells throughout the U.S. The organization has also been involved in the production, smuggling and distribution of Mexican methamphetamine, marijuana, and heroin from Southeast Asia. When Palma was arrested by the Mexican Army on 23 June 1995, Guzmán took leadership of the cartel. Palma was later extradited to the United States, where he is in prison on charges of drug trafficking and conspiracy. After Guzmán's prison escape nearly a decade after his initial arrest, he and close associate Ismael Zambada García became Mexico's undisputed top drug kingpins after the 2003 arrest of their rival Osiel Cárdenas of the Gulf Cartel. Until Guzmán's arrest in 2014, he was considered the "most powerful drug trafficker in the world" by the U.S. Department of the Treasury. Guzmán also had another close associate, his trusted friend Ignacio "Nacho" Coronel Villarreal. A U.S. indictment states that from 2012, Guzmán and the Sinaloa Cartel bribed Juan Orlando Hernández with millions of dollars that helped him become President of Honduras in 2013. This influence helped the Cartel and its allies control and protect vital maritime and air transshipment destinations between the United States and South America. His drug empire made Guzmán a billionaire, and he was ranked the 10th richest man in Mexico and 1,140th in the world in 2011, with a net worth of roughly US$1 billion. To assist his drug trafficking, the Sinaloa Cartel also built a shipping and transport empire. Guzmán has been referred to as the "biggest drug lord of all time", and the U.S. DEA considered him "the godfather of the drug world" and strongly estimates he surpassed the influence and reach of Pablo Escobar. In 2013, the Chicago Crime Commission named Guzmán "Public Enemy Number One" for the influence of his criminal network in Chicago (however, there is no evidence Guzmán has ever visited the city). The last person to receive such notoriety was Al Capone in 1930. At the time of his 2014 arrest, Guzmán imported more drugs into the United States than anyone else. He took advantage of the power vacuum created by crackdowns on cartels in Colombia, gaining business and market share there as Colombia's own cartels were decimated. He took similar advantage of the situation when his rival cartels were brought down by an intense crackdown from the Mexican government, but the Sinaloa gang emerged largely unscathed. Methamphetamine production After the fall of the Amezcua brothers – founders of the Colima Cartel – in 1999 on methamphetamine trafficking charges, there was a demand for leadership throughout Mexico to coordinate methamphetamine shipments north. Guzmán saw an opportunity and seized it. Easily arranging precursor shipments, Guzmán and Ismael Zambada García ("El Mayo") made use of their previous contacts on Mexico's Pacific coast. Importantly, for the first time, the Colombians would not have to be paid – they simply joined methamphetamine with cocaine shipments. This fact meant no additional money was needed for airplanes, pilots, boats and bribes; they used the existing infrastructure to pipeline the new product. Until this point, the Sinaloa Cartel had been a joint venture between Guzmán and Ismael Zambada García; the methamphetamine business would be Guzmán's alone. He cultivated his own ties to China, Thailand and India to import the necessary precursor chemicals. Throughout the mountains of the states of Sinaloa, Durango, Jalisco, Michoacán and Nayarit, Guzmán constructed large methamphetamine laboratories and rapidly expanded his organization. His nomadic existence allowed him to nurture contacts throughout the country. He was now operating in 17 of the 31 Mexican states. With his business expanding, he placed his trusted friend Ignacio Coronel Villarreal in charge of methamphetamine production; this way Guzmán could continue being the boss of bosses. Coronel Villarreal proved so reliable in the Guzmán business that he became known as the "Crystal King". First escape and second arrest First escape: 2001 While still in prison in Mexico, Guzmán was indicted in San Diego on U.S. charges of money laundering and importing tons of cocaine into California, along with his Sinaloa attorney Humberto Loya-Castro, or Licenciado Perez ("Lawyer Perez"), who was charged with bribing Mexican officials on Sinaloa's behalf and making sure that any cartel members arrested were released from custody. After a ruling by the Supreme Court of Mexico made extradition between Mexico and the United States easier, Guzmán bribed guards to aid his escape. On 19 January 2001, Francisco "El Chito" Camberos Rivera, a prison guard, opened Guzmán's electronically operated cell door, and Guzmán got into a laundry cart that maintenance worker Javier Camberos rolled through several doors and eventually out the front door. He was then transported in the trunk of a car driven by Camberos out of the town. At a petrol station, Camberos went inside, but when he came back, Guzmán was gone on foot into the night. According to officials, 78 people have been implicated in his escape plan. Camberos is in prison for his assistance in the escape. The police say Guzmán carefully masterminded his escape plan, wielding influence over almost everyone in the prison, including the facility's director, who is now in prison for aiding in the escape. One prison guard who came forward to report the situation at the prison disappeared 7 years later, and was presumed to have been killed on the orders of Guzmán. Guzmán allegedly had the prison guards on his payroll, smuggled contraband into the prison and received preferential treatment from the staff. In addition to the prison-employee accomplices, police in Jalisco were paid off to ensure he had at least 24 hours to get out of the state and stay ahead of the military manhunt. The story told to the guards being bribed not to search the laundry cart was that Guzmán was smuggling gold, ostensibly extracted from rock at the inmate workshop, out of the prison. The escape allegedly cost Guzmán $2.5 million. Manhunt: 2001–2014 Mexican cartel wars Since his 2001 escape from prison, Guzmán had wanted to control the Ciudad Juárez crossing points, which were in the hands of the Carrillo Fuentes family of the Juárez Cartel. Despite a high degree of mistrust between the two organizations, the Sinaloa and Juárez cartels had a working agreement at the time. Guzmán convened a meeting in Monterrey with Ismael Zambada García ("El Mayo"), Juan José Esparragoza Moreno ("El Azul") and Arturo Beltrán Leyva. In this meeting, they discussed killing Rodolfo Carrillo Fuentes, who was in charge of the Juárez Cartel at the time. On 11 September 2004, Rodolfo, his wife and two young children were visiting a Culiacán shopping mall. While leaving the mall, escorted by police commander Pedro Pérez López, the family was ambushed by members of Los Negros, assassins for the Sinaloa Cartel. Rodolfo and his wife were killed; the policeman survived. The city was no longer controlled only by the Carrillo Fuentes family. Instead, the city found itself as the front line in the Mexican Drug War and would see homicides skyrocket as rival cartels fought for control. With this act, Guzmán was the first to break the nonaggression "pact" the major cartels had agreed to, setting in motion the fighting between cartels for drug routes that has claimed more than 60,000 lives since December 2006. When Mexican President Felipe Calderón took office in December 2006, he announced a crackdown on cartels by the Mexican military to stem the increasing violence. After four years, the additional efforts had not slowed the flow of drugs or the killings tied to the drug war. Of the 53,000 arrests made as of 2010, only 1,000 involved associates of the Sinaloa Cartel, which led to suspicions that Calderón was intentionally allowing Sinaloa to win the drug war, a charge Calderón denied in advertisements in Mexican newspapers, pointing to his administration's killing of top Sinaloa deputy "Nacho" Coronel as evidence. Sinaloa's rival cartels saw their leaders killed and syndicates dismantled by the crackdown, but the Sinaloa gang was relatively unaffected and took over the rival gangs' territories, including the coveted Ciudad Juárez-El Paso corridor, in the wake of the power shifts. Conflict with Beltrán Leyva Cartel A Newsweek investigation alleges that one of Guzmán's techniques for maintaining his dominance among cartels included giving information to the DEA and U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement that led to the arrests of his enemies in the Juárez Cartel, in addition to information that led to the arrests of some of the top Sinaloa leaders. The arrests were speculated by some to have been part of a deal Guzmán struck with Calderón and the DEA, in which he intentionally gave up some of his purported Sinaloa colleagues to U.S. agents in exchange for immunity from prosecution, while perpetuating the idea that the Calderón government was heavily pursuing his organization during the cartel crackdown. This became a key factor influencing the break between the Sinaloa Cartel and the Beltrán Leyva brothers, five brothers who served as Guzmán's top lieutenants, primarily working for the cartel in the northern region of Sinaloa. Sinaloa lawyer Loya-Castro, who like Guzmán had been wanted on federal charges in the United States since 1993, voluntarily approached the DEA offering them information in 1998, eventually signing paperwork as a formal informant in 2005, and his U.S. indictment was thrown out in 2008. Loya-Castro's leaks to the DEA led to the dismantling of the Tijuana Cartel, as well as the Mexican Army's arrest of Guzmán's lieutenant and the top commander of the Beltrán Leyva organization, Alfredo Beltrán Leyva (also known as El Mochomo, or "Desert Ant"), in Culiacán in January 2008, with Guzmán believed to have given up El Mochomo for various reasons. Guzmán had expressed concerns with Alfredo Beltrán's lifestyle and high-profile actions for some time before his arrest. After El Mochomo's arrest, authorities said he was in charge of two hit squads, money laundering, transporting drugs and bribing officials. That high-profile arrest was followed by the arrest of 11 Beltrán Leyva hit squad members in Mexico City, with police noting that the arrests were the first evidence that Sinaloa had expanded into the capital city. U.S. Ambassador to Mexico Tony Garza called the arrests a "significant victory" in the drug war. With Alfredo in custody, his brother Arturo Beltrán Leyva took over as the brothers' top commander, but he was killed in a shootout with Mexican marines the next year. Whether Guzmán was responsible for Alfredo Beltrán's arrest is not known. However, the Beltrán Leyvas and their allies suspected he was behind it, and after Alfredo Beltrán's arrest, a formal "war" was declared. An attempt on the life of cartel head Zambada's son Vicente Zambada Niebla (El Vincentillo) was made only hours after the declaration. Dozens of killings followed in retaliation for that attempt. The Beltrán Leyva brothers ordered the assassination of Guzmán's son, Édgar Guzmán López, on 8 May 2008, in Culiacán, which brought massive retaliation from Guzmán. They were also in conflict over the allegiance of the Flores brothers, Margarito and Pedro, leaders of a major, highly lucrative cell in Chicago responsible for distributing over two tons of cocaine every month. The Mexican military claims that Guzmán and the Beltrán Leyva brothers were at odds over Guzmán's relationship with the Valencia brothers in Michoacán. Following the killing of Guzmán's son Édgar, violence increased. From 8 May through the end of the month, over 116 people were murdered in Culiacán, 26 of them police officers. In June 2008, over 128 were killed; in July, 143 were slain. An additional deployment of 2,000 troops to the area failed to stop the turf war. The wave of violence spread to other cities such as Guamúchil, Guasave and Mazatlán. However, the Beltrán Leyva brothers were involved in some double-dealing of their own. Arturo and Alfredo had met with leading members of Los Zetas in Cuernavaca, where they agreed to form an alliance to fill the power vacuum. They would not necessarily go after the main strongholds, such as the Sinaloa and Gulf Cartel; instead, they would seek control of southern states like Guerrero (where the Beltrán Leyvas already had a big stake), Oaxaca, Yucatán and Quintana Roo. They worked their way into the center of the country, where no single group had control. The Beltrán Leyva organization allied with the Gulf Cartel and its hit squad Los Zetas against Sinaloa. The split was officially recognized by the U.S. government on 30 May 2008. On that day, it recognized the Beltrán Leyva brothers as leaders of their own cartel. President George W. Bush designated Marcos Arturo Beltrán Leyva and the Beltrán Leyva Organization as subject to sanction under the Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act ("Kingpin Act"), which prohibits people and corporations in the U.S. from conducting businesses with them and freezes their U.S. assets. First manhunt Guzmán was known among drug lords for his longevity and evasion of authorities, assisted by alleged bribes to federal, state and local Mexican officials. Despite the progress made in arresting others in the aftermath of Guzmán's escape, including a handful of his foremost logistics and security men, the huge military and federal police manhunt failed to capture Guzmán for years. In the years between his escape and capture, he was Mexico's most-wanted man. His elusiveness from law enforcement made him a near-legendary figure in Mexico's narcotics folklore; stories abounded that Guzmán sometimes strolled into restaurants, his bodyguards confiscating peoples' cellphones, he ate his meal, and then left after paying everyone's tab. Rumors circulated of Guzmán being seen in different parts of Mexico and abroad. For more than thirteen years, Mexican security forces coordinated many operations to re-arrest him, but their efforts were largely in vain as Guzmán appeared to be steps ahead from his captors. Although his whereabouts were unknown, the authorities thought that he was likely hiding in the "Golden Triangle" (Spanish: Triángulo Dorado), an area that encompasses parts of Sinaloa, Durango, and Chihuahua in the Sierra Madre region. The region is a major producer of marijuana and opium poppies in Mexico, and its remoteness from the urban areas makes it an attractive territory for the production of synthetic drugs in clandestine laboratories and for its mountains that offer potential hideouts. Guzmán reportedly commanded a sophisticated security circle of at least 300 informants and gunmen resembling the manpower equivalent to those of a head of state. His inner circle would help him move around through several isolated ranches in the mountainous area to avoid capture. He usually escaped from law enforcement using armored cars, aircraft, and all-terrain vehicles, and was known to employ sophisticated communications gadgetry and counterespionage practices. Since many of these locations in the Golden Triangle are only accessible via single-track dirt roads, local residents easily detected the arrival of law enforcement or any outsiders. Their distrust towards non-residents and their aversion towards the government, alongside a combination of bribery and intimidation, helped keep the locals loyal to Guzmán and the Sinaloa Cartel in the area. According to law enforcement intelligence, attempting to have launched an attack to capture Guzmán by air would have had similar results; his security circle would have warned him of the presence of an aircraft 10 minutes away from Guzmán's location, giving him ample time to escape the scene and avoid arrest. In addition, his gunmen reportedly carried surface-to-air missiles that may bring down aircraft in the area. Second arrest: 2014 Although Guzmán had hidden for long periods in remote areas of the Sierra Madre mountains without being captured, the arrested members of his security team told the military he had begun venturing out to Culiacán and the beach town of Mazatlán. A week before he was caught, Guzmán and Zambada were reported to have attended a family reunion in Sinaloa. On 16 February 2014, the Mexican military followed the bodyguards' tips to Guzmán's former wife's house, but they had trouble ramming the steel-reinforced front door, which allowed Guzmán to escape through a system of secret tunnels that connected six houses, eventually moving south to Mazatlán. He had planned to stay a few days in Mazatlán to see his twin baby daughters before retreating to the mountains. On 22 February 2014, at around 6:40 AM, Mexican authorities arrested Guzmán at a hotel in a beachfront area in Mazatlán, following an operation by the Mexican Navy, with joint intelligence from the DEA and the U.S. Marshals Service. A few days before his capture, Mexican authorities had been raiding several properties owned by members of the Sinaloa Cartel who were close to Guzmán throughout the state of Sinaloa. The operation leading to his capture began at 3:45 AM, when ten pickup trucks of the Mexican Navy carrying over 65 Marines made their way to the resort area. Guzmán was hiding at the Miramar condominiums, located at #608 on Avenida del Mar. Mexican and U.S. federal agents had leads that the drug lord had been at that location for at least two days, and that he was staying on the condominium's fourth floor, in Room 401. When the Mexican authorities arrived at the location, they quickly subdued Carlos Manuel Hoo Ramírez, one of Guzmán's bodyguards, before quietly making their way to the fourth floor by the elevators and stairs. Once they were at Guzmán's front door, they broke into the apartment and stormed its two rooms. In one of the rooms was Guzmán, lying in bed with his wife (former beauty queen Emma Coronel Aispuro). Their two daughters were reported to have been at the condominium during the arrest. Guzmán tried to resist arrest physically, but he did not attempt to grab a rifle he had close to him. Amid the quarrel with the marines, the drug lord was hit four times. By 6:40 AM, he was arrested, taken to the ground floor, and walked to the condominium's parking lot, where the first photos of his capture were taken. His identity was confirmed through a fingerprint examination immediately following his capture. He was then flown to Mexico City for formal identification. According to the Mexican government, no shots were fired during the operation. Guzmán was presented in front of cameras during a press conference at the Mexico City International Airport that afternoon, and then he was transferred to the Federal Social Readaptation Center No. 1, a maximum-security prison in Almoloya de Juárez, State of Mexico, on a Federal Police Black Hawk helicopter. The helicopter was escorted by two Navy helicopters and one from the Mexican Air Force. Surveillance inside the penitentiary and surrounding areas was increased by a large contingent of law enforcement. Reactions Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto confirmed the arrest through Twitter and congratulated the Secretariat of National Defense (SEDENA), Secretariat of the Navy (SEMAR), Office of the General Prosecutor (PGR), the Federal Police, and the Centro de Investigación y Seguridad Nacional (CISEN) for Guzmán's capture. In the United States, Attorney General Eric Holder said Guzmán had caused "death and destruction of millions of lives across the globe" and called the arrest "a landmark achievement, and a victory for the citizens of both Mexico and the United States". Colombia's President Juan Manuel Santos telephoned Peña Nieto and congratulated him for the arrest of Guzmán, highlighting its importance in the international efforts against drug trafficking. Colombia's Defense Minister, Juan Carlos Pinzón, congratulated Mexico on Guzmán's arrest and stated that his capture "contributes to eradicate this crime (drug trafficking) in the region". The Guatemalan President Otto Pérez Molina congratulated the Mexican government for the arrest. Costa Rica's President Laura Chinchilla congratulated the Mexican government through Twitter for the capture too. The French government extended its congratulations on 24 February and supported the Mexican security forces in their combat against organized crime. News of Guzmán's capture made it to the headlines of many media outlets across the U.S., Latin America, and Europe. On Twitter, Mexico and Guzmán's capture were trending topics throughout most of 22 February 2014. Bob Nardoza, a spokesman for the U.S. attorney's office for the District Court for the Eastern District of New York, announced that U.S. authorities plan to seek the extradition of Guzmán for several cases pending against him in New York and other United States jurisdictions. Charges and imprisonment Guzmán was imprisoned at Federal Social Readaptation Center No. 1, area #20, Hallway #1, on the same day of his capture on 22 February 2014. The area where he lived was highly restricted; the cells are without windows, inmates are not allowed to interact with each other, and they are not permitted to contact their family members. His cell was close to those of José Jorge Balderas (alias "El JJ"), former lieutenant of the Beltrán Leyva Cartel, and Jaime González Durán (alias "El Hummer"), a former leader of Los Zetas drug cartel. Miguel Ángel Guzmán Loera, one of his brothers, was in one of the other units. Guzmán was alone in his cell, and had one bed, one shower, and a single toilet. His lawyer was Óscar Quirarte. Guzmán was allowed to receive visits from members of his family every nine days from 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. (if approved by a judge), and was granted by law the right to receive MXN$638 (about US$48) every month to buy products for personal hygiene. He lived under 23 hours of solitary confinement with one hour of outdoor exposure. He was only allowed to speak with people during his judicial hearings (the prison guards that secured his cell were not allowed to speak with him). Unlike the other inmates, Guzmán was prohibited from practicing sport or cultural activities. These conditions were court-approved and could only be changed if a federal judge decided to amend them. On 24 February, the Mexican government formally charged Guzmán for drug trafficking, a process that slowed down his possible extradition to the U.S. The decision to initially file only one charge against him showed that the Mexican government was working on preparing more formal charges against Guzmán, and possibly including the charges he faced before his escape from prison in 2001. The kingpin also faces charges in at least seven U.S. jurisdictions, and U.S. officials filed for his extradition. Guzmán was initially granted an injunction preventing immediate extradition to the United States. On 25 February, a Mexican federal judge set the trial in motion for drug-related and organized crime charges, On 4 March 2014, a Mexican federal court issued a formal charge against Guzmán for his involvement in organized crime. On 5 March 2014, a Mexico City federal court rejected Guzmán's injunction against extradition to the U.S. on the grounds that the U.S. officials had not formally requested his extradition from Mexico. The court said that if the U.S. files a request in the future, Guzmán can petition for another injunction. The court had until 9 April 2014 to issue a formal declaration of the injunction's rejection, and Guzmán's lawyers could appeal the court's decision in the meantime. The same day that the injunction was rejected, another federal court issued formal charges against Guzmán, totaling up to five different Mexican federal courts where he was wanted for drug trafficking and organized crime charges. The court explained that although Guzmán faces charges in several different courts, he cannot be sentenced for the same crime twice because that would violate Article 23 of the Constitution of Mexico. On 17 April 2014, the Attorney General of Mexico, Jesús Murillo Karam, said that Mexico had no intention of extraditing Guzmán to the U.S. even if a formal request were to be presented. He said he wished to see Guzmán face charges in Mexico, and expressed his disagreement with how the U.S. cuts deals with extradited Mexican criminals by reducing their sentences (as in Vicente Zambada Niebla's case) in exchange for information. On 16 July 2014, Guzmán reportedly helped organize a five-day hunger strike in the prison in cooperation with inmate and former drug lord Edgar Valdez Villarreal (alias "La Barbie"). Over 1,000 prisoners reportedly participated in the protest and complained of the prison's poor hygiene, food, and medical treatment. The Mexican government confirmed that the strike took place and that the prisoners' demands were satisfied, but denied that Guzmán or Valdez Villarreal were involved in it given their status as prisoners in solitary confinement. On 25 September 2014, Guzmán and his former business partner Zambada were indicted by the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York in Brooklyn. According to the court documents, both of them conspired to kill Mexican law enforcement officers, government officials, and members of the Mexican Armed Forces. Among the people killed under the alleged orders of Guzmán were Roberto Velasco Bravo (2008), the chief of Mexico's organized crime investigatory division; Rafael Ramírez Jaime (2008), the chief of the arrest division of the Attorney General's Office; Rodolfo Carrillo Fuentes (2004), former leader of the Juárez Cartel, among other criminals from the Tijuana, Los Zetas, Beltrán Leyva, and Juárez crime syndicates. The court alleged that Guzmán used professional assassins to carry out "hundreds of acts of violence, including murders, assaults, kidnappings, assassinations and acts of torture". In addition, it alleged that he oversaw a drug-trafficking empire that transported multi-ton shipments of narcotics from South America, through Central America and Mexico, and then to the U.S., and that his network was facilitated by corrupt law enforcement and public officials. It also alleged that Guzmán laundered more than US$14 billion in drug proceeds along with several other high-ranking drug lords. On 11 November 2014, a federal court in Sinaloa granted Guzmán an injunction for weaponry charges after the judge determined that the arrest was not carried out the way the Mexican Navy reported it. According to law enforcement, the Navy apprehended Guzmán after they received an anonymous tip on an armed individual in the hotel where he was staying. However, no evidence of the anonymous tip was provided. The judge also determined that the investigations leading to his arrest were not presented in court. He determined that law enforcement's version of the arrest had several irregularities because the Navy did not have a raid warrant when they entered the premises and arrested Guzmán (when he was not the subject matter of the anonymous tip in the first place). On 20 January 2015, Guzmán requested another injunction through his lawyer Andrés Granados Flores to prevent his extradition to the U.S. His defense argued that if he were to be extradited and judged in a foreign court, his constitutional rights expressed in Articles 1, 14, 16, 17, 18 and 20 of the Constitution of Mexico would be violated. The decision of his defense was made after Attorney General Murillo Karam said at a press conference that the U.S. was pushing to formally request his extradition. The PGR and Mexico's Secretariat of Foreign Affairs stated that Guzmán had a provisional arrest with extradition purposes from the U.S. government since 17 February 2001, but that the formal proceedings to officiate the extradition were not realized because investigators considered that the request was outdated and believed it would have been difficult to gather potential witnesses. Murillo Karam said that the Mexican government would process the request when they deemed it appropriate. He asked for a second injunction preventing his extradition on 26 January. Mexico City federal judge Fabricio Villegas asked federal authorities to confirm in 24 hours if there was a pending extradition request against Guzmán. In a press conference the following day, Murillo Karam said that he was expecting a request from Washington, but said that they would not extradite him until he faces charges and completes his sentences in Mexico. If all the charges are added up, Guzmán may receive a sentence between 300 and 400 years. Second escape and third arrest Second escape: 2015 On 11 July 2015, Guzmán escaped from Federal Social Readaptation Center No. 1. Guzmán was last seen by security cameras at 20:52 hours near the shower area in his cell. The shower area was the only part of his cell that was not visible through the security camera. After the guards did not see him for twenty-five minutes on surveillance video, personnel went looking for him. When they reached his cell, Guzmán was gone. It was discovered he had escaped through a tunnel leading from the shower area to a house construction site away in a Santa Juanita neighborhood. The tunnel lay deep underground, and Guzmán used a ladder to climb to the bottom. The tunnel was tall and in width. It was equipped with artificial light, air ducts, and high-quality construction materials. In addition, a motorcycle was found in the tunnel, which authorities think was used to transport materials and possibly Guzmán himself. Second manhunt: 2015–2016 The escape of Guzmán triggered a wide-range manhunt. According to Mexico's National Security Commissioner Monte Alejandro Rubido García, the manhunt was instituted immediately in the surrounding area by putting up several checkpoints and air searches by helicopter. The entire prison was put on lockdown and no one was allowed to enter or leave. The search was then extended to other federal entities: Mexico City, the State of Mexico, Morelos, Puebla, Guerrero, Michoacán, Querétaro, Hidalgo and Tlaxcala. However, most of the military officers involved in the search were sent to the State of Mexico. The Mexican government also issued an international warning to prevent Guzmán from escaping the country through airports, border checkpoints, or ports. Interpol and other security organizations were alerted to the possibility of him escaping into another country. Flights at the Toluca International Airport were cancelled, while soldiers occupied parts of Mexico City International Airport. Out of the 120 employees that were working at the prison that night, eighteen that worked in the area of Guzmán's cell were initially detained for questioning. By the afternoon, a total of 31 people had been called in for questioning. The director of the prison, Valentín Cárdenas Lerma, was among those detained. When the news of the escape broke, President Peña Nieto was heading to a state visit in France along with several top officials from his cabinet and many others. The Secretary of the Interior Miguel Ángel Osorio Chong, who was already in France waiting for them, returned to Mexico after learning of Guzmán's prison break. Peña Nieto returned to Mexico on 17 July. In a press conference, Peña Nieto said he was shocked by Guzmán's escape, and promised that the government would carry out an intensive investigation to see if officials had collaborated in the prison break. In addition, he claimed that Guzmán's escape was an "affront" to the Mexican government, and that they would not spare any resources in trying to recapture him. Peña Nieto, however, was severely criticized for the incident, and media outlets pointed out that this incident was among the administration's most embarrassing episodes. Critics stated that Guzmán's escape highlighted the high levels of corruption within the government, and questioned the government's ability to combat the country's organized crime groups. On 13 July 2015, Osorio Chong met with members of the cabinet that specialize in security and law enforcement intelligence to discuss the escape of Guzmán, and scheduled a press conference that day. The objective of the meeting and the conference was to analyze the actions the government employed to recapture him. Among them were Rubido García, Arely Gómez González, the Attorney General of Mexico and Eugenio Imaz Gispert, head of the Center for Research and National Security. At the press conference, the government placed a $60 million MXN bounty (approximately US$3.8 million) for information that leads to Guzmán's arrest. A number of officials were indicted; of these, three were police officers employed within the Division of Intelligence, and another two were employed by CISEN. Colombian assistance Officials of the Mexican government appealed to three Colombian Police retired generals for assistance in the closure of issues relating to Guzmán, according to a report dated to 1 August 2015. Among them is Rosso José Serrano, a decorated officer and one of the masterminds behind the dismantling of the Cali Cartel and Medellín Cartel and Luis Enrique Montenegro, protagonist in the arrests of Miguel and Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela. They suggested particular Colombian strategies like creation of special search units ("Bloques de Búsqueda" or Search Blocs), specialized investigation and intelligence units, like DIJIN (Directorate of Criminal Investigation and Interpol) and DIPOL (Directorate of Police Intelligence) and new laws about money laundering and asset forfeiture. After the third capture of Guzmán, it was revealed that the Government of Colombia had sent a team of 12 officials to assist the Mexican authorities on tracking down Guzmán. Kate del Castillo meeting Mexican actress Kate del Castillo was first approached by Guzmán's lawyers in 2014, after having published an open letter to Guzmán in 2012 in which she expressed her sympathy and requested him to "traffic in love" instead of in drugs; Guzmán reached out again to del Castillo after his 2015 escape, and allegedly sought to cooperate with her in making a film about his life. American actor Sean Penn heard about the connection with Ms. del Castillo through a mutual acquaintance, and asked if he might come along to do an interview. On 2 October, del Castillo and Penn visited Guzmán for seven hours at his hideout in the mountains, with Penn interviewing the fugitive for Rolling Stone magazine. Guzmán, who had never before acknowledged his drug trafficking to a journalist, told Penn he had a "fleet of narco-submarines, airplanes, trucks and boats" and that he supplied "more heroin, methamphetamine, cocaine and marijuana than anybody else in the world". Guzmán had a close call in early October 2015, several days after the meeting with Penn and Kate del Castillo. An unnamed Mexican official confirmed that the meeting helped authorities locate Guzmán, with cell phone interceptions and information from American authorities directing Mexican Marines to a ranch near Tamazula, Durango, in the Sierra Madre mountains in western Mexico. The raid on the ranch was met with heavy gunfire and Guzmán was able to flee. The Attorney General of México declared that "El Chapo ran away through a gully and, although he was found by a helicopter, he was with two women and a girl and it was decided not to shoot". The two women were later revealed to be Guzmán's personal chefs, who had traveled with him to multiple safe houses. At one point, Guzmán reportedly carried a child on his arms "obscuring himself as a target". Third arrest: 2016 According to the official report published by the Mexican Navy, citizens reported "armed people" in a house at the coastal city of Los Mochis in northern Sinaloa, which was then placed under surveillance for one month. Monitored communications indicated the home was being prepared for the arrival of "Grandma" or "Aunt", which authorities suspected was code for a high-priority potential target. After the gunmen returned to the house, placing a large order for tacos at a nearby restaurant and picking up the order in a white van after midnight, the residence was raided in the early hours of 8 January 2016, in Operation Black Swan, by 17 marines from the Mexican Navy's Special Forces with support from the Mexican Army and the Federal Police – but Guzmán and a lieutenant escaped through a secret tunnel, emerging 1.5 km away and stealing a vehicle at gunpoint. A statewide alert was issued for the stolen vehicle, and the Federal Police located and intercepted it about 20 km south of Los Mochis near the town of Juan José Ríos. Guzmán attempted to bribe the officers with offers of cash, properties, and offers of jobs. When the officers refused, Guzmán told them "you are all going to die". The four police officers sent pictures of Guzmán to their superiors, who were tipped that 40 assassins were on their way to free Guzmán. To avoid this counter-attack by cartel members, the policemen were told to take their prisoners to a motel on the outskirts of town to wait for reinforcements, and later, hand over the prisoners to the marines. They were subsequently taken to Los Mochis airport for transport to Mexico City, where Guzmán was presented to the press at the Mexico City airport and then flown by a Navy helicopter to the same maximum-security prison from which he escaped in July 2015. During the raid, five gunmen were killed, six others arrested, and one Marine was wounded. The Mexican Navy said that they found two armored cars, eight assault rifles, including two Barrett M82 sniper rifles, two M16 rifles with grenade launchers and a loaded rocket-propelled grenade launcher. Reactions Secretary of the Interior Miguel Ángel Osorio Chong was hosting a reunion with Mexico's ambassadors and consuls when he received a notice from the President on Guzmán's capture. He returned a few moments later with Secretary of National Defense Salvador Cienfuegos Zepeda, Secretary of Navy Vidal Francisco Soberón Sanz and Secretary of Foreign Affairs Claudia Ruiz Massieu. Osorio Chong then announced the capture to the diplomats by reading the President's tweet which resulted in applause and chants of Viva México, Viva el Presidente Peña and Viva las Fuerzas Armadas (Long live Mexico, Long live President Peña, Long live our Military Forces). This was followed by a spontaneous rendition of the National Anthem by the crowd. Colombian President Juan Manuel Santos congratulated Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto for the capture of Guzmán. Santos stated that "Guzmán's capture is a success, a great blow against organized crime, and drug trafficking", adding that "finally, this individual (Guzmán), like all criminals, will find what he deserves in the eyes of justice, and we celebrate that the Mexican authorities have recaptured this criminal". Loretta Lynch, United States Attorney General, praised Mexican authorities "who have worked tirelessly in recent months to bring Guzmán to justice". Arrest of Emma Coronel Aispuro Emma Coronel Aispuro, 31, the wife of Joaquín Guzmán, was arrested at Dulles International Airport on 22 February 2021, accused of helping her husband run his cartel and plot his escape from prison in 2015. Coronel was charged with conspiracy to distribute cocaine, methamphetamine, heroin and marijuana in the U.S. She has not been charged with any crimes in Mexico, although her father, Inés Coronel Barreras, and her brother, Édgar Coronel, were arrested on drug charges and allegations of helping Guzman′s first prison escape. Inés Coronel was arrested in 2013 and sentenced to ten years, 3 months in prison in 2017. Édgar Coronel Aispuru was arrested in 2015 and is imprisoned in Aguaruto prison, Sinaloa. In 2019 Emma Coronel launched a clothing line and appeared on U.S. reality television. United States extradition and prosecution Mexico formally launched a renewed process of extradition to the United States two days after Guzmán was recaptured on 8 January 2016 after his second prison escape. Guzmán's lawyers mounted "numerous and creative injunctions" to prevent extradition. Vicente Antonio Bermúdez Zacarías was a federal judge involved in Guzmán's extradition proceedings, and he was assassinated on 17 October 2016 while jogging near Mexico City. Guzmán was wanted in Chicago, San Diego, New York City, New Hampshire, Miami, and Texas, in addition to having indictments in at least seven different U.S. federal courts. Charges in the United States include drug trafficking with intent to distribute, conspiracy association, organized crime against health, money laundering, homicide, illegal possession of firearms, kidnapping, and murder in Chicago, Miami, New York, and other cities. A critical requirement for extradition was that the U.S. must guarantee that they would not sentence Guzmán to death if he were found guilty of homicide charges. On 19 January 2017, Guzmán was extradited to the U.S. to face the charges and turned over to the custody of HSI and DEA agents. He was housed at the maximum-security wing of the Metropolitan Correctional Center, New York located in Manhattan. He pled not guilty on 20 January to a 17-count indictment in the United States District Court in New York. U.S. District Judge Brian Cogan scheduled his trial for 5 November 2018, when jury selection began. According to the prosecutors, juror anonymity and an armed escort were necessary, even if Guzmán is in isolation, due to his history of having jurors and witnesses murdered. The judge agreed to keep jurors anonymous and to have Guzmán transported to and from the courthouse by U.S. Marshals and sequestered from the public while in the courthouse. Opening arguments began Tuesday 13 November, and closing arguments took place on 31 January 2019. Guzmán was found guilty of all counts on 12 February 2019, and was sentenced on 17 July 2019 to life in prison plus 30 years and ordered to forfeit more than $12.6 billion. He was imprisoned in ADX Florence, the most secure US supermax prison, under Federal Register Number 89914-053. Personal and family criminal activities Guzmán's family is heavily involved in drug trafficking. Several members of his family, including his brother, one of his sons, and a nephew were killed by Sinaloa's archrival cartels, Los Zetas and the Beltrán Leyva Organization. In 1977, Guzmán married Alejandrina María Salazar Hernández in a small ceremony in the town of Jesús María, Sinaloa. The couple had four children: César, Ivan Archivaldo, and Alejandrina Gisselle. He set them up in a ranch home in Jesús María. When he was 30 years old, El Chapo fell in love with a bank clerk, Estela Peña of Nayarit, whom he kidnapped and with whom he had sexual relations. They later married. In the mid-1980s, Guzmán married once more, to Griselda López Pérez, with whom he had four more children: Édgar, Joaquín Jr., Ovidio, and Griselda Guadalupe. Guzmán's sons followed him into the drug business, and his third wife, López Pérez, was arrested in 2010, in Culiacán. In November 2007, Guzmán married an 18-year-old American beauty queen, Emma Coronel Aispuro, the daughter of one of his top deputies, Inés Coronel Barreras (a man), in Canelas, Durango. In August 2011, she gave birth to twin girls, Maria Joaquina and Emali Guadalupe, in Los Angeles County Hospital, in California. Emma Coronel Aispuro pleaded guilty on 6 June 2021, to charges in the U.S. and admitted that she helped her husband run his multibillion-dollar criminal empire. On 1 May 2013, Guzmán's father-in-law, Inés Coronel Barreras, was captured by Mexican authorities in Agua Prieta, Sonora, with no gunfire exchanged. U.S. authorities believe Coronel Barreras was a "key operative" of the Sinaloa Cartel who grew and smuggled marijuana through the Arizona border area. On 15 February 2005, Guzmán's son Iván Archivaldo, known as "El Chapito", was arrested in Guadalajara on money laundering charges. He was sentenced to five years in a federal prison but released in April 2008, after a Mexican federal judge, Jesús Guadalupe Luna, ruled that there was no proof his cash came from drugs other than that he was a drug lord's son. Luna and another judge were later suspended on suspicion of unspecified irregularities in their decisions, including Luna's decision to release "El Chapito". Guzmán's son Édgar Guzmán López died after a 2008 ambush in a shopping center parking lot, in Culiacán, Sinaloa. Afterwards, police found more than 500 AK-47 bullet casings at the scene. Guzmán's brother Arturo, known as "El Pollo", was killed in prison in 2004. Another of Guzmán's sons, Jesús Alfredo Guzmán Salazar, known as "El Gordo" ("The Fat One"), then 23 years old, was suspected of being a member of the cartel and was indicted on federal charges of drug trafficking in 2009 with Guzmán, by the U.S. District Court of Northern Illinois, which oversees Chicago. Authorities described Guzmán Salazar as a growing force within his father's organization and directly responsible for Sinaloa's drug trade between the U.S. and Mexico and for managing his billionaire father's growing list of properties. Guzmán Salazar and his mother, Guzmán's former wife María Alejandrina Salazar Hernández, were both described as key operatives in the Sinaloa Cartel and added to the U.S.'s financial sanction list under the Kingpin Act on 7 June 2012. The U.S. Treasury Department described Salazar as Guzmán's wife, in its sanction against her, and described Guzmán as her husband. The month before, the U.S. Treasury Department had announced sanctions against Guzmán's sons Iván Guzmán Salazar and Ovidio Guzmán López under the Kingpin Act. Guzmán's second wife, Griselda López Pérez, was also sanctioned by the U.S. under the Kingpin Act and described as Guzmán's wife. Jesús Guzmán Salazar was reported to have been detained by Mexican Marines in an early morning raid, in the western state of Jalisco on 21 June 2012. Months later, however, the Mexican Attorney General's Office announced the Marines had arrested the wrong man and that the man captured was actually Félix Beltrán León, who said he was a used-car dealer, not the drug lord's son. U.S. and Mexican authorities blamed each other for providing the inaccurate information that led to the arrest. In 2012, Alejandrina Gisselle Guzmán Salazar, a 31-year-old pregnant physician and Mexican citizen from Guadalajara, was said to have claimed she was Guzmán's daughter as she crossed the U.S. border into San Diego. She was arrested on fraud charges for entering the country with a false visa. Unnamed officials said the woman was the daughter of María Alejandrina Salazar Hernández but did not appear to be a major figure in the cartel. She had planned to meet the father of her child in Los Angeles and give birth in the United States. On the night of 17 June 2012, Obied Cano Zepeda, a nephew of Guzmán's, was gunned down by unknown assailants at his home in the state capital of Culiacán, while hosting a Father's Day celebration. The gunmen, who were reportedly carrying AK-47 rifles, also killed two other guests and left another seriously injured. Obied was a brother of Luis Alberto Cano Zepeda (alias "El Blanco")'s, another nephew of Guzmán's who worked as a pilot drug transporter for the Sinaloa cartel. The latter was arrested by the Mexican military in August 2006. InSight Crime notes that Obied's murder may have been either a retaliation attack by Los Zetas, for Guzmán's incursions into their territory, or a brutal campaign heralding Los Zetas' presence in Sinaloa. Even after Guzman's arrest, the Sinaloa Cartel remained the primary drug distributor (in 2018) in the U.S. among Mexican cartels, according to the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. In popular culture Literature Martin Corona, the chief assassin for a rival cartel of Sinaloa's who mistakenly killed a priest when aiming at Guzmán, published a tell-all memoir titled Confessions of a Cartel Hit Man in 2017. Music Several Mexican narcocorridos (narco ballads) narrate the exploits of Guzmán and his organization. Additionally, some American artists have made songs with references to Guzmán, such as the rappers Uncle Murda, Skrillex, YG, Gucci Mane, and The Game. Television In 2017, Netflix and Univision began co-producing the series El Chapo about the life of Guzmán. The series premiered on Sunday, 23 April 2017 and was followed by a 20-minute Facebook Live after-show titled "El Chapo Ilimitado". Guzmán is also portrayed by Alejandro Edda in the Netflix television series Narcos: Mexico. See also List of Mexico's 37 most-wanted drug lords Footnotes References Works cited External links Joaquín Guzmán Loera's profile at Forbes Joaquín Guzmán Loera's profile and wanted poster from the DEA Joaquín Guzmán Loera's profile at the INTERPOL Joaquín Guzmán Loera's profile at the Chicago Crime Commission Joaquín Guzmán Loera's profile at the United States Department of State 1957 births 20th-century criminals 21st-century criminals Escapees from Mexican detention Fugitives Inmates of ADX Florence Inmates of the Federal Social Readaptation Center No. 1 Law enforcement scandals Living people Mexican drug traffickers Mexican escapees Mexican crime bosses Mexican money launderers Mexican people imprisoned abroad People extradited to Mexico People extradited from Guatemala People extradited from Mexico to the United States People from Badiraguato People from Badiraguato Municipality People of the Mexican Drug War People sanctioned under the Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act Political scandals Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by the United States federal government Sinaloa Cartel traffickers Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List
4176481	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20New%20Orleans%20mayoral%20election	2006 New Orleans mayoral election	The first round of the New Orleans mayoral election of 2006 took place on April 22, 2006; a runoff between incumbent Mayor Ray Nagin and Louisiana Lieutenant Governor Mitch Landrieu took place on May 20, resulting in reelection for Mayor Nagin. The Mayor of New Orleans is the top official in New Orleans' mayor-council system of government. Background Elections in Louisiana, with the exception of presidential elections, follow a variation of the open primary system called the jungle primary. All candidates, including those running with a political party and independents, are listed on one ballot. Voters may vote for any candidate regardless of what party they are registered. If no candidate wins a majority (50 percent plus one vote) in the first round, a second round (run-off) is then held between the top two candidates, who may be members of the same party. As this occurred, the runoff took place on May 20, 2006. This election was previously scheduled to be held on 4 February 2006 (along with elections for other local offices, including City Council members) but was postponed due to the devastation in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina (see: Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans), and the fact that large numbers of New Orleanians are displaced and still unable to return home. Since this election would determine who would lead the city during its rebuilding process, the election was widely seen as one of the most important elections in the history of New Orleans and it was watched nationally to a degree uncommon for most mayoral races. Candidates In the primary campaign, incumbent mayor Ray Nagin faced a record 21 challengers for his position. Many were political novices without significant financial backing. In addition to Nagin, two candidates in particular were considered by political pundits to be "major candidates" because of their name recognition and financing—Ron Forman and Mitch Landrieu. Others preferred not to distinguish between 'major' and 'minor' candidates, noting that, in the 2002 election, these same pundits considered Nagin a long-shot. The top-financed candidate in that election, two-term city councilman Troy Carter, came in fifth. Candidates in descending order of votes received Ray Nagin Incumbent mayor Ray Nagin sought re-election. Before Katrina, he was widely perceived as having a very high chance of re-election, but the new political climate left his level of support uncertain. Nagin faced strong criticism of his handling of Hurricane Katrina and its aftermath. Many middle- and upper-class white voters, who supported him in the 2002 election and were vital to his success in that contest, were alienated by his 'chocolate city' speech in January 2006, and very few white voters supported him this time. The elements of the business community that were such an important part of his support base in 2002 mainly supported other candidates, while Nagin's business-oriented plans for reconstruction in New Orleans have alienated many voters. Moreover, the city's black majority has been significantly reduced, and many in the city's black community were critical of Nagin even before the hurricane, citing amongst other issues the fact that he was known to have conservative politics and had supported Republican candidates in the past. Nagin campaigned on his experience as mayor and in defense of his record, arguing that New Orleans needs experienced leadership in a crisis situation. After being defeated in the primary, Rob Couhig, Virginia Boulet, and Tom Watson endorsed Nagin in the runoff. Mitch Landrieu Louisiana Lieutenant Governor Mitch Landrieu, son of New Orleans's last white mayor Moon Landrieu and brother of Senator Mary Landrieu, announced his candidacy on February 21, after months of public speculation. Landrieu ran for mayor once before, in the 1994 election, but finished third and was defeated by Marc Morial. With the city's black majority much reduced after the hurricane, Landrieu was generally believed to have a stronger chance of victory this time around. Given that he and his family have long been known as supporters of civil rights, he was seen as having a better chance of attracting a significant African American vote than some other white candidates. While campaigning, Landrieu repeatedly criticized the rebuilding plan of Nagin's Bring New Orleans Back Commission, arguing that each neighborhood needs freedom to determine its own rebuilding process, and faulted Nagin for not doing more to pressure the federal government for information and funding. Landrieu was endorsed by The Gambit, New Orleans CityBusiness, and The Louisiana Weekly newspapers. After coming in third in the primary, Ron Forman endorsed Landrieu in the runoff. Ron Forman Ron Forman has been president and CEO of the Audubon Nature Institute, which runs the Audubon Zoo and the Aquarium of the Americas, since 1977. Forman supported Nagin in his 2002 electoral campaign, but broke with him after Katrina as buzz began to build around Forman as a potential challenger to Nagin. After much speculation, he formally announced his candidacy on February 14. A former president of the Chamber of Commerce, he has a high profile in the city's business community and had strong support in the corporate world and among wealthy New Orleanians. He had a large campaign war-chest and raised $2.1 million as of April 14, more money than any other candidate. Forman proposed the creation of four deputy mayor posts, two white and two black, in an effort to promote better race relations. Forman was endorsed by the Times-Picayune newspaper. Rob Couhig Republican lawyer and businessman Rob Couhig formerly owned the New Orleans Zephyrs, a minor league baseball team. His campaign platform included plans for a Rudy Giuliani-style crackdown on crime, selling off public hospitals, extensive bulldozing of blighted property, and a plan to retract the city's footprint by restricting rebuilding in the Lower Ninth Ward and New Orleans East. Couhig entered the race in mid-February by running the campaign's first television attack ads, mocking the leading candidates. In debates and public appearances, Couhig was one of the more combative candidates, regularly criticizing the front-runners. Virginia Boulet Corporate lawyer Virginia Boulet began her campaign in early February due to her dissatisfaction with Nagin's recovery plans. She proposed financing the city budget through a bond issue, and instituting universal health insurance as a way to lure displaced residents back to the city. She repeatedly emphasized the need to rebuild the wetlands east and southeast of New Orleans in order to protect the city from hurricanes. Tom Watson Pastor Tom Watson, an influential leader of the Greater New Orleans Coalition of Ministers, is active in programs to help youths in the city's poor neighborhoods. Watson has long been a critic of Nagin, and after declaring his candidacy on February 17 he became Nagin's first African American challenger. Watson focused his campaign on the return of the New Orleans diaspora still scattered around the country after Hurricane Katrina, a constituency he says other candidates have neglected. He also planned to address the racial and class divisions that impede the city's recovery and to reform the NOPD, which he characterizes as "corrupt and brutal." He also proposed a cap on rents, which have skyrocketed since Katrina. Kimberly Williamson Butler Clerk of Criminal Court Kimberly Williamson Butler made a surprise announcement on March 3 of her mayoral candidacy on the courthouse steps to reporters—who were there to cover her surrendering herself on an arrest warrant for contempt of court. Peggy Wilson Peggy Wilson was a city councilwoman from 1986 to 1998. One of only two Republicans running, she was a favorite of some old line conservatives. Wilson was also one of the few white candidates willing to discuss the city's changed racial demographics, openly stating that the shift in population after Katrina is part of the reason she decided to enter the race in November. She campaigned on a proposal to declare New Orleans a 'tax-free city', financed with a federal bond issue, and attracted controversy with her vocal plans to keep "gangbangers" and "welfare queens" from returning to New Orleans. Johnny Adriani Johnny Adriani is a criminal defense paralegal who ran his campaign from his car after losing his home to flooding. Manny "Chevrolet" Bruno Manny "Chevrolet" Bruno is an out-of-work actor who said he was running because "I need the job". He amused election watchers—in the current campaign and in his 2002 bid for mayor (under the slogan "A troubled man for troubled times") —with his deadpan, self-effacing humor. His campaign signs had a cartoon of a cocktail glass surrounded by the words "Good Cheap Fast" and the slogan "Troubled Now, More Than Ever". James Arey WWNO radio personality James Arey was one of two candidates who expressed intent to run before Hurricane Katrina. Some saw Arey's candidacy as a platform to draw attention to the importance of the arts in New Orleans' culture and recovery. In 1998, Arey was a 5-time champion on the game show Jeopardy!, winning $42,802 and a new car. Greta Gladney Greta Gladney, a Lower Ninth Ward activist, ran due to threats to neighborhoods, community-based programs, and public schools in the wake of Katrina. Gladney is a member of ACORN and the Frederick Douglass Community Coalition, and executive director of The Renaissance Project. Marie Galatas Marie Galatas, a pastor and civil rights activist from the 7th Ward of New Orleans who founded the Grass Roots Organization for Women and who has hosted a number of radio and cable TV programs. Leo Watermeier Former state Representative Leo Watermeier, a French Quarter activist, first announced his candidacy in 2004. He was one of only two candidates who had already announced their intentions to challenge Nagin's bid for reelection before Hurricane Katrina. Shedrick White Shedrick White, a student at the Southern University at New Orleans who has worked on conflict resolution with public housing residents. Sonja "Lady" DeDais Sonja "Lady" DeDais wanted to "take care of the city" and to develop a new evacuation plan without excessive military involvement. She was known for her flamboyant hats. James Lemann James Lemann, a former aircraft mechanic and community activist, proposed increased use of solar power and development of a research institute to study meteorites. F. Nick Bacque F. Nick Bacque, a real estate financial worker and medical student at Tulane University, tried to get youth involved in the city's reconstruction. Elvin Brown Elvin Brown, the CEO of an elderly care facility, described himself as "the people's voice." Mac Rahman Mac Rahman owner of an Asian-Creole restaurant in the Carrollton neighborhood, wanted to consolidate the city's assessors offices and to make the city's government as efficient as that of Jefferson Parish. Norbert Rome Norbert Rome, a community activist, formerly of the Gert Town neighborhood. Roderick Dean Roderick Dean proposed taking up offers of international aid to New Orleans, and seeking corporate sponsorship of Carnival. Jimmie Thorns, Jr. Jimmie Thorns, Jr., a real estate appraiser and consultant who had served as chairman of the Black Economic Development Council and the Urban League. Thorns dropped out of the race on March 31 and endorsed Mitch Landrieu. Issue of displaced voters At the time of the election, at least two-thirds of the city's residents were still displaced, scattered across the country facing serious obstacles (such as severely damaged houses, neighborhoods without reliable utilities, and financial constraints) to returning. The state legislature passed legislation allowing for absentee voting in polling places in 10 parishes, but there was still concern about the difficulty displaced residents outside Louisiana may have faced in placing their votes. With the majority of the displaced residents staying outside Louisiana and outside the reach of local New Orleans media outlets, their ability to obtain information about the campaign remained open to question. No reliable figures currently exist for the size and ethnic makeup of New Orleans's current population. It is widely recognized, however, that the current demographics of New Orleans are on average more white and more affluent than they were before Katrina. This made it very hard to predict the outcome of the election. This new demographic reality encouraged many candidates that might not have considered entering the race before the storm. New Orleans has not had a white mayor since 1978, but a large number of candidates - including every candidate considered to have a 'serious' chance of winning other than incumbent Nagin - were white. On February 24, a federal judge rejected a lawsuit by the NAACP, ACORN, and the Grassroots Legal Network seeking to set up physical polling places in cities like Houston, Texas and Atlanta, Georgia, which have large numbers of displaced New Orleanians. An appeal in this case was likewise rejected on March 27. On March 25, a study of change-of-address forms found that 80 percent of the city's registered voters either did not file for a change of address or have listed a new address within the greater New Orleans area. If accurate, these findings would indicate that with most voters still in the area, absentee voters would not be as significant a factor in the election as previously believed. The NAACP and other civil rights groups disputed these findings, arguing that they do not take into account people who are dispersed but have not filled out change-of-address paperwork. On April 1, thousands of civil rights demonstrators marched across the Crescent City Connection calling for satellite voting locations to be set up outside the state to give displaced New Orleanians the same voting rights as those who have returned to the city. The march - the largest New Orleans has seen in several years - was organized by Jesse Jackson and the Rainbow/PUSH Coalition, and prominent speakers included Bill Cosby, former mayor Marc Morial, Al Sharpton, U.S. Rep. Bill Jefferson, and Mayor Ray Nagin. Satellite voting stations opened on April 10 in nine parishes in order to allow displaced New Orleans residents to cast votes. ACORN organized buses to transport out-of-state displaced voters to these stations, which remained open until April 15. A total of 10,585 votes were cast at these satellite polls in the five allotted days. Campaign timeline Primary December, January, and February saw intense speculation among political observers as to who would emerge as Nagin's main rival in the upcoming campaign. It was expected that either Ron Forman or Mitch Landrieu would run with the support of much of the city's business and political communities. After months of private discussion and negotiation, both candidates decided to run; an unexpected development which had the potential to split the support of voters opposed to Nagin. On January 24, Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco ended months of public debate and legal wrangling by signing Secretary of State Al Ater's plan to reschedule the primary election for April 22 and the runoff for May 20. Ron Forman officially declared his candidacy on February 14 at the Audubon Tea Room in front of a crowd of business leaders and other supporters. On February 22, Mitch Landrieu made his long-anticipated official campaign announcement, with players in the city's hospitality and tourism industry and powerful real estate developer Pres Kabacoff featured prominently among his supporters. On February 23, Nagin held a public reconciliation with Bishop Paul Morton, a prominent black pastor who publicly criticized Nagin in 2004 for failing to provide enough city contracts to black-owned businesses, and had called Nagin "a white man in black skin." On February 24, the first public poll of the election was released. Conducted between January 26 and February 13, the poll showed Mitch Landrieu leading with 35% of the vote and Ray Nagin trailing with 25%. Ron Forman received 9% and Peggy Wilson stood at 7%. However, only residents who had returned to the city were polled; without the input of absentee voters, the pollster acknowledged that the results could not be considered representative. March 2 saw the release of the election's second poll, conducted by CNN, USA Today, and Gallup. 19% of those polled said they would definitely vote for Ray Nagin, while 44% said they would definitely not vote for him. Mitch Landrieu received 18% definite support, while 29% would definitely not vote for him. Ron Forman stood with 12% of those polled certain to vote for him, and 35% unwilling to consider voting for him. Peggy Wilson received the definite support of 7%, and 62% would not vote for her. 4% would definitely vote for Tom Watson, while 63% would not vote for him. Other candidates were not mentioned in the poll, and only voters currently living within the city were polled. March 3 was the deadline for mayoral candidates to file their qualification papers. In addition to the expected candidates, a large number of newly announced candidates emerged. The most notable surprise announcement was that of Clerk of Criminal Court Kimberly Williamson Butler, who emerged from a week of hiding from an arrest warrant for contempt of court in order to announce her candidacy for mayor. A record number of 23 candidates have declared their intention to challenge Nagin. On March 4 Nagin appeared before an audience of New Orleans evacuees at an event organized by the NAACP, where he made the statement that "there was all this talk about this being an opportunity to change New Orleans forever and maybe everybody shouldn't come back, and maybe this is an opportunity to kind of change New Orleans and go back to what it used to be. I have 23 candidates running for mayor and very few of them look like us. There's a potential to be a major change in the political structure of New Orleans." Some perceived these comments to be a divisive follow-up to his "Chocolate City" remarks, while others point out that the fact that Nagin is the only major African-American candidate in a field of 23 is a sign of the demographic shift in a city that was over two-thirds black before Katrina. Newly announced candidate Kimberly Williamson Butler, the Clerk of Criminal Court, was jailed for contempt of court on March 6 after a court appearance in which she refused to admit guilt and instead criticized the judges. The first mayoral debate of the campaign was held on March 7 at Loyola University. The debate was attended by Ray Nagin and 8 of his challengers: James Arey, Virginia Boulet, Rob Couhig, Ron Forman, Mitch Landrieu, Leo Watermeier, Tom Watson, and Peggy Wilson. Kimberly Williamson Butler was invited, but could not attend due to her jail sentence. The candidates discussed levees and hurricane evacuation plans, housing and redevelopment of neighborhoods, the role of the state and federal government in the rebuilding of the city, and the issue of race in a city with drastically altered demographics. The two main challengers, Forman and Landrieu, were perceived as largely playing safe, while other candidates, particularly Couhig and Wilson, were more combative. Ray Nagin focused on defending his record and emphasizing the need for experienced leadership in a time of crisis. State campaign finance reports were released on March 25 showing candidates' finances as of March 13. The major candidates had amassed campaign funds several times greater than those raised in recent elections, making this mayoral election the city's most expensive in history. Incumbent mayor Nagin had the most well-financed campaign, with $1,182,776 available; Ron Forman followed closely with a $1,002,692 war chest. Mitch Landrieu had the third largest campaign fund, at $547,003. Rob Couhig had raised a significant amount - $131,535 - but had already spent it. The second mayoral debate was held on March 27. Only the perceived front-runners - Nagin, Forman, Landrieu, Watson, Wilson, Boulet, and Couhig - were invited. Discussion was focused on housing restoration, fiscal management, flood protection, and crime. The second debate was more combative than the first, with the three leading candidates facing strong criticism from the others. A new poll released on April 7 reinforced the common perception that the election is shaping up to be a three-way race. Landrieu and Nagin appeared to be in a dead heat, with the lieutenant governor leading with 27% over the incumbent mayor's 26%. Forman remained in third place with 16%, but he appeared to be rapidly closing the gap between himself and the front-runners when compared with previous polls. Like previous polls, these latest numbers only included current residents of New Orleans; without taking displaced voters into account, their accuracy remained questionable. In the final days of the primary campaign, a wave of negative campaign ads emerged. The clash began on April 7 with Forman accusing Landrieu of supporting tax increases; Landrieu countered with criticisms of Forman's handling of public money and of his high salary at the Audubon Institute. Forman continued his attacks by accusing Landrieu of being soft on crime. These attacks have been interpreted as efforts by Landrieu and Forman to position themselves to win a slot in the runoff against Nagin. Meanwhile, Wilson accused both Landrieu and Forman of being 'liberal Democrats' and of being complicit in the corruption of former mayor Marc Morial. Couhig, Watson, and Forman battled over the support of conservative and Republican voters; Forman urged voters not to waste their votes on minor candidates, while Couhig stepped up his attacks on Forman, painting him as a liberal no different from Landrieu or Nagin. As of April 14, the Forman campaign had raised the most money, with over $2.1 million in his campaign chest. Landrieu had raised just under $2 million, while Nagin had raised $1.46 million. Couhig had raised $395,000, Boulet had amassed $268,000, Wilson had $101,000 and Watson $85,000. On April 17, the major candidates—Boulet, Couhig, Forman, Landrieu, Nagin, Watson, and Wilson—appeared on a nationally televised debate co-hosted by Chris Matthews and New Orleans newsanchor Norman Robinson. The debate was televised nationally over MSNBC, an exceedingly rare occurrence for a local mayoral campaign; this was done because of many New Orleans voters still living elsewhere in the aftermath of Katrina and due to national interest. On 22 April preliminary results showed Nagin with 38% of the vote, with 41,489 votes, and Landrieu with 29% and 31,499. On May 20, a runoff election between Nagin and Landrieu took place. Forman with 17% and 18,734 votes conceded defeat; Couhig came in fourth with 10% and 10,287 votes. Runoff In the runoff campaign, few substantive policy differences emerged between Landrieu and Nagin. Instead, the main issues in the runoff campaign were differences in personality and governing styles. Alongside stressing his accomplishments in bringing jobs to New Orleans before the storm, Nagin's campaign emphasized the decisive role the mayor played in the aftermath of Katrina and the importance of the relationships he has built with state and federal leaders. The incumbent also stressed the risk of "experimenting" with a new mayor at the start of another hurricane season. Nagin criticized Landrieu's "old-style politics" and implied that he had ties to past politicians like Marc Morial. Landrieu emphasized his record in the state legislature and as Lieutenant Governor, and his ability to build consensus among a broad range of political players. For their part, the Landrieu campaign criticized Nagin's go-it-alone governing style as alienating to New Orleans's potential allies, and his frequent gaffes as embarrassing to the city. Landrieu said he would restore credibility to city government and jump-start a lethargic rebuilding process: a major Landrieu slogan was "What was OK before Katrina isn't OK after Katrina." Landrieu ads featured shots of the city's abandoned flooded cars and blamed Nagin for his lack of leadership. In the runoff, Landrieu received endorsements from third-place primary finisher Ron Forman, as well as the city's police and fire organizations and District Attorney Eddie Jordan. Nagin was endorsed by Rob Couhig, who appeared in Nagin ads praising the mayor's pro-business credentials. Other Nagin endorsements included defeated candidates Virginia Boulet and Tom Watson (who vehemently criticized Nagin in the primary), as well as congressman Bill Jefferson and state senator Cleo Fields. The runoff campaign was also affected by the May 9 release of the first major book about Katrina: historian Douglas Brinkley's The Great Deluge. The book offers a scathing portrayal of Nagin's performance in the week after Katrina, describing him as a man on the verge of breakdown, hiding in the Hyatt hotel and refusing to emerge to take decisive action. Nagin described the book as a "political satire" that twisted the facts, and criticized the timing of its release as politically motivated. Opinion polls As polls were largely based on New Orleanians still reachable by their pre-Katrina telephone numbers, pollsters admitted they were subject to an unusually large margin of error, and declined to speculate exactly how large that margin of error was. Primary X = This candidate was not included in this poll Runoff Results Mayoral primary, April 22 As the top two vote-getters, Nagin and Landrieu entered the runoff election held on May 20. All 442 precincts were reported in the official results. Nagin won 289 of the city's 442 precincts; overwhelmingly in sections of the city which have a black majority. This is a marked difference from Nagin's 2002 showings, when the bulk of his support came from white precincts. In 2006, Nagin received only 6% of the white vote. Landrieu won 87 precincts, primarily in Uptown, Mid-City, the French Quarter, the Faubourg Marigny, and Bywater neighborhoods. He attracted 24% of black votes and 30% of white votes. The two front runners did better at attracting voters from outside of their own race than any of the other candidates. Forman won 57 precincts, almost exclusively in the wealthiest and whitest sections of the city: the university section of Uptown, Lakeview, the Garden District, and the lower coast of Algiers. He received more support from white voters than any other candidate, but got only 4% support from black voters. Couhig won only 6 precincts, in the Lakeview, Lake Vista, and lower coast of Algiers. Many observers speculated that Couhig served to split the conservative vote and prevented Forman from making the runoff, while others pointed out that even if Couhig's and Forman's votes were combined the total is still almost 2500 short of the amount which would have been required to beat Landrieu. The very poor showing of Peggy Wilson surprised some of her supporters. She finished behind candidates with much less local name recognition who spent far less on their campaigns. Formerly a well-known and powerful figure on the city council, some saw Wilson's failure to get significant voter support as the end of her career in local politics. Mayoral Runoff, May 20 With unofficial results showing 53% of the vote for Nagin, Landrieu conceded defeat shortly before 10:30 pm on election night. Nagin gave an acceptance speech shortly thereafter, at about 10:35 pm. Nagin won by the slimmest margin for an incumbent facing re-election since the mayoral election of 1965, in which mayor Victor Schiro's handling of Hurricane Betsy also affected his poor showing. Nagin also won with a dramatic shift in the racial breakdown of his voter base; in this election he received the support of about 80% of black voters and 20% of white voters, a reversal of his support base in the 2002 election. Post election analysis Some outside observers were shocked that Nagin defeated Landrieu, assuming that the embattled and controversial incumbent would not be able to muster the votes required to keep his position. Due to the high percentage of black voter support for Nagin, there were some accusations of racialized 'bloc voting.' Others noted that Landrieu's support was also lopsided in favor of white voters, although he received a significant minority of African American voters. The racial breakdown of votes was roughly equal for the two candidates; each won roughly 80% of the votes of the members of their own race, and 20% of the votes from the other race. Nagin's chief campaign strategist Jim Carvin attributed Nagin's victory to a number of factors, including competition between Forman and Landrieu for the anti-Nagin vote in the primary, the lack of a well-funded and well-known black challenger, and Landrieu's unwillingness to make strong attacks on Nagin. Taking these factors into account, Carvin and the Nagin campaign took a strategy of building a biracial coalition consisting of the large majority of black voters plus enough white conservatives to bring the mayor over 50%. A main Nagin campaign theme, centered around the slogan "Re-elect our mayor: Re-unite our city," was supplemented with targeted ads touting Nagin's pro-business and conservative credentials and criticizing Mitch Landrieu as a career politician and member of a powerful political family. His criticism of Landrieu as a representative of "old politics" was able to appeal to both white voters wary of a potential return to patronage politics and to black voters unwilling to return to the days of white political domination of a majority-black city. Some analysts attributed Nagin's victory to a black turnout which was much larger than expected, mobilized by worries about the threat of a white political takeover and anger over what they perceived as an effort to disenfranchise dispersed voters who were unable to return to the city to vote. One political commentator made links between the mobilization of support for Nagin and the Civil Rights Movement, and noted the contrast between the 2006 election and previous perceptions of Nagin as the "white candidate." The strong white conservative and Republican Party turnout for Nagin, however, may have been the factor that tipped the balance. Defeated primary candidate Rob Couhig led the Republican rally behind Nagin. The Nagin campaign sent out flyers to heavily white Republican neighborhoods quoting some local black leaders calling him "Ray Reagan", a reference to Ronald Reagan intended to be insulting, but which was seen more sympathetically among Republicans. Other factors cited by some were the fond memory of Nagin's famous "get off your asses" radio interview during the worst days after Katrina, and what some saw as Landrieu's cautiously dispassionate campaigning style which some found uninspiring. In particular, Landrieu was criticized for not focusing on Nagin's shortcomings in the post-Katrina recovery, and in not sufficiently differentiating his policy proposals from Nagin's. In New Orleans politics, incumbency is a large advantage; an incumbent mayor has not been defeated in an election since deLesseps Morrison beat sitting mayor Robert Maestri in the election of 1946. In contrast to the mayoral election, the simultaneous City Council election results were strongly anti-incumbent, with three established well-known Council members losing to newcomers promising reform. See also 2006 New Orleans city council election References External links Candidates' Web sites Johnny Adriani James Arey Nick Bacque Virginia Boulet Kimberly Williamson Butler Rob Couhig Ron Forman Mitch Landrieu Ray Nagin Mac Rahman Leo Watermeier Tom Watson Shedrick White Peggy Wilson Election resources Times-Picayune election center League of Women Voters Election Guide 2006 New Orleans 2006 Louisiana elections
4177188	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal%20management%20%28electronics%29	Thermal management (electronics)	All electronic devices and circuitry generate excess heat and thus require thermal management to improve reliability and prevent premature failure. The amount of heat output is equal to the power input, if there are no other energy interactions. There are several techniques for cooling including various styles of heat sinks, thermoelectric coolers, forced air systems and fans, heat pipes, and others. In cases of extreme low environmental temperatures, it may actually be necessary to heat the electronic components to achieve satisfactory operation. Overview Thermal resistance of devices This is usually quoted as the thermal resistance from junction to case of the semiconductor device. The units are °C/W. For example, a heatsink rated at 10 °C/W will get 10 °C hotter than the surrounding air when it dissipates 1 Watt of heat. Thus, a heatsink with a low °C/W value is more efficient than a heatsink with a high °C/W value. Given two semiconductor devices in the same package, a lower junction to ambient resistance (RθJ-C) indicates a more efficient device. However, when comparing two devices with different die-free package thermal resistances (Ex. DirectFET MT vs wirebond 5x6mm PQFN), their junction to ambient or junction to case resistance values may not correlate directly to their comparative efficiencies. Different semiconductor packages may have different die orientations, different copper(or other metal) mass surrounding the die, different die attach mechanics, and different molding thickness, all of which could yield significantly different junction to case or junction to ambient resistance values, and could thus obscure overall efficiency numbers. Thermal time constants A heatsink's thermal mass can be considered as a capacitor (storing heat instead of charge) and the thermal resistance as an electrical resistance (giving a measure of how fast stored heat can be dissipated). Together, these two components form a thermal RC circuit with an associated time constant given by the product of R and C. This quantity can be used to calculate the dynamic heat dissipation capability of a device, in an analogous way to the electrical case. Thermal interface material A thermal interface material or mastic (aka TIM) is used to fill the gaps between thermal transfer surfaces, such as between microprocessors and heatsinks, in order to increase thermal transfer efficiency. It has a higher thermal conductivity value in Z-direction than xy-direction. Applications Personal computers Due to recent technological developments and public interest, the retail heat sink market has reached an all-time high. In the early 2000s, CPUs were produced that emitted more and more heat than earlier, escalating requirements for quality cooling systems. Overclocking has always meant greater cooling needs, and the inherently hotter chips meant more concerns for the enthusiast. Efficient heat sinks are vital to overclocked computer systems because the higher a microprocessor's cooling rate, the faster the computer can operate without instability; generally, faster operation leads to higher performance. Many companies now compete to offer the best heat sink for PC overclocking enthusiasts. Prominent aftermarket heat sink manufacturers include: Aero Cool, Foxconn, Thermalright, Thermaltake, Swiftech, and Zalman. Soldering Temporary heat sinks were sometimes used while soldering circuit boards, preventing excessive heat from damaging sensitive nearby electronics. In the simplest case, this means partially gripping a component using a heavy metal crocodile clip or similar clamp. Modern semiconductor devices, which are designed to be assembled by reflow soldering, can usually tolerate soldering temperatures without damage. On the other hand, electrical components such as magnetic reed switches can malfunction if exposed to higher powered soldering irons, so this practice is still very much in use. Batteries In the battery used for electric vehicles, Nominal battery performance is usually specified for working temperatures somewhere in the +20 °C to +30 °C range; however, the actual performance can deviate substantially from this if the battery is operated at higher or, in particular, lower temperatures, so some electric cars have heating and cooling for their batteries. Methodologies Heat sinks Heat sinks are widely used in electronics and have become essential to modern microelectronics. In common use, it is a metal object brought into contact with an electronic component's hot surface—though in most cases, a thin thermal interface material mediates between the two surfaces. Microprocessors and power handling semiconductors are examples of electronics that need a heat sink to reduce their temperature through increased thermal mass and heat dissipation (primarily by conduction and convection and to a lesser extent by radiation). Heat sinks have become almost essential to modern integrated circuits like microprocessors, DSPs, GPUs, and more. A heat sink usually consists of a metal structure with one or more flat surfaces to ensure good thermal contact with the components to be cooled, and an array of comb or fin like protrusions to increase the surface contact with the air, and thus the rate of heat dissipation. A heat sink is sometimes used in conjunction with a fan to increase the rate of airflow over the heat sink. This maintains a larger temperature gradient by replacing warmed air faster than convection would. This is known as a forced air system. Cold plate Placing a conductive thick metal plate, referred to as a cold plate, as a heat transfer interface between a heat source and a cold flowing fluid (or any other heat sink) may improve the cooling performance. In such arrangement, the heat source is cooled under the thick plate instead of being cooled in direct contact with the cooling fluid. It is shown that the thick plate can significantly improve the heat transfer between the heat source and the cooling fluid by way of conducting the heat current in an optimal manner. The two most attractive advantages of this method are that no additional pumping power and no extra heat transfer surface area, that is quite different from fins (extended surfaces). Principle Heat sinks function by efficiently transferring thermal energy ("heat") from an object at high temperature to a second object at a lower temperature with a much greater heat capacity. This rapid transfer of thermal energy quickly brings the first object into thermal equilibrium with the second, lowering the temperature of the first object, fulfilling the heat sink's role as a cooling device. Efficient function of a heat sink relies on rapid transfer of thermal energy from the first object to the heat sink, and the heat sink to the second object. The most common design of a heat sink is a metal device with many fins. The high thermal conductivity of the metal combined with its large surface area result in the rapid transfer of thermal energy to the surrounding, cooler, air. This cools the heat sink and whatever it is in direct thermal contact with. Use of fluids (for example coolants in refrigeration) and thermal interface material (in cooling electronic devices) ensures good transfer of thermal energy to the heat sink. Similarly, a fan may improve the transfer of thermal energy from the heat sink to the air. Construction and materials A heat sink usually consists of a base with one or more flat surfaces and an array of comb or fin-like protrusions to increase the heat sink's surface area contacting the air, and thus increasing the heat dissipation rate. While a heat sink is a static object, a fan often aids a heat sink by providing increased airflow over the heat sink—thus maintaining a larger temperature gradient by replacing the warmed air more quickly than passive convection achieves alone—this is known as a forced-air system. Ideally, heat sinks are made from a good thermal conductor such as silver, gold, copper, or aluminum alloy. Copper and aluminum are among the most-frequently used materials for this purpose within electronic devices. Copper (401 W/(m·K) at 300 K) is significantly more expensive than aluminum (237 W/(m·K) at 300 K) but is also roughly twice as efficient as a thermal conductor. Aluminum has the significant advantage that it can be easily formed by extrusion, thus making complex cross-sections possible. Aluminum is also much lighter than copper, offering less mechanical stress on delicate electronic components. Some heat sinks made from aluminum have a copper core as a trade off. The heat sink's contact surface (the base) must be flat and smooth to ensure the best thermal contact with the object needing cooling. Frequently a thermally conductive grease is used to ensure optimal thermal contact; such compounds often contain colloidal silver. Further, a clamping mechanism, screws, or thermal adhesive hold the heat sink tightly onto the component, but specifically without pressure that would crush the component. Performance Heat sink performance (including free convection, forced convection, liquid cooled, and any combination thereof) is a function of material, geometry, and overall surface heat transfer coefficient. Generally, forced convection heat sink thermal performance is improved by increasing the thermal conductivity of the heat sink materials, increasing the surface area (usually by adding extended surfaces, such as fins or foam metal) and by increasing the overall area heat transfer coefficient (usually by increase fluid velocity, such as adding fans, pumps, etc.). Online heat sink calculators from companies such as Novel Concepts, Inc. and at www.heatsinkcalculator.com can accurately estimate forced and natural convection heat sink performance. For more complex heat sink geometries, or heat sinks with multiple materials or multiple fluids, computation fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis is recommended (see graphics on this page). Convective air cooling This term describes device cooling by the convection currents of the warm air being allowed to escape the confines of the component to be replaced by cooler air. Since warm air normally rises, this method usually requires venting at the top or sides of the casing to be effective. Forced air cooling If there is more air being forced into a system than being pumped out (due to an imbalance in the number of fans), this is referred to as a 'positive' airflow, as the pressure inside the unit is higher than outside. A balanced or neutral airflow is the most efficient, although a slightly positive airflow can result in less dust build up if filtered properly Heat pipes A heat pipe is a heat transfer device that uses evaporation and condensation of a two-phase "working fluid" or coolant to transport large quantities of heat with a very small difference in temperature between the hot and cold interfaces. A typical heat pipe consists of sealed hollow tube made of a thermoconductive metal such as copper or aluminium, and a wick to return the working fluid from the evaporator to the condenser. The pipe contains both saturated liquid and vapor of a working fluid (such as water, methanol or ammonia), all other gases being excluded. The most common heat pipe for electronics thermal management has a copper envelope and wick, with water as the working fluid. Copper/methanol is used if the heat pipe needs to operate below the freezing point of water, and aluminum/ammonia heat pipes are used for electronics cooling in space. The advantage of heat pipes is their great efficiency in transferring heat. The thermal conductivity of heat pipes can be as high as 100,000 W/m K, in contrast to copper, which has a thermal conductivity of around 400 W/m K. Peltier cooling plates Peltier cooling plates take advantage of the Peltier effect to create a heat flux between the junction of two different conductors of electricity by applying an electric current. This effect is commonly used for cooling electronic components and small instruments. In practice, many such junctions may be arranged in series to increase the effect to the amount of heating or cooling required. There are no moving parts, so a Peltier plate is maintenance free. It has a relatively low efficiency, so thermoelectric cooling is generally used for electronic devices, such as infra-red sensors, that need to operate at temperatures below ambient. For cooling these devices, the solid state nature of the Peltier plates outweighs their poor efficiency. Thermoelectric junctions are typically around 10% as efficient as the ideal Carnot cycle refrigerator, compared with 40% achieved by conventional compression cycle systems. Synthetic jet air cooling A synthetic jet is produced by a continual flow of vortices that are formed by alternating brief ejection and suction of air across an opening such that the net mass flux is zero. A unique feature of these jets is that they are formed entirely from the working fluid of the flow system in which they are deployed can produce a net momentum to the flow of a system without net mass injection to the system. Synthetic jet air movers have no moving parts and are thus maintenance free. Due to the high heat transfer coefficients, high reliability but lower overall flow rates, Synthetic jet air movers are usually used at the chip level and not at the system level for cooling. However depending on the size and complexity of the systems they can be used for both at times. Electrostatic fluid acceleration An electrostatic fluid accelerator (EFA) is a device which pumps a fluid such as air without any moving parts. Instead of using rotating blades, as in a conventional fan, an EFA uses an electric field to propel electrically charged air molecules. Because air molecules are normally neutrally charged, the EFA has to create some charged molecules, or ions, first. Thus there are three basic steps in the fluid acceleration process: ionize air molecules, use those ions to push many more neutral molecules in a desired direction, and then recapture and neutralize the ions to eliminate any net charge. The basic principle has been understood for some time but only in recent years have seen developments in the design and manufacture of EFA devices that may allow them to find practical and economical applications, such as in micro-cooling of electronics components. Recent developments More recently, high thermal conductivity materials such as synthetic diamond and boron arsenide cooling sinks are being researched to provide better cooling. Boron arsenide has been reported with high thermal conductivity and high thermal boundary conductance with gallium nitride transistors and thus better performance than diamond and silicon carbide cooling technologies. Also, some heat sinks are constructed of multiple materials with desirable characteristics, such as phase change materials, which can store a great deal of energy due to their heat of fusion. Thermal simulation of electronics Thermal simulations give engineers a visual representation of the temperature and airflow inside the equipment. Thermal simulations enable engineers to design the cooling system; to optimise a design to reduce power consumption, weight and cost; and to verify the thermal design to ensure there are no issues when the equipment is built. Most thermal simulation software uses Computational fluid dynamics techniques to predict temperature and airflow of an electronics system. Design Thermal simulation is often required to determine how to effectively cool components within design constraints. Simulation enables the design and verification of the thermal design of the equipment at a very early stage and throughout the design of the electronic and mechanical parts. Designing with thermal properties in mind from the start reduces the risk of last minute design changes to fix thermal issues. Using thermal simulation as part of the design process enables the creation of an optimal and innovative product design that performs to specification and meets customers' reliability requirements. Optimise It is easy to design a cooling system for almost any equipment if there is unlimited space, power and budget. However, the majority of equipment will have a rigid specification that leaves a limited margin for error. There is a constant pressure to reduce power requirements, system weight and cost parts, without compromising performance or reliability. Thermal simulation allows experimentation with optimisation, such as modifying heatsink geometry or reducing fan speeds in a virtual environment, which is faster, cheaper and safer than physical experiment and measurement. Verify Traditionally, the first time the thermal design of the equipment is verified is after a prototype has been built. The device is powered up, perhaps inside an environmental chamber, and temperatures of the critical parts of the system are measured using sensors such as thermocouples. If any problems are discovered, the project is delayed while a solution is sought. A change to the design of a PCB or enclosure part may be required to fix the issue, which will take time and cost a significant amount of money. If thermal simulation is used as part of the design process of the equipment, thermal design issue will be identified before a prototype is built. Fixing an issue at the design stage is both quicker and cheaper than modifying the design after a prototype is created. Software There are a wide range of software tools that are designed for thermal simulation of electronics include 6SigmaET, Ansys' IcePak and Mentor Graphics' FloTHERM. Telecommunications environments Thermal management measures must be taken to accommodate high heat release equipment in telecommunications rooms. Generic supplemental/spot cooling techniques, as well as turnkey cooling solutions developed by equipment manufacturers are viable solutions. Such solutions could allow very high heat release equipment to be housed in a central office that has a heat density at or near the cooling capacity available from the central air handler. According to Telcordia GR-3028, Thermal Management in Telecommunications Central Offices, the most common way of cooling modern telecommunications equipment internally is by utilizing multiple high-speed fans to create forced convection cooling. Although direct and indirect liquid cooling may be introduced in the future, the current design of new electronic equipment is geared towards maintaining air as the cooling medium. A well-developed "holistic" approach is required to understand current and future thermal management problems. Space cooling on one hand, and equipment cooling on the other, cannot be viewed as two isolated parts of the overall thermal challenge. The main purpose of an equipment facility's air-distribution system is to distribute conditioned air in such a way that the electronic equipment is cooled effectively. The overall cooling efficiency depends on how the air distribution system moves air through the equipment room, how the equipment moves air through the equipment frames, and how these airflows interact with one another. High heat-dissipation levels rely heavily on a seamless integration of equipment-cooling and room-cooling designs. The existing environmental solutions in telecommunications facilities have inherent limitations. For example, most mature central offices have limited space available for large air duct installations that are required for cooling high heat density equipment rooms. Furthermore, steep temperature gradients develop quickly should a cooling outage occur; this has been well documented through computer modeling and direct measurements and observations. Although environmental backup systems may be in place, there are situations when they will not help. In a recent case, telecommunications equipment in a major central office was overheated, and critical services were interrupted by a complete cooling shut down initiated by a false smoke alarm. A major obstacle for effective thermal management is the way heat-release data is currently reported. Suppliers generally specify the maximum (nameplate) heat release from the equipment. In reality, equipment configuration and traffic diversity will result in significantly lower heat release numbers. Equipment cooling classes As stated in GR-3028, most equipment environments maintain cool front (maintenance) aisles and hot rear (wiring) aisles, where cool supply air is delivered to the front aisles and hot air is removed from the rear aisles. This scheme provides multiple benefits, including effective equipment cooling and high thermal efficiency. In the traditional room cooling class utilized by the majority of service providers, equipment cooling would benefit from air intake and exhaust locations that help move air from the front aisle to the rear aisle. The traditional front-bottom to top-rear pattern, however, has been replaced in some equipment with other airflow patterns that may not ensure adequate equipment cooling in high heat density areas. A classification of equipment (shelves and cabinets) into Equipment-Cooling (EC) classes serves the purpose of classifying the equipment with regard to the cooling air intake and hot air exhaust locations, i.e., the equipment airflow schemes or protocols. The EC-Class syntax provides a flexible and important “common language.” It is used for developing Heat-Release Targets (HRTs), which are important for network reliability, equipment and space planning, and infrastructure capacity planning. HRTs take into account physical limitations of the environment and environmental baseline criteria, including the supply airflow capacity, air diffusion into the equipment space, and air-distribution/equipment interactions. In addition to being used for developing the HRTs, the EC Classification can be used to show compliance on product sheets, provide internal design specifications, or specify requirements in purchase orders. The Room-Cooling classification (RC-Class) refers to the way the overall equipment space is air-conditioned (cooled). The main purpose of RC-Classes is to provide a logical classification and description of legacy and non-legacy room-cooling schemes or protocols in the central office environment. In addition to being used for developing HRTs, the RC-classification can be used in internal central office design specifications or in purchase orders. Supplemental-Cooling classes (SC-Class) provide a classification of supplemental cooling techniques. Service providers use supplemental/spot-cooling solutions to supplement the cooling capacity (e.g., to treat occurrences of “hot spots”) provided by the general room-cooling protocol as expressed by the RC-Class. Economic impact Energy consumption by telecommunications equipment currently accounts for a high percentage of the total energy consumed in central offices. Most of this energy is subsequently released as heat to the surrounding equipment space. Since most of the remaining central office energy use goes to cool the equipment room, the economic impact of making the electronic equipment energy-efficient would be considerable for companies that use and operate telecommunications equipment. It would reduce capital costs for support systems, and improve thermal conditions in the equipment room. See also Heat generation in integrated circuits Thermal resistance in electronics Thermal management of high-power LEDs Thermal design power Heat pipe Computer cooling Radiator Active cooling References Further reading External links Computer hardware cooling Electronic design de:Kühlkörper es:Disipador fr:Radiateur#.C3.89changeur solide.2Fair it:Dissipatore (elettronica) he:צלעות קירור lt:Radiatorius (elektronikoje) nl:Koelvin ja:ヒートシンク pl:Radiator pt:Dissipador ru:Кулер sk:Chladič (elektronika)
4177379	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch%20resistance	Dutch resistance	The Dutch resistance () to the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands during World War II can be mainly characterized as non-violent. The primary organizers were the Communist Party, churches, and independent groups. Over 300,000 people were hidden from German authorities in the autumn of 1944 by 60,000 to 200,000 illegal landlords and caretakers. These activities were tolerated knowingly by some one million people, including a few individuals among German occupiers and military. The Dutch resistance developed relatively slowly, but the February strike of 1941 (which involved random police harassment and the deportation of over 400 Jews) greatly stimulated resistance. The first to organize themselves were the Dutch communists, who set up a cell-system immediately. Some other very amateurish groups also emerged, notably, De Geuzen, set up by Bernardus IJzerdraat, as well as some military-styled groups, such as the Order Service (Dutch: Ordedienst). Most had great trouble surviving betrayal in the first two years of the war. Dutch counterintelligence, domestic sabotage, and communications networks eventually provided key support to Allied forces, beginning in 1944 and continuing until the Netherlands was fully liberated. Of the Jewish population, 105,000 out of 140,000 were murdered in the Holocaust, most of whom were murdered in Nazi death camps. A number of resistance groups specialized in saving Jewish children. The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust estimates that 215–500 Dutch Romanis were killed by the Nazis, with the higher figure estimated as almost the entire pre-war population of Dutch Romanis. Definition The Dutch themselves, especially their official war historian Loe de Jong, director of the State Institute for War Documentation (RIOD/NIOD), distinguished among several types of resistance. Going into hiding, was generally not categorized by the Dutch as resistance because of the passive nature of such an act. Helping these so-called onderduikers (lit. "divers"), people who were prosecuted and therefore hid from the Nazi occupiers, was recognized as an act of resistance, but more or less reluctantly so. Non-compliance with German rules, wishes or commands, or German-condoned Dutch rule, was also not considered resistance. Public protests by individuals, political parties, newspapers, or churches were also not considered to be resistance. Publishing illegal papers – something the Dutch were very good at, with 1,100 separate titles appearing, some reaching circulations of more than 100,000 for a population of 8.5 million – was not considered resistance per se. Only active resistance in the form of spying, sabotage, or with arms was what the Dutch considered resistance. Nevertheless, thousands of members of all the 'non-resisting' categories were arrested by the Germans and often subsequently jailed for months, tortured, sent to concentration camps, or killed. Up until the 21st century, the tendency existed in Dutch historical research and publications to not regard passive resistance as 'real' resistance. Slowly, this has started to change, in part due to the emphasis the RIOD has been putting on individual heroism since 2005. The Dutch February strike of 1941, protesting the deportation of Jews from the Netherlands, the only such strike to ever occur in Nazi-occupied Europe, is usually not defined as resistance by the Dutch. The strikers, who numbered in the tens of thousands, are not considered resistance participants. The Dutch generally prefer to use the term illegaliteit ('illegality') for all those activities that were illegal, contrary, underground, or unarmed. After the war, the Dutch created and awarded a Resistance Cross ('Verzetskruis', not to be confused with the much lower ranking Verzetsherdenkingskruis) to only 95 people, of whom only one was still alive when receiving the decoration, a number in stark contrast to the hundreds of thousands of Dutch men and women who performed illegal tasks at any moment during the war. Prelude Prior to the German invasion, the Netherlands had adhered to a policy of strict neutrality. The country had strong bonds with Germany, and not so much with Britain. The Dutch had not engaged in war with any European nation since 1830. During World War I, the Dutch were not invaded by Germany and the anti-German sentiment was not as strong after the war as it was in other European countries. The German ex-Kaiser had fled to the Netherlands in 1918 and lived there in exile. The German invasion, therefore, came as a great shock to many Dutch people. Nevertheless, the country had ordered general mobilization in September 1939. By November 1938, during the Kristallnacht, many Dutch people received a foretaste of things to come; German synagogues could be seen burning, even from the Netherlands, (such as the one in Aachen). An anti-fascist movement started to gain popularity – as did the fascist movement, notably the Nationaal-Socialistische Beweging (NSB). Despite strict neutrality, which implied shooting down British as well as German planes crossing the border into the Netherlands, the country's large merchant fleet was severely attacked by the Germans after 1 September 1939, the beginning of World War II. The sinking of the passenger liner SS Simon Bolivar in November 1939, with 84 dead, especially shocked the nation. German invasion On May 10, 1940, German troops started a surprise attack on the Netherlands without a declaration of war. The day before, small groups of German troops wearing Dutch uniforms had entered the country. Many of them wore 'Dutch' helmets, some made of cardboard as they did not have enough originals. The Germans deployed about 750,000 men, three times the strength of the Dutch army; some 1,100 planes (Dutch Army Air Service: 125) and six armoured trains. They destroyed 80% of the Dutch military aircraft on the ground in one morning, mostly by bombing. The Dutch army, a cadre-militia consisting of professional officers and conscript NCOs and ranks, was inferior to the German Army in many respects: it was poorly equipped, had poor communications, and was poorly led. However, the Germans lost some 400 planes in the three days of the attack, 230 of them Junkers 52/3, the strategically-essential transport for airborne infantry and paratroopers, a loss that they would never replenish and thwarted German plans for attacking England, Gibraltar and Malta with airborne forces. The Dutch forces succeeded in defeating the Germans in the first-ever large-scale paratroop-cum-airborne attack in history and in recapturing the three German-occupied airfields surrounding the Hague at the end of the first the day of the attack. Noteworthy were the privately-financed but Army-operated anti-aircraft guns, positioned on suspected approach routes that would overfly the industries that put up the money for them. The Dutch Army Cavalry, which did not have operational tanks, deployed several squadrons of armoured cars, mainly near strategic airfields. The German follow-up attacks overland were three-pronged (Frisia-Kornwerderzand, Gelderland-Grebbe Line, Brabant-Moerdijk) and were all stopped either fully or long enough to allow the Dutch army to demolish the German air-mobile divisions and mop up the lightly armed paratroopers and airborne troops around The Hague. That circumstance, together with the anti-aircraft guns, of which German intelligence had not been aware because they had been purchased by civilians, contributed to the failure of the German units of paratroopers and airborne infantry to capture the Dutch government and force a quick surrender. Instead, the Dutch government and queen managed to escape, and the Germans succeeded in imposing only a partial surrender. The Dutch state remained in the war as a combatant and immediately made its naval assets available for the joint allied war effort, starting with the evacuation from Dunkirk. During the Battle of Java Sea in 1941, the British, American and Australian Navies were led by a Dutch naval officer: Rear Admiral Karel Doorman. The major areas of intensive military resistance were: The Hague and the area to the north of it. Dutch forces succeeded in decimating the two German airborne divisions that had landed with the task of capturing the Dutch government. These hostilities are known as the Battle for The Hague. This unexpected setback caused panic in the German military leadership, which ordered the undefended city centre of Rotterdam to be wiped out in order to force an off-the-battlefield solution and stop the effective resistance by the Dutch forces. Before this terror bombardment, the Royal Netherlands Navy managed to ship some 1300 captured German shock troops to England, providing their allies with first-hand intelligence about this novel type of airborne warfare. The Grebbe line, a north-south line some east of the capital Amsterdam, from Amersfoort to the Waal, fortified, with field guns, and extensive inundations. The Dutch only surrendered after three days of hard fighting, known as the Battle of the Grebbeberg, with heavy losses on both sides. Having taken the Grebbeberg, the German forces were confronted by the next setback: during the battle the old Dutch Water Line had been inundated and thus reactivated. Kornwerderzand, with a bunker-complex that defended the eastern end of the Afsluitdijk connecting Friesland to North Holland and was held until ordered to capitulate. Dutch Army troops repelled wave after wave of German attackers, with support from the Royal Netherlands Navy cruising offshore on the North Sea. A small force of some 230 infantrymen stopped a complete German cavalry division in what become known as the Battle of the Afsluitdijk. The exposed stretch of dam leading to the bunker-complex became known among the Germans as the Totendam. Rotterdam, the bridges over the Maas River. Two school companies of Royal Netherlands Marines managed to keep a complete German army at bay until the bombardment of Rotterdam forced the commanding officer, General Winkelman, to accept a partial surrender. Elsewhere, Dutch forces stayed in the war; in Europe the fight continued from Zeeland (Battle of Zeeland) to Dunkirk, where a Dutch Royal Navy officer, Lodo van Hamel, assisted in the evacuation of allied troops. Van Hamel was first to parachute back into the Netherlands a few months later, with the mission to set up the resistance in the Netherlands. He was captured, tried and executed. The Dutch succeeded in stopping the German advance for four days. By then, the Germans had already invaded some 70% of the country but failed to enter the urban areas to the west. The eastern provinces were relatively easy to overrun because they had been deliberately left lightly defended in order to create strategic depth. Adolf Hitler, who had expected the occupation to be completed in two hours or a maximum of two days (the invasion of Denmark in April 1940 had taken only one day), ordered Rotterdam to be annihilated to force a breakthrough as the attack was clearly failing on all fronts. That led to the Rotterdam Blitz on 14 May that destroyed much of the city centre, killed about 800 people, and left about 85,000 homeless. Furthermore, the Germans threatened to destroy every other major city until the Dutch forces capitulated. The Dutch military leadership, having lost the bulk of their air force, realized they could not stop the German bombers but managed to negotiate a tactical, instead of national, capitulation, unlike France a few weeks later. As a result, the Dutch State, unlike the French State, remained at war with Germany, and the Germans authorities had to ask every individual Dutch soldier to desist from further hostilities as a condition for their release from detention as a prisoner-of-war. The first act of resistance was, therefore, the refusal by members of the Dutch forces to sign any document to that effect. The 2,000 Dutch soldiers who died defending their country, together with at least 800 civilians who perished in the flames of Rotterdam, were the first victims of a Nazi occupation that was to last five years. Initial German policy The Nazis considered the Dutch to be fellow Aryans and were more manipulative in the Netherlands than in other occupied countries, which made the occupation seem mild at least at first. The occupation was run by the German Nazi Party rather than by the Armed Forces, which had terrible consequences for the Jewish citizens of the Netherlands. This was the case because the main goals of the Nazis were the Nazification of the populace, the creation of a large-scale aerial attack and defense system, and the integration of the Dutch economy into the German economy. As Rotterdam was already Germany's main port, it remained so, and collaboration with the enemy was widespread. Since all government ministers had successfully evaded capture by the Germans, the secretaries-general staying behind had no alternative but to carry on as best as possible under the new German rulers. The open terrain and dense population, the densest in Europe, made it difficult to conceal illegal activities; unlike, for example, the Maquis in France, who had ample hiding places. Furthermore, the country was surrounded by German-controlled territory on all sides, offering few escape routes. The entire coast was forbidden territory for all Dutch people, which makes the phenomenon of Engelandvaarder an even more remarkable act of resistance. The first German round-up of Jews in February 1941 led to the first general strike against the Germans in Europe (and indeed one of only two such throughout occupied Europe), which shows that the general sentiment among the Dutch population was anti-German. It was the social democrats, Catholics, and communists who started the resistance movement. Membership of an armed or military organized group could lead to prolonged stays in concentration camps, and after mid-1944, to summary execution (as a result of Hitler's orders to shoot resistance members on sight – the Niedermachungsbefehl). The increasing attacks against Dutch fascists and Germans led to large-scale reprisals, often involving dozens, even hundreds of randomly chosen people who, if not executed, were deported to concentration camps. For example, most of the adult males in the village of Putten were sent to concentration camps during the Putten raid. The Nazis deported the Jews to concentration and extermination camps, rationed food, and withheld food stamps as punishment. They started large-scale fortifications along the coast and built some 30 airfields, paying with money they claimed from the national bank at a rate of 100 million guilders a month (the so-called 'costs of the occupation'). They also forced males between the ages of 18 and 45 to work in German factories or on public work projects. In 1944 most trains were diverted to Germany, known as 'the great train robberies', and in total some 550,000 Dutch people were selected to be sent to Germany as forced laborers. Males over the age of 14 were deemed 'able to work' and females over the age of 15. Over the next five years, as conditions became increasingly difficult, resistance became better organized and more forceful. The resistance managed to kill high-ranking collaborationist Dutch officials, such as General Hendrik Seyffardt. In the Netherlands, the Germans managed to exterminate a relatively large proportion of the Jews. They were found more easily because before the war the Dutch authorities had required citizens to register their religion so that church taxes could be distributed among the various religious organizations. Furthermore, shortly after the Nazis took over the government, they demanded all Dutch public servants fill out an "Aryan Attestation" in which they were asked to state in detail their religious and ethnic ancestry. The American author Mark Klempner writes, "Though there was some protest, not just from the government employees, but from several churches and universities, in the end, all but twenty of 240,000 Dutch civil servants signed and returned the form." In addition, the country was occupied by the oppressive SS rather than the Wehrmacht as in the other Western European countries, as well as the fact that the occupying forces were generally under the command of Austrians who were keen to show that they were 'good Germans' by implementing anti-Semitic policy. The Dutch public transport organization and the police collaborated to a large extent in the transportation of the Jews. Resistance organization As early as 15 May 1940, the day after the Dutch capitulation, the Communist Party of the Netherlands (CPN) held a meeting to organize their underground existence and resistance against the German occupiers. It was the first resistance organization in the country. As a result, some 2,000 communists were to lose their lives in torture rooms, concentration camps or by firing squad. On the same day Bernardus IJzerdraat distributed leaflets protesting against the German occupation and called on the public to resist the Germans. This was the first public act of resistance. IJzerdraat started to build an illegal resistance organization called De Geuzen, named after a group who rebelled against Spanish occupation in the 16th century. A few months after the German invasion, a number of Revolutionary Socialist Worker's Party (RSAP) members including Henk Sneevliet formed the Marx–Lenin–Luxemburg Front. Its entire leadership was caught and executed in April 1942. The CPN and the RSAP were the only pre-war organizations that went underground and protested against the antisemitic action taken by the German occupiers. According to CIA historian Stewart Bentley, there were four major resistance organizations in the country by the middle of 1944, independent of each other: National Organization for Helping People in Hiding (Landelijke Organisatie voor Hulp aan Onderduikers, LO); it became the most successful illegal organization in Europe, set up in 1942 by Helena Kuipers-Rietberg and Frits Slomp complete with its own illegal social services Nationaal Steun Fonds run by Walraven van Hall that paid a kind of dole on a regular basis throughout the war to all families in need, including relatives of sailors and hideaways. Of the 12,000 to 14,000 participants in the LO, 1,104 were killed or died in prison camps. LKP ("Landelijke Knokploeg", or National Assault Group, literally translated "brawl crew" or "goon squad"), with about 750 members in the summer of 1944 conducting sabotage operations and occasional assassinations. The LKP provided many of the ration cards to the LO through raids. Leendert Valstar ('Bertus'), Jacques van der Horst ('Louis') and Hilbert van Dijk ('Arie') organized local Assault Groups into the LKP in 1943. The number of members of the LKP is rather precise since their members were registered after the war. 2,277 was their number in September 1944. A third were members before this time. 514 members of the LKP died. Only one of the top LKP members survived the war – Liepke Scheepstra. Helena-Rietberg, one of the founders of the LO, was betrayed and died in Ravensbruck concentration camp. RVV ("Raad van Verzet" or Council of Resistance), engaged in sabotage, assassinations, and the protection of people in hiding. OD ("Orde Dienst" or Order of Service), a group preparing for the return of the exiled Dutch government and its subgroup the GDN (Dutch Secret Service), the intelligence arm of the OD. CS 6 Another, more radical group, was called 'CS 6'. It was probably named for the address where they were based, 6 Corelli street in Amsterdam. According to Loe de Jong, they were by far the most deadly of the resistance groups, committing some 20 assassinations. Having been started in 1940 by the brothers Gideon and Jan Karel ('Janka') Boissevain, the group grew quickly to some 40 members and made contact with the Dutch communist and surgeon Gerrit Kastein. They targeted the highest-ranking Dutch collaborators and traitors, but duly became the victim of the most dangerous Dutch traitor and German spy, Anton van der Waals. Included in the list of their victims was the Dutch General Seyffardt, who was used by the Germans to head the Dutch SS-legion. They also managed to assassinate an assistant minister, Reydon, and several police chiefs. However, the planned assassination of the best known Dutch traitor and collaborator, Dutch Nazi-party leader Anton Mussert, was delayed and could never be accomplished. Their activities in eliminating Dutch collaborators prompted the 1943 'Silbertanne' covert murder reprisals by the Dutch SS. By 1944 treason and strain had decimated their ranks. NSF In addition to these groups, the NSF ("Nationale Steun Fonds", or National Support Fund) financial organization received money from the exiled government to fund operations of the LO and KP. It also set up large-scale scams involving the national bank and the tax service that were never discovered. The principal figure of the NSF was the banker Walraven van Hall, whose activities were discovered by chance by the Nazis and who was shot at the age of 39. Because of Van Hall's work, the Dutch resistance was never short of money. A monument for van Hall was opened in Amsterdam in September 2010. Churches The Reformed churches and the Catholic churches joined together in resisting Nazi occupation. The Netherlands was about 48 percent Reformed churches and 36 percent Catholic churches at that time. Previous to the war the split between the Reformed churches and Catholic churches was profound. The resistance brought the churches together in their common struggle. In 1941, they jointly condemned the government's laws and actions, and formed ecumenical bonds that denounced anti-Semitism in all its forms. Many Catholic and Reformed churches became the centre of resistance activities in all but name. The clergy also paid a high price: Forty-three reformed clergy were killed and forty-six Catholic priests lost their lives. Both denominations cooperated with many illegal organizations and made funds available, for instance, to save Jewish children. Many priests and ministers were arrested and deported; some died, such as Carmelite priest Titus Brandsma, a professor of philosophy and an early outspoken critic of Nazism, who eventually succumbed to illness in Dachau concentration camp, and Father Raskin, a priest in the CICM Missionaries, who operated under the codename Leopold Vindictive 200 and was beheaded by the Gestapo on 18 October 1943. Monseigneur De Jong, archbishop of Utrecht, was a steadfast leader of the Catholic community and an opponent of the German occupiers. The Catholic stance on the protection of converted Jews, among others Edith Stein, a philosopher who was then also a nun in a Dutch convent, led to special prosecution of those Jews, sister Stein being deported. After the war, captured documents showed that the Germans feared the role of the churches, especially when Catholics and Protestants worked together. Resistance activities On 25 February 1941, the Communist Party of the Netherlands called for a general strike, the 'February strike', in response to the first Nazi raid on Amsterdam's Jewish population. The old Jewish quarter in Amsterdam had been cordoned off into a ghetto and as retaliation for a number of violent incidents that followed, 425 Jewish men were taken hostage by the Germans and eventually deported to extermination camps, just two surviving. Many citizens of Amsterdam, regardless of their political affiliation, joined in a mass protest against the deportation of Jewish Dutch citizens. The next day, factories in Zaandam, Haarlem, IJmuiden, Weesp, Bussum, Hilversum and Utrecht joined in. The strike was largely put down within a day with German troops firing on unarmed crowds, killing nine people and wounding 24, as well as taking many prisoners. Opposition to the German occupation intensified as a result of the violence against non-combative Dutch people. The only other general strike in Nazi-occupied Europe was the general strike in occupied Luxembourg in 1942. The Dutch struck four more times against the Germans: the students' strike in November 1940, the doctors' strike in 1942, the April–May strike in 1943 and the railway strike in 1944. The February strike was also unusual for the Dutch resistance, which was more covert. Resistance in the Netherlands initially took the form of small-scale, decentralized cells engaged in independent activities, mostly small-scale sabotage (such as cutting phone lines, distributing anti-German leaflets or tearing down posters). Some small groups had no links with others. They produced forged ration cards and counterfeit money, collected intelligence, published underground papers such as De Waarheid, Trouw, Vrij Nederland, and Het Parool. They also sabotaged phone lines and railways, produced maps, and distributed food and goods. One of the most widespread resistance activities was hiding and sheltering refugees and enemies of the Nazi regime, which included concealing Jewish families like that of Anne Frank, underground operatives, draft-age Dutchmen and, later in the war, Allied aircrew. Collectively these people were known as onderduikers ('people in hiding' or literally: 'under-divers'). Corrie ten Boom and her family were among those who successfully hid several Jews and resistance workers from the Nazis. The first people who went into hiding were German Jews who had arrived in the Netherlands before 1940. In the first weeks after the surrender, some British soldiers who could not get to Dunkirk (Duinkerken) in French Flanders hid with farmers in Dutch Flanders. In the winter of 1940–1941 many French escaped prisoners of war passed through the Netherlands. One single-family in Oldenzaal helped 200 men. In total, about 4,000 mainly French, some Belgian, Polish, Russian and Czech ex-POWs were aided on their way south in the province of Limburg. The number of people cared for by the LO in July 1944 is estimated to be between 200,000 and 350,000. This activity was very risky, and 1,671 members of the LO-LKP organizations lost their lives. On 22 September 1944, members of the LKP, RVV and a small number of the OD in the southern liberated part of the Netherlands became a Dutch army unit: the Stoottroepen. This was during Operation Market Garden. Three battalions, without any military training, were formed in Brabant and three in Limburg. The first and second battalions from Brabant were involved in guarding the front line along the Waal and Meuse rivers with the British 2nd Army. The third battalion from Brabant was incorporated into a Polish formation of the Canadian 2nd Army on the front line on the islands of Tholen and Sint Philipsland. The second and third battalions from Limburg were included in the 9th American Army and were involved in guarding the front line from Roosteren to Aix la Chapelle (Aachen/Aken). During the Battle of the Bulge (December 1944), they were repositioned on the line Aix-la-Chapelle to Liège (Luik). The first battalion from Limburg was an occupational force in Germany in the area between Cologne (Köln), Aix-la-Chapelle and the Dutch border. The second and third battalions from Limburg accompanied the American push into Germany in March 1945 up to Magdeburg, Brunswick and Oschersleben. Reprisals under Operation Silbertanne After Hitler had approved Anton Mussert as "Leider van het Nederlandse Volk" (Leader of the Dutch People) in December 1942, he was allowed to form a national government institute, a Dutch shadow cabinet called "Gemachtigden van den Leider", which would advise Reichskommissar Arthur Seyss-Inquart from February 1st 1943. The institute would consist of a number of deputies in charge of defined functions or departments within the administration. On February 4, retired General and Rijkscommissaris Hendrik Seyffardt, already head of the Dutch SS volunteer group Vrijwilligerslegioen Nederland, was announced through the press as “Deputy for Special Services”. As a result, the Communist resistance group CS-6 under Gerrit Kastein, concluded that the new institute would eventually lead to a National-Socialist government, which would then introduce general conscription to enable the call-up of Dutch nationals for the Eastern Front. However, in reality, the Nazi's only saw Mussert and the NSB as a useful tools to enable general co-operation. Furthermore, Seyss-Inquart had assured Mussert after his December 1942 meeting with Hitler that general conscription was not on the agenda. However, CS-6 assessed that Seyffardt was the first person within the new institute eligible for an attack, after the heavily guarded Mussert. After approval from the Dutch government-in-exile, on the evening of Friday 5 February 1943, after answering a knock at his front door in Scheveningen, The Hague, Seyffardt was shot twice by student Jan Verleun who had accompanied Kastein on the mission. A day later Seyffardt succumbed to his injuries in the hospital. A private military ceremony was arranged at the Binnenhof, attended by family and friends and with Mussert in attendance, after which Seyffardt was cremated. On 7 February, CS-6 shot fellow institute member Gemachtigde Voor de Volksvoorlichting (Attorney for the national relations) H. Reydon and his wife. His wife died on the spot, while Reydon died on 24 August of his injuries. The gun used in this attack had been given to Kastein by Sicherheitsdienst agent Van der Waals, and after tracking him back through information, arrested him on 19 February. Two days later Kastein committed suicide so as not to give away Dutch Resistance information under torture. Seyffardt and Reydon's deaths led to massive reprisals in the occupied Netherlands, under Operation Silbertanne. SS General Hanns Albin Rauter immediately ordered the murder of 50 Dutch hostages and a series of raids on Dutch universities. By accident the Dutch resistance had attacked Rauter's car on 6 March 1945, which in turn led to the killings at De Woeste Hoeve, where 117 men were rounded up and executed at the site of the ambush and another 147 Gestapo prisoners were executed elsewhere. On 1–2 October 1944, a similar war crime occurred in the Putten raid. After a car carrying officers of the German Army was ambushed near the village of Putten by the Dutch resistance, on the orders of Wehrmachtbefehlshaber in den Niederlanden (Supreme Commander of the Wehrmacht in the Netherlands) General Friedrich Christiansen, the village of Putten was raided by German forces. Several civilians were shot, the village was burned and 661 of the males of the town were deported to concentration camps, where the vast majority of whom died. "England-Voyagers" A little more than 1,700 Dutch people managed to escape to England and offered themselves to their exiled Queen Wilhelmina for service against the Germans. They were called the Engelandvaarders named after some 200 who had travelled by boat across the North Sea, most of the other 1,500 went across land. Some figures are especially noteworthy: Erik Hazelhoff Roelfzema, whose life was described in his book and made into a film and a musical Soldaat van Oranje, Peter Tazelaar and Bob or Bram van der Stok, who, after fighting air battles over the Netherlands during the initial German attack, managed to escape and who became a squadron leader in No. 322 Squadron RAF. Van der Stok's RAF Spitfire was shot down over France and he was taken prisoner by the Germans. Van der Stok became one of only three successful escapees of 'the Great Escape' from Stalag Luft III, and the only one to succeed in returning to England to rejoin the fight as a fighter pilot. Radio A major role in keeping the Dutch resistance alive was played by the BBC Radio Oranje, the broadcasting service of the Dutch government-in-exile and Radio Herrijzend Nederland which broadcast from the Southern part of the country. Listening to either program was forbidden and after about a year the Germans decided to confiscate all Dutch radio receivers, with some listeners managing to replace their sets with homemade receivers. Surprisingly the authorities failed to outlaw the publication of magazine articles explaining how to build sets or the sale of the necessary materials until many months later. When they eventually did there were leaflets dropped from British planes containing instructions on building sets and directional aerials to circumvent German jamming. Press The Dutch managed to set up a remarkably large underground press that led to some 1,100 titles. Some of these were never more than hand-copied newsletters, while others were printed in larger runs and grew to become newspapers and magazines some of which still exist today, such as Trouw, Het Parool, and Vrij Nederland. After Normandy Following the Normandy invasion in June 1944, the Dutch civilian population was put under increasing pressure by Allied infiltration and the need for intelligence regarding the German military defensive buildup, the instability of German positions and active fighting. Portions of the country were liberated as part of the Allied Drive to the Siegfried Line. The unsuccessful Allied airborne Operation Market Garden liberated Eindhoven and Nijmegen, but the attempt to secure bridges and transport lines around Arnhem in mid-September failed, partly because British forces disregarded intelligence offered by the Dutch resistance about German strength and position of enemy forces and declined help with communications from the resistance. The Battle of the Scheldt, aimed at opening the Belgian port of Antwerp, liberated the south-west Netherlands the following month. While the south was liberated, Amsterdam and the rest of the north remained under Nazi control until their official surrender on 5 May 1945. For these eight months Allied forces held off, fearing huge civilian losses, and hoping for a rapid collapse of the German government. When the Dutch government-in-exile asked for a national railway strike as a resistance measure, the Nazis stopped food transports to the western Netherlands, and this set the stage for the "Hunger winter", the Dutch famine of 1944. 374 Dutch resistance fighters are buried in the Field of Honour in the Dunes around Bloemendaal. In total, some 2,000 Dutch resistance members were killed by the Germans. Their names are recorded in a memorial ledger Erelijst van Gevallenen 1940–1945, kept in the Dutch parliament and available online since 2010. Main figures in the Dutch resistance Alphabetically ordered to the Dutch system with the IJ after the X, and adverbs not counted Aart Alblas, Royal Netherlands Navy officer Willem Arondeus, resistance member in Amsterdam, bombed the Amsterdam Public Records Office in 1943 Frieda Belinfante, member who helped organize and execute the bombing of the Amsterdam Public Records Office in 1943 Carolina Bunjes, Jewish communist that sheltered Jews in Scheveningen from the Gestapo and hid weapons for the resistance in Friesland Christiaan Boers Corrie ten Boom, Christian resistance organizer Esmée van Eeghen, active in Leeuwarden Diet Eman, Christian resistance member, author of Things We Couldn't Say Jack van der Geest Jan Gies, husband of Miep Gies and her fellow helper who hid and cared for Anne Frank, her family, and the others in hiding with them Jan van Gilse, composer and conductor and resistance member in Amsterdam Frans Goedhart, founder of Het Parool Daniël Goulooze, Jewish construction worker, communist and Soviet agent Karl Gröger, executed for his role in carrying out the bombing of the Amsterdam Public Records Office in 1943 Paul de Groot, Jewish communist leader Frits van Hall, sculptor executed for his role in the Dutch resistance in 1945 Suzy van Hall, dancer who was sent to Dachau concentration camp Walraven van Hall, 'banker of the resistance', considered one of the leading figures in the Dutch resistance Erik Hazelhoff Roelfzema; student and a secret agent Jan van Hoof Johannes de Jong, Archbishop of Utrecht Ernst de Jonge, lawyer and Olympic rower Gerrit Kastein, surgeon and communist activist in CS 6 Anda Kerkhoven, only University of Groningen student executed by the Nazis Anton de Kom, Afro-Dutch communist resistance leader Aart Gerardus Lekskes Johan Limpers, sculptor and resistance member George Maduro, a Jewish officer Lau Mazirel, lawyer who helped plan the bombing of the Amsterdam Public Records Office in 1943 Geertruida Middendorp Martinus Nijhoff, poet who helped plan the bombing of the Amsterdam Public Records Office in 1943 Allard Oosterhuis, family doctor; organizer of escape routes to Sweden and Switzerland Mona Louise Parsons Jaap Penraat Henri Pieck Henriëtte Pimentel (1876–1943), smuggled hundreds of Jewish children out of her crèche Joannes Cassianus Pompe, pathologist executed for sabotage Gerard Reeskamp Father Raskin, who operated under the codename Leopold Vindictive 200 and was beheaded by the Gestapo on 18 October 1943 Willem Sandberg, curator at the Stedelijk Museum who helped plan the bombing of the Amsterdam Public Records Office in 1943 Hannie Schaft, "the girl with the red hair", communist resistance assassination agent Pierre Schunck of the Valkenburg resistance Pieter Meindert Schreuder, a resistance leader in Groningen Henk Sneevliet, Marxist resistance leader Han Stijkel, an armed resistance leader in The Hague, bombed the Amsterdam Public Records Office Bram van der Stok Tina Strobos, a medical student who smuggled resistance supplies and hid Jewish refugees in her house Jacoba van Tongeren, the female leader of Group 2000 Gerrit van der Veen, sculptor and resistance leader in Amsterdam, bombed the Amsterdam Public Records Office in 1943 Koos Vorrink, socialist politician and resistance leader Gerben Wagenaar, Communist resistance leader Joop Westerweel, a schoolteacher and Christian anarchist, leader of the Westerweel Group resistance group Bernardus IJzerdraat, one of the first to resist See also Binnenlandse Strijdkrachten Dutch underground press Englandspiel Netherlands in World War II Resistance during World War II Verzetsmuseum References Further reading Bentley, Stewart. The Dutch Resistance and the OSS (2012) Bentley, Stewart. Orange Blood, Silver Wings: The Untold Story of the Dutch Resistance During Market-Garden (2007) Fiske, Mel, and Christina Radich. Our Mother's War: A Biography of a Child of the Dutch Resistance (2007) van der Horst, Liesbeth. The Dutch Resistance Museum (2000) Schaepman, Antoinette. Clouds: Episode of Dutch Wartime Resistance, 1940–45 (1982) Sellin, Thorsten, ed. "The Netherlands during German Occupation," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science Vol. 245, May 1946 pp I to 180 in JSTOR Warmbrunn, Werner. The Dutch under German occupation, 1940–1945 (Stanford University Press, 1963) Dewulf, Jeroen. Spirit of Resistance: Dutch Clandestine Literature during the Nazi Occupation (Rochester, NY: Camden House, 2010). Manheim, Jack. Memoirs of the Dutch Underground, 1940–1945: Why me? (England, UK: Amazon, 2017). Maass, Walter B. The Netherlands at War: 1940-1945 (Abelard-Schuman, London, New York, Toronto, 1970) Library of Congress: 68-14569 External links CIA paper on the Dutch resistance and the OSS on the Wayback machine Homepage of the Dutch Resistance Museum in Amsterdam Dutch Resistance Museum – history and practical information. Discussion of the Netherlands under Nazi occupation On war atrocities in the Netherlands, some in revenge for resistance activities Jan de Hartog's speech given at Weber State College – his personal account of his participation in non-violent Dutch Resistance as an author. Vergeten verzet in Nederlands-Indië – an account (in Dutch) of the 'forgotten' resistance to the Japanese occupation of the East Indies. Articles containing video clips Military history of the Netherlands during World War II Netherlands in World War II World War II resistance movements
4177463	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crownsville%20Hospital%20Center	Crownsville Hospital Center	The Crownsville Hospital Center was a psychiatric hospital located in Crownsville, Maryland. It was in operation from 1911 until 2004. History Background Crownsville Hospital Center was enabled by an act of the Maryland General Assembly on April 11, 1910 as the Hospital for the Negro Insane of Maryland. This act also explicitly specified that the facility should not be located in Baltimore. On December 13, 1910, the Board of Managers purchased land which had formerly been farmed for willow and tobacco, located at Crownsville, Maryland, for the sum of $19,000. On May 23, 1910, Dr. Dan Hempeck was designated the first Superintendent. The facility was founded following a 1908 report of "The Maryland State Lunacy Commission" which stated: As early as 1899, the Maryland Lunacy Commission stated in its Annual Report: Again in its 1900 report it stated: In 1888, an article titled "The Need of An Asylum or Hospital for the Separate Care and Treatment of the Colored Insane of This State" stated three reasons for creating the hospital. However, five years later, about four hundred black people were still improperly cared for in dark cells, restrained with chains, and sleeping on straw (Bowlin, Lauren). In chapter 250 of the Laws of Maryland of 1910, an attempt was made to improve the conditions under which the black mentally ill had to live in Maryland (Bowlin, Lauren). The first group of 12 patients arrived at Crownsville on March 13, 1911. Patients lived in a work camp located in a willow curing house adjacent to one of the willow ponds. Winterode worked with them to prepare roads and to harvest the tobacco and willow crops on the property. Additional patients were transferred in July and September, 1911. Construction started on the first large building, A Building in October 1912. Patients were used to work on the construction of the hospital in addition to working in its day-to-day functions. Men were given manual labored work and women had to knit and mend clothing for staff as well as patients (Osborn, Lawrence). As reported in the State Lunacy Commission Report of December 1912, patients worked as "hod carriers" and assistants to electricians and plumbers. Construction necessitated that they push "barrows of concrete up a tramway three and a half stories in height." They excavated "10000 cubic yards of earth in about 10 weeks." In addition, they unloaded 238 cars of cement, stone, and other building materials. "The laundry work for the patients is done by two adult males and an epileptic imbecile 10 years of age who has been taught to feed the ringer and at which he has become quite adept. During the past year (1912) these three have washed and ironed over 40,000 pieces." Need for separate care Within a short time smallpox and scarlet fever struck the patients. Water quality was also cited as a problem in those early years. Tuberculosis was a constant threat and is mentioned in the annual reports of those early years because there was no real provision for the isolation of the patients, except in the summer months when there was a temporary open building for them. The Annual and Biennial Report of the State Lunacy Commission 1914–1915, in the section on Crownsville Hospital, stated that "the percentage of deaths based upon admissions (268 patients) was 38.43. The percentage of deaths calculated upon admissions due to tuberculosis was 29.85. The percentage of deaths based upon average attendance was 32.21." Tuberculosis remained a problem for many years. It was not until 1939 that the Commissioner of Mental Hygiene announced: Excluded from this new, active treatment program at the all-white Springfield Hospital Center were the African-American Crownsville TB patients. On October 29, 1915, two hundred Baltimore City patients were transferred from Bayview Medical Center (now Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center). Understaffed, overcrowded There were two physicians in 1920, including the superintendent, with a patient census of 521. There were also 17 nurses and attendants, one social worker, and 18 other help. The data from the 1920 U.S. Census report has the average age of Crownsville patients at 42 years. The youngest was 14 years and there were three patients in their eighties. In the occupations' section of the report, 68% were listed as holding hospital job assignments. Therapies initially included hydrotherapy and sedatives. In the 1930s, insulin shock was introduced. Malaria treatment was begun in 1942, in which patients were infected with malaria pathogens. As many as twenty patients at a time were inoculated. According to the 1948 Annual Report, Crownsville had about 1,800 patients, of which 103 patients received shock treatments, 56 patients received malaria/penicillin treatments, and 33 received a lobotomy. Lobotomies were a common procedure during those years, but Crownsville Superintendent Dr. Morgenstern was opposed to them. In his 1950 Annual Report, he said that Crownsville has "very few lobotomies". He also expressed his opposition to the trend "to rely upon this operation to make the institutional case more manageable". In a report of March 1954, the Superintendent stated that lobotomies were not being done. According to a January 1947 report on medical care in Maryland, the normal occupancy of private and public mental hospital beds was 7,453. Of these, only Crownsville had African American patients in its 1,044 occupied beds as of August 1946. Hospital conditions deteriorated markedly in the 1940s due to overcrowding and staff shortages. The staffing of the wards was very inadequate during the period of World War II. Financial support hurt asylums because most were philanthropies, but costs to operate them were high (Osborn, Lawrence). The Commissioner of Mental Hygiene said in a letter of May 22, 1945 to the State's Governor: "A few nights ago at Crownsville in the division which houses ninety criminal, insane men there was one employee on duty." A "Confidential Report to the Board of Mental Hygiene in Regard to Present Conditions in State Hospitals" (November 14, 1944) stated that Crownsville was 30-percent over its capacity, in contrast to the two large hospitals for white patients which were 11.6-percent and 11-percent over capacity. That same report documented that, for the preceding five-year period, the average number of deaths per 1,000 patients was 102 at Crownsville, in contrast to 59 and 60 for the two large hospitals serving white patients. The report also mentioned a problem relating to the availability of clothes for the "feebleminded" patients of Crownsville: "Some serious problems relating to supplies have occurred so that on one recent occasion some 25 patients in the Division for the "Feebleminded" were found on inspection to be completely without clothes." Deteriorating conditions A visitor to the Division for the Feebleminded at Crownsville described his experiences in a memo of November 2, 1944 to the Commissioner of Mental Hygiene (Dr. Preston). After praising the appearance of the girls' ward, he described the boys' ward as follows: The Baltimore Suns articles on Maryland's mental health system were published in 1948–1949 under the title "MARYLAND'S SHAME". Following are statements from the articles relating to Crownsville: In 1929 there were 55 discharges from Crownsville but 92 deaths. The census began to rise dramatically, until it peaked in 1955 at 2,719 patients. The staff of Crownsville Hospital had been all white until 1948. Integration Through the 1940s, the NAACP had advocated hiring African-American staff but encountered resistance from the Commissioner of Mental Hygiene. Finally, in 1948, the new superintendent of Crownsville hired the first African-American staff member Vernon Sparks, in the Psychology Department. Gwendolyn Lee was hired later in the Social Work Department. The Crownsville Superintendent still was not permitted to hire African-American staff in direct-care positions. This did not happen until 1952. By 1959, 45-percent of Crownsville's staff was African-American, in contrast to 6- to 8-percent in the other large state mental hospitals. The adolescent patient population was integrated in 1962 and the adult population in 1963. An earlier integration attempt had been made in December 1954 when the Crownsville Superintendent transferred 15 children ages 2–6 years from Crownsville to the all-white Rosewood State Training School. The Superintendent of Crownsville was threatened with a reprimand by the Commissioner of Mental Health and resigned the next year (1955). Unpaid labor Industrial therapy (unpaid work) was an important part of life at Crownsville. In the spring of 1958, more than 600 patients had work assignments in more than 55 placements, which included "dental assistant," "receptionist," "librarian," and "hospital aide." Work was considered to be part of therapy, and "patients unable or unwilling to participate were considered too ill to enjoy the privilege of freedom of the grounds." Staff shortages were always a problem. In 1953, Superintendent Dr. Eichert reported that in "A" Building there were 560 patients and four attendants in the evening and four in the day. The Baltimore Sun of June 1953 gives a description of the "old ward for highly disturbed women": "Here are truly the creatures of the dark. The sickest ones are kept in a room as forbidding as a dungeon, where they live in a state of odorous untidiness, many of them refusing to wear clothes. Twice a day a bucket and two cups are brought to the door, to give the inmates a drink. There are 78 patients here and 28 beds. These and other patients on the same floor – a total of 96 – have the use of three toilets, three wash basins and one tub. They cannot be bathed daily because it was explained, hot water is not available every day." The Baltimore City Grand Jury Report for Fall 1955 reported that: "This committee was shocked at the lack of professional personnel at Crownsville. On one ward, which consists of 76 geriatric patients, there is either one registered nurse or an attendant on duty at a time. Many of these patients must be spoon fed... The Patients who are well enough help feed those who are less fortunate than themselves." In the pediatrics section of the Winterode Building for the feebleminded, there are 38 children including spastics, hydrocephalics and microcephalics. These children require expert nursing care but on our visit to this section there was one registered nurse on duty. It is necessary to have several female patients assist in the care of these children." In a letter to the Maryland Governor of June 23, 1952, the Chairman of the Mental Hygiene Board of Review asked: In a letter to a Johns Hopkins Hospital social worker of December 3, 1956, Dr. Ralph Meng, the Crownsville Superintendent, expressed his concern that community agencies were not willing to accept their responsibilities in providing services to discharged Crownsville patients. He said: Elsie Lacks (born Lucille Elsie Pleasant) was the second-born and eldest daughter of Henrietta Lacks, who was the source of the famous HeLa cell line. Elsie was institutionalized here for epilepsy until she died in 1955 at the age of 15. First black superintendent In 1964, Dr. George McKenzie Phillips was appointed, the first African-American superintendent. Dr. Phillips established a day treatment program and a school mental health outreach program, in addition to supporting the mental health clinics in Baltimore and the Southern Maryland Counties. Patients in Crownsville clinics were given free medication. Training programs were established in psychiatry, psychology, social work, dance therapy, and pastoral counseling. Crownsville had an active foreign students' program for those in medicine, social work, and psychology. In the ten years prior to its closing, it hosted students from Israel, Ireland, Spain, Germany, Turkey, and Chile. The Hospital also trained Spanish speaking therapists when that need was identified. The hospital staff was well known for its outspoken resistance to the pressures to place patients in public shelters, with the resulting "dumping" of patients onto the streets and into the jails. Improvements in psychiatric treatment, rigid admission policies, and better funding of outpatient treatment and residential services resulted in the hospital's census declining from 2,719 in 1955 to 200 patients by the year 2000 and zero soon after. The hospital grounds became the central county site for many social, school, and health programs, and the hospital finally closed in July 2004. Those patients in need of further psychiatric hospitalization were transferred to two of Maryland's remaining hospitals. Its original buildings are still standing and today portions of the campus are occupied by various tenants. The site is also the location of Crownsville Hospital's patient cemetery. This historic site was rededicated in 2004. Approximately 1,600 patients are buried in graves marked by numbers only, with the more recent having patient names. Information on Crownsville Hospital can be found in the Maryland State Archives Collections, which contain reference materials from the Hospital, the Auxiliary, Paul Lurz, and Doris Morgenstern Wachsler. Property development The State of Maryland is examining possible uses for the property. A number of different development models are being proposed as follows. Crownsville Community Campus A local non-profit community organization called Community Services Center at Crownsville is concerned about development and the impacts it would have on local traffic, security, historic resources, green space, and the community, and has been seeking the authority to control the of State owned excess property which includes the former Crownsville Hospital Center. CSCC's project is called the Crownsville Community Campus with a mission as follows: CSCC seeks to restore the outer facades of the existing buildings while renovating their interiors to accommodate tenants. The project does not involve developing green-space or former hospital space into standardized housing. CSCC's model is a self sustaining one that involves granting excess revenue, mostly rental income, back to non-profits (primarily those that operate on site). The Crownsville Community Campus project is designed as the catalyst for an Altruistic Economic Cluster – an economic model revolving around helping others. Additionally, special attention has been given to traffic and security concerns. Their plan also involves funding to enhance and access historic, community, and green resources associated with the site. Bob Pascal had been associated with CSCC's plan as a funding partner and potential tenant. See also Petersburg State Colony for the Negro Insane References Citations General sources Bowlin, Lauren. "Maryland Historical Trust NR-Eligibility Review Form". Crownsville Hospital Center Complex-Maryland State Archives.maryland.gov,n.d.Web. 30 Sep. 2013. <Crownsville Hospital Center Complex-Maryland State Archives>. Osborn, Lawrence A. "From Beauty to Despair: The Rise and Fall of the American State Mental Hospital." The Psychiatric Quarterly 80(4) (2009): 219-31. Dec. 2009. Web. 1 Oct. 2013. Stuckey, Zosha. "Race, Apology and Public Memory at MD Hospital for Negro Insane." Disability Studies Quarterly Vol 30 (1), 2017. (On Line Journal) Primary sources referenced in this article, unless otherwise noted with in-line citations: Reports of The Maryland State Lunacy Commission in the Maryland State Archives in Annapolis, Maryland. "Materials Towards a History of Crownsville" in a collection donated by Doris Morgenstern Wachsler located at the Maryland State Archives. External links Crownsville Hospital Center 2017 Interior and Exterior Photographs of Crownsville State Hospital Crownsville Hospital, photographs at Forgotten Photography. Historic photos of Maryland Lunatic Asylums 1908–1910, from the Maryland State Archives. Photographic Archives of Maryland, search on Historic Photos of "Crownsville State Hospital" for pictures of the hospital. Maryland State Archives. Crownsville Hospital's patient cemetery at Find a Grave. "Separate and Unequal: The Legacy of Racially Segregated Psychiatric Hospitals...", by Vanessa Jackson. "Studying a Relic of a Painful Past", Documentary film, Crownsville Hospital: From Lunacy to Legacy Website Hospital buildings completed in 1911 Defunct hospitals in Maryland Psychiatric hospitals in Maryland Buildings and structures in Anne Arundel County, Maryland 2004 disestablishments in Maryland Hospitals disestablished in 2004 1911 establishments in Maryland African-American history of Maryland Health policy in the United States Race and health in the United States Unfree labor in the United States
4177643	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycosura	Lycosura	Lycosura () was a city in the ancient Parrhasia region of south Arcadia said by Pausanias to be the oldest city in the world, although there is no evidence for its existence before the fourth century BCE. Its current significance is chiefly associated with the sanctuary of the goddess Despoina, which contained a colossal sculptural group that Pausanias (perhaps inaccurately) wrote was made by Damophon of Messene. This group comprises acrolithic-technique statues of Despoina and Demeter seated on a throne, with statues of Artemis and the Titan Anytos standing on either side of them – all in Pentelic marble. The dates of both the temple and the sculptural group have occasioned some dispute. Remains of a stoa, altars, and other structures have been found at the site as well. The Sanctuary of Despoina at Lycosoura is located 9 km WSW of Megalopolis, 6.9 km SSE of Mount Lykaion, and 160 km SW of Athens. There is a small museum at the archaeological site housing small finds as well as part of the cult group, while the remains of the cult statues of Despoina and Demeter are displayed at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens. Mythology and history The chthonic goddess worshiped by the Arcadians under the title, Despoina (Δέσποινα: the Mistress)(later conflated with Kore) who originally was considered to be the daughter of Poseidon Hippios and Demeter, rather than of Zeus and Demeter as was Kore. Her real name could not be revealed to anyone except those initiated to her mysteries at Lycosura, consequently, this name is unknown. In the second century CE, the Greek periegetic writer Pausanias, relying on personal observations, available texts, and consultation with local persons, wrote the only extant account of the ancient city and its sanctuary. He relates that Lycosura was founded by Lycaon the son of Pelasgus, and asserted that it was the oldest city in the world. He notes that Cleitor, the grandson of Arcas (hence the toponym Arcadia), dwelled in Lycosura. In 368 or 367 BCE, when many cities in the region were unified into the city of Megalopolis through persuasion or force, the citizens of Lycosura, Trapezus, Lycaea, and Tricoloni refused to relocate. The citizens of Trapezus were massacred or driven into exile by the Arcadians, but the citizens of Lycosura were spared due to reverence for the Sanctuary of Despoina, where they had sought asylum. Thus, many of the cities of the region were abandoned in favor of Megalopolis and their sanctuaries fell out of use. Pausanias states that the Sanctuary of Despoina was 40 stades (7.4 km) from Megalopolis, which exercised political control over the sanctuary. In the second century CE a statue of the emperor Hadrian was dedicated in the temple. Coins from Megalopolis of the Severan period in the early third century appear to depict the cult statue group. Despite its significance to the Arcadians and occasional notice from the wider Mediterranean world, the cult of Despoina appears to have remained tied to this one sanctuary at Lycosura. Archaeology Overview of the site The site of Lycosura occupies a hill of 632 m in the wooded, mountainous region south of the river Plataniston. The Sanctuary of Despoina is sited in a declivity on the north-eastern face of the hill occupied by the city. The temple and considerable remains of the cult statuary group were discovered in 1889 CE by the Greek Archaeological Service, well before the advent of stratographic excavation techniques. Dating of the finds and structures thus remains problematic, although later excavations and studies have attempted to clarify the situation. While the site of the city remains largely unexcavated, the sanctuary of Despoina has been uncovered thoroughly and consists of a temple, a stoa, an area of theater-like seats, three altars, and an enigmatic structure conventionally called the Megaron. Pausanias also describes a temple of Artemis Hegemone (Artemis the Leader) at the entrance to the sanctuary on its eastern side; to date, this structure and a number of others mentioned by the author have not been identified archaeologically. Traces of the temenos wall (boundary of the sacred area) have been detected on the north and the east sides of the sanctuary; thus, the southern and western limits of the sacred area are unknown. Temple of Despoina, Stoa, and altars The Temple of Despoina is prostyle-hexastyle in plan and in the Doric order – i.e., it had six Doric columns across the front façade only. In plan, the stylobate (platform) of the temple measures 11.15 by 21.35 m and is divided between a pronaos (front portico) and a cella. The lower portion of the walls of the temple cella are built of limestone, consisting of a course of orthostates capped by two string courses; the walls are completed to the level of the roof in fired clay brick, which would have been plastered. The six columns of the façade are in marble, as is the entablature. A curious feature of this temple is the doorway in the south wall facing the theater-like area. Although uncommon, side doorways are known from other temples in Arkadia: i.e. Athena Alea at Tegea, and Apollo Epikourios at Bassai. Rather than extending as steps along the four sides of the temple, the stepped crepidoma spans only the front of the temple and has returns on the sides as far as the antae. The architecture also deviates from the standard Doric schema in that its Doric frieze is 1.5 times the height of the architrave. At the rear of the cella is a massive, c. 1 m high stone podium designed to hold the cult statuary group, in front of which is a mosaic decorating the floor. General consensus holds that the first construction of this temple dates to the fourth century BCE. There were several repairs during the Roman period. To the south of the temple, inset into the slope of the hill, is a theater-like area with ten rows of stone seats ranging from 21 to 29 m in length. These rows of seats are uncurved and parallel with the south wall of the temple. To the northeast of the temple, there was a Stoa also in the Doric order with a single story and an internal colonnade, measuring 14 by 64 m. Foundations for a room of uncertain function measuring 5.5 by 6 m are connected to the west end of the stoa. Pausanias reported that the stoa contained a panel painted with matters pertaining to the mysteries and four bas-relief sculptures in white marble depicting: Zeus and the Fates Hercules wrestling Apollo for the Delphic tripod nymphs and pans The historian Polybios with an inscription praising his wisdom Unfortunately, none of these reliefs has been recovered in the excavations. Similar use of a stoa to display artwork is known for the Stoa Poikile (Painted Stoa) of ancient Athens, where scenes were painted directly onto the rear wall of the structure. Stoas, as well as treasuries, were frequently used at sanctuaries to store votive gifts to the deities: e.g. the stoa and treasury of the Athenians at Delphi and the multiple treasuries at Olympia. Three small, stone altars were found in the area c. 15 m to the east of the temple dedicated to Despoina, Demeter, and Gaia, the Great Mother, respectively. Many votive gifts and offerings also were found in the excavation of the sanctuary. Megaron and beyond The structure termed the Megaron (Great Hall), after Pausanias, is poorly preserved, but secure in its essential plan, measuring 9.5 m in width by 12 m in depth. In the view of William Dinsmoor, this structure can be reconstructed as a monumental altar with stairways flanking both sides and having a small stoa at its top – comparable to the Great Altar of Zeus at Pergamon. Of great interest are the more than one hundred and forty terra cotta figurines having the heads of sheep or cows that were found in the area of the Megaron. The great majority of these are women and closely resemble the decorative figures carved into the veil of the colossal head of Despoina. Beyond the Megaron, Pausanias also noted the presence of a grove sacred to Despoina surrounded by stones with altars of Poseidon Hippios and other deities beyond that, with one altar stating that it was sacred to all the deities. From there it was possible to access a shrine of Pan via a flight of stairs. Associated with this shrine were an altar of Ares, two statues of Aphrodite (one marble one wooden – a xoanon – and older), wooden images (xoana) of Apollo and Athena, and a sanctuary of Athena. These features have not been securely located. Archaeological remains outside of the sanctuary Although the sanctuary of Despoina has been excavated to a large extent, the urban area of Lycosura and its periphery have received much less attention. Outside of the sanctuary and sixty meters southwest of the temple, on the opposite side of the ridge running southeast to northwest, up to the hill of the acropolis, a number of structures of Hellenistic and Roman date have been uncovered that may have hydraulic functions, perhaps a nymphaeum (fountain-house) and a complex of Roman thermae (baths). Some remains of the city wall have also been traced. Cult sculptural group Although in many fragments and not completely preserved, the colossal cult group attributed to Damophon by Pausanias has been extensively studied and described. No comprehensive study of all the remains has yet been carried out, however. The relatively small cella of the temple of Despoina was dominated by a cultic group of statues comprising four significantly greater than life-size acrolithic-technique figures as well as a highly ornate throne for the central figures of Despoina and Demeter – all in Pentelic marble. This arrangement was somewhat unusual in that the typical situation was for there to be a single cult statue at the rear of the cella that was the primary object of veneration. The central figures of Despoina and Demeter were on a colossal scale, significantly greater than that of Artemis and the Titan Anytus. The bust of Despoina is not preserved. Holes are preserved on the bust of Artemis for the attachment of earrings and other metal ornaments, and for a diadem (or rays) on the bust of Demeter. The eyes of Artemis and Anytus were inset, rather than being carved from the marble as they were in the bust of Demeter. The great goddess, Gaia, could be represented as a throne and the throne of Despoina and Demeter was decorated with tritonesses – an appropriate theme given the identification of Poseidon as the father of Despoina. This nautical reference is underscored by the presence of marine themes on the veil of Despoina as well. One of these tritonesses was replaced in the Roman period, indicating damage to the group, perhaps due to an earthquake. While the entire group is of significant stylistic interest, the veil of Despoina is particularly so, due to the complexity of its decorative program. In addition to the lines of dancing, animal-headed women mentioned above, there are several other registers of sculpted ornamentation on the two levels of the veil. The upper level of the veil of Despoina has the following modes of decoration (from top to bottom): A series of triangular rays A band of eagles and winged thunderbolts A band of olive sprays A frieze of Nereids riding sea horses and Tritons, with dolphins intermixed A tasseled fringe The lower (and larger) layer has (from top to bottom): A frieze of Nikai carrying censers, while bearing olive sprays in front of themselves A band of olive sprays A frieze of dancing animal-headed figures A running-wave meander pattern It has been suggested that this veil is representative of the types of tapestry or embroidered woven materials that were created by contemporary artists in that community. The high level of detail is cited as a hallmark of Damophon's technique. The frieze of marine deities and the running-wave meander pick of the reference to Poseidon in the throne. The band of eagles and winged thunderbolts may be a reference to Zeus. The images of the goddesses themselves and the throne on which they sit, and the footstool under their feet are of one stone. ... The images are about the same size as that of the Mother among the Athenians. These are works of Damophon. Demeter bears a torch in her right hand, and she has placed her other hand on Despoina. On her knees, Despoina has a scepter and what is called the Cista (box), which is held in her right hand. On either side of the throne, Artemis stands beside Demeter clothed in the hide of a deer, and having a quiver on her shoulders, and one hand there is a torch and in the other two snakes. A dog lies beside Artemis, the sort that is appropriate for hunting. Beside the image of Despoina stands Anytus, portrayed as a representation of a man in armor. —Pausanias 8.37.3-5 Significance of the site In addition to the find of the Acrolithic statues commonly attributed to Damophon, this temple is important for the study of ancient Greek religious practice, due to the unusual feature of its side doorway coupled with a theater-like area. Several authors have postulated that the side doorway and theater-like area were created to allow a ritual for the mystery cult of Despoina to take place, perhaps an epiphany of the goddess. According to Pausanias, the Megaron (Μέγαρον) was the location for major sacrifices to Despoina by the Arcadians and the location where they enacted the mysteries of the goddess. The mode of sacrifice at the Megaron was unusual in that it involved hacking a limb from the sacrificial animal rather than cutting its throat. The similarity of the figurines found in the vicinity of the Megaron and the dancing figures carved on the veil of Despoina may reveal something concerning the rituals of the cult. The supposition that the site was a locus of cult activity from considerable antiquity is supported by the presence of multiple xoanon-type cult statues, by the unusual mode of sacrifice, and by the special veneration shown to the sanctuary by the Arcadians in 368/7 BCE as discussed above. As with Eleusis and Samothrace, Lycosura is an important site for the study of ancient mystery religions and religion more broadly, although it remained a regional rather than a panhellenic or pan-Mediterranean cult. Pausanias relates that the Despoina sculptural group was created by the eminent Hellenistic artist Damophon of Messene. While Damophon has been placed at dates varying from the fourth century BCE to the age of Hadrian in the second century, now it generally is accepted that he was active in the second century BCE, two centuries after the construction of the temple. Pausanias also states that the statues of Despoina and Demeter were worked from a single piece of marble without any use of iron clamps or mortar. As these statues are acrolithic in construction, this statement is manifestly incorrect, rendering his attribution of the group to Damophon equally suspect. At the time of Pausanias' visit, the sculptures would have been three hundred or more years old; no one with certain knowledge of their origins was alive. As much of what has been written concerning the style of Damophon relies on these sculptures, their attribution of no little importance. Additional images of the sanctuary of Despoina See also National Archaeological Museum of Athens Notes and references Sources Further reading Dinsmoor, William Bell, 1975. The Architecture of Ancient Greece: An Account of its Historic Development. New York: Norton Press. Jost, M. 1994. "The Distribution of Sanctuaries in Civic Space in Arkadia." In S.E. Alcock and R. Osborne (eds.), Placing the Gods, Oxford, pp. 217–30. Kavvadias, P. 1893. Fouilles de Lycosoura. Athens. Leonardos, V. 1896. "Ανασκαφαι του εν Λυκοσουρα ιερου της Δεσποινης." Praktika. Stewart, Andrew. 1990. Greek Sculpture: An Exploration. New Haven: Yale University Press. Orlandini, G.A. 1972. Considerazioni sul mégaron di Licosura. Roma: Annuario della Scuola Archeologica di Atene External links Archaeological Μuseum of Lykosoura Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites A reconstruction of the cult statuary group within the cella Greek Travel Page for the ancient city Arcadia, Peloponnese Populated places in ancient Arcadia Arcadian city-states Temples in ancient Arcadia Terracotta Former populated places in Greece Buildings and structures in Peloponnese (region) Tourist attractions in Peloponnese (region)
4177947	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft%20diesel%20engine	Aircraft diesel engine	The aircraft diesel engine or aero diesel is a diesel-powered aircraft engine. They were used in airships and tried in aircraft in the late 1920s and 1930s, but were never widely adopted until recently. Their main advantages are their excellent specific fuel consumption, the reduced flammability and somewhat higher density of their fuel, but these have been outweighed by a combination of inherent disadvantages compared to gasoline-fueled or turboprop engines. The ever-rising cost of avgas and doubts about its future availability have spurred a resurgence in aircraft diesel engine production in the early 2010s. Using diesel engines in aircraft is additionally advantageous from the standpoint of environmental protection as well as the protection of human health, since the tetraethyllead antiknock ingredient of avgas has long been known to be highly toxic as well as polluting. Development Early diesel aircraft A number of manufacturers built diesel aero engines in the 1920s and 1930s; the best known were the Packard air-cooled radial, and the Junkers Jumo 205, which was moderately successful, but proved unsuitable for combat use in World War II. The Blohm & Voss BV 138 trimotor maritime patrol flying boat, however, was powered with the more developed Junkers Jumo 207 powerplant, and was more successful with its trio of diesel Jumo 207s conferring upwards of a maximum 2,100 km (1,300 mile) combat radius upon the nearly 300 examples of the BV 138 built during World War II. The first successful diesel engine developed specifically for aircraft was the Packard DR-980 radial diesel of 1928–1929, which was laid out in the familiar air-cooled radial format similar to Wright and Pratt & Whitney designs, and was contemporary with the Beardmore Tornado used in the R101 airship. The use of a diesel had been specified for its low fire risk fuel. The first successful flight of a diesel powered aircraft was made on September 18, 1928, in a Stinson model SM-1DX Detroiter registration number X7654. Around 1936 the heavier but less thirsty diesel engines were preferred over gasoline engines when flight time was over only 6–7 hours. Entering service in the early 1930s, the two-stroke Junkers Jumo 205 opposed-piston engine was much more widely used than previous aero diesels. It was moderately successful in its use in the Blohm & Voss Ha 139 and even more so in airship use. In Britain Napier & Son license-built the larger Junkers Jumo 204 as the Napier Culverin, but it did not see production use in this form. A Daimler-Benz diesel engine was also used in Zeppelins, including the ill-fated LZ 129 Hindenburg. This engine proved unsuitable in military applications and subsequent German aircraft engine development concentrated on gasoline and jet engines. The Soviet World War II-era four-engine strategic bomber Petlyakov Pe-8 was built with Charomskiy ACh-30 diesel engines; but just after the war's end, both its diesels, and gasoline-fueled Mikulin inline V12 engines for surviving Pe-8 airframes were replaced with Shvetsov-designed radial gasoline engines because of efficiency concerns. The Yermolaev Yer-2 long-range medium bomber was also built with Charomskiy diesel engines. Other manufacturers also experimented with diesel engines in this period, such as the French Bloch (later Dassault Aviation), whose MB203 bomber prototype used Clerget diesels of radial design. The Royal Aircraft Establishment developed an experimental compression ignition (diesel) version of the Rolls-Royce Condor in 1932, flying it in a Hawker Horsley for test purposes. Postwar development Interest in diesel engines in the postwar period was sporadic. The lower power-to-weight ratio of diesels, particularly compared to turboprop engines, weighed against the diesel engine. With fuel available cheaply and most research interest in turboprops and jets for high-speed airliners, diesel-powered aircraft virtually disappeared. The stagnation of the general aviation market in the 1990s saw a massive decline in the development of any new aircraft engine types. Napier & Son in Britain had developed the Napier Culverin, a derivative of the Junkers Jumo 205, before World War II, and took up aero diesel engines again in the 1950s. The British Air Ministry supported the development of the Napier Nomad, a combination of piston and turboprop engines, which was exceptionally efficient in terms of brake specific fuel consumption, but judged too bulky and complex and canceled in 1955. Modern developments Several factors have emerged to change this equation. First, a number of new manufacturers of general aviation aircraft developing new designs have emerged. Second, in Europe in particular, avgas has become very expensive. Third, in several (particularly remote) locations, avgas is harder to obtain than diesel fuel. Finally, automotive diesel technologies have improved greatly in recent years, offering higher power-to-weight ratios more suitable for aircraft application. Certified diesel-powered light planes are currently available, and a number of companies are developing new engine and aircraft designs for the purpose. Many of these run on readily available jet fuel (kerosene), or on conventional automotive diesel. Simulations indicate lower maximum payload due to the heavier engine, but also longer range at medium payload. Applications Airships The zeppelins LZ 129 Hindenburg and LZ 130 Graf Zeppelin II were propelled by reversible diesel engines. The direction of operation was changed by shifting gears on the camshaft. From full power forward, the engines could be brought to a stop, changed over, and brought to full power in reverse in less than 60 seconds. Nevil Shute Norway wrote that the demonstration flight of the airship R100 was changed from India to Canada, "when she got petrol engines, because it was thought that a flight to the tropics with petrol on board would be too hazardous. It is curious after over twenty years to recall how afraid everyone was of petrol in those days (c. 1929), because since then aeroplanes with petrol engines have done innumerable hours of flying in the tropics, and they don't burst into flames on every flight. I think the truth is that everyone was diesel-minded in those days; it seemed as if the diesel engine for aeroplanes was only just around the corner, with the promise of great fuel economy". Hence, the ill-fated diesel-engined R101 — which crashed in 1930 — was to fly to India, though her diesel engines had petrol starter engines, and there had only been time to replace one with a diesel starter engine. The R101 used the Beardmore Tornado aero diesel engine, with two of the five engines reversible by an adjustment to the camshaft. This engine was developed from an engine used in railcars. Certified engines Technify Motors Continental Motors, Inc. subsidiary Technify Motors GmbH of Sankt Egidien, Germany, is the new TC holder of the Thielert TAE 110 certified by the EASA on 8 March 2001, a 4-cylinder, four stroke engine with common rail direct injection, turbocharger, 1:1.4138 reduction gearbox and FADEC producing at takeoff at 3675 rpm and continuously at 3400 rpm for . The TAE 125-01, certified 3 May 2002, is the same with a 1:1.689 gearbox, weighs and outputs maximum at 3900 rpm, like the later TAE 125-02-99 certified on 14 August 2006, then the TAE 125-02-114 on 6 March 2007 for at 3900 rpm, and the TAE 125-02-125 outputting at 3400 rpm for . The Centurion 4.0 is a four stroke 8‐cylinder, with common rail, 2 turbochargers, 1:1.689 reduction gearbox, propeller governor and FADEC weighting and certified on 26 September 2007 for up to maximum, continuous at 3900 rpm. The centurion 4.0 V8 has not been certified for installation in any airframes. EASA certified on 20 June 2017, the Centurion 3.0 is a four stroke V6, also with common rail, turbocharger, Electronic Engine Control Unit (EECU) and 1 : 1.66 reduction gearbox, weighting and outputting 221 kW (300 HP) at take‐off, 202 kW (272 HP) continuously, both at 2340 propeller RPM. Thielert Thielert, based in German Lichtenstein, Saxony was the original TC holder of the 1.7 based on the Mercedes A-class turbo diesel, running on diesel and jet A-1 fuel. It was certified for retrofitting to Cessna 172s and Piper Cherokees, replacing the Lycoming O-320 Avgas engine. The of the 1.7 engine is similar to the O-320 but its displacement is less than a third and it achieves maximum power at 2300 prop RPM instead of 2700. Austrian aircraft manufacturer Diamond Aircraft Industries offered its single-engine Diamond DA40-TDI Star with the 1.7 engine, and the Diamond DA42 Twin Star with two, offering a low fuel consumption of . Robin Aircraft also offered a DR400 Ecoflyer with the Thielert engine. In May 2008, Thielert went bankrupt and although Thielert's insolvency administrator, Bruno M. Kubler, was able to announce in January 2009 that the company was "in the black and working to capacity," by then Cessna had dropped plans to install Thielert engines in some models, and Diamond Aircraft has now developed its own in-house diesel engine: the Austro Engine E4. Several hundred Thielert-powered airplanes are flying. SMA Engines SMA Engines, located in Bourges, France, have designed the SMA SR305-230: a direct drive four-stroke, air and oil-cooled, turbo-diesel of four horizontally opposed cylinders displacing with an electronically controlled mechanical pump fuel injection, it obtained EASA certification on 20 April 2001 for at 2200 rpm, weighting . A SR305-260 was certified in February 2019. The SR305-230 obtained US FAA certification in July 2002. It is now certified as retrofit on several Cessna 182 models in Europe and the US, and Maule is working toward certification of the M-9-230. SMA's engineering team came from Renault Sport (Formula 1) and designed it from the ground up. SMA develops a six cylinder version, the SR460. At AERO Friedrichshafen 2016, SMA debuted a high power density engine demonstrator: a 135 hp (100 kW), 38-cubic-inch (0.62 liter) single cylinder four-stroke for 215 hp (160 kW) per liter, scalable from and up to 1.5 hp/lb. (2.5 kW/kg) power density with a specific fuel consumption of 0.35 lb/hp/hr (210 g/kwh). Austro Engine Austro Engine GmbH, based in Wiener Neustadt, Austria had the E4 engine certified by EASA on 28 January 2009. It is a 4-cylinder, 1991 cm³ four stroke engine with common rail direct injection, turbocharger, 1:1.69 reduction gearbox and an Electronic Engine Control Unit. It produces at Take-off and continuously, at 2300 propeller RPM for . The same weight E4P was certified on 26 March 2015 for at Take-off at the same speed, and continuously at 2200 propeller RPM. In 2011, Austro Engine was developing a 6-cylinder in cooperation with Steyr Motors, based on their block, to be used in the Diamond DA50. DieselJet DieselJet s.r.l. of Castel Maggiore, Italy, had its TDA CR 1.9 8V EASA certified on 11 June 2010 : a liquid cooled, 4 cylinder, 4 stroke, 8 valve engine, with a turbocharger and Common Rail injection, a 1:0.644 reduction gearbox and dual FADEC, it produces 118 kW (160 hp) at take-off and 107 kW (146 hp) continuously at 2450 propeller RPM for . The TDA CR 2.0 16V, certified 8 March 2016, is a 16 valve engine with a 1:0.607 reduction ratio and a similar configuration, producing 142 kW (193 hp) continuous and 160 kW (217.5 hp) at take-off at 2306 propeller RPM for . In 2016, DieselJet was developing a TDA CR 3.0 24V. Continental Motors Continental Motors, Inc. of Mobile, Alabama, received on December 19, 2012, a type certification for its Continental CD-230 under the official TD-300-B designation: a turbocharged 4-stroke direct drive flat four air-cooled engine of , with direct fuel injection and electronic control unit with a mechanical back-up, outputting continuously at 2200 RPM for 431 lb (195.5 kg) dry. It is developed from the SMA SR305-230. RED Aircraft RED Aircraft GmbH of Adenau, Germany, obtained EASA type certification on 19 December 2014 for its RED A03 V12 four stroke, with common rail, turbocharger, 1:1.88 reduction gearbox and single lever FADEC/EECS, outputting 368 kW (500 hp) at take-off at 2127 propeller RPM and 338 kW (460 hp) at 1995 propeller RPM continuously for dry. The RED A05 is a 3550cc V6 preliminary design, outputting at takeoff at 2127 propeller RPM and continuously at 1995 propeller RPM, with a best brake specific fuel consumption. DeltaHawk Engines DeltaHawk Engines, Inc., an American company, is currently developing three V-4 designs of 160, 180 and , the latter two versions being turbocharged. Using a ported two-stroke design, they have also flown a prototype engine in a pusher configuration. Velocity aircraft are claiming delivery of non-certified engines since 2005 and hope to achieve certification early in 2011. DeltaHawk engines have a dry oil sump, so they can run in any orientation: upright, inverted or vertical shaft by changing the location of the oil scavenge port. They can also run counter-rotation for installation in twins to eliminate the critical engine issue. A water-cooled DeltaHawk engine has been successfully fitted to a Rotorway helicopter, weighing the same as an air-cooled petrol engine of similar power and being capable of maintaining that power to 17,000 feet. The 180 hp DeltaHawk DH180 received its FAA Type certification in May 2023, first deliveries are planned in 2024. Experimental engines A number of other manufacturers are currently developing experimental diesel engines, many using aircraft-specific designs rather than adapted automotive engines. Many are using two-stroke designs, with some opposed-piston layouts directly inspired by the original Junkers design. Diesel Air Limited, Wilksch and Zoche have all had considerable problems bringing their prototype designs into production, with delays running into several years. The Diesel Air Limited-powered airship is no longer registered by the Civil Aviation Authority in the UK. Two-stroke Wilksch Airmotive, a British company, is developing a three-cylinder two-stroke diesel (WAM-120) and is working on a four-cylinder design (WAM-160). In 2007 Wilksch claimed that they had completed multiple tests on the WAM-100 LSA in accordance with ASTM F 2538 – the WAM-100 LSA is a derated WAM-120. Wilksch originally showed a two-cylinder prototype alongside the three- and four-cylinder models. In April 2008 IndUS Aviation introduced the first diesel light-sport aircraft with a WAM 120 having flown 400 hours on a Thorp T211 in England for the past four years. By mid-2009, approximately 40 WAM-120 units had been sold, with around half currently flying. The British owner of a VANS RV-9A fitted with a WAM-120 reports getting TAS at on 15 litre/hr of Jet A-1 fuel. A Rutan LongEz canard-pusher (G-LEZE) has also flown with the WAM-120 engine with test flights showing a TAS of at and 22 litre/hr. At economy cruise of at the fuel consumption is , giving a range of . GAP Diesel Engine is a NASA development. With the branding Zoche aero-diesel, the company "Michael Zoche Antriebstechnik" in Munich/Germany has produced a prototype range of three radial air-cooled two-stroke diesel aero-engines, comprising a V-twin, a single-row cross-4 and a double-row cross-8. A Zoche engine has run successfully in wind tunnel tests. Zoche seem barely closer to production than they were a decade ago. Andy Higgs' Advanced Component Engineering designed a step piston V12 weighing 665 lb /302 kg with the reduction gearbox to replace low-end, PT6s like in the Cessna Caravan; a , 302 pounds/137 kg four-cylinder with a gearbox to reduce the prop RPM to 2300 from 5300; and a V4 weighing 103 pounds/47 kg and producing . The v12 can power generators, tanks, boats or blimps and v4 and v8 versions can be derived. The Bourke engine, designed by Russell Bourke, of Petaluma, CA, is an opposed rigidly connected twin cylinder design using the detonation principle. Opposed-piston engines Diesel Air Limited is a British company developing a twin-cylinder (therefore four-piston), two-stroke opposed-piston engine inspired by the original Junkers design. Their engine has flown in test aircraft and airship installations. Unlike the Junkers, it is made for horizontal installation with a central output shaft for the geared cranks, the overall installed shape thereby approximately resembling a four-stroke flat-four engine. Powerplant Developments, a British company, is developing a opposed-piston engine called the Gemini 100/120 that resembles the Diesel Air Limited engine and uses the Junkers twin-crank principle, again for horizontal installation with a central output shaft for the geared cranks. However, the Gemini 100 is an engine. Like Diesel Air Limited, Powerplant Developments claim to be using Weslake Air Services for production. They have recently announced that Tecnam will test a prototype with the Gemini engine. Superior Air Parts' subsidiary Gemini Diesel develops three cylinder two-stroke designs with six opposed pistons: a 100 hp (75 kW) weighing 159.5 lb (72.5 kg), a turbocharged 125 hp (118 kW) weighing 175 lb (72.5 kg), both measuring 23” wide × 16” high × 23” long (58 × 40 cm × 58 cm) and reaching BSFC, respectively; larger three cylinder (six piston) engines would produce 180-200 hp (134-149 kW) weighing 276 lb (125 kg) in 29” W × 16” H × 29” L (73 × 41.5 × 72.5 cm) and 300-360 HP (224-268 KW) turbocharged whilst weighing 386 lb (175 kg) within 29” W × 19” H × 37” L (73 × 47.5 × 95 cm) five cylinder (10 piston) engines would produce 450 hp (336 kW) whilst weighing 474 lb (215 kg) within 29” W × 22” H × 43 ” L (73 × 55 × 110 cm) six cylinder(12 piston) engines would attain 550 hp (410 kW) whilst weighing 551 pounds (250 kg in 29” W × 22” H × 48” L (73 × 55 × 122 cm), burning The 100 hp version will cost less than $25,000. Weslake Engine, another UK based company, displayed its A80 lightweight diesel engine at Friedrichshafen Aero 2015. Four-stroke Wisconsin-based Engineered Propulsion Systems develops its Graflight liquid-cooled V-8 engine with steel pistons and compacted graphite iron crankcase for better strength and durability than aluminium at similar weight, increasing time between overhauls to 3,000 hours. It is managed by a Bosch ECU and consumes Jet A, JP-8 or straight diesel for general aviation aircraft and small helicopters, military drones, small boats or troop carriers, and its low vibration allows the use of composite or aluminium airscrews. At , 75% of the maximum power, it consumes , in comparison to the Continental TSIO-550-E, which burns Automotive derived Raptor Turbo Diesel LLC, an American company, is currently developing the Raptor 105 diesel engine. It is a four-stroke inline turbo charged engine. Formerly Vulcan Aircraft Engines (until September 2007). ECO Motors developed the EM 80 and EM 4 stroke 4 cylinder diesel with FADEC based on a car engine for dry but disappeared since 2008. The FlyEco diesel is a three-cylinder, engine producing 80 HP / 58,8 kW up to 3,800 RPM and reduced by 1:1.50-1.79, derived from the Smart Car. It powers the Siemens-FlyEco Magnus eFusion hybrid electric aircraft. Teos/Austro Engine AE440 Within the Green Rotorcraft European Clean Sky Joint Technology Initiative environmental research program started in 2011, an Airbus Helicopters H120 Colibri technology demonstrator equipped with a HIPE AE440 high-compression diesel engine, running on jet fuel, first flew on 6 November 2015. The powerplant is a liquid-cooled, dry sump lubricated 90° V8 engine with common rail direct injection, fully machined aluminium blocks, titanium connecting rods, steel pistons and liners, one turbocharger per cylinder bank. With an air/air intercooler, it weighs (dry) without gearbox and the installed powerpack weighs . Its brake specific fuel consumption is 200 g/kW.h. It is manufactured by Teos Powertrain Engineering, a joint venture between Mecachrome and D2T (IFPEN group) for the mechanical design, engine main parts manufacturing, assembly and testing and Austro Engine for the dual channel FADEC and harness, fuel system, airworthiness. See also List of aircraft engines References External links Aircraft engines Diesel engines
4177979	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny%20Higginbotham	Danny Higginbotham	Daniel John Higginbotham (born 29 December 1978) is a former professional footballer who played as a defender. Born in Manchester, England, he represented Gibraltar in international football. Higginbotham started his career in the academy of Manchester United. After making his senior debut for the club, he was sent out on loan to Belgian side Royal Antwerp, but after his return the following season, he was unable to claim a regular first-team place and joined Derby County in search of more playing time in 2000. He spent three years at Derby but handed in a transfer request when the club was relegated from the Premier League. Southampton signed Higginbotham for a £1.5 million fee in February 2003, and he helped them reach the 2003 FA Cup Final. When Southampton were relegated in 2005, Higginbotham rejected a new contract and was placed on the transfer list. He joined fellow Championship side Stoke City for a £225,000 fee in August 2006. He was made captain when Michael Duberry left in January 2007 and Stoke went on to narrowly miss out on a play-off place. With Stoke not being promoted Higginbotham again decided to hand in a transfer request to help force through a move to Sunderland. He spent one season at the Stadium of Light before returning to Stoke in 2008. He became a vital member of Tony Pulis' squad as Stoke established themselves in the Premier League. He scored the winning goal in the FA Cup quarter-final against West Ham United but missed out on both the semi-final and the final due to a knee injury. After his recovery he struggled to force his way back into the side and spent time out on loan to Nottingham Forest and Ipswich Town before joining Sheffield United on a free transfer in January 2013. After eight months at Bramall Lane, he left to join Conference Premier side Chester before ending his career with a short spell at Altrincham. Higginbotham made his international debut for Gibraltar in a friendly against Slovakia in November 2013 at the age of 34, qualifying through his maternal grandmother. In January 2014, Higginbotham retired from club football after a 14-year career, but made two more international appearances for Gibraltar until his international retirement in March. Early life Born in Manchester, Higginbotham grew up in nearby Altrincham. Despite passing his eleven plus exam he was denied entry into Altrincham Grammar School for Boys. His elder brother, Paul, played non-League football for Witton Albion. Club career Manchester United Higginbotham started his career at his local club Manchester United, but was not highly rated during the first year of his apprenticeship and his career was almost ended when he broke his femur in a B team match. However, he recovered well from the injury and was given a two-year professional contract in 1998. He made his Premier League debut on 10 May 1998, coming on for Michael Clegg 60 minutes into a 2–0 win over Barnsley at Oakwell. He was sent to Belgian Second Division side Royal Antwerp on a loan spell. He got off to a bad start at the club and asked to return to Old Trafford after being abused by Antwerp supporters outside the Bosuilstadion, and had to be talked into staying by manager Regi Van Acker. Following this start the club then won 15 matches in a row and Higginbotham become popular with the fans. However, the season ended with defeat in a play-off game. After the final whistle Ronnie Wallwork allegedly attacked the referee Amand Ancion. Higginbotham was subsequently banned from football for a year for his alleged involvement in the attack. In September 1999, a Belgian court reduced Higginbotham's ban to four months. Ancion maintained that Wallwork had grabbed him by the throat and that Higginbotham had headbutted him. Higginbotham always maintained his innocence, stating that he had tried to intervene peacefully after Wallwork had confronted Ancion in an aggressive manner. Alex Ferguson believed the player's innocence and handed both players four-year contracts as the club appealed their suspensions. Higginbotham played six games for United during the 1999–2000 season, including appearances in the UEFA Champions League and at the Maracanã Stadium in the FIFA World Cup Championship. He made his full debut in a 3–0 defeat to Aston Villa at Villa Park on 13 October 1999, in what was described as a blow to the credibility of the League Cup as United had fielded a number of young players. He suffered with concussion during the match after a clash of heads with Dion Dublin. He failed to break into the first team on a regular basis as Denis Irwin, Phil Neville and Mikaël Silvestre were all preferred ahead of him at left-back. Derby County Higginbotham's desire to play regular first-team football led to him joining Derby County for a £2 million fee – a large sum for a young player with just four top-flight appearances to his name. His decision to leave Manchester United was praised by the player he failed to displace, Denis Irwin. Higginbotham made his debut in a 2–2 draw with Southampton, and had a good start to his Derby career until he was substituted at half-time during his third appearance after struggling to contain Everton's Niclas Alexandersson. Manager Jim Smith soon switched to a new system without any full-backs but Higginbotham adapted well to playing on the left-side of a three-man defence. Derby avoid relegation out of the Premier League on the penultimate day of 2000–01 with a 1–0 victory over his former club Manchester United at Old Trafford. He began 2001–02 on the left-side of central defence despite Smith reverting to a 4–4–2 formation. Smith was sacked after a poor start, but his replacement Colin Todd failed to improve the club's form, and Todd was sacked and replaced with John Gregory, with similarly poor results. Higginbotham scored his first goal in English football on 16 March 2002, converting a penalty to secure a 3–1 victory over Bolton Wanderers after striker Fabrizio Ravanelli backed out of taking the penalty. This would prove to be the last win of a relegation campaign, with the only remaining positive to the season for Higginbotham coming when he was voted as the fans' Player of the Year. On 17 August 2002, he collided badly with Grimsby Town forward Steve Livingstone and knocked Livingstone unconscious; this left Livingstone with a skull fracture that would see him out of action for two months. It was expected that Higginbotham would eventually move unless Derby did well enough to gain promotion back to the Premier League, and so in January 2003, with Derby struggling in the First Division, he moved to Southampton on loan, joining permanently in February. Southampton Following Derby's relegation from the Premier League, Higginbotham moved to Southampton in January 2003 on loan until the end of 2002–03. The move was made permanent in February 2003 for a £1.5 million fee. He featured in Southampton's FA Cup run in 2002–03, playing once in the fifth round against Norwich City, but was an unused substitute for the final against Arsenal. The 2003–04 season was difficult for the club, and Gordon Strachan resigned in March. Higginbotham felt that his replacement, Paul Sturrock, was unable to handle the pressure at St Mary's, but denied press rumours that Sturrock had lost the confidence of the players. Steve Wigley took charge for 2004–05 and the club's decline continued. Wigley demoted Higginbotham to the reserves after following a falling out between the pair, though he soon reversed the decision and returned him to the first team. Harry Redknapp replaced Wigley as manager in December 2004 but failed to arrest the decline, and Southampton were relegated in last place. Higginbotham had scored the equalising goal in the penultimate match of the season at Crystal Palace, but a final day defeat to Manchester United left Southampton two points from safety. George Burley took over from Redknapp in December 2005, though neither manager was able to put together an effective promotion campaign and Southampton ended the season 12th in the Championship. Higginbotham rejected a new contract and as a result was placed on the transfer list in July 2006. He told the local press that he felt disrespected the way Southampton chairman Rupert Lowe had handled his contract – he had taken a pay cut to move from Derby, a 40% pay cut following relegation, and then the new contract offer was lower still than his current contract. Stoke City Higginbotham joined Southampton's Championship rivals Stoke City on 3 August 2006 for an initial £225,000 fee, and quickly cemented a regular place in Tony Pulis's starting line-up. He began 2006–07 at left-back, but soon established himself at centre-back after initially filling in for Clint Hill following Hill's sending off at Wolverhampton Wanderers on 23 September 2006. Pulis gave Stoke a reputation as a "Battersea Dogs Home" club, and Higginbotham proved to be a typical signing in this regard as he felt unwanted at Southampton and said that his career had been reinvigorated by the move to the Britannia Stadium. Stoke went seven games without conceding a goal, and during this run Higginbotham scored the only goal of the game against local rivals West Bromwich Albion after deposing Carl Hoefkens as the club's penalty taker. In February 2007, he was awarded the club captaincy following Michael Duberry's departure to Reading. Over the course of the season he scored a career-high seven goals in his 46 appearances. Though Stoke narrowly missed out on the play-offs, a successful personal campaign culminated in Higginbotham being voted the club's Player of the Year. Sunderland On 28 August 2007, it was announced that a bid from Sunderland had been accepted by Stoke, after Higginbotham had handed a transfer request to the club. Higginbotham wrote in his autobiography that Pulis would only authorise the deal if he handed in a transfer request. Higginbotham signed a four-year deal with Sunderland the following day, moving for a £2.5 million fee, possibly rising to £3 million dependent on appearances. He said that the chance to play Premier League football under Roy Keane was too good to refuse. On 10 November 2007, Higginbotham scored the opening goal for Sunderland which was believed to come off his ear in a 1–1 draw with their Tyne-Wear rivals Newcastle United at the Stadium of Light. He was only a bit-part player by the start of 2008–09, and Keane allowed him to return to Stoke for the same fee that he had paid to Stoke. Return to Stoke City Higginbotham re-joined Stoke, now in the Premier League, in September 2008 for a £2.5 million fee. On 19 October 2008, Higginbotham scored the first goal of his second spell, with a penalty in a 2–1 win over Tottenham Hotspur. He was the first choice at left-back for manager Tony Pulis, playing in 28 league matches as the team successfully fought for survival. However, he missed the final five matches of the season due to a slipped disc. He later underwent surgery. With the summer signing of Danny Collins, Higginbotham was dropped to the bench before regaining his place in the team, mainly being utilised in his more natural position in the centre of defence, and scored the first goal in a 3–0 win over Blackburn Rovers on 8 February 2010. He was praised by first-team coach Mark O'Connor for reclaiming his place in the side. He started the first match of 2010–11 away at Wolverhampton Wanderers, but was dropped for the next match in favour of Collins. Higginbotham signed a contract extension in October 2010 for a further 12 months, keeping him at Stoke until the summer of 2013. He made his 200th top-flight appearance against Manchester United on 24 October 2010. He struggled with injury for the rest of the first half of the season, and was in and out of the first team. After signing his contract extension, Higginbotham stated that he wanted to end his career at Stoke. He scored a rare league goal in January 2011 against Bolton Wanderers. He scored the first FA Cup goal of his career in a quarter-final win against West Ham United in March 2011. It proved to be the winning goal, thus earning Stoke their first semi-final appearance in 39 years. He scored an identical goal against Newcastle United the following week. However, in the next league match against Chelsea, Higginbotham sustained a cruciate knee ligament injury that ruled him out for six months. Pulis spoke of his disappointment at losing Higginbotham but also stressed he would play a key role in the final few matches of the season due to his influence in the dressing room. Higginbotham later admitted that missing the FA Cup final made him "jealous" of his teammates. Higginbotham targeted to return from his knee injury by October 2011. He marked his return from his knee injury by scoring the only goal in a 1–0 reserve team win over Sheffield United on 11 October 2011. However, after failing to force his way back into the first team, Higginbotham joined Championship team Nottingham Forest on loan until the end of the season on 31 January 2012. Upon signing for Forest, Higginbotham admitted that he was unsure of his future at Stoke. He was backed by Thomas Sørensen to make a return to Stoke's first team. On 10 March 2012, Higginbotham scored his first goal for a year when he scored the second for Forest in a 3–1 home win over Millwall. His loan spell with Forest was ended early in April 2012 due to injury. Higginbotham joined Championship club Ipswich Town on a one-month loan on 21 September 2012, which was later extended until January 2013. He was expected to extend his loan until the end of the season but Higginbotham rejected the deal saying he wanted to be based closer to his home, and left Portman Road having played 12 matches. After his move to Sheffield United, Higginbotham has stated that his six-year spell at Stoke was 'the best years of his career'. Later career On 1 January 2013, Higginbotham signed for Sheffield United on a six-month contract, and made his debut for the club against their South Yorkshire rivals Doncaster Rovers the same day. Former Stoke teammate and current Sheffield United teammate Dave Kitson played a part in Higginbotham's move to Bramall Lane, Higginbotham stated on his move to the club: "I was getting ready to go back to Ipswich on Sunday but after speaking to Dave I was optimistic something would be sorted here and thankfully it was ... I was very surprised and very happy when I got a phone call on Sunday to say that something could be happening here [Sheffield United] ... Dropping into League One isn't a worry for me because this is a club on the up and I didn't want to be stuck at Stoke just picking my money up because that isn't me" On 18 June 2013, having made sufficient first-team appearances for Sheffield United, Higginbotham activated a clause in his contract to extend it for the following season. On 29 August 2013, Higginbotham joined Conference Premier club Chester on a one-year deal after falling out of the Sheffield United first team. After making 17 appearances for Chester, Higginbotham left the club in order to forge a media career. After leaving Chester, Higginbotham signed for Altrincham of the Conference North, as he wished to continue playing on a part-time basis with fewer travel commitments. Higginbotham had previously stated it was an ambition of his to play for Altrincham, as he had supported them as a boy. He announced his retirement from football on 8 January 2014. International career Born and raised in England, Higginbotham was eligible to play for the Gibraltar national team through his maternal grandmother. The former Gibraltar manager, Allen Bula, is his uncle. Higginbotham made his international debut in Gibraltar's first ever match as a UEFA member, a 0–0 draw in a friendly against Slovakia, on 19 November 2013. He was praised for his performance and was named man of the match. He announced his retirement from international football in March 2014, having earned three caps for Gibraltar. Media career In February 2013 Higginbotham began to write his own column in The Sentinel, a local newspaper in the North Staffordshire and South Cheshire area. Higginbotham also has a regular sports column in The Independent. He released his autobiography in April 2015, entitled: Rise of the Underdog. He has appeared on several television and radio stations, including Talksport, BBC Radio 5 Live, BT Sport, ESPN, Sky Sports and NBC Sports. On 17 December 2020 it was announced that Higginbotham would be the new color commentator for the Philadelphia Union starting with the 2021 season. Personal life His first child, Jak, was born in 2001. His second child, Jessica, was born on 12 October 2003. His first marriage ended in 2008. In 2010, he married Nicole, an American, who gave birth to his third child, Joshua, in 2011, and his fourth in 2013. Career statistics Club International Honours Manchester United Intercontinental Cup: 1999 Individual Derby County Player of the Year: 2001–02 Stoke City Player of the Year: 2006–07 References General Specific External links 1978 births Living people Footballers from Manchester British people of Gibraltarian descent English men's footballers English expatriate men's footballers Gibraltarian men's footballers Gibraltar men's international footballers Men's association football defenders Manchester United F.C. players Royal Antwerp F.C. players Derby County F.C. players Southampton F.C. players Stoke City F.C. players Sunderland A.F.C. players Nottingham Forest F.C. players Ipswich Town F.C. players Sheffield United F.C. players Chester F.C. players Altrincham F.C. players Premier League players Challenger Pro League players English Football League players National League (English football) players Expatriate men's footballers in Belgium English expatriate sportspeople in Belgium Gibraltarian expatriate sportspeople in Belgium English autobiographers English columnists
4178047	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia%20men%27s%20national%20basketball%20team	Australia men's national basketball team	The Australian men's national basketball team, nicknamed the Boomers after the slang term for a male kangaroo, represents Australia in international basketball competition. Since the late 1980s, Australia has been placed among the world elite teams as the Boomers have reached the semi-finals at both Summer Olympic Games and FIBA World Cup on many occasions. Originally a member of the FIBA Oceania region, Australia nowadays competes at the FIBA Asia Cup where the Boomers were the dominant team at their first appearance. The FIBA Oceania Championship mostly consisted of a three-match competition against the other regional power, the New Zealand Tall Blacks. Before the formation of the National Basketball League (NBL) in 1979, Boomers players were selected from state leagues around the country, with Victoria, South Australia, and to a lesser extent New South Wales the dominant states. After the formation of the NBL, players began to be selected almost exclusively from that competition during the 1980s and 1990s. Occasionally players were selected from outside the NBL. Mark Bradtke made his Boomers debut in 1987 while attending the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) before he entered the NBL. Luc Longley made his debut in 1988 while playing college basketball in the United States. Other Australian players enter the Euroleague and the National Basketball Association (NBA) in the U.S. The Boomers's roster for the 2014 World Cup included five NBA players: Cameron Bairstow with the Chicago Bulls, Aron Baynes with the San Antonio Spurs, Matthew Dellavedova with the Cleveland Cavaliers, and Dante Exum and Joe Ingles with the Utah Jazz. Three other players who were ruled out of the World Cup due to injury also played or would later play in the NBA, namely Andrew Bogut, Ben Simmons and Patty Mills. Several players on youth national teams are student athletes at the AIS or in the US college basketball system. Some players (e.g. Longley) made the senior national team while at US schools. By the early 21st century, almost half of the squad played outside Australia. For the 2012 London Olympic Games, only two members of the Australian squad were based in the country – Peter Crawford and Adam Gibson, with the latter being the only Australia-based member of the 2014 World Cup squad. Australia has participated in the Olympic men's basketball tournaments 15 times. The Boomers won a bronze medal against Slovenia in the 2020 Olympic Games, making Australia the first team from outside the Americas and European regions to ever win a medal at the event. Australia has also participated in 12 FIBA World Cups without winning a medal, making Australia the nation with the third-most appearances at the tournament without winning a medal, behind Canada and Puerto Rico (both 14). History Pre-1970s Australia debuted on the international stage at the 1956 Summer Olympic Games held in Melbourne. Australia did not fare well in the competition, as they defeated only two sides (Singapore and Thailand), finishing 12th. The seeds were sown for Australia to become a regular team in international events. After not qualifying for the 1960 Summer Olympic Games in Rome, Italy, Australia returned to compete at the 1964 Tokyo Summer Olympic Games. The Australians improved on their position in Melbourne, to be ranked ninth at the completion of the games. After failing in their bid to qualify for the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, the Australians were left in international isolation. 1970–80s They did not play again in a major international tournament until 1970, when the team qualified for the FIBA World Championship for the first time. The team finished in 12th place, with their sole victory coming over the United Arab Republic. At the 1972 Munich Olympic Games Australia changed its guards. Lindsay Gaze made his coaching debut, after he had played at the 1964 Summer Olympics. Australia again finished ninth, but close defeats to Czechoslovakia and Spain left the team just a few baskets away from advancing to the second round. Eddie Palubinskas was the holder of the second highest scoring average of the tournament. At the 1976 Montreal Olympic Games, Eddie Palubinskas finished as the top overall scorer, and set three Olympic scoring records, including the most points scored in a single Olympics to that time, with 269 points. The Boomers defeated Mexico, 120–117, in an overtime game, and defeated Japan, 117–79, as they moved to the second round of the tournament for the first time, on their way to an eighth-place finish. In 1978, the Boomers headed to the Philippines for the 1978 FIBA World Championship. Australia played their most successful tournament to that time, defeating Czechoslovakia, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines (twice), and playing eventual gold medallist Yugoslavia, losing 105–101. The Boomers advanced to the semi-final round, and placed seventh. In the 1980 Moscow Olympic Games, the Boomers played their best Olympic tournament to that date, equalling their 1976 finish of eighth place. The Boomers defeated eventual silver medallist Italy, 84–77, in the preliminary round, but due to a three-way tie with Italy and Cuba, the team failed to advance to the final round, despite 5 wins and 2 losses. Two years later, the 1982 FIBA World Championship was held in Colombia. The Australians finished in fifth place. The Boomers were captained at the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games by Phil Smyth, and introduced coach Lindsay Gaze’s 19-year-old son, Andrew Gaze, to the world stage. Australia advanced to the second round, following victories over Brazil and West Germany. A loss to Italy, and a 16-point win over Egypt, left the Boomers in a must-win situation against Spain, to advance to the medal round. Spain went up big early in the first half, but the Boomers fought back, ultimately losing by a score of 101–93, ending their medal hopes with an Olympic best seventh-place finish. Following the 1984 Olympics, Adrian Hurley took over as team coach from Lindsay Gaze. The 1986 FIBA World Championship was a bit disappointing for Australia. Losses to Uruguay, Angola, and the Soviet Union during group play kept the Boomers from advancing, and the team finished 17th. Due to a FIBA rule allowing one naturalised player per squad at the World Championship, American born point guard Cal Bruton made his Boomers debut at the age of 32. In 1987, the Boomers faced a home series against the Soviet Union (known as the Wang Superchallenge) and although they lost all 6 games, the team, with all players drawn from the NBL other than Australian Institute of Sport attendee, 6'10" (208 cm) centre / power forward Mark Bradtke who was making his debut for the Boomers as a 17 year old (Bradtke would make his NBL debut in 1988 with the Adelaide 36ers). Motivated by the 1986 FIBA World Championship, Australia showed up to the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games with quite possibly its most talented roster to that date. Captained by Phil Smyth, the team included Andrew Gaze, Damian Keogh, Darryl Pearce, Ray Borner, and future Chicago Bulls triple NBA Championship winning centre, 7'2" (218 cm) Luc Longley who was attending the University of New Mexico. The Boomers breezed through the first round, losing only to gold medallist Soviet Union and silver medallist Yugoslavia. Finishing third place in their group, Australia advanced to the quarter-finals, where they defeated Spain in a closely fought game, by a score of 77–74, sending the Boomers to their first ever semi-finals. They were beaten by Yugoslavia in the semi-final, and then lost to the United States (including future NBA Hall of Fame player David Robinson), who ended Australia’s dream run with a 78–49 victory in the bronze-medal playoff. Despite the disappointing loss, the Boomers’ fourth-place finish was their best ever result at an Olympic Games (or World Championship) and solidified their status as a rising team. 1990s: Gaze, Heal and Longley Australia flew off to Buenos Aires for the 1990 FIBA World Championship. Led by Andrew Gaze’s 24.3 points per game, fourth most in the tournament, the team defeated China, Brazil and Argentina (twice) on their way to a respectable seventh-place finish. At the 1992 Barcelona Olympic Games, the Boomers looked to prove their fourth-place run at Seoul was no fluke. In the first Summer Olympic Games since the Soviet Union’s dissolution, and the first that FIBA allowed professional basketball players to play in, Australia played to a respectable 4–4 record and sixth place. The 1992 Olympics saw the return of NBA center Luc Longley for the Boomers. Prior to the 1992 Olympics, the Boomers played in a 3-game home series against a visiting "All-Star" team headlined by NBA and NCAA college basketball legend Kareem Abdul-Jabbar. The Boomers won the series 2–1 including attracting a then Australian basketball record 15,000 fans to the National Tennis Centre in Melbourne. The Boomers also played in the 1992 NBL All-Star Game at the AIS Arena in Canberra against the "USA Stars" (made up of import players in the NBL) which was played on 4 July and was promoted as the "Independence Day Challenge". The Boomers won the game 149–132 with Andrew Gaze scoring 43 points. At the 1994 FIBA World Championship at Toronto, Andrew Gaze starred for the Boomers, leading the tournament with an average of 23.9 points per game. In victories over Puerto Rico, South Korea, and Cuba, Gaze scored 34, 31, and 30 points, respectively. Australia finished with a 5–3 record, and finished the tournament in fifth place. This was Phil Smyth’s last World Championship appearance as a player Smyth, the teams long-time captain and point guard would play one last time for the Boomers in March 1995 in Game 4 of a 5-game series against the touring Magic Johnson All-Stars in front of a packed house (12,000) at the Sydney Entertainment Centre. The Boomers lost in both Adelaide and Brisbane and were ultimately swept 5–0 by the All-Stars (who included former NBA stars Magic Johnson and Mark Aguirre), they pushed the visitors all the way in Game 3 at the National Tennis Centre, while Games 4 (Sydney) and 5 (Perth Entertainment Centre) went into overtime. The series however saw the Boomers without 4 of their usual starting 5 with only Andrew Vlahov who captained the side playing all 5 games. Missing for the Boomers were Andrew Gaze (playing in Greece), Shane Heal, Mark Bradtke and Luc Longley who was playing for the Chicago Bulls. The 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games were another solid showing for Australia. Led by Andrew Gaze, and featuring Shane Heal, the team rolled through the early competition, losing only to eventual silver medallist Yugoslavia, and scoring over 100 points in every other preliminary game. In the quarterfinals, the Boomers played a hard fought game against Croatia. The game came down to the wire, as forward Tony Ronaldson hit a 3-pointer to win the game, and advance Australia to the semi-finals. There they met the United States, who were powered by a roster of professional NBA players, and the Boomers were defeated 101–73. Lithuania would defeat Australia in the bronze medal game, and the Boomers equalled their 1988 fourth-place finish. Just prior to the 1996 Olympics, the Boomers played the USA in a warm up game. The game, played at the Delta Center in Salt Lake City, was won 118–77 by the USA, though Heal topped all scorers with 28 points including hitting 8 of 12 three pointers. Heal had a running battle with NBA superstar Charles Barkley during the game with the two almost coming to blows at one point, though they hugged in mutual respect on-court after the game. Following their exciting run at Atlanta, the Boomers showed up in Greece, for the 1998 FIBA World Championship with high hopes. Shane Heal and Andrew Gaze both finished among the top five scorers, with averages of 17.0 and 16.9 points per game, respectively; but a loss to the United States knocked Australia out of medal contention. The Boomers finished the tournament respectably with wins over Canada and Brazil, and walked away with ninth place. 2000s: Sydney Olympics, Commonwealth Games and Bogut The 2000 Summer Olympic Games projected to be an extremely exciting affair for the Boomers, as they played as host in Sydney. Despite losses in both of their first two games, Australia recovered nicely, and won their next four games over Russia, Angola, and Spain, to propel them into the quarter-finals, where they defeated Italy. But Australia’s first basketball medal was not to be, as France won the semi-final match, and Lithuania captured the bronze medal game. Although their goal of medalling was not achieved, the Boomers gave the home crowd plenty to cheer about, on their way to a fourth-place finish. After failing to qualify for the 2002 FIBA World Championship, the Boomers came into the 2004 Athens Olympic Games hungry for victory. Captained by Shane Heal, and featuring future NBA Draft first pick Andrew Bogut in his international debut, Australia fought hard on their way to a ninth-place finish. In early 2006, Australia entered the first ever Commonwealth Games basketball competition in their home city of Melbourne and went through the tournament undefeated to claim the gold medal. Later in 2006 at the FIBA World Championship in Japan, Australia was led in scoring by Andrew Bogut, C.J. Bruton, and Jason Smith. Despite their efforts, the Boomers failed to qualify for the playoff rounds, and finished tied for ninth place. The Boomers entered the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games with one of their more talented rosters to date, which included Andrew Bogut, C.J. Bruton, Captain Matthew Nielsen, and Patty Mills, in his international debut. Despite his youth, Mills had a hot hand, scoring over 20 points on several occasions, and leading the team with an average of 14.2 points per game. Australia made the quarter-finals, but gold medallists United States put the Boomers away late in the game, ending their run with a seventh-place finish. 2010s: Additional NBA players The Boomers qualified for the 2010 FIBA World Championship in Turkey and placed 10th overall. In 2011, Melbourne-born number one NBA draft pick Kyrie Irving considered declaring his international allegiance to Australia in order to compete in the 2012 Olympics, but eventually opted to wait for international selection for the United States. Despite Irving declining the offer to represent his country of birth, the Boomers entered the 2012 London Olympic Games with arguably their most talented roster since 2000, though they were missing their star centre Andrew Bogut, who was out with a broken ankle. Australia made the quarter-finals with a 3–2 win–loss record, but gold medallists United States put the Boomers away late in the game, ending their run with a seventh-place finish again. Following the London Olympics, Brett Brown announced his decision to step down as Boomers head coach, citing his desire to spend more time with his family in the United States. As of December 2012, Basketball Australia was yet to announce his replacement, although one of his assistants, dual National Basketball League championship winning coach with the New Zealand Breakers, Andrej Lemanis, was one of the favourites to win the job. On 24 April 2013, Lemanis was announced as the new head coach of the Boomers. By winning the 2013 FIBA Oceania Championship, Australia qualified for the 2014 FIBA Basketball World Cup in Spain. Australia was drawn into Group D, alongside Lithuania, Slovenia, Angola, Mexico, and South Korea. After suffering an opening round 90–80 loss to Slovenia, Australia bounced back, stringing together three consecutive wins over South Korea, Lithuania and Mexico, the first time in 16 years that Australia had won 3 consecutive matches at the FIBA World Cup. However, in their next match Australia suffered a 91–83 loss to Angola, which came despite leading by 15 points in the middle of the third quarter. This result, combined with Lithuania's 67–64 win over Slovenia, meant that Australia finished third in their group, qualifying for the knockout stage of the tournament. Because Australia would finish third by losing, and that finishing third would benefit Australia more than finishing second, combined with the absences of fit key players Aron Baynes and Joe Ingles led to allegations that Australia deliberately lost their game against Angola in order to finish third in their group, and as a result, avoid the United States until the semi-finals, with Slovenian basketballer Goran Dragić posting "Basketball is a beautiful sport, there is no room for fixing the game like today Australia vs Angola!! @FIBA should do something about that!" on Twitter. However, these claims were denied by Boomers coach Andrej Lemanis. On 26 November 2014, Australia was cleared of tanking by FIBA. Australia met World No. 7 Turkey in the knockout stage of the tournament. Australia suffered a 65–64 loss to Turkey, ending their World Cup campaign, meaning that for the 11th World Cup, Australia would return home empty handed. Leading into the 2016 Rio Olympics, Australia saw a surge in locals being drafted into the NBA. Along with former number 1 NBA draft pick Andrew Bogut, Dante Exum was taken with the fifth pick in the 2014 NBA draft and Ben Simmons was selected with the first pick in the 2016 NBA draft, adding to already established Australian NBA players in Patty Mills, Matthew Dellavedova, Joe Ingles and Aron Baynes. Forward Thon Maker was also drafted with the 10th pick in the 2016 NBA draft. Despite Exum, Maker and Simmons electing not to compete in the 2016 Olympics, the Australians equaled their best ever performance by reaching the semifinals and losing their bronze medal playoff with Spain by one point. 2017: Move into Asian basketball In August 2015, FIBA announced Australia would be joining the Asian basketball zone for future tournaments, starting with the 2017 FIBA Asia Cup. The Boomers were victorious in their inaugural Asia Cup appearance and turned their attention to 2019 FIBA World Cup qualifiers against Asian opposition. In July 2018, during the 3rd quarter of their game against the Philippines for the 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup qualification (Asia), Filipino player Roger Pogoy hit Chris Goulding with a hard foul causing teammate Daniel Kickert to retaliate with an elbow strike which sparked a full-scale brawl between the Australians and the Filipinos. Suspensions and fines were handed off to those involved including players from both teams, Filipino coaches and the referees for failing to control the game. After qualifying for the 2019 FIBA World Cup, Australia reached the semi-finals for the first time and finished the tournament in fourth place. 2020s: Olympic breakthrough and more NBA players At the Tokyo 2020 Olympics, led by veterans Patty Mills, Joe Ingles, and newcomer, Matisse Thybulle, the Boomers managed to claim their first ever international medal, defeating a Luka Dončić led Slovenia, 107–93. Mills would score 42 points in the decisive match. The Boomers went through the group stage undefeated, and Mills would be named to the tournament All-Star 5. Additional Australian player were drafted into the NBA with first round draft picks including 2020 pick 18 Josh Green, 2021 pick 6 Josh Giddey and 2022 pick 8 Dyson Daniels. Records Andrew Gaze holds the record for most appearances with the Boomers at 297 international games. Gaze also holds the record for the most points scored by a Boomer. The Australian National Basketball Team defeated the United States Team 98–94 in Melbourne, 24 August 2019, for the first time. Tournament history A red box around the year indicates tournaments played within Australia Olympic Games FIBA World Cup NB: This competition was known as the FIBA World Championship through the 2010 edition. FIBA Asia Cup FIBA Oceania Championship FIBA Diamond Ball FIBA Stanković Cup Commonwealth Games General results Australia men's national basketball team 2011–12 results Australia men's national basketball team 2012–13 results Australia men's national basketball team 2013–14 results Australia men's national basketball team 2014–15 results Team Current roster Roster for the 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup. Notable players Head coach position Lindsay Gaze – 1972–1984, 1994 Adrian Hurley – 1985–1993 Barry Barnes – 1995–2000 Phil Smyth – 2001 Brian Goorjian – 2001–2008 Brett Brown – 2009–2012 Andrej Lemanis – 2013–2019 Brett Brown – 2019–2020 Will Weaver – 2020 Brian Goorjian – 2021–present Rob Beveridge – 2022 (interim) See also Australian International Player of the Year Al Ramsay Shield Australia women's national basketball team Australia men's national wheelchair basketball team Australia men's national under-19 basketball team Australia men's national under-17 basketball team References External links FIBA profile AustraliaBasket.com – Australia Men Current Squad Australia Basketball Records at FIBA Archive Australia Tournament Highlights – 2015 FIBA Oceania Championship Youtube.com video 1947 establishments in Australia Australia at the Commonwealth Games Basketball teams established in 1947 Men's national basketball teams
4178059	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanka%20Paldum	Hanka Paldum	Hanka Paldum (born 28 April 1956) is a Bosnian sevdalinka singer and founder of the record label Sarajevo Disk. She is regarded as one of the best female sevdah performers of the 20th century and is popular in her home country of Bosnia as well as in the rest of the former Yugoslavia. Biography 1956–71: Early life and family Hanka Paldum was born in the eastern Bosnian town of Čajniče to Muslim Bosniak parents Mujo and Pemba. Paldum has an older brother Mustafa and two sisters, Raza and Rasema. Her father was a logger and her mother wove carpets to provide additional financial assistance for the family, as her fathers salary was not enough to carry a family of seven. Hanka, the oldest female child, began helping her mother with housework at the age of five. When Paldum was seven years of age, her parents moved the family from Čajniče to the Vratnik neighbourhood within the Sarajevo municipality of Stari Grad. Paldum started singing in the first grade, as part of the choir in her primary school. She would continue singing throughout her childhood and recalled in an interview: "We went by train to my aunt's home, my mother's sister in Rudo. There were a lot of tunnels and when the train entered a tunnel, I would sing, and when it come out of the tunnel I stopped, because I was shy. The other passengers would ask who was singing that beautifully, and I just looked out the window as if it did not apply to me. But inside, my heart was leaping with joy." At the age of twelve, Hanka's brother Mustafa, a member of the Bratstvo (Brotherhood) cultural association, encouraged her to sneak out through her bedroom window and sing at the association events, promising to "cover" for her. She would sing for 15 to 20 minutes and run back home. The director of the House of Culture named Marijan Ravlić, asked her parents to allow her to sing at some local events. Her father allowed it, but with only with the presence of her older brother, Mustafa, who was no less strict than their father. Then Hanka began to sing in amateur contests, which she often won, with the award being chocolate with rice or ten tickets for the cinema. She shared the chocolates, while tickets for the theater remained unused because of her father's strictness. After three years of struggle, Hanka proved to her parents her passion for music and said she wanted to enroll in a music school. Her father told her she must enroll in a school that would lead to a secure career with which she could find a job that would earn her money. Around that time, Hanka's father, Mujo became gravely ill and soon died of his illness. Her younger brother Mustafa died in 2007 of lung cancer, aged 49. 1972–78: Radio Sarajevo, first recordings, and marriage Paldum passed an audition at Radio Sarajevo and began voice lessons. After two years of hard work, she made her first archival recordings for Radio Sarajevo. They were sevdalinka songs, a traditional Bosniak genre of folk music. Her first recording was her version of an old sevdalinka song called "Moj behare" (My Blossom). She continued recording and recorded over a hundred sevdalinkas for radio archives. Paldum recorded and released her first extended play (EP) in 1973, at the age of seventeen, when producer and composer Mijat Božović offered her his partnership in recording two singles "Ljubav žene" (The Love of a Woman) and "Burmu ću tvoju nositi" (I Will Wear Your Wedding Ring) alongside the big folk orchestra Radio-TV Sarajevo. She recorded five more EP's in two years before releasing her debut studio album, I Loved Unfaithful Eyes on 13 February 1974 Also in 1975, Hanka won top prize at the festival of amateur singers called "Pjevamo danu mladosti" (Sing for the Youth Day), with the song "Pokraj puta rodila jabuka" (On the Roadside, a Tree Bore an Apple), written by Mijat Božović. Her prize was a chance to produce a single for the record label Sarajevo Diskoton. This song was not a big hit at the time, but with time it gained moderate success. She continued her partnership with Mijat Božović, who believed in her talent and that she would become a big folk star. He wrote a song for her called "Voljela sam oči zelene" (I Loved Green Eyes) which in a few months became a big hit; for a long time the song was Hanka's signature song, and is still a hit among people of the former Yugoslavia. There is also a version in Slovenian. After success with "Voljela sam oči zelene" she performed as a debutante at the Ilidža Festival with the song "Ja te pjesmom zovem" (I Call You with My Song). The song was disqualified because one of the judges at the time, Milan Radić, who was a reporter, thought that the song was not worthy enough to enter the competitive part of the program. However, after the songwriter Julio Marić insisted the song be placed in the competition, Hanka went on to compete. This song became a big hit and has been covered by multiple other artists. Hanka met her first husband Muradif Brkić, a student of literature at the University of Sarajevo, while she was in high school. After three or four months of friendship, they began dating. They married soon after he graduated from the university in the late 1970s. Shortly thereafter, he went to the mandatory service in the Yugoslav People's Army, and Hanka started her first big Yugoslavian tour with Meho Puzić. She and her first husband had two children: a daughter Minela and a son named Mirzad. She was pronounced clinically dead when giving birth to their son, but survived. Hanka started singing in Sarajevo alongside Omer Pobrić, a gifted and popular accordion player, and by doing so gained vocal and performing experience. 1979–82: Voljela sam, voljela, Čežnja, and Sanjam In 1979, her husband finished his service with the army. Then, with Hanka and Braco Đirlo, founded a record company called "Sarajevo Disk". They signed a rock band called "Vatreni Poljubac" (Burning Kiss) with Milić Vukašinović in the forefront of the band. After hearing Milić's song "Volio sam volio" (I Loved, I Loved), Muradif recommended that Hanka record that song. At first Hanka was hesitant and even Milić wasn't too thrilled about the idea: "I was a bit skeptical at first, but when I heard how Hanka sang that song; when I felt the power and temperament of her voice, I knew we were going to take over Yugoslavia", Milić said. She recorded her version in a 'home studio' owned by innovative producer and ethno-pop composer Nikola Borota – Radovan. Their meeting was instrumental to her career and climb to the stardom. Hanka's interpretation of the song, "Voljela sam, voljela" (I Loved, I Loved), in 1978, sold over a million copies. Hanka became recognized across the country of Yugoslavia and was offered to sing in guest spots and hold her own concerts. She also won many awards and much recognition, including the "Oscar of Popularity", three "Golden Stars", as well as being named the female artist of the year. The following year, in 1979, after significant success with that single, she recorded another single "Odreću se I srebra I zlata" (I Will Give Up Silver and Gold). At the same time she was preparing a full-length studio album, called Srebro i zlato (Silver and Gold"), named after the song. Along with Milić Vukašinović as the main songwriter, other recognized names from the world of Yugoslav folk, pop and rock music were present: Goran Bregović, Nikola Borota – Radovan, Bodo Kovačević, Mijat Božović, Blagoje Kosanin. Under Nikola Borota's direction, for the first time in Yugoslavian folk music history, electronic music instruments and pop music arrangements were used, songs had different rhythm section treatment than ever before and as a result Hanka's interpretations were different and original. With the song "Voljela sam, voljela" and the album Čežnja (1980), she merged folk and rock music. Her work was not received well by music critics, composers and colleagues. They said her music undermined traditional folk music. However, Čežnja was overwhelmingly accepted by the public, broke many industry records, and sold over a million copies, and the songs in new folk-rock manner attracted listeners who had never before listened to her or folk music. With non-traditional business approach Hanka started attracting the media as well as the public: as the singer promoted the album Čežnja on Opatija festival of music, she also promoted it in Belgrade and had her first solo concert in Dom Sindikata, again musically produced by Nikola Borota – Radovan. Lazar Ristovski was on synthesizers, Džemo Novaković on lead guitar, Sanin Karić was playing bass, two double drum kits were deployed while Ljubiša Pavković and Mico Radovanović were only two traditional instrumentalists present on stage, sharing the lead accordion roles. A tour of Yugoslavia followed, and almost every song from the album became a hit, in particular the songs "Crne kose" (Black Hair), "Zbog tebe" (Because of You), "Čežnja" (Yearning) and "Zbogom" (Farewell). In 1982, she released the album Sanjam (I’m Dreaming) with Milić Vukašinović as the main songwriter. With this album Milić created his life's work, while Hanka went from a popular singer to a big Yugoslav star. Taking into consideration that her own label "Sarajevo Disk" did not have its own record plant, the album, because of overwhelming demand, was manufactured and distributed by four different companies. 1983–91: Južni Vetar, touring, and acting Hanka started her tour, and for the first time in folk music, held concerts in big sporting arenas across Yugoslavia. In Belgrade's "Dom sindikata" where, in seven days, she held a record-breaking 14 sold-out solo concerts. Similar to her previous studio album, almost every song on the album became a hit, especially the title song "Sanjam" and "Ja te volim" (It's You I Love). Likewise "Ljubav je radost i bol" (Love is Joy and Pain) and "Voljeni moj" (My Beloved). She received a Yugoslavian star award, four Oscars for popularity in a row, a few female artist of the year awards, a gold plaque for humanist award, and won the following festivals: "Ilidža," "Vogošća," "MESAM," and "Poselu" from 202 Radio Belgrade program. Hanka has performed at the arenas "Lisinski," in Zagreb, Croatia, "Sava Center," in Belgrade, Serbia, and "Zetra," in Sarajevo, the capital of her home country Bosnia and Herzegovina. She held many humanitarian concerts. She represented Yugoslavia in International Festival in Berlin. At this time production companies were competing for the rights for Hanka's new material. Hanka with help from her husband Muradif chose Belgrade's "Jugodisk." It was said that the bonus she received from Jugodisk is the highest in history of Yugoslavia. In 1983, she released the album Dobro došli prijatelji (Welcome Friends) again teaming up with songwriter Milić Vukašinović. The next album, Tebi ljubavi (For You, My Love) was released in 1984, which was a tremendous success. The songs were written by Mišo Marković. The biggest hit off the album was the ballad "Ali pamtim još" (But I Still Remember). In 1985, with composer Miodrag Ilić and ensemble Južni Vetar (Southern Wind) she recorded the album Nema kajanja (No Regrets). With this album she dominated the popular oriental folk genre, and made it one of the most successful albums of the year. Once again, she went back to the studio with Milić Vukašinović in 1986 and recorded the album Bolno srce (Aching Heart), which brought many hits including a win at the festival of folk music "Vogošća" with the title song "Bolno srce." On this album she also recorded a sevdalinka called "Sjećaš li se djevo bajna" (Do You Remember the Stellar Maiden) with accordion player, Milorad Todorović. She had a cameo in the Benjamin Filipović film Praznik u Sarajevu (Holiday in Sarajevo, 1991) in a scene with Emir Hadžihafizbegović. Paldum married for the second time to a man named Fuad Hamzić. It also ended in divorce. She later called the marriage a "mistake". 1992–95: Break up of Yugoslavia When Yugoslavia broke up and went into war, Paldum spent the entirety of the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina in Sarajevo between 1992 and 1995. 1996–2008: Nek’ je od srca and Žena kao žena Paldum collaborated with Hari Varešanović, lead singer of the band Hari Mata Hari, on her 1999 album Nek’ je od srca (Let It Be From the Heart.) They recorded the hit song "Crni snijeg" (Black Snow) together. The ballad "Svaka rijeka moru stići će" (Every River Will Reach the Sea) was called the 'best song of the year' by radio stations. In November 2004, she held a major concert in the Zetra Arena, marking three decades of her career. Guests included Halid Bešlić, Alka Vuica, Josipa Lisac, Esma Redžepova, Saša Matić and Milić Vukašinović. She continued to release hit songs later in her career, such as "Žena kao žena" (A Woman Like a Woman), "Što da ne" (Why Not), "Sarajevo" and "Dođi" (Come Here) in 2006, released on the studio album Žena kao žena under the label Hayat Production. The ballad "Mojoj majci" (To My Mother) was the biggest hit off the album. 2008–14: Sevdah je ljubav and Što svaka žena sanja On 7 November 2012, during a humanitarian concert in Zenica, Paldum and Serbian singer Dragana Mirković first publicly sang their duet "Kad nas vide zagrljene" (When They See Us Embrace.) The song officially premiered one year later on 26 November 2013, when the music video was released. The video shows Paldum in Sarajevo singing about Bosnia and Mirković in Belgrade singing about Serbia. Near the end of the video they meet on Stari Most in Mostar, embrace, and dance. Their video was featured prominently in Bosnian and Serbian media. Later career Paldum took part in the 16th-night show (on 7 August) of Zenica summer fest 2019 by giving 2-hour soloist performance on Zenica city square. Personal life Marriages and children Paldum's first marriage was to Muradif Brkić, director of the record label Sarajevo Disk. Their 1976 wedding took place in his hometown Duvno. Paldum had two children with Brkić: daughter Minela (born 1981) and son Mirzad (born 1985). She was pronounced clinically dead while giving birth to Mirzad, but survived. Paldum's son Mirzad has had several brushes with the law. In 2006, he ran into a pedestrian while on his motorcycle; on 26 February 2011, he was injured during a shooting in Sarajevo; and on 14 January 2014, three women were heavily injured when he ran them over while under the influence of amphetamines. Paldum sent him to a drug rehabilitation center in Germany. In November 2014, he was arrested after police found a pistol and heroin in his possession. Paldum kicked him out of her house after this incident saying that her "soul hurted" but she had no other options. On 7 September 2021, Mirzad got arrested by Neum Police officers for attempting to rape a female tourist. Since then he has been sent to Mostar. Torture allegations In January 2013, Goran Golub, a Serb former captive in the Silos concentration camp accused Paldum of torturing him on 10 February 1993 during the Bosnian War. Golub said that while he was a prisoner in the camp, Paldum and fellow Bosnian singer Dino Merlin were to perform for the soldiers of the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on Igman mountain, where Silos was located. On that day, Golub alleges to have seen Paldum walking around the camp wearing an army outfit, when she saw him looking at her, he claims she approached him and yelled "What are you looking at?" When he didn't reply, he then claims Paldum asked him, "Do you wanna fuck me? Is that it?" When he didn't reply again, he alleges that Paldum ordered him to sit down and spread his legs, then he claims that she stepped on his genitals with all her strength. Golub further claims that that sexual torture is why he never married and that he thinks of the torture every time he urinates. Paldum denied the allegations and further stated that she had never even been in Silos during the war. She did state that the first time she left the city of Sarajevo during the siege and war was on 6 September 1993, not long after the Sarajevo Tunnel opened. She went to the Igman mountain with several singers, one of which was Dino Merlin, to perform for the Bosnian soldiers. When asked if she had seen or had any contact with Serb prisoners during the war, she said "No! Never, never!" After the concert, she and the other singers were brought back to the city of Sarajevo with a helicopter. The allegations created a whirlwind of media attention in the former Yugoslav countries. Serbian singer Jelena Karleuša offered her support to Paldum during a television appearance on Pink BH. Paldum filed a lawsuit against Golub's lawyer Duško Tomić in March 2013 for false accusations of war crimes and torture. That same month she was quoted as saying: "As for me, I cannot wait for an investigation to be launched into the allegations that the media highlighted and I wish to clear this stain off my name and prove that I am innocent. I cannot wait for all this to be over." DiscographyVoljela sam oči nevjerne (1974)Srebro i zlato (1979)Sjajna zvijezdo (1980)Čežnja (1980)Sanjam (1982)Dobro došli prijatelji (1983)Tebi ljubavi (1984)Nema kajanja (1985)Bolno srce (1986)Gdje si dušo (1988)Kani suzo izdajice / Tako me uzbuđuješ (1989)Vjetrovi tuge (1990)Nek’ je od srca (1999)Džanum (2001)S' kim si – takav si (2003)Žena kao žena (2004)Što svaka žena sanja (2013) Filmography FilmPraznik u Sarajevu (Holiday in Sarajevo, 1991) TelevisionNë orët e vona (At Late Hours, 1982)Nad lipom 35 (Under the Linden, 2006)Lud, zbunjen, normalan (Crazy, Confused, Normal'', 2009–12); 2 episodes References External links 1956 births Living people People from Čajniče Bosnia and Herzegovina women singers Yugoslav women singers Sevdalinka Hayat Production artists 21st-century Bosnia and Herzegovina women singers 20th-century Bosnia and Herzegovina women singers Bosniaks of Bosnia and Herzegovina
4178379	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrey%20Arshavin	Andrey Arshavin	Andrey Sergeyevich Arshavin ( ; born 29 May 1981) is a Russian former professional footballer who played as a winger or midfielder. Arshavin began his career at Zenit Saint Petersburg in 2000. He went on to win numerous trophies with the club such as the Russian Premier League, League Cup, Russian Super Cup, UEFA Cup and the UEFA Super Cup. During his time with Zenit, Arshavin was also named as the Russian Footballer of the Year. He had a breakout performance at UEFA Euro 2008 where he impressed throughout Russia's run to the semi-final of the tournament, and also finished 6th in the 2008 Ballon d’Or. Arshavin thereafter signed for English Premier League club Arsenal during the 2008–09 winter transfer window, becoming the most expensive player in Arsenal's history at the time, with a fee of £15 million. Arshavin eventually rejoined Zenit, at first on loan and then permanently in 2013. Since 2019, Arshavin has held administrative posts at Zenit. Since 2022 - Deputy General Director for Sports Development, in the summer of 2023 he became a member of the club's executive board. Early years Arshavin was born in Leningrad, now Saint Petersburg, on 29 May 1981. His father Sergey Arshavin played as an amateur footballer. Arshavin survived an accident that could have killed him when he was hit by a car as a child. His parents divorced when he was 12, with Andrey having to sleep on the floor of a cramped flat with his mother. It was his father who persuaded him to pursue a career in football after his own failure to become a professional football player. Arshavin began playing football at an early age and at seven years of age, he was enrolled in the Smena football academy of Zenit, his hometown club. As a schoolboy before football became his sole focus, he was a talented draughts player. Arshavin's father died of heart failure at age 40. He has written three books, including one titled 555 Questions and Answers on Women, Money, Politics and Football. Arshavin also has a degree in Fashion Design. He often misbehaved at school, commenting, "I behaved badly at school. When I was in the second grade, I tore down the registering journal of the class." It was this incident described by Arshavin that saw him expelled. Club career Zenit Saint Petersburg In 2000, Arshavin was included in the Zenit first-team squad, making his debut in a 3–0 away win over English side Bradford City in the Intertoto Cup, coming on as a first-half substitute for Andrey Kobelev. He played in various positions on the field, starting as a right midfielder, then as an attacking midfielder, and finally adopted the second striker's role playing on a flank or behind the target man. In the 2007 Russian Premier League season, Shava (Шава in Russian), as he was nicknamed by Zenit fans, guided his Zenit side to the title in starting all 30 matches, scoring 11 goals and providing 11 assists which was the most in the Russian Premier League that year en route. It was the club's first league title since winning the now-defunct Soviet Top League in 1984. Arshavin was also a key player during Zenit's 2007–08 UEFA Cup triumph and was named Man of the Match in the final, again topping the list for assists in that season's UEFA competition. In October 2008, Arshavin was nominated for the prestigious Ballon d'Or award, along with 29 others in a list that included compatriot Yuri Zhirkov. Arshavin's performances in the UEFA Cup and UEFA Euro 2008 brought him to the attention of several European clubs. However, interest had already been expressed in January 2008 by Newcastle United boss Sam Allardyce, but he was sacked as manager as the transfer window opened. In June 2008, Barcelona had their €15 million offer for the player turned down by Zenit. Additionally, Tottenham Hotspur's £16 million offer in August also fell short of Zenit's £22 million asking price. Zenit's unwillingness to compromise on their asking price caused discontent from both Arshavin and his agent Dennis Lachter. During the January 2009 transfer window, Arshavin was persistently pursued by English Premier League club Arsenal. On 2 February, transfer deadline day, Arshavin was staying in a Hertfordshire hotel, just a few miles from the Arsenal training ground. At around 10 am, he left the hotel and was rumoured to be heading back to Russia, but with less than an hour of the transfer window left, a bid from Arsenal was finally accepted by Zenit. By this point, he had agreed personal terms and passed a medical, but a compensation payment by Arshavin himself to Zenit was supposedly holding up the deal. The deal was further complicated by a snowstorm in England that had delayed the Premier League's registration process, eventually forcing the league to extend the deadline beyond 5 pm. The deal was not confirmed until the following day (3 February), nearly 24 hours after the formal transfer deadline had passed, with Arsenal announcing "a long-term deal" for an undisclosed fee. On the same day, Zenit's official web site claimed that Zenit received an official FA letter confirming Arshavin's registration as an Arsenal player. Arsenal 2008–09 At Arsenal Arshavin wore the number 23 shirt, last worn by Sol Campbell. As Arshavin had played for Zenit in the 2008–09 Champions League, he was cup-tied and could not play for Arsenal in the knockout phase. Arshavin made his debut for Arsenal against Sunderland on 21 February 2009 in the Premier League, which ended 0–0. On 3 March 2009, Arshavin made his first contribution in a Premier League game against West Bromwich Albion by setting up a goal for Kolo Touré in the 38th minute via a free-kick, the second goal in a 3–1 victory. On 14 March 2009, Arshavin scored his first Arsenal goal in a very tight angle going solo against Blackburn Rovers in the 65th minute of the game. He later provided an assist to Emmanuel Eboué for the third goal of the game, which ended 4–0 to Arsenal. On 21 April 2009, Arshavin was named Man of the Match when he scored all four Arsenal goals in a tight match against Liverpool at Anfield, which ended 4–4. It was a thrilling encounter, and the first time Arshavin had scored four goals in one match in his entire career. He also became the first away player to score four goals in a single league match at Anfield since Dennis Westcott for Wolverhampton Wanderers in 1946, and the first Arsenal player to score four goals in any match since Júlio Baptista in 2007, who also achieved the feat against Liverpool at Anfield. Additionally, he became only the sixth player in Premier League history to score four goals in an away match. Arshavin captained Arsenal for the first time on 2 May 2009 in an away match against Portsmouth, where they won 3–0 with Arshavin gaining two assists and a contentious penalty. On 8 May, he was named Premier League Player of the Month for April. He was also voted as Arsenal's Player of the Month for April and May and came second in Arsenal's Player of the Season poll, despite only playing in the second half of the season and playing in fewer than a quarter of Arsenal's matches all season. 2009–10 Arshavin came off the bench to score two goals in Arsenal's 2–1 pre-season victory on 1 August over Atlético Madrid in the Emirates Cup. Manager Arsène Wenger commented afterward that "[Arshavin] knows how English football works", adding, "He knows as well that now he's part of the team from the start. I believe the team knows as well how important (he is) and how big an impact he can have on the results." On 26 August 2009, Arshavin scored his first UEFA Champions League goal for Arsenal in the 74th minute in a 3–1 win over Celtic. He also scored a 30-yard shot against Manchester United at Old Trafford on 29 August 2009, which was his first goal of the season although Arsenal lost the match 2–1. In early December, Arshavin put in an excellent display against Stoke City, playing in an unfamiliar role as centre-forward left vacant after Robin van Persie's injury. He won a penalty which Fàbregas missed before scoring himself and later assisted the second goal, with Arsenal winning the match 2–0. On 13 December 2009, Arshavin scored his fifth goal against Liverpool as Arsenal came from behind to beat Liverpool 2–1 at Anfield again, also winning the Man of the Match award in the end again. On 20 January 2010, he scored again in Arsenal's 4–2 victory over Bolton Wanderers, which helped Arsenal reach the top of the Premier League for the first time since August. However, he suffered a calf strain against Barcelona, ruling him out for three weeks. Arshavin missed one of two games in May due to injury, but scored for the last time of the season against Fulham, in a match which Arsenal won 4–0. 2010–11 On 17 July 2010, Arshavin scored the opening goal against Barnet in Arsenal's first pre-season friendly match of the season, which Arsenal won 4–0. He then won the Man of the Match award for best performance by Arsenal fans according to Arsenal's official website. On 21 August 2010, Arshavin scored his first goal of the season via a penalty for Arsenal in a 6–0 win over Blackpool after Marouane Chamakh was fouled by Ian Evatt in the penalty area. He also scored in Arsenal's very next game on 28 August 2010, scoring the winning goal against Blackburn Rovers for the third time when Cesc Fàbregas' shot was blocked and fell into the path of Arshavin, Arsenal winning the match 2–1. On 15 September 2010, Arshavin scored and provided two assists against Braga in Arsenal's first Champions League group stage match, with Arsenal winning 6–0. On 18 September 2010, Arshavin scored his first League Cup goal, which was also Arsenal's fourth goal during extra time, to defeat Tottenham in the third round of the League Cup, with Arsenal winning against their arch rivals 4–1. He later scored Arsenal's first goal in a 3–1 midweek Champions League away win against FK Partizan in the 15th minute after a backheel pass by Jack Wilshere. Vladimir Stojković saved Arshavin's penalty in the second half after Marouane Chamakh was fouled in the penalty area. On 27 November 2010, Arshavin scored his first goal since September, which was the opening goal against Aston Villa in a 4–2 away win. On 29 December 2010, Arshavin scored a scissor kick volley to bring Arsenal level when they were 1–0 down to Wigan Athletic. He later made an assist for Nicklas Bendtner to put Arsenal 2–1 up, but after a Sébastien Squillaci own goal, the match ended 2–2. He then won the Man of the Match award for best performance by Arsenal fans for the second time. On 1 February 2011, Arshavin came off the bench in the 62nd minute and scored his first 2011-goal and first goal since December just 8 minutes later to make Arsenal level when they were 1–0 down to Everton in a game that Arsenal won 2–1. He then won the Man of the Match award for best performance by Arsenal fans for the third time. On 16 February 2011, Arshavin scored as Arsenal beat Barcelona for the first time in their history in a 2–1 win in the Champions League round of 16. This was Arshavin's first Champions League goal for Arsenal not scored in the group stage. The next day, Arsenal centre back Johan Djourou stated that "Arshavin showed he is a great player," because of his winning goal and his rising performance from his recent dip in form. During his goal celebration against Barcelona, Arshavin memorably lifted up his jersey to reveal a t-shirt with an image of himself performing his normal finger-to-the-lips celebration. On 20 February 2011, Arsenal faced Leyton Orient for The FA Cup fifth-round, a 1–1 draw in which Arshavin won the Man of the Match award for best performance by Arsenal fans for the fourth time, even though he did not score, though he did come close numerous times. Arshavin's next Premier League goal was away to West Bromwich Albion, bringing the score to 2–1 after West Brom had earlier taken a 2–0 lead. He also provided the cross for Robin van Persie's late equaliser in that game. 2011–12 On 10 September 2011, Arshavin scored his first goal of the season against Swansea City after a bizarre mistake by goalkeeper Michel Vorm. His other performances in the season were riddled with criticism about his refusal to track back and help with defense. During a home game against Manchester United, Arshavin was booed when he came on for Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain although it is believed that the booing was directed at the decision to make a substitution and not at Arshavin himself. On 11 February 2012, Arshavin provided Thierry Henry with the winning goal in the match against Sunderland. After coming on during the second half, Arshavin found space to deliver a cross during injury time, from the left side of the pitch despite being marked by two players. The cross found Henry's foot and made it into the back of the net. Return to Zenit (loan) After intense speculation about joining Anzhi Makhachkala and reuniting with former Russian national team coach Guus Hiddink, Arshavin sealed a loan move to his boyhood club Zenit Saint Petersburg for the remainder of the 2011–12 season, just 40 seconds before the end of the deadline day of the Russian transfer window. An intention to hold on to a place in Russia's Euro 2012 squad was the reason behind Arshavin's move to Luciano Spalletti's side in Saint Petersburg. On 3 March, Arshavin made his loan debut for Zenit in an away fixture against CSKA Moscow which ended in a 2–2 draw. Arshavin wasn't eligible to feature in Zenit's 2–0 loss to Benfica in the last 16 of the Champions League. In total, Arshavin made 11 appearances in his second spell at Zenit, scoring three goals. 2012–13 Arshavin returned to Arsenal for the start of the 2012–13 season. He appeared as a 77th-minute substitute in their first game of the season, a 0–0 draw against Sunderland on 18 August 2012. On 26 September, Arshavin was handed his first start of the season in the League Cup. He scored the third goal and assisted two others in a 6–1 win over Coventry City. On 20 October, Arshavin made his 100th Premier League appearance for Arsenal in a 1–0 loss against Norwich City. He also played in Arsenal's 2–1 loss against Olympiacos in the Champions League on 4 December. Arshavin went on to leave Arsenal in June 2013. All in all Arshavin scored 31 goals with a sum of 41 assists which came from 143 caps for the club altogether. Return to Zenit On 27 June 2013, it was announced that Arshavin signed a two-year deal with Zenit, moving on a free transfer. Arshavin stated that he was "very happy to put on Zenit's shirt again." Arshavin scored on his second league appearance for the club, opening a 1–1 draw at home to Kuban Krasnodar on 26 July, before netting again on 7 August, in a 5–0 win in the Champions League third qualifying round against FC Nordsjælland. In a total of 21 Russian Premier League appearances in 2013–14, he scored only one more goal, in a 4–0 away win at Rostov on 22 September, and Zenit finished the season as runners-up. Kuban Krasnodar On 13 July 2015, Arshavin signed for Kuban Krasnodar on a one-year deal. His contract was dissolved by mutual consent on 1 February 2016. Kairat On 18 March 2016, Arshavin signed for FC Kairat on a one-year deal, with the option of a second year. He also won the Kazakhstan Premier League's Player of the Month award for July 2016, and again in September 2016. Arshavin extended his stay at the club for an additional year on 9 November 2016. He was after such bestowed with the Kazakhstan Player of the Year award for 2016. Arshavin went on to win with Kairat the Kazakhstan Super Cup of 2017. On 5 November 2018, Kairat announced that Arshavin will leave the club after his farewell game on 11 November 2018. On 3 December 2018, Arshavin confirmed his retirement as a player. International career Arshavin debuted for the Russian national team on 17 May 2002, but was overlooked for the Russia squads at the 2002 FIFA World Cup and Euro 2004. His first goal with the squad came in a friendly match versus Romania on 13 February 2003. Since then, he has managed to score or assist in every competition which Russia has participated in. He was Russia's captain in a Euro 2008 qualifier against Estonia. On 11 June 2009, Arshavin was made first-choice captain for Russia by manager Guus Hiddink. UEFA Euro 2008 Arshavin was included in Russia's Euro 2008 squad by Guus Hiddink, despite being unable to play in the first two group matches due to suspension. He announced his return by setting up the first goal and scoring the second in Russia's final group game against Sweden at Tivoli Neu, Innsbruck, which helped his team qualify for the next round. In the next match, the quarter-final against the Netherlands, Arshavin repeated the feat with his part in Russia's two goals in the second half of extra time, providing the cross for Dmitri Torbinski's goal and scoring his own four minutes later. Russia consequently reached the semi-finals with a 3–1 victory. For both of these games, UEFA awarded him Man of the Match. However, Arshavin could not repeat the heroics in the semi-final against eventual winners Spain, which Russia lost 3–0. Despite this, Arshavin was named in UEFA's squad for Euro 2008. He, along with the rest of the Russian team, received a bronze medal. 2010 World Cup qualifying Arshavin captained the team to a second-place finish in their group, scoring three goals in ten games. He provided the assist for Diniyar Bilyaletdinov's second goal to seal a 2–1 win over Slovenia in the first leg of the qualification play-offs. Despite this, Russia lost the second leg 1–0, knocking them out of the World Cup finals on away goals. UEFA Euro 2012 Arshavin was confirmed for the finalized UEFA Euro 2012 squad on 25 May 2012. He started all three of their games in the group stage of Group A, as Russia were eliminated in the group stage, finishing third place behind on the head-to-head ruling. Nonetheless, Arshavin was statistically named the best midfielder of the tournament by UEFA, having earned the most assists in the fewest minutes on the pitch (270 minutes). After the tournament, Russian fans were left disappointed by comments from Arshavin, who said: "the fact that we [Russian national team] hadn't exceed your [fans] expectations is not our [the players'] problem, it is your [fans'] problems." Arshavin later apologized for his comment as well as Russia's early exit from the tournament. After playing in new manager Fabio Capello's first match in charge, a friendly match with Ivory Coast, Arshavin was omitted from Russia's squad for the entirety of its 2014 World Cup qualification campaign. 2018 World Cup bid On 2 December 2010, Arshavin made a speech during Russia's presentation of its successful bid for the 2018 World Cup. Personal life Arshavin carried the Olympic Flame during the St. Petersburg leg of the torch relay for the 2008 Summer Olympics. Arshavin and his former common-law wife Julia Baranovskaya met in 2003. They have three children, two sons named Artyom and Arseniy. and daughter Yana. On 14 August 2012, Arshavin confirmed on his official website that he and Julia had their second son, Arseniy. In September 2016, he married Alisa Arshavina, with whom he has a daughter. After a year of marriage, the couple reportedly divorced. Career statistics Club Notes International Scores and results list Russia's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Arshavin goal. Honours Zenit Saint Petersburg Russian Premier League: 2007, 2011–12, 2014–15 Russian Premier League Cup: 2003 Russian Super Cup: 2008 UEFA Cup: 2007–08 UEFA Super Cup: 2008 Kairat Kazakhstan Cup: 2017, 2018 Kazakhstan Super Cup: 2017 Individual Ballon d'Or sixth place: 2008 Premier League Player of the Month: April 2009 Footballer of the Year in Russia (Futbol): 2006 Footballer of the Year in Russia (Sport-Express): 2006 Baltic and Commonwealth of Independent States Footballer of the Year: 2007, 2008, 2009 UEFA European Championship Team of the Tournament: 2008 UEFA Cup Final Man of the Match: 2008 Kazakhstan Premier League Player of the Month: July 2016, September 2016 Kazakhstan Player of the Year: 2016 References Bibliography Marc Bennetts, 'Football Dynamo – Modern Russia and the People's Game,' Virgin Books, (15 May 2008), 0753513196 External links Official website Arsenal Profile AndrArshavuin23 Arshavin Twitter page RSSSF Russia – Record International Players Player profile Andrey Arshavin at the Forbes 1981 births Living people Footballers from Saint Petersburg Russian men's footballers Men's association football midfielders FC Zenit-2 Saint Petersburg players FC Zenit Saint Petersburg players UEFA Cup winning players Arsenal F.C. players FC Kuban Krasnodar players FC Kairat players Russian Premier League players Premier League players Kazakhstan Premier League players Russia men's under-21 international footballers Russia men's international footballers UEFA Euro 2008 players UEFA Euro 2012 players Russian expatriate men's footballers Russian expatriate sportspeople in England Russian expatriate sportspeople in Kazakhstan Expatriate men's footballers in England Expatriate men's footballers in Kazakhstan
4178541	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docodonta	Docodonta	Docodonta is an order of extinct Mesozoic mammaliaforms (advanced cynodonts closely related to true crown-group mammals). They were among the most common mammaliaforms of their time, persisting from the Middle Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous across the continent of Laurasia (modern-day North America, Europe, and Asia). They are distinguished from other early mammaliaforms by their relatively complex molar teeth. Docodont teeth have been described as "pseudotribosphenic": a cusp on the inner half of the upper molar grinds into a basin on the front half of the lower molar, like a mortar-and-pestle. This is a case of convergent evolution with the tribosphenic teeth of therian mammals. There is much uncertainty for how docodont teeth developed from their simpler ancestors. Their closest relatives may have been certain Triassic "symmetrodonts", namely Woutersia, Delsatia, and Tikitherium. For much of their history of study, docodont fossils were represented by isolated teeth and jaws. The first docodont known from decent remains was Haldanodon, from the Guimarota site of Portugal. Recently, exceptionally preserved skeletons have been discovered in the Tiaojishan Formation of China. Chinese docodonts include otter-like, mole-like, and squirrel-like species, hinting at impressive ecological diversity within the group. Many docodonts have muscular limbs and broad tail vertebrae, adaptations for burrowing or swimming. Like true mammals, docodonts have hair, a saddle-shaped hyoid apparatus, and reduced postdentary jaw bones which are beginning to develop into middle ear ossicles. On the other hand, the postdentary bones are still attached to the jaw and skull, the nostrils have yet to fuse, and in most species the spine's thoracic-lumbar transition is rather subdued. Description Skeletal traits Jaw and ear Docodonts have a long and low mandible (lower jaw), formed primarily by the tooth-bearing dentary bone. The dentary connects to the cranium via a joint with the squamosal, a connection which is strengthened relative to earlier mammaliaforms. The other bones in the jaw, known as postdentary elements, are still connected to the dentary and lie within a groove (the postdentary trough) in the rear part of the dentary's inner edge. Nevertheless, they are very slender, hosting hooked prongs which start to converge towards an oval-shaped area immediately behind the dentary. The ecotympanic bone, also known as the angular, fits into a deep slot on the dentary which opens backwards, a characteristic unique to docodonts. The malleus (also known as the articular) sends down a particularly well-developed prong known as the manubrium, which is sensitive to vibrations. The incus (also known as the quadrate) is still relatively large and rests against the petrosal bone of the braincase, a remnant of a pre-mammalian style jaw joint. In true mammals, the postdentary elements detach fully and shrink further, becoming the ossicles of the middle ear and embracing a circular eardrum. Cranium and throat Docodont skulls are generally fairly low, and in general form are similar to other early mammliaforms such as morganucodonts. The snout is long and has several plesiomorphic traits: the paired nares (bony nostril holes) are small and separate, and their rear edge is formed by a large septomaxilla, a bone which is no longer present in mammals. The nasal bones expand at the back and overlook thick lacrimals. The frontal and parietal bones of the skull roof are flat and broad, and there is no postorbital process forming the rear rim of the orbit (eye socket). Docodonts also see the first occurrence of a mammalian-style saddle-shaped complex of hyoids (throat bones). Microdocodon has a straight, sideways-oriented basihyal which connects to two pairs of bony structures: the anterior hyoid cornu (a jointed series of rods which snake up to the braincase), and the posterior thyrohyals (which link to the thyroid cartilage). This hyoid system affords greater strength and flexibility than the simple, U-shaped hyoids of earlier cynodonts. It allows for a narrower and more muscular throat and tongue, which are correlated with uniquely mammalian behaviors such as suckling. Postcranial skeleton The oldest unambiguous fossil evidence of hair is found in a well-preserved specimen of the docodont Castorocauda, though hair likely evolved much earlier in synapsids. The structure of the vertebral column is variable between docodonts, as with many other mammaliaforms. The components of the atlas are unfused, attaching to the large and porous occipital condyles of the braincase. Vertebrae at the base of the tail often have expanded transverse processes (rib pedestals), supporting powerful tail musculature. Most docodonts have gradually shrinking ribs, forming a subdued transition between the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spine. However, this developmental trait is not universal. For example, Agilodocodon lacks lumbar ribs, so it has an abrupt transition from the thoracic to lumbar vertebrae like many modern mammals. The forelimbs and hindlimbs generally have strong muscle attachments, and the olecranon process of the ulna is flexed inwards. All limb bones except the tibia lack epiphyses, plate-like ossified cartilage caps which terminate bone growth in adulthood. This suggests that docodont bones continued growing throughout their lifetime, like some other mammaliaforms and early mammals. The ankle is distinctive, with a downturned calcaneum and a stout astragalus which connects to the tibia via a trochlea (pulley-like joint). The only known specimen of Castorocauda has a pointed spur on its ankle, similar to defensive structures observed in male monotremes and several other early-branching mammals. Teeth Like other mammaliaforms, docodont teeth include peg-like incisors, fang-like canines, and numerous interlocking premolars and molars. Most mammaliaforms have fairly simple molars primarily suited for shearing and slicing food. Docodonts, on the other hand, have developed specialized molars with crushing surfaces. The shape of each molar is defined by a characteristic pattern of conical cusps, with sharp, concave crests connecting the center of each cusp to adjacent cusps. Upper molars When seen from below, the upper molars have an overall subtriangular or figure-eight shape, wider (from side to side) than they are long (from front to back). The bulk of the tooth makes up four major cusps: cusps A, C, X, and Y. This overall structure is similar to the tribosphenic teeth found in true therian mammals, like modern marsupials and placentals. However, there is little consensus for homologizing docodont cusps with those of modern mammals. Cusps A and C lie in a row along the labial edge of the tooth (i.e., on the outer side, facing the cheek). Cusp A is located in front of cusp C and is typically the largest cusp in the upper molars. Cusp X lies lingual to cusp A (i.e., positioned inwards, towards the midline of the skull). A distinct wear facet is found on the labial edge of cusp X, extending along the crest leading to cusp A. Cusp Y, a unique feature of docodonts, is positioned directly behind cusp X. Many docodonts have one or two additional cusps (cusps B and E) in front of cusp A. Cusp B is almost always present and is usually shifted slightly labial relative to cusp A. Cusp E, which may be absent in later docodonts, is positioned lingual to cusp B. Lower molars The lower molars are longer than wide. On average, they have seven cusps arranged in two rows. The labial/outer row has the largest cusp, cusp a, which lies between two more cusps. The other major labial cusps are cusp b (a slightly smaller cusp in front of cusp a) and cusp d (a much smaller cusp behind cusp a). The lingual/inner row is shifted backwards (relative to the labial row) and has two large cusps: cusp g (at the front) and cusp c (at the back). Two additional lingual cusps may be present: cusp e and cusp df. Cusp e lies in front of cusp g and is roughly lingual to cusp b. Cusp df (“docodont cuspule f”) lies behind cusp c and is lingual to cusp d. There is some variation in the relative sizes, position, or even presence of some of these cusps, though docodonts in general have a fairly consistent cusp pattern. Tooth occlusion A distinct concavity or basin is apparent in the front half of each lower molar, between cusps a, g, and b. This basin has been named the pseudotalonid. When the upper and lower teeth occlude (fit together), the pseudotalonid acts as a receptacle for cusp Y of the upper molar. Cusp Y is often termed the "pseudoprotocone" in this relationship. At the same time, cusp b of the lower molar shears into an area labial to cusp Y. Occlusion is completed when the rest of the upper molar slides between adjacent lower molar teeth, letting the rear edge of the preceding lower molar scrape against cusp X. This shearing-and-grinding process is more specialized than in any other early mammaliaform. "Pseudotalonid" and "pseudoprotocone" are names which reference the talonid-and-protocone crushing complex which characterize tribosphenic teeth. Tribosphenic teeth show up in the oldest fossils of therians, the mammalian subgroup containing marsupials and placentals. This is a case of convergent evolution, as therian talonids lie at the back of the lower molar rather than the front. The opposite is true for docodont teeth, which have been described as "pseudotribosphenic". Pseudotribosphenic teeth are also found in shuotheriids, an unusual collection of Jurassic mammals with tall pointed cusps. Relative to docodonts, shuotheriids have pseudotalonids which are positioned further forwards in their lower molars. This is another case of convergent evolution, as shuotheriid are true mammals related to modern monotremes. Docodont and shuotheriid teeth are so similar that some genera, namely Itatodon and Paritatodon, have been considered members of either group. Paleoecology Docodonts and other Mesozoic mammals were traditionally thought to have been primarily ground dwelling and insectivorous, but recent more complete fossils from China have shown this is not the case. Castorocauda from the Middle Jurassic of China, and possibly Haldanodon from the Upper Jurassic of Portugal, were specialised for a semi-aquatic lifestyle. Castorocauda had a flattened tail and recurved molars, which suggests possible fish or aquatic invertebrate diet. It was thought possible that docodonts had tendencies towards semi-aquatic habits, given their presence in wetland environments, although this could also be explained by the ease with which these environments preserve fossils compared with more terrestrial ones. Recent discoveries of other complete docodontans such as the specialised digging species Docofossor, and specialised tree-dweller Agilodocodon suggest Docodonta were more ecologically diverse than previously suspected. Docofossor shows many of the same physical traits as the modern day golden mole, such as wide, shortened digits in the hands for digging. Classification The lineage of Docodonta evolved prior to the origin of living mammals: monotremes, marsupials, and placentals. In other words, docodonts are outside of the mammalian crown group, which only includes animals descended from the last common ancestor of living mammals. Previously, docodonts were sometimes regarded as belonging to Mammalia, owing to the complexity of their molars and the fact that they possess a dentary-squamosal jaw joint. However, modern authors usually limit the term "Mammalia" to the crown group, excluding earlier mammaliaforms like the docodonts. Nevertheless, docodonts are still closely related to crown-Mammalia, to a greater extent than many other early mammaliaform groups such as Morganucodonta and Sinoconodon. Some authors also consider docodonts to lie crownward of the order Haramiyida, though most others consider haramiyidans to be closer to mammals than docodonts are. Docodonts may lie crownward of haramiyidans in phylogenetic analyses based on maximum parsimony, but shift stemward relative to haramiyidans when the same data is put through a Bayesian analysis. Cladogram based on a phylogenetic analysis of Zhou et al. (2019) focusing on a wide range of mammaliamorphs: Docodont fossils have been recognized since the 1880s, but their relationships and diversity have only recently been well-established. Monographs by George Gaylord Simpson in the 1920s argued that they were specialized "pantotheres", part of a broad group ancestral to true therian mammals according to their complex molars. A 1956 paper by Bryan Patterson instead argued that docodont teeth were impossible to homologize with modern mammals. He drew comparisons to the teeth of Morganucodon and other "triconodont" mammaliaforms, which had fairly simple lower molars with a straight row of large cusps. However, re-evaluations of mammaliaform tooth homology in the late 1990s established that docodonts were not closely related to either morganucodonts or therians. Instead, they were found to be similar to certain early "symmetrodonts", a broad and polyphyletic grouping of mammaliaforms with triangular upper molars. In particular, the closest relatives of Docodonta have been identified as certain Late Triassic "symmetrodonts", such as Delsatia and Woutersia (from the Norian-Rhaetian of France) and Tikitherium (from the Carnian of India). These "symmetrodonts" have three major cusps (c, a, and b) set in a triangular arrangement on their lower molars. These cusps would be homologous to cusps c, a, and g in docodonts, which have a similar size and position. Tikitherium in particular is very similar to docodonts, as its wide upper molars have an apparent lingual cusp (cusp X) with a labial wear facet, though its cusp Y is comparatively underdeveloped. Cusp X is even more prominent in Woutersia, though it lacks a wear facet in that genus. Unambiguous docodonts are restricted to the Northern Hemisphere, abruptly appearing in the fossil record in the Middle Jurassic. Very few docodonts survived into the Cretaceous Period; the youngest known members of the group are Sibirotherium and Khorotherium, from the Early Cretaceous of Siberia. One disputed docodont, Gondtherium, has been described from India, which was previously part of the Southern Hemisphere continent of Gondwana. However, this identification is not certain, and in recent analyses, Gondtherium falls outside the docodont family tree, albeit as a close relative to the group. Reigitherium, from the Late Cretaceous of Argentina, has previously been described as a docodont, though it is now considered a meridiolestidan mammal. Some authors have suggested splitting Docodonta into two families (Simpsonodontidae and Tegotheriidae), but the monophyly of these groups (in their widest form) are not found in any other analyses, and therefore not accepted by all mammal palaeontologists. Cladograms based on phylogenetic analyses focusing on docodont relationships: Topology of Zhou et al. (2019), based on tooth, cranial, and postcranial traits: Topology of Panciroli et al. (2021), based on dentary and tooth traits: Subgroups and genera Superfamily †Docodontoidea Family †Docodontidae (Marsh 1887) Simpson 1929 †Agilodocodon scansorius Meng et al. 2015 †Borealestes Waldman & Savage 1972 †B. cuillinensis Panciroli et al. 2021 †B. serendipitus Waldman & Savage 1972 †Castorocauda lutrasimilis Ji et al. 2006 †Cyrtlatherium canei Freeman 1979 sensu Sigogneau-Russell 2001 (dubious) [Simpsonodon oxfordensis Kermack et al. 1987] †Dobunnodon mussettae [Borealestes mussetti] Sigogneau-Russell 2003 sensu Panciroli et al. 2021 †Docodon Marsh 1881 [Dicrocynodon Marsh in Osborn, 1888; Diplocynodon Marsh 1880 non Pomel 1847; Ennacodon Marsh 1890; Enneodon Marsh 1887 non Prangner 1845] †D. apoxys Rougier et al. 2014 †D. victor (Marsh 1880) [Dicrocynodon victor (Marsh 1880); Diplocynodon victor Marsh 1880] †D. striatus Marsh 1881 [disputed] †D. affinis (Marsh 1887) [Enneodon affinis Marsh 1887] [disputed] †D. crassus (Marsh 1887) [Enneodon crassus Marsh 1887; Ennacodon crassus (Marsh 1887)] [disputed] †D. superus Simpson 1929 [disputed] †Docofossor brachydactylus Luo et al. 2015 †Dsungarodon zuoi Pfretzschner et al. 2005 [Acuodulodon Hu, Meng & Clark 2007; Acuodulodon sunae Hu, Meng & Clark 2007] †Gondtherium dattai Prasad & Manhas 2007 [disputed] †Haldanodon exspectatus Kühne & Krusat 1972 sensu Sigoneau-Russell 2003 †Hutegotherium yaomingi Averianov et al. 2010 †Itatodon tatarinovi Lopatin & Averianov 2005 [disputed, possibly a shuotheriid] †Khorotherium yakutensis Averianov et al. 2018 †Krusatodon kirtlingtonensis Sigogneau-Russell 2003 †Microdocodon gracilis Zhou et al. 2019 †Paritatodon kermacki (Sigogneau-Russell, 1998) [disputed, possibly a shuotheriid] †Peraiocynodon Simpson 1928 †P. inexpectatus Simpson 1928 [possible synonym of Docodon] †P. major Sigogneau-Russell 2003 [disputed] †Sibirotherium rossicus Maschenko, Lopatin & Voronkevich 2002 †Simpsonodon Kermack et al. 1987 †S. splendens (Kühne 1969) †S. sibiricus Averianov et al. 2010 †Tashkumyrodon desideratus Martin & Averianov 2004 †Tegotherium gubini Tatarinov 1994 See also Evolution of mammals References External links Docodonta from Palaeos Fossil taxa described in 1946 Middle Jurassic first appearances Early Cretaceous extinctions Taxa named by Miklós Kretzoi
4178791	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Kiesha%27ra%20Series	The Kiesha'ra Series	The Kiesha'ra Series is a set of five fantasy novels written by the young adult author, Amelia Atwater-Rhodes, which focus on several races of shapeshifters, including the avians (bird people), the serpiente (snake people), and the shm'Ahnmik (falcon people). The series title, which is in a language from the series called ha'Shmla, translates as "Children of Kiesha." Kiesha is the first cobra serpiente, from whom the royal line of the Cobriana descends. Novels 2003 Hawksong "Danica Shardae, an avian shapeshifter, will do anything in her power to stop the war that has raged between her people and the serpiente - even pretend to be in love with Zane Cobriana, the terrifying leader of her kind's greatest enemy, and accept him as her pair bond. But will Zane strike as swiftly and lethally as the cobra that is his second form?" There has been a war raging between the avian shapeshifters – humans that can turn into sparrows, hawks, crows and raves – and the serpiente – humans that can turn into vipers, cobras, mambas, boas and pythons. No one knows how the war really started. The avians claim that the first cobra, Kiesha, stabbed the first hawk, Alasdair, in the back. The serpents claim that Alasdair had her people slaughter all seven of the first serpents. The war started and has been going strong for thousands of years. Danica Shardae is born into this war and wishes for peace. Heir to the avian throne, she wants to live in a world where she can raise children without fear of them dying, like her brother and sister had. Zane Cobriana, heir to the serpiente throne, wants the same. He sends a message to the avians, asking to meet and discuss peace in a neutral territory - that of the tiger shapeshifters, Mistari. The Mistari leaders tell the two groups that the only way to peace is to combine the two royal houses. Danica and Zane must wed and hope that their union can bring the two people together. The idea is dismissed almost immediately, but later, in private, Danica and Zane agree to try. Traveling between the two lands, the couple must learn to adapt to different ways of thinking and acting. The avians view the casual touching of the serpiente as scandalous, while the serpents view the emotionless reserve of the avians as cold and soulless. After pushing through the troubles of bringing the two groups together and surviving assassination attempts by their own trusted guards, Danica and Zane grow closer, until the one who they each used to despise was now the one they could never live without. 2004 Snakecharm "A surprising union has brought peace to the avians and serpiente. Soon a child will be born to carry on their royal lines. But Syfka, an ancient falcon, is claiming that one of her people is hidden in the avian and serpiente land. Is Syfka's lost falcon just a ruse to stir up controversy among them?" There is no more war between the serpents and avians. The brave venture through the woods to the other side and the rift is healing. But it is healing slowly. The last thing the two peoples need is trouble, which is what appears both in the form of a royal falcon, Syfka, searching for a criminal hiding among the two kinds, and who views the peace as abnormal, claiming it won't last, and the unborn child of Danica Shardae and Zane Cobriana, half hawk, half cobra. The two must root out the hidden falcon among them, who could be anyone at all, and think of a way to raise their child that combines both serpiente and avian ideals. There is still a lot of work ahead of them. 2005 Falcondance "Nicias is a falcon, the son of two exiles from Ahnmik and images of this distant island have always haunted his dreams. When his visions become more like reality, his parents send him back to his homeland - and a royal falcon - they've tried their best to forget." Nicias Silvermead is a peregrine falcon born and raised in Wyvern's Court, the son of Kel and Sebastian, who had been hidden in the sparrow form of Erica Silvermead and the crow form of Andreios. When his falcon magic awakens, he travels to the white city of Ahnmik, nestled days out to sea on an island, to learn to control his power. Ahnmik is not like Wyvern's Court. There is magic embedded everywhere. The roads can take you somewhere you didn't expect to go, the towers sing an unearthly song, and the dancers can call rain or see the future. But this city is ruled with the iron fist of Empress Cjarsa and her heir, Araceli, who happens to be Nicias's grandmother. The slightest criticism of the government is treason, punishable with the Empress's Mercy, the best and cruelest falcon fighters. Plots and deceptions are everywhere. Nicias finds himself a pawn in these mind games and does not enjoy it. While in Ahnmik, Nicias meets Darien, his mother's former partner in the Empress's Mercy, supposedly lost to Ecl, the realm of nothingness where any falcon can escape the pain of reality, sometimes of their own volition, but sometimes not. Darien teaches Nicias how to swim in Ecl and Nicias meets Hai, born of Darien and Anjay Cobriana, Zane Cobriana's older brother. Half falcon and half cobra, Hai's magic was uncontrollable, and in a bad episode, she fell and broke her wings. Now grounded and lost in Ecl, she wants to be left alone. But Nicias is determined to bring her back to the real world. Darien manages to recover her position in the Mercy while spiriting away Nicias and Hai, back to Wyvern's Court. Nicias returns to Ahnmik to convince Aracelli to let him go for good and is caught in a plot by Syfka to kill Empress Cjarsa. Once Aracelli and Cjarsa stop Syfka, Aracelli grants Nicias the freedom to come and go as he pleases. Returning to Wyvern's Court, Nicias finds that the once comatose Hai has awoken, thanks to the bond he formed with her while in Ecl. 2006 Wolfcry "Oliza Shardae Cobriana is heir to Wyvern's Court, home of the avians and serpiente, whose war with each other ended just before Oliza was born. But hatred is slow to die, and Oliza's serpiente suitor is found beaten in avian land. How can she be expected to lead a unified society if her people still cannot live peacefully together?" Oliza is half hawk, half cobra and can transform into a mix of both - a wyvern. She represents the blending of both societies, loving the avian music and simplicity and the serpiente dancers and freedom. She loves her home, Wyvern's Court, but it is clear that this world is still torn apart by prejudice. Oliza has to choose a mate, but either choice - avian or serpent - may result in civil war. After one of her suitors is found beaten almost to death, she realizes how far her people still have to go. However, before she can do anything, she is kidnapped by a group of lion mercenaries and carried far north, weeks away from her home. The wyvern's journey back is fraught with hardship. Along the way, she meets Betia, a wolf shapeshifter who helps her on her way back. She also stumbles upon the Obsidian guild, a group of criminals and dancers that mostly consist of the white vipers that were, long ago, banned from the serpiente lands, though the ban was lifted years ago. When Oliza returns to Wyvern's Court, she discovers that, while speaking with Hai, she was granted a glimpse of possible futures. In the futures that she ruled, Wyvern's Court was destroyed, people murdered, and Oliza realizes she cannot rule, not if she wants her home to flourish. Oliza puts her cousin, Salem Cobriana, on the serpiente throne and her aunt (though only two years younger than Oliza), Sive Shardae, on the avian throne. She then leaves with her new mate, Betia, for the Obsidian guild. 2007 Wyvernhail Narrated by em'Ecl'la'Hai, mongrel falcon, child of Anjay Cobriana and shm'Ahnmik'la'Darien. The book begins only moments after the end of Wolfcry.When Oliza abdicates the throne of Wyverns Court all Hai sees in her sakkri'a'she('vision of the future' in the ancient language) is fire and destruction of Wyvern's Court. In this final book, Hai has to fight to preserve peace and protect people of Wyvern's Court. Omnibus 2010 The Shapeshifters: The Kiesha'ra of the Den of Shadows The Shapeshifters: The Kiesha'ra of the Den of Shadows is an omnibus consisting of all five novels in "The Kiesha'ra Series". It was published on January 12, 2010. The People Dasi The three lines of shapeshifters that are the focus of the series are either direct or indirect descendants of the Dasi, an ancient Egyptian cult. The thirteen Dasi worshipped eight gods, primarily the dual powers of Ahnmik and Anhamirak. Eight of the Dasi worshipped Anhamirak and the four other gods who had similar power to her, while four served Ahnmik and his two divine companions. Ahnmik is the god of control, power, manipulation, cold, sleep, silence, and peace. His gifts to the world included bondage and mastery, and his high priestess was Cjarsa, who was aided by Araceli. The other gods on his side of the pantheon were the death goddess Brysh (whose priestess was Syfka) and the void goddess Ecl (whose priest was Servos). Anhamirak is the goddess of fire, love, life, beauty, passion, chaos, and destruction but above all, freedom. The only other named deity on the light side of the pantheon is Anhamirak's son Namid, god of life and patron of the priest Brassal. The head of the Dasi was Maeve, and it was her task to maintain balance between the two sides. The lesser priests and priestesses of the Dasi were called the Nesera'rsh and the Ealla'rsh. They served Anhamirak and Ahnmik respectively and were known collectively as the Rsh. They spoke to the people whereas the thirteen Dasi leaders spoke to the gods. They made sure that all opinions were acknowledged, served as healers and judges, and taught the people about Ahnleh ("fate" in the Dasi language). It is unknown if Ahnleh was considered an actual deity or a universal force, despite being referred to as feminine. Each Rsh enclave was "a realm unto itself," and its members were dealt with by the Rsh and the Rsh alone. The Dasi themselves respected this fact, and those who remain still do, recognizing the Serpiente Dancer's Guild (namely the sha'Mehay nest within the serpiente palace city and the Obsidian Guild of white vipers) as having originated from the Nesera'rsh. Dancers wearing coins marked with the ha'Shmla symbol Ahnleh (now known colloquially among serpiente as the Snakecharm) are not to be attacked, even by members of the falcon royal family. The falcon Mercy is technically the modern equivalent of the Ealla'rsh, but they have pledged their service to the falcons of the royal family and relinquish their immunity to the will of the royals. However, they still deal with their members internally. One day a creature named Leben approached Maeve and asked her to worship him. She knew that doing so would destroy the balance but she was afraid to refuse as Leben was very powerful. So she seduced him and he gave her the second form of a white viper. She also begged him grant her people of the Dasi second forms. Kiesha and her followers were given forms of snakes while falcon forms were given to Cjarsa and the other worshippers of Ahnmik. Eventually Anhamirak's followers drove the falcons out thus the balance was destroyed. Soon after, a rift between Maeve and the other serpents developed, and she was driven out for practicing black magic. The reasons for this are discussed more closely in Wolfcry. Kiesha rose to power of the new serpiente people and Maeve was taken in by the Nesera'rsh. Kiesha's son, Diente, became the first of the royal Cobriana line and the serpent title for king comes from his name. Maeve live among the Nesera'rsh and had children who survived to become the majority of the Obsidian Guild. The four priest of Ahnmik are all still alive as the falcon royal family, though their situation is slightly changed in Falcondance. They inhabit an island city that shares its name with their god and which they rarely leave. It is revealed throughout the books that the falcons began the war between the serpiente and the avians. After Maeve left, all the Dasi lost control of their power. While the falcon's power would eventually balance itself by consuming those who were to weak or too strong in a coma-like madness, Kiesha's power continued to rage. It was said that she could kill just by looking at another, that her eyes could kindle fire, and her dance, which once brought rains to fertilize the crops, would instead cause floods and kill hundreds of people. The falcons then decided that to protect their people her magic must be split. So they found a small girl named Alasdair and gave her the form of a hawk. Then they split Kiesha's power and gave half of it to Alasdair. They then raised Alasdair to be the ruler of the avians. Later on, she was introduced to a Kiesha and the seven other Anhamirak-worshipping members of the Dasi, and through falcon magic, the serpiente murdered Alasdair. The hawk's people were so distraught that they killed the eight serpents and began the centuries-long war between the two species. All this was put in place so that the magic of the two people could not be united, and again bring about unimaginable destruction akin to that of Kiesha in the days of the Dasi. Avians Avians possess extremely efficient respiratory systems, with body temperatures much higher than those of ordinary humans. Their hearts beat at close to a hundred times per minute at rest. The magic that allows avians to shapeshift protects them from plagues and weaknesses that would kill a human. They are also rumored to be able to live for five hundred years or more. However, this has not been proven in recent years due to the constant killing of the Avian-Serpiente War. Most have either dark hair and eyes, and possess the second form of ravens, crows, and sparrows. They are descended from the tribal leaders of the people who became the avians, their ancestors being Sybil, Merle, and Kyne, respectively. The Avian ambassador to the Mistari takes the form of a goshawk, which appears to be unique. The exception is the royal family, whose members take the forms of golden hawks. Their human forms have golden hair and eyes. These traits breed true over any other type of avian, so any child of a royal family member will have them despite their non-royal parent's lineage. Hawks also have tendency to produce girls when bearing children. All avians are capable of assuming a Demi form where they retain human shape while sprouting their avian wings. The monarchy is descended through the maternal line, or through the Queen, who is known as the "Tuuli Thea". Customarily the reign of the Tuuli Thea ends when her eldest daughter becomes pregnant, thus ensuring continuation of the line. The Tuuli Thea's consort does not receive a title; all avian husbands are referred to as an alistair (meaning "protector"), though a spouse of either gender is called a pair bond. Any other members of the royal family who have a hawk form are addressed formally by their family name, Shardae. First and nicknames are used only by close friends or family in private. Although the Avian society is matriarchal, men are expected to protect and honor their female counterparts. Couples are irrevocably promised to each other as children; the male, or alistair, is a constant protective presence in his betrothed's life. As seen in the traditional betrothal system, Avian culture is quite conservative. Everything is dictated by tradition, with an emphasis on respect to one's elders. Socially, avians severely repress their emotions, neither laughing nor crying publicly. This control is dubbed "avian reserve", a term coined by other shapeshifter tribes. Couples grow to be close, but refrain from sexual activity until formally wed. Avians cherish music, art, and storytelling despite its decline due to the war with the serpiente. The highest punishment among avians is to clip one's wings. The offenders flight feathers are cut and a poison is used to force them into human form. The offender can no longer access his second shape or Demi form, and trying to causes great pain. Only force-shifting, an advanced and invasive magical technique that only falcons know how to use, can reverse the damage. The avians and serpiente have warred for thousands of years. At the start of the series in Hawksong, the royal families of both sides have been nearly decimated while their respective societies and cultures slip further and further into decay. Serpiente The serpiente could not be more different from the avians. They wear their emotions openly, even in some situations where a little control might be appropriate, and are much more free-thinking than the avians. Most anything is allowed in serpiente society as long as it doesn't harm anyone. Rape is considered the highest crime, the punishment being death without a trial, the rationalization being that it is better to kill an innocent man than to let a guilty one go. As worshippers of Anhamirak, the serpiente value free choice above virtually everything else. Ordinary serpiente who follow the Cobriana line consist of emerald boas (descendants of the Dasi Danuta), pythons (Brassal), vipers (Isadora), black rats (Landon), red rats (Nalini), taipans (Donte), and mambas (Nikhil). Though the white vipers are also serpiente, they are descendants of Maeve, the high priestess who originally stood above Kiesha, and they refuse to acknowledge a cobra as their ruler. The royal line of the serpiente are the Cobriana, cobra shapeshifters and the descendants of Kiesha. Falcons refer to them in the ancient languages of ha'Shmla or ha'Dasi as the Kiesha'ra ("the Children of Kiesha"). The ruler is called the Diente and their husband or wife (referred to as "mate" in serpiente society) is called Nag (male) or Naga (female). The first prince in line for the throne is called the Arami. Unlike avians, serpiente frequently have relationships before getting married and when they do marry they choose their own mate. Serpiente culture highly values dancing as well as music and art. The dancer's guilds are, in fact, a power of their own and though they are loyal to the Cobriana, the Diente's power over them is only minimal. Serpiente are very social and are always surrounded by other children while growing up, even when sleeping. This need for company continues throughout their adult lives. Serpiente are cold-blooded even in human form and as such their body temperature is usually near room temperature. Their Demi forms allow them to see heat. This allows them to see and distinguish avians even when they are hiding due to their high body heat. Serpiente are basically invisible to this type of vision and are only recognizable by scent, another sense that is enhanced. The magic that allows serpiente to shapeshift protects them from plagues and weaknesses that would kill a human. They are also rumored to be able to live for five hundred years or more. However, this has not been proven in recent years due to the constant killing of the Avian-Serpiente War. Ordinary serpents have hair in various shades of anything varying from light, honey brown to black. Their eye color can consist of varying jewel tones including amber, sapphire, and emerald. White vipers, who are much less common being descended from a formerly exiled group of Serpiente, are known for white-blonde hair and blue eyes. The Cobriana family are known for their black hair and garnet colored eyes, which can hypnotise with a glance. Cobra traits breed true over any other serpiente traits, excepting the white vipers. All serpents can assume a Demi form which consists of their eyes becoming more brightly colored and the pupils turning into slits. They also grow fangs and snake skin. Their demi-form is less poisonous than their second form, so if bitten, the victim dies slower and more painfully. Serpiente children are born able to take their serpent form, though they don't have much control over it for the first several months and their poison does not develop for four or five years. Serpiente are not completely immune to their own venom, but have a high tolerance to all natural venoms, keeping childish tantrums from being deadly. Serpiente are able to create hybrids with both avians and falcons. However, due to the differing magics between the two races involved and the falcons hatred for mixed-bloods even between members of their own race, the children of such unions are at war with themselves and barely tolerated by their own people. The union between serpiente and avian is much more successful, resulting in a child with five forms (two full forms for avian and serpent forms, a Demi form that blends bird, snake, and human, a human form, and a blend of bird and snake referred to as a wyvern). The serpiente have been at war with the avians for thousands of years and the two sides have been slaughtering each other frequently and very efficiently. Nobody, save the original falcons of the Dasi, remembers how or why the fighting began Falcons (shm'Ahnmik) The falcons are introduced in the second book of the series, Snakecharm and are discussed in detail in the third book, Falcondance. Unlike the avians and the serpiente, who have forgotten much of their origins and all of their magic, the falcon culture has changed very little since the days after the Dasi split, to the point that they speak ha'Dasi (a variation of the Dasi's language ha'Shmla) in everyday life. Ha'Dasi is easily picked up by falcons who have spoken it only sparingly before, since it is the language of the gods and is literally a part of every falcon due to their magic. The falcons inhabit an island, which is called Ahnmik. They have their own city, which is every bit as magical as the falcons themselves. Falcon society has a strict hierarchy with even more rules than the avians. Cjarsa is the Empress and together with her heir Araceli she holds complete control of all the falcons. Implying that the royal family is anything but just, flawless, and merciful is treason and punished with death by torture. As saying that the royal family tortures anyone would be implying that they are cruel, any torture is referred to as the Empress' or the Heir's mercy. The Mercy is also the name of the local police force, which does anything the royal family orders them to, be it helping a child in need or torturing someone to death. They work in pairs, and met out punishment to other members of the Mercy when it is required. When one member feels pain, all of them do. Falcons are deadly fighters, both physically and magically, and resistance to their rules or sentences will almost certainly result in death. In spite of their strict social hierarchy, falcons act much more like serpiente than avians because of their similar origins. Falcons value dance and music and every single thing they build is a work of art. Though most falcons have a free choice of mate, they are confined to falcons of the same type as they are. Falcon children are rare, and precious, and each falcon when born causes a shift in their magic, which all falcons can feel. While children between different falcon types are more easily conceived, they often born with warped magic that usually ends up destroying both them and everything around them. Those that do not have warped magic have no magic at all. They are called kajaes, and in a culture where magic is as common as breathing, they are considered freaks, especially since they would have no wings. Children between falcons and other species are forbidden as the resulting child will have unbalanced magic. Falcon-serpent cross-breeds in particular are said to be unbalanced because the volatile nature of serpent magic 'burns' the calm falcon half. It is likely that the same is true of avian-falcon hybrids, since Avians hold the other half of the magic the Serpiente originally commanded. Mixed-bloods are commonly called mongrels, or quemak in ha'Dasi. Falcons begin studying combat as soon as they are able to walk. They usually begin studying their magic (called jaes'Ahnmik in ha'Dasi) almost as quickly. At the age of four years, they are first tested for their magic, being required to stand for a fortnight without food or drink to test their ability to use magic to sustain themselves without letting it control them. Those who have not come into their magic by the end of their first decade are likely kajaes. A very common form of falcon magic is casting powerful illusions, but more advanced techniques cover a broad range of abilities. Mindwalking is the ability to enter another person's mind as if it were another dimension. Falcons are able to heal grievous wounds, be they internal or external. Persuasion spells can be cast to enhance a particular desire and reduce other beliefs that would keep the subject from acting on the desire. Force-changing is a particularly difficult skill to master, allowing the user to manipulate another shapeshifter's magic to shift them from one form to another. It can be used to heal wounds and cure poisons, but because it is essentially the manipulation of a person's essence, it is considered incredibly invasive and is not allowed to be used by anyone except in an emergency. The only people purposely taught this skill are the Mercy. Because the user was immersed in the magic of another shapeshifter, they gain vary degrees of ability to take that users form. If used deeply enough (usually in an unsuccessful attempt to save someone), the falcon can fully take all forms of their target (human, Demi, and animal). The gift that is most prized by the Empress is sakkri weaving. Sakkri are dances that shape magic. They can be used for entertainment to evoke true emotion or physical feelings like rain or for more serious magics like creating visions of the past or future. It can take falcons centuries to master sakkri weaving well enough to join elite dancing choirs. There are also various battle magics, usually involving tangible indigo energy. Jaes'Ahnmik does not lend itself to matters of procreation. Falcons rarely have children because of it, and if it is used to heal on another species it has a high risk of making females unable to bear children. Their magic also forces them to tell the truth in all things. According to the old myths, "Ahnmik turns all vows true, all lies apparent, and the written word as blood in stone." This means that falcons cannot even make white lies for the comfort of others, possibly at the risk of their lives. All of their training is done in an effort to balance their magic. Falcons who are too weak to control their magic or whose magic is too strong to control fall to the goddess Ecl. Ecl is described by Servos as a void of nothingness, everything that never was and never can be. Her world (called Ecl'gah, which means illusion) often appears as a plain of black ice under a silver moon. It is somewhat akin to the dreamworld, being manipulated by the "dreamers" within it. It can show those who 'ride' the Ecl the past, the present, and possible futures, and those who enter it willingly and with no demands for the Ecl cannot be taken by it. This allows them to use their magic without fear, and bear the title "Mana'Ecl." Those who enter looking for its ability to numb them owe the Ecl, and she takes it by leaving them in a dreamlike coma. They are then known as shm'Ecl. They are between life and death, usually still, but occasionally lashing out with magic at the nightmares they see. The pain of coming closer to reality usually drives them deeper into Ecl, ever more unlikely to return. Shm'Ecl can sometimes sense those of royal blood despite their state, and since some have purposely fled into Ecl to be numbed to the pain of the world, they are not always pleased to be awakened. The only way to pull oneself out of Ecl is to have worldly bonds and vows to call you back. This includes things like vows to spouses, partners, or monarchs. Falcons with great skill in mindwalking could technically help the shm'Ecl, but the few with that kind of power are needed for more important tasks. The falcons (namely Araceli) developed a poison called am'haj that is deadly to the serpiente and traded large amounts of it to the avians. It kindles the remaining spark of Anhamirak magic within a serpent into a fire that destroys itself. Without their magic, the serpiente die. It can be diluted, but in its pure forms even a small scratch will knock a serpiente unconscious in a few seconds, and if it is powerful enough to knock them unconscious then it will eventually kill them. When a cobra is killed by am'haj, the garnet coloring leaves their eyes, leaving a more natural tone. It is assumed that this would hold true for other serpiente, whose jewel-toned eyes are just as unnatural. Falcon hierarchy divides them up into several classes with strict bordering lines between them. The classes are usually defined by a person's ability to control their magic or by their origin. There are four types of falcons, each of them is led by the member of the royal family they are descendants of: Gyrfalcon (Cjarsa), Peregrine (Araceli), Aplomado (Syfka), and Merlin (Servos). Cjarsa and Araceli rule the island, Syfka is the falcon's representative to the mainland, and Servos is in charge of the shm'Ecl. Pure Diamond falcons come into their magic too early, which is dangerous considering how early falcon children already begin training shortly their training. They are often mentally disturbed and either the Empress or her heir must bind their magic. Cjarsa requires them to remain on the ground so that it is easier to reach them if they have an episode. They cannot disobey or lie to members of the royal family, and so serve as more common guards than the Mercy. Their ability to see through any magic except that of a royal falcons is very useful. Falcons usually have fair skin and blonde hair. Being warm-blooded, they radiate heat like avians. Their eyes can be any shade of sapphire to blue-green, as well as silver and sometimes violet. Their hair usually develops blue, or violet streaks as they get more familiar with their magic. The customs concerning appearance on Ahnmik are strict, and the un-dyed strands are pinned back. It is also customary on Ahnmik for citizens to appear in Demi-form and not human form, like the serpiente and avians. Only quemak, kajaes, criminals, Pure Diamonds, and outsiders are forbidden to wear their wings openly. The vast majority of the falcon population wear their wings as a rule. Obsidian Guild (Maeve'ra/White Vipers) The Guild consists mainly of white vipers, the descendants of Maeve, and is first described in detail in Wolfcry. They live as exiles from serpiente society, surviving in the forests through hunting and trading with the local wolf pack. Occasionally exiled serpiente join them. Generally they are soldiers who refused to fight in the Avian-Serpiente War and were branded traitors. However, they also take in criminals who are willing to reform. Those who did not were forced out of the final safe haven. The members of the Guild follow the ways of the Nesera'rsh, the lower priests and priestesses of the Dasi cult. Because of this, the white vipers never lost their ability to do magic. However, since Maeve's magic revolved around the ability to keep the balance, their magic was never as destructive or powerful as that of the serpiente or falcons. The Rsh believed that everyone was connected on a basic level and thus when calling another by name you were really speaking your own name, hence members of the guild do not usually share their names except with their closest friends and family, being referred to only as Obsidian. The rift between the guild and serpiente society dates back to the days of the Dasi, and they are wary of the Cobriana line. In the past there have been many occasions were amnesties were offered and mass executions were delivered. Though the Guild was pardoned two generations ago, and allowed back into serpiente society, only two members of the guild took up on the offer. Though there are no longer hostilities between the two groups, the guild prefers its wandering ways to the strict laws of Wyvern's Court. Mistari This tribe is briefly mentioned in Hawksong. They are tiger shapeshifters who originally lived in Asia but were forced out by humans. They are considered to be very wise and other tribes often come to them for advice in desperate situations. When Zane Cobriana chooses to finally arrange a meeting of the leaders of the serpiente and avians after his brother's death, the meeting was arranged to be held in Mistari lands. The Mistari's female leader, the Disa, was the one who suggested the union of the two peoples by the joining of the royal families. They are the oldest of all the shapeshifters. They are mentioned again in Persistence of Memory (a novel by Atwater-Rhodes outside the Kiesha'ra series). Wolves The wolves were first mentioned in Snakecharm, and explored indepth in Wolfcry. The wolf shapeshifters live in packs led by an alpha, who can be either male or female. Their society values honor, duty, hunting skills, and strength. Leadership of a pack is determined by brute strength, anyone can challenge an alpha for their position. Each pack lives individually, and there appears to be no unified leadership. The characteristics of each pack varies from pack to pack, though this is mostly determined by the climate in which each pack lives. The packs in the south appear friendly, while those in the north are much harsher. The wolves avoided interaction with both the Avians and the Serpiente, but opened trade with both once the war ended. Lions These shapeshifters were first introduced in Wolfcry. They have no kingdom or unified leadership, instead they are nomadic prides. They work primarily as mercenaries, traveling from marketplace to marketplace and to where ever their jobs take them. References External links Official website Random House website Fantasy novel series Fiction about shapeshifting Nyeusigrube American young adult novels Novels by Amelia Atwater-Rhodes Young adult novel series
4179072	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Dragon%20Masters	The Dragon Masters	The Dragon Masters is a science fiction novella by American author Jack Vance. It was first published in Galaxy magazine, August 1962, and in 1963 in book form, as half of Ace Double F-185 (with The Five Gold Bands). It won the Hugo Award for Best Short Story in 1963. The story describes a human society living under pre-industrial conditions that has bred lizard-like intelligent aliens to function as warriors, and an encounter with a ship from the alien planet, containing both the same aliens, and humans bred by them for similar purposes. Plot summary Aerlith is a planet of rocks and wilderness orbiting a distant bright star known as Skene which appears as "an actinic point" in the daytime. The sky is described as being black rather than blue. The planet's rotation is slow, taking several days. It is so slow that dawn and dusk are accompanied by storms that follow the boundary between day and night around the planet. The night has an effect on the "Dragons" of the title, making them more vicious and unmanageable. This means that all movement of the armies must take place during daylight. Humans live in valleys where the soil is good. Occasionally they make war on each other across the hills, passes and fells between their valley homes. Their technology is limited to steel and gunpowder. They also use semi-precious stones for decoration. From time to time, often after many years, a spaceship appears and abducts as many humans as can be caught. The settlements are also bombarded, ensuring that humanity will not rise above its present technological level. During one such raid, a charismatic leader named Kergan Banbeck captures a group of the alien raiders, who are accompanied by their human servants. Without their masters, the humans go mad and destroy the ship. The aliens, many-limbed lizard-like creatures known as "grephs", become prisoners of the humans they came to kidnap. Many years later, Kergan's descendant, Joaz Banbeck, is troubled by two things. He believes the grephs will return soon, and his neighbor, Ervis Carcolo of the ironically named Happy Valley, is forever plotting against him. The captive grephs have been bred over the years into fighting creatures known as dragons, ranging from the man-sized "Termagant" to the gigantic "Jugger". As each new variety has been bred over the years, the fortunes of war have shifted between the Banbecks and the Carcolos. Now there is an uneasy peace. There is a third group of humans, the "Sacerdotes", mysterious ascetics who walk naked in all weathers. They are characterized by very long hair, pale complexions, and the golden torc each wears around the neck. Only males are seen. They trade for what they need and seem to possess advanced technologies. They believe that they are beyond human, calling the rest of humankind "Utter Men", who will eventually disappear and leave the universe to them. Joaz Banbeck tries without success to convince Ervis Carcolo and the Sacerdotes of the need to prepare for the next visit by the grephs. Ervis Carcolo, far from cooperating, attacks Banbeck Vale, only to have his army routed by Joaz's ingenious tactics. Joaz is able to confine a Sacerdote and ask him questions, only to have the man apparently die. Taking his torc and making a wig from the man's hair, Joaz attempts to examine the Sacerdotes' cave home. They are definitely working on something big. Returning home, he is confronted by the Sacerdote he had thought dead, who demands the return of his torc and walks silently away. Subsequently, Joaz has a dream in which he talks to the sacerdote leader and tries to persuade him to help. The leader, known as the Demie, refuses, claiming that to involve himself in the affairs of Utter Men is to destroy the detachment necessary to their lifestyle. Joaz suspects they are building a spaceship. Ervis Carcolo attacks again. Once again, Joaz defeats him, but at that moment, the grephs reappear. Happy Valley is destroyed and Banbeck Vale is obviously next. Besides the power of the ship itself, the grephs have humans whom they have bred, just as the men of Aerlith have bred their dragons. The "Heavy Trooper" is physically equal to the Termagant, and a "Giant" matches the monstrous Jugger. Some of the humans have been bred to track people by smell, and still others are used like horses, like their dragon counterparts, the Spiders. The grephs attack, tentatively at first. Their troops are astonished by the dragons who so resemble their masters. The fighting is bloody and Joaz moves his people into caves and tunnels for safety. The grephs decide simply to bombard the Vale since they cannot take the people. Joaz has anticipated this, and lures them to a spot where he believes the sacerdotes' workshops are located. Carcolo, almost with his last remaining energy and backed by his now demoralized troops, assaults the ship from an unguarded quarter. Joaz coincidentally decides on a similar tactic, and is amazed to find Carcolo already inside. Together they free many people, but cannot gain control of the ship. The destruction of the Vale seems inevitable, until Joaz's scheme pays off. The Sacerdote cavern is blown open, and the Sacerdotes are forced to use the engine of their spaceship to project a beam of energy at the alien ship, disabling it. Joaz and his troops complete the rout and capture the ship. However, the Sacerdote ship is destroyed. The Demie is driven out of his detachment by what Joaz has forced him to do. He upbraids Joaz for causing the destruction of the work of centuries just to save himself. Joaz refuses to apologize, and when Carcolo, now a prisoner, absurdly continues to assert his claim to the ship, Joaz has him executed. At the end, Joaz surveys the ruins of his home. He picks up a small round object, a semi-precious stone carved to be a globe of Eden or Tempe or even Earth, the mythical home of humans. He plans to find the other worlds where humans live, if he can repair the alien ship. For now, he must rebuild the homes of his people. He tosses the globe back on the rockpile and walks away. Characters Joaz Banbeck Joaz Banbeck is the lord of Banbeck Vale. He is descended from a line of ruthless and charismatic fighters, particularly Kergan Banbeck who captured almost the entire crew of a greph ship, thus establishing the breeding population from which the Dragons are descended. Joaz himself is educated and cultured, and regarded as weak by his enemies because of that. His people, however, live well thanks to well-built dwellings, mostly in freshly-excavated caves, and a well-engineered water supply from a dam. Banbeck Vale is described as having better soil than the other valley habitats. Joaz has various artifacts in his possession that show his interest in matters beyond the planet he lives on. One is a globe made of marble that depicts a world variously known as Eden, Tempe, or Earth, the original home of humans. Another is a device that shows the local stars in relation to each other in real time, allowing Joaz to predict the close approach of the star Coralyne, whose appearance always means a greph invasion. Joaz's family life is only hinted at. There is mention of a son and the son's mother, but other than that his main companion is Phade, a "minstrel-maiden" who seems to act as a geisha or even a concubine. Joaz's rival Ervis Carcolo is described as having many wives, and it is reasonable to suppose that Joaz may also have more than one consort. Ervis Carcolo Ervis Carcolo is lord of the ironically named Happy Valley. He is also descended from famous fighters. However, he is obsessed with regaining the glory Happy Valley once enjoyed, before the first greph invasion, and the subsequent Dragon wars. He focuses entirely on breeding more and better Dragons at the expense of the well-being of his people. Joaz Banbeck points out that most of his people live in huts rather than caves, leaving them easy prey for the grephs. Carcolo dismisses him as weak and effete. His only reason to parley with Joaz is to invite him to plot against the Sacerdotes. Carcolo is probably older than Joaz, since he fought in battle against Joaz's great-uncle when Joaz himself was just a sickly child. At that time Carcolo was gored by a horned Dragon but managed to retreat. Since that time there has been an uneasy peace between the two communities. Bast Givven Bast Givven is Carcolo's Head Dragon Master, military adviser and to some extent, his conscience. When Carcolo plots attacks on Banbeck Vale it is Givven who points out the poor quality of their forces, particularly their lack of large Dragons. Givven has a deep understanding of tactics and knows the limitations of men and Dragons in the peculiar conditions of Aerlith. After Carcolo is executed, Joaz makes Givven lord of Happy Valley, or at least what is left of it. Dae Alvonso Dae Alvonso is an itinerant merchant, and a trafficker in dragon eggs, children, gossip, and anything else that will make him a profit. He is used by both Joaz Banbeck and Ervis Carcolo to send messages to each other. Phade Phade is a "minstrel-maiden" in the service of Joaz Banbeck. She is trained to entertain and please men, though the exact nature of her services is not described. She is the one who discovers the sacerdote in Joaz's study at the beginning of the story. Her impressions of Joaz, particularly her inability to understand his personality to apply her training to him, serve to introduce him before he first appears in the story. Thereafter she is an interlocutor character to whom Joaz explains elements of the plot. The Sacerdotes The sacerdotes are ascetics who walk naked in all weathers and are devoted to truth and knowledge. Their only attire is a golden torc around the neck and their long hair. They live in caves somewhere around Banbeck Vale and possibly in other locations. Only male sacerdotes are seen outside the caves, although Joaz sees females when he sneaks into the sacerdote cave. Like the men they are thin with clear pale skin, long hair and no clothes. The most important thing in a sacerdote's life is the tand, a construction of twisted wire created by each individual based on study of the original tand. The tand reflects the individual's personality and philosophy. It is judged by the senior sacerdotes, and based on their assessment the individual can enjoy promotion within the community, or even be expelled. One feature of the sacerdote creed is that they must answer any question put to them, and answer truthfully. On the other hand, they are skilled at giving answers that avoid giving away their secrets, or affecting the conduct of others. Some answers can be accurate but useless. For instance, when dealing with a human emissary from the grephs, Kergan Banbeck asks a sacerdote how he can persuade the emissary to do as he wishes. The sacerdote suggests erasing his memory and rewriting it, clearly an impossible task. The sacerdotes have no names. Their leader is called "The Demie". Two sacerdotes and the Demie feature in the plot. One is the sacerdote who invades Joaz Banbeck's personal chambers. He is discovered by Phade but escapes via a secret passage. Joaz discovers the passage and sets a trap which the sacerdote later springs. Joaz detains him and asks him questions about his reason for being there. The sacerdote is evasive but admits that his mission is to learn about Joaz, and implies that he is in line to become the Demie. After lengthy questioning, he enters a deathlike state, whereupon Joaz uses his hair to fashion a wig and, taking the torc he wears, enters the secret passage himself disguised as a sacerdote. The sacerdote himself revives just as Joaz returns from his expedition. Another sacerdote appeared, years before, as Kergan Banbeck, having captured twenty-three grephs, negotiated with a human servant of the grephs. The emissary speaks and thinks in a way that Kergan cannot handle. To the emissary, reality is a predestined sequence of events that does not include the holding of grephs as hostages. The only way of preserving reality is for the hostages to be released. The sacerdote understands this, but cannot or will not make any suggestion that gets Kergan what he wants. The grephs As the captive grephs are led away by Kergan Banbeck, we gain some insight into their thought processes. They think of themselves as "The Revered". Their entire philosophy is predicated on a series of predestined events described in a way similar to the mathematics of quantum mechanics. Some events and outcomes – such as being captured – are forbidden for the Revered. They are therefore forced to conclude that they are not Revered and must be some other kind of creature altogether. The grephs are described as "standing on two legs, with two versatile members at mid-body, a pair of multi-articulated brachs at the neck", indicating that they have six limbs. As they provided the original breeding stock for the Dragons, they are also called Basics. The Dragons After many years of breeding by the humans, thanks to their providing eggs almost every year, the Dragons are changed into semi-intelligent beasts that can be trained to use weapons and respond to voice commands using "dragon talk", a code that is different for each dragon army. Their scaly skin resists bullets and blades, except in certain vulnerable locations. Breeds include: Termagants - these are closest to the Basics in size. They are tough, reproduce quickly, and can be trained to use pistol, sword and mace. They are usually the biggest component of a Dragon army. The color of their scales is rusty-red. Murderers - these come in two varieties, known as Striding and Long-horned. They are not described in detail, except to note that the Long-horned variety has a horn growing from the midsection, although another part of the story implies that there are horns on the head as well. Murderers seem to be used as shock troops. The color of their scales is brown. Fiends - these are squat, powerful beasts that can fight with sword and mace, but also have a heavy spiked ball at the end of a tail. This can be swung from side to side. It is particularly effective against Juggers if the Fiend can employ it between the Jugger's legs. The color of their scales is black-green. Blue Horrors - these are agile beasts equipped with pincers enabling them to dismember an opponent. The color of their scales is toxic-blue. Juggers - these are much larger than all the other Dragon breeds. They can use large hand weapons, but they are slow and ponderous. They are also hard to breed, so an army will have relatively few Juggers. However they can be extremely effective in the right situation, being able to pick up opponents and tear them apart. The color of their scales is grey. Spiders - these are bred to be large and fast enough to carry a human rider. The name implies that they use all available limbs for running. A high status individual such as Ervis Carcolo rides a beast that has been heavily decorated and is well-disciplined. Servants of the grephs The grephs use the humans they harvest from different planets in the same way as the humans on Aerlith use the Dragons. Since humans breed more slowly than grephs, they are less diverse than the Dragons. In the story, the humans encounter the following types: Heavy Troopers. Short and squat, these are the infantry soldiers of the grephs. They use various weapons, ranging from "blasters" to swords, and are equipped with body armor. One Heavy Trooper is typically able to defeat a single Termagant in hand-to-hand combat. Weaponeers. These are similar to the men of Aerlith. They are in charge of advanced weapons, as their name implies. They are also used as go-betweens in negotiations. Giants. Described as "twice the size of a man", they have body armor and can carry large "energy projectors". However they are no match for the Juggers in hand-to-hand combat. Trackers. Bred for a highly developed sense of smell, they are used to find opponents who are hiding. They have enlarged noses and weak or nonexistent chins. They are agile and can climb quickly. Mounts. These are humans bred to run on all fours and carry a greph on their backs. Matrons. These are seen in the dormitories where the humans captured by the grephs are kept. Mechanics. Described as small and sharp-featured, these are the maintenance crews on the greph ships. Release details New York: Ace Books, 1963, Paperback (Ace Double F-185 bound with The Five Gold Bands) London: Dennis Dobson, 1965, Hardback (first separate edition) References Sources External links The Dragon Masters on the Internet Archive 1963 short stories Science fiction short stories Hugo Award for Best Short Story winning works Short stories by Jack Vance Works originally published in Galaxy Science Fiction Ace Books books 1963 novels 1963 science fiction novels
4179247	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave%20Gallaher	Dave Gallaher	David Gallaher (30October 1873 – 4October 1917) was an Irish-born New Zealand rugby union footballer best remembered as the captain of the "Original All Blacks"—the 1905–06 New Zealand national team, the first representative New Zealand side to tour the British Isles. Under Gallaher's leadership the Originals won 34 out of 35 matches over the course of tour, including legs in France and North America; the New Zealanders scored 976 points and conceded only 59. Before returning home he co-wrote the classic rugby text The Complete Rugby Footballer with his vice-captain Billy Stead. Gallaher retired as a player after the 1905–06 tour and took up coaching and selecting; he was a selector for both Auckland and New Zealand for most of the following decade. Born in Ramelton, Ireland, Gallaher migrated to New Zealand with his family as a small child. After moving to Auckland, in 1895 he joined Ponsonby RFC and was selected for his province in 1896. In 1901–02 he served with the New Zealand Contingent in the Anglo-Boer War. He first appeared on the New Zealand national team for their unbeaten tour of Australia in 1903, and played in New Zealand's first ever Test match, against Australia in Sydney. The Originals Gallaher captained during 1905–06 helped to cement rugby as New Zealand's national sport, but he was relentlessly pilloried by the British press for his role as wing-forward. The use of a wing-forward, which critics felt was a tactic to deliberately obstruct opponents, contributed to decades of strain between the rugby authorities of New Zealand and the Home Nations; the International Rugby Football Board (IRFB) effectively outlawed the position in 1931. During the First World War, Gallaher enlisted in the New Zealand Division to fight in Europe. He was fatally wounded by shrapnel wounds to the head in 1917 at the Battle of Passchendaele in Belgium. He has since been inducted into the World Rugby Hall of Fame, International Rugby Hall of Fame, and the New Zealand Sports Hall of Fame. A number of memorials exist in Gallaher's honour, including the Gallaher Shield for the winner of Auckland's club championship, and the Dave Gallaher Trophy contested between the national teams of France and New Zealand. Early life Dave Gallaher was born as David Gallagher on 30October 1873 at Ramelton, County Donegal, Ireland, the third son of James Henry Gallagher, a 69-year-old shopkeeper, and his 29-year-old wife, Maria Hardy Gallagher (née McCloskie). James was a widower who had married Maria in 1866, a year after the death of his first wife. James had two children from his first marriage, and David was the seventh from his marriage to Maria. The couple had three more children after David, but of their ten offspring, three died in infancy. The couple's other offspring were: Joseph (born 1867), Isabella (1868), James (1869), Maria (called Molly, 1870), Jane (1871), Thomas (1872), William (1875), Oswald (1876), and James Patrick (1878). David was baptised as a Presbyterian in the First Ramelton Meeting House on 8January 1874. After the struggling in his drapery business in Ramelton, James decided to emigrate with his family to New Zealand as part of George Vesey Stewart's Katikati Special Settlement scheme. In May 1878 the Gallaghersminus the sick James Patrick who at eight weeks old was too weak to make the tripsailed from Belfast on the Lady Jocelyn for Katikati in the Bay of Plenty. On arriving in New Zealand, the family altered their surname to "Gallaher" in an effort to reduce confusion over its spelling and pronunciation. The Gallaher couple and their six children arrived in Auckland after a three-month voyage, and from there sailed to Tauranga in the Bay of Plenty, before their final voyage to Katikati. On arrival they found the settlement scheme was not what they had envisaged or been promised: the land allocated to the family required enormous work to be broken in before being suitable for farming, there was no easy access to water, and the settlement was very hilly. It had been hoped that James would be employed as the agent for the Donegal Knitting Company in New Zealand, which was to be established by Lord George Hill. But Hill died unexpectedly and his successor did not support the initiative. As the family's poor quality land was insufficient to make a living, the children's mother Maria soon became the chief breadwinner after she obtained a position teaching for £2 a week at the new No. 2 School. In January 1886 David spent a week in Auckland hospital undergoing surgery to treat stunted muscles in his left leg which had led to curvature of his spine. His mother became sick that same year, and in 1887 lost her teaching position. His mother's condition worsened and she died of cancer on 9September 1887. With a father in his seventies, the 13-year-old David was compelled to leave school so he could help his brothers to support the family. He took a job with a local stock and station agent. The older Gallaher children had to work to prevent the local authorities from putting their younger siblings up for adoption. In 1889, with the exception of William who remained in Katikati, the family joined Joseph in Auckland, where he had found work. Davidwho was by now 17 years oldwas able to obtain work at the Northern Roller Mills Company, and was soon a member of the firm's junior cricket team. In the late 1890s Gallaher took employment at the Auckland Farmers' Freezing Company as a labourer; by the time of his deployment for the First World War two decades later he had risen to the position of foreman. His work required the constant handling of heavy animal carcasses, which helped him build upper body strength and kept him fit. Early rugby career Gallaher first gained attention for his talents as a rugby player while living in Katikati. After moving to Auckland, he played junior rugby for Parnell from 1890. He joined the Ponsonby District Rugby Football Club in 1895, after the family moved to Freemans Bay following Joseph's marriage to Nell Burchell. Gallaher, who played at hooker, was selected for an Auckland "B" side that year, and made his debut for Auckland against the touring Queensland team on 8August 1896. The Aucklanders won 15–6. Gallaher was retained for Auckland's remaining fixtures that season: defeats to Wellington, Taranaki and Otago. In 1897, Gallaher's Ponsonby won eight of their nine matches en route to the Auckland club championship. He was selected to play for Auckland against the New Zealand representative side that had just completed a tour of Australia. The Aucklanders won 11–10 after scoring a late try; it was only New Zealand's second loss of their eleven-match tour. Later that year Gallaher was selected for Auckland's three-match tour where they defeated Taranaki, Wellington and Wanganui. Wellington's defeat was their first loss at home since the formation of the Wellington Rugby Football Union in 1879. The following season was less eventful for Gallaherhe played much of the season for Ponsonby, but injury prevented his selection for Auckland. After missing the 1898 season for Auckland, Gallaher continued to be selected for the union throughout 1899 and 1900. The side was undefeated over this time; he played for them twice in 1899, and in all four matches in 1900. He represented Auckland a total of 26 times over his career. Anglo-Boer War In January 1901 Gallaher joined the Sixth New Zealand Contingent of Mounted Rifles for service in the Anglo-Boer War. When enlisting he gave his date of birth as 31October 1876, three years later than the actual date. It is unknown why he did this but the later date continued to be used in official records for the rest of his life. Gallaher was given a send-off dinner by his Ponsonby club before the contingent departed from Auckland on 31January. After disembarking in South Africa at East London on 14March 1901, Gallaher's contingent immediately embarked for Pretoria, and it was there that, as part of forces under the command of General Herbert Plumer, they set about their task of "rid[ding] the Northern Transvaal of Boer guerrillas and sympathizers." A member of the contingent's 16th (Auckland) Company, he served in the advanced guard, who scouted ahead of the main force. In October 1901 Gallaher contracted malaria, and was hospitalised in Charlestown, Natal. In a letter he composed to his sister while recovering he wrote: Between late December 1901 and early January 1902 Gallaher and his contingent were involved in a number of skirmishes. He described one incident where he had several Boer fighters in his sights, but did not have "the heart" to fire at them while they rescued one of their comrades. Describing a later encounter to his sister, Gallaher wrote: "We had a total of 22 killed and 36 injured and a few taken prisoners[;] it was a pretty mournful sight to see the Red Cross bearers cruising around the field fetching all the dead and wounded who were laying all over the place". By March 1902 Gallaher had reached the rank of squadron sergeant-major, and his contingent was on its way to Durban. There the unit boarded ship for New Zealand, but Gallaher stayed behind, transferring to the Tenth New Zealand Contingent. His new unit did not see active service in South Africa, and he returned with them to New Zealand in August 1902. For his service Gallaher received the Queen's South Africa Medal (Cape Colony, Orange Free State, and Transvaal Clasps), and King's South Africa Medal (South Africa 1901 and South Africa 1902 Clasps). Resumption of his rugby career During his time in South Africa Gallaher did play some rugby, including captaining the New Zealand military team that played ten games and won the rugby championship among the British forces. But he was not fit enough to play immediately upon his return to New Zealand, and so did not resume playing rugby for Ponsonby until the 1903 season. When he did return for his club, for the first match of the year, he was described as "the outstanding forward" in a comprehensive defeat of Parnell. Despite having missed two seasons of provincial rugby, Gallaher was included in the 22-man New Zealand representative squad to tour Australia during 1903. He was the first Ponsonby player ever to play for the New Zealand team, commonly known as the "All Blacks". The 1903 team to Australia was, according to Winston McCarthy's 1968 history of the All Blacks, "still regarded by old-timers as the greatest team to ever leave New Zealand." The tour did not start wella preliminary match in New Zealand, against Wellington, was lost 14–5, though Gallaher did score his first try for his country. Gallaher played eight matchesthe first four as hooker and the remainder as wing-forwardout of eleven during the six-week tour. The party was captained by the veteran Otago player Jimmy Duncan, who was widely recognised as a master tactician. The first match in Australia, against New South Wales, was won 12–0 by the New Zealanders, despite their having a man sent off. After playing a Combined Western Districts side, New Zealand played a second match against New South Wales. New Zealand won again, but only 3–0 on a flooded pitch at Sydney Cricket Ground. The side continued touring the state before making their way north to Queensland, where they twice played the state side. The New Zealanders then returned to New South Wales, where the first-ever Australia–New Zealand rugby union Test match took place in Sydney. Since the selection of the first New Zealand team in 1884, inter-colonial games had been played against New South Wales (ten New Zealand wins from thirteen matches), and Queensland (seven New Zealand wins from seven), but none had been contested against a combined Australian side. The matchwon 22–3 by the New Zealanders, who scored three tries to nilmarked Gallaher's first international cap. The last match of the tour was against New South Wales Country; New Zealand won 32–0. On their ten-match tour of Australia, New Zealand had scored 276 points and conceded only 13. Back in New Zealand, Gallaher was selected for the North Island in his first ever Inter-Island match; the South won 12–5. He then continued playing for Auckland, who were conducting a tour of both islands. Gallaher appeared in six of their seven matches, against Taranaki, Wellington, Southland, Otago, Canterbury, and South Canterbury. Auckland lost the first two matches, but won the others. In 1904 the first Ranfurly Shield match was played. The shield, a provincial challenge trophy won by defeating the holder, was to become the most prestigious trophy in domestic New Zealand rugby. Due to their unmatched provincial record at the time Auckland were awarded the shield. The first shield challenge was played against Wellington, who were not expected to pose much of a threat. Auckland had not lost at home in six years, but, with Gallaher in the side, were upset 6–3 by the Wellingtonians. Gallaher was then selected for the New Zealand team that faced the touring British Isles in what was New Zealand's first Test match on home soil. The British team were conducting a tour of Australia and New Zealand, and had finished their Australian leg unbeaten. Jimmy Duncan, who was coaching New Zealand after retiring as a player, said before the historic match: "I have given them directions. It's man for man all the time, and I have bet Gallaher a new hat that he can't catch [Percy] Bush. Bush has never been collared in Australia but he'll get it today." The match was tied 3–3 at half-time, but New Zealand were the stronger side in the second half and eventually won 9–3. Gallaher was praised by press for his all-round display at wing-forward, but in particular for his successful harassment of the British Isles' half-back Tommy Vile. The New Zealand defeat was the first tour loss for the British side, who then drew with a combined Taranaki-Wanganui-Manawatu side before travelling to Auckland. Gallaher played for Auckland against the tourists and scored one of the tries in their 13–0 victory. He was part of a forward pack that dominated their opponents, and again he troubled Vile; his tackling of Vile and Bush killed many British attacks. The rugby historian Terry McLean would write in 1987 that "his display could be ranked with the finest exhibitions of wing-forward play". Gallaher represented Auckland once more in 1904, a 3–0 loss to Taranaki. 1905 tour Background and preparations At the end of the 1904 season the New Zealand Rugby Football Union (NZRFU) suspended Gallaher from playing after a disagreement over a claim for expenses he had submitted to the Auckland Rugby Football Union for travel to play in the match against the British Isles. Eventually the matter was resolved when, under protest, Gallaher repaid the disputed amount. This settlement, coupled with his performance in 26–0 North Island win over the South Island in the pre-tour trial, allowed Gallaher to be considered for selection for New Zealand's 1905–06 tour of Europe and North America. The NZRFU had been trying to secure an invitation to send a team to Britain for some time, and were finally able to secure satisfactory financial guarantees to proceed in 1905. This was the first representative New Zealand team to undertake such a tour, though a privately organised team, the New Zealand Natives, had preceded them in 1888–89. The NZRFU named Gallaher captain for the tour, with Billy Stead as vice-captain. A week into the voyage to Britain aboard the SS Rimutaka, rumours circulated that some of the southern players were unhappy with the appointment of Gallaher, and with what they perceived as an Auckland bias in the squad. The dissidents contended that the captain and vice-captain should have been elected by the players, as they had been on the 1897 and 1903 tours to Australia. Gallaher recognised the damage factionalism might do to the team and offered to resign, as did the vice-captain Stead. Although the teams' manager refused to accept the resignations, the players still took a vote—17 out of 29 endorsed the NZRFU's selections. During the voyage to England the team conducted training drills on the ship's deck; for this the forwards were coached by Gallaher and fellow player Bill Cunningham, while Stead was in charge of the backs. Consequently, the services of the NZRFU-appointed coach Jimmy Duncan were not used; his appointment had caused opposition from many in the squad who believed his expertise was not required, and that an extra player should have been taken on tour instead. After a six-week voyage, the team arrived in Plymouth, England on 8September 1905. Early tour matches The New Zealanders' first match was against the Devon county side at Exeter. A close contest was expected, but New Zealand ran out 55–4 winners, scoring twelve tries and conceding only a drop-goal. Reaction to the match was mixedthe team were accompanied by a cheering crowd and marching band following the win, but Gallaher's play at wing-forward provoked some criticism in the press. The use of a wing-forward was a distinctive feature of New Zealand play. Instead of having eight men in the scrum as was normal elsewhere, seven men were usedthe missing man, the wing-forward, instead fed the ball into the scrum then held onto one of their hookers while the ball progressed through the scrum to their half-back. With the wing-forward bound to the side of the scrum, the opposing half-back would then have to manoeuvre past him to tackle the player with the ball. This increased the amount of time the half-back would have in possession of the ball before his opposite could tackle him. The use of this new tactic by New Zealand meant that Gallaher, the team's wing-forward, was repeatedly accused by the English of obstruction, though the referee Percy Coles, an official of the English Rugby Football Union (RFU), rarely penalised him in the Devon match. The Originals' fullback Billy Wallace posited that New Zealand's superior scrum made Gallaher's style of play more prominent. Unlike British and Irish teams of the time, New Zealand employed specialist positions for their forwards. Despite often facing an extra man in the scrum, the New Zealanders "drove like a cleaver through British forward packs". Gallaher later said: "I think my play is fairI sincerely trust soand surely the fact that both Mr Percy Coles and Mr D. H. Bowentwo of the referees of our matches, and fairly representative of English and Welsh ideas, have taken no exception so it ought to have some weight." The British press, looking to find fault in New Zealand's play, continued to criticise Gallaher throughout the tour. Gallaher believed the key to his side's success was a difference in playing styles, while Winston McCarthy believed the unique backline formation to be a major factor. Following the opening match the "All Blacks"as the New Zealand team came to be knowndefeated Cornwall and then Bristol, both 41–0. They then defeated Northampton 32–0. The tour continued in much the same way, with the All Blacks defeating Leicester, Middlesex, Durham, Hartlepool Clubs and Northumberland; in nearly all cases the defeats were inflicted without conceding any points (the one exception being Durham, who scored a try against New Zealand). The New Zealanders then comfortably defeated Gloucester and Somerset before facing Devonport Albion, the incumbent English club champions, who had not lost at home in 18 months. New Zealand beat them 21–3 in front of a crowd of 20,000. Gallaher scored the All Blacks' final try, an effort described by the Plymouth Herald as, "... a gem. It was a tearing rush for about fifty yards with clockwork-like passing all the way." New Zealand won their next seven matches, including victories over Blackheath, Oxford University and Cambridge University. Billy Wallace contended that the New Zealanders' form peaked with the win over Blackheath; he recalled that "after this game injuries began to take their toll and prevented us ever putting in so fine a team again on the tour." By the time the All Blacks played their first Test match, against Scotland, the team had played and won nineteen matches, and scored 612 points while conceding only 15. Scotland, Ireland and England internationals The Scottish Football Union (SFU), the governing body for rugby union in Scotland, did not give the New Zealanders an official welcome, and sent only one official to greet them on their arrival in Edinburgh. In addition, the SFU refused a financial guarantee for the match, promising the gate receipts to the New Zealanders instead; this meant that the NZRFU had to take on all monetary responsibilities for the match. One reason for the cold reception from the SFU may have been because of negative reports from David Bedell-Sivright, who was Scotland's captain and had also captained the British Isles team on their 1904 tour of New Zealand. Bedell-Sivright had reported unfavourably on his experiences in New Zealand the previous year, especially regarding the wing-forward play of Gallaher. When time for the Scotland Test did arrive, it was discovered that as the ground had not been covered for protection from the elements, and had frozen over. The SFU wanted to abandon the match, but Gallaher and the tour manager George Dixon contended that the weather would improve enough for the pitch to thaw, and the match was eventually allowed to proceed. The Test was closely contested, with Scotland leading 7–6 at half-time, but the All Blacks scored two late tries to win 12–7; despite the close score-line, the New Zealanders were clearly the better of the two sides. Four days later the tourists played a West of Scotland selection, where they received a much warmer reception than for the Scotland match, then travelled via Belfast to Dublin where they faced Ireland. Gallaher did not play in either match due to a leg injury suffered during the Scotland Test. New Zealand won the Ireland match 15–0, then defeated a team representing Munster province. By the time of New Zealand's next game, against England in London, Gallaher had recovered from his injury enough to play. Between 40,000 and 80,000 saw the match. The All Blacks scored five tries (four by Duncan McGregor, playing at wing) to win 15–0. According to the England player Dai Gent, the victory would have been even greater had the match conditions been dry. "One cannot help thinking that England might have picked a stronger side," said Gallaher. "From our experience, we did not think that this side was fully representative of the best men to be found in the country." Observers noted that Gallaher still seemed to be suffering from his leg injury during the match. New Zealand played three more matches in Englandwins over Cheltenham, Cheshire, and Yorkshirebefore travelling on to Wales. Wales Wales were the dominant rugby country of the four Home Nations, and in the middle of a "golden age" at the time. Many commentators in both New Zealand and the United Kingdom felt the Welsh test was the best chance of stopping an All Blacks clean sweep. As such, the game was billed as the "Match of the Century" even before the tourists had left New Zealand. Gallaher and his team faced them three days after the Yorkshire match. The All Blacks had thus far played 27 matches on tour, scoring 801 points while conceding only 22, and all in only 88 days. They were struggling to field fifteen fit players; a number of their best players, including Stead, were unavailable due to injury. The match was preceded by an All Black haka, to which the crowd responded with the Welsh national song "Land of my Fathers". Wales had developed tactics to negate the seven-man New Zealand scrum, and removed a man from their scrum to play as a "rover", equivalent to Gallaher's wing-forward position. Gallaher was consistently penalised by the Scottish referee, John Dallas, who held that the New Zealander was feeding the ball into the scrum incorrectly. This eventually compelled Gallaher to instruct his team not to contest the scrums, and therefore give Wales possession following each scrum. Bob Deans, playing at wing for New Zealand that day, later said that Dallas had gone "out to penalise Gallaherthere is no doubt about that". Teddy Morgan scored an unconverted try for Wales shortly before half-time to give the home side a 3–0 lead. The New Zealand backs had been poor in the first half, and the side's general form was well below that of earlier in the tour. However New Zealand were generally perceived to be the better side in the second half, with the performance of the Welsh fullback Bert Winfield keeping his team in the game. The most controversial moment of the tour happened late in the second half. Wallace recovered a Welsh kick and cut across the field, and with only Winfield to beat, passed to the New Zealand wing Deans. What happened next has provoked intense debate: Deans was tackled by the Welsh and either fell short of the try-line, or placed the ball over it before being dragged back. Dallas, who had dressed in heavy clothing and was struggling to keep up with the pace of the game, was behind play. When he arrived he ruled that Deans was short of the try-line, and so did not award New Zealand a try. Play continued, but the All Blacks could not score, and Wales won 3–0. This was New Zealand's first loss of the tour. Following the match Gallaher was asked if he was unhappy with any aspect of the game; he replied that "the better team won and I am content." When asked about Dallas's refereeing, he said: "I have always made it a point never to express a view regarding the referee in any match in which I have played". Gallaher was gracious in defeat, but Dixon was highly critical of both Dallas and the Welsh newspapers, who he accused of "violently and unjustly" attacking New Zealand's captain. Gallaher would later admit that he had been annoyed by this criticism, which he found unfair; he also pointed out that though the Welsh condemned the wing-forward position, they had themselves adopted some elements of it. Later during the tour, when discussing the issue of his feeding the ball into the scrum, he said: Four more matches were contested in Wales, with Gallaher appearing in three. He played in the match against Glamorgan, won by New Zealand 9–0, but had his finger bitten, which was serious enough for him to miss the fixture against Newport. He returned to face Cardiff, the Welsh champions, on Boxing Day. Gallaher was again booed by the Welsh crowd, and once more the All Blacks were troubled in the scrum, this time after losing a player to injury. The New Zealanders won, but narrowly; Gallaher asserted after the match that Cardiff were the strongest club side they had met during the tour. New Zealand then faced Swansea in their last match in the British Isles. Gallaher again struggled to field a fit side, and at 3–0 down late in the match they were heading for their second defeat on tour. Wallace kicked a drop-goalthen worth four pointslate in the game to give the All Blacks a narrow 4–3 victory. France, North America, and return The side departed Wales and travelled to Paris, where they faced France on 1January 1906, in the home side's first ever Test match. The All Blacks led 18–3 at half time. After the French scored their second try, giving them 8 pointsthe most any team had scored against the All Blacksthe New Zealanders responded with six unanswered tries to win 38–8. They then returned to London, where they learned that New Zealand's Prime Minister, Richard Seddon, had arranged for them to return home via North America. Not all of the players were keen on the idea, and four did not make the trip, but the new plans did give the team over two weeks to spend in England before their departure. Before the New Zealand squad left Britain for North America, the English publisher Henry Leach asked Stead and Gallaher to author a book on rugby tactics and play. They finished the task in under a fortnight and were each paid £50. Entitled The Complete Rugby Footballer, the book was 322 pages long and included chapters on tactics and play, as well as a summary of rugby's history in New Zealand including the 1905 tour. It was mainly authored by Stead, a bootmaker, with Gallaher contributing most of the diagrams. Gallaher almost certainly made some contributions to the text, including sections on Auckland club rugby, and on forward play. The book showed the All Blacks' tactics and planning to be superior to others of the time, and according to Matt Elliott is "marvellously astute"; it received universal acclaim on its publication. According to a 2011 assessment by ESPN's Graham Jenkins, it "remains one of the most influential books produced in the realms of rugby literature". The New Zealanders travelled to New York City, where they played an exhibition game, then on to San Francisco. There they played two official matches against British Columbia, and won both easily. The tour programme thus ended; New Zealand had played 35 games and lost only once. Gallaher had played in 26 of those matches, including four Tests. Over their 32 matches in the British Isles New Zealand scored 830 points and conceded 39; overall they scored 976 points and conceded only 59. On their arrival back in New Zealand on 6March 1906, the All Blacks were welcomed by a crowd of 10,000 before being hosted at a civic reception in Auckland. Invited to speak at the reception, Gallaher said: "We did not go behind our back to talk about the Welshman, but candidly said that on that day the better team had won. I have one recommendation to make to the New Zealand [Rugby] Union, if it was to undertake such a tour again, and that is to play the Welsh matches first." Aftermath and impact The 1905–06 Originals are remembered as perhaps the greatest of All Black sides, and set the standard for all their successors. They introduced a number of innovations to Britain and Ireland, including specialised forward positions and unfamiliar variations in attacking plays. But while their success helped establish rugby as New Zealand's national sport and fed a growing sporting nationalism, the controversial wing-forward position contributed to strained ties with the Home Nations' rugby authorities. British and Irish administrators were also wary of New Zealand's commitment to the amateur ethos, and questioned their sportsmanship. According to the historian Geoffrey Vincent, many in the traditional rugby establishment believed that: "Excessive striving for victory introduced an unhealthy spirit of competition, transforming a character-building 'mock fight' into 'serious fighting'. Training and specialization degraded sport to the level of work." The success of the Originals provoked plans for a professional team of players to tour England and play Northern Union clubs in what is now known as rugby league. Unlike rugby league, which was professional, rugby union was strictly amateur at the time, and in 1907 a professional team from New Zealand known as the "All Golds" (originally a play on "All Blacks") toured England and Wales before introducing rugby league to both New Zealand and Australia. According to historian Greg Ryan, the All Golds tour "confirmed many British suspicions about the rugby culture that had shaped the 1905 team." These factors may have contributed to the gap between All Black tours of the British Islesthey next toured in 1924. The NZRFU was denied representation on the International Rugby Football Board (IRFB)composed exclusively of English, Irish, Scottish and Welsh membersuntil 1948. After complaining about the wing-forward for years, the Home Nations-administered IRFB made a series of law changes that effectively outlawed the position in 1931. Auckland and All Black selector Gallaher retired from playing after the All Blacks' tour, but remained involved in the sport as a coach and selector. He coached at age group level for Ponsonby and in 1906 succeeded Fred Murray as sole selector of the Auckland provincial team. He was Auckland selector until 1916; over this time Auckland played 65 games, won 48, lost 11 and drew 6. Gallaher did make a brief comeback as a playertravelling as the selector of an injury depleted Auckland team, he turned out against Marlborough at Blenheim in 1909; Marlborough won 8–3. He also played against the Maniapoto sub-union just over a week later. Auckland held the Ranfurly Shield from 1905 to 1913, successfully defending it 23 times. The team struggled to retain the shield during 1912 and 1913 and eventually lost it to Taranaki in a 14–11 defeat. During Gallaher's tenure as selector Auckland inflicted an 11–0 defeat of the touring 1908 Anglo-Welsh side, defeated the New Zealand Māori in 1910, and beat Australia 15–11 in 1913. Gallaher was also a national selector from 1907 to 1914, and with George Nicholson co-coached the All Blacks against the 1908 Anglo-Welsh team. A number of Gallaher's team-mates from the 1905–06 tour were included in the New Zealand squad for the series; of three Tests, the All Blacks won two and drew the other. During Gallaher's incumbency as a national selector, New Zealand played 50 matches, won 44, lost four and drew two. This included 16 Tests, of which only one was lost and two drawn. First World War Although exempt from conscription due to his age, Gallaher enlisted in May 1916. While awaiting for his call-up to begin training he learnt that his younger brother Company Sergeant-Major Douglas Wallace Gallaher had been killed while serving with the 11th Australian Battalion at Laventie near Fromelles on 3June 1916. Douglas had been living in Perth, Australia prior to the war and had previously been wounded at Gallipoli. Biographer Matt Elliott describes it as a "myth" that Gallaher enlisted to avenge his younger brother; rather he claims that it was most likely due to "loyalty and duty". After enlisting and completing his basic training at Trentham he was posted to 22nd Reinforcements, 2nd Battalion, Auckland Regiment within the New Zealand Division. Gallaher left New Zealand aboard the Aparima in February 1917 and reached Britain on 2May. Gallaher was a member of the ship's Sports Committee and spent time organising and practising for a planned rugby match at the Cape of Good Hopeit is unknown if the match ever took place. After arriving in England he was promoted to the rank of temporary sergeant and dispatched to Sling Camp for further training. His rank was confirmed as sergeant on 6June 1917. Gallaher's unit fought in the Battle of Messines, near La Basse Ville, and in August and September 1917 they trained for the upcoming Passchendaele offensive. During the Battle of Broodseinde on 4October 1917 Gallaher was fatally wounded by a piece of shrapnel that penetrated through his helmet, and he died later that day at the 3rd Australian Casualty Clearing Station, Gravenstafel Spur. He was 43 years old. Dave Gallaher is buried in grave No. 32513 at Nine Elms British Cemetery, which is west of Poperinge on the Helleketelweg, a road leading from the R33 Poperinge ring road in Belgium. His regulation gravestone, bearing the silver fern of New Zealand, incorrectly gives his age as 41. New Zealand sides touring Europe have since regularly visited his grave site. For his war service Gallaher was posthumously awarded the British War Medal and the Victory Medal. His brother Henry, who was a miner, served with the Australian 51st Battalion and was killed on 24April 1917. Henry's twin brother, Charles, also served in the war and survived being badly wounded at Gallipoli. Personal life On 10October 1906 Gallaher married "Nellie" Ellen Ivy May Francis at All Saints Anglican Church, Ponsonby, Auckland. Eleven years younger than Gallaher, Nellie was the daughter of Nora Francis and the sister of Arthur ('Bolla') Francisa fellow rugby player. For many years prior to the marriage Gallaher had boarded at the Francis family home where he had come to know Nellie. Both had also attended the All Saints Anglican Church where Nellie sang in the choir. With his limited income, and frequent absences from work playing rugby, Gallaher found boarding his best accommodation option. On 28September 1908 their daughter Nora Tahatu (later Nora Simpson) was born. Nellie Gallaher died in January 1969. Gallaher's brother-in-law Bolla Francis played for Ponsonby, Auckland and New Zealand sides for a number of years, including when Gallaher was a selector. In 1911, at age 29, and in the twilight of his All Blacks' career, he decided to switch to the professional sport of rugby league. Francis went on to represent New Zealand in rugby league, making him a dual-code international. It is unlikely his switch to rugby league was done without Gallaher's knowledge. Francis did eventually return to rugby union as a coach. Gallaher was also a member of the fraternal organisation the United Ancient Order of the Druids, and attended meetings fortnightly in Newton, not far from Ponsonby. He also played several sports in addition to rugby, including cricket, yachting and athletics. Memorial and legacy In 1922 the Auckland Rugby Football Union introduced the Gallaher Shield in his honour; it has since been awarded to the winner of the union's premier men's club competition. PonsonbyGallaher's old clubhave won the title more than any other club. At international level New Zealand and France contest the Dave Gallaher Trophy, which was first awarded when New Zealand defeated France on Armistice Day in 2000. In 2011 New Zealand's then oldest living All Black, Sir Fred Allen, unveiled a high bronze statue of Gallaher beside one of the entrances at Eden Park in Auckland. The statue was created by Malcolm Evans. Gallaher has been inducted into the International Rugby Hall of Fame, the World Rugby Hall of Fame, and the New Zealand Sports Hall of Fame. In 2005 members of the All Blacks witnessed the unveiling of a plaque at Gallaher's birthplace in Ramelton, which was presented in conjunction with the renaming of Letterkenny RFC's home ground to Dave Gallaher Memorial Park. Gallaher's name is also incorporated into the club's crest. The ground was upgraded following its renaming, and in 2012 the Letterkenny section of the ground was opened by former All Black, and Ponsonby stalwart, Bryan Williams. An Ireland-produced documentary about Gallaher's life, The Donegal All Black, was aired in 2015. Later that year, a jersey worn by Gallaher during the 1905 British Isles tour was sold at auction in Cardiff for £180,000—nearly 10 times the previous record auction price for a rugby jersey. Leadership and personality "Gallaher played many dashing games," the British newspaper The Sportsman reported after his death, "and led his side from one success to another until they were deemed invincible. He was a veritable artist, who never deserved all the hard things said about him, especially in South Wales. A great player, a great judge of the game". Gallaher's military experience gave him an appreciation for "discipline, cohesion and steadiness under pressure." He was however quiet, even dour, and preferred to lead by example. He insisted players spend an hour "contemplating the game ahead" on match days, and also that they pay attention to detail. Original All Black Ernie Booth wrote of Gallaher: "To us All Blacks his words would often be, 'Give nothing away; take no chance.' As a skipper he was somewhat a disciplinarian, doubtless imbibed from his previous military experience in South Africa. Still, he treated us all like men, not kids, who were out to 'play the game' for good old New Zealand." Another contemporary said he was "perhaps not the greatest of wing-forwards, as such; but he was acutely skilled as a judge of men and moves". Paul Verdon, in his history of All Black captains, Born to Lead, writes: "The overwhelming evidence suggests Gallaher's leadership style, honed from time spent in the Boer War, was very effective." Gallaher's biographer Matt Elliott asserts that in the century since his playing retirement "his reputation as a player and leader have only enhanced". According to historian Terry McLean: "In a long experience of reading and hearing about the man, one has never encountered, from the New Zealand angle, or from his fellow players, criticism of his qualities as a leader." In the view of the English rugby journalist E. H. D. Sewell, writing soon after Gallaher's death, the New Zealand captain was "a very quiet, taciturn sort of cove, who spoke rarely about football or his own achievements ... I never heard a soul who met him on that famous trip, say a disparaging word about him." See also List of international rugby union players killed in World War I Footnotes Notes References Sources Books and articles News Web External links 1873 births 1917 deaths World Rugby Hall of Fame inductees Irish emigrants to New Zealand New Zealand international rugby union players New Zealand military personnel killed in World War I New Zealand military personnel of the Second Boer War Rugby union players from Auckland People from Ramelton Rugby union players from County Donegal Ponsonby RFC players Rugby union hookers Rugby union wing-forwards
4179300	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximus%20%28comics%29	Maximus (comics)	Maximus (otherwise known as Maximus the Mad) is a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character has been depicted both as a member of and antagonist to the Inhumans. Created by writer Stan Lee and artist Jack Kirby, he first appeared in Fantastic Four #47 (February 1966). Maximus was portrayed in 2017 Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) television series Inhumans by Iwan Rheon and Aidan Fiske. Publication history Maximus first appeared in Fantastic Four #47 (February 1966), and was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby. Fictional character biography Maximus, an Inhuman, was the second son of two of Attilan's top geneticists, Agon, the head of the ruling Council of Geneticists, and Rynda, director of the Prenatal Care Center. Subjected to the DNA-altering Terrigen Mist when he was an infant, Maximus peculiarly showed no outward sign of any mutagenic change. As he matured, he hid his developing psionic powers from the community, but was less successful at disguising his antisocial tendencies. When he was about sixteen, his elder brother Black Bolt was released from the protective chamber in which he had been confined since birth due to the destructive nature of his Terrigen mutation. One of Maximus's first responses to his brother's freedom was an unsuccessful attempt to make him release his power and prove Black Bolt could not control his sonic powers, and thus lose his freedom. A month later, Black Bolt witnesses Maximus making a treacherous pact with an emissary of the Kree, the alien race responsible for genetically accelerating the Inhumans eons before. In an attempt to stop the fleeing emissary so that he could be questioned by the ruling council, Black Bolt uses his forbidden power of the quasi-sonic scream and blasts the alien ship out of the sky. When the ship crashes to Earth, it landed on the parliament building, killing several key members of the Genetics Council, including the boys' parents. The reverberations of Black Bolt's voice also affects Maximus, addling his sanity and suppressing his nascent mental powers. When Black Bolt assumes the throne shortly thereafter, Maximus vows to oppose his brother and eventually usurp his rule. Maximus stages his first successful coup a few years later. By performing an illegal experiment on the Alpha Primitives, the subhuman worker clones that once served the Inhumans, Maximus creates the Trikon, three bodiless energy beings of great destructive power. While the Trikon wreaks havoc in Attilan, Maximus is able to drive the Royal Family of Inhumans out of the city. Maximus later sends Gorgon in search of the amnesiac Medusa. In the several year interval before Black Bolt and his cousins locate her in America, Maximus rules Attilan in Black Bolt's stead. Secure in his position, Maximus has his servant, the Seeker, locate the Royal Family and bring them back to Attilan. Upon doing so, Black Bolt seizes the crown back, to Maximus' dismay. Maximus also encounters the Fantastic Four for the first time. Maximus, hoping to win back the public's affection, activates the Atmo-Gun device he has been working on, a machine he believes will kill the human race and leave all other living beings intact. Maximus miscalculates, however, and the device has no effect. Out of spite, Maximus uses the device to erect a "negative zone" barrier (not to be confused with the anti-matter dimension of that name) that encases Attilan in a dark force sphere, imprisoning the entire race inside. Black Bolt liberates his people by using his quasi-sonic voice to destroy the barrier, at the price of devastating Attilan's ancient architecture. Maximus then allies himself with six Inhuman criminals, sentenced for their treachery and subversive acts by Black Bolt with his verdict being interpreted by Oracle. Freeing Falcona, Aireo, Stallior, Nebulo, Leonus, and Timberius from their place of imprisonment with the Hulk's aid, Maximus then tricks the Hulk into breaching the protective barrier guarding a forbidden chemical substance created by the Inhuman scientist Romnar centuries ago. This substance had certain highly unstable energy absorbing capacities and Maximus intends to use it to usurp the throne again, but Black Bolt overpowers him before he can do so. Maximus succeeds in bringing about his second coup some months later. Drugging the Royal Family with will-deadening "hypno-potions", Maximus takes the crown from Black Bolt and has the Royal Family imprisoned. Before he can activate his Hypno-Gun, which he believes will make all mankind surrender to his will, the Royal Family escapes and subdues him. Escaping Attilan with his band of renegades in a rocket, Maximus lands in the South American country of Costa Salvador, and attempts to build a will-deadening device similar to his Hypno-Gun. His plans are opposed by the Hulk and the United States Army, however, and he and his allies are forced to flee again. Maximus later foments a battle between the Royal Family and the Fantastic Four. Returning to Attilan, Maximus is welcomed back by his brother Black Bolt, who prefers Maximus to be somewhere he can be watched. Black Bolt detects that Maximus's psionic powers, suppressed since he was an adolescent, are beginning to return. Offering no explanation, Black Bolt has Maximus placed in a suspended animation capsule, inside which he cannot use his powers. Black Bolt's cousin Gorgon, however, objects to Black Bolt's inhumane treatment of Maximus and frees the latter. Maximus immediately uses his mental powers to subjugate the minds of the Inhuman populace and to give Black Bolt amnesia. Maximus then restores the dark force barrier around Attilan and begins negotiations with the alien Kree to sell certain Inhumans to the Kree to be used as soldiers. Eventually Black Bolt's memory returns, and alongside the Avengers, he returns to Attilan and once again destroys the barrier. The Avengers drive the Kree agent away before he can accomplish his mission and Black Bolt liberates the enslaved Inhumans. With his mental powers traumatically submerged, Maximus escapes strict punishment for his treachery by feigning insanity. He then begins work on his next project to usurp the throne, the construction of the android Omega, whose power source is supposedly the collective guilt evinced by the Inhuman populace over their treatment of the subhuman Alpha Primitives. The Fantastic Four helps the Royal Family thwart the construct, and the damage it causes was slight. Maximus stages his fourth successful coup a short time later after the Royal Family briefly leaves Attilan on business. Taking Crystal and her husband Quicksilver captive, Maximus forces Black Bolt to give him the crown in order to spare their lives. Black Bolt does so, and allows himself to be placed in captivity. Maximus reestablishes contact with the Kree and negotiates a deal where the Kree would take all of the Inhumans with extraordinary abilities, leaving him the other half of the population to rule. Triton and Karnak rescue most of Maximus's captives and outwit the Kree agent Shatterstar. Unaware of that victory, Black Bolt lets loose with his quasi-sonic scream in agony, once again leveling the city. Angered by what had happened, Black Bolt strikes Maximus for the first time and has him imprisoned. Maximus then allies himself with the Enclave, a band of human scientists who capture Medusa. The Enclave wants to conquer Attilan and dispatches an aerial strike force. When the Enclave threatens to execute Medusa, however, Maximus turns on them out of unrequited passion for his brother's betrothed. A weapon Maximus is manning overloads, leaving Maximus in a deathlike coma. Black Bolt has his brother's body placed in a special crypt, and when Attilan is transported from the Earth to the Moon, Maximus accompanies it. On the moon, Maximus's mind makes contact with an alien power crystal located there, and it reawakened his dormant mental powers. When Black Bolt next comes to pay his respects to his brother, Maximus is able to use his power to affect a transfer of consciousness between them. For several months Maximus rules Attilan in Black Bolt's body as Black Bolt lay imprisoned. Reestablishing contact with the Enclave, Maximus helps them implement meteoroid launchers with which they intend to bombard Earth. With the aid of the Avengers, Maximus' switch is discovered, and the Enclave's schemes are foiled. Maximus is forced to return to his rightful body and was once again placed in solitary confinement. His next plot carried out from his prison cell involves the Inhuman Woz, and almost results in Attilan being conquered by Earth forces. It is foiled by Black Bolt and Medusa, who arrange for Attilan to be teleported away before its destruction. Silent War During the 2007 miniseries Silent War, Maximus again plots his revenge, taunting Black Bolt from his prison and trying to sway a distressed Medusa on his side. He manages to convince Medusa to try to have Luna help "cure" him, only for Luna to realize too late that the "cure" instead allows Maximus to gain control over all the other Inhumans. After the enhanced Marines managed to destroy Attilan, Maximus usurps the throne of the Inhumans from Black Bolt, taking Medusa as his queen, and announcing a new plan to conquer Earth. "Secret Invasion" During the 2008 "Secret Invasion" storyline, Maximus was initially indifferent to the threat of the Skrulls. When it was discovered that Ahura was a Skrull in disguise, however, Maximus defeated it. "War of Kings" In the 2009 "War of Kings", storyline Black Bolt has retaken the throne of the Inhumans. Maximus is still free and serves as Black Bolt's science advisor, devising war machines for the Kree to use against their adversaries, the Shi'ar. After Black Bolt's vanishing, during a time when the ruling of the various empires is up for dispute, Maximus is seen under the close supervision of Gorgon. His desires for something, anything to rule, are swiftly dismissed. "Death of the Inhumans" In the pages of "Death of the Inhumans," Maximus is at New Arctilan when the Kree begin their campaign to get the Inhumans to join them or die. The Super-Inhuman Vox and the Kree with him are on New Arctilan and began murdering every Inhuman they come across, old or new. Armed with all of the Inhumans’ abilities and no humanity, Vox easily cuts his prey down with his powers or his literal energy scythe. Even Maximus cannot defeat Vox as he quickly losing an arm for even making the attempt. Pretty soon, Lockjaw arrived and stood up with Maximus to attempt to stop Vox on their own but things did not go so well and Vox fired an enormous blast, ripping a hole in both of them. It was later revealed that the Kree took his body and placed it in a Vox costume where he was brainwashed to serve the Kree. When Beta Ray Bill took down Vox during his confrontation with Black Bolt, it broke the brainwashing on Maximus as something on Vox's costume teleported her away while also killing Maximus. Powers and abilities Maximus has a genius-level intellect and great inventiveness. His mental powers granted by the mutagenic effects from exposure to Terrigen Mist give him the ability to numb, override, and even wipe out a person's mind. He has the ability to induce short-term amnesia in others, and the ability to exchange his consciousness with another's. Maximus's mental powers have a limited range as well as variability - he can only affect minds in a certain radius and only create one effect at a time. His influence generally functions while Maximus concentrates, but he has left long-buried influence in his subjects as well, which he can trigger by voice command, causing a subject to carry out embedded commands, forget, or remember. Maximus's mental instability often prevents him from making full use of his powers. Maximus is superhumanly intelligent. He is an extraordinarily gifted inventor, with advanced knowledge of physics, mechanics, and biology. He has invented an Atmo-gun (able to create seismic shockwaves and "negative zone" force fields), and a Hypno-gun (able to control minds at a far distance). Even without using the Terrigen Mist, the Kree modifications, combined with centuries of selective breeding, have given all Inhumans certain advantages. Their average lifespan is 150 years and an Inhuman in good physical condition possesses strength, reaction time, speed, and endurance greater than the finest of human athletes. Inhumans who are in excellent physical shape can lift one ton and are physically slightly superior to the peak of normal human physical achievement. Most Inhumans are used to living in a pollution-free, germ-free environment and have difficulty tolerating air and water pollution for any length of time. Other versions "Age of Apocalypse" In the alternate timeline seen in the 1995–1996 "Age of Apocalypse" storyline, Maximus was a Horseman of Apocalypse, the Horseman of Death. He operates on the Blue Area of the Moon, aboard Ship, Apocalypse's Celestial starship, whose sentient artificial intelligence is known as Ship. Maximus is served by his personal strikeforce formed by clones of the Inhuman Royal Family, which he had murdered himself, altered into monstrous forms by the Terrigen Mists, which Death has offered Apocalypse in exchange for his position. Maximus also experiments on Sunfire, who has been captured by Holocaust after the destruction of Japan, leaving him unable to control his powers. When the X-Men appear on the Moon, believing Apocalypse to be hibernating on Ship, Maximus capture the X-Men and seeks to transform them into his servants, with which he will overthrow Apocalypse. However, Cyclops, who has been sent to ensure the transfer of the Mists, attacks the betrayer Death and liberate the X-Men with the aid of Blink. Maximus dies, alongside his servants, in the destruction of Ship caused by Sunfire, whose powers flare out of control after he was released. Marvel Knights 2099 In an alternate take on Marvel 2099, called Marvel Knights 2099, the Inhumans are in a space station named Attilan, having left Earth decades ago. Here they await the cryogenic awakening of Black Bolt. The leader of the Council greets Black Bolt and has Lockjaw teleport them to the throne room for privacy. The leader announces that he killed the rest of the Inhumans Royal Family in cryogenic suspension, taking special pleasure in killing Medusa, and took over. The leader reveals himself as Maximus, to Black Bolt's shock and anger, saying that he has used implants to extend his life in order to see Black Bolt vulnerable, at his boiling point. Maximus pleads with Black Bolt to release his power and destroy everything - the station, the legacy, and Maximus himself. Black Bolt finally lets go and in one whisper, destroys everything. The one shot ends with Black Bolt crying and dying in space among the wreckage. Ultimate Marvel In the Ultimate Marvel reality, Maximus is introduced in Ultimate Fantastic Four Annual #1 along with the other Inhumans. He is the brother of Black Bolt and the fiancé of Crystal. She refuses to marry him referring to him as a "stunted little peacock" and calling him mad. In other media Television Maximus appeared in the 1994 Fantastic Four series, voiced by Mark Hamill. Maximus appears in the Inhumans motion comic, voiced by Brian Drummond. Maximus appears in the Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. episode "Inhuman Nature", voiced by Nolan North. In secret, he builds a weapon that will end all humanity, yet would be ineffective against Inhumans. Only Crystal is aware of this weapon upon discovering her plan. For most episodes that the other Inhumans have, combat the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. He is finally discovered and defeated for his betrayal, even though he reactivates the barrier that protects the city Attilan, from the rest of the world, but is ultimately destroyed by Black Bolt. Maximus appears in the Ultimate Spider-Man episode "Inhumanity", voiced again by Nolan North. He is behind the mind control of the royal family of Inhumans (when he was betrayed by what happened in Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H.), he escaped from his cell, seized Attilan and is crowned king, as part of his plan to have the Inhumans in declaring war on S.H.I.E.L.D. dropping Attilan in Manhattan. When trying Máximus on his mind control with Spider-Man, Triton uses the Gyro-Cube to delay Máximus so they can find Black Bolt. Being dug into the palace by Black Bolt, Spider-Man and Triton are confronted by Maximus and the brainwashing in the royal family as Maximus prepares to release Attilan in Manhattan. Máximus also claims that he plans to hunt down all of humanity in order to make Earth an inhuman world. Triton challenges Maximus to a battle with Spider-Man helping to fight Gorgon. As Maximus tries to use his mind control on Triton by claiming that humans are evil, Spider-Man attacks Maximus and destroys the crown, freeing the royal family of Inhumans from their mind control. As Maximus claims that Attilan will still crush Manhattan with humanity, Spider-Man uses his web to Maximus's mouth to shut him up. Maximus appears in Guardians of the Galaxy, now voiced by Diedrich Bader. In "Crystal Blue Persuasion", while devising a cure for the Terrigena plague that had caused the Inhumans to grow crystals in their bodies, Maximus was working on mind control technology to control Black Bolt, as part of his plan to pledge allegiance to the Kree. It escaped Drax the Destroyer, Rocket Raccoon and Groot in the thought that he was the ruler of the Inhumans until Star-Lord, Gamora, Medusa, and Lockjaw arrived. Maximus then releases Black Bolt from his ecstasy capsule and has it attacked by the Guardians of the Galaxy alongside the crystallized Alpha Primitives. When Ronan the Accuser arrives in Attilan, Maximus swears allegiance to the Inhumans and the Kree due to the story of having created the Kree Inhumans. Ronan the Accuser goes back on his contract and steals Maximus' mind control helmet by having Black Bolt with him and Star-Lord teleports to the Terrigen Crystals caverns below Attilan. After the Terrigen plague was eliminated and Ronan the Accuser was repelled, Maximus was locked in the Attilan dungeon. In "Inhuman Touch", Star-Lord visits Maximus in his cell to see what he knows about the Cosmic Seed. Máximus tricks Star-Lord into giving him a pencil that allows him to escape from his prison. Maximus first begins by taking control of the Inhumans. Rocket and Groot disable the broadcast. So Maximus uses his Terrigena cannon in a plot to bombard the nearest planet. Star-Lord, Groot, Karnak, and Medusa take it to destroy it from within. When Máximus tries to escape at Milano, Star-Lord and Black Bolt follow him and sneak into Milano. Star-Lord tricks Maximus into hitting the play button on the cassette, claiming that it is a self-destruct button, which plays music that allows Black Bolt to knock Máximus out. Maximus appears in the Avengers Assemble episode "Civil War, Part 1: The Fall of Attilan", voiced again by Diedrich Bader. He was seen with some armed shock groups wreaking havoc in Las Vegas, where he was planning to detonate a Terrigen bomb as a weapon only to be defeated by the Avengers and turned over to inhuman guards in New Attilan to be adopted for a New Attilan Processing Center. On his way to being taken to jail, Maximus brainwashed Inferno to wreak havoc on New Attilan, enough to blow up the explosives that Máximus clocked. He managed to escape while creating a force field to contain everyone in the city from exploding. After the Avengers and the royal family of Inhumans evacuate everyone, from New Attilan and Inferno surrendering himself by Truman Marsh's guards, the Hulk had apprehended Maximus, who had left the Inhumans exposed to the human race. As Maximus tries to run, Black Bolt carries it out with his voice speaking, "Brother." Iwan Rheon portrays Maximus in the live-action Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) television series Inhumans, while his child self is portrayed by Aidan Fiske. It is revealed that Maximus' Terrigenesis made him human causing him much envy towards Black Bolt, especially since their father, Agon, has denied Maximus his desire to rule. He stages a coup with the help of Auran and the Inhuman Royal Guards that are on his side while the rest of the Royal Family flee to Hawaii through Lockjaw. Though Lockjaw is stunned by Pulsus and Crystal is placed under house arrest. He attempts to have Crystal support him, but she rebels and flees to Hawaii as well, leaving Maximus to convince the council of the Royal Family's incompetence. He further sends out dangerous Inhumans, such as Mordis, to hunt the Royal Family. Maximus further has the human Dr. Evan Declan working for him so that he can study Black Bolt and hopefully use his DNA to create a new Terrigenesis for him. Maximus learns of Auran's position with Declan, but informs her to not tell him of her association with him. Maximus believes that in order for "his" people to gain freedom they have to earn it, therefore he sends Inhumans to hunt his family. Unbeknownst to him, some of the people of Attilan are plotting against him. He later finds out through genetic council member Tibor and has him and his conspirators killed as an example while asking the prophetic Inhuman Bronaja to pick a side. Maximus is reunited with his family for a parley. However, he cheats his family by taking Declan and forces him to prepare a second Terrigenesis. When he is alerted of his family's next move, he tries to escape, but is captured by Triton. He is brought to Black Bolt and tells him that he installed a failsafe so that if he kills him, Attilan will be destroyed. Maximus refuses to give up the throne or stop the dome over the city from collapsing and learns through Bronaja that he will remain the King of Attilan and that Black Bolt was nowhere in sight. Soon, Auran leaves him as the whole city and the Royal Family, sans Black Bolt, escape to Earth. Maximus reveals to Black Bolt that he indirectly killed his parents when he forged a signature for Black Bolt to get lobotomized. Maximus is knocked out and trapped in Attilan's bunker. As he looks at the well stocked room, Maximus realizes that he is still the king of Attilan and that Black Bolt has in fact left him as its only population as Bronaja predicted. Maximus appears in the anime series Marvel Future Avengers, voiced by Hiroki Takahashi in Japanese and Michael Sinterniklaas in English. He orchestrates the events of the show's second season, secretly manipulating the Avengers and the Inhumans into going to war as part of a plot to usurp the throne from Black Bolt. Video games Maximus appears in the Facebook game Marvel: Avengers Alliance. He is introduced in "Special Operations 23: Inhumans". Maximus appears as both a boss level and playable character in Lego Marvel Super Heroes 2. Maximus is a playable character in Marvel: Future Fight. Maximus appears as a boss in Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order, voiced again by Diedrich Bader. References External links Maximus at Marvel.com Maximus at MarvelDirectory.com The Inhumans at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on September 17, 2016. Characters created by Jack Kirby Characters created by Stan Lee Comics characters introduced in 1966 Fictional inventors Fictional kings Inhumans Marvel Comics characters who have mental powers Marvel Comics supervillains Marvel Comics telepaths Marvel Comics television characters
4179612	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Whisperer%20in%20Darkness	The Whisperer in Darkness	The Whisperer in Darkness is a 26,000-word novella by American writer H. P. Lovecraft. Written February–September 1930, it was first published in Weird Tales, August 1931. Similar to The Colour Out of Space (1927), it is a blend of horror and science fiction. Although it makes numerous references to the Cthulhu Mythos, the story is not a central part of the mythos, but reflects a shift in Lovecraft's writing at this time towards science fiction. The story also introduces the Mi-Go, an extraterrestrial race of fungoid creatures. Plot The story is told by Albert N. Wilmarth, an instructor of literature at Miskatonic University in Arkham, Massachusetts. When local newspapers report strange things seen floating in rivers during a historic flood in Vermont, Wilmarth becomes embroiled in a controversy regarding the reality and significance of the sightings. He sides with the skeptics, blaming old legends about monsters living in uninhabited hills that abduct people venturing too close to their territory. Wilmarth receives a letter from Henry Wentworth Akeley, a man living in an isolated farmhouse near Townshend, Vermont, who claims to have proof that will convince Wilmarth he must stop questioning the creatures' existence. The two exchange letters that include an account of the extraterrestrial race chanting with human agents in worship of several beings, including Cthulhu and Nyarlathotep, the latter of whom "shall put on the semblance of men, the waxen mask and the robe that hides". The agents intercept Akeley's messages and harass his farmhouse nightly. They exchange gunfire and many of Akeley's guard dogs are killed, as are several of the agents. Later, Akeley reports having killed members of the extraterrestrial race, describing them as bleeding a sickly greenish fluid. Although Akeley expresses more in his letters, he abruptly has a change of heart. He writes that he has met with the beings and has learned that they are peaceful. Furthermore, they have taught him of marvels beyond all imagination. He urges Wilmarth to pay him a visit and to bring along the letters and photographic evidence that he had sent him. Wilmarth reluctantly consents. Wilmarth arrives to find Akeley in a pitiful physical condition, immobilized in a chair in darkness. Akeley tells Wilmarth about the beings and the wonders they have revealed to him. He also says that the beings can surgically extract a human brain and place it into a canister wherein it can live indefinitely and withstand the rigors of space travel. Akeley says he has agreed to undertake such a journey and points to a cylinder bearing his name. Wilmarth also listens to a brain in a cylinder as it speaks, by way of attached devices, of the positive aspects of the journey and why Wilmarth should join it in the trip to Yuggoth, the beings' outpost on Pluto. During these conversations, Wilmarth feels a vague sense of unease, especially from Akeley's odd manner of buzzing whispering. During the night, a sleepless Wilmarth overhears a disturbing conversation with several voices, some of which are distinctly bizarre. Once all is silent, he creeps downstairs to investigate. He finds that Akeley is no longer present, but the robe he was wearing is discarded in the chair. Upon a closer look, he makes a horrifying discovery amid the folds of the robe which sends him fleeing the farmhouse by stealing Akeley's car. When the authorities investigate the next day, they find nothing but a bullet-riddled house. Akeley has disappeared along with all the physical evidence of the extraterrestrial presence. As the story concludes, Wilmarth discloses the discovery from which he fled in terror: Akeley's discarded face and hands. These were utilized by something inhuman to disguise itself as a man. He now believes with a dreadful certainty that the cylinder in that dark room with that whispering creature already contained the brain of Henry Wentworth Akeley. Characters Albert Wilmarth The narrator of the story, Albert N. Wilmarth is described as a folklorist and assistant professor of English at Miskatonic University. He investigates the strange events that followed in the wake of the historic Vermont floods of 1927. Wilmarth is also mentioned in Lovecraft's At the Mountains of Madness, where the narrator remarks that he wishes he hadn't "talked so much with that unpleasantly erudite folklorist Wilmarth at the university." Elsewhere, the story refers to "the wild tales of cosmic hill things from outside told by a folklorist colleague in Miskatonic's English department." Wilmarth is the main character in Fritz Leiber's "To Arkham and the Stars", written and presumably set in 1966, when the now-septuagenarian professor is chair of Miskatonic's Literature Department. Leiber describes him as "slender [and] silver-haired", with a "mocking sardonic note which has caused some to call him 'unpleasantly' rather than simply 'very' erudite." He acknowledges keeping "in rather closer touch with the Plutonians or Yuggothians than perhaps even old Dyer guesses." Wilmarth remarks in the story, "[A]fter you've spent an adult lifetime at Miskatonic, you discover you've developed a rather different understanding from the herd's of the distinction between the imaginary and the real." In Brian Lumley's novel The Burrowers Beneath and its sequels, the Wilmarth Foundation is an Arkham-based organization dedicated to combating what Lumley refers to as the Cthulhu Cycle Deities. Robert M. Price describes Wilmarth as "the model Lovecraft protagonist. ... Wilmarth starts out blissfully ignorant and only too late learns the terrible truth, and that only after a long battle with his initial rationalistic skepticism." Lawrence King's 2018 novel Haunted Hills presumes that Wilmarth returned to the Akeley farm and is replaced by the Mi-Go "whisperer." In his guise as Dr. Wilmarth, the Mi-Go returns to Miskatonic University awaiting the fulfillment of his purpose for being on Earth. Henry Akeley Henry Wentworth Akeley is a Vermont folklorist and correspondent of Albert Wilmarth. Henry Akeley became a noted academic, probably in the study of folklore. His wife died in 1901 after giving birth to his only heir, George Goodenough Akeley. When he retired, Akeley returned to his ancestral home, a two-story farmhouse in the Vermont hills near the slopes of Dark Mountain. In September 1928, he was visited by Professor Wilmarth, who was researching bizarre legends of the region. Shortly thereafter, Akeley disappeared mysteriously from his mountaintop home—though Wilmarth believed that he fell victim to the machinations of the sinister Fungi from Yuggoth. S. T. Joshi, has suggested that the possible creature masquerading as Akeley is actually Nyarlathotep, due to a quote from what the Mi-go chant on the phonograph record: "To Nyarlathotep, Mighty Messenger, must all things be told. And He shall put on the semblance of men, the waxen mask and the robe that hides, and come down from the world of Seven Suns to mock..." He writes that "this seems a clear allusion to Nyarlathotep disguised with Akeley's face and hands but if so, it means that at this time Nyarlathotep is, in bodily form, one of the fungi — especially if, as seems likely, Nyarlathotep is one of the two buzzing voices Albert Wilmarth overhears at the end." Joshi notes this is problematic, because "if Nyarlathotep is (as critics have termed it) a 'shapeshifter', why would he have to don the face and hands of Akeley instead of merely reshaping himself as Akeley?" In his sequel to "The Whisperer in Darkness", "Documents in the Case of Elizabeth Akeley" (1982), Richard A. Lupoff explores the idea that Akeley did not fall prey to the Mi-go as is suggested in the book, but instead joined them willingly. Lupoff also proposes that Akeley was the illegitimate son of Abednego Akeley, a minister for a Vermont sect of the Starry Wisdom Church, and Sarah Phillips, Abednego's maidservant. George Goodenough Akeley Akeley is mentioned in The Whisperer in Darkness as the son of Henry Wentworth Akeley. According to The Whisperer in Darkness, George moved to San Diego, California, after his father retired. The 1976 Fritz Leiber story "The Terror From the Depths" mentions Akeley being consulted at his San Diego home by Professor Albert Wilmarth in 1937. "Documents in the Case of Elizabeth Akeley", a 1982 sequel to The Whisperer in Darkness by Richard A. Lupoff, describes Akeley, inspired by the evangelist Aimee McPherson, starting a sect called the Spiritual Light Brotherhood and serving as its leader, the Radiant Father. After his death, his granddaughter Elizabeth Akeley took over the role. In 1928, Lovecraft took a trip through rural Vermont with a man named Arthur Goodenough. During his jaunt, he met a local farmer with a name that bears a striking resemblance to the ill-fated character of Lovecraft's tale: one Bert G. Akley. Noyes A largely unknown man who is allied with the Mi-Go, or the Outer Ones and is connected with both the disappearance of a local farmer, a man named Brown, and the security of the Mi-Go camp. He aided Wilmarth upon his arrival in Brattleboro and took him to Akeley's home. Afterward, Noyes is seen and heard sleeping on the sofa during Wilmarth's escape. In Lawrence King's 2018 novel Haunted Hills, Noyes returns as both an aide and hindrance to the sinister plot of the Mi-Go "whisperer." References to other works The following passage from The Whisperer in Darkness lists the names of various beings and places that occur in the works of Lovecraft and other writers: Among the more obscure names mentioned here are: Bethmoora Bethmoora is a fabled city in an eponymous story by Lord Dunsany, a favorite author of Lovecraft. Bran Bran is an ancient British pagan deity. However, in this context, Lovecraft refers to Bran Mak Morn, last king of the Picts in Robert E. Howard's swords-and-sorcery fiction. The reference is a homage to Howard, one of his correspondents. L'mur-Kathulos Lmur may refer to Lemuria, a fabled land bridge but a sunken continent in the Cthulhu Mythos. Kathulos is an Atlantean sorcerer, the titular character of Robert E. Howard's story Skull-Face. A reader had written to Howard asking if Kathulos derived from Cthulhu. Howard mentioned this in a letter to Lovecraft; Lovecraft liked the notion, and in his reply said that he might adopt the name into the mythos in the future. Magnum Innominandum Magnum Innominandum means "the great not-to-be-named" in Latin. Yian Yian probably refers to Yian-Ho. In the short story "Through the Gates of the Silver Key" (1934), a collaboration between Lovecraft and E. Hoffman Price, Yian-Ho is a "dreadful and forbidden city" on the Plateau of Leng. Yian also may refer to the fictional city of Yian, in the "weird" short story "The Maker of Moons" (1896) by Robert W. Chambers (one of Lovecraft's favourite authors). Inspiration In "The Whisperer in Darkness", narrator Albert Wilmarth initially dismisses those who believe that nonhuman creatures inhabit the Vermont hills as "merely romanticists who insisted on trying to transfer to real life the fantastic lore of lurking 'little people' made popular by the magnificent horror-fiction of Arthur Machen." This line, Lovecraft scholar Robert M. Price argues, is an acknowledgement of the debt Lovecraft's story owes to Machen's The Novel of the Black Seal (1895). He writes: Price points out parallel passages in the two stories: Where Machen asks, "What if the obscure and horrible race of the hills still survived...?" Lovecraft hints at "a hidden race of monstrous beings which lurked somewhere among the remoter hills". Where Machen mentions "strange shapes gathering fast amidst the reeds, beside the wash in the river," Lovecraft tells of "certain odd stories of things found floating in some of the swollen rivers." Price suggests that Machen's reference to accounts of people "who vanished strangely from the earth" prompted Lovecraft to imagine people being literally spirited off the Earth. As noted by critics like Price and Lin Carter, The Whisperer in Darkness also makes reference to names and concepts in Robert W. Chambers's The King in Yellow, some of which had previously been borrowed from Ambrose Bierce. In a letter to Clark Ashton Smith, Lovecraft wrote that "Chambers must have been impressed with 'An Inhabitant of Carcosa' & 'Haita the Shepherd', which were first published during his youth. But he even improves on Bierce in creating a shuddering background of horror—a vague, disquieting memory which makes one reluctant to use the faculty of recollection too vigorously." The Vermont floods mentioned at the start of the story by Wilmarth, initiating his interest in the case, were a real natural disaster. The idea of keeping a human brain alive in a jar (with mechanical attachments allowing sight, hearing, and speech) to enable travel in areas inhospitable to the body might have been inspired by the book The World, the Flesh, and the Devil by J.D. Bernal, which describes and suggests the feasibility of a similar device. The book was published in 1929, just a year before Lovecraft wrote his story. Significance In addition to being a textbook example of Lovecraft's characteristically non-occult brand of horror, in an age when the genre consisted almost entirely of ghosts, vampires, goblins, and similar traditional tales, "Whisperer" is one of the earliest literary appearances of the now-cliché concept of an isolated brain (although the alien brain case is not transparent as with later cinematic examples of this trope). The story retains some seemingly supernatural elements, such as its claim that the alien fungi, although visible to the naked eye and physically tangible, do not register on photographic plates and instead produce an image of the background absent the creature (an impossibility by any known laws of optics, though a trait commonly attributed to vampires), although the story does mention that this is possibly due to the creatures' fungoid and alien structure which works differently from any known physical organism. It is stated that the electrons of these fungoid aliens possess a different vibrational frequency that would require the development of a novel technique by a chemist in order to record their image. Reception In a letter to the January 1932 Weird Tales, Donald Wandrei praised The Whisperer in Darkness, as well as "The Seeds of Death" by David H. Keller and the stories of Clark Ashton Smith. Robert Weinberg claimed the story's ending was "predictable". However, Weinberg also praised "the detailed buildup" of The Whisperer in Darkness, arguing it created "the superb mood that needed no surprise to make it a classic of fantastic horror". Adaptations Alberto Breccia illustrated a fifteen-page adaptation in 1979. The story was adapted into comics and expanded upon in the first three issues of H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu: The Whisperer in Darkness with a script by Mark Ellis and Terry Collins, with art provided by Darryl Banks and Don Heck in 1991–1992. The third segment of the anthology film Necronomicon is loosely adapted from the story. The H. P. Lovecraft Historical Society has produced a film version made like a 1930s horror film, which premiered at the 2011 Seattle International Film Festival. Sandy Petersen, author of the Call of Cthulhu role-playing game, contributed financially to the film in order to finish its production. A video game adaptation by Nathaniel Nelson (writer, designer, programmer), Quincy Bowen (artist) and Mark Sparling (composer, sound designer) was created in 2014 for The Public Domain Jam. In 2017, Caitlín R. Kiernan published a sequel novella, Agents of Dreamland, set in 2015 and involving the New Horizons probe's flyby of Pluto. In 2018, Lawrence King published a sequel novel, Haunted Hills, set in 2018 as part of his Miskatonic University trilogy. This novel expands on the Mi-Go "whisper's" plot to return to Yuggoth and the efforts to prevent him. In December 2019, BBC Radio 4 aired an adaptation of The Whisperer in Darkness as part of The Lovecraft Investigations, taking the form of a modern-day true crime podcast set in Suffolk, as a sequel to the 2018 adaptation of The Case of Charles Dexter Ward. The adaptation incorporates such elements of British folklore as neopaganism, numbers stations, and the Rendlesham Forest incident. In May 2020, the H. P. Lovecraft Historical Society released an audio adaptation of the story as part of their Dark Adventure Radio Theatre series. References Sources Primary Definitive version. Secondary External links The Whisperer in Darkness, by H. P. Lovecraft. "The Novel of the Black Seal", by Arthur Machen (Project Gutenberg) Film adaptation trailer 1931 short stories Cthulhu Mythos short stories Fantasy short stories Fiction set in 1928 Fiction set on Pluto Massachusetts in fiction Short stories adapted into films Short stories by H. P. Lovecraft Works originally published in Weird Tales Vermont in fiction Weird fiction novels
4179702	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yelp	Yelp	Yelp Inc. is an American company that develops the Yelp.com website and the Yelp mobile app, which publishes crowd-sourced reviews about businesses. It also operates Yelp Guest Manager, a table reservation service. It is headquartered in San Francisco, California. Yelp was founded in 2004 by former PayPal employees Russel Simmons and Jeremy Stoppelman. It has since become one of the leading sources of user-generated reviews and ratings for businesses. Yelp grew in usage and raised several rounds of funding in the following years. By 2010, it had $30 million in revenue, and the website had published about 4.5 million crowd-sourced reviews. From 2009 to 2012, Yelp expanded throughout Europe and Asia. In 2009, it entered unsuccessful negotiations to be acquired by Google. Yelp became a public company via an initial public offering in March 2012 and became profitable for the first time two years later. As of December 31, 2021, approximately 244.4 million reviews were available on its business listing pages. In 2021, the company had 46 million unique visitors to its desktop webpages and 56.7 million unique visitors to its mobile sites. Over 50% of the company's audience has an annual household income of more than $100,000. The company has been accused of using unfair practices to raise revenue from the businesses that are reviewed on its site e.g., by presenting more negative review information for companies that do not purchase its advertising services or by prominently featuring advertisements of the competitors of such non-paying companies or conversely by excluding negative reviews from companies' overall rating on the basis that the reviews "are not currently recommended". There have also been complaints of aggressive and misleading tactics by some of its advertising sales representatives. The company's review system's reliability has also been affected by the submission of fake reviews by external users, such as false positive reviews submitted by a company to promote its own business or false negative reviews submitted about competing businesses a practice sometimes known as "astroturfing", which the company has tried to combat in various ways. Company history (2004–present) Origins (2004–2009) Two former PayPal employees, Jeremy Stoppelman and Russel Simmons, founded Yelp at a business incubator, MRL Ventures, in 2004. Stoppelman and Simmons conceived the initial idea for Yelp as an email-based referral network, after Stoppelman caught the flu and had a difficult time finding an online recommendation for a local doctor. Max Levchin, the co-founders' former colleague as founding chief technology officer of PayPal and founder of MRL Ventures, provided $1 million in Angel financing. MRL co-founder David Galbraith, who instigated the local services project based on user reviews, came up with the name "Yelp". Stoppelman explained that they decided on "Yelp" for the company's name because "it was short, memorable, easy to spell, and was familiar with 'the help' and 'yellow pages'". According to Fortune, Yelp's initial email-based system was "convoluted". The idea was rejected by investors and did not attract users beyond the cofounders' friends and family. Usage data showed that users were not answering requests for referrals, but were using the "Real Reviews" feature, which allowed them to write reviews unsolicited. According to The San Francisco Chronicle, "the site's popularity soared" after it was re-designed in late 2005 with the distinctive Burst logo. Yelp raised $5 million in funding in 2005 from Bessemer Venture Partners and $10 million in November 2006 from Benchmark Capital. The number of reviewers on the site grew from 12,000 in 2005, to 100,000 in 2006. By the summer of 2006, the site had one million monthly visitors. It raised $15 million in funding from DAG Ventures in February 2008. In 2010, Elevation Partners invested $100 million; $75 million was spent on purchasing equity from employees and investors, while $25 million was invested in sales staff and expansion. Yelp grew from 6 million monthly visitors in 2007 to 16.5 million in 2008 and from 12 to 24 cities during the same time period. By 2009, the site had 4.5 million reviews. By 2010, Yelp's revenues were estimated to be $30 million and it employed 300 people. Private company (2009–2012) Yelp introduced a site for the United Kingdom in January 2009 and one for Canada that August. The first non-English Yelp site was introduced in France in 2010; users had the option to read and write content in French or English. From 2010 to 2011, Yelp launched several more sites, in Austria, Germany, Spain, and the Netherlands. International website traffic doubled during the same time period. An Australian website went live in November 2011. It was supported through a partnership with Telstra, which provided one million initial business listings, and was initially glitchy. Yelp had a presence in 20 countries by the end of 2012, including Turkey and Denmark. Yelp's first site in Asia was introduced in September 2012 in Singapore, which was followed by Japan in 2014. In December 2009, Google entered into negotiations with Yelp to acquire the company, but the two parties failed to reach an agreement. According to The New York Times, Google offered about $500 million, but the deal fell through after Yahoo offered $1 billion. TechCrunch reported that Google refused to match Yahoo's offer. Both offers were later abandoned following a disagreement between Yelp's management and board of directors about the offers. In June 2015, Yelp published a study alleging Google was altering search results to benefit its own online services. Yelp began a service called Yelp Deals in April 2011, but by August it cut back on Deals due to increased competition and market saturation. That September, the Federal Trade Commission investigated Yelp's allegations that Google was using Yelp web content without authorization and that Google's search algorithms favored Google Places over similar services provided by Yelp. In a January 2014 agreement, Google was not subject to anti-trust litigation from the FTC, but did have to allow services like Yelp the ability to opt out of having their data scraped and used on Google's websites. Public entity (2012–present) Having filed for an initial public offering (IPO) with the Securities Exchange Commission in November 2011, Yelp's stock began public trading on the New York Stock Exchange on March 2, 2012. In 2012, Yelp acquired its largest European rival, Qype, for $50 million. The following year, CEO Jeremy Stoppelman reduced his salary to $1. Yelp acquired start-up online reservation company SeatMe for $12.7 million in cash and stock in 2013. Yelp's second quarter 2013 revenue of $55 million "exceeded expectations", but the company was not yet profitable. In 2012/13, Yelp moved into its new corporate headquarters, occupying about 150,000 square feet on 12 floors of 140 New Montgomery (the former PacBell building) in San Francisco. The company was profitable for the first time in the second quarter of 2014, as a result of increasing ad spending by business owners and possibly from changes in Google's local search algorithm. It is dubbed as Google Pigeon, which helped authoritative local directory sites like Yelp and TripAdvisor, in getting more visibility. Over the course of the year, Yelp websites were launched in Mexico, Japan, and Argentina. Also in 2014, Yelp expanded in Europe through the acquisitions of German-based restaurant review site Restaurant-Kritik and French-based CityVox. In early February 2015, Yelp announced it bought Eat24, an online food-ordering service, for $134 million. Then in August 2017, Yelp sold Eat24 to Grubhub for $287.5 million. The acquisition resulted in a partnership to integrate Grubhub delivery into the Yelp profiles of restaurants. In late 2015, a "Public Services & Government" section was introduced to Yelp, and the General Services Administration began encouraging government agencies to create and monitor official government pages. For example, the Transportation Security Administration created official TSA Yelp pages. Later that year Yelp began experimenting in San Francisco with consumer alerts that were added to pages about restaurants with poor hygiene scores in government inspections. Research conducted by the Boston Children's Hospital found that Yelp reviews with keywords associated with food poisoning correlates strongly with poor hygiene at the restaurant. Researchers at Columbia University used data from Yelp to identify three previously unreported restaurant-related food poisoning outbreaks. On November 2, 2016, concurrent with its earnings report for Q3 2016, Yelp announced it would drastically scale back its operations outside North America and halt international expansion. This resulted in the termination of essentially all international employees across Yelp's 30+ international markets from the sales, marketing, public relations, business outreach, and government relations departments. Overseas employees now primarily consist of engineering and product management staff. These layoffs affected only 175 individuals or 4% of its total workforce. In March 2017, Yelp acquired the restaurant reservation app Nowait for $40 million. In April 2017, Yelp acquired Wi-Fi marketing company Turnstyle Analytics for $20 million. In early 2020, Yelp listed space at 55 Hawthorne Street, San Francisco, for 235 employees as available for sublease. Business closures and stay-at-home orders during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States caused a massive decline in searches on Yelp (down 64–83% from March to April, depending on category) and company revenues. On April 9, the company announced it would lay off 1,000 employees, furlough about 1,100 with benefits, reduce hours for others, cut executive pay by 20–30%, and stop paying the CEO for the rest of 2020. In September 2021, Yelp announced that it was relocating its corporate headquarters to a smaller space at 350 Mission Street to be subleased from Salesforce. On June 1, 2023, Yelp decided to close its offices in Phoenix, Arizona and Hamburg, Germany. According to an announcement made by the company, less than 6 percent of the available workstations in these offices were being utilized. This move comes after Yelp had already shut down its New York, Chicago, and Washington, D.C offices. As of mid-2023, Yelp maintains a single remaining office in the United States in San Francisco. Additionally, the company will continue its operations in Toronto, Canada, and London, United Kingdom. The closure and downsizing of these offices are expected to result in approximately $27 million in annual cost savings for Yelp during the 2023-24 fiscal year. Features Yelp's website, Yelp.com, is a crowd-sourced local business review and social networking site. The site has pages devoted to individual locations, such as restaurants or schools, where Yelp users can submit a review of their products or services using a one to five stars rating scale. Businesses can update contact information, hours, and other basic listing information or add special deals. In addition to writing reviews, users can react to reviews, plan events, or discuss their personal lives. 78% of businesses listed on the site had a rating of three stars or better, but some negative reviews were very personal or extreme. Some of the reviews are written entertainingly or creatively. As of 2014, users could give a "thumbs-up" to reviews they liked, which caused these reviews to be featured more prominently in the system. As of 2008, each day a "Review of the Day" was determined based on a vote by users. 72% of Yelp searches are done from a mobile device. The Yelp iPhone mobile app was introduced in December 2008. In August 2009, Yelp released an update to the iPhone app with a hidden Easter Egg augmented reality feature called Monocle, which allowed users looking through their iPhone camera to see Yelp data on businesses seen through the camera. Check-in features were added in 2010. Yelp users can make restaurant reservations in Yelp through Yelp Reservations, a feature initially added in June 2010; in 2021 the service was consolidated with others into "Yelp Guest Manager". Yelp's reservation features have been done through SeatMe, which was acquired by Yelp in 2013. Prior to that, Yelp had offered reservation services through OpenTable. In 2013, features to have food ordered and delivered were added to Yelp as well as the ability to view hygiene inspection scores and make appointments at spas. Yelp's content was integrated into Apple Inc.'s Siri "virtual assistant" and the mapping and directions app of Apple's September 2012 release of the iOS 6 computer operating system. In March 2014, Yelp added features for ordering and scheduling manicures, flower deliveries, golf games, and legal consultations, among other things. In October 2014, the company, working in collaboration with hotel search site Hipmunk, added features to book hotels through Yelp. Yelp started a 7–10% cash-back program at some US restaurants in 2016 through a partnership with Empyr, which links credit card purchases to online advertising. On February 14, 2017, Yelp launched Yelp Questions and Answers, a feature for users to ask venue-specific questions about businesses. In June 2020, Yelp launched a COVID-19 section that enables businesses to update their health and safety measures as well as their service offering changes. Starting January 2021, users can provide detailed feedback regarding what health and safety measures the business has implemented through editing in the COVID-19 section on Yelp business pages. Features for businesses Yelp added the ability for business owners to respond to reviews in 2008. Businesses can respond privately by messaging the reviewer or publicly on their profile page. In some cases, Yelp users that had a bad experience have updated their reviews more favorably due to the business's efforts to resolve their complaints. In some other cases, disputes between reviewers and business owners have led to harassment and physical altercations. The system has led to criticisms that business owners can bribe reviewers with free food or discounts to increase their rating. However, Yelp users say this rarely occurs. A business owner can "claim" a profile, which allows them to respond to reviews and see traffic reports. Businesses can also offer discounts to Yelp users that visit often using a Yelp "check in" feature. In 2014, Yelp released an app for business owners to respond to reviews and manage their profiles from a mobile device. Business owners can also flag a review to be removed, if the review violates Yelp's content guidelines. Yelp's revenues primarily come from selling ads and sponsored listings to small businesses. Advertisers can pay to have their listing appear at the top of search results or feature ads on the pages of their competitors. In 2016, advertising revenue grew at a rate of 30% year over year. Yelp will only allow businesses with at least a three-star rating to sign up for advertising. Originally a sponsored "favorite review" could place a positive review above negative ones, but Yelp stopped offering this option in 2010 in an effort to deter the valid criticism that advertisers were able to obtain a more positive review appearance in exchange for pay. On June 5, 2020, Yelp launched a tool to allow businesses on the platform to identify themselves as black-owned, allowing customers to search for black-owned companies they want to support. There were more than 2.5 million searches for black-owned businesses on Yelp from May 25 to July 10. Searches for black-owned businesses were up 2,400% in 2020. In August 2021 Yelp added a feature to let users filter businesses based on their COVID precautions. Relationship with businesses A Harvard Business School study published in 2011 found that each "star" in a Yelp rating affected the business owner's sales by 5–9%. A 2012 study by two University of California, Berkeley economists found that an increase from 3.5 to 4 stars on Yelp resulted in a 19% increase in the chances of the restaurant being booked during peak hours. A 2014 survey of 300 small business owners done by Yodle found that 78% were concerned about negative reviews. Also, 43% of respondents said they felt online reviews were unfair, because there is no verification that the review is written by a legitimate customer. Controversy and litigation Yelp has a complicated relationship with small businesses. Criticism of Yelp continues to focus on the legitimacy of reviews, public statements of Yelp manipulating and blocking reviews in order to increase ad spending, as well as concerns regarding the privacy of reviewers. Astroturfing As Yelp became more influential, the phenomenon of business owners and competitors writing fake reviews, known as "astroturfing", became more prevalent. A study from Harvard Associate Professor Michael Luca and Georgios Zervas of Boston University analyzed 316,415 reviews in Boston and found that the percentage of fake reviews rose from 6% of the site's reviews in 2006 to 20% in 2014. Yelp's own review filter identifies 25% of reviews as suspicious. Yelp has a proprietary algorithm that attempts to evaluate whether a review is authentic and filters out reviews that it believes are not based on a patron's actual personal experiences, as required by the site's Terms of Use. The review filter was first developed two weeks after the site was founded and the company saw their "first obviously fake reviews". Filtered reviews are moved into a special area and not counted towards the businesses' star-rating. The filter sometimes filters legitimate reviews, leading to complaints from business owners. New York Attorney General Eric T. Schneiderman said Yelp has "the most aggressive" astroturfing filter out of the crowd-sourced websites it looked into. Yelp has also been criticized for not disclosing how the filter works, which it says would reveal information on how to defeat it. Yelp also conducts "sting operations" to uncover businesses writing their own reviews. In October 2012, Yelp placed a 90-day "consumer alert" on 150 business listings believed to have paid for reviews. The alert read "We caught someone red-handed trying to buy reviews for this business". In June 2013, Yelp filed a lawsuit against BuyYelpReview/AdBlaze for allegedly writing fake reviews for pay. In 2013, Yelp sued a lawyer it alleged was part of a group of law firms that exchanged Yelp reviews, saying that many of the firm's reviews originated from their own office. The lawyer said Yelp was trying to get revenge for his legal disputes and activism against Yelp. An effort to win dismissal of the case was denied in December 2014. In September 2013, Yelp cooperated with Operation Clean Turf, a sting operation by the New York Attorney General that uncovered 19 astroturfing operations. In April 2017, a Norfolk, Massachusetts, jury awarded a jewelry store over $34,000 after it determined that its competitor's employee had filed a false negative Yelp review that knowingly caused emotional distress. In December 2019, Yelp won a court case that challenged the company's explanation of how its review recommendation software worked. The court ruling stated that "None of the evidence presented at the trial showed anything nefarious or duplicitous on the part of Yelp in connection with the assertions made in the Challenged Statements." This was one of a number of court cases that ruled in favor of Yelp over the years. Alleged unfair business practices Yelp has a complicated relationship with small businesses. There have been allegations that Yelp has manipulated reviews based on participation in its advertising programs. Many business owners have said that Yelp salespeople have offered to remove or suppress negative reviews if they purchase advertising. Others report seeing negative reviews featured prominently and positive reviews buried, and then soon afterwards, they would receive calls from Yelp attempting to sell paid advertising. Yelp staff acknowledged that they had allowed their advertising partners to move their favorite review to the top of the listings as a "featured review", but said the reviews were not otherwise manipulated to favor the partner businesses. Such featured reviews were shown with a strip above them that said "One of [Insert Business Here]'s Favorite Reviews" and "This business is a Yelp sponsor." The company also said it might have had some rogue salespeople that misrepresented their practices when selling advertising services. In response to the criticism of their allowing their advertising partners to manipulate the review listing, Yelp ceased its "featured review" practice in 2010. Several lawsuits have been filed against Yelp accusing it of extorting businesses into buying advertising products. Each has been dismissed by a judge before reaching trial. In February 2010, a class-action lawsuit was filed against Yelp alleging it asked a Long Beach veterinary hospital to pay $300 a month for advertising services that included the suppression or deletion of disparaging customer reviews. The following month, nine additional businesses joined the class-action lawsuit, and two similar lawsuits were filed. That May the lawsuits were combined into one class-action lawsuit, which was dismissed by San Francisco U.S. District Judge Edward Chen in 2011. Chen said the reviews were protected by the Communications Decency Act of 1996 and that there was no evidence of manipulation by Yelp. The plaintiffs filed an appeal. In September 2014, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit upheld the dismissal, finding that even if Yelp did manipulate reviews to favor advertisers, this would not fall under the court's legal definition of extortion. In August 2013, Yelp launched a series of town hall style meetings in 22 major American cities in an effort to address concerns among local business owners. Many attendees expressed frustration with seeing Yelp remove positive reviews after they declined to advertise, receiving reviews from users that never entered the establishment, and other issues. A 2011 "working paper" published by Harvard Business School from Harvard Associate Professor Michael Luca and Georgios Zervas of Boston University found that there was no significant statistical correlation between being a Yelp advertiser and having more favorable reviews. The Federal Trade Commission received 2,046 complaints about Yelp from 2008 to 2014, most from small businesses regarding allegedly unfair or fake reviews or negative reviews that appear after declining to advertise. According to Yelp, the Federal Trade Commission finished a second examination of Yelp's practices in 2015 and in both cases did not pursue an action against the company. Journalist David Lazarus of the Los Angeles Times also criticized Yelp in 2014 for the practice of selling competitors' ads to run on top of business listings and then offering to have the ads removed as part of a paid feature. In 2015, San Francisco filmmaker Kaylie Milliken was reportedly producing a documentary film titled Billion Dollar Bully about Yelp's alleged business practices. In 2018, in the case Hassell v. Bird, the California Supreme Court held by a narrow 4-3 margin that a business cannot force Yelp to remove a review, even if the review is defamatory of the business. A 2019 investigation by Vice News and the podcast Underunderstood found that in some cases, Yelp was replacing restaurant's direct phone numbers with numbers that routed through GrubHub, which would then charge restaurants for the calls under marketing agreements GrubHub has with restaurants. Political expression and politically motivated ratings Eater reported that between 2012 and 2015, a number of users who review restaurants on the site have posted reviews that contained comments about the political activities and political views of businesses and their owners or have submitted ratings affected by political motivations. The article found that in some instances, the Yelp review area for a business has become flooded with such review submissions after a business was involved in politically sensitive action. Yelp has removed reviews of this nature and has tried to suppress their submission. Litigation over review content According to data compiled in 2014 by the Wall Street Journal, Yelp receives about six subpoenas a month asking for the names of anonymous reviewers, mostly from business owners seeking litigation against those writing negative reviews. In 2012, the Alexandria Circuit Court and the Virginia Court of Appeals held Yelp in contempt for refusing to disclose the identities of seven reviewers who anonymously criticized a carpet-cleaning business. In 2014, Yelp appealed to the Virginia Supreme Court. A popular public argument in favor of Yelp at the time was that a ruling against Yelp would negatively affect free speech online. The judge from an early ruling said that if the reviewers did not actually use the businesses' services, their communications would be false claims not protected by free speech laws. The Virginia Supreme Court ruled that Yelp, a non-resident company in the state of Virginia, could not be subpoenaed by a lower court. Also in 2014, a California state law was enacted that prohibits businesses from using "disparagement clauses" in their contracts or terms of use that allow them to sue or fine customers that write negatively about them online. Business Insider Investigation A 2020 Business Insider Investigation questioned the culture, ethics and practices within Yelp. “Elite” reviewers Selling Reviews An April 2022 Vice article highlighted that some Elite reviewers use their status to sell reviews. Community According to Inc. Magazine most reviewers (sometimes called "Yelpers") are "well-intentioned" and write reviews in order to express themselves, improve their writing, or to be creative. In some cases, they write reviews in order to lash out at corporate interests or businesses they dislike. Reviewers may also be motivated by badges and honors, such as being the first to review a new location, or by praise and attention from other users. Many reviews are written in an entertaining or creative manner. Users can give a review a "thumbs-up" rating, which will cause it to be ranked higher in the review listings. Each day a "Review of the Day" is determined based on a vote by users. According to The Discourse of Online Consumer Reviews many Yelp reviewers are internet-savvy adults aged 18–25 or "suburban baby boomers". Reviewers are encouraged to use real names and photos. Each year members of the Yelp community are invited or self-nominated to the "Yelp Elite Squad" and some are accepted based on an evaluation of the quality and frequency of their reviews. Members may nominate other reviewers for elite status. Users must use their real name and photo on Yelp to qualify for the Elite Squad. To accept a nomination, members must not own a business. Elite Squad Yelpers are governed by a council and estimated to include several thousand members. Yelp does not disclose how the Yelp Elite are selected. Elite Squad members are given different color badges based on how long they've been an elite member. The Yelp Elite Squad originated with parties Yelp began throwing for members in 2005, and in 2006 it was formally codified; the name came from a joking reference to prolific reviewers that were invited to Yelp parties as the "Yelp Elite Squad"." Members are invited to special opening parties, given gifts, and receive other perks. As of 2017, there are over 80 local Elite Squads in North America. As of 2017, Yelp employed a staff of over 80 community managers that organize parties for prolific reviewers, send encouraging messages to reviewers, and host classes for small business owners. Yelp reviewers are not required to disclose their identity, but Yelp encourages them to do so. See also Crowdsourcing Reputation management You're Not Yelping References External links Official websites United States United Kingdom Yelp Reservations official website 2012 initial public offerings American companies established in 2004 American review websites Android (operating system) software Companies based in San Francisco Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange Consumer guides Geosocial networking Internet properties established in 2004 IOS software Online companies of the United States Recommender systems Restaurant guides South of Market, San Francisco WatchOS software Windows Phone software
4179959	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20state%20of%20emergency%20in%20the%20Philippines	2006 state of emergency in the Philippines	The Philippines was under a state of emergency, announced by presidential spokesperson Ignacio Bunye on the morning of February 24, 2006, by the virtue of Proclamation No. 1017. This occurred after the government claimed that it foiled an alleged coup d'état attempt against the rule of President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo earlier that same day. State security services also claimed that it had arrested a general who was involved in the coup attempt. President Arroyo lifted the state of emergency on March 3, 2006, by the virtue of Proclamation No. 1021. The state of national emergency also led to a temporary suspension of lower-level education classes and an immediate revocation on all licenses and permits to hold demonstrations and protests. The government also suspended all public activities on the same day and even on succeeding days. Under the provisions of the 1987 Constitution, the government was allowed at the moment to detain anyone indefinitely without the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus. President Arroyo assured Filipinos that the situation was under control and the state of emergency would not be abused. Arroyo had justified the declaration of a state of emergency with her statement of "clear and present danger to our Republic that we have discovered and thwarted." Critics claimed that this was an attempt by Arroyo to seize political power due to her sagging influence and popularity, and some drew similarities to the actions of her predecessor, Ferdinand Marcos, when he declared martial law in 1972. On March 3, 2006 (one week after the proclamation), by the virtue of Proclamation No. 1021, the President lifted the state of emergency. Previous incidents The coup attempt follows the 2003 Oakwood mutiny where President Arroyo, certain members of her cabinet, and the military were charged with corruption and the Hello Garci scandal, where in 2004, Arroyo and certain election officials were charged with electoral fraud in the 2004 presidential elections. This also comes after Executive Order No. 464, where the President forbade government officials under the Executive branch to attend Filipino Congressional hearings, and the Calibrated Pre-Emptive Response, where street protests were disallowed without securing a rally permit. This led to a drop at the president's popularity ratings from +28% right after EDSA II to -30% by December 2005. Timeline of events leading up to the proclamation The coup was first reported when 14 junior military officers were arrested for plotting a coup on February 22. Around midnight of the 24th, many military vehicles were seen entering Fort Bonifacio in Taguig. Then, at 2:00 a.m., several more vehicles were seen entering Camp Aguinaldo on EDSA. Brigadier General Danilo D. Lim of the Scout Rangers was put under the custody of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. Former President Joseph Estrada was awoken by the police around 3:00 a.m. in San Juan Medical Center and was ordered to return to his resthouse in Tanay, Rizal. He did not follow the request of the police, because it has no authority from the Sandiganbayan, which was trying him on corruption charges. He said that "Magkakamatayan kami" (over my dead body). His eye operation succeeded despite the political unrest within Metro Manila. Hours later, large demonstrations were held at EDSA Shrine, the site of the first People Power movement in 1986. The presidential residence at Malacañang was placed under heavy guard after a lacquer thinner bomb exploded outside of the building on February 23. The coup is part of a plot codenamed "Oplan HACKLE." Arroyo claimed that the coup was a plan between right-wing factions in the military and leftist anarchists, a highly questionable claim since it has been pointed out that both sides have fought each other in the past, and would make unlikely allies. By mid-morning, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo declared a moratorium on all school activities from elementary to college level, issued through the Department of Education and the Commission on Higher Education. Around 11:25 a.m., Arroyo issued Proclamation No. 1017 on national television, placing the entire nation under a state of emergency in an attempt to quell the rebellion — sparking fears that it could lead to the introduction of martial law. General Order No. 5 was issued by the President to implement Proclamation No. 1017, ordering the Armed Forces of the Philippines to "maintain the peace and order of the country and to protect it from terrorism or chaos." The Proclamation effectively cancelled all rally permits everywhere, and according to interpretations by the Arroyo administration, legalized arrest without a warrant. Events after the proclamation The EDSA Shrine protesters were dispersed by the police by noontime. Some made their way to La Salle Green Hills while others went to the annual wreath-laying ceremony at Ninoy Aquino's monument on Ayala Avenue in Makati, the metro's central business district. On the other side of EDSA, protesters led by University of the Philippines Professor Randy David were violently dispersed by the security forces at the EDSA-Kamuning intersection. David and Argee Guevarra were arrested and was charged with inciting to sedition in Camp Karingal in Quezon City. He was later released by nighttime, with all of the charges dropped. Ronald Llamas, a leader of the center-left Akbayan party, was arrested as well. Around 3:30 p.m. demonstrators from different sectors gathered around at the Ninoy Aquino Monument in Makati to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the 1986 People Power Revolution. Prominent personalities like former President Corazon Aquino and her daughter Kris Aquino, Senate President Franklin Drilon, former Vice President Teofisto Guingona, Bishop Teodoro Bacani and Bishop Oscar Cruz, as well as other senators like Aquilino Pimentel, Jr. took part. Protesters believed that Makati would be a safe gathering place because it was governed by oppositionist Mayor Jejomar Binay. However, numerous police personnel were deployed in the area. The traditional throwing of confetti was carried out by some building occupants and a helicopter. The rally was dispersed by the Philippine National Police around 7:30 p.m., contrary to the statement of the police which said that the protesters "voluntarily" left the site. Military movements On the morning of February 26, the Armed Forces denied the text messages stating that there would be unusual military movements. Malacañang said that those statements who came from Mayor J. V. Ejercito of San Juan, Metro Manila are not true. Mayor Ejercito denied the information that came from Malacañang. Malacañang also said that there are no unauthorized troop movements. Fort Bonifacio crisis At around 6:00 p.m. on February 26 Maj. Gen. Renato Miranda was either relieved from his position as Commandant of the Philippine Marines or was requested to resign. Philippine Navy Chief Vice Admiral Mateo Mayuga and Malacañang said that Miranda asked to be relieved for personal reasons, while others perceived it as his termination. He was replaced by Brig. Gen. Nelson Allaga as Acting Commandant of Philippine Marines. Colonel Ariel Querubin protested these moves by the Navy, and some marines went to the camp chapel of Fort Bonifacio to start a prayer vigil in protest that could have led to a "withdrawal of support." Presidential Chief-of-Staff Mike Defensor said the decision was within the military, thus Malacañang had no influence on the matter. He also said that media should not cover the events happening at Fort Bonifacio; major privately owned stations defied the suggestion and covered the situation. The Armed Forces implemented countermeasures, such as blocking Lawton Avenue (the main road to the Fort) from possible protesters, turning off the lights in the Fort, and deploying loyalist troops. However, former President Corazon Aquino, former Vice President Teofisto Guingona, Jr., Senator Ramon Magsaysay, Jr., Representatives Benigno Aquino III and Imee Marcos, and De La Salle University President Bro. Armin Luistro, FSC, went to Fort Bonifacio with other prominent opposition members, but the Civil Disturbance Team arrived at 7:05 pm to control civilians. Civil society held their prayer vigils in front of the Fort, led by the La Salle Brothers. That evening, Capt. Geronimo said that the crisis was over. The newly appointed Commandant of Philippine Marine Corps, Brig. Gen. Nelson Allaga, assumed control of all the marines, and Querubin was later discharged from the services, bidding his comrades goodbye in Marawi City. Brig. Gen. Allaga also announced their situation was over and that the whole Philippine Marine Corps will still will follow the "chain of command" despite earlier events. This decision came from a gentleman's agreement by officers to vote on whether or not to follow the chain of command, with a result of nine against six. After the crisis, most people in front of Fort Bonifacio left, and as a response Malacañang suspended classes on all levels the following day,. Col. Querubin was relieved from his position as commander of the 1st Marine Brigade, with Lt. Col. Luisito Marcelino as his temporary replacement. Arrests After the Makati rally, the Department of Justice sued former Senator Gregorio Honasan, who had previously led coups against the Aquino government in the 1980s, along with the other six leaders of the RAM (Rebolusyonaryong Alyansang Makabansâ, "Nationalist Revolutionary Alliance"), for the 2003 Oakwood mutiny. On February 25, ANAK-PAWIS Party-list Representative Crispin Beltran was served an arrest warrant and taken in for questioning under state of emergency laws for his alleged role in a 1985 coup against Ferdinand Marcos. This was considered a highly unusual and controversial move since the alleged crime was from twenty years prior. Beltrán responded, "They say this is just an invitation but I think this is an arrest. Warrantless arrest, I think there will be more to come." Beltrán underwent inquest by the police on February 27, and was charged with "inciting to rebellion" and "conspiracy to commit rebellion." Police next unsuccessfully tried to arrest Bayan Muna Party-list Representative Satur Ocampo. The former chief of the Philippine Constabulary and former national security adviser to former President Fidel V. Ramos retired General Ramon Montaño, was also arrested by the police. He was charged with inciting sedition, while former Police General Rex Piad was also arrested, but it was later revealed that there was no evidence to support the act. "Batasan 5" On that same day, the PNP–CIDG filed cases against 51 alleged communists, including five party-list representatives (Beltrán, Ocampo, Teodoro Casiño, Joel Virador and Liza Maza), at the DOJ in violation of Article 134, in relation to Article 135 of the Revised Penal Code (rebellion/insurrection). A panel of prosecutors were assigned to the group, dubbed the "Batasan 5", but failed to find them guilty. Minority floor leader Rep. Francis Escudero of Sorsogon appealed to House Speaker Jose de Venecia to halt the arrests of congressmen during the state of emergency. De Venecia assured protection for the members of the House, and offered his office and conference room as lodging. For 70 days, the five took refuge in the House of Representatives. On May 11, the DOJ filed new charges against the Batasan 5 for plotting to instigate a rebellion on Labor Day. Freedom of the press During a state of emergency, the government could control public utilities, which includes media, according to the constitution. Gonzalez assured Filipinos that the government would not use these powers unnecessarily. However, there were reports that the Arroyo government suppressed the freedom of the press. On February 25, the PNP–CIDG raided The Daily Tribune for alleged assistance to leftists and rebel military groups. There were also reports that the military surrounded the ABS-CBN compound in Mother Ignacia, Diliman, Quezon City. However, they left the premises hours later. Samahang Plaridel, National Union of Journalists of the Philippines, and Committee to Protect Journalists expressed disappointment with Proclamation No. 1017, calling it a suppression of press freedom. Lifting of the proclamation On March 1, Ash Wednesday, Arroyo has stated that she will lift the "state of emergency" soon, perhaps by the end of the first week of March. The President gives a 24- to 72-hour time frame to the Secretary of Justice, Secretary of National Defense, and to the Chief of Philippine National Police to give reports to her before lifting the state of emergency. On March 3, by the virtue of Proclamation No. 1021, the Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo officially concluded state of emergency in the Philippines. The state of emergency (Proclamation No. 1017) lasted one week since February 24, 2006. According to her, the state of emergency protected major democratic institutions and even the media. This led to lowering of security alerts of the Philippine National Police and Armed Forces of the Philippines. Reactions Anti-Arroyo A number of observers have drawn parallels between the actions of President Arroyo and those of Ferdinand Marcos. Benito Lim, Professor of Political Science at the University of the Philippines, stated, "This is suppression of all freedom. It is in violation of the constitution and the bill of rights. This is the beginning of using stronger measures to quell dissent against the government. Their justification is reminiscent of Marcos when he proclaimed martial law." On February 24, 2006, the Philippine National Police violently dispersed protesters from EDSA. The Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines denounced the violence, and advised the President to be calm in handling the protests. Archbishop Oscar Cruz of Dagupan and other bishops were not happy of the proclamation from the President stating that the Philippines is under a state of emergency, however the CBCP wants the people to be vigilant of the situation. Former President Ramos said that he was disappointed of the declaration of state of emergency to just prevent an uprising of a small faction of the military, saying it was overkill. The former President described his cold relationship to President Arroyo as "Waning, waning." Former President Joseph Estrada appealed to Arroyo to remove the declaration of State of Emergency as it will not benefit most of the people in the country. He also condemns "baseless arrests" and the alleged dictatorship rule. Fernando Poe, Jr.'s widow Susan Roces said that last week, President Arroyo said that she is the best President of the country, "Is this the best?" Roces is referring to the speech of Arroyo regarding a meeting with the Foreign Correspondents Association of the Philippines (FOCAP) saying: "And let me also make clear: I believe I am the best person to lead this nation through this transition. I was elected to make difficult decisions, and I have made them. Not without mistakes on my part, and certainly not without significant criticism. But I have the experience of hindsight, and I aim to fulfill my term with a steady hand on the helm." The Lasallian Brothers issued a letter about the current political crisis in the country. One of their main points is: "We wish to reaffirm that the most peaceful and expedient way to resolve the current crisis is for President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo to make the supreme sacrifice and to resign voluntarily, an option fully in consonance with the Constitution, in order to pave the way for a smooth and peaceful transition of power." which calls for the resignation of President Arroyo. Pro-Arroyo In the statement of Presidential Spokesperson Sec. Ignacio Bunye, he said that "The actions of the government have been well calibrated and there is no overkill... Had the President not acted as she did, we would now be under a rightist-communist junta." Vice President Noli de Castro affirmed President Arroyo's declaration. He said, "I respect the right of the President to declare a state of emergency in order to preserve the peace, maintain law and order, and ensure the protection of human rights and civil liberties of the people for as long as there is imminent threat to public safety." However, on March 1, 2006, de Castro wants to remove the state of emergency since "there is no more emergency", according to him. Legalities The President cited Article 7 Section 18 of the Constitution which states that: "The President…whenever necessary... may call out the armed forces to prevent or suppress... rebellion..." and Article 12 Section 17 of the Constitution which states that: "In times of national emergency, when the public interest so requires, the State may, during the emergency and under reasonable terms prescribed by it, temporarily take over or direct the operations of privately owned public utilities or business affected with public interest." Sec. Gonzalez of the Department of Justice said that the government had not yet reached that point. Lawyers question Proclamation No. 1017 stating that the whole nation is under State of Emergency and other actions of the government in the Supreme Court of the Philippines by issuing multiple petitions. Court Martial Days after the lifting of the declaration of a state of emergency, several Scout Ranger officers, including Lamitan Hero, Army Captain Ruben Guinolbay, were ordered investigated and detained. Eventually, 25 Scout Rangers officers were arrested but were charged only on August 2, 2006, after several months in detention. Also charged were several Marine officers allegedly involved in the Fort Bonifacio incident. Those charged were Brigadier General Danilo Lim, Lieutenant Colonels Nestor Flordeliza and Edmundo Malabanjot; Majors Jason Aquino, and Jose Leomar Doctolero; Captains James Sababan, Montano Almodovar, Joey Fontiveros, Ruben Guinolbay, Isagani Criste, William Upano, Dante Langkit, Allan Aurino, and Frederick Sales; and First Lieutenants Ervin Divinagracia, Jacon Cordero, Homer Estolas, Sandro Sereno and Richiemel Caballes of the Philippine Army Scout Rangers. The indicted Marine officers are Major General Renato Miranda, Medal of Valor awardees Col. Ariel Querubin, Lt. Col. Custodio Parcon; Colonels Orlando de Leon, Januario Caringal and Armando Bañez; Lieutenant Colonels Valentin Hizon, Romulo Gualdrapa, and Achilles Segumalian; Maj. Francisco Domingo Fernandez; and 1Lt. Belinda Ferrer. The pretrial investigation panel formed by the Armed Forces of the Philippines, conducted by the Judge Advocate General's Office and headed by Col. Al Pereras recommended the dismissal of the charge of mutiny but the retention of charges for conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman for a few of the detained officers. All charges against Capt. Guinolbay were recommended dismissed. The same however, was overturned by Chief of Staff Hermogenes Esperon, allegedly upon the recommendation of the Staff Judge Advocate, even as Marine Lt. Cols Valentin Hizon and Romulo Gualdrapa were dropped as accused by Gen. Esperon's exercise of discretion. See also Hello Garci scandal Oakwood mutiny Martial Law in the Philippines Proclamation No. 55 People Power Revolution References External links Office of the Press Secretary Online: PGMA declares a State of National Emergency The Daily Tribune: Without Fear or Favor The Official Website of the Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines – CBCP online BBC: Emergency declared in Philippines INQ7: Arroyo declares state of emergency Guardian: State of emergency in Philippines IFEX: Media targeted under state of emergency - IFEX Conflicts in 2006 Emergency laws in the Philippines State of emergency in the Philippines Philippines Presidency of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo February 2006 events in Asia March 2006 events in the Philippines
4179999	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010%20in%20sports	2010 in sports	2010 in sports will describe the year's events in world sport. Events by month January 24th-31st Bandy World Championship in Moscow, Russia. Winner: February 7 American football, , Super Bowl XLIV. Winner: New Orleans Saints. 12 – 28: Olympics, / 2010 Winter Olympics. Winner: Canada. March April 25: Marathon, London Marathon. Winners: Tsegaye Kebede, Liliya Shobukhova May 30: IndyCar Series, USA 2010 Indianapolis 500 Winner: Dario Franchitti June 3 - 17: Basketball, / 2010 NBA Finals. Winner: Los Angeles Lakers. 11–11 July: Association football, 2010 FIFA World Cup. Winner: . July The ashes August 28–12 September: Basketball, 2010 FIBA World Championship. Winner: . September 23–3 October: Basketball, 2010 FIBA World Championship for Women. Winner: . 26: Formula One, 2010 Singapore Grand Prix. Winner: Fernando Alonso. 26: Marathon, Berlin Marathon. Winners: Patrick Makau, Aberu Kebede. October 3 - 14: Multi-sport event, 2010 Commonwealth Games, Delhi, India. Winner: Australia 10: Marathon, Chicago Marathon. Winners: Samuel Wanjiru, Liliya Shobukhova. 24: Formula One, 2010 Korean Grand Prix. Winner: Fernando Alonso. November 7: Marathon, New York City Marathon. Winners: Gebregziabher Gebremariam, Edna Kiplagat. 12 - 27: Multi-sport event, 2010 Asian Games, Guangzhou, China. Winner: China December American football January The Alabama Crimson Tide defeats the Texas Longhorns 37–21 in the BCS National Championship Game at the Rose Bowl, thereby claiming the 2009 National Championship in College Football. February Super Bowl XLIV – the New Orleans Saints (NFC) won 31–17 over the Indianapolis Colts (AFC) Location: Sun Life Stadium Attendance: 74,059 MVP: Drew Brees, QB (New Orleans) For the third consecutive year, the proposed All American Football League, originally intended to launch in 2008, delays its planned debut, this time until 2011. March Another proposed league, the United National Gridiron League, announces that it has indefinitely suspended operations. April The new incarnation of the Arena Football League, consisting mostly of teams from the now-dissolved AF2, makes its debut. Although the new AFL is a separate corporate entity from the original AFL, it purchased the assets of the original league in a bankruptcy auction, enabling it to brand itself as a continuation of the original. August August–September: New Meadowlands Stadium, the new home of the New York Giants and Jets, opened on August 16 with a pre-season game between the two teams, with the Jets as the designated home team. The Giants won this matchup 31–16. After winning a coin flip between the two teams, the Giants played the first regular-season game in the stadium on September 12, defeating the Carolina Panthers 31–18. The Jets played the Baltimore Ravens in their home opener the following night on Monday Night Football, losing 10–9. August 20 – The Spokane Shock defeat the Tampa Bay Storm 69–57 at home to win ArenaBowl XXIII. September Reggie Bush, currently with the Saints, announced that he would forfeit his 2005 Heisman Trophy after his involvement with marketing agents while playing at USC led to severe NCAA penalties against the school. USC had already returned its copy of Bush's Heisman and the football program cut ties with Bush. December Brett Favre, Quarterback of the Minnesota Vikings was listed inactive against the New York Giants, which was played at Ford Field home of the Detroit Lions after the Vikings stadium, the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome, collapsed due to heavy snow. This was the first time since 1991 that Favre did not start a game, ending his NFL consecutive-streak record at 297. Aquatics January/February 29 January–8 February Swimming at the 2010 South Asian Games in Dhaka, Bangladesh July 13–18 2010 FINA Men's Water Polo World League (The Super Final was held in Niš, Serbia) 18–23 Swimming at the 2010 Central American and Caribbean Games in Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 27 July - 1 August 2010 FINA Men's Water Polo World Cup in Oradea, Romania August 4–15 2010 European Aquatics Championships in Budapest, Hungary. The total aquatics medal table was won by Russia with 13 gold medals, 7 silver, 8 bronze. Germany was second in the total medal table with 8 gold, 9 silver, 3 bronze. France was third with 8 gold, 8 silver and 7 bronze. The swimming medal table had slightly different order. Russia was second, France first and Great Britain third. France got 8 gold medals, 7 silver, 6 bronze. Russia got 7 gold, 4 silver, 1 bronze. Great Britain got 6 gold, 6 silver and 6 bronze. Diving medal table was totally different: Germany was first, Ukraine second and Italy third. Germany got 5 gold, 3 silver, but no bronze. Ukraine got 2 gold, 2 silver and 0 bronze. Italy got 1 gold, two silver, but no bronze for Italy either. Synchronized Swimming medal table had only three countries. Russia was first, Ukraine second and Spain third. Italy won the open water medal table, Greece was second and Germany third. Water Polo Championships were held separately. 18-22 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in Irvine California, United States September 13–29 2010 African Swimming Championships October 4–13 Swimming, Diving and Synchronized Swimming at the 2010 Commonwealth Games in Delhi, India November 12–27 Aquatics (Swimming, Diving, Water polo and Synchronized swimming) at the 2010 Asian Games in Guangzhou, China. 25–28 2010 European Short Course Swimming Championships in Eindhoven, Netherlands. Germany won the medal table with 10 gold, 8 silver, 4 bronze. Host country Netherlands was second with 9 gold, 8 silver and 5 bronze. Hungary was third with 6 gold, 1 silver and two bronze. December 15-19 2010 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. United States was the winner of the medal table with 12 golf medals, 6 silver and 7 bronze. Second in the medal table was Russia with 4 gold, 4 silver and 2 bronze medals. Spain was third with 4 gold medals, two silver and two bronze. Association football January 10th—31st – Africa Cup of Nations, Angola. Winner – Pachuca win the CONCACAF Champions League. PRK Hekari United win the OFC Champions League. Atlético Madrid win the UEFA Europa League. Internazionale win the UEFA Champions League. June/July June 11 – July 11 – FIFA World Cup, South Africa. Winner – July/August July 13 – August 1 – FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup, Germany. Winner – Germany Internacional win the Copa Libertadores September 5th—25th – FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup, Trinidad and Tobago – Korea Republic LDU Quito win the 2010 Recopa Sudamericana Seongnam Ilhwa win the AFC Champions League TP Mazembe win the CAF Champions League Internazionale win the FIFA Club World Cup Athletics March 12th–14th – IAAF World Indoor Championships in Doha, Qatar. 27th – IAAF World Cross Country Championships in Bydgoszcz, Poland. May May 14 – August 27 – IAAF Diamond League, worldwide track and field meeting series. May 15–16 – IAAF World Race Walking Cup in Chihuahua, Mexico. July/August July 27 – August 1 – European Athletics Championships in Barcelona, Spain. October October 16 – IAAF World Half Marathon Championships in Nanning, China Australian rules football September 25th – 2010 AFL Grand Final – drew with in the first Grand Final, 9.14 (68) – 10.8 (68). Collingwood won the replay by 56 points on October 2, 16.12 (108) – 7.10 (52). It was the first drawn AFL Grand Final since 1977. Bandy 24–31 January Bandy World Championship in Moscow, Russia – wins Bandy World Cup, October – Dynamo Kazan wins Baseball April 2nd – Target Field in Minneapolis, the first stadium built specifically for the Minnesota Twins, opens with the Twins losing to the St. Louis Cardinals 8–4 in a spring training game. 12th – Target Field hosts its first regular-season game, with the Twins defeating the Boston Red Sox 5–2. May 9th – Dallas Braden of the Oakland Athletics pitches the 19th perfect game in Major League Baseball history in a 4–0 home win over the Tampa Bay Rays. 29th – Roy Halladay of the Philadelphia Phillies pitches the 20th perfect game in MLB history in a 1–0 road win over the Florida Marlins. This marks the first time in the modern era that two perfect games have been thrown in the same MLB season. June 2nd – Armando Galarraga of the Detroit Tigers loses out on a perfect game when the 27th batter, the Cleveland Indians' Jason Donald, is called safe on an infield grounder. Immediately after the game, umpire Jim Joyce admitted that he had blown the call. The Tigers won 3–0. July 13th – The 81st Major League Baseball All-Star Game at Angel Stadium of Anaheim, Anaheim, California is won by the National League for the first time since 1996. Brian McCann, whose three-run double in the seventh inning gives the NL all of its runs in the 3–1 game, is named MVP. George Steinbrenner owner of the New York Yankees dies of a heart attack at St. Joseph's Hospital in Tampa Bay, Florida. September September 7 – Trevor Hoffman, closing pitcher for the Milwaukee Brewers become the first closing pitcher in the history of the MLB to record 600 career saves, at Miller Park in Milwaukee, Wisconsin against the St. Louis Cardinals. October 6th – In Game 1 of the National League Division Series, Halladay no-hits the Cincinnati Reds in the Phillies' 4–0 win. Halladay becomes only the second pitcher to throw a no-hitter in postseason play, after Don Larsen's perfect game in Game 5 of the 1956 World Series. 22nd – The Texas Rangers defeat the New York Yankees in the ALCS to advance to their first World Series. 23rd – The San Francisco Giants defeat the Philadelphia Phillies in the NLCS to advance to their fourth World Series since relocating to San Francisco. November 1st – The San Francisco Giants defeat the Texas Rangers to win the 2010 World Series 4–1. 7th – The Chiba Lotte Marines defeat the Chunichi Dragons to win the 2010 Japan Series 4–2–1. December 2nd – Ron Santo former 3rd baseman of the Chicago Cubs dies due to complications from bladder cancer and diabetes in a Scottsdale, Arizona hospital. Legendary Milwaukee Brewers baseball announcer and former Milwaukee Braves catcher Bob Uecker, who played on the Braves during the 1957 World Series in which the Braves won, undergoes two successful heart surgeries, one during the baseball season, and one following it, and gets inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame. The Milwaukee Brewers reveal a statue in honor of Baseball Commissioner Allen H. "Bud" Selig a native of Milwaukee, Wisconsin and who helped bring the Brewers to Milwaukee (formerly the Seattle Pilots) after the departure of the 1957 World Series champions, Milwaukee Braves. Basketball February 14th – A crowd of 108,713, the largest in the sport's history, packs Cowboys Stadium in Arlington, Texas for the 2010 NBA All-Star Game. The East defeats the West 141–139, with the Miami Heat's Dwyane Wade, representing the East, being named MVP. NCAA men's tournament — Duke defeats Butler 61–59 at Lucas Oil Stadium, 6 miles (9.7 km) from Butler's campus in Indianapolis. It is the fourth national title for both Duke and its head coach Mike Krzyzewski. Duke's Kyle Singler is named Most Outstanding Player. NCAA women's tournament — Connecticut completes their second consecutive 39–0 season with a 53–47 win over Stanford at the Alamodome in San Antonio. It is the seventh national title and fourth unbeaten season for both the Huskies and their head coach Geno Auriemma. The Most Outstanding Player award goes to UConn's Maya Moore. Euroleague — Regal FC Barcelona wins the title in Paris. June NBA Finals — The Los Angeles Lakers defeat the Boston Celtics in seven games for the Lakers' 16th NBA title. August/September August 28 – September 12 – 2010 FIBA World Championship in Turkey — . MVP: Kevin Durant (USA) September 23 – October 3- 2010 FIBA World Championship for Women in the Czech Republic — . MVP: Hana Horáková (Czech Republic). December 21st — The University of Connecticut women's team wins its 89th consecutive game, surpassing the NCAA Division I record previously held by the UCLA men's team of 1971–1974. 30th – UConn's record winning streak ends at 90 when the Huskies lose 71–59 to Stanford. Boxing March 13 – Manny Pacquiao defeats Joshua Clottey by controlling the fight from start to finish, leading to Pacquiao winning by a unanimous decision. The fight was the first boxing match held at Cowboys Stadium in Arlington, Texas in front of over 41,000 people. This was Pacquiao's first defense of his newly awarded WBO welterweight title. March 20 – Wladimir Klitschko knocks out Eddie Chambers with a fierce left that hits Chambers in the temple with only five seconds left in the fight. The punch knocked Chambers out nearly instantly, with him collapsing to the canvas and hanging off the last rope. This was Klitschko's first defense of his Ring magazine heavyweight title, his fourth defense of his WBO heavyweight title, and his eighth defense of his IBF and IBO heavyweight titles. March 27 – Pongsaklek Wonjongkam defeats Kōki Kameda by a majority decision to win the WBC flyweight title and vacant Ring magazine flyweight title. This is the second time Wonjongkam has become the WBC flyweight champion, after first winning the title in March 2001. Wonjongkam defended the title seventeen times, until he lost to Daisuke Naito in July 2007. This fight is later named the best flyweight fight of 2010 by Ring magazine. April 17 – Kelly Pavlik loses to Sergio Martínez in a close fight for Pavlik's WBC, WBO, and Ring magazine middleweight titles. Martínez controlled the early rounds with quick in and out movements, refusing to heavily engage with Pavlik. Martínez managed to cut Pavlik's left eyebrow in the first round. Pavlik then started to mount a comeback in the middle rounds by blocking Martínez's punches more effectively. Pavlik spent most of his time headhunting trying to land a hard right, which did help Pavlik get a knockdown in the seventh round. In the late rounds Martínez came back and started to open up Pavlik's cuts more, making his face extremely blood. In the post fight interview Pavlik said he couldn't see due to the blood. Martínez ended up winning the fight with a unanimous decision. April 24 – Mikkel Kessler upsets Carl Froch by a unanimous decision to win Froch's WBC super middleweight title. The fight was part of the second-group stage of the Super Six World Boxing Classic. Following the fight, Froch complained about a judging bias, seeing how the fight was held in Kessler's country of origin, Denmark. This fight was later named the best super middleweight fight of 2010 by Ring magazine. April 30 – In a stunning upset, Fernando Montiel knocksout Hozumi Hasegawa ending his five-year, 10 title defense streak and taking his WBC bantamweight title. The knockout came as a surprise due to Hasegawa seeming to be clearly leading until the end of the fourth, when Montiel landed a left punch that stunned Hasegawa and pushed him back to the ropes, where he unloaded on him until the referee stopped the fight. May 1 – Floyd Mayweather Jr. defeats Shane Mosley to continue his undefeated career streak. Mosley came out strong for the first two rounds—at one point making Mayweather's knees buckle—but Mayweather went on to control the fight. May 8 – Making his comeback after roughly 15½ months of being suspended, Antonio Margarito defeated Roberto Garcia to win the vacant WBC international super welterweight title. May 15 – Amir Khan dominates Paul Malignaggi to win by TKO in the eleventh round to retain his WBA light welterweight title for the second time. This was Khan's debut in the United States. May 22 – In their fourth fight against each other Rafael Márquez evens the series to two wins for each man by stopping Israel Vázquez by TKO in the third round. June 5 – Miguel Cotto defeats Yuri Foreman by a ninth round stoppage due to a leg injury Foreman suffered during the fight. In an amazing display of will, Foreman refused to quit despite being in what he later called a "very sharp pain". A towel was thrown in the ring, but it was ruled to have come from an outside source, and the fight continued for another minute until being stopped officially. This was Cotto's debut at light middleweight. The fight was the first boxing match in the new Yankee stadium built in 2009, and the first match in either Yankee stadium since Ali/Norton 3 in 1976. July 31 – In a rematch of 2009's fight of the year, Juan Manuel Márquez defeats Juan Díaz for a second time to retain his WBO lightweight title and to win the WBA super world lightweight title. August 14 – Jean Pascal upsets Chad Dawson by a technical decision due to an accidental headbutt that caused a major cut over Dawson's right eye and the fight was stopped by the ringside doctor. However Pascal easily won the fight according to the judge's scorecards. Pascal defended his WBC light heavyweight title for the third time, won Dawson's IBO light heavyweight title, and filled the vacant Ring magazine light heavyweight title. August 28 – Giovanni Segura upsets Iván Calderón by a knockout in the eighth round to win the WBO and WBA super world light flyweight titles. Segura ends Calderón's undefeated 34-fight winning record. This fight would later be named both the best light flyweight and overall fight of the year of 2010 by Ring magazine. September 11 – Yuriorkis Gamboa defeats Orlando Salido to unified the WBA world and vacant IBF featherweight titles. Gamboa was knocked down in the eighth round and was docked two points in the twelfth round. While Salido was knocked down twice in the twelfth round. November 6 – Juan Manuel López defeats Rafael Márquez by TKO, in an exciting fight that was stopped early due to Márquez suffering a shoulder injury following the eighth round. López defends his WBO featherweight title and improves his record to 30–0. This fight is later named the best featherweight fight of 2010 by Ring magazine. November 13 – Manny Pacquiao destroys Antonio Margarito to the WBC super welterweight title, making Pacquiao the first and so far only boxer to win world titles in eight different weight classes. Following the fight, Margarito is sent to a hospital with a fractured orbital bone, which requires surgery. This was Margarito's first major fight in over 21 months, following a knockout loss to Shane Mosley in January 2009. November 20 – In a highly anticipated rematch, Sergio Martínez knocks out Paul Williams in the second round to retain his WBC and Ring magazine middleweight titles. This fight was later named knockout of the year by Ring magazine. November 27 – Juan Manuel Márquez defeats Michael Katsidis by ninth-round TKO. Katsidis was competitive throughout the fight and even scored a knockdown on Márquez in the third round. While Márquez fought a more solid fight, landing many combinations. Márquez defends his WBO, WBA, and Ring magazine lightweight titles. This fight is later named the best lightweight fight of 2010 by Ring magazine. December 11 – Amir Khan defeats Marcos Maidana in a relatively close decision. Khan came out strong in the early part of the fight, by applying heavy pressure on Maidana and getting a knockdown late in the first round. However, in the later parts of the fight Khan spent much of his time avoiding Maidana trying to endure through rounds. At one point Maidana appeared to have almost finished Khan in the tenth round, when he landed a huge punch. However Khan absorbed the punishment and did enough in the early rounds to win by a unanimous decision. Khan defended his WBA world light welterweight title for the third time. This fight is later named the best light welterweight fight of 2010 by Ring magazine. December 11 – Abner Mares defeats Vic Darchinyan by a spit decision, to start Showtime's second boxing tournament based on the Super Six World Boxing Classic. However instead featured only four fighters, a single elimination format, and was focused on the bantamweight division at 118 lbs (54 kg) under the title, The Bantamweight Tournament: Winner Takes All. This fight was later named the best bantamweight fight of 2010 by Ring magazine. December 18 – After twelve rounds of boxing, Bernard Hopkins vs. Jean Pascal ends in a controversial majority draw. Canadian football November 28 – 98th Grey Cup is held at Commonwealth Stadium in Edmonton — Montreal Alouettes defeat Saskatchewan Roughriders 21–18. Cricket January 15–30 — 2010 U-19 Cricket World Cup, New Zealand April 30, – May 16, — 2010 ICC World Twenty20, West Indies June 15–24 — 2010 Asia Cup, Sri Lanka September 10–26 — 2010 Champions League Twenty20, South Africa November 25, 2010 – January 7, 2011 — 2010–11 Ashes series, Australia Curling Cycling March 20 Milan–San Remo Óscar Freire wins first monument of the year over Tom Boonen in predicted sprint finish. April 4 Tour of Flanders Fabian Cancellara defeats home favourite Tom Boonen as 1 million people line the streets of Northern Belgium for the Unesco heritage race, famous for its culture, beautiful forests and brutal cobbled hills. Cancellara attacked first on the Molenberg with 44 km to go and Boonen was the only one who could follow. With 15 km to go Cancellara launched a powerful attack on the Muur-Kapelmuur using the last metres of the hill and descent to create a big gap. Once the gap was created, the world tt champion was always favourite and had time to celebrate. April 11 Paris–Roubaix Fabian Cancellara launched a surprising attack with over 45 km to go while Boonen was taking a drink behind. The Swiss, nicknamed Spartacus, showed incredible strength to stretch out the gap to over 4 minutes over the rest, before relaxing in the final kilometres to celebrate becoming one of the few people to achieve the Flanders Roubaix double in the same week. April 24 Liège–Bastogne–Liège Alexander Vinokourov came out victorious over Alexander Kolobnev with whom he worked to set up a 2-man finish. Vino attacked with 15 km to go, with many teams hesitant to bring him back, as drag Vinos teammate Alberto Contador, would then attack. With 9 km to go an elite group behind formed and home favourite Philippe Gilbert launched an all or nothing attack. Gilbert halved the 40 second deficit, but Vino and Kolobnev used their 2-man advantage to tire him out and ultimately contested the finish among themselves with Vino riding away to celebrate a successful comeback at the age of 36. May 8–30 Giro d'Italia Ivan Basso won what was considered to be one of the greatest Grand Tours of all time. With surprisingly exciting stages in the first week, including crashes in the Netherlands a ttt and a tough stage through the mud of Strade Bianchi, the race was blown apart on stage 12 when a group of 30 riders, including climbers David Arroyo and Carlos Sastre got a 12-minute lead. This forced the other contenders to push hard in the very difficult mountains of the 3rd week. Cadel Evans Michelle Scarponi Vincenzo Nibali and Basso took minutes over the leaders on 3 mountain stages, one of which was a mountain finish on the Monte Zoncolan, the hardest mountain in Grand Tour history, lined by hundreds of thousands of fans. The race came down to a difficult stage over the extremely difficult Passo di Mortirolo with a finish in Aprica. Basso needed 3 minutes to take the jersey from Arroyo, and looked likely to get it after taking 2 minutes on the ascent of the climb. But Arroyo surprised the world of cycling with an amazing descent of the mountain in very dangerous conditions, taking back 1 minute 30. The final twist came with the final climb into Aprica, were Basso, helped by teammate Nibali, and stage winner Scarponi, was able to take 3 minutes on Arroyo, gaining the jersey and a 2nd Giro win. July 3–25 Tour de France Alberto Contador won his 3rd Tour de France and 5th Grand Tour after a close duel with young Luxembourger Andy Schleck. The two were always comfortable, and close to each other, but the onus was on Schleck who was considered to be a far weaker time trial cyclist. Going into the stage on the Col du Tourmalet Schleck needed to get a gap over Contador, but, although he won the stage, Contador finished just behind Schleck and won the Tour on the time trial two days later. August 1–7 Tour de Pologne Dan Martin August 28–19 Vuelta a España Vincenzo Nibali won his first Grand Tour after putting in a surprisingly strong performance on the decisive stage. The strong favourite at the halfway point had been Igor Antón but the rider had an unfortunate crash and was forced to abandon. This left the Italian to fight it out with Galician climber Ezequiel Mosquera. Mosquera got time in several mountain stages, and needed 40 seconds on the final stage over the very steep Bola del Mundo. Huge crowds cheered on Mosquera as he attacked with 3 km and he was able to initially get 20 seconds. But Nibali came back and caught Mosquera in the last few metres, and though he was unable to overtake the Spaniard for the stage win, he was the overall winner. September 29–October 3 UCI Road World Championships Women's Time trial – Emma Pooley. Men's Time Trial – Fabian Cancellara. Women's Road Race – Giorgia Bronzini. Men's Road Race – Thor Hushovd won an epic race which looked to finish in anything but a sprint finish, until the last few kilometres. Several groups kept forming in attacks that looked likely to succeed, but ultimately always got brought back. Favourite Philippe Gilbert expected attack finally came on the 1st climb of the last lap. But as he was caught by a 2nd group, the peloton surprisingly appeared just behind them with 3 k to go and a sprint finish it turned out to be. October 17 Giro di Lombardia – Philippe Gilbert made up for his failure at the worlds with a 2nd victory in the final monument of the season. The Belgian was simply too strong throughout and never looked like losing. After a crash took out Nibali, Gilbert was left on his own, and waited for Michele Scarponi for support. But the Italian, who is superior in Grand Tours, was out of his depth contesting a one-day race against the classic specialist, who waltzed away with ease in the last few kilometres. Equestrian February 18 – February 28 – 2010 Arctic Equestrian Games, Norway September 25 – October 10 – 2010 FEI World Equestrian Games, Lexington, Kentucky Figure skating Floorball Men's World Floorball Championships Champion: Women's under-19 World Floorball Championships Champion: EuroFloorball Cup Men's champion: Storvreta IBK Women's champion: IKSU Innebandy Futsal UEFA Futsal Championship, Hungary – Spain 2010 Grand Prix de Futsal, Brazil – Brazil Golf April 20 - Lorena Ochoa announced her retirement from professional golf, leaving her 4-year streak as world's number one ranked player. Major championships The Masters winner: Phil Mickelson U.S. Open winner: Graeme McDowell The Open Championship winner: Louis Oosthuizen PGA Championship winner: Martin Kaymer Women's major championships Kraft Nabisco Championship winner: Yani Tseng LPGA Championship winner: Cristie Kerr U.S. Women's Open winner: Paula Creamer Women's British Open winner: Yani Tseng Senior major championships Senior PGA Championship winner: Tom Lehman Senior British Open winner: Bernhard Langer U.S. Senior Open winner: Bernhard Langer The Tradition winner: Fred Funk Senior Players Championship winner: Mark O'Meara Gymnastics 2010 European Men's Artistic Gymnastics Championships 2010 European Women's Artistic Gymnastics Championships 2010 Rhythmic Gymnastics European Championships 2010 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships 2010 World Rhythmic Gymnastics Championships Handball European Men's Handball Championship – France Horse racing Steeplechases Cheltenham Gold Cup – Imperial Commander Grand National – Don't Push It Grand Steeple-Chase de Paris – Polar Rochelais Nakayama Grand Jump – Merci Mont Saint Flat races Australia: Cox Plate – So You Think Melbourne Cup – Americain Canadian Triple Crown: Queen's Plate – Big Red Mike Prince of Wales Stakes – Golden Moka Breeders' Stakes – Miami Deco Dubai, United Arab Emirates: Dubai World Cup – Glória de Campeão France: Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe – Workforce Hong Kong: Hong Kong International Races Hong Kong Vase – Mastery Hong Kong Sprint – J J the Jet Plane Hong Kong Mile – Beauty Flash Hong Kong Cup – Snow Fairy Ireland: Irish Derby – Cape Blanco Japan: Japan Cup – Rose Kingdom English Triple Crown: 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Makfi The Derby – Workforce St. Leger Stakes – Arctic Cosmos United States Triple Crown: Kentucky Derby – Super Saver Preakness Stakes – Lookin at Lucky Belmont Stakes – Drosselmeyer Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships at Churchill Downs, Louisville, Kentucky (both days arranged in race card order): Day 1: Breeders' Cup Marathon – Eldaafer Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies Turf – More Than Real Breeders' Cup Filly & Mare Sprint – Dubai Majesty Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Awesome Feather Breeders' Cup Filly & Mare Turf – Shared Account Breeders' Cup Ladies' Classic – Unrivaled Belle Day 2: Breeders' Cup Juvenile Turf – Pluck Breeders' Cup Sprint – Big Drama Breeders' Cup Turf Sprint – Chamberlain Bridge Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Uncle Mo Breeders' Cup Mile – Goldikova Breeders' Cup Dirt Mile – Dakota Phone Breeders' Cup Turf – Dangerous Midge Breeders' Cup Classic – Blame Harness Prix d'Amérique – Oyonnax Ice hockey February 13–25: wins gold, wins silver, and wins bronze at the women's tournament of the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada February 16–28: wins gold, wins silver, and wins bronze at the men's tournament of the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. May 7–23: wins gold, wins silver, and wins bronze at the 2010 IIHF World Championship in Cologne, Mannheim and Gelsenkirchen, Germany. June 9: The Chicago Blackhawks defeat the Philadelphia Flyers 4–3 in overtime of game six of the 2010 Stanley Cup Finals series to win the Stanley Cup for the first time in 49 years. Lacrosse July 15–24 – 2010 World Lacrosse Championship, Manchester, England. Mixed martial arts The following is a list of major noteworthy MMA events by month. January 1/2 – UFC 108: Evans vs. Silva 1/10 – WEC 46: Varner vs. Henderson 1/11 – UFC Fight Night: Maynard vs. Diaz 1/30 – Strikeforce: Miami February 2/6 – UFC 109: Relentless 2/21 – UFC 110: Nogueira vs. Velasquez 2/26 – ShoMMA 6: Kaufman vs. Hashi March 3/6 – WEC 47: Bowles vs. Cruz 3/21 – UFC Live: Vera vs. Jones 3/22 – Dream 13 3/26 – ShoMMA 7: Johnson vs. Mahe 3/27 – UFC 111: St. Pierre vs. Hardy 3/31 – UFC Fight Night: Florian vs. Gomi April 4/8 – Bellator XIII () 4/10 – UFC 112: Invincible 4/15 – Bellator XIV 4/17 – Strikeforce: Nashville 4/22 – Bellator XV 4/24 – WEC 48: Aldo vs. Faber 4/25 – ASTRA 4/29 – Bellator XVI May 5/6 – Bellator XVII 5/8 – UFC 113: Machida vs. Shogun 2 5/13 – Bellator XVIII 5/15 – Strikeforce: Heavy Artillery 5/20 – Bellator XIX 5/21 – ShoMMA 8: Lindland vs. Casey 5/27 – Bellator XX 5/29 – UFC 114: Rampage vs. Evans 5/29 – Dream 14 June 6/10 – Bellator XXI 6/12 – UFC 115: Liddell vs. Franklin 6/16 – Strikeforce: Los Angeles 6/17 – Bellator XXII 6/19 – The Ultimate Fighter 11 Finale 6/20 – WEC 49: Varner vs. Shalorus 6/24 – Bellator XXIII () 6/26 – Strikeforce: Fedor vs. Werdum July 7/3 – UFC 116: Lesnar vs. Carwin 7/10 – Dream 15 7/10 – Impact FC 1 – The Uprising: Brisbane 7/18 – Impact FC 2 – The Uprising: Sydney 7/23 – ShoMMA 9: Rosario vs. Mahe August 8/1 – UFC Live: Jones vs. Matyushenko 8/7 – UFC 117: Silva vs. Sonnen 8/12 – Bellator XXIV () 8/13 – ShoMMA 10: Riggs vs. Taylor 8/18 – WEC 50: Cruz vs. Benavidez 2 8/19 – Bellator XXV 8/21 – Strikeforce: Houston 8/26 – Bellator XXVI 8/28 – UFC 118: Edgar vs. Penn 2 September 9/2 – Bellator XXVII 9/9 – Bellator XXVIII 9/11 – Shark Fights 13: Jardine vs. Prangley 9/15 – UFC Fight Night: Marquardt vs. Palhares 9/16 – Bellator XXIX 9/23 – Bellator XXX 9/25 – UFC 119: Mir vs. Cro Cop 9/25 – Dream 16 9/30 – Bellator XXXI 9/30 – WEC 51: Aldo vs. Gamburyan October 10/9 – Strikeforce: Diaz vs. Noons II 10/14 – Bellator XXXII 10/16 – UFC 120: Bisping vs. Akiyama 10/21 – Bellator XXXIII 10/22 – ShoMMA 11: Bowling vs. Voelker 10/23 – UFC 121: Lesnar vs. Velasquez 10/28 – Bellator XXXIV () November 11/9 – Israel FC: Genesis 11/11 – WEC 52: Faber vs. Mizugaki 11/13 – UFC 122: Marquardt vs. Okami 11/19 – ShoMMA 12: Wilcox vs. Ribeiro 11/20 – UFC 123: Rampage vs. Machida December 12/4 – The Ultimate Fighter 12 Finale aka The Ultimate Fighter: Team GSP vs. Team Koscheck Finale 12/4 – Strikeforce: St. Louis aka Strikeforce: Henderson vs. Babalu II 12/11 – UFC 124: St-Pierre vs. Koscheck 2 12/16 – WEC 53: Henderson vs. Pettis () 12/31 – Dynamite!! 2010 Motorsport Multi-sport events January 25 – January 31 – 2010 World Winter Masters Games, Bled, Slovenia January 29 – February 8 – 2010 South Asian Games, Dhaka, Bangladesh February 12 – 28 – 2010 Winter Olympics, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada March 6 – 13 – 2010 Arctic Winter Games in Grande Prairie, Alberta, Canada March 12 – 21 – 2010 Winter Paralympics, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada March 19 – 30 – 2010 South American Games, in Medellin, Colombia July 17 – August 1 – 2010 Central American and Caribbean Games, Mayagüez, Puerto Rico July 31 to August 6, 2010 - 2010 Gay Games, Cologne, Germany August 14 – 26 – 2010 Summer Youth Olympics, Singapore, Singapore October 3 – 14 – 2010 Commonwealth Games, Delhi, India November 12 – 27 – 2010 Asian Games, Guangzhou, China December 12 – 19 – 2010 Asian Para Games, Guangzhou, China Pickleball The International Federation of Pickleball was founded in Goodyear, Arizona by the USA Pickleball Association, now USA Pickleball. Rink hockey January 9 – January 15: 2010 Asian Roller Hockey Championship, Dalian, China July: 2010 Rink Hockey European Championship, Wuppertal, Germany September 25 – October 2: 2010 Rink Hockey Ladies World Championship, Alcobendas, Spain September 23 – October 30: 2010 Rink Hockey Men's B World Championship, Dornbirn, Austria 2010 Rink Hockey American Championship, Catalonia Rowing October 29 – November 7 – 2010 World Rowing Championships will be held at Lake Karapiro, Hamilton, New Zealand. Rugby league January 29 – October 2 – Super League XV was held in England, Wales and France. Wigan Warriors defeated St. Helens 22–10 in the Grand Final for their second title. This was also St Helens' fourth consecutive Grand Final defeat. February 13– 2010 All Stars match is played on the Gold Coast, Australia. February 28– 2010 World Club Challenge is played in Leeds, England, with Australia's Melbourne Storm beating England's Leeds Rhinos. March 12 – October 3 – 2010 NRL season was held in Australia and New Zealand. The St. George Illawarra Dragons defeated Sydney Roosters 32–8 in the Grand Final for their first premiership since the 1999 merger that created the team. April 22 – The Melbourne Storm Storm are stripped of their 2007 and 2009 premierships and 2006–2008 minor premierships, fined $1.689 million, deducted all eight premiership points for the 2010 season and barred from receiving premiership points for the rest of the season by the National Rugby League after being found guilty of long-term gross salary cap breaches. October–November – 2010 Rugby League Four Nations will be held in Australia and New Zealand. October–November – 2010 European Cup will be held in Europe where Ireland, Scotland, Wales and France will compete for a spot in the 2011 four nations. Rugby union 116th Six Nations Championship series is won by who complete the Grand Slam. March 8 – The Celtic League and Italian Rugby Federation confirm the entry of two Italian teams, Aironi and Benetton Treviso, into the previously Celtic competition in 2010–11. May 18–30 – The 2010 IRB Junior World Rugby Trophy was held at several sites in Moscow, Russia and won by . May 22 – Toulouse win their fourth Heineken Cup, defeating fellow French side Biarritz 21–19 in the Heineken Cup Final at Stade de France in Saint-Denis. May 23 – Cardiff Blues win the Amlin Challenge Cup Final at Stade Vélodrome in Marseille 28–21 over nearby French club Toulon. May 29 – The last Super 14 Final before the competition expands to 15 teams is won by the Bulls, who defeat fellow South African side Stormers 25–17 at Orlando Stadium in Soweto. May 30 – win the Edinburgh Sevens and secure their first IRB Sevens World Series season crown. May 30, – June 26, – The 2010 Summer Tours start. June 5–21 – The 2010 IRB Junior World Championship was held at three sites in Argentina and won by . August 20, – September 5, – 2010 Women's Rugby World Cup was held at two sites in London, England and won by . October 23, – December 18, – The 2010 end-of-year series takes place. Notable events during this series include: November 13: Victor Matfield earned his 103rd cap to become South Africa's most-capped player ever. November 20: Richie McCaw and Mils Muliaina earned their 93rd caps, becoming New Zealand's most-capped players. November 27: The 2011 Rugby World Cup qualification process concluded in Bucharest with Romania defeating Uruguay 39–12. Romania won the two-legged tie 60–33 on aggregate to claim the final spot in the 2011 Rugby World Cup. November 27: Dan Carter of New Zealand surpassed Jonny Wilkinson of England as the leading career point scorer in Test rugby. Domestic competitions Guinness Premiership – Leicester Tigers Top 14 – Clermont win their first title in their nearly 100-year history after having lost in 10 previous championship finals. Celtic League – Ospreys LV= Cup (Anglo-Welsh Cup) – Northampton Saints ITM Cup (formerly Air New Zealand Cup) – Canterbury Currie Cup – Ski mountaineering March 1 – March 6 – 2010 World Championship of Ski Mountaineering in Gran Valira (Pyrenees), Andorra Tennis Australian Open Men's final: Roger Federer defeats Andy Murray, 6–3, 6–4, 7–6(11) Women's final: Serena Williams defeats Justine Henin, 6–4, 3–6, 6–2 French Open Men's final: Rafael Nadal defeats Robin Söderling, 6–4, 6–2, 6–4 Women's final: Francesca Schiavone defeats Samantha Stosur, 6–4, 7–6(2) Francesca Schiavone becomes the first Italian, male or female, to win a Grand Slam singles title. Wimbledon Championships Men's final: Rafael Nadal defeats Tomáš Berdych, 6–3, 7–5, 6–4 Women's final: Serena Williams defeats Vera Zvonareva, 6–3, 6–2 The first round of the Gentlemen's Singles features the longest match in tennis history. In a match that lasted 11 hours, 5 minutes over three days, American John Isner defeats France's Nicolas Mahut 6–4, 3–6, 6–7(7), 7–6(3), 70–68. The final set alone was longer in both games and time than the previous longest match. U.S. Open Men's final: Rafael Nadal defeats Novak Djokovic, 6–4, 5–7, 6–4, 6–2 Women's final: Kim Clijsters defeats Vera Zvonareva, 6–2, 6–1 Davis Cup defeats , 3–2 Fed Cup defeats , 3–1 Volleyball Women's CEV Champions League 2009–10 December 1, 2009 – April 4, 2010. Final Four in Cannes, France Champions Volley Bergamo, Fenerbahçe Acıbadem, RC Cannes. MVP: Men's CEV Champions League 2009–10 December 1, 2009 – May 2, 2010. Final Four in Łódź, Poland. Champions Trentino BetClic, Dynamo Moscow, PGE Skra Bełchatów. MVP: 2010 Liga de Voleibol Superior Femenino February 12 – May 12, in Puerto Rico Champions Pinkin de Corozal, Season MVP: , Final Series MVP: 2010 Men's Pan-American Volleyball Cup, May 20–31, in Puerto Rico , and . MVP: 2010 Montreux Volley Masters, June 8–13, in Montreux, Switzerland , and . MVP: 2010 Women's European Volleyball League, June 5 – July 25, Final Four in Ankara, Turkey , and . MVP: 2010 Men's European Volleyball League, June 4 – July 17, Final Four in Guadalajara, Spain , and . MVP: FIVB World League 2010, June 11 – July 25, 2010, in Córdoba, Argentina , and . MVP: 2010 Women's Pan-American Volleyball Cup, June 16–27, in Rosarito and Tijuana, Mexico , and . MVP: Men's Volleyball at the 2010 Central American and Caribbean Games, July 24–29, in Mayagüez, Puerto Rico , and . MVP: Women's Volleyball at the 2010 Central American and Caribbean Games, July 18–23, in Mayagüez, Puerto Rico , and . MVP: FIVB World Grand Prix 2010 August 6–29, Final Round in Ningbo, China , and . MVP: 2010 Final Four Women's Volleyball Cup, September 19–26, Chiapas, Mexico , and . MVP: 2010 FIVB Men's World Championship, September 24, 2010 to October 10, 2010 , and . MVP: 2010 FIVB Women's World Championship October 29, 2010 to November 14, 2010 , and . MVP: Men's Volleyball at the 2010 Asian Games, November 18–27 in Guangzhou, Guangdong, China , and . Women's Volleyball at the 2010 Asian Games, November 13–27 in Guangzhou, Guangdong, China , and . 2010 FIVB Men's Club World Championship December 15–21, 2010 in Doha, Qatar. Champions Trentino BetClic, PGE Skra Bełchatów, Paykan Tehran, MVP: 2010 FIVB Women's Club World Championship December 15–21, 2010 in Doha, Qatar. Champions Fenerbahçe Acıbadem, Sollys Osasco, Bergamo, MVP: References Sports by year
4180286	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricco%20Rodriguez	Ricco Rodriguez	Ricco Rodriguez (born August 19, 1977) is an American semi-retired mixed martial artist currently competing in the heavyweight division. A professional competitor since 1999, he has competed for the UFC, PRIDE Fighting Championships, EliteXC, International Fight League, BAMMA, World Extreme Cagefighting, and Bellator. Ricco is a former UFC Heavyweight Champion, Mundials World Champion and also an ADCC World Champion. He is also the former King of the Cage World Heavyweight Champion. Early life Rodriguez was born in San Jose, CA and grew up in the projects in Paterson, New Jersey. Rodriguez wrestled at Tottenville High School while living in Staten Island, New York. He later moved to California and began training in the art of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu with Rigan and Jean Jacques Machado. He competed and won many Jiu-Jitsu tournaments before moving on to mixed martial arts. Mixed martial arts career In 1997, Ricco Rodriguez became one of the small group of Americans to win a Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu World Championship, taking the Blue Belt Absolute title. He took gold in +99 kg in the first ADCC Submission Wrestling World Championship in 1998, bronze in the Absolute (open weight) division in 1999 and Silver in the +99 kg category in 2000. That same year Rodriguez began his MMA career with a win against Rocky Batastini. He won several of his first matches before losing to Bobby Hoffman at the Superbrawl 13 event in Hawaii. He later fought in the PRIDE Fighting Championship before moving on to the Ultimate Fighting Championship. Ultimate Fighting Championship Rodriguez's first UFC match was at UFC 32 against future UFC Heavyweight Champion and #1 ranked pound for pound fighter in the world Andrei Arlovski which he won by TKO. He was scheduled to fight Lion’s Den fighter and owner of one of the most vicious knockouts of the time Pete Williams at UFC 33, but the fight was postponed until UFC 34 due to an injury suffered by Williams during training. Rodriguez went on to beat Williams, Jeff Monson (UFC 35) and Tsuyoshi Kohsaka (UFC 37) to earn a shot for the vacant heavyweight championship against future UFC Hall of Famer Randy Couture at UFC 39 becoming the first person of Puerto Rican descent to win the UFC Heavyweight Championship. Rodriguez was losing on the scorecard in the initial rounds. In the fifth round Rodriguez was able to achieve a ground-and-pound victory with a stoppage by verbal tapout. In his first title defense, he was knocked out by 6'8 up and coming striker Tim Sylvia in the first round, thus losing the belt. Independent promotions Following the end of his UFC contract, Rodriguez fought for a number of regional and national promotions. He also gained a significant amount of weight, at one point weighing . On July 22, 2006, in a rematch of their August 2005 bout in the WEC, he avenged a loss to Ron Waterman at WFA: King of the Streets. He fought as a superheavyweight, weighing in at , and was quoted as saying "I'm fat but I still got skills." Following his win against Imani Lee on November 17, 2006, Rodriguez was put under indefinite suspension by the California State Athletic Commission. The Wrestling Observer Newsletter reported that Rodriguez had tested positive for both marijuana and cocaine and was subsequently given a six-month suspension for the failed drug test. On July 27, 2007, Ricco Rodriguez, in his first fight after his suspension, defeated Lloyd Marshbanks by first-round TKO at MMA Xtreme 13, which was held in Puebla, Mexico. At the IFL championship finals, he lost to "Big" Ben Rothwell by unanimous decision. Rodriguez fought in the YAMMA Pit Fighting one-night heavyweight tournament as a late replacement. He defeated George Bush III in the first round by unanimous decision, but was beaten by eventual champion Travis Wiuff in the semi-finals by unanimous decision. Ricco Rodriguez was scheduled to replace an injured Kevin Randleman in a rematch of their UFC 35 bout against Jeff Monson at the inaugural Godz of War show. That event was canceled, however, and the fight was rescheduled for the inaugural Mixed Fighting Alliance (MFA) event, which Rodriguez lost by unanimous decision. At the 2009 ADCC qualifiers Rodriguez weighed in at a svelte 218 lb, down well over 100 lb from his peak in the mid-2000s. Rodriguez attributed his weight loss to a renewed focus and partnership with a new nutritional coach and long-time friend, Richard Sicola-Stone. Rodriguez missed weight for his first attempt at fighting at 205 pounds at the inaugural Israel Fighting Championship event on Nov. 9. He still fought and won his fight over Daniel Tabera, however, and then promptly challenged his friend, Jeff Monson for a rubber match, to a fight at 205 pounds. Ricco Rodriguez made his BAMMA debut facing The Ultimate Fighter 10 alumni and UFC veteran James McSweeney who was also making his debut for the promotion. Dana White has claimed if Rodriguez wins this bout he will consider resigning him to the UFC. Rodriguez missed weight for the fight, weighing in a full 2 pounds over the contracted 215-pound catchweight. Ricco made his Bellator debut against the man who first defeated the internet superstar Kimbo Slice, Seth Petruzelli at Bellator 48. He lost the fight via KO (punches) in the first round after getting caught with an overhand right, and ending his 12-fight winning streak. On April 15, 2013, it was announced that Ricco signed a 3-fight contract for Final Fight Championship. His first fight for the promotion was at FFC05: Rodriguez vs. Simonič event on May 24. 2013, when he fought Slovenian Tomaž Simonič. He won the fight via first round armbar. On November 9, 2013, he lost to Denis Stojnić on Bosnia Fight Championship event by TKO after an early referee stoppage. Rodriguez immediately stood up and protested the stoppage and left the fight showing the middle finger to the referee. It was announced that they would have a rematch in 2014, also in Sarajevo, however the day after the event, the referee said he was not up to the task and the fight result was changed to NC. In his next fight, Rodriguez faced Nestoras Batzelas at Final Fight Championship 10 on December 13, 2013. He won the fight via TKO. He then faced Dion Staring for the FFC Heavyweight Championship at Final Fight Championship 17 on December 20, 2014. Despite coming out strong in the opening minute of the first round, Rodriguez would be dropped by a front kick from Staring midway through the first round and subsequently beaten up by ground and pound, and lost the bout via retirement TKO after failing to answer the bell for the third round. After a series of losses, including a match with former PRIDE star Gilbert Yvel, Rodriguez won the CFS Heavyweight title in Graz, Austria defeating Nandor Guelmino. Boxing career Rodriguez made his professional boxing debut on October 12, 2006, beating 19-year-old Cruiserweight Brandon Baker by knockout. On July 8, 2008, Rodriguez fought his second professional boxing bout losing via split decision to Chad Davies, who came into the fight with a 0-1 record. Bare knuckle boxing Rodriguez faced Lewis Rumsey at a Bare Knuckle FC event held on June 2, 2018. He won the fight via unanimous decision. Other appearances Rodriguez appeared in an episode of the History Channel series Human Weapon, in which he faced Bill Duff in a draw. He also appears in bonus footage of The Smashing Machine: The Life and Times of Extreme Fighter Mark Kerr DVD. Rodriguez has appeared on season one of the VH1 reality television show Celebrity Rehab with Dr. Drew, which documented his struggle with substance abuse. Personal life Rodriguez has a daughter and one son. Championships and accomplishments Mixed martial arts King of the Cage KOTC Heavyweight Championship (One time) Ultimate Fighting Championship UFC Heavyweight Championship (One time) YAMMA Pit Fighting YAMMA Heavyweight Tournament Semifinalist Ultimate Warrior Challenge UWC Heavyweight Championship (One time) UWC British Heavyweight Championship (One time) Cage Fight Series CFS Heavyweight Championship (One time) Submission grappling ADCC ADCC 1998 Over 99 Division - Gold Medalist ADCC 1999 Absolute Division - Bronze Medalist ADCC 2000 Over 99 Division - Silver Medalist Mixed martial arts record \| Loss \| align=center\| 54–27 (1) \| Hatef Moeil \| Decision (unanimous) \| CFS 9: Cage Fight Series 9 \| \| align=center\|3 \| align=center\|5:00 \| Austria \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 54–26 (1) \| Alex Nicholson \| TKO (submission to punches) \| AFC 24: CamSoda Legends \| \| align=center\|1 \| align=center\|1:27 \| Fort Lauderdale, Florida, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 54–25 (1) \| Nandor Guelmino \| Submission (forearm choke) \| Cage Fight Series part 8 \| \| align=center\|3 \| align=center\|2:30 \| Graz, Austria \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 53–25 (1) \| Gilbert Yvel \| TKO (leg kicks) \| WFCA 31: Ushukov vs. Vagaev \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 1:00 \| Grozny, Russia \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 53–24 (1) \| Ivan Shtyrkov \| TKO (punches) \| RCC Boxing Promotions \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 1:55 \| Sverdlovsk, Russia \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 53–23 (1) \| Denis Stojnić \| TKO (punches) \| Bosnia Fight Championship 2 \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 0:22 \| Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 53–22 (1) \| Dion Staring \| TKO (retirement) \| Final Fight Championship 17 \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Opatija, Croatia \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 53–21 (1) \| Nestoras Batzelas \| TKO (punches) \| Final Fight Championship 10 \| \| align=center\|2 \| align=center\|3:33 \| Skopje, Macedonia \| \|- \| NC \| align=center\| 52–21 (1) \| Denis Stojnić \| NC \| Bosnian Fight Championship \| \| align=center\|1 \| align=center\|4:55 \| Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 52–21 \| Zelg Galešić \| Submission (armbar) \| Final Fight Championship 8 \| \| align=center\|1 \| align=center\|2:10 \| Zagreb, Croatia \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 51–21 \| Ian Freeman \| TKO (punches) \| UCFC 5: Legends of MMA \| \| align=center\|1 \| align=center\|2:11 \| Doncaster, England \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 51–20 \| Marcin Lazarz \| Decision (unanimous) \| GWC: The British Invasion: US vs. UK \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Kansas City, Missouri, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 51–19 \| Tomaz Simonic \| Submission (armbar) \| FFC: Final Fight Championship 5 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 3:49 \| Osijek, Croatia \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 50–19 \| Andreas Kraniotakes \| Decision (unanimous) \| CFS 7: Cage Fight Series 7 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Unterpremstätten, Styria, Austria \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 49–19 \| Ante Delija \| Decision (unanimous) \| HOG: House of Gladiators 1 \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Dubrovnik, Croatia \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 49–18 \| Kevin Thompson \| Submission (armbar) \| UWC 21: Xplosion \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 4:45 \| Southend-on-Sea, Essex, England \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 48–18 \| Stav Economou \| Decision (unanimous) \| Dubai FC 1: The Beginning \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Dubai, United Arab Emirates \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 48–17 \| Ruslan Magomedov \| Decision (unanimous) \| United Glory 15: 2012 Glory World Series \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Moscow, Moscow Oblast, Russia \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 48–16 \| Alexander Volkov \| Decision (unanimous) \| BF: Baltic Challenge 3 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Kaliningrad, Russia \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 48–15 \| Blagoi Ivanov \| TKO (retirement) \| CMMAT: Chekhov MMA Tournament \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 3:33 \| Chekhov, Moscow Oblast, Russia \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 48–14 \| Bashir Yamilkhanov \| TKO (punches) \| FEFoMP: Battle of Empires \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 2:56 \| Khabarovsk, Khabarovsk Krai, Russia \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 47–14 \| Glover Teixeira \| TKO (submission to punches) \| MMAAD: MMA Against Dengue \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 1:58 \| Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 47–13 \| Michał Kita \| Decision (unanimous) \| MMAA: MMA Attack \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Warsaw, Masovian Voivodeship, Poland \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 47–12 \| Seth Petruzelli \| TKO (punches) \| Bellator 48 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 4:21 \| Uncasville, Connecticut, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 47–11 \| Doug Williams \| Submission (rear-naked choke) \| Shark Fights 17: Horwich vs. Rosholt 2 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 2:16 \| Frisco, Texas, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 46–11 \| James McSweeney \| Decision (unanimous) \| BAMMA 5: Daley vs. Shirai \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Manchester, England \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 45–11 \| Daniel Tabera \| Decision (unanimous) \| Israel Fighting Championship: Genesis \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Tel Aviv, Israel \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 44–11 \| John Juarez \| Decision (split) \| USA MMA: Stacked \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 43–11 \| Bobby Martinez \| Submission (heel hook) \| AFA 4: Parking Lot Beatdown \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 1:03 \| Fort Wayne, Indiana, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 42–11 \| Ken Sparks \| TKO (punches) \| USA MMA: Legends \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 2:32 \| Kinder, Louisiana, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 41–11 \| Travis Fulton \| KO (head kick) \| CT: Cage Thug \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| N/A \| Waterloo, Iowa, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 40–11 \| Brian Ryan \| TKO (punches) \| XKL: Evolution 1 \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 2:05 \| Ypsilanti, Michigan, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 39–11 \| Patrick Miller \| TKO (punches) \| STFC 10: Annihilation \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 2:20 \| McAllen, Texas, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 38–11 \| Moise Rimbon \| Decision (split) \| IAFC: Mayor's Cup 2009 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 3:00 \| Novosibirsk, Novosibirsk Oblast, Russia \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 37–11 \| Justin Howard \| TKO (submission to punches) \| KOK 7: Judgement Day \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 2:05 \| Austin, Texas, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 36–11 \| John Brown \| Submission (rear-naked choke) \| Reality Combat: The Return \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 2:34 \| Slidell, Louisiana, United States \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 35–11 \| Mario Rinaldi \| Decision (unanimous) \| WFC: Battle Of The Bay 8 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Tampa, Florida, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 35–10 \| Doug Williams \| Submission (anaconda choke) \| Armagedon Fighting Championships 09 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 1:02 \| Tyler, Texas, United States \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 34–10 \| Jeff Monson \| Decision (unanimous) \| Mixed Fighting Alliance "There Will Be Blood" \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Miami, Florida, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 34–9 \| Robert Beraun \| Decision (unanimous) \| Rage in the Cage 117 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 3:00 \| Phoenix, Arizona, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 33–9 \| Rob Broughton \| Submission (kneebar) \| Cage Gladiators 9 \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 3:39 \| Liverpool, England \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 32–9 \| Titus Campbell \| Submission (guillotine choke) \| Silver Crown Fights \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 3:06 \| Fort Wayne, Indiana, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 31–9 \| Johnathan Ivey \| Decision (unanimous) \| Xp3: The Proving Ground \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 3:00 \| Houston, Texas, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 30–9 \| Chris Guillen \| Submission (armbar) \| Ultimate Combat Experience 1 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 4:30 \| West Valley City, Utah, United States \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 29–9 \| Travis Wiuff \| Decision (unanimous) \| rowspan="2"\|YAMMA Pit Fighting \| rowspan="2"\| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States \| rowspan="2"\| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 29–8 \| George Bush \| Decision (unanimous) \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 28–8 \| Antônio Silva \| Decision (split) \| EliteXC: Street Certified \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Miami, Florida, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 28–7 \| Kevin Filal \| TKO (retirement) \| PFP: Ring of Fire \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| N/A \| Manila, Philippines \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 27–7 \| Ben Rothwell \| Decision (unanimous) \| IFL 2007 World Championship Finals \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 4:00 \| Hollywood, Florida, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 27–6 \| Lloyd Marshbanks \| TKO (punches) \| MMA Xtreme 13 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 3:11 \| Tijuana, Mexico \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 26–6 \| Imani Lee \| Submission (rear-naked choke) \| BIB: Beatdown in Bakersfield \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 2:12 \| Bakersfield, California, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 25–6 \| Abdias Irisson \| TKO (punches) \| MMA Xtreme 7 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| N/A \| Tijuana, Mexico \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 24–6 \| Ron Waterman \| TKO (doctor stoppage) \| WFA: King of the Streets \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Los Angeles, California, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 23–6 \| Taylor Brooks \| Submission (armbar) \| MMA Xtreme 1 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| N/A \| Tijuana, Mexico \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 22–6 \| Robert Beraun \| Decision (unanimous) \| RITC 78: Back with a Vengeance \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 3:00 \| Glendale, Arizona, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 22–5 \| Tyler Brooks \| Submission (armbar) \| Pro Fight League \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 4:00 \| Phoenix, Arizona, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 21–5 \| David Mori \| Decision (unanimous) \| MMA Fighting Challenge 4 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Guadalajara, Mexico \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 20–5 \| Corey Salter \| Submission (armbar) \| Ultimate Texas Showdown 3 \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 0:17 \| Dallas, Texas, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 19–5 \| Jimmy Ambriz \| TKO (submission to punches) \| WEC 17 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 4:13 \| Lemoore, California, United States \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 18–5 \| Ron Waterman \| Decision (unanimous) \| WEC 16 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Lemoore, California, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 18–4 \| Andy Montana \| Submission (armbar) \| Independent event \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 1:50 \| Fountain Hills, Arizona, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 17–4 \| Ruben Villareal \| Submission (armbar) \| Extreme Wars: X-1 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 2:38 \| Honolulu, Hawaii, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 16–4 \| Scott Junk \| Submission (front choke) \| Rumble on the Rock 7 \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 0:42 \| Honolulu, Hawaii, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 15–4 \| Mike Seal \| Submission (rear-naked choke) \| MMA Mexico: Day 2 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 1:06 \| Ciudad Juárez, Mexico \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 14–4 \| Pedro Rizzo \| Decision (unanimous) \| UFC 45 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Uncasville, Connecticut, United States \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 14–3 \| Antônio Rodrigo Nogueira \| Decision (unanimous) \| PRIDE Total Elimination 2003 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Saitama, Japan \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 14–2 \| Tim Sylvia \| TKO (punches) \| UFC 41 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 3:09 \| Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 14–1 \| Randy Couture \| TKO (submission to elbow) \| UFC 39 \| \| align=center\| 5 \| align=center\| 3:04 \| Uncasville, Connecticut, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 13–1 \| Tsuyoshi Kohsaka \| TKO (punches) \| UFC 37 \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 3:25 \| Bossier City, Louisiana, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 12–1 \| Jeff Monson \| TKO (punches) \| UFC 35 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 3:00 \| Uncasville, Connecticut, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 11–1 \| Pete Williams \| TKO (punches) \| UFC 34 \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 4:02 \| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 10–1 \| Andrei Arlovski \| TKO (punches) \| UFC 32 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 1:23 \| East Rutherford, New Jersey, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 9–1 \| Paul Buentello \| Submission (kneebar) \| KOTC 7: Wet and Wild \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 4:21 \| San Jacinto, California, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 8–1 \| John Marsh \| Decision (unanimous) \| PRIDE 12 \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Saitama, Japan \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 7–1 \| Giant Ochiai \| Submission (smother choke) \| PRIDE 10 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 6:04 \| Saitama, Japan \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 6–1 \| Gary Goodridge \| Decision (unanimous) \| PRIDE 9 \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 10:00 \| Nagoya, Japan \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 5–1 \| Travis Fulton \| Submission (armbar) \| KOTC 2: Desert Storm \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 4:49 \| San Jacinto, California, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 4–1 \| Sam Adkins \| Submission (forearm choke) \| Armageddon 2 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 4:32 \| Houston, Texas, United States \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 3–1 \| Bobby Hoffman \| KO (punches) \| SuperBrawl 13 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 3:13 \| Honolulu, Hawaii, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 3–0 \| Steve Shaw \| Submission (armbar) \| Rage in the Cage 6 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 1:34 \| Phoenix, Arizona, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 2–0 \| Rocky Batastini \| Submission (armbar) \| Extreme Cage \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 4:58 \| Phoenix, Arizona, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 1–0 \| Scott Adams \| Decision \| Extreme Cage \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 4:00 \| Phoenix, Arizona, United States \| Bare knuckle record \|- \|Win \|align=center\|1-0 \|Lewis Rumsey \|Decision (unanimous) \|BKFC 1: The Beginning \| \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|2:00 \|Cheyenne, Wyoming, United States \| \|- References External links 1977 births Living people American male mixed martial artists Heavyweight mixed martial artists Mixed martial artists utilizing wrestling Mixed martial artists utilizing boxing Mixed martial artists utilizing Brazilian jiu-jitsu American mixed martial artists of Mexican descent Mixed martial artists from California Mixed martial artists from New Jersey American sportspeople of Puerto Rican descent American practitioners of Brazilian jiu-jitsu People awarded a black belt in Brazilian jiu-jitsu Participants in American reality television series Tottenville High School alumni Ultimate Fighting Championship champions Ultimate Fighting Championship male fighters People from Vienna, Virginia Sportspeople from Fairfax County, Virginia Bare-knuckle boxers
4180369	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union%20Army%20Balloon%20Corps	Union Army Balloon Corps	The Union Army Balloon Corps was a branch of the Union Army during the American Civil War, established by presidential appointee Thaddeus S. C. Lowe. It was organized as a civilian operation, which employed a group of prominent American aeronauts and seven specially built, gas-filled balloons to perform aerial reconnaissance on the Confederate States Army. Lowe was one of a few veteran balloonists who was working on an attempt to make a transatlantic crossing by balloon. His efforts were interrupted by the onset of the Civil War, which broke out one week before one of his most important test flights. Subsequently, he offered his aviation expertise to the development of an air-war mechanism through the use of aerostats for reconnaissance purposes. Lowe met with U.S. President Abraham Lincoln on 11 June 1861, and proposed a demonstration with his own balloon, the Enterprise, from the lawn of the armory directly across the street from the White House. From a height of he telegraphed a message to the President describing his view of the Washington, D.C., countryside. Eventually he was chosen over other candidates to be chief aeronaut of the newly formed Union Army Balloon Corps. The Balloon Corps with a hand-selected team of expert aeronauts served at Yorktown, Seven Pines, Antietam, Fredericksburg, and other major battles of the Potomac River and the Virginia Peninsula. The Balloon Corps served the Union Army from October 1861 until the summer of 1863, when it was disbanded following the resignation of Lowe. Selecting a Chief Aeronaut The use of balloons as an air-war mechanism was first recorded in France by the French Aerostatic Corps at the Battle of Fleurus in 1794. U. S. President Abraham Lincoln became interested in an air-war mechanism for reconnaissance purposes. This created a notion at the War Department and at the Treasury that some sort of balloon aviation unit need be established and headed by a "Chief Aeronaut". Several top American balloonists traveled to Washington in hopes of obtaining just such a position. However, there were no proposed details to the establishment of such a unit, or whether it would even be a military or civilian operation. Nor was there any set method to the process of selecting a Chief Aeronaut, rather it became a free-for-all in attempts to attract the attention of any officials in either the government or the military. In actuality the use of balloons was left to the discretion of the commanding generals through a process of trial and error based on the best recommendations of the balloonists themselves. Of those seeking the position, only two were given actual opportunities to perform combat aerial reconnaissance, Prof. Thaddeus Lowe and Mr. John LaMountain. Thaddeus Lowe Professor Thaddeus S. C. Lowe was one of the top American balloonists who sought the position of Chief Aeronaut for the Union Army. Also vying for the position were Prof. John Wise, Prof. John LaMountain, and Ezra and James Allen. All these men were aeronauts of extraordinary qualification in aviation of the day. Among them Lowe stood out as the most successful in balloon building and the closest to making a transatlantic flight. His scientific record was held in high regard among colleagues of the day, to include one Prof. Joseph Henry of the Smithsonian Institution, who became his greatest benefactor. On Henry's and others' recommendations, Lowe was contacted by Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase, who invited him to Washington for an audience with Secretary of War Simon Cameron and the President. On 11 June 1861, Lowe was received by Lincoln and immediately offered to give the President a live demonstration with the balloon. On Saturday, 16 June, with his own balloon, the Enterprise, Lowe ascended some above the Columbian Armory with a telegraph key and operator, and a wire following a tether line to the White House across the street. From aloft he transmitted the message: Lowe's first assignment was with the Topographical Engineers, where his balloon was used for aerial observations and map making. Eventually he worked with Major General Irvin McDowell, who rode along with Lowe making preliminary observations over the battlefield at Bull Run. McDowell became impressed with Lowe and his balloon, and a good word reached the President, who personally introduced Lowe to Union General-in-Chief Winfield Scott. "General, this is my friend Professor Lowe who is organizing an aeronautics corps and who is to be its chief. I wish you would facilitate his work in every way." This introduction fairly well settled the selection of Lowe as Chief Aeronaut. The details of establishing the corps and its method of operation were left up to Lowe. The misunderstanding that the Balloon Corps would remain a civilian contract lasted its duration, and neither Lowe nor any of his men ever received commissions. John Wise John Wise was an early pioneer of American ballooning born in 1808. Although he made great contributions to the then newborn science of aeronautics, he was more a showman than a scientist. His attempts at free flight in preparation for a transatlantic crossing were less than successful, and he did not receive the same type of financial support from the patrons of the sciences, nor did he carry the overall scientific credibility of Lowe. Wise was, however, taken seriously enough by the Topographical Engineers to be asked to build a balloon. Mary Hoehling indicated that Captain Whipple of the Topographical Engineers told Lowe that Wise was preparing to bring up his own balloon, supposedly the Atlantic. Other accounts state that John LaMountain had taken possession of the Atlantic after a failed flight he made with Wise in 1859, and later place the Atlantic with LaMountain at Fort Monroe. Lowe's report says that Captain Whipple indicated they had instructed Mr. Wise to construct a new balloon. He also proposed that Lowe pilot the new balloon. Prof. Lowe was vehemently opposed to flying one of Wise's old-style balloons. The engineers waited the whole month of July for Wise to arrive on scene. By 19 July 1861, McDowell started calling for a balloon to be brought to the front at First Bull Run (Centreville). As Wise was not to be found, Whipple sent Lowe out to inflate his balloon and prepare to set out for Falls Church. Mary Hoehling tells of the sudden appearance of John Wise who demanded that Lowe stop his inflating of the Enterprise and let him inflate his balloon instead. Wise had legal papers upholding his purported authority. Although Wise's arrival on the scene was tardy, he did inflate his balloon and proceeded toward the battlefield. On the way the balloon became caught in the brush and was permanently disabled. This ended Wise's bid for the position, and Lowe was at last unencumbered from taking up the task. Lowe describes the inflation incident in his official report less dramatically, saying that he was told by the gas plant supervisor to disconnect and let another balloon go first. Lowe did not name names, but it is not likely that it was anyone other than Wise. Lowe's report about a new balloon has to be considered over Hoehling's account of the Atlantic. John LaMountain John LaMountain, born in 1830, had accrued quite a reputation in the field of aeronautics. He had joined company with Wise at one time to help with the plans for a transatlantic flight. Their attempt failed miserably, wrecked their balloon, the Atlantic, and ended their partnership. LaMountain took possession of the balloon. LaMountain's contributions and successes were minimal. However, he did attract the attention of General Benjamin Butler at Fort Monroe. LaMountain operated at Fort Monroe for a while with the battered Atlantic and was actually accredited with having made the first effective wartime observations from an aerial position. He also obtained use of a balloon, the Saratoga, which he soon lost in a windstorm. LaMountain advocated free flight balloon reconnaissance, whereas Lowe used captive or tethered flight, remaining always attached to a ground crew who could reel him in. Wise and LaMountain had been longtime detractors of Prof. Lowe, but LaMountain maintained a vitriolic campaign against Lowe to discredit him and usurp his position as Chief Aeronaut. He used the arena of public opinion to revile Lowe. But as Gen. Butler was replaced at Fort Monroe, LaMountain was assigned to the Balloon Corps under Lowe's command. LaMountain continued his public derogation of Lowe as well as creating ill-will among the other men in the Corps. Lowe lodged a formal complaint to Gen. George B. McClellan, and by February 1862 LaMountain was discharged from military service. Free flight vs. captive flight There were two methods of piloting balloons: free flight or captive. Free flight meant that the balloon was able to travel in any direction or distance for as long or as far as the pilot was able to fly it. Captive flight meant that the balloon was retained by a tether or series of tethers manned by ground crews. Free flight required that the pilot ascend and return by his own control. Captive flight used ground crews to assist in altitude control and speedy return to the exact starting point. Tethers also allowed for the stringing of telegraph wires back to the ground. Information gathered from balloon observation was relayed to the ground by various means of signaling. From high altitudes the telegraph was almost always necessary. At closer altitudes a series of prepared flag signals, hand signals, or even a megaphone could be used to communicate with the ground. At night either the telegraph or lamps could be used. In the later battles of Lowe's tenure, all reports and communications were ordered to be made orally by ascending and descending with the balloon. This is notable in Lowe's Official Report II to the Secretary where his usual transcriptions of messages were lacking. Free flight would almost always require the aeronaut to return and make a report. This would be an obvious detriment to timely reporting. LaMountain and Lowe had long argued over free flight and captive flight. In Lowe's first instance of demonstration at Bull Run, he made a free flight which caught him hovering over Union encampments who could not properly identify him. As a civilian he wore no uniform nor insignias. With each descent came the threat of being fired on, and to make each descent Lowe needed to release gas. In one instance Lowe was forced to land behind enemy lines and await being rescued overnight. After this incident he remained tethered to the ground by which he could be reeled in at a moment's notice. Besides, his use of the telegraph from the balloon car required a wire be run along the tether. LaMountain, from his position at Fort Monroe, had the luxury of flying free. When he was enjoined with the Balloon Corps, he began insisting that his reconnaissance flights be made free. Lowe strictly instructed his men against free flight as a matter of policy and procedure. Eventually the two men agreed to a showdown in which LaMountain made one of his free flights. The flight was a success as a reconnaissance flight with LaMountain being able to go where he would. But on his return he was threatened by Union troops who could not identify him. His balloon was shot down, and LaMountain was treated harshly until he was clearly identified. Lowe considered the incident an argument against free flight. LaMountain insisted that the flight was highly successful despite the unfortunate incident. The showdown did nothing to settle the argument, but Lowe's position as Chief Aeronaut allowed him to prevail. Building military balloons Lowe believed that balloons used for military purposes had to be better constructed than the common balloons used by civilian aeronauts. They also required special handling and care for use on the battlefield. At first the balloons of the day were inflated at municipal coke gas supply stations and were towed inflated by ground crews to the field. Lowe recognized the need for the development of portable hydrogen gas generators, by which the balloons could be filled in the field. Lowe had to deal with administrative officers who usually held ranks lower than major and had more interest in accounting than providing for a proper war effort. This caused delays in the funding of materials. Lowe was called out for another demonstration mission that would change the effective use of field artillery. On 24 September 1861, he was directed to position himself at Fort Corcoran, south of Washington, to ascend and overlook the Confederate encampments at Falls Church, Virginia, at a distance further south. A concealed Union artillery battery was remotely located at Camp Advance. Lowe was to give flag signal directions to the artillery, who would fire blindly on Falls Church. Each signal would indicate adjustments to the left, to the right, long or short. Simultaneously reports were telegraphed down to headquarters at the fort. With only a few corrections, the battery was soon landing rounds right on target. This was the precursor to the use of the artillery forward observer (FO). The next day, Lowe received orders to build four proper balloons with hydrogen gas generators. Lowe went to work at his Philadelphia facility. He was given funding to order India silk and cotton cording he had proposed for their construction. Along with that came Lowe's undisclosed recipe for a varnish that would render the balloon envelopes leakproof. The generators were built at the Washington Navy Yard by master joiners who fashioned a contraption of copper plumbing and tanks which, when filled with sulfuric acid and iron filings, would yield hydrogen gas. The generators were Lowe's own design and were considered a marvel of engineering. They were designed to be loaded into box crates that could easily fit on a standard buckboard. The generators took more time to build than the balloons and were not as readily available as the first balloon. By 1 October 1861, the first balloon, the Union, was ready for action. Though it lacked a portable gas generator, it was called into immediate service. It was gassed up in Washington and towed overnight to Lewinsville via Chain Bridge. The fully covered and trellised bridge required that the towing handlers crawl over the bridge beams and stringers to cross the upper Potomac River into Fairfax County. The balloon and crew arrived by daylight, exhausted from the nine-hour overnight ordeal, when a gale-force wind took the balloon away. It was later recovered, but not before Lowe, who was humiliated by the incident, went on a tirade about the delays in providing proper equipment. Lowe built seven balloons, six of which were put into service. Each balloon was accompanied by two gas generating sets. The smaller balloons were used in windier weather, or for quick, one-man, low altitude ascents. They inflated quickly since they required less gas. They were: Eagle Constitution Washington The larger balloons were used for carrying more weight, such as a telegraph key set and an additional man as an operator. They could also ascend higher. They were: Union Intrepid (Lowe's favorite balloon) Excelsior United States The latter two balloons were held in storage in a Washington warehouse. Eventually the Excelsior was sent to Camp Lowe, a high altitude observation point, as a back-up balloon to the Intrepid during harsh winter weather, but the United States was never put into service. LaMountain made reference to these two balloons in his diatribes against Lowe as "being hoarded" by Lowe so he could buy them unused at the end of the war. Establishing the Corps Initially, Lowe was offered $30 per day for each day his balloon was in use. Lowe offered to accept $10 gold per day (colonel's pay) if he were to be allowed to build more suitable balloons. He was also allowed to hire as many men as he needed for $3 currency per day. Lowe was able to enlist his father, Clovis Lowe, an accomplished balloonist; Captain Dickinson, a seafaring volunteer from his days of transatlantic attempts; the Allen brothers, who had lost their own balloon when they were vying for the top job; two men the Allen brothers recommended, Eben Seaver and J. B. Starkweather; William Paullin, an older Philadelphia colleague; German balloonist John Steiner; and Ebenezer Mason, Lowe's construction supervisor, who requested active duty. Lowe set up several locations for the balloons—Fort Monroe, Washington D.C., Camp Lowe near Harpers Ferry—but always kept himself at the battle front. He served General McClellan at Yorktown until the Confederates retreated toward Richmond. The heavily forested Virginia Peninsula forced him to take to the waterways. Balloon service was requested at more remote locations as well. Eben Seaver was assigned to take the Eagle to the Mississippi River to assist in battlefronts there. Mr. Starkweather was sent to Port Royal with the Washington just prior to the Peninsula Campaign. First aircraft carrier The General Washington Parke Custis, a converted coal barge, had its deck cleared of all items that could entangle the ropes and nets of the balloons, and it was used as a river transport for the Corps. Lowe had two gas generators and a balloon loaded aboard and later reported: Peninsula Campaign The battlefront turned toward Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign. The heavy forestation inhibited the use of balloons, so Lowe and his Balloon Corps, with the use of three of his balloons, the Constitution, the Washington, and the larger Intrepid, used the waterways to make its way inland. In mid May 1862, Lowe arrived at the White House on the Pamunkey River. This is the first home of George and Martha Washington, after which the Washington presidential residence is named. At this time, it was the home of the son of Robert E. Lee, whose family fled at the arrival of Lowe. Lowe was met by McClellan's Army a few days later, and by 18 May, he had set up a balloon camp at Gaines' Farm across the Chickahominy River north of Richmond, and another at Mechanicsville. From these vantage points, Lowe, his assistant James Allen, and his father Clovis were able to overlook the Battle of Seven Pines. A small contingent from Gen. Samuel P. Heintzelman's corps crossed the river toward Richmond and was slowly being surrounded by elements of the Confederate Army. McClellan felt that the Confederates were simply feigning an attack. Lowe could see, from his better vantage point, that they were converging on Heintzelman's position. Heintzelman was cut off from the main body because the swollen river had taken out all the bridges. Lowe sent urgent word of Heintzelman's predicament and recommended immediate repair of New Bridge and reinforcements for him. At the same time, he sent over an order for the inflation of the Intrepid, a larger balloon that could take him higher with telegraph equipment, in order to oversee the imminent battle. When Lowe arrived from Mechanicsville to the site of the Intrepid at Gaines' Mill, he saw that the aerostat's envelope was an hour away from being fully inflated. He then called for a camp kettle to have the bottom cut out of it, and he hooked the valve ends of the Intrepid and the Constitution together. He had the gas of the Constitution transferred to the Intrepid and was up in the air in 15 minutes. From this new vantage point, Lowe was able to report on all the Confederate movements. McClellan took Lowe's advice, repaired the bridge, and had reinforcements sent to Heintzelman's aid. An account of the battle was being witnessed by the visiting Count de Joinville who at day's end addressed Lowe with: "You, sir, have saved the day!" Confederate Army's counter Because of the effectiveness of the Union Army Balloon Corps, the Confederates felt compelled to incorporate balloons as well. Since coke gas was not readily available in Richmond, the first balloons were made of the Montgolfier rigid style: cotton stretched over wood framing and filled with hot smoke from fires made of oil-soaked pine cones. They were piloted by Captain John R. Bryan for use at Yorktown. Bryan's handlers were poorly experienced, and his balloon began spinning in the air. In another incident, one of the handlers became entangled in the ascending tether rope which had to be chopped loose, leaving the captain free-flying over his own Confederate positions whose troops threatened to shoot him down. Attempts at making gas-filled silk balloons were hampered by the South's inability to obtain any imports. They did fashion a balloon from dress silk. Evans cites excerpts from Confederate letters that stated their balloons were made from dress-making silk and not dresses themselves. As it was put: "... not a single Southern Belle was asked to give up her Sunday best for the cause." Eugene Block quotes a letter that Lowe received from Confederate Major General James Longstreet asserting that they were sent out to gather up all the silk dresses to be found to fashion a balloon: The silk material balloon used by the Confederates was of a design by Dr. Edward Cheves of Savannah, Georgia. Cheves had the silk material sewn together by seamstresses and then covered the silk material with a varnish made by melting rubber in oil. The balloon was filled with a coal gas and launched from a railroad car that its pilot, Edward Porter Alexander, had positioned near the battlefield. In late June 1862, Alexander made a few ascents in the balloon and was able to signal his observations of the battlefield to men on the ground using a wigwag system that he had devised. The coal gas used in the balloon was only able to keep the balloon aloft for about three to four hours at a time. The patchwork silk was given to Lowe, who had no use for it but to cut it up and distribute it to Congress as souvenirs. The inflated spheres appeared as multi-colored orbs over Richmond and were piloted by Captain Landon Cheeves. The balloon was loaded onto a primitive form of an aircraft carrier, the CSS Teaser. Before the first balloon could be used, it was captured by the crew of the USS Maratanza during transportation on the James River. A second balloon was put into action in the summer of 1863, when it was blown from its mooring and taken by Union forces and divided up as souvenirs for members of the Federal Congress. As the Union Army reduced its use of balloons, so did the Confederates. Troubled Balloon Corps During the Seven Days Battles in late June, McClellan's army was forced to retreat from the outskirts of Richmond. Lowe returned to Washington and he contracted malaria in the swampy conditions and was out of service for a little more than a month. When he returned to duty, he found that all his wagons, mules, and service equipment had been returned to the Army Quartermaster. He was essentially out of a job. Lowe was ordered to join the Army for the Battle of Antietam, but he did not reach the battlefield until after the Confederates began their retreat to Virginia. Lowe had to reintroduce himself to the new commanding general of the Army of the Potomac, Ambrose Burnside, who activated Lowe at the Battle of Fredericksburg. For all its success, the Balloon Corps was never fully appreciated by the military community. The ballonists were still regarded as carnival showmen. Others had little respect for their break-neck operation. The only ones who found any value in them were the generals whose jobs and reputations were on the line. Lower-ranking administrators looked with disdain on this band of civilians who, as they perceived them, had no place in the military. Furthermore, none of the corps ever received a military commission, leaving them facing the dangers of being captured and treated as spies, summarily punishable by death. The Balloon Corps was eventually assigned to the Army Corps of Engineers and put under the administrative purview of one Captain Cyrus B. Comstock, who did not appreciate a civilian (Lowe) being paid more than he. He reduced Lowe's pay from $10 gold to $6 currency (equal to $3 gold) per day. Lowe posted a letter of outrage and threatened to resign his position. No one came to his support, and Comstock remained unyielding. On 8 April 1863, Lowe left the military service and returned to the private sector. Direction of the Balloon Corps defaulted to the Allen brothers, but they were not as competent as Lowe. By 1 August 1863, the Corps was no longer used. After the Civil War Manned air-war mechanisms became important again to the Army when the airship (a dirigible, blimp, or zeppelin) came into existence with their motorized propulsion and mechanical means of steering. The United States Army Signal Corps established a War Balloon Company in 1893 at Fort Riley, Kansas (at the time, home of the Signal School), and the next year at Fort Logan, Colorado, using a single balloon (the General Myer) purchased in France. When that balloon deteriorated, members of the company sewed together a silk replacement in 1897. The balloon, dubbed the Santiago, saw limited use in combat in 1898 during the Spanish–American War. Reports of Lowe's work in aeronautics and aerial reconnaissance were heard abroad. In 1864, Lowe was offered a Major-General position with the Brazilian Army, which was at war with Paraguay, but he turned it down. In the 19th century, the idea of dropping ordnance on the enemy from an aerial station was not seriously considered, although there was a patent issued to a Charles Perley in February 1863 for a bomb-dropping device that could be floated aloft by balloon. The balloon bomb was to be unmanned, and the plan was a theory which had no effective way of assuring that a bomb could be delivered and dropped remotely on the enemy. Also, as a civilian operation the Balloon Corps would have never been expected to drop ordnance. See also History of military ballooning Notes and references Bibliography Block, Eugene B., Above the Civil War, Howell-North Book, Berkeley, Ca., 1966. Library of Congress CC# 66-15640. Evans, Charles M., "Air War over Virginia", Civil War Times, October 1996. Evans, Charles M., The War of the Aeronauts—A History of Ballooning During the Civil War, Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg, PA, 2002. Haydon, F. Stansbury, Military Ballooning during the Early Civil War, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000 Hoehling, Mary, Thaddeus Lowe, America's One-Man Air Corps, Julian Messner, Inc., New York, N. Y., 1958. Library of Congress CC# 58-7260. Lowe, Thaddeus, Official Report (to the Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton) (Parts I & II) (#11 & #12) O.R. - Series III - Volume III [S#124] Correspondence, Orders, Reports, and Returns of the Union Authorities From 1 January to 31 December 1863. Manning, Mike, Intrepid, An Account of Prof. T.S.C. Lowe, Civil War Aeronaut and Hero, self-published 2005. Poleskie, Stephen, The Balloonist: The Story of T. S. C. Lowe—Inventor, Scientist, Magician, and Father of the U.S. Air Force, Frederic C. Beil, 2007. Seims, Charles, Mount Lowe, The Railway in the Clouds, Golden West Books, San Marino, California, 1976. . External links Thaddeus Lowe website Man, Mountain and Monument Balloon Corps Aviation units and formations of the United States Army Reconnaissance units and formations of the United States Army Balloon weaponry Balloons (aeronautics) Military units and formations established in 1861 1861 establishments in the United States Military units and formations disestablished in 1863
4180388	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia%20national%20Australian%20rules%20football%20team	Australia national Australian rules football team	Australia has named a senior Australian Football team, known as the All-Australian team since 1947. This team, however has never officially played an international Australian rules football match. This is primarily because the sport is played professionally in Australia. It has previously sent teams to play against Ireland's amateur Gaelic Athletic Association in the hybrid code of International Rules Football as the Australia international rules football team (this article is not about that team). While the All-Australian team does not compete, the AFL National Academy (known simply as the "AFL Academy") is a national team composed of underage (under-19) players. In the past it has played annual matches against New Zealand, though currently it competes only against semi-professional state league teams. History has shown that more than two thirds of Academy players go on to professional careers at senior level in the Australian Football League. Australia also has a history of fielding Australian Football sides both officially and unofficially recognised to compete at amateur and junior levels tours against national sides from other countries including New Zealand, South Africa, Papua New Guinea, the United States, as well as a combined side representing all of Europe. In addition, sides representing Indigenous Australia have competed internationally, including the Indigenous All-Stars against Papua New Guinea and the Flying Boomerangs. High-profile representatives include AFL Brownlow medallists Chris Judd, Patrick Dangerfield, Adam Cooney, several AFL club captains including Luke Hodge, Travis Boak, Trent Cotchin, Jack Viney, Jarryd Roughead, Shannon Hurn, Jarrad McVeigh, Marc Murphy, Joel Selwood, Steven May, Jack Ziebell, other AFL greats including Cyril Rioli, Brett Deledio and numerous All-Australian players. Australia remains undefeated, although Papua New Guinea came within two goals of a historic win at Football Park in 1978 and New Zealand within a goal at Wellington Stadium in 2014. History Early in the spread of football codes across the globe, international tours and tests played a pivotal role. However, from the sport's early days, although plans were tabled for tours to England, various leagues had lacked the resources and organisation to send tours overseas. H C A Harrison "Father of Australian Football" was a supporter of the idea of international matches against England and New Zealand, and in London in 1884, pitched playing under compromise rules, however the idea was rejected. The idea was made more difficult as prior to the Federation of Australia the Australian colonies could still not reach a consensus on the idea of fielding a national side. Some teams did however tour and played matches in Australia against Australian sides, notably in 1888 and 1889, the British & Irish Lions and New Zealand Native team played matches against clubs in Australia but no recognised international tests. These tours were conditional on Australian leagues playing some matches under rugby rules to keep the competition fair. Generally games were won by the teams playing their own code and this led to the perception that the codes were by now too dissimilar for such matches to continue. Unlike the football codes with less players sending squads of 18 to 22 players on international tours would prove to be an expensive exercise and sharing the costs across multiple colonies would prove much more difficult than, for example, New South Wales sending a national rugby team. Australasian Football Council rejects international matches It wasn't until the formation of the national body, the Australasian Football Council in 1906 that the opportunity presented itself for funding and organisation for a national team. However representatives of the two strongest leagues, the Victorian Football League and South Australian Football League, in an effort to protect their primacy in Australia, lobbied the council to form a strict policy discouraging the game from being played overseas. Through the council they allocated all funds to interstate representation, and none to international representation. The policy was boosted by a wave of post-Federation Australian nationalism. In 1906 the council's official policy became "one flag, one destiny, one football game" and chose to play all matches under an Australian flag, on Australian turf with an Australian manufactured ball. The first request for international tour came in 1906 from Australian rules football in South Africa, the AFC therefore replied that if it wanted to play against Australia, it would have to send a team to Australia. This was to become the council's default stance. New Zealand had only one representative on the council, and faced opposition from most of the Australian colonies. Though it was given permission to send a side to the 1908 Melbourne Carnival (which defeated Queensland and New South Wales) the AFC never fielded a national team against them. Subsequent calls from overseas for Australia to send teams to the United States (1909), New Zealand (1910), Japan (1910) and Canada (1912) were all rejected by the AFC. West Australian Football League supports unsanctioned tours Western Australia through the West Australian Football League and its junior Young Australia League organised unsanctioned tours of the US by Australian junior representative teams between 1911 and 1919 reciprocating young American tours of Australia from 1909, resulting in the first international match between the two countries in 1911 (though the teams were composed mostly of West Australians) and helping establish Australian rules football in the United States. For a country with less than a thousand players, USA's junior athletes proved highly competitive against the Australian sides. In 1912, Canada sent a junior touring side to Australia, however the tour was not recognised by the AFC and as such no composite Australian representative side was fielded against them. With the rapid growth in the United States, the AFC's delegate from Western Australia strongly argued for sanctioned tours to both the United States and Canada, however the governing body elected not to. The result was that most competitions outside Australia went into permanent recess by the end of the 1920s. In contrast, the top leagues in Australia were going professional and a widening gap in interstate representative matches would make it almost impossible for other countries to compete. Australian Football World Tour and International Rules In the 1960s, the focus would shift. A promotional tour, known as the Australian Football World Tour, took place in 1967, with matches played in Ireland, the United Kingdom, and the United States, though without any local players no international matches of Australian rules were played. This resulted in the first International Rules matches played between Australia and a touring County Meath Gaelic football team, Meath being the reigning All-Ireland senior football champions. The national side was known as the "Galahs". Ireland would maintain the VFL's primary international focus (especially given its ongoing Irish Experiment recruiting initiative) through to the 21st century. Though it was not officially endorsed by the AFC, support for the idea was continued by the VFL/AFL and later Australian Amateur Football Council. 1970s: First international matches In the 1960s and 1970s, Australian rules was unexpectedly booming in the Pacific in Papua New Guinea and Nauru. While Nauru had been soundly defeated by PNG it was considered far too small a nation to field a competitive side against Australia. Papua New Guinea however with tens of thousands of players to draw from, had a fast moving and hard hitting side that was competitive against some of the VFL's strongest clubs, and was extremely determined to compete against Australia. In 1977 a Victorian U17 team travelled to Port Moresby and were almost defeated. PNG persevered and in 1978 sent a team to Adelaide, and in a historic match came close to beating Australia. However the Australian National Football Council withdrew its promise to admit PNG as a voting member, along with senior funding and plans to tour Papua New Guinea and the local competitions soon collapsed. This was in part due to the country's national sporting body withdrawing funding due to a lack of international competition. In turn this also left Australia with no opponent. International Cup and IAFC When the International Australian Football Council was formed in 1995 one of its aims was to 'establish and promote an official World Cup of Australian Football'. The initial proposal was for similar eligibility criteria to other football codes which would mean that it could draw the significant pool of Australians born overseas or with a parent or grandparent from the country they chose to represent. This would in turn reduce the logistical and financial burden on overseas clubs who would send their best players to top up the squads. At the time it was thought that 2008, being the 150th anniversary of the game, was the appropriate date. The idea of Australia eventually entering an amateur side was first proposed. In 1999 a proposal was received from the New Zealand Australian Football League (NZAFL), suggesting that the World Cup be brought forward to 2002. An approach was then made to the national body, the AFL, asking for their support in staging the event. The AFL agreed on the basis that the event was renamed the "International Cup", that an Australian side would not compete and that there be strict eligibility criteria to exclude Australian players. In 2004, the AFL formed its own International Policy, pushed for the dissolution of the IAFC to became formally recognised as the world governing body for the sport. It took the International Cup over and put it under its development arm. The idea of an Australian team, even a development or amateur one, participating in the tournament was dismissed. AIS-AFL Academy and South Africa tours (2007-2010) Australia did not compete internationally at any recognised level until the AFL Commission in 1998 formed a 10-year partnership with the Australian Sports Commission (ASC) and the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS), the AIS-AFL Academy, with national sports funding. The AFL Commission had been working towards Australian Institute of Sport recognition as early as 1982, which was made more difficult by not having significant matches played in Canberra or international competition, however the commission believed that expanding into a national competition was the best way to gain national recognition. The AIS junior development funding was contingent on international competition, which the AFL was able to satisfy through a junior International Rules Series against Ireland. The AIS funded scholarships to 30 17 year old players for a year based on their football performance as a 16 year old, their positive attitude to education and schooling and potential to play at professional AFL level. However, with the GAA cancelling both the senior and junior series in 2006, the AFL had to find another opponent in order to continue to receive national sports funding. which it sought to capitalise on burgeoning Australian investment in Australian rules football in South Africa. Following some highly unevenly matched contests, the gap between the two countries drew comments from AFL CEO Andrew Demetriou the South Africans would be better suited to playing a game with a round ball (referring to International Rules but possibly also soccer). In 2011, the program expanded to include two squads however the AFL abandoned the South African program and sent a side on tour to Europe to play against a combined side. The Australian Institute of Sport withdrew from the partnership in 2013 to focus on Olympics recognised sports. The National Australia Bank extended its Australian Football sponsorship to the AFL Academy to fill the gap left by the AIS. AFL push into New Zealand and Europe (2012-2018) The AFL's partnership in New Zealand with Wellington Regional Stadium helped fill the gap left by the AIS and it began playing its development team against an open aged NZ sides in 2012. Competing as the AFL Academy (or Australia U17) an annual series of tours was established against New Zealand as part of a junior development pathway with AFL New Zealand. The AFL also sent tours to Europe in 2013 and 2014 to compete against a combined AFL Europe side known as the European Legion. The AFL also set up International Combines in Europe and New Zealand from which some of the athletes participated as the Academy's opposition. New Zealand matches were later extended to include women's matches however COVID-19 pandemic put international matches on hold. Academy national team disbanded (2018) At the end of 2018, the AFL put an end to overseas tours for its AFL Academy, which meant that international sides would once again require to travel to Australia to compete. Unable to secure nationals sports funding the AFL also restructured the AFL Academy into state-based academies, diverting funding intended for overseas tours into academies featuring its clubs in developing states of New South Wales and Queensland. Academy team matches against state league teams (2019-present) Since 2019 the state-based academies have formed the basis of the AFL National Academy teams for boys and girls, made up of primarily players in the under-18 age bracket. The boys team have played once-a-year fixtures against teams from the Victorian Football League and South Australian National Football League, while the girls have competed against combined under-23 state teams. Both teams undertake regular training and high-development camps, as well as partake in yearly formal matches against opposition. Matches Notable matches include: Squads 2019 (U17) Taj Schofield; Nathan O'Driscoll; Brandon Walker; Zane Trew; Logan McDonald; Denver Grainger-Barras; Will Phillips; Connor Downie; Campbell Edwardes; Nikolas Cox; Tanner Bruhn; Oliver Henry; Elijah Hollands; Ethan Baxter; Jamarra Ugle-Hagan; Oliver Davis; Sam Collins; Jackson Callow; Corey Durdin; Zachary Dumesny; Jye Sinderberry; Luke Edwards; Kaine Baldwin; Riley Thilthorpe; Alex Davies; Errol Gulden; Braeden Campbell 2018 (U17) Kysaiah Pickett; Rhai Arn Cox; Connor Budarick; Caleb Serong; Jack Mohony; Matthew Rowell; Hewago Paul-Oea; Deven Robertson; Cameron Taheny; Dylan Stephens; Sam Flanders; Hayden Young; Dylan Williams; Cooper Stephens; Noah Anderson; Joshua Rayner; Jamieson Rossiter; Brodie Kemp; Liam Delahunty; Fischer McAsey; Emerson Jeka; Mitch O'Neill; Anthony Davis; Jack Buller; Andrew Courtney 2017 (U17) Ruben Flinn, Jackson Hately, Jack Lukosius, Hugo Munn, Izak Rankine, Connor Rozee, Luke Valente, Jack Bytel, Max King, Ben King, Rhylee West, Buku Khamis, Zane Barzen, Jye Caldwell, Sam Fletcher, Hudson Garoni, Sam Walsh, Ajak Dang, Jason Carter, Ian Hill, Tom Joyce, Sydney Stack, Chayce Jones, Tarryn Thomas, Nick Blakey, Matthew Walker, Bailey Scott, Michael Mummery 2016 (U17) 2014/15 (U17) Zachary Sproule, Kobe Mutch, Will Setterfield, Harrison Macreadie, Matthew Scharenberg, Jack Graham, Steven Slimming, Jack Bowes, Brad Scheer, Jacob Allison, Curtis Marsden, Jarrod Berry, Will Brodie, Ben Ainsworth, Jarrod Korewha, Jordan Galluci, Jack Scrimshaw, Noah Hura, Sam Petrevski-Seton, Sam Powell-Pepper, Jeremy Goddard, Luke Strnadica, Joshua Rotham, Ben McGuinness, Brandon Parfitt 2013 (U17) Isaac Heeney, Sam Durdin, Lachlan Weller, Liam Dawson, Matthew Hammelmann, Jaden McGrath, Tom Lamb, Hugh Goddard, Liam Duggan, Angus Brayshaw, Jake Lever, Darcy Moore, Peter Wright, Jarrod Pickett, Clem Smith, Bradley Walsh, Nakia Cockatoo, Duom Dawam, Liam Griffiths, Nicholas Coughlan, Jack Donkersley, Mac Bower, Bohdi Walker, Daniel Caprion, Jesse Watchman, Peter Spurling, Ryan Lim, Jermaine Miller-Lewis, Matthew Ah Siu, Warrick Wilson 2012 (U17) Jack Billings, Luke McDonald, Billy Hartung, Jesse Hogan, James Aish, Ben Lennon, Luke Dunstan, Matt Scharenberg, Jack Martin, Dallas Willsmore Clayton McCartney, Dylan Loo, Cain Tickner, Sam Garstone References National Australian rules football teams Australian rules football in Australia Men's national sports teams of Australia
4180595	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy%20Birthday%20to%20Me%20%28film%29	Happy Birthday to Me (film)	Happy Birthday to Me is a 1981 slasher film directed by J. Lee Thompson and starring Melissa Sue Anderson and Glenn Ford. Its plot revolves around six brutal murders occurring around a popular high school senior's birthday. A co-production between the United States and Canada, the film was shot in Montreal and upstate New York. Happy Birthday to Me was distributed by Columbia Pictures, and released theatrically in North America on May 15, 1981. The film received mostly mixed reviews from critics. Plot Virginia "Ginny" Wainwright is a pretty and popular high school senior at Crawford Academy, a member of the school's "Top Ten," an elite clique of the most privileged and popular students. Each night, the group meets at the Silent Woman Tavern, a local pub. One night en route to the tavern, Bernadette O'Hara is attacked in her car by an unseen assailant. She struggles and plays dead to catch the killer off-guard before running to get help. She then runs into an unseen individual whom she is familiar with and begs for help, but the person slashes her neck with a straight razor. The Top Ten becomes concerned when Bernadette fails to arrive at the pub. Upon leaving, the group sees the nearby drawbridge raising and decide to play a game of chicken. Ginny is pushed into a car by Ann Thomerson, and each of the group attempt to cross the bridge as it raises; the car Ginny is in barely clears the bridge, crashing as it meets the other side. Distraught, Ginny runs home, stopping at her mother's grave in an adjacent cemetery. At her home, Etienne, a Top Ten member, breaks into Ginny's room and steals her underwear. Bernadette fails to show up at school the following day. Ginny, who is plagued by repressed memories, visits her on-call psychiatrist, Dr. Faraday, with whom she previously underwent an experimental brain tissue restoration procedure after surviving a harrowing accident at the drawbridge. As Ginny attempts to resume her normal life, her fellow Top Ten members are murdered in vicious and violent ways: Etienne is strangled when his scarf gets thrown into the spokes of his motorcycle, and Greg's neck is crushed in his room while lifting weights. Ann and Ginny go to Alfred's house as he has been acting odd lately and discovers he is an elaborate prosthetic make up artist with a creepy replica of Bernadette's head. One night, Alfred, a Top Ten member who is infatuated with Ginny, follows her to her mother's grave. In retaliation, she stabs him with a pair of garden shears. On the weekend of Ginny's 18th birthday, her father leaves for a business trip. After a school dance, Ginny invites Steve to her house and prepares shish kebabs. While the two are drinking wine and smoking marijuana, Ginny begins to feed Steve with the kebab, but violently shoves the skewer down his throat. Ann arrives at Ginny's house the following morning and finds Ginny taking a shower. In the shower, Ginny has a flashback of her mother's death: Her mother, a newly inducted socialite, invites the Top Ten to Ginny's birthday celebration four years earlier and is concerned when no guests have arrived. After being questioned by her mother, Ginny tearfully mentions the group are attending a party Ann is having instead. Humiliated, her mother drives drunk to the Thomasons' house with Ginny, where she is denied entry by Mr. Thomason's gatekeeper. Enraged and upset, she attempts to drive across a raising drawbridge, causing their car to fall into the water. Pinned beneath the steering wheel, Ginny's mother drowns. Ginny, however, manages to swim to safety. Paranoid that she may be murdering her friends during blackout episodes, Ginny visits Dr. Faraday. When she confronts him over the procedure she underwent, he is evasive, and she murders him with a fireplace poker. Mr. Wainright returns home during a thunderstorm for Ginny's birthday and finds a pool of blood in the foyer. He flees hysterically and finds one of Ginny's friends, Amelia, standing in the yard in what seems to be a state of shock, clutching a wrapped gift. In the cemetery, he discovers his late wife's grave to have been robbed, with Dr. Faraday's corpse lying in it. Mr. Wainright notices a light on inside the family's guest cottage. Inside, he finds the bodies of each member of the Top Ten seated at a table alongside his dead wife's corpse. He then sees Ginny enter the room with a birthday cake, singing "Happy Birthday" to herself, seeming to have lost her mind. Feeling he has failed his daughter with her treatment, Ginny suddenly slashes her father's throat. He dies, failing to notice another girl is seated at the table with her head down. Ginny then goes toward the girl, who also appears to be Ginny. As the girl comes to the Ginny we have seen throughout the film, she begins to raise her voice saying she did it all for her, as she ruined her last party. Suddenly the two Ginnys struggle and the other girl is revealed as Ann, who has disguised herself as Ginny with an elaborate latex mask probably made by Alfred. Ann removes the mask, ranting and raving over her father's affair with Ginny's mother and how it destroyed her family. Ann reveals that she and Ginny are half-sisters and it's all her fault. Ginny manages to wrestle the knife from Ann and stabs her to death. As she stands over Ann's corpse holding the bloodied knife, a police officer enters the cottage and says, "What have you done?" Cast Production Concept and pre-production Happy Birthday to Me was produced by John Dunning and André Link, as a Cinépix production. Dunning and Link would team up again on another Canadian slasher, My Bloody Valentine (1981), which went into production within a week of Happy Birthday to Me wrapping; however, My Bloody Valentine was actually released first, rushed to meet a February 11, 1981 release date in time for Valentine's Day. Keen to get their classier, bigger-budgeted Happy Birthday to Me released, Dunning and Link quickly realized that gimmicks were being used up by other slasher movies in the wake of John Carpenter’s Halloween (1978) and Sean S. Cunningham’s Friday the 13th (1980). 1980 alone saw the release of Friday the 13th, as well as two New Year's Eve-themed horror movies, Terror Train (1980) and New Year’s Evil (1980), as well as Christmas-themed films To All a Goodnight (1980) and Christmas Evil (1980), the wedding-themed He Knows You’re Alone (1980), Prom Night (1980), and Mother’s Day (1980) (followed by Graduation Day and the Thanksgiving-based Home Sweet Home the following year). Because everyone has a birthday, Dunning and Link believed that Happy Birthday to Me could have universal appeal. They hired John Saxton, a University of Toronto English professor, to develop the story. The subplot involving Virginia's brain injury came from Dunning reading an article about regenerating frogs with electricity; he figured this could form the basis for a murder mystery where a girl suffers flashbacks and blackouts yet is unsure of her role in the mayhem around her. Although it seems to have been directly influenced by the success of Friday the 13th and Prom Night, pre-production on Happy Birthday to Me had started before those films had been released, which more than hints that the huge success of Halloween was perhaps more of an influence (although the Grand Guignol elements of Friday the 13th may also have contributed). The specialized genre website Retro Slashers has a copy of the script purporting to be a third draft from April 1980, where the major difference is that Virginia is actually the killer, possessed by the spirit of her deceased mother. Although this ending logistically makes more sense than the ending that was filmed, the filmmakers thought that what was originally scripted was not climactic enough. Still, the majority of the film does point to this original ending, which indicates the switch came well into production. This version of the script also features a good number of scenes that were either never shot or rewritten, including some that show more clearly Alfred's love for Virginia and Virginia's difficult relationship with her father. The script was completely reworked by screenwriting team Timothy Bond and Peter Jobin before production started. Casting Actress Melissa Sue Anderson, who had garnered childhood fame for her portrayal of Mary Ingalls on the television series Little House on the Prairie, was cast in the film's lead, marking her major feature debut. Lisa Langlois auditioned for the role of Ann, but the role went to Tracey Bregman instead. Filming Happy Birthday to Me began shooting in early July 1980 with British director J. Lee Thompson, famous for the classic Cape Fear (1962). Thompson had also been a dialogue coach to Alfred Hitchcock years before. Thompson had actively been looking to direct a thriller, and became attached to Happy Birthday to Me. In the press material for the film, he stated: "What attracted me to this script was that the young people stood out as vivid, individual characters. The difference between a good chiller and exploitative junk, at least in my opinion, is whether or not you care about the victims". Jack Blum, who played Alfred in the film, said that Thompson took the film seriously. Thompson would later direct the Charles Bronson thriller 10 to Midnight (1983), which featured more exploitative material than Happy Birthday to Me. Hollywood actor Glenn Ford, who played Jonathan Kent in Richard Donner’s Superman (1978), was less-than-thrilled to be in a slasher film. Apparently Ford was unpleasant on the set. The film's make-up effects were done by special effects guru Tom Burman (who replaced Stéphan Dupuis just three weeks before the cameras were due to start rolling). Dupuis later did the duties on another bigger budget Canadian slasher, Visiting Hours (1982), but left the production for undisclosed reasons. Ironically, in an issue of Fangoria from 1981, Burman criticizes the level of gore in films at that time. Director Thompson became known for tossing buckets of blood about on the set of the film to increase the on-screen gore; according to producer John Dunning, with the assistance of special effects man Tom Burman, Thompson "would be splashing blood all over the place". Happy Birthday to Me finished filming in September 1980. Much of it was shot in and around Loyola College in Montreal, while the drawbridge scenes were actually filmed in Phoenix, New York, just outside Syracuse. The producers found it difficult to find the right bridge closer to the main production, as the expansion of the Highway system had made them increasingly rare. The whole town of Phoenix came to watch the dangerous stunts, where a total of fifteen cars were junked, and one stunt driver was hospitalized with two broken ankles. The bridge itself has since been removed and replaced by a bridge further to the north. Additional photography occurred on the campuses of Concordia University and McGill University. During production, the film's screenplay underwent rewrites, including an entirely new ending that featured Ann as the real killer instead of Ginny. According to actress Melissa Sue Anderson, her character of Ginny "was so convincing as the good girl, they didn’t want to sacrifice the audience’s sympathy," leading screenwriters Timothy Bond and Peter Jobin to rework Saxton's screenplay. This mid-production alteration required the special effects team to craft a plaster cast of Anderson's face to design a latex mask, which Ann is revealed to be wearing in the finale. Music Bo Harwood and Lance Rubin provided the film's score. Syreeta, one-time wife of Stevie Wonder, provided the closing track, composed by Lance Rubin that plays over the credits. Release The Motion Picture Association of America originally granted Happy Birthday to Me an X rating, resulting in Columbia truncating some of its gorier sequences in order to allow for an R rating. Marketing Columbia Pictures acquired Happy Birthday to Me for $3.5 million, following Paramount Pictures' lead with buying Friday the 13th the year before. Columbia reportedly put as much money into promoting the film as it cost to make. The promotional materials for the film boasted its numerous unusual death sequences as "six of the most bizarre murders you will ever see". The theatrical poster featured sub-taglines reading: "John will never eat shish kebab again" and "Steven will never ride a motorcycle again", despite the fact that there is no character named "John" in the film, while Steven is the character who dies by a shish kekab; Etienne is the character who suffers a death via a motorcycle. Dunning and Link were displeased with the advertising campaign that Columbia Pictures had planned; they thought it should have been more subtle and worried that it might put off as many people as it attracted. They were concerned that only a handful of the murders in the film were truly bizarre and that the audience might feel cheated. Columbia Pictures distributed a promotional manual for Happy Birthday to Me containing numerous ideas for cinemas to promote the film. Although it is not clear how many picture houses really embraced the film's promotion, some of the more colorful ideas were to stage a mini-recreation of the film's final scene (without the bodies), but with a butchered birthday cake with crimson candles surrounded by glittering birthday party hats, all to be set upon a fake coffin. People celebrating their own birthdays were encouraged to bring family and friends with incentives, such as T-shirts and party hats. They also suggested having a member of staff, dressed in funereal black, preventing anyone from entering the auditorium during the final ten minutes. Those in line would then be offered "a bite-sized slice of Virginia's birthday cake" from the concession stand. The promotion manual also featured many ideas for radio disc jockeys to promote the film, including a special 'scream in'. Callers would be asked questions such as, "How would you react if you went to a birthday party … and you were the only person at the dinner table who was still alive?" Those with the best set of lungs would win free passes to the film. The manual also encouraged the DJ's to attend dressed as funeral attendants and give each girl a white lily and each boy a blood-red carnation. The film was also advertised with trailers both at the cinema and on TV. Most trailers culminate with a birthday cake being split with an axe, although an axe does not actually feature in the film itself. Box office Happy Birthday to Me opened in the United States and Canada on May 15, 1981 in 1,124 theatres and grossed $3,712,597 in its opening weekend. It ultimately went on to gross $10.6 million at the North American box office. Critical response Contemporary Vincent Canby in The New York Times called it a confused ripoff of Friday the 13th and Prom Night (both released in 1980). James Harwood in Variety wrote that the film gets "dumber and dumber until the fitful finale". Linda Gross of the Los Angeles Times referred to the film as a "well-directed, suspenseful and nauseatingly violent horror movie" that is "gratuitously mean", commending it as technically well-made but criticizing it for its violent content. The Baltimore Evening Suns Lou Cedrone wrote "it is sad to know that a director of this stature has descended to this, a bloody horror film. The movie has been done with professionalism, but in the end, like The Fan, Happy Birthday to Me is so much bloodletting, all of it in vivid color". Siskel & Ebert chose it as one of their "Dogs of the Week" on an episode of their show in 1981. Candice Russell of the Fort Lauderdale News praised the film as a "more than competently made chiller", adding that director Thompson "plays out the scenes where we anticipate mayhem like a virtuoso violinist". Ron Cowan of Statesman Journal commended the acting of Anderson and direction of Thompson, and wrote that he "develops the characters of the young actors enough that they take on the semblance of real people". However, he goes on to call the plot derivative of other films in the genre. Bill Cosford of the Miami Herald gave it a scathing review, criticizing the plot for being "incomprehensible". Cosford wrote that its title and "attractive star" are the only things working for the film. Modern AllMovie gave the film a mixed review, writing, "Happy Birthday to Me stands out from the slasher movie pack of the early '80s because it pushes all the genre's elements to absurd heights. The murders, plot twists and, especially, the last-minute revelations that are dished up in the final reel don't just deny credibility, they outright defy it". In a 2022 retrospective assessment for Bloody Disgusting, Paul Lê described the film as "one of the strangest and best 80s slashers to come out of the decade." The same year, Tyler Doupe of Dread Central assessed the film, citing it as a "giallo masquerading as a slasher," noting its use of various plot twists, red herrings, and violent murders, which are common tropes in giallo films. , Happy Birthday to Me holds a 29% rating on the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes based on 14 reviews. Home media Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released Happy Birthday to Me on DVD in 2004 with an entirely different, uncredited musical score that diverged from the score used in the original cut. In October 2009, Anchor Bay Entertainment re-released the film on DVD with original musical score reintroduced. In 2012, the film made its premiere on Blu-ray through Mill Creek Entertainment on a double-feature disc paired with the original When a Stranger Calls (1979); this release, like the 2009 DVD, features the original 1981 musical score. The United Kingdom-based home media company Indicator Films released a region-free two-disc Blu-ray and DVD combination package in December 2016, which featured promotional materials, a commentary track, and both the original and alternate musical score. Mill Creek re-released the film as a standalone Blu-ray featuring a retro VHS-inspired slipcover in October 2018. In October 2022, Kino Lorber issued another Blu-ray edition with newly commissioned bonus materials. References Sources External links 1981 films 1981 horror films 1981 independent films 1980s American films 1980s Canadian films 1980s English-language films 1980s high school films 1980s mystery horror films 1980s serial killer films 1980s slasher films 1980s teen horror films American high school films American independent films American mystery horror films American serial killer films American slasher films American teen horror films Canadian independent films Canadian high school films Canadian mystery horror films Canadian serial killer films Canadian slasher films Columbia Pictures films Dissociative identity disorder in popular culture English-language Canadian films Films about birthdays Films about dysfunctional families Films about mass murder Films about sisters Films about social class Films about socialites Films about surgeons Films about the upper class Films directed by J. Lee Thompson Films produced by John Dunning Films set in Massachusetts Films set in schools Films shot in Montreal Films shot in New York (state) Psychosurgery in fiction Sororicide in fiction Video nasties
4180619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Joseph%27s%20College%2C%20Melbourne	St Joseph's College, Melbourne	St Joseph's College Melbourne was a Roman Catholic secondary college which opened early in 1903 and closed at the end of 2010. It was part of the Association of Edmund Rice schools, founded and run in the tradition of the Christian Brothers. Between the years 2000 and 2009 it formally operated two campuses, a senior campus (VCE and VET) located in Queensberry Street, North Melbourne, Victoria and a junior campus (Years 7 – 10), in Brearley Parade, Pascoe Vale, Victoria. These two campuses were previously known as St. Joseph's College, North Melbourne and St. Joseph's College, Pascoe Vale respectively. North Throughout its life the school provided students, from a wide variety of cultural and economic backgrounds, with an opportunity to enter a range of careers. Many of its pupils went on to become respected members in their chosen fields which included the financial and business sectors, the medical profession, law and politics, industry, sporting and religious communities. While the two campuses lacked the open playing fields of its wealthier cousins, students had access to a range of local facilities. The North Melbourne campus for example, close to the Melbourne City Centre, was within walking distance of world class universities, museums, libraries, historical and athletic venues. Likewise the Pascoe Vale campus was able to make use of several nearby ovals and both were close to excellent public transport links. Sport Sport was an important ingredient in the education of boys attending North. The school had its own football squad as early as 1906 when it played its first match against Christian Brothers College, St Kilda at Albert Park where it scored 2 points. As enrolments grew then so did the involvement in other sports, often in competition with other schools. Inter school athletics, handball and tennis competitions, such as those conducted by the Associated Catholic Secondary Schools organization, were held as early as 1914 when the College won the Athletics Championship for that year. Membership to organizations such as that and also the Combined Secondary Schools group, around 1920, was one of the key features of the schools early history. The College was a founding member of the Associated Catholic Colleges, where it won competitions in various sports over the years. Their famous 70 meter long banners, North is Speed, Power, and a cheer squad, led by the Committee organizing War cries, or COW, where notable features of the annual competitions at the Olympic Park Stadium. St Joseph's College students also became members of one of the schools sporting houses or teams. These built on the existing pastoral class groupings to generate team spirit during sporting carnivals with students wearing their team colors. These houses, later named after four early headmasters of the college, were: Hogan McSweeney Geoghegan Kelly College crest At the time of amalgamation in 2000 a new logo was developed to represent the college. This logo was composed of pre-existing elements which were representative of the school's history and philosophy. Set on a traditional heraldic background, in the form of a shield, it features a rampant Gryphon protecting a smaller inner shield bearing a large shining star, a symbol used by the Christian Brothers, supported by smaller stars in the shape of the southern cross. The entire design sits above a ribbon which includes the words, "Luceat Lux Vestra". The symbol appeared on the newly designed College uniform, which included a blazer after a lapse of a number of years, and various College medallions. The logo was used extensively on College publications and documents including Cynosura, the annual school magazine. Associated schools Over its long 107-year history the college was associated with a number of schools at one time or another. These included many primary, or feeder schools, to which the college Old Boys Association offered scholarships up until the 1950s. The school also had connections with a number of higher secondary colleges such as St Kevin's and Parade, East Melbourne. Although not exhaustive this list includes most of those known. College history 1903–1930 St. Joseph's owes its early beginnings, in part, to the establishment of St Mary's Primary School, West Melbourne some 50 years earlier. With high numbers of Catholic children in the area needing education, members of the Christian Brothers were asked to take control of existing schools at West Melbourne and at Carlton. At the same time they were to establish a Brothers community and a secondary school in Queensberry Street, North Melbourne and this was completed by the end of 1902. This 'community house' was the residence of Brothers teaching at St. Mary's, St. George's (Carlton), St. Joseph's, and for a time, St. Augustine's College, Yarraville. The total cost of the building and furnishings was a little over £4516, £3000 of which was provided by local parish priests. The combined enrolment of St. Mary's, St, Joseph's and St. George's was 550 boys in 1903. In January 1903, Christian Brothers' High School, as it was then known, opened with an enrolment of 44 students. Staffed by three Christian Brothers, that number had grown to 112 by the beginning of 1904. Students were divided into eight classes; Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth and Sixth, a Commercial Class, Sub-Matriculation and Matriculation Class. The first Principal was William J Hogan, followed by Francis A Kelly in 1904 and Matthew A Geoghegan in 1908. The first football team, featuring a large white star on its guernsey, was formed around 1906 and began a long tradition of involvement in a variety of sports. A year earlier a wooden handball court had been built, a first for any school in Melbourne and in 1913 this was replaced by a brick three wall court, said to be the best in Australia at the time. Over the next five decades the school hosted State and Interstate handball championships at various times. The court continued to be used by the Victorian Handball Association up until at least 2010 but in the second half of the century the popularity of handball was surpassed by team sports such as Australian Football. Early school Annuals indicate a variety of titles to identify the school and it was not until 1912 that the name "St. Joseph's" was formally added. Even though its naming varied slightly over the years, the school was more simply known to its students as "North". In 1913 the North Old Boys Association was formed to assist the school in serving its expanding school population (200 pupils in 1909) and the increasing need for finances as the period after the First World War was an economically difficult one. In the early years both Primary and Secondary school classes were conducted on the Queensberry Street site. The school was able to achieve impressive educational results from its pupils in Junior and Senior University and Public Service Examinations as results published in early Annuals show. Between 1918 and 1941, students wishing to study for their Leaving Certificate had to do so at St. Kevin's College. By 1921 the enrolment stood at 174 and handball had become the leading sport and both public and school tournaments were frequently held on the handball court. 1940–1960 By 1940 the Christian Brothers' felt that the school had expanded to the point where it was able to take over the provision of night classes in a Catholic Accountancy school for young men in the Melbourne area. The classes started with 40 or 50 students but expanded, post war, to around 200 and provided study allowing its pupils to attain membership to the Australian Society of Accountants. Hundreds of young men attended there until 1969 when the night school closed. 1951 saw the first Matriculation class of 23 students graduate from the College which meant that it had attained full secondary school status. During the Golden Jubilee year of 1953, 122 boys were members of the College Cadet unit and provided a martial spectacle as they paraded before visiting dignitaries. Arthur Calwell, a prominent politician and old boy, was a guest speaker on one occasion as was Archbishop Daniel Mannix. During the 1950s the growing school population, due partly to the post War migration boom, forced the college to purchase land and eventually build a second school in the suburb of Pascoe Vale. In 1956 the Preparatory College, as it was then known, opened under the guidance of Ernest S Crowle as principal, who was himself an old boy of the college. In its early years it provided tuition in Grades 4, 5, 6 and Form 1 and had an initial enrolment of 274. By 1970 the school had become entirely secondary with classes comprising Form 1 to 4. Traditionally students completed their "junior" studies (Grades 7 to 10) at Pascoe Vale and then transferred to the "senior" campus in North Melbourne. From its early beginnings the college was heavily involved in a range of sports and Australian Rules Football in particular. North's football teams were often considered tough opponents both within the local school competition and the Victorian Amateur Football Association (VAFA) as the North Old Boys Amateur Football Club, or NOB's, which it rejoined in 1964 after a lapse in membership. In 2005 the North club amalgamated with St Patrick's College, Ballarat to become North Old Boys St. Parick's College Amateur Football Club. 1980–2010 During the later 1970s, 80s and into the 1990s, the Preparatory School in Pascoe Vale South, also known as St. Joseph's Junior College, with enrolments averaging around 490, took on a more independent identity to eventually be known as St. Joseph's College, Pascoe Vale. It had a separate administration, principal, School Board, registration number, logo and annual magazine, known as Scythia, to set it apart from its parent school, North. Beginning in 1997 preliminary discussions regarding the future of the two schools took place with a view to ensuring their continuing viability. The major issues included enrolments, student welfare, administrative structures, curriculum, staffing and finances. In 1998 the outcome of talks and independent reviews was that the schools should amalgamate within two years in order to remain a relevant and viable educational entity. The year 2000 saw the two sites formally amalgamated under a new name and banner to become the one College. It retained the traditional College colours of purple and white and College motto. A common uniform, which included a navy blue blazer with monogrammed logo, became mandatory. In 2003 the total student population was approximately 750 cared for by a single Principal, two Campus Directors and 92 staff. By 2008 the decision was made by Edmund Rice Education Australia (EREA) and the Christian Brothers to begin a phased closure of the college. The reasons behind the closure included falling enrolments (570 students), amenities and plant which had become outdated and partly rundown and issues related to student management and involvement. At the end of 2009 the Pascoe Vale campus closed and was stripped of any saleable assets; much was simply dumped leaving only the buildings. Those students who had stayed on were offered places, with some concessions, at other Catholic schools for the continuation of their studies. Likewise, staff, if they wished, were seconded to other schools prior to being declared redundant at the end of 2010. A number of past students were saddened by the closure of the school, they, and many parents, felt more could have been done by the Christian Brothers and EREA to allow it to remain open. During an address given in 2002 the leader of the Congregation of Christian Brothers, Philip Pinto, alluded to another reason for the changes needed to the existing College structure. In that address he urged his fellow Brothers to return to Edmund Rice's vision; a renewed commitment to young people on the margins of society. It is best summed up in the following, "to look at life from the standpoint of the minority, the victim, the outcast, and the stranger. In doing so we will be giving hope to those who presently have little hope." Dark days In 2004 a former principal of St Joseph's Preparatory College, Pascoe Vale, Keith Weston, pleaded guilty to, and was convicted of, a number of assault cases. These cases related to students who attended Christian Brothers led organizations and schools. Weston died in 2014 before he could be interviewed by Victoria Police concerning other cases of assault which had been brought to their attention. His actions and those of others were acknowledged during a closure event at the Pascoe Vale campus in 2009. Julian McDonald, in a newsletter published by the Christian Brothers, writes, "For us Christian Brothers, accepting the truth will mean acknowledging that a significant number of us have abused children in our care sexually, emotionally and physically. Abuse is, indeed, part of our sinful history." Weston was not alone as a minority of the members of the Congregation at a few schools also caused much hurt; as McDonald says in way of explaining this, "far too many [were] ill-equipped and ill-formed". On 1 June 2017, Wayne Tinsey, speaking for Edmund Rice Education Australia, made a formal apology to victims of sexual abuse who were also past students of Christian Brothers schools across the country. Post 2010 In 2010 extensive refurbishment work was carried out on the Pascoe Vale site by its new owners and later reopened as Saint Joseph Campus of Antonine College. At the end of the 2010 academic year the North Melbourne campus closed with a final Commemorative Mass and a range of ceremonies attended by current and past students and staff. In 2011 the site was temporarily closed as plans for a new learning center were formulated. At the beginning of 2012 St. Joseph's Flexible Learning Centre opened at the old St. Joseph's site in North Melbourne. It is part of the Youth Plus Network managed by Edmund Rice Education Australia and is just one of many such centers around Australia. Its aim is to, provide young people with an opportunity to re-engage in education in a supported learning environment. At the end of the 2014 academic year 292 students were officially enrolled full-time at the centre to work with the 50 staff, made up of teachers, social workers and support staff. Alumni Australian rules football 'North' produced more than 50 Victorian Football League players, some of whom are listed below. A number of others also played with the Victorian Football Association, other major leagues or served as coaches or administrators. Stephen Alessio (player with Essendon Football Club) Anthony Alessio (Australian Rules Footballer) John Barker (Australian footballer) (player and coach with Fitzroy Football Club, Brisbane Lions and Hawthorn Football Club) Bob Bradley (player with Essendon Football Club) Ray Brew (player and past Captain of Carlton Football Club) Edward Considine (player Essendon Football Club and Sydney Football Club) Gerry Donnelly (player and past Captain of North Melbourne Football Club) Laurie Dwyer (player with North Melbourne Football Club) Leo Dwyer (player with North Melbourne Football Club) Kevin Dynon (College Captain 1940, athlete, player and past captain of North Melbourne Football Club) Tom Fitzmaurice (Australian Football Hall of Fame) Anthony Franchina (player with Carlton Football Club) Tony Furey (player with North Melbourne Football Club) Shannon Grant (player with Sydney Football Club and North Melbourne Football Club) Jack Green (player with Carlton Football Club and Hawthorn Football Club) Aaron Hamill (player with Carlton Football Club) John Harvey (Australian Rules Football Umpire) Mark Hannebery (player with Collingwood Football Club, amateurs Captain and Coach) Paul Koulouriotis (player with Port Adelaide Football Club and Geelong Football Club) Allan La Fontaine (College Captain 1927, 28, 29, player and past captain of Melbourne Football Club) Shane Maguire (Australian Rules Football administrator) Jock McCorkell (player with North Melbourne Football Club) Donald McDonald (player, assistant coach and administrator with North Melbourne Football Club) Bill Spurling (player with Footscray Football Club) Clergy More than 100 boys were to become ordained priests representing ten different religious Orders. Of this number, four went on to become Bishops. Matthew Beovich (archbishop of Adelaide) Patrick Lyons (bishop) Timothy McCarthy (CBE, Deputy Chaplain General of the Armed Forces) John Aloysius Morgan (bishop) John James Scullion (biblical scholar, writer and theologian) Bernard Denis Stewart (bishop of Sandhurst) General More than 75 past pupils served in the army during World War I. Of those 16 died while on active service. During World War II, over 780 past pupils served in the military forces; 28 died on active service and ten became prisoners of war. Damien Broderick, PhD (Science and Science Fiction writer and editor) Paul Coghlan (Judge of the Supreme Court of Victoria) William Cremor CBE (army leader and educationalist) John Hamilton (professor, Melbourne University) Paul Lacava (Judge of the County Court of Victoria) Reginald Byron Leonard (journalism, army information service) Adrian Martin (Australian film and arts critic) Leonard Ostrowski (Victorian County Court Judge) William Pitney (leading haematologist and educator) Terry Freeman ("Keeper of the Roses", Flemington racecourse) Ron Tandberg (journalist and cartoonist) Ivo Vellar (professor of surgery, University of Melbourne Brian Watson AO (businessman and founding member of the Board of Guardians of the Future Fund) Politics and public service Thomas Brennan (Victorian state politician) Arthur Calwell (former Opposition Party Leader) Sir Francis Raymond Connelly (former Lord Mayor of Melbourne) George Fewster (Victorian politician) James Gobbo, AC, CVO, QC (born 22 March 1931), 25th Governor of Victoria Peter Kavanagh (member of Victorian Parliament, Leader of DLP (Democratic Labour Party)) John Kavanagh (local government councillor and past Mayor of Moreland City Council) Nick McKenna (Australian politician) Frank McManus (politician) Victor Perton (member of Victorian Parliament, Member of LP (Liberal Party)) Bob Santamaria (social commentator) Richard Wynne (MLA for Richmond) Sport Wayne Carroll (basketball) Frank Casanelia (horse racing) Phil Cleary (sportsman and social commentator) Tony Dodemaide (test cricketer – Australia) Jack Elliott OAM (leading horse racing journalist and presenter) Michael Ferrante (A-League football player) Paul Hibbert (test cricketer – Australia) Fred Italiano (Australian champion handball player) Patrick (Paddy) Kelly (horse racing – leading jockey) Leo O'Brien (test cricketer – Australia) Andrew Nabbout (A-League football player for Melbourne Victory) Paul Stoddart (business and sporting entrepreneur) College principals CBC, North Melbourne 1903 William Hogan 1904–1907 Francis Kelly 1908–1916 Matthew Geoghegan 1917 Edmund Keniry 1918 Matthew Geoghegan 1919 Br's Geoghegan, Hanrahan and Kelly 1920–1921 Francis Kelly 1922–1923 James O'Brien 1924–1925 Laurence Tevlin 1926–1928 Terence Bourke 1929–1930 John O'Shea 1931–1933 James Fagan 1934–1937 Jeremiah McSweeney 1938–1943 Joseph King 1944–1946 Joseph Turpin 1947–1951 Hugh Boylan 1952–1956 Ernest Crowle 1957–1959 John Saul 1960–1965 Ron Stewart 1966–1968 Albert Kilpatrick 1969–1974 George Frances 1975–1980 Reginald Long 1981–1986 Kevin Buckley 1987–1991 Peter Richardson 1992–1999 Kevin Buckley St Josephs Pascoe Vale 1956–1959 Ernest Crowle 1960–1965 Bernard Hayes 1966–1971 Keith Weston 1972–1974 Kevin Gall 1975–1977 Trevor Dean 1978–1983 Tony Smith 1984 Peter O'Donoghue 1985–1987 James Peart 1988–1993 Patrick Smith 1994–1997 Kevin Laws 1998–1999 Frank Hennessy St Josephs College Melbourne 2000–2004 Stephen McIllhatton 2004 Laurie Collins 2005–2009 Maree Johnson 2009–2010 Ted Javernik School song and war cry See also Victorian Certificate of Education List of schools in Victoria, Australia Education in Australia Congregation of Christian Brothers References External links A new life for North ! - North Melbourne Flexible Learning Centre Edmund Rice Education Australia website North Old Boys St Patricks College Amateur Football Club Handball article 1928 St Oliver Plunketts Primary School, Pascoe Vale St Pauls Primary School, Coburg St Fidelis Catholic Primary School, Moreland St Marks Catholic Parish Primary School, Fawkner St Matthews Catholic Primary School, North Fawkner St Thomas More Primary School, Hadfield St Josephs School, West Brunswick St Brendans Primary School, Flemington St Monicas Parish Primary School, Moonee Ponds Defunct Catholic schools in Australia Educational institutions established in 1903 1903 establishments in Australia Educational institutions disestablished in 2010 2010 disestablishments in Australia Former Congregation of Christian Brothers schools in Australia Buildings and structures in the City of Melbourne (LGA)
4180684	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witchboard	Witchboard	Witchboard is a 1986 American supernatural horror film written and directed by Kevin Tenney in his directorial debut, and starring Tawny Kitaen, Stephen Nichols, and Todd Allen. The plot centers on a college student who becomes entranced into using her friend's Ouija board alone after it was accidentally left behind at her party, resulting in her becoming terrorized by a malevolent spirit. Tenney wrote the screenplay while a student at the University of Southern California, inspired after attending a party in which a friend brought a Ouija board for partygoers to use. The film focuses on the notion of "progressive entrapment," the process by which a malevolent entity or demon takes control of a human being, a theme that was also touched on in The Exorcist (1973) after a character dabbles with a Ouija board. Filming took place in 1985 in Los Angeles, San Bernardino, and San Francisco. Cinema Group gave Witchboard a limited theatrical release in the United States on December 31, 1986. Following favorable box-office returns, the release was expanded in the spring of 1987, and the film went on to gross $7.4 million. Although the critical response to the film was largely unfavorable, it has obtained a cult following since its release, and was subject to significant critical analysis by academic Carol J. Clover in her 1992 non-fiction book, Men, Women, and Chainsaws. Two unrelated sequels, Witchboard 2: The Devil's Doorway and Witchboard III: The Possession, were released in 1993 and 1995 respectively. Plot At a house party in Fairfield, California, Brandon Sinclair uses his Ouija board with his ex-girlfriend Linda Brewster to contact the spirit of David, with whom he had communicated before. Her boyfriend, Jim Morar, insults David, which provokes him to slash the tires of Brandon's car. The next day, Linda uses Brandon's board that was left behind to contact David, who informs her where her lost engagement ring is. At the construction site where Jim works, his friend Lloyd is killed by fallen drywall. When Jim is questioned by Lieutenant Dewhurst at Lloyd's funeral, Linda contacts David about the accident, but he says that he did not cause it. Linda begins to fall under progressive entrapment, where the spirit terrorizes the user enough to weaken them in order to possess them. She becomes increasingly preoccupied with communicating with David, and begins to experience nausea and other symptoms, leading her and Jim to believe she is pregnant. Brandon brings over psychic medium Zarabeth Crawford to contact David through a séance, and to exorcise him if necessary. Zarabeth channels David, who claims to be a ten-year-old boy. This further leads Linda to become protective of David and her communication with him. After the spirit leaves, a suspicious Zarabeth returns home to research the occurrence, but her throat is slashed before she is thrown through a window and lands on a sundial, impaling her to death. The next morning, Brandon hears about her death and suspects that David killed her, but Jim continues to be skeptical of his claims. As Brandon leaves to seek information, Jim witnesses Linda violently thrown against the wall, rendering her unconscious. After she is brought to a hospital, doctors confirm Linda is not pregnant as they had suspected. Unnerved, Jim teams with Brandon to conduct research on David. The two find a newspaper article about a ten-year-old boy named David who drowned in a nearby lake. Jim and Brandon travel to the lake and use another board in an attempt to communicate with David, but soon learn that a different spirit, Carlos Malfeitor, has been terrorizing Linda all along. Seated on a dock, Jim is knocked unconscious when a stack of fishing barrels topples over him, and Brandon is killed by Malfeitor with a hatchet. Upon regaining consciousness, Jim grieves over Brandon's body. That night, he researches Malfeitor's biography, and learns that he was an axe murderer shot by police in his home in 1930—the same residence he and Linda live in. After Linda discharges herself from the hospital, she is attacked by Malfeitor. The next day, Jim finds their home in disarray, before a possessed Linda attacks him. Dewhurst enters and accuses Jim of the murders, but Linda strikes him with a fire poker. Jim brandishes his revolver, and Linda tells him that he is the "portal", taunting him in an attempt to drive him to suicide. Instead, Jim shoots the board before he is pushed through a window and lands on a car. After the events, Jim and Linda, now free from Malfeitor's influence, resume their lives and marry each other. Their landlady, Mrs. Moses, finds the board while cleaning out the home with her granddaughter, and wonders if it still works. The board is thrown into a box, where its planchette moves to the word "yes" by itself. Cast Production Development Tenney wrote the screenplay for Witchboard while studying filmmaking at the University of Southern California. He drew inspiration for the story from a party he attended where a friend brought a Ouija board for partygoers to use. While researching the history of the Ouija board, Tenney learned about the notion of "progressive entrapment", an element that figures briefly in The Exorcist (1973), in which the young Regan MacNeil becomes gradually "entrapped" by a demonic entity. As some elements of the script were based on incidents he had heard of while researching experiences close friends and others had with Ouija boards, he believed the material would resonate with viewers being based in facts, despite it being fictitious. Though Tenney never believed in the board himself, he admitted the board was "creepy". One of the central themes of the film was the "bromance" of Jim and Brandon, whose friendship involved a love triangle with the character of Linda. Tenney viewed the film as being about the board, who he sees as a character, forcing Jim to reflect on his relationships with Linda and Brandon, the latter of whom he had a falling out with. Once he knew this was the story, it was easy for him to work it around with the incidents he had researched about. In writing the characters, he drew from his own background to make them "three-dimensional," and thought it would be interesting to see Jim's disestablished friendship with Brandon come back together. The character of Jim was based on Tenney himself, and he wrote him to be a construction worker from when he, his brother Dennis Michael Tenney, and their friend James W. Quinn worked in construction before moving to Los Angeles. He stated in interviews that despite it being a horror film, he sought to create a character-driven story. When Tenney's friend, Rolan Carol, had to drop out of university due to financial issues, he found a job at a commodities firm where the owner, Walter Josten, was getting bored of commodities. Rolan mentioned Tenney's script to Josten, who had an interest in filmmaking. Tenney and his friend, Gerald Geoffray, then pitched the film to Josten, who was impressed by the idea, and agreed to help finance the project. Tenney dropped out of his program at the University of Southern California, four units shy of earning his master's degree, to begin shooting the film. Casting Todd Allen was cast as Jim, as Tenney felt he was the only one that was true to the role. Initially, Allen was worried that he lost the role when he saw Tenney laughing while sitting in the auditioning room, but he made him laugh because it reminded him of the way he talked and acted. He received the benefit of returning with the filmmakers to read the actresses that auditioned for the role of Linda, which Tawny Kitaen had read when he was not there. Casting producer Rebecca Boss and Tenney found Kitaen ideal for the part as everyone the latter knew at his office, who were all male, noticed her the most. She had flown to New York prior to shooting so Tenney called up her agent about making a deal, and she flew back to arrive on set when filming began. When she met Allen, they both became very intimate with their relationship. Tenney saw that she brought an "appeal" that affected everyone at the time, which was something he initially did not see. Photographer J.P. Luebsen was hired to play Carlos Malfeitor, the villain, when he met Tenney through a friend at an Independence Day party. Whenever he was on set, Kitaen mentioned to him about being completely distant so that she could build herself up to be terrified of him. Other cast members include Quinn, Kenny Rhodes, and Kathleen Wilhoite. Although Wilhoite was the first to audition for Sarah "Zarabeth" Crawford, she initially did not respond to Tenney about the part, but later accepted it when they re-met. Rhodes stated that Witchboard was the only film in his career where he did not recall auditioning. The costumer gave him a bandanna to "toughen up" his role, which he kept as he was a Bruce Springsteen fan. Filming Though set in Tenney's hometown of Fairfield in Northern California, financial restraints mandated that the film be shot in Southern California. Principal photography took place in the summer of 1985, at the Higgins-Verbeck-Hirsch Mansion in Windsor Square, Los Angeles, and Big Bear Valley in San Bernardino, California. Additional photography occurred in San Francisco. Filming at Big Bear Lake occurred in August 1985, as well as at the Big Bear public library. The film was shot under the working title Ouija, but had to be re-titled during production after board game conglomerate Parker Brothers, who owned the trademark name "Ouija", attempted to prevent one of their boards from being used or mentioned in the film. The errors and omissions carrier did not approve of the filmmakers having already shot footage using one of their Ouija boards, requiring the production company to put up $50,000 bond to prevent any potential litigation. Though there was no lawsuit, Josten stated that this should have been cleared before they started filming. The film's production company received the insurance to change the title to Witchboard and were allowed to pay the bond, as well as to integrate the board footage with an alternate board footage as shown when Jim and Brandon are at Big Bear. However, the filmmakers were divided about the title change, with many preferring Ouija while others felt that Witchboard was a "cooler" title. Shooting the shower scene was difficult for Kitaen as she did not trust Tenney nor the camera crew to shoot the scene, but had faith in cinematographer Roy H. Wagner to do it when she saw his wedding ring. The crew used effects when the spirit turns on hot blazing water in the shower that Linda was trapped in, using breakaway glassed shower doors, and a fog machine to represent the hot water's moisture. Kitaen became more comfortable when the set was cleared to only the director and second-camera loader assistant, but this was a big uproar as all of the men had to temporarily leave the set. On set, there were numerous running gags that Wagner was mostly involved in. In one, Kitaen devastatingly believed on-set that her poodle was accidentally run over by the props truck, but she was relieved to find that the dog was safe and it was only a gag prop with hair similar to her dog that was laid on the road. At the time, they used another gag whereas since Kitaen was dating O. J. Simpson at the time and he visited her on set occasionally, they would call the production office under a pseudonym to speak with her. Other gags involved rocking Kitaen's trailer back and forth, flipping the outhouses upside down with actors inside, and locking the crew in rooms where they could not get out to set on time. There also, however, was a fair share of eerie occurrences on set. Some of the crew, mostly those that had come in earlier, had significant problems inside the 637 Lucerne Blvd house such as the crew bumping into objects that were not there, as well as objects that moved that no one else around could have moved during that time frame. Wagner especially felt a strong presence at the staircase where someone was walking behind him, and numerous occurrences where the cast and crew heard whispering and talking. The last scene shot was of Jim being pushed out of the window, which was done in one take at a distant park, using a built replica of the window. Since there was a crane arm behind Allen, he could not flail his arms around and instead blocked it out with his shoulders. Effects The filmmakers hired Tassilo Baur to handle the special-effects for Witchboard. The nightmare sequence of Linda being decapitated by Malfeitor was shot with a stand-in ducking their head, with a Styrofoam head connected to a poll placed on top with a wig that matched Kitaen's hairstyle. Luebsen was nervous about using a real axe since he was swinging it very close to the stand-in. Baur explained despite they used a real axe, they had also used prop axes for safety reasons as well as to improve their performances. Baur also had some props that were hinged so that they precisely hit a specific spot. Allen was initially dismissive that the scene where Lloyd throws a carpenter's hatchet near Jim's head did not work well, but Tenney reassured him. The scene was originally planned to be shot with an FX man shooting the hatchet directly, but it was the film's cinematographer Roy H. Wagner that suggested they shoot it in reverse, thus also showing the scene to Allen to see how he can act it out in reverse if it was real. They also had the fake hatchet put into a piece of balsa wood, and they yanked it out with a wire. The scene where Lloyd is killed from fallen sheetrock was cut repeatedly, mostly due to Quinn's comedic personality on-set repeatedly making Allen laugh. Since they used a dummy for the sheetrock to fall and when it fell, it caused the dummy's legs to slightly fling up, which made Quinn hysterically laugh. When the sheetrock fell down, it caused a very loud noise to which Allen's reaction on screen was real, as he felt it sounded almost equivalent to a gunshot. Baur, accompanied with special-effects assistant Mick Strawn, practiced dropping the sheetrock from a floor above with sheets of fake-sheetrock and two actual ones on both sides, and did this until they could drop it reliably to make it look convincing. Release Box office Witchboard began its run with a 15-screen limited theatrical release on December 31, 1986, in several small U.S. cities, including Spokane, Washington; Buffalo, New York; Anchorage, Alaska; Columbus, Ohio; and El Paso, Texas. The film grossed $95,435 during its opening weekend, and went on to earn a total of $416,336 over the following four weeks. Due to the favorable box-office returns in these smaller markets, the film's distributor, Cinema Group, expanded its theatrical release to 1,100 screens nationwide on March 13, 1987. The film grossed $2.7 million during its wide opening weekend. Through its course, the film's final box office gross was $7,369,373. The Samuel Goldwyn Company acquired the film for international distribution, and released it theatrically in England in May 1987. Critical response Contemporaneous John H. Richardson of the Los Angeles Daily News criticized the film's performances and writing, noting, "There's very little tension and almost no slice-and-dice. The few gore effects are terrible ... The only thing that makes you want to forgive Witchboard is the clumsy earnestness of its execution." Caryn James of The New York Times criticized the film as "cheaply made," writing, "The very best I can say is that Witchboard should encourage struggling film makers. Watch it and think, I can do better than that!" Desmond Ryan of The Philadelphia Inquirer similarly panned the film, referring to it as "luridly fake" and "a timid "exorcise" in inanity." The San Bernardino Suns William Wolf praised Kathleen Wilhoite's performance in the film, noting that she "injects some personality into the role, however trashy it is. That's more than you can say for the rest of the cast and the characters they play." David Inman of The Courier-Journal awarded the film one out of four stars, but conceded, "For folks who like their scares straight and their movies without much else, Witchboard provides exactly that." Henry Edgar of the Virginia Daily Press also panned the film as being unintentionally humorous, commenting that it "is so awful it unintentionally qualifies as a comedy by taking itself so seriously you can't help laughing." The Montreal Gazettes Bruce Bailey awarded the film one-and-a-half stars and criticized it for its lack of originality, noting that it "boldly goes where everybody else has gone before." Writing for the Great Falls Tribune, Eleanor Ringel noted that the film begins as a "fairly efficient horror movie ... but after a careful, unnecessarily complicated buildup, the film falls apart." The Miami Newss Deborah Wilker echoed a similar sentiment, noting that, "midway through this nonsense, you give up hoping that Witchboard will emerge as one of those so-bad-it's-good horror flicks. At first the potential seems to be there, but as it unfolds, Witchboard becomes just plain dopey." Malcolm Johnson of the Hartford Courant similarly criticized the film, writing that it "plumbs new depths of tedium and incompetence ... unfortunately, none of this is quite flamboyant enough to rise to the heights of camp." Alternately, Candice Russell of the Sun-Sentinel favorably compared the film to Poltergeist (1982) and Rosemary's Baby (1968), praising it as an "intense, atmospheric chiller [that] breeds suspicion of things unseen and misunderstood... The payoff for the mayhem isn't much, but the events leading up to it more than suffice. Witchboard scares, as intended." Rick Bentley of The Town Talk also gave the film a favorable review, referring to it as "a cut above average" and "not afraid to make fun of itself." Michael Wilmington's review of the film for the Los Angeles Times noted that it "is smarter, and better acted, than much of its bloody competition," but "not crazy or original enough to stand too far above them." Reviewing the film following its British theatrical release, Tim Fernandez of The Southport Observer described it as "fairly routine stuff by horror standards, but certainly capable of conjuring up a shock or two if you've got a sufficiently vivid imagination." Retrospective In the years since its release, Witchboard developed a cult following, and was subject to significant analysis in Carol J. Clover's horror film studies book Men, Women, and Chainsaws (1992), in which she argued for the film's complex treatment of gender politics. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, Witchboard holds a 50% approval rating based on 16 critic reviews, with an average rating of 5.3/10. TV Guide awarded the film three out of five stars, writing, "First-time feature director-writer Kevin S. Tenney imbues his picture with a surprisingly slick sense of style and employs some clever camerawork when the narrative warrants it, refusing to bore the viewer with the endless evil-point-of-view shots favored by so many other horror directors." AllMovie awarded the film two out of five stars, specifying, "Though it is not the most original or dynamic movie of its type, Witchboard succeeds on its own terms because it concentrates on craftsmanship." Home media Witchboard was released on VHS in the United States by Continental Video on June 17, 1987, and sold approximately 80,000 units that year. By the end of the year, it had charted at number 18 on the U.S. Billboard Top 40 Video Rentals, between Stand by Me and Something Wild. It was released on VHS in the United Kingdom through Guild Home Video in the fall of 1987. Anchor Bay Entertainment released the film on DVD in August 2004, which is now out of print. On February 4, 2014, Scream Factory, a subsidiary of Shout Factory released the film on Blu-ray and DVD as a combo pack. Sequels and remake The film spawned two sequels, Witchboard 2: The Devil's Doorway (1993) and Witchboard III: The Possession (1995). In 2024, a remake of the same name is scheduled to be released. See also List of ghost films References Sources External links 1980s English-language films 1986 films 1986 horror films 1980s supernatural horror films 1980s ghost films Witchboard 01 American exploitation films American ghost films American independent films American supernatural horror films American teen horror films American slasher films Films about board games Films about witchcraft Films about spirit possession Films directed by Kevin S. Tenney Films set in the San Francisco Bay Area Films shot in Big Bear Lake, California Films shot in California Films shot in Los Angeles Films shot in San Francisco 1986 directorial debut films 1986 independent films 1980s American films
4181037	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaal%20Charles	Jamaal Charles	Jamaal RaShaad Jones Charles (born December 27, 1986) is a former American football running back who played in the National Football League (NFL) for 11 seasons, primarily with the Kansas City Chiefs. He played college football for the Texas Longhorns, where he won the 2006 Rose Bowl, and was drafted by the Kansas City Chiefs in the third round of the 2008 NFL Draft. Charles began his career as a backup to halfback Larry Johnson, rushing only 67 times for 357 yards in his rookie season. His breakout season came the following year in 2009. In his second year, Charles rushed 190 times for 1,120 yards, despite only starting 10 games after Johnson was suspended. Shortly thereafter, Johnson was released, leaving Charles as Kansas City's starting halfback. Over the next several seasons he would make four Pro Bowls and two All-Pro teams, and would lead the league in rushing touchdowns in 2013. Charles later suffered injuries, which lead to him appearing in just five games in 2015 and 2016, and he was eventually released by the team. Charles then played a season for the Denver Broncos and had a 2-game stint for the Jacksonville Jaguars in 2018. He is the all-time leader in yards per carry among players with at least 1,000 carries with 5.4 yards per carry. Early years Charles has reported being diagnosed with a learning disability as a child, having difficulty reading, and being mocked and teased. In 2015, he shared his experience including being invited to participate in the Special Olympics: "[...] I was afraid. I was lost. When I was a boy, I had trouble reading. I found out I had a learning disability. People made fun of me. They said I would never go anywhere. But I learned I can fly. When I was 10 years old, I had a chance to compete in the Special Olympics. That's right, the Special Olympics gave me my first chance to discover the talent I did not know that I had. When I competed in the Special Olympics, I found out just how fast I was. I stood high on the podium, getting the gold medal in track and field." Charles attended and played high school football for Memorial High School of Port Arthur, Texas. As a junior, he ran for 2,051 yards and 25 touchdowns while leading Memorial to the 5A Division II quarterfinals. He was named first-team all-state by the Texas Sports Writers Association and second-team all-state by the Associated Press. Charles followed up his stellar junior season by rushing for 2,056 yards and 25 touchdowns during his senior year with the Titans. The Associated Press named him to their first-team all-state squad and he was declared the Houston Chronicle area offensive MVP. Charles was also named to the 2005 Parade All-America Football Team and was the District 22-5A Player of the Year both his junior and senior year. Charles participated in the 2005 U.S. Army All-American Bowl. Charles is a two-time recipient of the Willie Ray Smith Award, which is given to the southeast Texas offensive MVP. College career Track Charles was a standout track athlete at Port Arthur (TX) Memorial. In the summer between his sophomore and junior years, Charles won the bronze medal in the 400m hurdles at the 2003 World Youth Championships in Athletics. He went on to win the 110m hurdles and 300m hurdles Texas 5A state championships with times of 13.69 and 36.03 seconds, respectively, his senior year. In college he ran track during his freshman year, competing in both the indoor and outdoor seasons. On March 11, 2006, Charles placed fourth in the NCAA 60-meter indoor track and field championship finals. On May 14, 2006, Charles captured his first conference title and the third Big 12 100-meter title for Texas by winning the event in 10.23 at the Big 12 outdoor meet. He led the 200 meter race after the preliminary round but elected not to participate in the final, as Texas had the Big 12 team title well in hand. On June 10, at the NCAA outdoor competition, Charles took fifth place in the 100 meter finals, edging out UTEP's stand-out sprinter Churandy Martina (sixth place), who earlier in the year ran a 9.76 (wind-aided) 100-meters. Charles also placed seventh in the 200 meter finals, and ran the third leg of the 4 × 100 Texas Longhorn relay team, earning a fifth place in the finals. Charles's efforts helped the Longhorns earn a third place showing for the men's track and field team, the highest since a second-place finish at the 1997 NCAA finals. Charles completed his collegiate track career as a four-time All-American (60m indoor, 100m outdoor, 200m outdoor, 4 × 100 m relay outdoor). Personal bests Football Charles attended and played college football for the University of Texas from 2005 to 2007 under head coach Mack Brown. 2005 season In his true freshman season with the Longhorns, Charles was an instant contributor in a crowded backfield that included Vince Young as a dual-threat quarterback. In his collegiate debut against Louisiana-Lafayette, he had 14 carries for 135 rushing yards and a rushing touchdown in the 60–3 victory. Two weeks later, against Rice, he had 16 carries for 189 rushing yards and three rushing touchdowns in the 51–10 victory. On October 8, in the Red River Showdown against Oklahoma, he had nine carries 116 rushing yards and a touchdown in the 45–12 victory. Texas ended up going 11–0 in the regular season to earn a berth in the Big 12 Championship Game against Colorado. Against the Buffaloes, he had seven carries for 62 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns in the 70–3 victory. The victory put Texas in the National Championship Game in the Rose Bowl against the USC Trojans. He had five carries for 34 rushing yards in the 41–38 victory as Texas claimed a perfect season and National Championship. Overall, Charles rushed 119 times for 878 yards and 11 touchdowns, averaging 7.4 yards per carry. He finished second on the team in rushing attempts and rushing yards and third in rushing touchdowns. 2006 season In the 2006 season, the Longhorns' rushing offense dropped significantly from the prior year going from 274.9 yards per game to 162.6 yards per game. Despite the down year for the rushing offense and sharing the backfield with Selvin Young, Charles's production remained consistent compared to his freshman year. He went over 100 rushing yards once, which was against in-state rival Rice in the Longhorns' third game, a 52–7 victory. He found the endzone on the ground twice on November 11 against Kansas State in a 45–42 loss. He had a 72-yard touchdown reception from quarterback Colt McCoy in the 2006 Alamo Bowl 26–24 victory over Iowa. Overall, he finished with 831 rushing yards, seven rushing touchdowns, 18 receptions, 183 receiving yards, and one receiving touchdown. 2007 season In the summer prior to the 2007 season, some observers believed he was the fastest college running back in the upcoming season. CBS SportsLine said, "Track star Jamaal Charles has the potential at running back to enjoy a break-out season and possesses the kind of breakaway speed that lead to an 80-yard rush and a 70-yard catch last season." Athlon Sports remarked, "Over the last two years, running back Jamaal Charles has run for 1,702 yards at 6.2 yards per carry with 18 touchdowns despite starting only four games. He has the job to himself and should have a breakout year." In 2007, Charles rushed for 1,619 yards, with an average of 6.3 yards per carry. Charles started the season with 27 carries for 112 rushing yards and a touchdown in a 21–13 victory over Arkansas State. In the next game, a 34–13 victory over rival TCU, he had 22 carries for 134 rushing yards and a rushing touchdown. In the next game, a 35–32 away victory at Central Florida, he had 22 carries for 153 rushing yards and a rushing touchdown, which put the Longhorns up by two possessions late in the game. In the next game, he had 14 carries for 72 rushing yards and three rushing touchdowns in a 58–14 victory over Rice. Despite his successes early in the season, Mack Brown and Greg Davis hinted that Charles could face less playing time as a result of his fumbling problems. Charles said that he felt a deep remorse over his fumbles and felt that he is the biggest reason the team lost to the Oklahoma Sooners in the 2007 Red River Shootout. Texas running backs coach Ken Rucker and former Longhorn running back Earl Campbell both worked with Charles on his ball handling. Greg Davis said he wanted to get the ball to Charles "in space", on pitches and passes, instead of in heavy traffic up the center. On October 28, 2007, Charles rushed 33 times for 290 yards in the 28–25 victory, the most ever against the Nebraska Cornhuskers and the fourth-highest total in Texas Longhorns history. His 216 yards in the fourth quarter were just six shy of the NCAA record for a single quarter set by the University of Washington Huskies's Corey Dillon in 1996. For these accomplishments, Charles won a fan vote for AT&T All-America Player of the Week. He followed that up with 16 carries for 180 rushing yards and three rushing touchdowns in a 38–35 victory over Oklahoma State. On November 10, against rival Texas Tech, he had 23 carries for 174 rushing yards and a rushing touchdown in the 59–43 victory. In the Holiday Bowl against Arizona State, he had 27 carries for 161 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns in the 52–34 victory. Charles decided to forgo his senior season with Texas in favor of joining the NFL as a professional football player in the 2008 NFL Draft. This decision came after earlier statements that he would stay with Texas. In November, Charles said he would return for his senior season rather than enter professional football in the NFL. Sources reported in December 2007 that Charles and fellow Longhorn Jermichael Finley had filed paperwork with the NFL to evaluate how high they might be drafted if they decided enter professional football in the NFL Draft instead of returning for their senior season. Mack Brown did not comment about specific players but said, "We always try to help our guys get as much information as possible when it comes to the NFL. We encourage and help them go through the process... All of our underclassmen have told us they will be coming back, but if you're playing well enough to be considered an NFL prospect, going through the process can only help you better understand it and realize what you need to work on to improve your status." Charles said he would not go pro unless he was predicted to be chosen in the first round of the draft. After the Holiday Bowl, Charles said, "Right now, I'm probably coming back. I didn't think I did that good in the game. Next year maybe I'll be up for the Heisman. I will come back." From 2000–2007, the Longhorns have had seven players taken in the Top 10 draft picks by the NFL, more than any other school. On January 2, Charles announced he received and was happy with the results of his draft evaluation and that he would declare for the draft. Despite skipping his senior year, Charles ranked fourth in the list of total-rushing yards by a Texas player, behind Ricky Williams, Cedric Benson, and Earl Campbell, with 3,328 yards. Williams and Campbell each won the Heisman Trophy in their senior season. In 2020 he was named to the Longhorns Hall of Honor. College statistics Professional career Kansas City Chiefs 2008 season The Kansas City Chiefs selected Charles in the third round of the 2008 NFL Draft with the 73rd overall pick, acquired from the Minnesota Vikings in the Jared Allen trade. He was the ninth running back to be selected that year. Charles thought he would go early in the second round but said he had no regrets about leaving college early. Charles was expected to begin his career as the Chiefs' No. 3 back behind Larry Johnson and Kolby Smith. In his NFL debut, Charles started the game and rushed for 28 yards on five carries and had two receptions for six yards in the 17–10 loss to the New England Patriots in Week 1. In Week 9, with Larry Johnson out, Charles had 18 carries for 106 rushing yards in a 30–27 loss to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. In Week 12, against the Buffalo Bills, Charles had his first professional touchdown on a 36-yard reception from quarterback Tyler Thigpen in the 54–31 loss. In Week 16, Charles had three catches for 102 receiving yards, including a 75-yard reception to help set up a Larry Johnson rushing touchdown, against the Miami Dolphins in the 38–31 loss. In Charles's rookie season, he ended with 67 carries for 357 rushing yards for a 5.3 yards per carry average. In addition, he had 27 receptions for 272 receiving yards and a receiving touchdown. 2009 season In the first six games of the 2009 season, Charles saw a limited role with 23 carries for 116 rushing yards and 14 receptions for 120 receiving yards to go along with kick return duties. During Week 9 of the 2009 NFL season, Larry Johnson was released and Charles was promoted to first-string but split carries with Kolby Smith. In limited action against the Jacksonville Jaguars in Week 9, Charles managed 36 yards on only six carries for a six-yard per carry average. During Week 10, against the Oakland Raiders, Charles ran for 103 yards on 18 carries including a 44-yard touchdown run, the Chiefs first rushing touchdown of the year and the first rushing touchdown of Charles's professional career, in the 16–10 victory. In Week 11, in a 27–24 overtime victory over the Pittsburgh Steelers, Charles returned the opening kickoff 97 yards for a touchdown. He went on to have 17 carries for 58 rushing yards and had a two-yard reception for a touchdown. Charles became the fourth player in franchise history to have a receiving touchdown and a kickoff return touchdown in the same game. Charles was named AFC Special Teams Player of the Week. In Week 14, against the Buffalo Bills, Charles ran for a 76-yard touchdown, one of the longest runs in Chiefs history, as part of a 20-carry, 143-rushing yard performance. In Week 15, against the Cleveland Browns, he had 25 carries for 154 rushing yards and one rushing touchdown in the 41–34 loss. In Week 16, in a 17–10 loss to the Cincinnati Bengals, he had 24 carries for 102 rushing yards. In Week 17, on the road against the Denver Broncos, Charles rushed for a career-high 259 yards on 25 carries, scoring two rushing touchdowns and breaking the Chiefs' single-game rushing record, in the 44–24 victory. Charles became only the fourth player in NFL history to run for over 250 yards in a single game while averaging over 10 yards a carry. On the season, he became the only player in NFL history to rush for 1,100 or more yards in 200 or fewer carries. 2010 season In the 2010 season, Charles shared the majority of backfield carries with Thomas Jones. The Chiefs opened up the 2010 season with a 21–14 win over their division rival, the San Diego Chargers. In that game, Charles played a pivotal role, including a 56-yard rushing score. On October 31, against the Buffalo Bills, he had 22 carries for 177 rushing yards in the 13–10 victory. On November 28, against the Seattle Seahawks, he had 22 carries for 173 rushing yards and a rushing touchdown in the 42–24 victory. In the following game, he had 136 scrimmage yards in the 10–6 victory over the Denver Broncos. In Week 15, against the St. Louis Rams, he had 153 scrimmage yards and a rushing touchdown in the 27–13 victory. Charles finished the season with 1,467 rushing yards and five rushing touchdowns on only 230 carries. In addition, he had 45 receptions for 468 receiving yards and three receiving touchdowns. He was voted to his first career Pro Bowl. His 6.38 yards per carry average for the season was the second-highest average in NFL history, second only to Hall of Famer Jim Brown, only two one-hundredths of a yard off of the record pace set by the Browns legend. On December 11, 2010, the Chiefs reached an agreement with Charles on a five-year, $32.5 million deal that included $13 million guaranteed. Charles made his postseason debut in the Wild Card Round against the Baltimore Ravens. He had nine carries for 82 rushing yards and a rushing touchdown in the 30–7 loss. In the 2011 Pro Bowl, Charles rushed for 72-yards on 10 carries and scored one touchdown. Charles was honored for his performance in the 2010 season by being selected to his first AP All-Pro team. On the NFL Network's Top 100 Players of 2011, Charles was ranked the 33rd by his fellow players and was also one of the youngest players on the list. 2011 season Charles's 2011 season was short lived. In Week 2, against the Detroit Lions, he suffered an ACL injury. Chiefs head coach Todd Haley confirmed the next day that Charles would miss the remainder of the 2011 season. He was officially placed on injured reserve on September 19. 2012 season Coming off of an ACL injury in 2011, Charles had an All-Pro caliber season, running for 1,509 yards and five touchdowns. Once again, Charles proved to be very efficient running the ball as he managed a 5.3 yard per carry average on the year. In the season opening 40–24 loss to the Atlanta Falcons, he had 87 rushing yards on 16 carries in his first action back from injury. In Week 3 against the New Orleans Saints, Charles ran a career-high 33 times for 233 rushing yards, scored a rushing touchdown, and caught six passes for 55 yards to earn his first AFC Offensive Player of the Week nod. Charles became the first player in franchise history to rush for at least 200 rushing yards and have at least 50 receiving yards in the same game. His 91-yard rushing touchdown in the third quarter was the longest rushing play in franchise history, a feat later tied by Damien Williams in the 2019 season. In Week 5 against Baltimore Ravens, Charles had 31 carries for 140 rushing yards in the 9–6 loss. However, in Week 8, Charles carried the ball only five times for four rushing yards in a 26–16 loss to the Oakland Raiders. When asked the reason why, head coach Romeo Crennel said "Now, that I'm not exactly sure, either." Starting In Week 10 against the Pittsburgh Steelers, Charles reeled off a stretch where he had over 100 scrimmage yards, including 165 rushing yards against the Cleveland Browns, in five consecutive games. In a 20–13 loss to the Indianapolis Colts in Week 16, Charles carried the ball 22 times for 226 rushing yards and a rushing touchdown. He became the second player in franchise history, joining Larry Johnson, to record two games with at least 200 rushing yards in a single season. Charles's performance was his second career game with over 200 rushing yards while averaging more than ten yards a carry. He became only the second player in NFL history to accomplish the feat, after Adrian Peterson, who accomplished his feat in the 2012 season as well. Charles carried the ball at least 20 times in six games, and in each of those games managed at least 100 yards. This has been a trend throughout his entire career, in every game he has carried the ball 20 times, he has gained at least 100 yards. On December 23, 2012, following his qualifying 750th career carry, Charles broke NFL legend Jim Brown's 47-year-old all-time average yards per carry record of 5.22 with an average of 5.82. He was named to his second Pro Bowl as a result of his successful season. On the NFL Top 100 Players of 2013, he was ranked 20th by his peers 2013 season Charles started the 2013 season with scoring at least one touchdown in each of the first seven games. In Weeks 12 and 14, he went over 150 scrimmage yards and scored two touchdowns in both games against the San Diego Chargers and Washington Redskins. On December 15, in the second divisional game against the Oakland Raiders in Week 15, Charles had eight receptions for 195 receiving yards, eight carries for 20 rushing yards, and five total touchdowns (four receiving, one rushing) in a 56–31 Chiefs victory. Charles's performance made him the first Chiefs player to score five touchdowns in a game since Abner Haynes accomplished the feat for the Dallas Texans in 1961. He became the first player in NFL history to have four touchdown receptions and one rushing touchdown in a single game. He scored 30 total fantasy points in the game, which was tied with for the most by any player in a single game in the 2013 season, and earned AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors. Charles's performance was only the 11th game in NFL history where a player accounted for at least 30 points, the first since Clinton Portis accomplished the feat against the Chiefs in 2003. His 195 receiving yards were the fourth-most for a running back in a single game in NFL history and the most since Marshall Faulk had 204 against the Chicago Bears in 1999. Overall, Charles finished the 2013 season with 259 carries for 1,287 rushing yards and 12 rushing touchdowns to go along with 70 receptions for 693 receiving yards and seven receiving touchdowns. Charles ended up leading the team in targets, receptions, receiving yards, and receiving touchdowns. His 12 rushing touchdowns tied with Marshawn Lynch for the league lead. In the Chiefs' Wild Card Round game against the Indianapolis Colts, Charles recorded three carries for 18 rushing yards before having to leave the 45–44 loss with a concussion in the first quarter. Charles earned First-team All-Pro honors for the second time in his career. He was named to his second consecutive and third career Pro Bowl. He was ranked as the eighth best player in the NFL on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2014. 2014 season On July 23, 2014, one day after threatening to hold out of training camp, Charles agreed to a two-year, $18.1 million extension making him one of the top five highest paid running backs in the NFL. On September 14, 2014, Charles suffered a high ankle sprain in Week 2 against the Denver Broncos. On September 29, against the New England Patriots, he had 18 carries for 92 rushing yards and a rushing touchdown in the 41–14 victory to earn AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors. On October 19, against the San Diego Chargers, Charles passed Priest Holmes's mark of 6,070 rushing yards to become the all-time leading rusher for the Chiefs. In the next game, he had 67 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns in the 34–7 victory over the St. Louis Rams. On November 16, against the Seattle Seahawks, he had 159 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns in the 24–20 victory. On December 7, against the Arizona Cardinals, he had 111 scrimmage yards and two total touchdowns in the 17–14 loss. Overall, he finished the 2014 season with 1,033 rushing yards, nine rushing touchdowns, 40 receptions, 291 receiving yards, and five receiving touchdowns. He tied for the team lead in receiving touchdowns, with Travis Kelce, for the second time in his career. He was named to his third consecutive Pro Bowl for the 2014 season. He was ranked 12th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2015. 2015 season In the season opener against the Houston Texans, Charles had recorded 103 scrimmage yards and a receiving touchdown in the 27–20 victory. Four days later, against the Denver Broncos, he had 125 rushing yards and a rushing touchdown in the 24–31 loss. In the loss, he had a key fumble late in the game that was returned for a touchdown by Bradley Roby and gave the Broncos the winning points. In the next game, a 28–38 loss to the Green Bay Packers, he had 11 carries for 49 rushing yards and a career-high three rushing touchdowns. On October 11, Charles tore his ACL in his right knee in a Week 5 game against the Chicago Bears. He was placed on injured reserve ending his season. Despite the injury, Charles was still ranked 75th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2016. 2016 season Heading into the 2016 season, Charles never fully recovered from his torn ACL suffered the previous season. He returned to the field in Week 5 and played in three games, recording 40 rushing yards and a rushing touchdown along with two receptions for 14 yards. He suffered a setback with his knee prior to Week 8 and needed a second knee surgery to trim his meniscus. He was placed on injured reserve on November 1, 2016. On February 28, 2017, Charles was released by the Chiefs. Denver Broncos On May 2, 2017, Charles signed a one-year, $3.75 million contract with the Denver Broncos. He was part of a backfield rotation that was shared with C. J. Anderson and Devontae Booker. In the season opener against the Los Angeles Chargers, Charles had 10 rushes for 40 yards but lost a fumble in the 24–21 victory. In Week 3, in a 26–16 loss to the Buffalo Bills, he scored his lone rushing touchdown of the season. In 14 games, he had 296 rushing yards, one rushing touchdown, 23 receptions, and 129 receiving yards. Jacksonville Jaguars Charles signed with the Jacksonville Jaguars on October 9, 2018. He was released on October 22, 2018. He played in two games with the Jaguars in the 2018 season and only totaled six carries for seven rushing yards and two receptions for seven receiving yards. Retirement On May 1, 2019, Charles retired after signing a one-day contract with the Chiefs. After signing the ceremonial contract, he went to the practice field for a ceremonial "last carry", which he took from Patrick Mahomes. In September 2023, Charles was nominated for the Pro Football Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility. NFL career statistics Regular season Playoffs Records NFL records Receiving touchdowns by a running back, single game: 4 (2013) Career yards-per-carry among running backs, minimum 1000 attempts (5.4) Kansas City Chiefs records Longest rushing play from scrimmage: 91 (2013, tied) Career rushing yards (7,260) Rushing yards in a game: 259 (2010) Receiving touchdowns in a game: 4 (2013, tied) Awards and honors NFL 2× First-team All-Pro (2010, 2013) Second-team All-Pro (2012) 4× Pro Bowl (2010, 2012–2014) NFL rushing touchdowns leader (2013) College BCS national champion (2005) Big 12 Offensive Freshman of the Year (2005) First-team All-Big 12 (2007) Second-team All-Big 12 (2005) References External links Official website Twitter Kansas City Chiefs bio 1986 births Living people African-American players of American football American football running backs Kansas City Chiefs players Players of American football from Port Arthur, Texas Texas Longhorns football players American Conference Pro Bowl players Unconferenced Pro Bowl players Denver Broncos players Jacksonville Jaguars players 21st-century African-American sportspeople 20th-century African-American people
4181320	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blunder%20%28chess%29	Blunder (chess)	In chess, a blunder is a critically bad move or decision. A blunder severely worsens the player's situation by allowing a loss of material, checkmate, or anything similar. It is usually caused by some tactical oversight, whether due to time trouble, overconfidence, or carelessness. Although blunders are most common in beginner games, all human players make them, even at the world championship level. Creating opportunities for the opponent to blunder is an important skill in chess. What qualifies as a "blunder" rather than a normal mistake is somewhat subjective. A weak move from a novice player might be explained by the player's lack of skill, while the same move from a master might be called a blunder. In chess annotation, blunders are typically marked with a double question mark ("??") after the move. Especially among amateur and novice players, blunders often occur because of a faulty thought process where players do not consider the opponent's . In particular, checks, , and need to be considered at each move. Neglecting these possibilities leaves a player vulnerable to simple tactical errors. One technique formerly recommended to avoid blunders was to write down the planned move on the , then take one last look before making it. This practice was not uncommon even at the grandmaster level. However, in 2005 the International Chess Federation (FIDE) banned it, instead requiring that the move be made before being written down. The US Chess Federation also implemented this rule, effective as of January 1, 2007 (a change to rule 15A), although it is not universally enforced. Examples Strong players, even grandmasters, occasionally make critical blunders. Mikhail Chigorin vs. Wilhelm Steinitz This position is from game 23 of the 1892 World Championship in Havana, Cuba. Chigorin, playing White, is a piece up (Steinitz lost a knight for a pawn earlier in the game), but his bishop is forced to stay on d6 to protect both the rook on e7 and the pawn on h2. If he won, Chigorin would have tied the match and sent it to a tiebreaker game. After 31...Rcd2, he played 32.Bb4??. Steinitz replied 32...Rxh2+ and Chigorin immediately resigned (in light of the blind swine mate 33.Kg1 Rdg2#), losing the match. Ernst Gruenfeld vs. Alexander Alekhine This game between Ernst Gruenfeld and Alexander Alekhine is from Karlsbad tournament in 1923, round 2. In position on the diagram, White is to make his 30th move. Gruenfeld played 30.f3?? which immediately loses to 30...Rxd4 because 31.exd4 is impossible: after 31...Bxd4+ 32.Kf1 Nf4 33.Qxe4 Qc4+ 35.Ke1 Nxg2+ 36.Kd2 Be3+ and White will at least lose his queen. The game ended shortly afterwards following some further blunders by Gruenfeld: 31.fxe4 Nf4 32.exf4 Qc4 33.Qxc4?? Rxd1+ 34.Qf1?? Bd4+ and he resigned due to the unavoidable back-rank mate 35.Kh1 Rxf1#. Archil Ebralidze vs. Viacheslav Ragozin This chess game was played at the USSR Chess Championship in 1937, held in Tbilisi. Ragozin was planning to trade rooks with 40...Rc7 41.Rxc7 Bd6+ as this would transpose the game into a winning bishop versus knight endgame for Black. Therefore, Ragozin played 40...Rc7??, not realizing that after 41.Rxc7, the bishop would be pinned to the king, and would therefore be a full blunder of a rook. Ebralidze started to calculate, not wanting to be in a lost endgame. He, too, had not realized that after 41.Rxc7 the bishop would be pinned. After Ebralidze had thought for around 15 minutes, according to Adrian Mikhalchishin, "the crowd went literally crazy." Someone in the audience shouted "Archil, take the rook!" Further shouts from the audience followed. Eventually, Ebralidze shouted back "I can see that, you patzers!". Ebralidze played 41.Rd5??, missing the free rook entirely. The game continued 41...Bf6 42.Nb5 Rc2+ 43.Kg3 a6 44.Rd7+ Ke8 45.Rc7??, with Ebralidze losing his rook to the bishop fork 45...Be5+, which Ragozin played, and Ebralidze resigned. Tigran Petrosian vs. David Bronstein This position arose in the 1956 Candidates Tournament in Amsterdam. Petrosian (White), enjoys a clear advantage with strong knights, active rooks and great mobility while Black's position is congested. Bronstein (Black) has for the last seven turns made aimless knight moves, Nc6–d4–c6–d4, and now has played Nd4–f5, threatening White's queen while White had kept strengthening his position. White can preserve the advantage by a move like 36.Qc7. However, he overlooked that the queen was , played 36.Ng5?? and resigned after 36...Nxd6. Miguel Najdorf vs. Bobby Fischer This game between Miguel Najdorf and Bobby Fischer from the 1966 Piatigorsky Cup is an example where a player in a bad position breaks under the pressure. According to Mednis, Fischer's decisive error came earlier in the game, and here the black pawn on f4 is about to fall. Fischer played the blunder 30...Nd6?? cutting the game short. After Najdorf played 31.Nxd6, Fischer resigned because he realized after Najdorf's response that 31...Qxd6 32.Nxb7 wins a piece because 32...Rxb7 33.Qc8+ is a fork that wins the rook on b7, so White wins at least a . Najdorf commented on Black's 29...Rb8: "There is no satisfactory defense. If 29...Ba8 then 30.Nb6 or 30.Qf5 would win. ... I had to win minor (the pawn at f4) but this [30...Nd6] decides immediately. Fischer, demoralized because of his inferior position, did not notice the simple point." Viktor Korchnoi vs. Anatoly Karpov This position is from Game 17 of the 1978 World Championship between Viktor Korchnoi, the challenger, and the World Champion, Anatoly Karpov. Karpov, playing Black, is threatening a back-rank mate with 39...Rc1#. Korchnoi could have prevented this by moving his g-pawn (but not the h-pawn because 39.h3 or h4 leads to 39...Rc1+ 40.Kh2 Nf1+ 41.Kg1 Nfg3+ 42.Kh2 Rh1#), providing an escape square for his king. In serious time trouble, Korchnoi played 39.Ra1?? and resigned after 39...Nf3+ with the forced checkmate after 40.gxf3 Rg6+ 41.Kh1 Nf2# or 40.Kh1 Nf2#. Karpov went on to win the match and later beat Korchnoi again in 1981 in the "Massacre in Merano". Abraham Sztern vs. Rolf Lundquist In this position, Black offered a draw. White asked Black to make a move first. According to the rules of chess (see draw by agreement), Black must make a move in response to this request, and the draw offer cannot be retracted. Black played 28...Qxb2+!, which wins on the spot (29.Kxb2 Rb3+ 30.Ka1 Ra8+ 31.Ba6 Rxa6#). White was so stunned he forgot he could still accept the draw offer, and resigned. This blunder was published in a one-off Not the British Chess Magazine organized by GM Murray Chandler in 1984, where it was voted the blunder of the year by a team of panelists. Murray Chandler vs. Susan Polgar In this example, from a tournament in Biel in 1987, the game did not result in a loss for the blunderer, but led to an embarrassing draw for the British GM Murray Chandler. In the diagram position, Chandler is completely winning. His opponent, Susan Polgar, played the wily trap 53...Ng8–h6. Chandler realized that after 54.gxh6+ Kxh6 he will be left with the considerable material advantage of a and bishop against a bare king. However, since the bishop is unable to control the promotion square h8, Black will draw if she is able to get her king to control h8 due to the wrong rook pawn fortress. But Chandler calculates further, and realizes that it is he who will win control over the h8 square after 55.Kf6, and thereby win the game. Therefore, Chandler played 54.gxh6+??, but instead of the expected 54...Kxh6, Polgar played 54...Kh8, leading to almost the same king, bishop, and rook pawn versus bare king situation as Chandler had calculated that he would avoid, and the small difference that White has two rook pawns rather than one has no effect on the result. Black controls the h8 square and cannot be chased or squeezed away from it, and so White cannot promote his pawn. After 55.Bd5 Kh7 56.Kf7 Kh8 the players agreed to a draw. Chandler had numerous moves that would have maintained his winning position; the fastest ways to win were 54.h4 and 54.Bf5 according to the Shredder tablebase. Alexander Beliavsky vs. Leif Erlend Johannessen This example, from a game played in Linares in 2002, is one of the very rare circumstances where a grandmaster makes the worst move possible, the only one allowing checkmate on the next move. In this queen endgame, White has some advantage after 69.fxg6+ fxg6 70.Kf4 due to Black's weak pawn on c6. Beliavsky playing White played 69.Kf4??, however, overlooking the response 69...Qb8#. According to Johannessen, it took a few moments for both players to realize that it was checkmate, and Beliavsky was a good sport over this mishap. Deep Fritz vs. Vladimir Kramnik In November 2006, reigning world chess champion Vladimir Kramnik competed in the World Chess Challenge: Man vs. Machine, a six-game match against the chess computer Deep Fritz in Bonn, Germany. After the first game had ended in a draw, Kramnik, playing Black, was generally considered in a comfortable position in Game 2, and he thought so himself apparently, as he refused a draw by avoiding a potential threefold repetition on 29...Qa7. Kramnik's troubles began when he decided to play for a win and pushed his a-pawn, 31...a4. Commentators, including American grandmaster Yasser Seirawan, voiced concerns about Kramnik's intentions and the situation became more uncertain as the game went on with 32.Nxe6 Bxe3+ 33.Kh1 Bxc1 34.Nxf8, turning it into a likely draw. The game could have ended with 34...Kg8 35.Ng6 Bxb2 36.Qd5+ Kh7 37.Nf8+ Kh8 38.Ng6+. However Kramnik's next move, 34...Qe3?? (a move awarded "???" originally by ChessBase on a story covering Kramnik's blunder, and even "??????" by Susan Polgar), came as a big surprise and was described as possibly the "blunder of the century" and perhaps the "biggest blunder ever" by Susan Polgar, as Kramnik overlooked a mate in one. Deep Fritz immediately ended the game with 35.Qh7#. Seirawan later called Kramnik's move "a tragedy". From ChessBase: "Kramnik played the move 34...Qe3 calmly, stood up, picked up his cup and was about to leave the stage to go to his rest room. At least one audio commentator also noticed nothing, while Fritz operator Mathias Feist kept glancing from the board to the screen and back, hardly able to believe that he had input the correct move. Fritz was displaying mate in one, and when Mathias executed it on the board, Kramnik briefly grasped his forehead, took a seat to sign the score sheet and left for the press conference." During it, he stated that he had planned the supposedly winning move 34...Qe3 already when playing 29...Qa7, and had rechecked the line after each subsequent move. After an exchange of queens, Black would win easily with his distant pawn; after 35.Qxb4 Qe2 or 35.Ng6+ Kh7 36.Nf8+ Kg8 Black also wins eventually. Chess journalist Alexander Roshal attempted to explain the blunder by saying that the mating pattern of a queen on h7 protected by a knight on f8 is extremely rare and not contained in a grandmaster's automatic repertoire. Étienne Bacrot vs. Ernesto Inarkiev This game was played in May 2008 at the Baku Grand Prix from the FIDE Grand Prix 2008–2010. In round 11, Étienne Bacrot played White against Ernesto Inarkiev. On move 23, he checked the black king with 23.Qe7+??. Both players calmly wrote down the move. Bacrot then realized that his queen was under attack by the black knight and resigned. Magnus Carlsen vs. Levon Aronian The game between the world's two highest-rated players in the 2012 Grand Slam Master's final in São Paulo and Bilbao (this game was played in São Paulo) featured a double blunder. Carlsen, with White, played the tactical blunder 27.Bf4??, and saw almost immediately that this loses to 27...R8xf4!, in effect winning a piece since taking the rook gives Black a forced mate: 28.gxf4 Nxf4 (threatening Qg2#) 29.Rg1 Qxh2+ 30.Kxh2 Rh3#. Carlsen waited for Aronian to make his move, and Aronian eventually played the otherwise solid 27...Bc3??, allowing White back into the game. Aronian had seen 27...R8xf4, but playing quickly to avoid time trouble, he thought that White could strike back with 28.gxf4 Nxf4 29.Ra8+ since both 29...Kf7 and 29...Kh7 lose to the knight fork 30.Ng5+. He had missed, however, that the retreat 29...Bf8! ends White's brief counterattack and leaves White defenseless against the mate threat. The game was eventually drawn by perpetual check on move 48. Magnus Carlsen vs. Viswanathan Anand The sixth game of the World Chess Championship 2014 in Sochi between Magnus Carlsen and Viswanathan Anand also featured a double blunder. Carlsen adopted the space-gaining Maróczy Bind setup against the Kan Variation of the Sicilian Defence, and accepted a set of isolated doubled pawns in return for active play. After an early queen exchange he soon developed a commanding position and appeared to have excellent winning chances. On his 26th move Carlsen played 26.Kd2??, immediately realizing after making the move that 26...Nxe5! (with a discovered attack on the g4-rook) 27.Rxg8 Nxc4+ (zwischenzug) 28.Kd3 Nb2+ 29.Ke2 Rxg8 leads to Black picking up two extra pawns and gaining excellent winning chances. Anand, not expecting the blunder, replied with 26...a4?? in less than a minute. He, too, saw the missed tactic immediately after making his move. Carlsen made no further mistakes and converted his advantage into a win. Alireza Firouzja vs. Magnus Carlsen In this pawn ending (from a game in 2020), White is a pawn down, and to hold the draw, he either needs to preserve his last pawn, or (if Black decides to play Ke6 followed by f5) bring the king close enough to the e-file and stop the king from reaching any key squares. The correct move to draw is 69.Kd2!, when 69...Kc5 70.Kc3 keeps the opposition and prevents Black from penetrating, while 69...Ke6 70.Ke3 f5 71.exf5+ Kxf5 72.Kf3 prevents the king from advancing any further and reaching a key square. Instead, White blundered with 69.Kc3?? and after 69...Kc5 White resigned, as he loses his last pawn: 70.Kb3 Kd4 or 70.Kd3 Kb4 71.Ke3 Kc4 72.Kf3 Kd4 73.Kg3 Kxe4. Thus, the position after 69.Kc3?? Kc5 is reciprocal zugzwang: if Black were to move, it would be a draw, while if White to move, Black wins. Ian Nepomniachtchi vs. Magnus Carlsen During the ninth game between Ian Nepomniachtchi and Magnus Carlsen in the World Chess Championship 2021, the game was equal until Nepomniachtchi played 27.c5??. This move handed the advantage to Carlsen, since after 27...c6, the White bishop on b7 is trapped and the knight on b3 cannot move to c5 to defend it. The game followed with 28.f3 Nh6 29.Re4 Ra7 30.Rb4 Rb8 31.a4 Raxb7, leaving Carlsen a bishop up. Nepomniachtchi resigned eight moves later. Nepomniachtchi had previously blundered in game 8 and would do so again in game 11, both times losing a pawn and giving Carlsen winning positions that he converted to win the match. Chess players and commentators widely believed that Nepomniachtchi's mental state was significantly impacted by the nearly 8-hour long game 6, and that the blunder in game 11 might have been him giving up on the match to get it over with. Resignation in won positions Sometimes players, including strong grandmasters, resign in a position in which they are actually winning, not losing. Chess historian Tim Krabbé calls this kind of mistake "the ultimate blunder". Ignatz von Popiel vs. Georg Marco In this 1902 game between Ignatz von Popiel and Georg Marco, the black bishop on d4 is pinned to the rook on d7, and there are no additional friendly pieces to come to its defense. Seeing no way to save his bishop, Black resigned, missing 36...Bg1!, threatening ...Qxh2# and leaving no way for White to save both his queen and rook while staving off checkmate. Tim Krabbé called this the "earliest, most famous, and clearest example" of resigning with a winning position. György Négyesy vs. Károly Honfi In this game played in Budapest in 1955, Black saw that White's c3-knight is stopping ...Rd1#. Therefore, Black played 19...Qxa2+??, deflecting the knight. White agreed and resigned. Both players overlooked that after 20.Nxa2 Rd1+, the deflected knight can still stop the mate with 21.Nc1. Raúl Sanguineti vs. Miguel Najdorf Black has a substantial material advantage, but due to Black's poor king safety, White has a forced win. Correct is 58.Qg8+ winning the bishop (since 58...Bf7 59.Qd8 leaves two mate threats which cannot be parried at the same time). Instead, White played 58.Kd8?? (threatening 59.Qe7#), thinking that it won on the spot. Miguel agreed, and resigned. Both players overlooked the defense 58...Rxg4, winning more material and allowing the black king to escape to f5. With the king on d8, White cannot play Qc8+, which would have won the rook. Victor Korchnoi vs. Geert Van der Stricht Here, Black seems helpless against White's kingside threats. Agreeing with this idea, Black resigned – presumably seeing 36...Nxe5! 37.Rxe6 Nxd3 (threatening 38...Nf4+ and 38...fxe6) 38.Rxh6+ gxh6 39.Qxh6#. He missed, however, the fact that the White king was lined up with Black's rook, so 38...gxh6+ would have been check and 39.Qxh6# is illegal. After 39.Kf1 Rg6, Black defends his h6-pawn and has a decisive material advantage. See also Back-rank checkmate Choke (sports) Kotov syndrome Swindle (chess) References External links Complete game scores of the examples: Mikhail Chigorin vs. Wilhelm Steinitz, Havana 1892 Ernst Gruenfeld vs. Alexander Alekhine, Karlsbad 1923 Tigran Petrosian vs. David Bronstein, Amsterdam 1956 Miguel Najdorf vs. Bobby Fischer, 1966 Viktor Korchnoi vs. Anatoly Karpov, 1978 Murray Chandler vs. Susan Polgar, Biel 1987 Alexander Beliavsky vs. Leif Erlend Johannessen, Linares 2002 Deep Fritz vs. Vladimir Kramnik, Bonn 2006 (chessbase.com) Étienne Bacrot vs. Ernesto Inarkiev, 2008 Magnus Carlsen vs. Levon Aronian, 2012 Magnus Carlsen vs. Viswanathan Anand, 2014 Alireza Firouzja vs. Magnus Carlsen, 2020 Ian Nepomniachtchi vs. Magnus Carlsen, Dubai 2021 Ignatz von Popiel vs. Georg Marco, 1902 Gyorgy Negyesi vs. Karoly Honfi, Budapest 1955 Raul Sanguineti vs. Miguel Najdorf, Mar del Plata 1956 Viktor Korchnoi vs. Geert van der Stricht, Plovdiv 2003 Chess terminology
4181583	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesu%2C%20meine%20Freude%2C%20BWV%20227	Jesu, meine Freude, BWV 227	(Jesus, my joy), 227, is a motet by Johann Sebastian Bach. The longest and most musically complex of Bach's motets, it is set in eleven movements for up to five voices. It is named after the Lutheran hymn "" with words by Johann Franck, first published in 1653. The motet contains the six stanzas of the hymn in its odd-numbered movements. The hymn tune by Johann Crüger appears in all of these movements in different styles of chorale settings. The text of the motet's even-numbered movements is taken from the eighth chapter of the Epistle to the Romans, a passage that influenced key Lutheran teachings. The hymn, written in the first person with a focus on an emotional bond with Jesus, forms a contrasting expansion of the doctrinal biblical text. Bach set both texts alternating with and complementing each other, in a structure of symmetries on different layers. Bach's treatment of Crüger's melody ranges from four-part chorale harmonisations that begin and end the work, to a chorale fantasia and a free setting that quotes only motifs of the hymn tune. Four biblical verses are set in the style of a motet, two for five voices and two for three voices. The central movement is a five-part fugue. Bach used word painting to intensify the theological meaning of both hymn and Epistle texts. is one of few works by Bach for five vocal parts. The dating of the work is uncertain. It was supposed to have been written for a specific funeral in Leipzig in July 1723, a few months after Bach had moved there, as a scholar proposed in 1912. Since the 1990s, musicologists have come to doubt this, because the order of that funeral was found and shows no reference to music by Bach. At least one of the eleven movements seems to have been composed before Bach's tenure in Leipzig. The Bach scholar Christoph Wolff suggested that Bach may have composed and compiled the motet for the education of his choir in both composition techniques and theology. Chorale settings from the motet are included in the Dietel manuscript from around 1735, providing a latest dating of the work. Unique in its complex symmetrical structure juxtaposing hymn and biblical texts, and with movements featuring a variety of styles and vocal textures, the motet has been regarded as one of Bach's greatest achievements in the genre. In 1927, it became the first of his motets to be recorded. The work has often been performed and recorded with a range of approaches, from unaccompanied singing to historically informed performances taking into account that in Bach's time it was customary to support the voices by basso continuo and instruments doubling the vocal lines (colla parte). History Background In late 17th-century Protestant Thuringia, members of the Bach family from the generations before Johann Sebastian Bach wrote motets, of which several are preserved in the (ABA). In this context, motets are choral compositions, mostly with a number of independent voices exceeding that of a standard SATB choir, and with German text from the Luther Bible and Lutheran hymns, sometimes in combination. When a hymn was used, usually its chorale tune was integrated into the composition. Instrumental accompaniment was often limited to basso continuo and/or instruments playing . By the time Bach started to compose his motets in the 1710s or 1720s along the principles of these older compositions, the genre was already regarded as antiquated. According to Philipp Spitta, Bach's 19th-century biographer, Johann Michael Bach's motet , ABA I, 10, which contains a setting of the "" chorale, may have been on Johann Sebastian's mind when he composed his motet named after the chorale, in E minor like his relative's. In Bach's time, the Lutheran liturgical calendar of the place where he lived indicated the occasions for which music was required in church services. The bulk of the composer's sacred music, including most of his church cantatas, was written for such occasions. His other church music, such as sacred cantatas for weddings and funerals, and most of his motets, was not tied to the liturgical calendar. Around 15 extant compositions came to be recognised as Bach motets by musicologists at some time. Jesu, meine Freude is one of only five core works (BWV 225–229) which have always been considered to be Bach motets. In eleven movements, is the longest and most musically complex of Bach's motets. It is scored for up to five vocal parts, which is rare among his works. Most of his vocal church music is to be performed with a four-part SATB choir, while most of his other motets are for double SATB choir. Exceptional compositions with five-part movements can be found in the Magnificat, written in 1723 at the beginning of Bach's tenure in Leipzig, and the Mass in B minor, compiled towards the end of his life. Like for most of his other motets, no continuo or other instrumental accompaniment has survived for BWV 227, but it is surmised there was one in Bach's time. Epistle text and chorale The text of is compiled from two sources: a 1653 hymn of the same name with words by Johann Franck, and Bible verses from Paul's Epistle to the Romans, 8:1–2 and 9–11. In the motet, the six hymn stanzas form the odd movement numbers, while the even numbers each take one verse from the Epistle as their text. The hymn is written in the first person and deals with a believer's bond to Jesus who is addressed as a helper in physical and spiritual distress, and therefore a reason for joy. The singer realizes the world as vanity, and prefers to leave it. Franck used stark images such as "old dragon" and "death's jaw" to express the believer's enemies. The hymn adds a layer of individuality and emotions to Biblical teaching. When Catherine Winkworth translated the hymn into English in 1869, she rendered it as "Jesu, priceless treasure". As a key teaching of the Lutheran faith, the Biblical text reflects on the contrast of living "in the flesh" or "according to the Spirit". The hymn's first line is also the last line of its final stanza, framing the poetry of the whole work. Johann Crüger's chorale melody for the hymn, Zahn 8032, was first published in his hymnal Praxis pietatis melica of 1653; several variants of the hymn tune were published in other hymnals over the ensuing decades. The tune is in bar form (AAB). While the first version had dance elements of an Allemande, the version of the 1682 Neu Leipziger Gesangbuch, the hymnal used in Leipzig then, it is in common time. the melody is built from one motif, the beginning descent of a fifth (catabasis), with the word "Jesu" as the high note, which is immediately inverted (). In the Leipzig version, the melody of the first line is identical to that of the last line. The hymn tune appears in the odd-numbered movements of the motet, completely in the Leipzig version for most stanzas, but paraphrased for the third stanza, and in a slightly different older version in the fifth stanza. Time of origin Most of Bach's motets are difficult to date and is no exception. Spitta assigned the motets that he knew, including , to Bach's Leipzig years, 1723 to 1750. In 1912, Bernhard Friedrich Richter, a church musician in Leipzig, wrote that was likely written in Bach's first year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig; he concluded that it was written for the funeral of Johanna Maria Kees, the wife of the Leipzig postmaster, on 18 July 1723, because a scripture reading of verse 11 from the Epistle passage set in the motet's tenth movement was documented for the funeral. Daniel R. Melamed, a musicologist from Cambridge University, wrote in his 1995 book that this was no conclusive evidence for a motet performance on the occasion, but the date has still been "nearly universally accepted". The order of that particular service was found in 1982, mentioning neither a motet nor even the chorale. Possibly the idea of combining hymn and epistle text dates back to the funeral. Friedrich Smend was the first musicologist to analyse the motet's symmetrical structure, a feature which can also be found in Bach's St John Passion of 1724 and St Matthew Passion of 1727, which led Smend to suggest that the work was composed in the 1720s. Melamed thought that the motet was likely in part compiled from music Bach had composed before his Leipzig period. He based that view on the four-part settings of the chorale movements 1, 7 and 11 (unusual for a five-part work), and on the older version of the chorale melody used as the cantus firmus in the ninth movement. The latter suggests an origin of this movement in Bach's Weimar period (1708 to 1717), or even earlier. John Eliot Gardiner, who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage, noted that the motet, compiled partly from earlier compositions, is comparable in that respect to the Credo from Bach's Mass in B minor, and both are coherent in performance. Christoph Wolff, a Bach scholar, suggested in 2002 that the motet may have been intended for the education of the Thomanerchor rather than for a funeral. He assumed the same intended use for the motet Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied, BWV 225. According to Bach scholar Richard D. P. Jones, several movements of show a style too advanced to have been written in 1723. He assumed in his 2013 book that the final arrangement of the work likely happened in the late 1720s, when two motets which can be dated with greater certainty were also written: and the funeral motet Der Geist hilft unser Schwachheit auf, BWV 226. The Dietel manuscript, written around 1735, contains three chorales extracted from the motet; the composition of the motet is supposed to have been completed before that time. Structure and scoring is structured in eleven movements, with text alternating between a chorale stanza and a passage from the Epistle. Bach scored it for a choir of up to five voices (SSATB: one or two soprano parts (S or SS), alto (A), tenor (T) and B for bass). The number of voices in the movements varies from three to five. Only the alto sings in all movements. The motet was possibly meant to be accompanied by instruments playing , with instruments doubling the vocal lines in the practice of Bach's time, but no parts for them survived. Table of the structure The music is arranged in different layers of symmetry around the sixth movement. The first and last movements have the same four-part setting of two different hymn stanzas. The second and penultimate movements use the same themes in fugal writing. The third and fifth movements, both five-part chorale settings, mirror the seventh and ninth movements, both four-part chorale settings. In great variety of chorale settings, the fifth movement is a free setting of the chorale stanza which quotes only motifs from the tune, and the ninth movement is a chorale fantasia, with the cantus firmus in the alto. The fourth and eighth movements are both trios, the fourth for the three highest voices, the other for the three lowest voices. The central movement (Romans 8:9) is a five-part fugue. In the following table, each movement number is followed by the beginning of the text (incipit) and its translation into English, its text source naming the stanza in Franck's hymn or the verse(s) in Paul's Epistle, its voices, its key, its time signature, and its form. For the form, corresponding movements within the symmetry are shown at the same level of indentation. Movements 1 The motet begins with a four-part setting of the first stanza of the hymn "" ("Jesus, my joy" or "Jesus, Source of gladness"). The first movement is in E minor, like most other movements related to the hymn. The text, in the first person, speaks of longing for Jesus. Jones noted that the tenor part is particularly expressive. The last movement, the chorale's sixth stanza, has the same music, creating a frame that encloses the whole work: 2 The second movement begins the excerpts from Romans 8, setting verse 1, "" (There is therefore now no condemnation to them which are in Christ Jesus). The difference between living in the flesh and the spirit is an aspect that is repeated throughout the motet. The movement is also in E minor, but for five voices. The beginning of the text is rendered in "rhetorical" homophony: Bach accented the word "nichts" (nothing), repeating it twice, with long rests and echo dynamics. Jones noted that dramatic word painting of this kind was in the tradition of 17th-century motets, such as by Johann Christoph and Johann Michael Bach. 3 The third movement is a five-part setting of the second stanza of the hymn, "" (Under your protection). While the first soprano provides the chorale melody, the lower voices supply vivid lines expressing the text. 4 The fourth movement sets the second verse from Romans 8, "" (For the law of the Spirit of life in Christ Jesus hath made me free from the law of sin and death.). The thought is set for the two sopranos and alto, beginning in G major. The sopranos move in "beatific" parallel thirds in the opening when singing of "life in Christ Jesus". 5 The fifth movement is a setting of the third stanza of the hymn, "" (Despite the old dragon). The defiant opposition, also to death, fear and the rage of the world, is expressed in a free composition. The soprano melody paraphrases the hymn tune by quoting short motifs from the chorale. The movement is in the bar form as the original melody. Five voices take part in a dramatic illustration as they depict defiance by standing firmly and singing, often in powerful unison. Gardiner compared the movement referring to the medieval image of the old dragon, to paintings by Cranach and Grünewald. The rhetoric style is similar to the beginning of the second movement. Gardiner noted that the firm stance against opposition could depict Martin Luther's attitude and also the composer's own stance, and summarises: 6 The central sixth movement sets verse 9 from Romans 8, "" (But ye are not in the flesh, but in the Spirit). Again beginning in G major, the tenor starts with a fugue theme that stresses the word "geistlich" (of the Spirit) by a long melisma in the fast notes, while the opposite "fleischlich" is a long note stretched over the bar-line. The alto enters during the melisma. All five voices participate in a lively fugue, the only one within the motet. It is a double fugue, with a first theme for the first line, another for the second, "" (since the Spirit of God lives otherwise in you), before both of them are combined in various ways, parallel and in stretti. By contrast, the third line of verse 9, "" (Any one who does not have the spirit of Christ does not belong to him) is set in a homophonic adagio: "not of Christ". 7 The seventh movement is a four-part setting of the fourth stanza of the hymn, "" (Away with all treasures). While the soprano sings the chorale melody, the lower voices intensify the gesture; "weg" (away) is repeated several times in fast succession. Throughout the movement, the lower voices intensify the expressiveness of the text. 8 The eighth movement sets verse 10 from Romans 8, "" (And if Christ be in you, the body is dead because of sin). As in the fourth movement, it is set as a trio, this time for alto, tenor and bass, beginning in C major. Parallel thirds in the upper voices resemble those in the fourth movement. 9 The ninth movement is a setting of the fifth stanza of the hymn, "" (Good night, existence that cherishes the world). For the rejection of everything earthly, Bach composed a chorale fantasia, with the cantus firmus in the alto voice and repetition of "Gute Nacht" in the two sopranos and the tenor. Jones pointed out that the absence of a bass may depict that "the world" lacks a firm foundation in Christ. The chorale melody used in the movement is slightly different from the one in the other settings within the motet, a version which Bach used mostly in his earlier time in Weimar and before. For Gardiner, the "sublime" music suggests the style of Bach's Weimar period. Jones, however, found that the "bewitchingly lyrical setting" matched compositions from the mid-1720s in Leipzig, comparing the music to the Sarabande from the Partita No. 3, BWV 827. 10 The tenth movement sets verse 11 from Romans 8, "" (But if the Spirit of him that raised up Jesus from the dead dwell in you). In symmetry, the music recalls that of the second movement. 11 The motet ends with the same four-part setting as the first movement, with the last stanza of the hymn as lyrics, "" (Flee, you mournful spirits). The final line repeats the beginning on the same melody: "" (You stay with me even in sorrow, / Jesus, my joy). Reception, performances and publication is unique in Bach's work in its complex symmetrical structure, which juxtaposes hymn and Bible text. Bach's vivid setting of the contrasting texts results in music of an unusually dramatic range. Wolff summarised: Performers of have to decide if they will use a boys' choir (as Bach had in mind) or a mixed choir, a small vocal ensemble or a larger choir, and if instruments should accompany the voices, a continuo group or also instruments playing . 18th and 19th centuries As with most of Bach's motets, there is no extant autograph of . The motet's SATB chorales were copied in several 18th-century manuscripts collecting chorale harmonisations by Bach. The earliest extant copy of such chorale collections, the Dietel manuscript, also contains a SATB version of the motet's five-part third movement: Dietel's copy omitted the second soprano part of the movement. Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach retained two chorales, based on the motet's first and seventh movements, in the third volume of Breitkopf's 1780s edition of Bach's four-part chorales. After Bach's death, the motets, unlike much of his other music, were kept continuously in the repertoire of the Thomanerchor. A choral version of the entire motet, that is without any indication of instrumental accompaniment, was first published in 1803 in the second volume of Breitkopf & Härtel's first edition of six motets by (or at least, attributed to) Bach. was included in the first complete edition of the composer's works, the (BGA); together with other motets it was edited by Franz Wüllner and was published in 1892 for volume 39 of the project. 20th and 21st centuries In the 1920s, the large Bach Choir in London performed Bach's works conducted by Ralph Vaughan Williams, while Charles Kennedy Scott performed with his Bach Cantata Club in chamber formation, which prompted a reviewer to write: "It would be absurd to forbid Bach's Motets to big choirs, but this performance left no doubt that the listener gets the truth of the music from voices few and picked." Scott and the Bach Cantata Club made the first recording of , which was the first of any motet by Bach, in 1927, sung in English. The optimum size of the choir in this work continues to be discussed to this day, for example in reviews of Philippe Herreweghe's one voice per part recordings of 1985 and 2010. has been recorded more than 60 times, mostly in combination with other motets by Bach. Sets with a recording of BWV 227 alongside other Bach motets include: Philippe Herreweghe with the Collegium Vocale Gent and La Chapelle Royale (recorded November 1985, released 1986) Harry Christophers with the Sixteen, 1989 Masaaki Suzuki with the Bach Collegium Japan, using instruments playing , 2009 Herreweghe, second set recorded in 2010 Gardiner, whose second recording of the motets with the Monteverdi Choir in 2011 received a Gramophone Award in 2013 in the category Baroque Vocal. The New Bach Edition (Neue Bach-Ausgabe, NBA) published the motet in 1965, edited by Konrad Ameln, with critical commentary published in 1967. In 1995, Bärenreiter published the vocal parts of the six motets BWV 225–230 from the NBA in one volume, with a preface by Klaus Hofmann. The motets were published by Carus-Verlag in 1975, edited by Günter Graulich, and published again in 2003, edited by Uwe Wolf, as part of the Stuttgarter Bach-Ausgaben, a complete edition of Bach's vocal works. Modern editions of the motet may supply a reconstructed instrumental accompaniment, such as a continuo realisation, and/or a singable translation of the lyrics, as for instance in Carus's 2003 publication of the motet. Notes and references Notes References Cited sources Bach Digital Books Preface in English and German. Vol. I – Vol. II – Vol. III. Vol. IV. Journals Online sources External links Motets by Johann Sebastian Bach Christian funeral music Compositions in E minor
4181588	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Watkins%20%28diplomat%29	John Watkins (diplomat)	John Benjamin Clark Watkins (3 December 1902 – 12 October 1964) was a Canadian diplomat and scholar who served as Canadian ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1954 to 1956. Describing Watkins as "sophisticated, erudite and fluent in Russian", Michael Dobbs of The Washington Post wrote that he was the "perfect ambassador" to Moscow. He is credited with organizing a historic meeting between Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev and Canadian External Affairs Minister Lester B. Pearson. Early life Born in Norval, Ontario, Watkins was the first child of John Watkins and Jane Clark. He had two sisters, Elizabeth and Isabel. Watkins studied French, German, and Latin at the University of Toronto, and earned a master's degree by 1927. In a trip to Europe in the late 1920s, he was a guide and companion to Heywood Hale Broun in France, Holland, and Denmark. He left Europe for the United States in 1930, where he attended Columbia University and joined the staff of the American-Scandinavian Foundation in New York City. After Columbia, Watkins attended Cornell University in 1942 and earned a PhD there in 1944; his thesis was about the Danish writer Gustav Wied. During World War II, he returned to Canada to teach at Queen's University at Kingston, then Guelph Agricultural College. Watkins became an associate professor of English at the University of Manitoba in 1944. In 1946, Watkins translated the complete works of Honore de Balzac into English. Upon an invitation by Humphrey Hume Wrong, Watkins reluctantly agreed to take the Canadian Foreign Service Examination. He was offered a position as a foreign service officer and left the University of Manitoba to join the Department of External Affairs (DEA). Watkins rapidly advanced from first secretary of the European Division to head of section to chargé d'affaires in Moscow. Diplomatic career First post in the Soviet Union: chargé d'affaires On 1 September 1948, Watkins officially replaced John Wendell Holmes as the chargé d'affaires ad interim. He knew some Russian prior to arriving in Moscow, and set himself apart from other Western diplomats in the city by becoming fluent in the language. There, Watkins befriended George Costakis, the long-time head of personnel at the Canadian embassy and collector of Soviet art. While Stalin led the Soviet Union, there was limited opportunity for foreign diplomats like Watkins to travel and interact with Soviet society. Near the end of his post in Moscow, Watkins began to develop health issuesheart and circulatory weaknesses that were not diagnosed at his medical examination upon entering the DEAthat would affect him for the remainder of his life. The DEA announced in January 1951 that he was to return to Ottawa on sick leave, and he was replaced by Robert Ford. Norway By the end of 1951, Watkins was appointed to serve a diplomatic post in Oslo, Norway. Canadian government records list him as envoy to Iceland and Norway from the summer of 1952 to 1954. In February 1954, it was reported that Chester Ronning would replace Watkins as the minister to Norway. Second post in the Soviet Union: ambassador After the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953, Georgy Malenkov expressed a willingness to resolve issues of conflict between the East and the West, and there was an apparent easing of tensions within Canada–Soviet Union relations when Dmitri Chuvakhin was appointed Soviet ambassador to Canada. In response, Watkins was officially made Canada's first peacetime ambassador to the Soviet Union on 1 January 1954. Watkins found that the Soviet Union was more open under the leadership of First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Nikita Khrushchev, and he had a fondness for befriending Soviet officials and was able to develop a large number of contacts. To his detriment, this would prove costly and allow him to become a target of Soviet espionage. In the fourth quarter of 1954, Watkins met a young man named Kamahl in a Muslim area of one of the southern republics of the Soviet Union and invited him back to his hotel room. The hotel staff likely observed the pair entering Watkins' room. A few months later, Watkins received a postcard from Kamahl who stated he would be visiting Moscow. Watkins entertained Kamahl in Moscow, and the two men engaged in a brief romantic affair consummated in the younger man's hotel room. As he did with every other encounter, Watkins dutifully reported to Quebec his encounters with Kamahl and described him as a young man who had doubts about the Soviet system. The only thing he failed to report was the homosexual aspect of their relationship. Unbeknownst to Watkins, Kamahl's visit was staged by the KGB and the two men were photographed together in Kamahl's room. The KGB sought to exploit Watkins' indiscretion not by blackmailing him, but rather by manipulating him to become an agent of influence by enveloping him in a "debt of gratitude". In contrast to his first post in Moscow, he found himself enjoying access to top officials within the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and invitations to social events that other Western Bloc ambassadors could not get. All of this was planned by the KGB. In April 1955, Watkins met then befriended "Aloysha", who introduced himself as Alexei Mikhailovich Gorbunov, a historian and consultant to the Soviet foreign ministry. Watkins also described him as his best Soviet informant. Watkins also met Anatoly Nitkin, who introduced himself as a professor of history at the Moscow Academy of History. Watkins did not know that "Aloysha" was actually KGB officer Oleg Mikhailovich Gribanovthe second-highest-ranking official within the Second Directorate and the mastermind of the entrapment operation against Watkins involving Kamahland Nitkin was Anatoly Gorsky, a KGB official senior to Gribanov and a former handler of Kim Philby. The three spent much time together, including a weekend at "Aloysha's" dacha in the Crimea in June. "Aloysha" would soon play an important role in Secretary of State for External Affairs Lester Pearson's visit to the Soviet Union. After a meeting in San Francisco that same month, Pearson was invited by Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov to visit the Soviet Union. Pearson had expressed his interest in visiting the USSR to Watkins the previous November, and it is likely that Watkins had relayed that to Soviet officials with whom he had established close contact. Watkins reported in July that "Aloysha" had close contacts with Molotov, Khrushchev, and Nikolai Bulganin, and by August he was Watkins' main informant on the Soviet's views of the visit pending with Pearson. In planning the meeting, Pearson advised Watkins not to show the Soviets too much enthusiasm for their interest in a trade agreement. The official Canadian delegation included Pearson, Holmes, Watkins, George Ignatieff, Mitchell Sharp, and Raymond Crépault; Pearson's wife, Maryon, and journalists René Lévesque and Richard J. Needham accompanied them. On 5 October 1955, Molotov led the Soviet dignitaries in meeting the Canadians arriving at the Moscow airport. What has been described as the most memorable event of the trip is a drinking party that occurred when Pearson, Watkins, Ignatieff, and Crépault visited Khrushchev and Nikolai Bulganin at the Yusupov Palace in Yalta on 11 October. "Aloysha"/Gribanov also attended the party and was understood by the other Canadians to be Watkins' friend; Ignatieff apparently believed him to be a MVD official. It is at this party that Khrushchev was alleged by a KGB defector Yuri Nosenko to have taunted Watkins about his homosexuality during a toast. In his memoirs, Pearson noted that Watkins looked "less and less happy" as the evening progressed; however, Ignatieff, who understood Russian, denied that he heard the remark and Watkins' account of the meeting expressed no concerns. Watson's writings show that he held a view of the Soviet Union was that more trustful and generous than that of Pearson or Ignatieff. He continued to meet with "Aloysha" and wrote the DEA to explain his importance to Khrushchev; Watkins even suggested that "Aloysha" wrote parts of the Soviet leader's speeches at the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Pearson remained unconvinced about Soviet aims and told the House of Commons in January 1956 that "not a single basic objective of Soviet policy was changed". In February, Watkins sent Pearson a lengthy dispatch reiterating a meeting in which "Aloysha" voiced the Soviet's displeasure with Pearson over his continued skepticism of Soviet intentions. Pearson fired back: "My visit did not reassure me in regard to the peaceful aims of that policy, but certainly did convince me that the people themselves, whatever might be the views of their rulers, did sincerely desire peace. You might tell your friend Aloysha one day that if he wants to convince me of the pacific intentions of his Politburo friends, he should explain why they find it necessary to have 400 modern submarines." Watkins was recalled from the Soviet Union shortly afterwards. More than a year after his affair with Kamahl and just before he was to return to Ottawa, Watkins was invited by "Aloysha" to his office. The Soviet official acted troubled and stated he had gained custody of the KGB material compromising to Watkins, but would do what he could to prevent the KGB from exploiting him. Watkins, understanding that his career depended upon the goodwill of the Soviets, had skilfully been placed into "Aloysha's" debt. Following through on the plan to get the ambassador to become an agent of influence steering Canadian policy away from the United States and towards the Soviet Union, "Aloysha" implied that Watkins could return the favour when he returned to Ottawa. On 3 April 1956, Watkins was recalled to Ottawa to become assistant under-secretary of state for External Affairs. David Chalmer Reece, a former colleague of Watkins in the Canadian diplomatic corps who had also been one of his students at the University of Manitoba, recalled that Watkins "seemed much the same in Ottawa, gentle and charming, but a little melancholy and bothered by ill health". Denmark Watkins officially became the Canadian ambassador to Denmark on 30 August 1958. Having developed diabetes, his health continued to decline and he spent Christmas 1959 hospitalized in Copenhagen with a continuous nosebleed. Unwell and taking heart medications regularly, Watkins again returned to Ottawa in 1960 where he was an assistant undersecretary with External Affairs. After lengthy medical leaves, Watkins officially retired from the Department of External Affairs on 25 July 1963. Retirement In retirement, Watkins prepared his move to France by donating his valuable collection of Russian and Scandinavian books to various Canadian universities. His collection of paintings by Pablo Picasso and Russian avant-garde artists, including Marc Chagall, were distributed to friends for safe-keeping. Watkins retired to Paris, where he lived at the Hôtel Lenox on the Left Bank. He was a frequent dinner guest of the Canadian ambassador to France, Jules Léger, and his wife Gabrielle, and Basil Rakoczi was among the many unknown artists he befriended. After entertaining his cousins in Paris and a road trip around Europe in May 1964, Watkins suffered a heart attack that summer. In September, he moved to an apartment in Montparnasse. Soviet defections, Operation Rock Bottom and death In April 1962, two British officers from MI5 and MI6 who had assisted the United States Central Intelligence Agency in the debriefing of Soviet defector Anatoliy Golitsyn travelled to Ottawa to update the Security Service. The two officers reported that Golitsyn had brought with him a collection of leads into operations that the Soviet Second Directorate had directed against the Canadian Embassy, including an operation to blackmail a gay Canadian ambassador who had been caught in a sex trap. Golitsyn could only narrow the time frame to the 1950s and was unable to identify the ambassador or whether he had been swayed or controlled by the trap. In an effort to identify the unnamed ambassador, the Canadian Security Service launched Operation Rock Bottom. Security Service officers Charles Sweeny and Leslie James Bennettconsidered to be the RCMP's counterespionage guruwanted to question Golitsyn for further details but were told they had to wait in line behind the Americans, British, French, Germans, and Dutch. While waiting for their turn, Sweeny and Bennett attempted to match up clues by scouring almost 500 files at External Affairs. In August 1962, they finally had their opportunity to question Golitsyn at a safehouse in Washington, D.C., but were unable to discover any new leads. The investigation initially focused on David Johnson, the Canadian ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1956 to 1960, who resigned his position after a previous investigation forced him to admit his homosexuality. Although Johnson had been an ambassador in the 1950s, other details from Golitsyn's leads did not match up. Additional review suggested that the unidentified ambassador could be Watkins, but the investigation stalled with no firm evidence against either him or Johnson. In September 1963 in London, Soviet writer Yuri Krotkov defected to the West. Krotkov revealed that he had cooperated with the KGB years earlier in a seduction/compromise operation against Maurice Dejean, the French ambassador to the USSR, and his wife, and stated he had learned of a similar entrapment operation against a homosexual Canadian ambassador. Like Golitsyn, Krotkov said he did not know the ambassador's name, but he confirmed that the diplomat had fallen into the trap and the timeline he presented seemed to overlap with Watkins' post in Moscow. Although their suspicions had been pushed in the direction of Watkins, the Security Service felt they did not have enough evidence to interrogate the former ambassador. In February 1964, Yuri Nosenko, a KGB captain who had served in the Second Directorate, defected while in Geneva and in debriefing with the CIA identified the Canadian ambassador as Watkins. Given that the CIA suspected that Nosenko was a KGB plant sent to undermine Golitsyn, the information was not passed on to the Security Service until August 1964. The Canadians were not allowed to interview Nosenko. At this juncture, the Security Service had gone through Watkins' dispatches looking for evidence that he had attempted to influence Canadian policy in favour of the Soviets but were so overwhelmed by the vast number of files that they were unable to find any firm evidence. The RCMP determined that they would need to go to Paris and directly approach Watkins. Bennett was the obvious choice to lead the investigation, and William Higgitt selected corporal Harry Brandes over veterans Lloyd Libke and Murray Sexsmith as the interrogator to back him up. The two members of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police's Soviet counterespionage unit flew to Paris where they immediately met with Ambassador Jules Léger at the Canadian Embassy to brief him on the reason for their trip and the allegations against Watkins. Watkins was a friend of Léger and was frequently invited to the embassy and Léger's home, so the two investigators hoped Léger could help them get Watkins to cooperate. Léger was skeptical of the allegations and initially reluctant to assist the investigators in approaching Watkins. He cautioned Bennett and Brandes that Watkins' had a recent heart attack and was not well. Understanding that Bennett and Brandes could approach Watkins without his help, Léger eventually agreed to assist the following day. That evening at an already scheduled dinner party at the embassy, Léger led the frail-looking Watkins into his office where he was introduced to Bennett and Brandes, the purpose of their visit from Canada described to him as a matter of national importance. Watkins, reportedly understanding the purpose of their visit even before it was explained to him, agreed to help. Watkins was told by Bennett that he could consult with Léger or anyone else, but he declined, stating that the ambassador would be hurt by the details. Watkins was picked up at his apartment the following morning and taken to a CIA safehouse where he admitted to having a liaison with someone apparently under KGB control and failing to report it. He denied that he was blackmailed or did anything in conflict with Canadian interests. Bennett told Watkins that they preferred not to question him in France, and that the Canadian government would pay for him to travel to Ottawa. Watkins declined for fear inadvertently running into old friends there, but he did agree to Bennett's suggestion of going to London, where the debriefing continued at an MI5 safehouse. In London, Watkins met with John Wendell Holmes, his close friend and confidant who preceded him as chargé d'affaires in Moscow, and told him that he was being investigated as a possible security risk. After a week, Bennett and Brandes convinced Watkins to allow them to move the questioning to Montreal. There, the interrogation continued at the Holiday Inn Chateaubriand on Côte-de-Liesse Road. Each day, more details emerged as Watkins' revealed the story of his homosexuality, meeting Kamahl, and the Soviet's attempt to pressure him. After verifying Watkins' statements with the lengthy dispatches he had written in Moscow nearly ten years earlier, Bennett and Brandes were convinced that the former ambassador had been truthful and that the KGB attempt to blackmail him had failed. On the evening of 12 October 1964, the interrogation was essentially finished when Watkins, while reminiscing about his diplomatic career, suffered a heart attack and died instantly. After feeling no pulse and attempting chest compressions, Bennett and Brandes telephoned for help. Two police officers from Saint-Laurent, Quebec, Remy Martin and Pierre Lemire, and two ambulance attendants responded to their call. Gus Begalki, the RCMP Security Service's senior non-commissioned officer, then convinced the Saint-Laurent police chief to keep the matter quiet out of concern that publicity regarding Watkins' death might allow the KGB to take countermeasures for the intelligence the Security Service had acquired regarding their operating methods. Coroner Marcel Trahan ruled that Watkins had an "unforeseeable" death due to heart attack, and his report stated that Watkins died in the company of "friends" awaiting a flight to England. The report listed Brandes as the only witness and said he should be considered "a friend of the deceased". Brandes was not identified as a member of the RCMP and Bennett's name was not mentioned. Watkins' death certificate was signed by pathologist Iona Kerner. Kerner only externally examined the body and observed no unusual markings, and an investigative report stated "coronary thrombosis in an unexpected, sudden, and accidental death". No autopsy was performed. Investigation of death In 1980, the circumstances of Watkins' death started to become public when David Martin's Wilderness of Mirrors revealed that the KGB, using a honey trap, had targeted Watkins for blackmail because of his homosexuality. Chapman Pincher's March 1981 book Their Trade is Treachery was reported to have caused a "sensation in the press" with the claim that Watkins died while being questioned in a Montreal hotel room. In April 1981, for the second edition of S – Portrait of a Spy, Ian Adams found that the Quebec coroner who had signed Watkins' death certificate in 1964 had not realized he was a former ambassador nor was he aware of the true circumstances of his death. Additional details of Watkins' entrapment emerged in John Sawatsky's two-part series published in June 1981. In September 1981, Quebec Minister of Justice Marc-André Bédard ordered an inquest into the death of Watkins. Solicitor General Robert Kaplan criticized the inquest as "unnecessary and a witch hunt", but said he would cooperate with the investigation. A few weeks prior, Dery stated that he wanted to interview Bennett and that he was considering plans to take the inquest to Australia, where the former Mountie had retired, or bring him to the inquest in Canada. 21 witnesses testified at the inquest, including many police officers whose testimony was often contradictory. Martin, one of the constables who responded to the Chateaubriand Holiday Inn, said that he received the impression from a telephone call made by Lemire that Watkins' body was taken to the morgue over the objections of Bennett and Brandes; however, Lemire, his partner, said the only telephone calls he made were to verify the identities of Bennett and Brandes. The person to whom Lemire's call was allegedly made was also found not to have been on duty that night. Written testimony from Watkins' only known living relatives stated that his health had declined in the six months prior to his death. On 22 December 1981, Brandes, then chief superintendent of the RCMP, also testified that Watkins' health was failing, so they let him dictate the pace of the questioning. He said that the former diplomat was not held against his will, and that he voluntarily cooperated with the investigation. Bennett stated that he and Bennett were in constant contact with Watkins, including visits to the theatre, watching television, and going for walks together, and that the interrogations typically occurred once each day for about three hours. He testified that on the day Watkins died, he was questioned for four hours in a session focused on recapping information about events already obtained from him. Bennett stated that Watkins was reminiscing about his time in the diplomatic corps when he suddenly collapsed and died. Although he had known Watkins for only a month, Brandes stood by his statement that appeared in the coroner's report that noted he was his friend. He testified: "We spent a great deal of time together under very close relations and, yes, I considered him a friend." Brandes testified that he and Bennett sought to avoid publicity of the former ambassador's death "for the protection of operational national matters that had international ramifications" and only asked the police investigators to avoid making his death a cause célèbre. Brandes had not mentioned that he was an RCMP officer and said that had not thought it was important to notify Montreal authorities that Watkins was a former diplomat. Kerner, the pathologist, said she would have "most certainly" conducted an autopsy had she known that Watkins was a former diplomat having died in the presence of RCMP officers. After a two-week recess in the proceedings, John Wendell Holmes testified that he initially "took it as a joke of some sort" when Watkins told him in London that he was being investigated by the RCMP as a security risk. Holmes stated that Watkins behaved as someone "who felt he didn't have much longer to live, because of his heart attack", but believed him to be on good terms with those interrogating him. Alex Capon, a physician called to see Watkins a few days prior to his death, told the inquest: "It came as no surprise to me to learn of his death." During a break in the interrogation, Capon had advised Watkins to enter the hospital immediately; however, Watkins refused. In May 1982, Bennett was interviewed in Australia by two Quebec Police Force officers. On 23 June 1982, the inquest concluded when Dery ruled that Watkins died from natural causes unrelated to intensive police questioning. The RCMP was completely exonerated in the role of Watkins' death. Legacy Endowed by Watkins' estate, two awards are bestowed by the Canada Council for the Arts in his name: the J.B.C. Watkins Award for Architecture and J.B.C. Watkins Award for Music and Theatre. In his 1999 book Agent of Influence, Adams suggested that the CIA had schemed to destroy Pearson, who had become prime minister, and had tried to get Watkins to implicate him. In 2002, the book was made into a television movie with the same title, starring Christopher Plummer. It was released in 2003 and distributed by the Movie Network Encore in 2018. Watkins and his friend, fellow diplomat Herbert Norman, were the inspiration for "Harry Raymond", the central character in Timothy Findley play The Stillborn Lover (1993). See also Agent of influence Sexpionage Note References General Adams, Ian. Agent of Influence: A True Story Toronto: General, 1999. Specific 1902 births 1964 deaths Ambassadors of Canada to Denmark Ambassadors of Canada to the Soviet Union Deaths from coronary thrombosis Deaths in police custody in Canada Gay diplomats Espionage scandals and incidents Cornell University alumni Academic staff of the University of Manitoba University of Toronto alumni 20th-century Canadian LGBT people Canadian gay men
4181798	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLANS%20%28non-profit%29	PLANS (non-profit)	People for Legal and Non-Sectarian Schools (PLANS) is an organization based in California in the United States which campaigns against the public funding of Waldorf methods charter schools alleging they violate the United States Constitution's separation of church and state. The group claims independent Waldorf schools and public Waldorf methods charter schools teach anthroposophical content, that this content is religious in nature, and that the schools disguise the anthroposophical content from the public. PLANS filed federal suit in 1998 against two California public school districts, Sacramento City Unified School District and Twin Ridges Elementary School District, to halt the Waldorf methods educational programs implemented in two of their schools. The case was ultimately dismissed on its merits in 2012. The group was founded in 1995 and became a California non-profit corporation in 1997. Its founding officers, president Debra Snell and secretary Dan Dugan are former Waldorf school parents. The organization numbered less than 50 members when the lawsuit was brought. Mission statement The group describes its mission as to "Provide parents, teachers, and school boards with views of Waldorf education from outside the cult of Rudolf Steiner." "Expose the illegality of public funding for Waldorf school programs in the US." "Litigate against schools violating the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment in the US." PLANS lawsuit In February 1998, PLANS filed suit against two California public school districts, Sacramento City Unified School District and Twin Ridges Elementary School District, operating Waldorf-methods schools; one operating a Waldorf-based charter school and the other operating a Waldorf-based magnet school. In the complaint, PLANS argued that it was "informed and believes that a primary purpose and primary effect of said operation of Waldorf schools is to advance religion, including the religious doctrines of Anthroposophy", and as such were acting in violation of the First and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution and Article IX of the California Constitution. In response to PLANS' 1999 Motion for Summary Judgement, the Court ruled against their contention that the primary purpose of the program in those schools was to advance religion, finding that the two school districts targeted have a secular, non-religious purpose for implementing Waldorf teaching methods in their schools, but allowed the case to proceed on the second question, whether a primary effect of the programs may be the unintended consequence of endorsing any religion to an extent that violates the Constitution. Case dismissed on its merits The trial was scheduled on September 12, 2005, and was expected to run for 16 days. The presiding judge determined two issues to be decided in the trial. The first issue was to determine if anthroposophy is a religion for Establishment Clause purposes - the defendants contended it was not. The second issue, which required first an affirmative ruling that anthroposophy is a religion for Establishment Clause purposes, would decide whether the public schools in those two districts were promoting anthroposophy to an extent that violated the U.S. Constitution. The trial convened as scheduled, but ended in 30 minutes after PLANS failed in their legal burden to present an offer of proof (proffer) of evidence sufficient to prove anthroposophy was a religion. PLANS' attorney told the court PLANS could not meet its burden, and that as a result of earlier evidentiary rulings before the court, it could furnish no witnesses at trial to testify anthroposophy was a religion. PLANS did attempt to introduce one piece of documentary evidence on the religion issue. Arguments were heard, but no evidence was presented during the trial. The court ruled that PLANS failed its evidentiary burden of proof, and ordered the case be dismissed on the merits. Decision is appealed PLANS filed a notice of appeal of the decision in November, 2005. The appeal claims that the earlier rulings preventing PLANS from calling two defense expert witnesses for their own case-in-chief left them no witnesses able to give evidence that anthroposophy was a religion. The earlier rulings resulted from pretrial motions submitted six months prior to trial. The two witnesses PLANS wished to call were first disclosed by the defendants as witnesses against PLANS in the case. PLANS argues in the appeal that an automatic disclosure rule cited by the judge, though in effect at the time of trial in 2005, was not in effect in 1998 when the case was filed, and claims the witnesses were fully disclosed under the applicable rules. Case again dismissed on its merits In November 2010, the judge in the case dismissed it on its merits a second time. With the exception of one item, the Bylaws of the Anthroposophical Society, all of the plaintiff's evidence was either withdrawn before trial or excluded at trial as inadmissible hearsay. The plaintiff called one percipient witness, not friendly to their cause, and no expert witnesses. In his ruling, the judge cited the plaintiff's attempts to elicit from a percipient witness testimony only allowable from an expert witness, and their "complete failure to present percipient testimony relevant to the essential issues in the case" as already sufficient basis for an adverse judgment. He added, however, that aside from the plaintiff's effective failure to present a viable case, "the evidence suggests that anthroposophy is a method of learning which is available to anyone regardless of their religious or philosophical persuasion. Stated another way, anthroposophy is more akin to a methodology or approach to learning as opposed to a religious doctrine or organized set of beliefs." The judge concluded by giving a detailed analysis on the basis of a number of determining factors why anthroposophy should not be judged a religion for Establishment Clause purposes. Case history After its first ruling in 1999, the U.S. District Court—Eastern District of California has issued key rulings on the case in 2001, 2004 and 2005: In 2001, the Court dismissed the case. A legal precedent set earlier in a similar case in New York, though not related to Waldorf education, led the Court to find that PLANS lacked grounds to claim taxpayer standing in the case. After an appeal by PLANS, the US 9th Circuit Appellate Court in February 2003 reversed the decision on taxpayer standing by the lower court, allowing the case to proceed towards trial. In May 2004, PLANS filed a motion for summary judgment, or, in the alternative, summary adjudication, requesting that the Court rule that anthroposophy is a religion, based on material presented by PLANS. But the Court did not accept these arguments, and on 15 November 2004 denied the motion, stating that "triable issues of material fact exist as to whether Anthroposophy is a religion". The Court also provided a new opportunity for both sides to declare witnesses and evidence, with a deadline of January 2005 for disclosure of these. In April 2005, the Court issued an order outlining the trial issues and the evidentiary and procedural guidelines for the trial, scheduled for September 12, 2005. The court separated the issues, stating that it would be first necessary to try the question of whether anthroposophy was a religion, and secondly, whether anthroposophy was present in the schools. The order denied PLANS eleven witnesses, for failure by its attorney to make timely disclosure to Defendants, and 105 of PLANS' exhibits, as a result of discovery sanctions. In June, 2009, PLANS' lawyer for the case tendered his "resignation with disciplinary charges pending" from the California Bar; previous disciplinary charges in 2007 and 2008 had cited willful violations of the professional code. In August, 2010 the second trial is set to begin in federal court in Sacramento. In November, 2010 the ruling on the second trial was published, with a finding against the plaintiff (PLANS) and for the defendants. An appeal was planned with the support of the Pacific Justice Institute. In 2012, PLANS' appeal was heard by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit. The Court affirmed the 2010 ruling and the case was dismissed on its merits. History of the public activity of the group PLANS secretary Dan Dugan delivered prepared presentations to various organizations and PLANS distributed packets of prepared print materials to school boards which were at the time considering adopting Waldorf methods in their districts. Dugan also established a webpage for the organization and moderated a public email discussion list, devoted to topics on the Waldorf curriculum, anthroposophy, and to discussion related to the Waldorf schools. In February 1996, Dugan delivered a slide presentation to the school board in Twin Ridges Elementary School District. The district had been operating a Waldorf-methods charter school for two years. In response to Dugan's presentations, a local committee formed, headed by Baptist pastor, James Morton, and members of the committee argued both in public meetings and through the local media outlets that the school's teachings were in conflict with the US constitution's provision regarding the separation of church and state. Morton soon joined PLANS and took a place on its governing board. PLANS contacted the California Attorney General in March 1997, arguing for an investigation into Waldorf Methods public schools statewide, urging the officer to act immediately to end the funding of all such schools. In April 1997, Dugan delivered arguments against the public funding of Waldorf methods education to a board meeting of the Yuba County Office of Education in Marysville, California. The county operated two schools for juvenile offenders which were both engaged in an experimental project to develop a nationally-replicable Waldorf-based educational model. Shortly after this meeting, PLANS set up a picket line at one of the Yuba County Waldorf-based schools. One of the school's teachers joined the PLANS campaign and became Vice-President of their governing board. In spring 1996, PLANS made its first contact with the Sacramento Unified School District to urge district officials there to discontinue their planned Waldorf methods magnet school program. Conversion to the new program was funded in its first two years by a $491,000 federal grant, much of it used to begin training the school's faculty in the Waldorf approach. The magnet program proceeded as planned, and Waldorf methods were adopted at the beginning of the 1996/97 school year at Oak Ridge Elementary School. A parent survey conducted in the following spring indicated parents were mostly satisfied with this new teaching program. Attendance improved and none of the enrolled students applied for transfer during the district's "open enrollment" period. But 11 of the 26 teachers requested transfers from Oak Ridge School - half for personal reasons, and the rest objecting to the Waldorf teacher training or to its educational philosophy. On April 30, 1997, PLANS officials distributed leaflets entitled, "Save Oak Ridge School From the Steiner Cult". Parents formed a local committee called "Concerned Citizens for Oak Ridge School". In May, news media reported that controversial statements had been made by parents during an Oak Ridge meeting, accusing the school of teaching the students about witchcraft, human sacrifices, and religious altars, and charging that the children were being initiated into a cult. Soon after, PLANS held protests in front of the school, and picketers waved flags and anti-Waldorf signs, some demanding the termination of two staff members in the school. In a newspaper interview in May, Dugan commented on the independent Waldorf school in Davis: "They believe that there are spirits behind everything. I know there are people who would call that evil. (They) would consider anthroposophy a satanic religion." Dugan, described the educators as "misguided", not "evil". In the summer of 1997, district officials voted unanimously to continue the Waldorf-methods magnet program, but to relocate it to another campus, John Morse Elementary. PLANS sought legal assistance and found lawyer Scott Kendall, an attorney affiliated with the Christian evangelical legal organization, the Pacific Justice Institute (PJI). The PJI applied for a grant on behalf of PLANS, seeking to raise funds from the evangelical Alliance Defense Fund (ADF) to initiate PLANS' legal suit against public school districts operating Waldorf methods schools. The PJI application alleged the Sacramento school engaged in "Wicca"-based practices, religious proselytizing and coercion, and that a third of the parents had kept their children home from school in protest. A video copy of a local televised news report about the controversy accompanied the application. ADF awarded a $15,000 grant in February 1998, and immediately after, PLANS filed suit against Sacramento City Unified School District and Twin Ridges Elementary School District, demanding a permanent injunction against the implementation of the Waldorf-methods curriculum in the schools, as well as full reimbursement for all legal costs. PLANS entered into a signed agreement with the Concerned Citizens for Oak Ridge School, promising the organization that in exchange for their efforts assisting PLANS in the lawsuit, PLANS would share one-fifth of any proceeds awarded in the event of a favorable judgement and "cost multiplier" fines imposed. In December 2000 PLANS hired a private detective to attend a voluntary Winter's Solstice celebration for kindergarten through third-graders that took place in the evening in a privately rented meeting hall. The detective videotaped the ceremony. PLANS played the tape in a presentation to a school board in Chico, California, as evidence that Waldorf teaching methods are religious. In ongoing challenges against the Waldorf methods public schools in other districts, PLANS pointedly referenced their pending lawsuit, warning that other districts too would face expensive legal challenges if they allowed Waldorf based methods in any of their schools.<ref>John Michael, "Critic of Waldorf education method urges Chico school board to reject the Blue Oak Charter School", Chico Enterprise-Record, Dec 7, 2000</ref> PLANS' challenges against Waldorf methods charter schools in the Chico Unified and Ross Valley school districts resulted in the denial of pending charter school proposals there.Ross Valley School District board minutes dated Oct 1, 2002 and Oct 28, 2003 However, the proponents of those charters soon reapplied in alternative districts nearby and both charters were accepted: the Blue Oaks Charter School, opened September 2001 under Chico's Butte County Office of Education, and the Waldorf-Inspired School of Lagunitas, opened September 2004 in the Lagunitas School District. Sacramento Unified, Twin Ridges Elementary, and Yuba County districts also continue to operate their Waldorf methods programs. Today, there are 19 public schools in California that have adopted the Waldorf methods."Waldorf style school stirs controversy", Marin Independent Journal, Aug 2003 Criticism of PLANS The Oak Ridge School in Sacramento became the target of threats and accusations that its teachers led children through witchcraft and sorcery practices in the classroom. While neither of these accusations could be attributed to PLANS, school officials accused PLANS of playing to public prejudices and paranoia, and arousing anxieties in the community by presenting a distorted view of their teachings to the parents of the school, most of whom weren't English proficient. Local picketers who joined the PLANS protest against Oak Ridge credited the PLANS leaflets as the initial source of their concerns, and the town's newspaper concurred, pointing to data from the school which indicated that since introducing Waldorf methods there had been positive impacts on absenteeism, voluntary re-enrollment, as well as overall parent satisfaction as measured shortly before PLANS' appearance at the school. The paper's editor accused PLANS of alarming parents with claims for which there was no evidence, including the suggestion that Waldorf methods were disguised witchcraft teachings. Public school officials in California's Marysville, Twin Ridges, Novato and Butte schools criticized PLANS as well; a principal in the Yuba County District, which was the target of PLANS' protests over their two Waldorf methods schools, expressed outrage over "the lies, the distortion of facts" when questioned by a reporter. In reference to the PLANS lawsuit, the Nevada County superintendent of schools characterized it as "despicable" to have to redirect moneys from teachers and curriculum to pay legal costs, and insisted there was no merit to PLANS' accusations. The accuracy and expertise of PLANS officials also came under attack during lawsuit witness hearings. Six of the PLANS board directors and advisors sought to testify as expert witnesses in the case, but each was eliminated due to their lack of expertise on the subjects of anthroposophy and Waldorf education: three were eliminated by the court judge, and the other three subsequently withdrawn voluntarily by PLANS' attorney, Kendall. After reviewing key sections of the deposition testimony taken of PLANS' most vocal spokesperson, Dugan, the judge expressed "grave doubts about any reliance upon his opinions about anything that has to do with any intellectual endeavor, including anthroposophy" before ruling that Dugan would not be allowed to give testimony in the trial. When PLANS succeeded in convincing board members in Ross Valley and Chico school districts to vote against proposed Waldorf methods charters there, both proposals were welcomed by other school districts nearby, allowing the new schools to go forward.,Ivan Gale, "Lagunitas approves Waldorf school", Point Reyes Light, Mar 25, 2004 Local news commentators in one of the targeted communities castigated their local school district for caving to PLANS' threat of a lawsuit, and showcased the episode as one of the most notably "boneheaded or downright wrong things" of the past year. The Anthroposophical Society in America (ASA), which is the legal representative of anthroposophy in the United States, has challenged PLANS over PLANS' characterizations of anthroposophy, as well as PLANS' suggestion that the anthroposophical movement has a direct interest or involvement in the growth of Waldorf teaching methods in the public schools. These were two claims PLANS made in its May 28, 2004, "Motion for Summary Judgement". Though not a direct party to the case, the ASA petitioned the court's permission to respond to this trial motion as a friend of the court. The court granted ASA's petition and, in July 2004, the organization submitted an 18-page legal brief to the court challenging PLANS' assertions. Argumentation by Waldorf methods charter schools and PLANS Advocates of public Waldorf education claim that Waldorf methods (charter) schools should be able to receive public funding. PLANS claims that although Waldorf representatives often state that a public "Waldorf methods" program has been structured so as not to violate the U.S. Constitution, these schools nevertheless have religious underpinnings. Private Waldorf schools celebrate religious festivals and observe religious holidays, for instance. PLANS asserts that in public Waldorf methods schools these activities are not always avoided and are sometimes simply renamed. PLANS alleges that morning verses recited in the public school in which children thank the sun for its warmth are actually prayers, and claim that the sun is a metaphor Steiner used to refer to Christ. In public Waldorf methods schools in the U.S., "God" has been removed from the verse and replaced with "the Sun" to avoid violation of the U.S. Constitution. PLANS claims this is a cosmetic and not a substantive change. PLANS also claims that not only private, but also public, Waldorf methods schools are anthroposophical institutions. According to PLANS, public Waldorf teachers are required in most cases to take Waldorf teacher training in which they are asked to read works almost exclusively by Rudolf Steiner, the founder of Waldorf education, the focus of which are Steiner's tenets of anthroposophy. The two Waldorf methods public schools PLANS brought to court presented numerous witnesses and introduced documents which contradicted this claim. The judge ruled that PLANS could not introduce evidence taken in the context of the private and independent Waldorf schools to argue their case against the public Waldorf-methods schools. The court ruled that private schools are separate entities, and insisted evidence be limited to policies and practices in effect within the litigated public school districts. The two schools furnished statements and documents in this case showing that the teachers in their Waldorf methods schools were held to the same state mandated training and credential requirements as the teachers in other public schools in those districts. In response to a demand to prepare a complete list of all Waldorf-related documents and reading materials related to training or instruction in Waldorf teaching methods, neither school district identified a single text written by Rudolf Steiner. Betty Staley, the Rudolf Steiner College staff member who developed the public teacher training program, testified the college's 1993-1994 Teacher Training Booklists did not apply to the public teacher training program, and that only one of the texts from the lists, Steiner's Philosophy of Freedom, was used by the program. In their trial case, PLANS did not repeat their claim that these or other texts by Steiner were required in the public Waldorf-methods teacher training. However, they did claim that the schools "provide[d] books for its teachers that are filled with Anthroposophical doctrine", and that teachers were "hire[d] because of their Anthroposophical training." According to Staley's testimony, references to spirituality were eliminated from the public Waldorf teachers’ training materials to meet state standards. One teacher who had participated in this program before adopting Waldorf methods in her teaching in the Oak Ridge, and later John Morse schools, reported that Steiner’s philosophy was alluded to in her training and that teachers who wanted to learn more could pay for their own classes, but that most of her colleagues from Morse did not pursue any anthroposophical training in the course of becoming public Waldorf methods teachers. PLANS claims the basis of anthroposophy is esoteric Christianity. In court documents, PLANS argued that Rudolf Steiner considered himself a Christian and that he considered anthroposophy to be a Christian form of theosophy and Rosicrucianism. PLANS argued that Steiner himself described anthroposophy as a training to access skills of psychic awareness latent in each human being, and argued that the discipline "spiritual science" is not a true science nor philosophy, but a theology. PLANS acknowledged that Steiner's supporters frequently concede the spiritual foundations of anthroposophy and Waldorf education, but claimed they make a false distinction between spiritual and religious''. PLANS considered anthroposophy to be part of a New Age religious movement, characterized by its seekers' rejection of orthodoxy and creedal forms of religious expression in favor of a more eclectic and individualized path of spiritual-psychological transformation, a process which PLANS claimed to be generally acknowledged as "religious experience". PLANS wanted the court to agree that Waldorf methods schools lead students through New Age rituals and interpret them as religious practices. It also wanted the court to agree that in the schools, anthroposophy permeates every subject, and that the underlying theory of the education is based on theology, not philosophy. In order to do this, PLANS first needed to convince the court that anthroposophy was a religion. This attempt was unsuccessful, and PLANS seeks to reverse the decision in appeals court. Waldorf educators and public Waldorf methods education Some supporters of Waldorf education have suggested that Waldorf education does not belong in government schools. Eugene Schwartz is a prominent teacher and author who has stated that he agreed with Dugan that Waldorf education could not properly be separated from anthroposophy. In Schwartz's view, although Waldorf education is not sectarian, the children are intended to have inwardly religious experiences. In his speech he exemplified this with the way the origin and history of the Jews is taught in grade three in independent Waldorf schools. Schwartz was fired from his position at a teaching college shortly after the speech, and in a later interview, claimed there were many other Waldorf teachers who agreed with him but were afraid to speak out. In Schwartz's opinion, Waldorf education has the goal of making "everything sacramental", and that "willing, feeling, and thinking" are "soul forces" which are intentionally brought to every aspect of the education. Schwartz objected to educators who would reject the movement's religious aspect to suit the requirements of public education. In the interview, Schwartz lamented the fact that, in his view, public Waldorf methods schools are watered-down imitations of authentic Waldorf education. Schwartz has since become an active promoter of Waldorf education in charter and public schools. References External links PLANS web site Schooled in spirituality Article about Waldorf methods schools and PLANS litigation, Sacramento News and Review, February 3, 2005. Alternative education organizations
4182178	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houmt%20El%20Souk	Houmt El Souk	Houmt Souk ( ), meaning literally: "The Market neighbourhood", is a commune and the main town of the island of Djerba, Tunisia. A popular tourist destination, it is best known for its traditional souk and the Aghlabid fortress. It is located at approximately from Ajim and from El Kantara by the Roman road. It is also the chief town and a municipality with 75,904 inhabitants. The city's population is 44,555 inhabitants . The city developed on the old site of a Roman city called Gerba or Girba, and was the birthplace of two Roman Emperors, Trebonianus Gallus and his son Volusianus. History The city as it is today developed on the site of an ancient Roman city called Gerba or Girba, which shared its name with the island. Many besides the Romans lived there, including Numidians, Punics, Arabs, Spanish, and Turks; the town was also home to many merchants and pirates for many years. The Battle of Djerba took place in the northern part of the city. Close to the fort is a large village which served as a market; cattle and woolen cloth were traded there, as were dried grapes. Under the French protectorate (1881–1956) the island was divided into twelve sheikhates. French soldiers entered the town on 28 July 1881, and it remained a garrison until 1890, when its administration passed to civil French authority. In 1956, upon Tunisian independence, it became the capital of Djerba. Geography Houmt Souk is located on a plain on the northern coast of Djerba. There is an artesian well, called Bir Erroumi, 767 m deep, which was dug under French rule. The city is divided into several districts; the three major ones are Taourit, Boumellel and Hara El K' will bira, which in turn includes neighbourhoods such as Fatou, Thouirane, Houmet Eljouamaa and Binibandou. These three districts are located in the northern part of town. The climate of the city is moderate, with a semi-arid tendency, and receives a breeze from the sea in summer. Architecture Due to the density of the city center, its architectural character sometimes differs from that of the rest of the island. The typical menzel may especially be noticeably different; in addition, a new architectural style in which the courtyard is missing may be seen in some more modern houses. Dominant colors remain sharp white for masonry and sky blue for doors and windows. The city has several small streets connected by arcades, and there are a number of covered souks like that of Errbaâ, or the more recent Central Market. Fondouks in town, dating back several centuries, often follow the same building style; a generally square courtyard with a group of stores may be found at ground level, along with a door with a heavy lock. This is sometimes joined by an attic window in the area were goods were stored. Animals, carts and equipment were sheltered in the yard. The first floor, reached by a single staircase, has a gallery supported by columns and arches; this is often the point of access for a number of rooms or storerooms. Many such buildings may still be seen in the downtown area, where they have been turned into hotels and youth hostels; some have even become tourist malls. The coastal area, formerly deserted, is becoming increasingly urbanized. Religious buildings As befits a Muslim country, mosques are numerous in the city, and their architecture varies greatly. Several are built in a style native to the island, among which is the Jemaâ El Ghorba (literally mosque from abroad) of the Maliki rite. The Jemaâ Ettrouk (mosque of the Turks), of the Hanafi rite, dates back to the 18th century and is equipped with a minaret typical of Ottoman style. There is also the Sidi Brahim El Jemni, built in 1674, with a roof with multiple vaults and a zaouia containing the tomb of a saint. These three mosques are classified as historic buildings. Sidi Bouakkazine, located near the public library, is built of centuries-old green tiles, and also houses a zaouia with a saint's tomb. Called Lella Gmira, this is visited most often by women suffering from infertility; they wash and light a candle there in the hope of gaining a blessing, and perhaps giving birth. A little further out of town, on the road to Ajim, may be seen the Sidi Bouzid of the Ibadi rite. Sidi Salem and Sidi Youssef are located on the new speedway to the airport, and the Jemaâ Ejdid may be seen on the road to Mellita. Jamaâ Echeikh, Jemaâ El Bassi and Jemaâ El Guellal are in the same neighborhood in the south-east of Houmt Souk. Legends surround a number of the town's mosques. Sidi Zitouni, located not far from Jamaâ Ettrouk and which houses another saint's tomb as well as the Museum of Arts and Popular Traditions, is one of them. According to lore, the mosque is inhabited by djinns that appear only in the early evening. Consequently, Djerbians will leave the mosque only at sunset. Another story concerns Jemaâ El Guellal: supposedly a potter in the eighteenth century put his pots, which had taken months to craft, on a cart to be taken to market. While on the road the cart overturned, dropping its contents to the ground. The potter nevertheless decided to save what he could, discovering with great astonishment that all his wares were intact. Upon selling them, and seeing divine intervention in the episode, he chose to build a mosque at the site of the accident. Jamâa Tajdid, whose construction was begun in the nineteenth century and entrusted to Abou Messeouar, is on the road to Midoun. Messeouar completed the work with the help of his son. There are several small synagogues in Hara El K'bira and Hara Sghira districts, the latter being a community of around 100 Jews. In addition, a Catholic church may be found in the center of town, and a Greek Orthodox structure is located near the port, by the hotel Lottos, one of the island's first hotels. Borj El K'bir Fort The Borj El K'bir is a castle and fort that was constructed on the waterfront in 1432 under Sultan Abû Fâris `Abd Al `Azîz Al-Mutawakkil. It is also known as Borj El Ghazi Mustapha because it was added to significantly between 1560 and 1567, during the reign of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. A commemorative statue in marble, originally sealed in one of the fort's interior walls, is now on display at the Bardo National Museum in Tunis. Excavations have been made within the structure, revealing much of its history; some of the artifacts discovered are now on display inside one of the rooms of the fort. From the top of the walls may be had a panoramic view over the port; also visible from this location is the nine-meter-high obelisk which indicates the site of Borj-er-Rous, the Tower of Skulls, built using the bones of Dragut's enemies executed after his victory, in July 1560, against a coalition made up of soldiers from Spain, Naples, Sicily, Lombardy, Germany, France, and the Knights of Malta. The tower was conical in shape, 34 feet in diameter at its base. It was removed in 1848 under orders from the capital. Today the bones are buried in the Christian cemetery of the city. The obelisk which replaced the tower was constructed under the rule of France. Just opposite the fort, behind the old city hospital, there exists a cistern, dating back to Roman times, which is used for the collection of rainwater. Other buildings of note Among the other characteristic buildings, one can quote the fondouks, lodging warehouses for the goods. The cupola of the combatants (Goubbat El Moujahdine), near Jemaâ Ettrouk, is a small square construction, with wrought iron, which shelters three tombs that of venerated inhabitants of Houmt Souk and is regarded as a zaouïa. There is the Hammam El Barouni, a Turkish bath which goes back to several centuries and which, renovated on several occasions, continues to be used. Old bakeries, workshops of weaving (of which the architecture is particular in Djerba) with their half-vaults and their triangular pediment of Greek style and the old wells (with their large wings) which were useful for the irrigation of the fields of barley, of sorghum and pulses also have a typical architecture. The Errbaâ souk, market hall formed in a labyrinth with the roofs in semi-vaults, gathered the craftsmen tailors, shoe-makers, jewellers. Its doors closed at the falling night and much of stores remained closed on Saturdays taking into account the high number of Jewish tradesmen and craftsmen who had their graves there. The market is currently very popular with tourists. A large theatre in the open air, built in 2004 between the zone of the port and Borj El K' to bir, shelters the great cultural events including those of the annual festival of Ulysses. Houmt Souk counts several schools as well primary as secondary (of which several colleges and colleges) but also a post office (in a characteristic building going back to French protectorate), several banks, a public hospital and several private clinics, several pharmacies, a tourist bureau and a trade unions initiative. There is also several small hotels built under the French protectorate. Demographics Houmt Souk is the most populated city of Djerba; it only shelters with it more of the third of the population of the island. Houmt Souk and its neighbourhoods have a very high density: it was already of 474 inhabitants per km² in 1956 whereas the average of the island was of 127 inhabitants per km² and that of the remainder of Tunisia of 27 inhabitants per km². Maltese, Muslims, Italians, French, Arab-Berber, Greeks, Jews and Christians (Catholic and Greek Orthodox) have lived a long time side by side in Houmt Souk. From the 1950s a migratory movement primarily turned towards France reduced the population considerably; European and Jewish inhabitants of Houmt Souk. Several thousand Jews were concentrated in Hara El K' will bira, a district formerly exclusively Jewish and where the density remains very high. This district saw many Muslim families coming from the south of Tunisia after the departure of Jewish families, and this especially after independence. One of the districts of Houmt Souk, called Houmet Ejjoumaâ, is inhabited in majority by families coming from Beni Khedache. These families have brought different traditions, including celebration of religious holidays. The Muslim population of Houmt El Souk is mostly Maliki Sunni. Culture The coexistence of various ethnicities (in particular Sephardi Jews and black African) and of various religious beliefs contributed to the richness and the variety of the cultures and traditions of this locality. The island of Djerba is a true mosaic of cultures and traditions and even the accent of its inhabitants varies from one locality to another, thus the Houmt Souk accent is different from the other localities. Museums Houmt Souk contains a museum of arts which presents a panorama of Djerba history. Installed in an old a zaouïa built at the end of the 18th century to honour of Sidi Zitouni and Sidi Ameur, not far from the "Mosque from Abroad", it is possible to discover the folklore of the island, its traditions and its economy from jewels and colored glass, pottery, weaving looms, and the traditional costumes of various social groups, kitchen utensils, one workshop of pottery, and jars which were used to preserve foodstuffs such as barley, sorghum, olive oil or dried meat. These earthenware jars bear different names ( sefri, khabia' ' , tass' ' or zir) and their opening depends on the intended products to be preserved there. Clothes The inhabitants of Djerba, in particular the women, wear traditional costumes which may also differ between locality. The women of Houmt Souk do not normally wear a hat contrary to the woman of Guellala, for whom the traditional hat is an important accessory. The woman of Houmt Souk typically drape themselves in a white dress, without embroidery. However, the veil often has different names and colors in other localities of island: and may be navy blue with small squares with Guellala or Midoun or embroidered white of red and yellow with Mahboubine or Mellita; and named fouta or hrem. The Jews of Houmt Souk, both male and female wear traditional clothes similar to those of the Muslim inhabitants but who can however be distinguished by a black band at the bottom of the trousers, known as a seroual arbi. With the interior, the woman of Houmt Souk typically wear a houli, multicoloured, made out of cotton or natural silk and increasingly in modern society out of synthetic fibre. Under this may be embroidered sleeves called hassara or khabbaia. The clothing of the men in Houmt Souk also differs from that of the Djerbiens of the other localities of the island. Traditions Much of the practices and the cultural traditions of the city are also different from those of the other localities. These include ceremonies of marriage, circumcision, religious holidays, etc. Traditionally, in new year the children of Houmt Souk went from house in house and sang typical songs (like ' ' khachia, khachiiti, waatini khachiiti... ' '), sometimes disguised as characters called Guerdellif and Aljia, which played a spectacle of song and dance and received gifts of money, dried fruits or confectionary. During the three days of Aïd el-Fitr, also called Arfa Kaddhabia, Arfa Es or Arfa will el-Kebira, the children enjoy a greater freedom: and typically receive gifts of money from their parents and visit the market, often in groups to buy toys, and items for the house particularly for the kitchen. During the new year the families of Houmt Souk still nowadays send to their married daughters a large meal, often dried meat (' ' kaddid' ') sheep or calf killed at the time of the festival, with hard boiled eggs, chick peas and broad beans. The woman who receives such a dish offers in return a gift of money for the giver. Economy Tourism brought a certain prosperity to the local population. The city counts a multitude of restaurants and souvenir shops which attract a varied crowd daily, with tourists coming mostly from Europe. The Houmt Souk economy rests primarily on the trade of the markets. Houmt Souk is famous for its souk markets which attracts the inhabitants of the neighbouring areas as well as tourists. There are several specialised markets that existing catering for cattle, fish, fruit and vegetables, herbs and spices, goldsmiths, antique dealers, ironmongers, etc. On the island each important locality has its own market day such as, for example, Friday for Midoun or Sunday for Guellala whereas Houmt Souk has two of them: Monday and Thursday. The Tunisian Craft industry employees many craftsman. If the artisanal activities are varied in the city, those related to wool are perhaps the most popular. One of the survivors of the Battles of Djerba said in 1560, according to a book reproduced by Charles Monchicourt “the inhabitants weave with fine wool of very beautiful baracans (covers) out of thin fabric, and decorate silk longer than an ordinary carpet”. Weaving, performed on the island for over 1,000 years grew during the 19th century which turned it into one of the principal textile centres for wool in North Africa, and remains, in spite of the competition of textile industries an important activity in Houmt Souk The wool industry employs a larger number of families and the activities range from washing in sea water, washing in the sun, then come carding, spinning, dyeing and then weaving followed by marketing. It is an important source of revenue as well for women although carding and the spinning mill of wool are traditionally female activities and dyeing, weaving and marketing traditionally carried out by the men. The manufacture of carpet with embroidery is traditionally a female activity which developed considerably with the rise of tourism. The jewellery, formerly practised exclusively by the Jewish craftsmen (specialised especially in partitioned jewels encrusted with hard stones of various colours) is currently practised by young Muslim craftsmen. The work of leather, and in particular the shoe manufacture and the manufacture of bags in camel skins, as well as the basket making also developed with the new market offered by tourism. Houmt Souk has one port, primarily oriented towards fishing. There are great quantities of terra cotta jars which are used for the fishing with octopus, a delicacy of Houmt Souk. The supply of engines and ensuring the traffic of the heavy goods and passengers between Tunis and Sfax is also performed at the port. In 1964, Houmt Souk counted 297 boats and 746 "marins". The fish caught is sold fresh but certain species such as a small fish called ouzaf play a big role in the local cuisine. A fish cannery was built with the port to preserve the fish. In addition to fishing, the port is used nowadays for excursions towards the island of which is used as a refuge for migratory birds; in particular for pink flamingos as well as dolphins which can sometimes be observed off the city coastline. One of the traditions of Houmt Souk is the sale of fish through bidding and the shouting by the town crier. The fishermen thread fish fished in chains, and deliver them to the town crier after having been informed of the minimum price. The town crier, seated on a high chair, conducts the auction. Due to the islands strong dependency on tourism, it experienced difficulties following the 2015 Sousse attacks, which saw tourism to the island, and Tunisia as a whole, plummet. Although tourism to Tunisian resorts had since recovered, the island too has been affected by the 2019-2020 COVID-19 pandemic which again has badly impacted the tourism industry. References External links Official site for Houmt Souk Lexicorient Populated places in Tunisia Populated coastal places in Tunisia Communes of Tunisia Djerba
4182449	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablet%20computer	Tablet computer	A tablet computer, commonly shortened to tablet, is a mobile device, typically with a mobile operating system and touchscreen display processing circuitry, and a rechargeable battery in a single, thin and flat package. Tablets, being computers, have similar capabilities, but lack some input/output (I/O) abilities that others have. Modern tablets largely resemble modern smartphones, the only differences being that tablets are relatively larger than smartphones, with screens or larger, measured diagonally, and may not support access to a cellular network. Unlike laptops (which have traditionally run off operating systems usually designed for desktops), tablets usually run mobile operating systems, alongside smartphones. The touchscreen display is operated by gestures executed by finger or digital pen (stylus), instead of the mouse, touchpad, and keyboard of larger computers. Portable computers can be classified according to the presence and appearance of physical keyboards. Two species of tablet, the slate and booklet, do not have physical keyboards and usually accept text and other input by use of a virtual keyboard shown on their touchscreen displays. To compensate for their lack of a physical keyboard, most tablets can connect to independent physical keyboards by Bluetooth or USB; 2-in-1 PCs have keyboards, distinct from tablets. The form of the tablet was conceptualized in the middle of the 20th century (Stanley Kubrick depicted fictional tablets in the 1968 science fiction film 2001: A Space Odyssey) and prototyped and developed in the last two decades of that century. In 2010, Apple released the iPad, the first mass-market tablet to achieve widespread popularity. Thereafter, tablets rapidly rose in ubiquity and soon became a large product category used for personal, educational and workplace applications. Popular uses for a tablet PC include viewing presentations, video-conferencing, reading e-books, watching movies, sharing photos and more. As of 2021 there are 1.28 billion tablet users worldwide according to data provided by Statista, while Apple holds the largest manufacturer market share followed by Samsung and Lenovo. History The tablet computer and its associated operating system began with the development of pen computing. Electrical devices with data input and output on a flat information display existed as early as 1888 with the telautograph, which used a sheet of paper as display and a pen attached to electromechanical actuators. Throughout the 20th century devices with these characteristics have been imagined and created whether as blueprints, prototypes, or commercial products. In addition to many academic and research systems, several companies released commercial products in the 1980s, with various input/output types tried out. Fictional and prototype tablets Tablet computers appeared in a number of works of science fiction in the second half of the 20th century; all helped to promote and disseminate the concept to a wider audience. Examples include: Isaac Asimov described a Calculator Pad in his novel Foundation (1951) Stanisław Lem described the Opton in his novel Return from the Stars (1961) Numerous similar devices were depicted in Gene Roddenberry's Star Trek: The Original Series (1966) Arthur C. Clarke's newspad was depicted in Stanley Kubrick's film 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) Douglas Adams described a tablet computer in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy and the associated comedy of the same name (1978) The science fiction TV series Star Trek: The Next Generation featured tablet computers which were designated as PADDs, notable for (as with most computers in the show) using a touchscreen interface, both with and without a stylus (1987) A device more powerful than today's tablets appeared briefly in The Mote in God's Eye (1974) The Star Wars franchise features datapads, first described in print in the 1991 novel Heir to the Empire, and depicted on screen in the 1999 feature film, Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace Further, real-life projects either proposed or created tablet computers, such as: In 1968, computer scientist Alan Kay envisioned a KiddiComp; he developed and described the concept as a Dynabook in his proposal, A personal computer for children of all ages (1972), which outlines functionality similar to that supplied via a laptop computer, or (in some of its other incarnations) a tablet or slate computer, with the exception of near eternal battery life. The target audience was children. In 1979, the idea of a touchscreen tablet that could detect an external force applied to one point on the screen was patented in Japan by a team at Hitachi consisting of Masao Hotta, Yoshikazu Miyamoto, Norio Yokozawa and Yoshimitsu Oshima, who later received a US patent for their idea. In 1992, Atari showed developers the Stylus, later renamed ST-Pad. The ST-Pad was based on the TOS/GEM Atari ST platform and prototyped early handwriting recognition. Shiraz Shivji's company Momentus demonstrated in the same time a failed x86 MS-DOS based Pen Computer with its own graphical user interface (GUI). In 1994, the European Union initiated the NewsPad project, inspired by Clarke and Kubrick's fictional work. Acorn Computers developed and delivered an ARM-based touch screen tablet computer for this program, branding it the "NewsPad"; the project ended in 1997. During the November 2000 COMDEX, Microsoft used the term Tablet PC to describe a prototype handheld device they were demonstrating. In 2001, Ericsson Mobile Communications announced an experimental product named the DelphiPad, which was developed in cooperation with the Centre for Wireless Communications in Singapore, with a touch-sensitive screen, Netscape Navigator as a web browser, and Linux as its operating system. Early tablets Following earlier tablet computer products such as the Pencept PenPad, and the CIC Handwriter, in September 1989, GRiD Systems released the first commercially successful tablet computer, the GRiDPad. All three products were based on extended versions of the MS-DOS operating system. In 1992, IBM announced (in April) and shipped to developers (in October) the ThinkPad 700T (2521), which ran the GO Corporation's PenPoint OS. Also based on PenPoint was AT&T's EO Personal Communicator from 1993, which ran on AT&T's own hardware, including their own AT&T Hobbit CPU. Apple Computer launched the Apple Newton personal digital assistant in 1993. It used Apple's own new Newton OS, initially running on hardware manufactured by Motorola and incorporating an ARM CPU, that Apple had specifically co-developed with Acorn Computers. The operating system and platform design were later licensed to Sharp and Digital Ocean, who went on to manufacture their own variants. Pen computing was highly hyped by the media during the early 1990s. Microsoft, the dominant PC software vendor, released Windows for Pen Computing in 1992 to compete against PenPoint OS. The company launched the WinPad project, working together with OEMs such as Compaq, to create a small device with a Windows-like operating system and handwriting recognition. However, the project was abandoned two years later; instead Windows CE was released in the form of "Handheld PCs" in 1996. That year, Palm, Inc. released the first of the Palm OS based PalmPilot touch and stylus based PDA, the touch based devices initially incorporating a Motorola Dragonball (68000) CPU. Also in 1996 Fujitsu released the Stylistic 1000 tablet format PC, running Microsoft Windows 95, on a 100 MHz AMD486 DX4 CPU, with 8 MB RAM offering stylus input, with the option of connecting a conventional Keyboard and mouse. Intel announced a StrongARM processor-based touchscreen tablet computer in 1999, under the name WebPAD. It was later re-branded as the "Intel Web Tablet". In 2000, Norwegian company Screen Media AS and the German company Dosch & Amand Gmbh released the "FreePad". It was based on Linux and used the Opera browser. Internet access was provided by DECT DMAP, only available in Europe and provided up to 10Mbit/s. The device had 16 MB storage, 32 MB of RAM and x86 compatible 166 MHz "Geode"-Microcontroller by National Semiconductor. The screen was 10.4" or 12.1" and was touch sensitive. It had slots for SIM cards to enable support of television set-up box. FreePad were sold in Norway and the Middle East; but the company was dissolved in 2003. Sony released its Airboard tablet in Japan in late 2000 with full wireless Internet capabilities. In the late 1990s, Microsoft launched the Handheld PC platform using their Windows CE operating system; while most devices were not tablets, a few touch enabled tablets were released on the platform such as the Fujitsu PenCentra 130 or Siemens's SIMpad. Microsoft took a more significant approach to tablets in 2002 as it attempted to define the Microsoft Tablet PC as a mobile computer for field work in business, though their devices failed, mainly due to pricing and usability decisions that limited them to their original purpose – such as the existing devices being too heavy to be held with one hand for extended periods, and having legacy applications created for desktop interfaces and not well adapted to the slate format. Nokia had plans for an Internet tablet since before 2000. An early model was test manufactured in 2001, the Nokia M510, which was running on EPOC and featuring an Opera browser, speakers and a 10-inch 800×600 screen, but it was not released because of fears that the market was not ready for it. Nokia entered the tablet space in May 2005 with the Nokia 770 running Maemo, a Debian-based Linux distribution custom-made for their Internet tablet line. The user interface and application framework layer, named Hildon, was an early instance of a software platform for generic computing in a tablet device intended for internet consumption. But Nokia did not commit to it as their only platform for their future mobile devices and the project competed against other in-house platforms and later replaced it with the Series 60. Nokia used the term internet tablet to refer to a portable information appliance that focused on Internet use and media consumption, in the range between a personal digital assistant (PDA) and an Ultra-Mobile PC (UMPC). They made two mobile phones, the N900 that runs Maemo, and N9 that run Meego. Before the release of iPad, Axiotron introduced an aftermarket, heavily modified Apple MacBook called Modbook, a Mac OS X-based tablet computer. The Modbook uses Apple's Inkwell for handwriting and gesture recognition, and uses digitization hardware from Wacom. To get Mac OS X to talk to the digitizer on the integrated tablet, the Modbook was supplied with a third-party driver. Following the launch of the Ultra-mobile PC, Intel began the Mobile Internet Device initiative, which took the same hardware and combined it with a tabletized Linux configuration. Intel codeveloped the lightweight Moblin (mobile Linux) operating system following the successful launch of the Atom CPU series on netbooks. In 2010, Nokia and Intel combined the Maemo and Moblin projects to form MeeGo, a Linux-based operating system supports netbooks and tablets. The first tablet using MeeGo was the Neofonie WeTab launched September 2010 in Germany. The WeTab used an extended version of the MeeGo operating system called WeTab OS. WeTab OS adds runtimes for Android and Adobe AIR and provides a proprietary user interface optimized for the WeTab device. On September 27, 2011, the Linux Foundation announced that MeeGo would be replaced in 2012 by Tizen. Modern tablets Android was the first of the 2000s-era dominating platforms for tablet computers to reach the market. In 2008, the first plans for Android-based tablets appeared. The first products were released in 2009. Among them was the Archos 5, a pocket-sized model with a 5-inch touchscreen, that was first released with a proprietary operating system and later (in 2009) released with Android 1.4. The Camangi WebStation was released in Q2 2009. The first LTE Android tablet appeared late 2009 and was made by ICD for Verizon. This unit was called the Ultra, but a version called Vega was released around the same time. Ultra had a 7-inch display while Vega's was 15 inches. Many more products followed in 2010. Several manufacturers waited for Android Honeycomb, specifically adapted for use with tablets, which debuted in February 2011. Apple is often credited for defining a new class of consumer device with the iPad, which shaped the commercial market for tablets in the following years, and was the most successful tablet at the time of its release. iPads and competing devices were tested by the US military in 2011 and cleared for secure use in 2013. Its debut in 2010 pushed tablets into the mainstream. Samsung's Galaxy Tab and others followed, continuing the trends towards the features listed above. In March 2012, PC Magazine reported that 31% of U.S. Internet users owned a tablet, used mainly for viewing published content such as video and news. The top-selling line of devices was Apple's iPad with 100 million sold between its release in April 2010 and mid-October 2012, but iPad market share (number of units) dropped to 36% in 2013 with Android tablets climbing to 62%. Android tablet sales volume was 121 million devices, plus 52 million, between 2012 and 2013 respectively. Individual brands of Android operating system devices or compatibles follow iPad with Amazon's Kindle Fire with 7 million, and Barnes & Noble's Nook with 5 million. The BlackBerry PlayBook was announced in September 2010 that ran the BlackBerry Tablet OS. The BlackBerry PlayBook was officially released to US and Canadian consumers on April 19, 2011. Hewlett-Packard announced that the TouchPad, running WebOS 3.0 on a 1.2 GHz Qualcomm Snapdragon CPU, would be released in June 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced the discontinuation of the TouchPad, due to sluggish sales. In 2013, the Mozilla Foundation announced a prototype tablet model with Foxconn which ran on Firefox OS. Firefox OS was discontinued in 2016. The Canonical hinted that Ubuntu would be available on tablets by 2014. In February 2016, there was a commercial release of the BQ Aquaris Ubuntu tablet using the Ubuntu Touch operating system. Canonical terminated support for the project due to lack of market interest on April 5, 2017 and it was then adopted by the UBports as a community project. As of February 2014, 83% of mobile app developers were targeting tablets, but 93% of developers were targeting smartphones. By 2014, around 23% of B2B companies were said to have deployed tablets for sales-related activities, according to a survey report by Corporate Visions. The iPad held majority use in North America, Western Europe, Japan, Australia, and most of the Americas. Android tablets were more popular in most of Asia (China and Russia an exception), Africa and Eastern Europe. In 2015 tablet sales did not increase. Apple remained the largest seller but its market share declined below 25%. Samsung vice president Gary Riding said early in 2016 that tablets were only doing well among those using them for work. Newer models were more expensive and designed for a keyboard and stylus, which reflected the changing uses. As of early 2016, Android reigned over the market with 65%. Apple took the number 2 spot with 26%, and Windows took a distant third with the remaining 9%. In 2018, out of 4.4 billion computing devices Android accounted for 2 billion, iOS for 1 billion, and the remainder were PCs, in various forms (desktop, notebook, or tablet), running various operating systems (Windows, macOS, ChromeOS, Linux, etc.). Since the early 2020s, various companies such as Samsung are beginning to introduce foldable technology into their tablets. Types Tablets can be loosely grouped into several categories by physical size, kind of operating system installed, input and output technology, and uses. Slate The size of a slate varies, but slates begin at 6 inches (approximately 15 cm). Some models in the larger than 10-inch (25 cm) category include the Samsung Galaxy Tab Pro 12.2 at 12.2 inches (31 cm), the Toshiba Excite at 13.3 inches (33 cm) and the Dell XPS 18 at 18.4 inches (47 cm). As of March 2013, the thinnest tablet on the market was the Sony Xperia Tablet Z at only 0.27 inches (6.9 mm) thick. On September 9, 2015, Apple released the iPad Pro with a screen size, larger than the regular iPad. Mini tablet Mini tablets are smaller and weigh less than slates, with typical screen sizes between . The first commercially successful mini tablets were introduced by Amazon.com (Kindle Fire), Barnes & Noble (Nook Tablet), and Samsung (Galaxy Tab) in 2011; and by Google (Nexus 7) in 2012. They operate identically to ordinary tablets but have lower specifications compared to them. On September 14, 2012, Amazon, Inc. released an upgraded version of the Kindle Fire, the Kindle Fire HD, with higher screen resolution and more features compared to its predecessor, yet remaining only 7 inches. In October 2012, Apple released the iPad Mini with a 7.9-inch screen size, about 2 inches smaller than the regular iPad, but less powerful than the then current iPad 3. On July 24, 2013, Google released an upgraded version of the Nexus 7, with FHD display, dual cameras, stereo speakers, more color accuracy, performance improvement, built-in wireless charging, and a variant with 4G LTE support for AT&T, T-Mobile, and Verizon. In September 2013, Amazon further updated the Fire tablet with the Kindle Fire HDX. In November 2013, Apple released the iPad Mini 2, which remained at 7.9 inches and nearly matched the hardware of the iPad Air. Phablet Smartphones and tablets are similar devices, differentiated by the former typically having smaller screens and most tablets lacking cellular network capability. Since 2010, crossover touchscreen smartphones with screens larger than 5 inches have been released. That size is generally considered larger than a traditional smartphone, creating the hybrid category of the phablet by Forbes and other publications. "Phablet" is a portmanteau of "phone" and "tablet". At the time of the introduction of the first phablets, they had screens of 5.3 to 5.5 inches, but as of 2017 screen sizes up to 5.5 inches are considered typical. Examples of phablets from 2017 and onward are the Samsung Galaxy Note series (newer models of 5.7 inches), the LG V10/V20 (5.7 inches), the Sony Xperia XA Ultra (6 inches), the Huawei Mate 9 (5.9 inches), and the Huawei Honor (MediaPad) X2 (7 inches). 2-in-1 A 2-in-1 PC is a hybrid or combination of a tablet and laptop computer that has features of both. Distinct from tablets, 2-in-1 PCs all have physical keyboards, but they are either concealable by folding them back and under the touchscreen ("2-in-1 convertible") or detachable ("2-in-1 detachable"). 2-in-1s typically also can display a virtual keyboard on their touchscreens when their physical keyboards are concealed or detached. Some 2-in-1s have processors and operating systems like those of laptops, such as Windows 10, while having the flexibility of operation as a tablet. Further, 2-in-1s may have typical laptop I/O ports, such as USB 3 and DisplayPort, and may connect to traditional PC peripheral devices and external displays. Simple tablets are mainly used as media consumption devices, while 2-in-1s have capacity for both media consumption and content creation, and thus 2-in-1s are often called laptop or desktop replacement computers. There are two species of 2-in-1s: Convertibles have a chassis design by which their physical keyboard may be concealed by flipping/folding the keyboard behind the chassis. Examples include 2-in-1 PCs of the Lenovo Yoga series. Detachables or Hybrids have physical keyboards that may be detached from their chassis, even while the 2-in-1 is operating. Examples include 2-in-1 PCs of the Asus Transformer Pad and Book series, the iPad Pro, and the Microsoft Surface Book and Surface Pro. Gaming tablet Some tablets are modified by adding physical gamepad buttons such as D-pad and thumb sticks for better gaming experience combined with the touchscreen and all other features of a typical tablet computer. Most of these tablets are targeted to run native OS games and emulator games. Nvidia's Shield Tablet, with an display, and running Android, is an example. It runs Android games purchased from Google Play store. PC games can also be streamed to the tablet from computers with some higher end models of Nvidia-powered video cards. The Nintendo Switch hybrid console is also a gaming tablet that runs on its own system software, features detachable Joy-Con controllers with motion controls and three gaming modes: table-top mode using its kickstand, traditional docked/TV mode and handheld mode. While not entirely an actual tablet form factor due to their sizes, some other handheld console including the smaller version of Nintendo Switch, the Nintendo Switch Lite, and PlayStation Vita are treated as an gaming tablet or tablet replacement by community and reviewer/publisher due to their capabilities on browsing the internet and multimedia capabilities. Booklet Booklets are dual-touchscreen tablet computers with a clamshell design that can fold like a laptop. Examples include the Microsoft Courier, which was discontinued in 2010, the Sony Tablet P (considered a flop), and the Toshiba Libretto W100. Customized business tablet Customized business tablets are built specifically for a business customer's particular needs from a hardware and software perspective, and delivered in a business-to-business transaction. For example, in hardware, a transportation company may find that the consumer-grade GPS module in an off-the-shelf tablet provides insufficient accuracy, so a tablet can be customized and embedded with a professional-grade antenna to provide a better GPS signal. Such tablets may also be ruggedized for field use. For a software example, the same transportation company might remove certain software functions in the Android system, such as the internet browser, to reduce costs from needless cellular network data consumption of an employee, and add custom package management software. Other applications may call for a resistive touchscreen and other special hardware and software. A table ordering tablet is a touchscreen tablet computer designed for use in casual restaurants. Such devices allow users to order food and drinks, play games and pay their bill. Since 2013, restaurant chains including Chili's, Olive Garden and Red Robin have adopted them. As of 2014, the two most popular brands were Ziosk and Presto. The devices have been criticized by servers who claim that some restaurants determine their hours based on customer feedback in areas unrelated to service. E-Reader Any device that can display text on a screen may act as an E-reader. While traditionally E-readers are designed primarily for the purpose of reading digital e-books and periodicals, modern E-readers that use a mobile operating system such as Android have incorporated modern functionally including internet browsing and multimedia capabilities; for example Huawei MatePad Paper is a tablet that uses e-ink instead of typical LCD or LED panel, hence focusing on the reading digital content while maintaining the internet and multimedia capabilities. Some E-reader such as PocketBook InkPad Color and ONYX BOOX NOVA 3 Color even came with colored e-ink panel and speaker which allowed for higher degree of multimedia consumption and video playback. The Kindle line from Amazon was originally limited to E-reading capabilities; however, an update to their Kindle firmware added the ability to browse the Internet and play audio, allowing Kindles to be alternatives to a traditional tablet, in some cases, with a more readable e-ink panel and greater battery life, and providing the user with access to wider multimedia capabilities compared to the older model. Hardware System architecture Two major architectures dominate the tablet market, ARM Ltd.'s ARM architecture and Intel's and AMD's x86. Intel's x86, including x86-64 has powered the "IBM compatible" PC since 1981 and Apple's Macintosh computers since 2006. The CPUs have been incorporated into tablet PCs over the years and generally offer greater performance along with the ability to run full versions of Microsoft Windows, along with Windows desktop and enterprise applications. Non-Windows based x86 tablets include the JooJoo. Intel announced plans to enter the tablet market with its Atom in 2010. In October 2013, Intel's foundry operation announced plans to build FPGA-based quad cores for ARM and x86 processors. ARM has been the CPU architecture of choice for manufacturers of smartphones (95% ARM), PDAs, digital cameras (80% ARM), set-top boxes, DSL routers, smart televisions (70% ARM), storage devices and tablet computers (95% ARM). This dominance began with the release of the mobile-focused and comparatively power-efficient 32-bit ARM610 processor originally designed for the Apple Newton in 1993 and ARM3-using Acorn A4 laptop in 1992. The chip was adopted by Psion, Palm and Nokia for PDAs and later smartphones, camera phones, cameras, etc. ARM's licensing model supported this success by allowing device manufacturers to license, alter and fabricate custom SoC derivatives tailored to their own products. This has helped manufacturers extend battery life and shrink component count along with the size of devices. The multiple licensees ensured that multiple fabricators could supply near-identical products, while encouraging price competition. This forced unit prices down to a fraction of their x86 equivalents. The architecture has historically had limited support from Microsoft, with only Windows CE available, but with the 2012 release of Windows 8, Microsoft announced added support for the architecture, shipping their own ARM-based tablet computer, branded the Microsoft Surface, as well as an x86-64 Intel Core i5 variant branded as Microsoft Surface Pro. Intel tablet chip sales were 1 million units in 2012, and 12 million units in 2013. Intel chairman Andy Bryant has stated that its 2014 goal is to quadruple its tablet chip sales to 40 million units by the end of that year, as an investment for 2015. Display A key component among tablet computers is touch input on a touchscreen display. This allows the user to navigate easily and type with a virtual keyboard on the screen or press other icons on the screen to open apps or files. The first tablet to do this was the GRiDPad by GRiD Systems Corporation; the tablet featured both a stylus, a pen-like tool to aid with precision in a touchscreen device as well as an on-screen keyboard. The system must respond to on-screen touches rather than clicks of a keyboard or mouse. This operation makes precise use of our eye–hand coordination. Touchscreens usually come in one of two forms: Resistive touchscreens are passive and respond to pressure on the screen. They allow a high level of precision, useful in emulating a pointer (as is common in tablet computers) but may require calibration. Because of the high resolution, a stylus or fingernail is often used. Stylus-oriented systems are less suited to multi-touch. Capacitive touchscreens tend to be less accurate, but more responsive than resistive devices. Because they require a conductive material, such as a fingertip, for input, they are not common among stylus-oriented devices but are prominent on consumer devices. Most finger-driven capacitive screens do not currently support pressure input (except for the iPhone 6S and later models), but some tablets use a pressure-sensitive stylus or active pen. Some tablets can recognize individual palms, while some professional-grade tablets use pressure-sensitive films, such as those on graphics tablets. Some capacitive touch-screens can detect the size of the touched area and the pressure used. Since mid-2010s, most tablets use capacitive touchscreens with multi-touch, unlike earlier resistive touchscreen devices which users needed styluses to perform inputs. There are also electronic paper tablets such as Sony Digital Paper DPTS1 and reMarkable that use E ink for its display technology. Handwriting recognition Many tablets support a stylus and support handwriting recognition. Wacom and N-trig digital pens provide approximately 2500 DPI resolution for handwriting, exceeding the resolution of capacitive touch screens by more than a factor of 10. These pens also support pressure sensitivity, allowing for "variable-width stroke-based" characters, such as Chinese/Japanese/Korean writing, due to their built-in capability of "pressure sensing". Pressure is also used in digital art applications such as Autodesk Sketchbook. Apps exist on both iOS and Android platforms for handwriting recognition and in 2015 Google introduced its own handwriting input with support for 82 languages. Other features After 2007, with access to capacitive screens and the success of the iPhone, other features became common, such as multi-touch features (in which the user can touch the screen in multiple places to trigger actions and other natural user interface features, as well as flash memory solid state storage and "instant on" warm-booting; external USB and Bluetooth keyboards defined tablets. Most tablets released since mid-2010 use a version of an ARM processor for longer battery life. The ARM Cortex family is powerful enough for tasks such as internet browsing, light creative and production work and mobile games. Other features are: High-definition, anti-glare display, touchscreen, lower weight and longer battery life than a comparably-sized laptop, wireless local area and internet connectivity (usually with Wi-Fi standard and optional mobile broadband), Bluetooth for connecting peripherals and communicating with local devices, ports for wired connections and charging, for example USB ports, Early devices had IR support and could work as a TV remote controller, docking station, keyboard and added connectivity, on-board flash memory, ports for removable storage, various cloud storage services for backup and syncing data across devices, local storage on a local area network (LAN). Speech recognition Google introduced voice input in Android 2.1 in 2009 and voice actions in 2.2 in 2010, with up to five languages (now around 40). Siri was introduced as a system-wide personal assistant on the iPhone 4S in 2011 and now supports nearly 20 languages. In both cases, the voice input is sent to central servers to perform general speech recognition and thus requires a network connection for more than simple commands. Near field communication with other compatible devices including ISO/IEC 14443 RFID tags. Software Current tablet operating systems Tablets, like conventional PCs, use several different operating systems, though dual-booting is rare. Tablet operating systems come in two classes: Desktop computer operating systems Mobile operating systems Desktop OS-based tablets are currently thicker and heavier. They require more storage and more cooling and give less battery life. They can run processor-intensive graphical applications in addition to mobile apps, and have more ports. Mobile-based tablets are the reverse, and run only mobile apps. They can use battery life conservatively because the processor is significantly smaller. This allows the battery to last much longer than the common laptop. In Q1 2018, Android tablets had 62% of the market, Apple's iOS had 23.4% of the market and Windows 10 had 14.6% of the market. In late 2021, iOS has 55% use worldwide (varies by continent, e.g. below 50% in South America and Africa) and Android 45% use. Still, Android tablets have more use than iOS in virtually all countries, except for e.g. the US and China. Android Android is a Linux-based operating system that Google offers as open source under the Apache license. It is designed primarily for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. Android supports low-cost ARM systems and others. The first tablets running Android were released in 2009. Vendors such as Motorola and Lenovo delayed deployment of their tablets until after 2011, when Android was reworked to include more tablet features. Android 3.0 (Honeycomb), released in 2011 and later versions support larger screen sizes, mainly tablets, and have access to the Google Play service. Android includes operating system, middleware and key applications. Other vendors sell customized Android tablets, such as Kindle Fire and Nook, which are used to consume mobile content and provide their own app store, rather than using the larger Google Play system, thereby fragmenting the Android market. In 2022 Google began to re-emphasize in-house Android tablet development — at this point, a multi-year commitment. Android Go A few tablet computers are shipped with Android Go. Fire OS As mentioned above, Amazon Fire OS is an Android-based mobile operating system produced by Amazon for its Fire range of tablets. It is forked from Android. Fire OS primarily centers on content consumption, with a customized user interface and heavy ties to content available from Amazon's own storefronts and services. ChromeOS Several devices that run ChromeOS came on the market in 2017–2019, as tablets, or as 2-in-1s with touchscreen and 360-degree hinge. HarmonyOS HarmonyOS (HMOS) () is a distributed operating system developed by Huawei to collaborate and interconnect with multiple smart devices on the Internet of Things ecosystem. In its current multi-kernel design, the operating system selects suitable kernels from the abstraction layer for devices with diverse resources. For IoT devices, the system is known to be based on LiteOS kernel; while for smartphones and tablets, it is based on a Linux kernel layer with AOSP libraries to support APK apps using ART through the Ark Compiler, in addition to native HarmonyOS apps. iPadOS The iPad runs on iPadOS. Prior to the introduction of iPadOS in 2019, the iPad ran iOS, which was created for the iPhone and iPod Touch. The first iPad was released in 2010. Although built on the same underlying Unix implementation as macOS, its user interface is radically different. iPadOS is designed for touch input from the user's fingers and has none of the features that required a stylus on earlier tablets. Apple introduced multi-touch gestures, such as moving two fingers apart or together to zoom in or out, also termed pinch to zoom. iPadOS and iOS are built for the ARM architecture. Kindle firmware Kindle firmware is a mobile operating system specifically designed for Amazon Kindle e-readers. It is based on a custom Linux kernel; however, it is entirely closed-source and proprietary, and only runs on Amazon Kindle line up manufactured under the Amazon brand. Nintendo Switch system software The Nintendo Switch system software (also known by its codename Horizon) is an updatable firmware and operating system used by the Nintendo Switch hybrid video game console/tablet and Nintendo Switch Lite handheld game console. It is based on a proprietary microkernel. The UI includes a HOME screen, consisting of the top bar, the screenshot viewer ("Album"), and shortcuts to the Nintendo eShop, News, and Settings. PlayStation Vita system software The PlayStation Vita system software is the official firmware and operating system for the PlayStation Vita and PlayStation TV video game consoles. It uses the LiveArea as its graphical shell. The PlayStation Vita system software has one optional add-on component, the PlayStation Mobile Runtime Package. The system is built on a Unix-base which is derived from FreeBSD and NetBSD. Due to it capabilities on browsing the internet and multimedia capabilities, it is treat as an gaming tablet or tablet replacement by community and reviewer/publisher. Ubuntu Touch Ubuntu Touch is an open-source (GPL) mobile version of the Ubuntu operating system originally developed in 2013 by Canonical Ltd. and continued by the non-profit UBports Foundation in 2017. Ubuntu Touch can run on a pure GNU/Linux base on phones with the required drivers, such as the Librem 5 and the PinePhone. To enable hardware that was originally shipped with Android, Ubuntu Touch makes use of the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an LXC container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android. As of February 2022, Ubuntu Touch is available on 78 phones and tablets. The UBports Installer serves as an easy-to-use tool to allow inexperienced users to install the operating system on third-party devices without damaging their hardware. Windows Following Windows for Pen Computing for Windows 3.1 in 1991, Microsoft supported tablets running Windows XP under the Microsoft Tablet PC name. Microsoft Tablet PCs were pen-based, fully functional x86 PCs with handwriting and voice recognition functionality. Windows XP Tablet PC Edition provided pen support. Tablet support was added to both Home and Business versions of Windows Vista and Windows 7. Tablets running Windows could use the touchscreen for mouse input, hand writing recognition and gesture support. Following Tablet PC, Microsoft announced the Ultra-mobile PC initiative in 2006 which brought Windows tablets to a smaller, touch-centric form factor. In 2008, Microsoft showed a prototype of a two-screen tablet called Microsoft Courier, but cancelled the project. In 2012, Microsoft released Windows 8, which features significant changes to various aspects of the operating system's user interface and platform which are designed for touch-based devices such as tablets. The operating system also introduced an application store and a new style of application optimized primarily for use on tablets. Microsoft also introduced Windows RT, an edition of Windows 8 for use on ARM-based devices. The launch of Windows 8 and RT was accompanied by the release of devices with the two operating systems by various manufacturers (including Microsoft themselves, with the release of Surface), such as slate tablets, hybrids, and convertibles. Released in July 2015, Windows 10 introduces what Microsoft described as "universal apps"; expanding on Metro-style apps, these apps can be designed to run across multiple Microsoft product families with nearly identical code‍ – ‌including PCs, tablets, smartphones, embedded systems, Xbox One, Surface Hub and Windows Holographic. The Windows user interface was revised to handle transitions between a mouse-oriented interface and a touchscreen-optimized interface based on available input devices‍ – ‌particularly on 2-in-1 PCs; both interfaces include an updated Start menu. Windows 10 replaced all earlier editions of Windows. Hybrid OS operation Several hardware companies have built hybrid devices with the possibility to work with both Android and Windows Phone operating systems (or in rare cases Windows 8.1, as with the, by now cancelled, Asus Transformer Book Duet), while Ars Technica stated: "dual-OS devices are always terrible products. Windows and Android almost never cross-communicate, so any dual-OS device means dealing with separate apps, data, and storage pools and completely different UI paradigms. So from a consumer perspective, Microsoft and Google are really just saving OEMs from producing tons of clunky devices that no one will want." Discontinued tablet operating systems BlackBerry 10 BlackBerry 10 (based on the QNX OS) is from BlackBerry. As a smartphone OS, it is closed-source and proprietary, and only runs on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry. One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue to support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3. Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development. BlackBerry Tablet OS BlackBerry Tablet OS is an operating system from BlackBerry Ltd based on the QNX Neutrino real-time operating system designed to run Adobe AIR and BlackBerry WebWorks applications, currently available for the BlackBerry PlayBook tablet computer. The BlackBerry Tablet OS is the first tablet running an operating system from QNX (now a subsidiary of RIM). BlackBerry Tablet OS supports standard BlackBerry Java applications. Support for Android apps has also been announced, through sandbox "app players" which can be ported by developers or installed through sideloading by users. A BlackBerry Tablet OS Native Development Kit, to develop native applications with the GNU toolchain is currently in closed beta testing. The first device to run BlackBerry Tablet OS was the BlackBerry PlayBook tablet computer. Application store Apps that do not come pre-installed with the system are supplied through online distribution. These sources, termed app stores, provide centralized catalogs of software and allow "one click" on-device software purchasing, installation and updates. Mobile device suppliers may adopt a "walled garden" approach, wherein the supplier controls what software applications ("apps") are available. Software development kits are restricted to approved software developers. This can be used to reduce the impact of malware, provide software with an approved content rating, control application quality and exclude competing vendors. Apple, Google, Amazon, Microsoft and Barnes & Noble all adopted the strategy. B&N originally allowed arbitrary apps to be installed, but, in December 2011, excluded third parties. Apple and IBM have agreed to cooperate in cross-selling IBM-developed applications for iPads and iPhones in enterprise-level accounts. Proponents of open source software say that the iPad (or such "walled garden" app store approach) violates the spirit of personal control that traditional personal computers have always provided. Sales Around 2010, tablet use by businesses jumped, as business began to use them for conferences, events, and trade shows. In 2012, Intel reported that their tablet program improved productivity for about 19,000 of their employees by an average of 57 minutes a day. In October 2012, display screen shipments for tablets began surpassing shipments for laptop display screens. Tablets became increasingly used in the construction industry to look at blueprints, field documentation and other relevant information on the device instead of carrying around large amounts of paper. Time described the product's popularity as a "global tablet craze" in a November 2012 article. As of the start of 2014, 44% of US online consumers owned tablets, a significant jump from 5% in 2011. Tablet use also became increasingly common among children. A 2014 survey found that mobiles were the most frequently used object for play among American children under the age of 12. Mobiles were used more often in play than video game consoles, board games, puzzles, play vehicles, blocks and dolls/action figures. Despite this, the majority of parents said that a mobile was "never" or only "sometimes" a toy. As of 2014, nearly two-thirds of American 2- to 10-year-olds have access to a tablet or e-reader. The large use of tablets by adults is as a personal internet-connected TV. A 2015 study found that a third of children under five have their own tablet device. After a fast rise in sales during the early 2010s, the tablet market had plateaued in 2015 and by Q3 2018 sales had declined by 35% from its Q3 2014 peak. In spite of this, tablet sales worldwide had surpassed sales of desktop computers in 2017, and worldwide PC sales were flat for the first quarter of 2018. In 2020 the tablet market saw a large surge in sales with 164 million tablet units being shipped worldwide due to a large demand for work from home and online learning. 2010 to 2014 figures are estimated by Gartner. 2014 to 2021 figures are estimated by IDC. By manufacturer By operating system According to a survey conducted by the Online Publishers Association (OPA) now called Digital Content Next (DCN) in March 2012, it found that 72% of tablet owners had an iPad, while 32% had an Android tablet. By 2012, Android tablet adoption had increased. 52% of tablet owners owned an iPad, while 51% owned an Android-powered tablet (percentages do not add up to 100% because some tablet owners own more than one type). By end of 2013, Android's market share rose to 61.9%, followed by iOS at 36%. By late 2014, Android's market share rose to 72%, followed by iOS at 22.3% and Windows at 5.7%. As of early 2016, Android has 65% marketshare, Apple has 26% and Windows has 9% marketshare. In Q1 2018, Android tablets had 62% of the market, Apple's iOS had 23.4% of the market and Windows 10 had 14.6% of the market. Source: Strategy Analytics Use Sleep The blue wavelength of light from back-lit tablets may impact one's ability to fall asleep when reading at night, through the suppression of melatonin. Experts at Harvard Medical School suggest limiting tablets for reading use in the evening. Those who have a delayed body clock, such as teenagers, which makes them prone to stay up late in the evening and sleep later in the morning, may be at particular risk for increases in sleep deficiencies. A PC app such as F.lux and Android apps such as CF.lumen and Twilight attempt to decrease the impact on sleep by filtering blue wavelengths from the display. iOS 9.3 includes Night Shift that shifts the colors of the device's display to be warmer during the later hours. By plane Because of, among other things, electromagnetic waves emitted by this type of device, the use of any type of electronic device during the take-off and landing phases was totally prohibited on board commercial flights. On November 13, 2013, the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) announced that the use of mobile terminals could be authorized on the flights of European airlines during these phases from 2014 onwards, on the condition that the cellular functions are deactivated ("airplane" mode activated). In September 2014, EASA issued guidance that allows EU airlines to permit use of tablets, e-readers, smartphones, and other portable electronic devices to stay on without the need to be in airplane mode during all parts of EU flights; however, each airline has to decide to allow this behavior. In the US, the Federal Aviation Administration allowed use of portable electronic devices during all parts of flights while in airplane mode in late 2013. Tourism Some French historical monuments are equipped with digital tactile tablets called "HistoPad". It is an application integrated with an iPad Mini offering an interaction in augmented and virtual reality with several pieces of the visit, the visitor being able to take control of their visit in an interactive and personalized way. Professional use for specific sectors Some professionals – for example, in the construction industry, insurance experts, lifeguards or surveyors – use so-called rugged shelf models in the field that can withstand extreme hot or cold shocks or climatic environments. Some units are hardened against drops and screen breakage. Satellite-connectivity-equipped tablets such as the Thorium X, for example, can be used in areas where there is no other connectivity. This is a valuable feature in the aeronautical and military realms. For example, United States Army helicopter pilots are moving to tablets as electronic flight bags, which confer the advantages of rapid, convenient synchronization of large groups of users, and the seamless updating of information. US Army chaplains who are deployed in the field with the troops cite the accessibility of Army regulations, field manuals, and other critical information to help with their services; however, power generation, speakers, and a tablet rucksack are also necessary for the chaplains. See also Comparison of tablet computers History of tablet computers Lists of mobile computers Mobile device References External links American inventions Classes of computers
4183147	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last%20Human	Last Human	Last Human is the title of a 1995 science fiction comedy novel written by Doug Naylor. It is part of the Red Dwarf series of novels, based on the popular television show created by Naylor and his partner Rob Grant. Like the other novels, it does not take place within the television series continuity, but instead adapts situations presented on the series to occur within an alternative universe. The novel focuses on Dave Lister and his crewmates as they attempt to return to their home universe through the myriad of parallel universes that exist, becoming distracted by the search for a lost viral strain promising immortality. It also introduces Kristine Kochanski as a main character. It follows the novel Better Than Life, written by both Naylor and Grant as the writing partnership Grant Naylor. It contains dialogue and plot elements from the episodes Psirens, Demons and Angels, DNA, Quarantine, Emohawk: Polymorph II, Legion, Camille, and Gunmen of the Apocalypse. Original elements from the book would later be used in the episode Ouroboros. The character of Kristine Kochanski, as set elaborated in this book, is similar to the parallel universe character introduced in the television series in Ouroboros. An audiobook version was released, read by Craig Charles. Plot summary Cyberia Dave Lister – the last surviving human in the universe – wakes in a transport ship taking him to prison colony Cyberia, the worst place in the universe, having been found guilty of serious crimes against the GELF state and sentenced to the worst imprisonment imaginable, having been hindered by his inability to comprehend the over-complicated legal system of the GELF – and his choice of clothing, including a tie depicting a naked woman in birthing stirrups. After his welcome by the foul and grotesque Snugiraffe, the prison commandant, he is implanted and introduced into the cyber network of Cyberia where he will be forced to live out his life in a hellish dream world of his own creation. Naturally he spends a great deal of time considering where it all went wrong... Time Fork Dave Lister awakes out of Deep Sleep on the transport ship Starbug, disoriented and confused after living the last thirty six years in a backward universe. The mechanoid Kryten welcomes him back; he has been in stasis for twenty years and, not unnaturally, is suffering a spot of amnesia. He meets the rest of the crew, Kristine Kochanski, the Cat, and Rimmer. Kochanski is so happy to see him that she takes him straight to her quarters to make love. Despite still having no memory of her, Lister is caught up in the moment and happily obliges. Rimmer, meanwhile, has been able to procure a solidgram body from a derelict ship for himself allowing him to touch, eat and be three-dimensional again. Rimmer enjoys the new feelings, and spends hours looking at his restored body in a mirror. On their way through the 'Omni-Zone' – the pathway between the seven parallel realities – back to their home ship Red Dwarf, the crew are surprised to come across a derelict space craft that is the exact duplicate of Starbug. Searching the ship, the crew find the duplicate Cat's disembodied head, Kryten's murdered body with his hand missing and Rimmer's destroyed light bee. They then find the duplicate Kochanski who has been viciously attacked and is barely alive. She makes Lister promise to find his duplicate self before she succumbs to her terrible injuries. The crew soon find themselves on a GELF populated planet where the duplicate Lister was likely to have headed. Arriving, the crew find that the GELF tribe are sterile and sperm is a highly valued commodity. Of course, Lister and Cat have a 'secret store' and the crew start trading for much needed supplies. Meanwhile, Kryten finds himself in the middle of a huge protest asking the magistrate what happened to the duplicate Lister after learning he was arrested here. The magistrate explains that the duplicate Lister destroyed property and murdered several people including the magistrate. Kryten is confused, as the magistrate is clearly not dead only to learn that mystics predict crimes and the persons involved are arrested before they happen. Kryten suddenly understands what the protest is about and tells the others. Now knowing the duplicate Lister has committed no crime, Lister resolves to find him. In what is assumed to be a flash-back, Lister arrives in his cyber-hell... and is confused to find himself in what appears to be paradise. He is in a beautiful holiday home, wonderful food and drink are provided and Lister's original fear that his testicles had been detached is untrue. Lister begins to assume that 'hell' is having all his desires catered for leaving him wanting for nothing. Just as he begins settling in, he finds that there's been a mix-up and he's actually in the cyber-hell meant for a hologram named Capote who is allergic to wine and hates the architecture as it reminds him of his ex-wife. Lister is moved to his correct hell, a dank and squalid room where everything is filthy, the alarm clock never stops buzzing and the food is disgusting. Lister admits that he's slept in worse before, and begins his sentence. The crew are sent to another GELF tribe, the Kinatawowi, to get equipment they need in order to break the duplicate Lister out of Cyberia. Unfortunately, the Kinatawowi aren't sterile which causes offence when Lister and Cat offer their sperm as payment. Eventually, a deal is made; the crew will get a bunch of ramshackle droids and a virus that destroys electricity in return for Lister marrying the chief's daughter. Unfortunately, the bride wants to consummate the union immediately and the crew quickly make a run for it while the GELF promise revenge. On Cyberia, the attempt to break the duplicate Lister out begins. Although it is mostly successful, the virus causes the prison's artificial gravity to fail. Lister is caught in the floating lake water and drowns, only to be revived by his duplicate self. The two begin their escape from the prison's forces however something doesn't sit right with Lister. His duplicate, after retrieving his belongings, enjoys the fight to an alarming degree and when the two make their getaway in a vehicle the duplicate turns around when he learns that they will outrun them in order to get in some more killing making Lister realise the whole venture has been misguided. Later, as the two Listers sit around a campfire, the duplicate pulls out the hand of the duplicate Kryten holding a piece of paper from his belongings. Lister realises with horror that the duplicate Lister killed the rest of his crew and manages to knock him out and bind him with rope. However, as Starbug approaches the evil Lister throws himself into the campfire to escape his bonds and attacks. Soon, Starbug has left with the wrong Lister while the other is left buried on the planet. The Rage An Earth long ago, in a universe far away. The Earth World President, John Milhous Nixon has learned that thermonuclear tests conducted too close to the surface of the sun have fatally weakened the star's structure, thus causing an eventual decay that will see the entire solar system die in four hundred thousand years – which will be very bad for the economy, and Nixon's re-election prospects. The only hope is to move the human race to another world in another galaxy; and to that end, a genome has been created that will rewrite DNA and thus turn an inhospitable, barren world into a world where the human race can live. A mission has been organised by Dr. Michael Longman (and his clones, Dr. Longman and Dr. Longman), including numerous GELFs to assist in the process and Michael McGruder, a heroic star soldier who has accepted this mission in the hopes that he may be able to find and contact his father, the long-lost hero of an ill-fated mining ship, revived to be that ship's hologram... Arnold J. Rimmer. The real Lister, having been rescued from his makeshift grave, is trapped in Cyberia charged with orchestrating the break-out (it is made clear that it was in fact he, and not the alternate Lister, who was the subject of the "Cyberia" section and that the 'flash-back' in "Time Fork" was actually a flash-forward). Having survived his alternate self's assault and attempted murder, he is now trapped in the soul-destroying hell of his own creation, where all the places and people remind him not only of the worst places in his life, but of everything he's lost, stolen by his alternative self – his girlfriend, his ship, his life. After five months of this hell, trapped in a grungy dystopian city surrounded by prostitutes that look like Kochanski, soul-sapping advertisements about his parentless upbringing, endless showings of Chitty Chitty Bang Bang at the cinema and – perhaps worst of all – encyclopedia salesmen, he is brought out of Cyberia and given an offer; to be part of an experimental terraforming and recolonisation program. The inmates bodies will be used to terraform an inhospitable planet into a comfortable environment. All of the inmates on Cyberia are innocent, as only people without any malice or rage are able to be used for this hence people being wrongly arrested on the GELF colony (not knowing that the alternate Lister was actually guilty of murder when he was incarcerated there as they were charging him on smuggling cases where they knew he was innocent). Unable to stand being imprisoned in his personal hell, Lister agrees. Meanwhile, the crew of Starbug have found that the piece of paper in the duplicate Kryten's hand contained coordinates to a ship where important scientific research has been conducted. As it is a long trip to the ship, the Mayflower, the crew are placed into stasis for the journey. Kryten awakes early, in order to prepare the crew, and notices several disconcerting differences in Lister's medical records. They've got the wrong Lister. And to make matters worse, in his checking of the alternate Starbug's crew records, a cursory examination of the alternative Lister's file reveals that, following a traumatic and abusive upbringing at the hands of his manic-depressive foster mother (as opposed to the kinder, but poorer, foster parents of the proper Lister) had developed into a ruthless, sociopathic criminal. Before he can digest the alarming news, Kryten is startled by the evil Lister who has also awoken early. Just as he attempts to take out Kryten, a GELF ship sent by Lister's bride attacks. Boarding, the GELF demand what is theirs and the evil Lister tells Kryten to just give them what they want, something which Kryten is more than happy to do. The evil Lister realises too late that this means him, and he is dragged out of the airlock. As Kryten muses on this lucky turn of events he realises that Starbug is on fire. The rest of the crew wake just as Starbug plunges into the lava bed of the planet they were heading for. Before Starbug can burn up, it then ends up in an ocean created by the Mayflower. With Starbug damaged, the crew board the Mayflower and find several hundred vials of diverse viruses including positive ones that bestow luck on the infected for a time. Kochanski, after infecting herself for a short while, manages to find more luck virus as well as other vials that will come in handy. Kryten, meanwhile, finds a DNA machine and turns himself human. As part of his agreement in volunteering for the terraforming program, Lister is granted the use of a symbi-morph named Reketrebn to fulfil his desires with her shapeshifting and telepathic abilities. Reketrebn is defective, however, and intends to save herself for her boyfriend. Lister isn't interested in using her for romantic purposes and asks her to turn into Kryten so he can get information out of him- Reketrebn essentially manifesting as Kryten to give Lister confirmation of his own theories based on information he has subconsciously processed and deduced, such as subconsciously overhearing a conversation about symbi-morphs in a bar and subconsciously deducing that Rimmer was Kochanski's lover in this reality rather than his evil self- before having her turn into him so she can feel the pain he feels from losing Kochanski to his evil self. After this, Reketrebn agrees to help Lister, but their attempt to escape results in them arriving on the same ship that would have taken them to the terraforming project, save that they are now in the control cabin rather than the stasis chambers. On the planet, Lister meets Michael McGruder who was kept in deep sleep aboard the Mayflower. McGruder tells Lister that he wants to meet his hero, Rimmer, who is also his father. Thinking he will never see Rimmer again, Lister doesn't correct him. He then learns of a powerful force known as 'The Rage' created by the feelings of fury from the wrongly convicted inmates. To prevent it from killing everyone, the inmates form a circle and The Rage will move between them before choosing one person to inhabit for a few seconds, killing them. Lister joins the circle, and for the time he is consumed with The Rage all his dark feelings are brought to the fore and Lister begs it to consume him. However, it chooses another and kills him before leaving. Kryten initially revels in his humanity, but quickly grows disenchanted with the experience and decides to turn back. Doing so is easier said than done as Longman, having used the DNA machine too many times leaving him barely human, has stolen the mechanoid data. Thanks to the luck virus, Kochanski defeats Longman and Kryten is restored to his regular form. The crew then use the luck virus to find the coordinates of the planet where Lister is and head there. Reaching the planet, Lister is reunited with the rest of the crew and McGruder finally meets his father but is devastated when told he is hardly a hero but a maintenance technician. Starbug loses power once it lands, and the planet will soon be passing through the Omni-Zone into another universe where it will be allowed to thrive. Rimmer walks through a cave when he finds Michael being attacked by the evil Lister. His confusion about how the evil Lister made it there despite being removed by the Kinatowowi is put on hold, when suddenly the radiation gun the evil Lister possesses drops close to him. However Rimmer can't pluck up the courage to grab it, and the evil Lister throws imprisons him in the hold aboard Starbug with Kryten, who found the dead bodies of the four Kinatowowi who boarded earlier (the evil Lister had never left the ship, having killed his escorts before going into hiding to heal from the wounds they inflicted on him). The evil Lister emerges from the ship and locates the rest of the crew demanding the solar-powered escape pod to allow him to leave the planet. As well as this, he shoots Lister in the genitals with the radiation gun rendering him sterile. Meanwhile, The Rage is approaching again. Aboard Starbug, Kryten comes up with a plan to escape the ship using Rimmer's light bee. Although Rimmer is hesitant due to the chance the bee could be destroyed, he talks himself round and agrees to take the risk. The gambit works, and the two escape the ship. The Rage is near, however the crew come up with a plan to kill The Rage by infecting it with the same virus that was used to break into Cyberia. Kryten plans to infect it by throwing himself into The Rage, despite the fact that he won't come back. However the evil Lister attacks again, but Rimmer bravely comes forward to defend his shipmates wearing a jet-pack. McGruder is proud to see his father acting with courage, and Rimmer starts to enjoy himself feeling his neuroses slipping away. Unfortunately, this comes to a premature end when the evil Lister shoots Rimmer's light bee causing Rimmer to deactivate and the heavily damaged bee falls to the ground. The Rage is nearly upon everyone, and there's no time left to infect it with the virus. Everyone forms the circle required to prevent The Rage from killing everyone, however Lister warns that one of them will still die. The evil Lister doesn't intend for it to be him, and infects himself with the luck virus. The Rage hits, and everyone begs for it to possess them. However, thanks to the positive virus, the evil Lister is the one who is 'lucky' enough to get his wish to have The Rage consume him. He takes on the full force of the entity, which finally kills him leaving only his bones behind. Even though The Rage has passed, it must still be destroyed before the planet passes through the Omni-Zone. Suddenly Rimmer's light bee, hovering using the last of its power, uses morse code to communicate with the crew and offer to take the virus and infect The Rage with it. After saying a final goodbye to his son, who now knows that while Rimmer may not have been the hero he was raised to believe in he is still a man to be proud of, the light bee flies into The Rage and infects it with the virus stopping its destruction and allowing the souls of the inmates who created it to rest in peace. The planet starts to pass through the Omni-Zone, and the remaining crew take shelter in the caves for three weeks as the planet is pounded by storms. Emerging, everyone finds a pleasant, hospitable world growing, waiting for them. As Kryten, Cat, McGruder and Reketrebn leave to search for Rimmer's light bee in order to give him a funeral, Lister and Kochanski stare over the world. Lister sadly comments that this would be the ideal place to raise a family and help to restart the human race – a dream now impossible thanks to his alternate self. Kochanski tells him that all hope shouldn't be lost, as he could still father children if he's very lucky... and Kochanski still has some of the luck virus. Taking it, Lister and Kochanski head into the grass and get to work. Continuity Following publication of Last Human, Rob Grant also wrote a solo Red Dwarf novel, entitled Backwards. Although it also follows on from the previous novel Better Than Life, Backwards does not refer to any of the events of Last Human, and in fact includes notable differences (such as the fact that Kochanski does not appear as a character). As a result, both novels are generally considered to occur in alternative realities to each other. While the continuity of the books is more consistent than that of the series, it is not flawless. In the first novel, Arnold Rimmer is introduced as a First Technician, rather than a Second Technician as in the series; but in this novel, he tells his son Michael McGruder, that he was a Second Technician aboard Red Dwarf. Audiobook The abridged version of the Audiobook for Last Human skips over some scenes present in the book. The character of Dr. Michael Longman is completely absent and therefore the plot elements he introduces are not included. External links The Last Human 1995 British novels Red Dwarf 1995 science fiction novels British science fiction novels American science fiction novels Comic science fiction novels Dystopian novels Novels based on television series Viking Press books
4183615	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20ancient%20Iranian%20peoples	List of ancient Iranian peoples	This list of ancient Iranian peoples includes the names of Indo-European peoples speaking Iranian languages or otherwise considered Iranian ethnically or linguistically in sources from the late 1st millennium BC to the early 2nd millennium AD. Background Ancient and modern Iranian peoples mostly descend from the Proto-Indo-Iranians, common ancestors respectively of the Proto-Iranians and Proto-Indo-Aryans, this people possibly was the same of the Sintashta-Petrovka culture. Proto-Iranians separated from the Proto-Indo-Aryans early in the 2nd-millennium BCE. These peoples probably called themselves by the name "Aryans", which was the basis for several ethnonyms of Iranian and Indo-Aryan peoples or for the entire group of peoples which shares kin and similar cultures. Iranian peoples first appear in Assyrian records in the 9th century BCE. In Classical Antiquity, they were found primarily in Scythia (in Central Asia, Eastern Europe, the Balkans and the Northern Caucasus) and Persia (in Western Asia). They divided into "Western" and "Eastern" branches from an early period, roughly corresponding to the territories of Persia and Scythia, respectively. By the 1st millennium BCE, Medes, Persians, Bactrians and Parthians populated the Iranian plateau, while others such as the Scythians, Sarmatians, Cimmerians and Alans populated the steppes north of the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, as far as the Great Hungarian Plain in the west. The Saka tribes remained mainly in the far-east, eventually spreading as far east as the Ordos Desert. Ancient Iranian peoples spoke languages that were the ancestors of modern Iranian languages, these languages form a sub-branch of the Indo-Iranian sub-family, which is a branch of the family of the wider Indo-European languages. Ancient Iranian peoples lived in many regions and, at about 200 BC, they had as farthest geographical points dwelt by them: to the west the Great Hungarian Plain (Alföld), east of the Danube river (where they formed an enclave of Iranian peoples), Ponto-Caspian steppe in today's southern Ukraine, Russia and far western Kazakhstan, and to the east the Altay Mountains western and northwestern foothills and slopes and also western Gansu, Ordos Desert, and western Inner Mongolia, in northwestern China(Xinjiang), to the north southern West Siberia and southern Ural Mountains (Riphean Mountains?) and to the south the northern coasts of the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea. The geographical area dwelt by ancient Iranian peoples was therefore vast (at the end of the 1st Millennium BC they dwelt in an area of several million square kilometers or miles thus roughly corresponding to half or slightly less than half of the geographical area that all Indo-European peoples dwelt in Eurasia). During Late Antiquity, in a process that lasted until Middle Age, the Iranian populations of Scythia and Sarmatia, in the western (Ponto-Caspian) and central (Kazakh) Eurasian Steppe and most of Central Asia (that once formed a large geographic area dwelt by Iranian peoples), started to be conquered by other non-Iranian peoples and began to be marginalized, assimilated or expelled mainly as result of the Turkic peoples conquests and migrations that resulted in the Turkification of the remaining Iranian ethnic groups in Central Asia and the western Eurasian steppe (by the Xiongnu, the Huns and Hunnic Empire, Göktürks and Göktürk Empire, Oghuz Turks, etc.). Germanic (Goths), Slavic (like the Kievan Rus) and later Mongolian (Mongol Empire) conquests and migrations also contributed to the decline of the Iranian peoples in these regions. By the 10th century, the Eastern Iranian languages were no longer spoken in many of the territories they were once spoken, with the exception of Pashto in Central Asia, Ossetic in the Northern Caucasus and Pamiri languages in Badakhshan. Most of Central Asia and the western Eurasian steppe was almost completely Turkified. However, in most of the southern regions, corresponding to the Iranian Plateau and mountains, more densely populated, Iranian peoples continued to be most of the population and remained so until modern times. Various Persian empires flourished throughout Antiquity, however, they fell to the Islamic conquest in the 7th century, although other Persian empires formed again later. Ancestors Proto-Indo-Europeans (Proto-Indo-European speakers) Proto-Indo-Iranians (common ancestors of the Iranian, Nuristani and Indo-Aryan peoples) (Proto-Indo-Iranian speakers) Proto-Iranians (Proto-Iranian speakers) Ancient Iranian Peoples Mentioned in the Avesta Airyas Ahiryas Dahis (possible ancestors of the Dahae or Dasa) Sainus Sairimas Tuiryas Turanians - an ancient Iranian ethnic group, their land was called Turan, a word that later was applied to the lands north of Iran and the Iranian Plateau and mountains, i.e. all Central Asia (including Transoxiana). (in the Avesta "Turan" had the meaning of an Iranian tribe, only later the name had the meaning of lands inhabited by Turkic tribes). Yashtians East Iranians Northeast Iranians (Northern East Iranians) Saka / Sacans (Sakā) / Scytho-Sarmatians - Sarmatians and Scythians, Scythian cultures peoples of the Western (or Ponto-Caspian steppe), Central (or Kazakh steppe) Eurasian steppe and Central Asia that spoke several Scytho-Sarmatian Iranian languages and had a kin and similar culture. The name Sakā was an Old Persian generic word for all Iranian speaking peoples, Scythians, Sarmatians and others, that lived in the Eurasian Steppe and were nomad or semi nomadic pastoralists/herders) Western Saka (Western Scytho-Sarmatians) (Scythians in a narrow sense - the Scythian culture peoples that lived in the Ponto-Caspian steppe, the west part of the Eurasian Steppe) Scythians / Scoloti (Skolotoí / Saka) (Sakā para Draya - "Sakas Beyond the Sea" - The Sea was the Pontus Euxinus / Black Sea) (the Old Persian word "Saka" covered both Scythians and Sarmatians) Achaei (Acae) Agavi Scythae Core Scythians Arpoxaians-Colaxaians-Lipoxaians Arpoxaians (descendants of Arpoxais, possible eponym) Catiari / Katiaroi Traspies Colaxaians (descendants of Colaxais, possible eponym) Paralatae / Royal Scythians Spalaei / Spali / Palaei / Pali Lipoxaians (descendants of Lipoxais, possible eponym) Auchetae / Euchatae Asampatae Athernei Hamaxobii Lower Danube Scythians (a small tribal group of Scythians that took refuge in the areas of today's Dobrogea) Crimean Scythians (a small tribal group of Scythians that took refuge in the areas of today's Crimea) Tauri Scythae / Tauroscythae, Tauri Scythians or Scythianized Tauri, they lived in the plains of Northern Taurica or Tauris Peninsula (today called Crimea) Eastern Saka (Eastern Scytho-Sarmatians) (Scythians in the broad sense of Scythian culture peoples) (in a narrow sense, Eastern Saka refers to the Iranian nomadic or seminomadic pastoralist peoples that lived in the central part of the Eurasian steppe or Kazakh steppe and Central Asia, they were called "Sarmatians" by the Greeks and "Saka" by the Persians) (the Old Persian word "Saka" covered both Scythians and Sarmatians) Central Asian Sakas / Central Asia Scytho-Sarmatians Core Central Asian Sakas / Core Central Asian Scytho-Sarmatians Amyrgians (Sakā haumavargā - Soma Drinkers/Gatherers Sakas) (Sakā para Sugudam - Sakas Beyond Sogdiana, may have been the same as the Sakā haumavargā i.e. the Amyrgians, the Greek name for the same people) (roughly in today's Ferghana Valley and basin, parts of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrghyzstan) Anaraci Aspisi / Aspisii Cachassae Chauranaci Southwest Central Asian Sakas / Southwest Central Asian Scytho-Sarmatians Dahae-Amardi Dahae / Dahas / Dasa Parni / Aparni (tribe where Arsaces I became chief, later he became the first king of Parthia, he was the founder of the Arsacid Dynasty, that ruled the Parthian Empire; several ancient authors said he was of Scythian or Bactrian origin) Pissuri Xanthii Amardians / Mardians (initially they lived in Southwest Central Asia, however they migrated southwest towards central Alborz Mountains and plains of southern Caspian Sea coast and later they became assimilated into Northwestern Iranians subgroup of Western Iranians) Tapurians / Tapuri / Tapuraei (initially they lived in Southwest Central Asia, however they migrated southwest toward Tapuria, in the east Alborz Mountains and plains of the southeastern Caspian Sea coast, and later they became assimilated into Northwestern Iranians subgroup of Western Iranians) (origin of the name Tapuristan or Tabaristan, the land where they went living) Massagetae / Orthocorybantians (Sakā tigraxaudā - Pointy Hoods / Pointed Hats Sakas or Scythians) (Massagetae and Sakā Tigraxaudā or Orthocorybantians, as they were known by the Greeks, may have been different names for the same people) Apasiacae Iaxartae (they lived along the Iaxartes river banks (modern Syr Darya) Norossi Tectosaces (not to be confused with the Celtic Tectosages) Sakas (in a modern narrow sense the northernmost and easternmost Scytho-Sarmatians, including those who lived in the Tarim Basin, where Tocharians also dwelt) Scytho-Siberians (in southern West Siberia and northern Kazakhstan, in the upper Irtysh, Ishim, Tobol and Ob' river courses regions) Abii / Gabii Altay-Sayan Sakas / Altay-Sayan Scythians / Altay-Sayan Scytho-Sarmatians (they were part of the Scythian cultures ethnic and linguistic continuum; they lived in the Altay and western slopes of the Sayan Mountains and possibly they were the people that formed the Pazyryk culture) (possibly they conquered or expelled the older Afanasievo culture people, which were possibly descendant from the Proto-Tocharians) (there is the strong possibility that Proto-Turkics were influenced by the Altay-Sayan Sakas and vice versa and also to a possibility of an ethnic mixing in this region between larger West Eurasian and East Eurasian populations) Galactophagi ("Milk Drinkers" / "Milk Eaters") (real or legendary people) Galactopotae (real or legendary people) Hippemolgi ("Mare-Milkers") (real or legendary people) Hippophagi ("Horse Eaters") (real or legendary people) Thyssagetae Sacaralae (Eastern Central Asia Saka) (roughly in today's central and eastern Kazakhstan) - they lived in the Chu and Sarysu river basins and their desert areas, and in the Ili river and Lake Balkash basin and most part of the Tian Shan mountains northern slope (also known as Tengri Tagh or Tengir-Too mountains). Tarim Basin Sakas (mainly in the western and southern regions) Gumo Sakas / Tumshuq Sakas (they lived in today's Tumshuq region and city) (they spoke Tumshuqese or Tumshuqese Saka, a Northeast Iranian language or dialect) Kashgar Sakas (they lived in Kashgar city and region) Khotan Sakas (they lived in the Khotan region, known as Gaustana in Sanskrit and Prakrit texts) (they spoke Khotanese or Khotanese Saka, a Northeast Iranian language or dialect) Indo-Scythians / Indo-Sakas (a group of Sakas that migrated towards East Iranian Plateau, Indus valley and India) Sarmatians Proper / Sauromatae Aorsi-Alans (two closely related Sarmatian tribes or the same tribe known by different names) Aorsi (they lived northeast of the Siraces) (Yancai or Yentsai was the Chinese name of a State that could be identical with an Aorsi one) Lower Aorsi (Western Aorsi) Upper Aorsi (Eastern Aorsi) (from northern Caspian Sea coast to the northern Aral Sea coast) (identical with the Alans?) Alans (a closely related people or tribe with the Aorsi Sarmatians or the same people known by two different names) (Aryan > Alyan > Alan) (Ossetians / Irættæ are a modern branch) (also called "Melanchlaeni" - "Black-Cloaks", not to be confused with other two peoples called by that same name that were: the "Melanchlaeni" - "Black-Cloaks" of Pontus, and the "Melanchlaeni" - "Black-Cloaks" of the far north) Iasi (Iasi / Jassi / Jasz are descendants from a group of Alans that migrated westward, they are related but not identical to the oldest Iazyges) Roxolani (an offshoot and eastern branch of the Alans) Banat Roxolani (a branch of the Roxolani that migrated westward) Agaragantes / Arcaragantes (Free Sarmatians) Cissianti Iazyges / Iazyges Metanastae / Iaxamatae Khorouathoi / Choruathi / Haravati (their name may have influenced the ethnonym of the Croats but are not necessarily their ancestors or of most of them) Phoristae Rhymnici, they dwelt along Rha river banks (today's Volga) in the steppe area (the adjective seems to derive from the name "Rha" or "Rā", the Scythian name for the Volga river) (Oares was the Greek name for this river) Rimphaces Serboi (their name may have influenced the ethnonym of the Serbs but are not necessarily their ancestors or of most of them) Siraci / Siraces Spondolici Urgi Khwarezmians-Sogdians Chorasmians / Khwarezmians Sogdians - the people that lived in Sogdiana, possible ancestors of the Yaghnobis (Kangju – Chinese name of a State probably identical to the Sogdians) Southeast Iranians (Southern East Iranians) Arachosians / Arachoti Eoritae Musarnaei Pactyans / Pakthas (possible ancestors of the Pakhtuns / Pashtuns) The Greek historian Herodotus mentioned a people called Pactyan living on the eastern frontier of the Achaemenid Arachosia Satrapy as early as the 1st millennium BCE. Par(g)yetae Rhoplutae Sidri Arians Proper / Arii Borgi Casirotae Ariaspae / Evergetae Bactrians Chomari Comi Drepsiani Oxiani Parsii Salatarae Trybactae Zariaspae Drangians / Drangae / Zarangians / Zarangae Gedrosians / Gedrosii / Gedroseni Aparytae Arabitae / Arbies Iranian Ichthyophagi / Iranian Ichthyophagoi (Iranian Fish-Eaters) Oritae Paricanians / Paricanii / Oreitae / Orae (from Old Persian Barikânu - Mountain people) Rhamnae Margians Drachamae Mycae West Iranians Northwest Iranians (Northern West Iranians) Aenianes Astabeni Carduchi / Corduchi / Cyrtaei / Cyrtii (mentioned by Strabo, and possible ancestors of the Kurds according to Muhammad Dandamayev) (See "Carduchi" in Encyclopædia Iranica) Derbiccans / Derbiccae / Derbices (oldest inhabitants of the land later known as Tapuristan or Tabaristan and part of Hyrcania before the arrival of the Tapures or Tapuri) Dribyces Gelae / Gilites (possible ancestors of the Gilaks), although associate they were not the same people as the Cadusii Hyrcani, they lived in Hyrcania Medes Arizanti Budii Busae Magi (Median tribe from where, over time, many of the Zoroastrian priests came, it was a priestly tribe for the Zoroastrian religion, somehow similar to the role Levites, from the Tribe of Levi, had in Judaism, the religion of the ancient Hebrews, Jews or Israelites) Paraetaceni / Paraetacae / Paraetaci Sidices Struchates Vaddasi Parthians Nisaei (in the region of Nisa, first capital of the Parthians, Parthia) Seven Parthian clans (Seven Great Houses of Iran) (tribe of seven clans) - Ispahbudhan / Aspahbadh (seat was in Gurgan), Karen / Karen-Pahlavi (Kārēn-Pahlaw) (seat was in Nahavand), Mihran / Mehrān (seat was in Ray), Spandiyadh / Spendiad / Isfandiyar (seat was in Ray), Suren (seat was in Sakastan or Sistan, ancient Zaranka, Zranka or Drangiana), Varaz (seat was in Eastern Khorasan), Zik (seat was in Adurbadagan or Aturpatakan, called Atropatene by the Greeks, today's modern Iranian Azerbaijan) ("House" was synonym of "Clan") Indo-Parthians / Suren Parthians (origin in the Suren Parthians) Vitii Southwest Iranians (Southern West Iranians) Carmanians / Garmanians (Carmani / Garmani) / Germani / Germanii (a variant of Carmani, i.e. Carmanians, not to be confused with the Germanic peoples of Europe, that were also Indo-European peoples but from another branch or subfamily) Arae Chudi Isatichae Proto-Persians (Parsua / Parsumash) Persians Dai Derusiaei Dropici Maraphii (one of the three main and leading ancient Persian tribes) Mardi / Southern Mardi Maspii (one of the three main and leading ancient Persian tribes) Panthialaei Pasargadae (one of the three main and leading ancient Persian tribes, this was the tribe that contained the clan of the Achaemenids, House of Achaemenes, from which Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian Empire, was a member) ("House" was synonym of "Clan") (Pasargadae, the first capital of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, was in the land of this tribe and took its name from them) Pateischoreis Rhapses Sagartians / Asagartians (their exact location is unknown; according to Herodotus (1.125, 7.85) they were related to the Ancient Persians, which dwelt in southwestern Iran and spoke a southwestern Iranian language) (there is the possibility, by phonetic change, that their name survives in the name of the Zagros Mountains if they were identical to the Zikirti; there is also the possibility that they dwelt in northeastern Iran, south of the Parthians, and not in the Zagros mountains) Sassanians (tribe that contained the clan of the House of Sasan, that gave the name to the tribe, from which Ardashir I, founder of the Sassanian Empire, was a member) ("House" was synonym of "Clan") Soxotae Stabaei Suzaei Utians Ancient peoples of uncertain origin with possible Iranian background or partially Iranian Mainly Iranian Background Iranian Huns (Xwn / Xyon / Hunas) (mostly Iranian descendants from the nomadic Sakas, although many in the ruling class may have been Xunyu or Xiongnu Turkic in origin and related to the Huns or Western Huns that invaded many parts of the Western Eurasian steppe and Late Antiquity Europe) Nezak Huns Red Huns / Kermichiones (Red = Southern) Alchon Huns / Alchono Huns Kidarites / Kermichiones (Karmir Xyon) White Huns (Spet Xyon / Sveta Huna) (White = Western) Hephthalites / Uar (Ebodalo) Xionites / Chionites / Chionitae Iranians mixed with other non-Iranian peoples Dacian-Iranian Agathyrsi Tyragetae (may have been a mixed Daco-Getae - Iranian people, or just a Dacian-Getae people or tribe and not an Iranian one) Greek-Iranian Gelonians / Geloni (Helonians / Heloni), people of partially Greek and partially Scythian descent. Northwest Caucasian-Iranian Maeotians, a group of peoples that dwelt in the Maeotian Lake (Azov Sea) and Palus Maeotis (Don river delta swamps) that may have been Cimmerians, Iranian people (Scythians), West Caucasian people (Circassians / Adyghe) with an Iranian overlordship or a mixture of Iranian and West Caucasian peoples Agri Arrechi Aspurgiani Dandarii Dosci Ixomates Obidiaceni Sindi / Sindes / Sindones / Sindianoi Sittaceni Tarpetes Toreatae Slavic-Iranian Antes, may have been a Slavic people and not an Iranian one or a mixed Iranian and Slavic people. Thracian-Iranian Cimmerians, they could have been a people of Thracian-Dacian origin with an Iranian overlordship, a mixture of Thracians and Iranians or a missing link between Indo-Iranian peoples and Thracians and Dacians. Mixed peoples that had some Iranian component Celtic-Germanic-Iranian Bastarnae, an ancient people who between 200 BC and 300 AD inhabited the region between the Carpathian Mountains and the river Dnieper, to the north and east of ancient Dacia - one possible origin of the name is from Avestan and Old Persian cognate bast- "bound, tied; slave" (cf. Ossetic bættən "bind", bast "bound"), and Proto-Iranian arna - "offspring" Atmoni / Atmoli Peucini / Peucini Bastarnae (a branch of the Bastarnae that lived in the region north of the Danube Delta) Sidoni / Sidones Possible Iranian or Non-Iranian peoples Iranian or other Indo-European peoples Iranian or Anatolian (Indo-European) Cappadocians or Leucosyri (White Syrians) (a possible Anatolian Indo-European people and not an Iranian one) Iranian or Germanic Taifals (Taifali / Taifalae) Iranian or Indo-Aryan Dadicae / Daradai / Daradas (Darada > Darda > Dard?) (may have been possible ancestors of the Dards, an Indo-Aryan people, and not an Iranian one), they dwelt in the region of the upper course of the Indus, in modern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Gilgit area of the modern Gilgit-Baltistan, both in Pakistan and also in Kashmir Valley and Chenab Valley in India. Sattagydans, people that dwelt in Sattagydia (Old Persian Thataguš; th = θ, from θata - "hundred" and guš - "cows", country of the People of "Hundred Cows"), may have been an Iranian people of Sindh with Indo-Aryan influence or the opposite, an Indo-Aryan people of Sindh with Iranian influence. Sogdi (Sogdoí), people that inhabited where today is the Sibi Division valley in Balochistan, between Balochistan and Sindh, and most of the Larkana Division, and parts of the Sukkur Division to the west of the Indus river, in Sindh, their main city was called Sogdorum Regia (maybe today's Sukkur) by the ancient Greek and Roman authors, and was on the Indus river banks. They may have been, as the name could tell, a branch of the Sogdians, the "Indus Sogdians", in a region of the west Indus valley or they also may have been an Indo-Aryan people of the Indus valley with a coincidental name with the Sogdians. Shakya - a clan of Iron age India (1st millennium BCE), habitating an area in Greater Magadha, on the foothills of the Himalaya mountains. Some scholars argue that the Shakya were of Scythian (Saka) origin and assimilated into Indo-Aryan peoples. Siddhartha Gautama (also known as Buddha or Shakyamuni - Sage of the Shakyas) (c. 6th to 4th centuries BCE), whose teachings became the foundation of Buddhism, was the best-known Shakya. Iranian or Nuristani Kambojas / Komedes / Kapisi / Rishikas / Tambyzoi / Ambautae - a people that lived in a country called Kumuda, probably in what is now part of Afghanistan. There are different views among scholars about their ethnic and linguistic kinship. According to some they are possible ancestors of Pamir peoples in the Pamir Mountains, roughly Badakhshan region of Tajikistan and Afghanistan and parts of the Hindu Kush or Paropamisus in east central Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan) According to other scholars they were an old transitional people between Iranian and Indo-Aryan peoples and as such they may have been the ancestors of the Nuristani people (until the end of the 19th century they were known as Kafirs because they were not Muslims, and practiced an ancient Indo-Iranian religion like today the Kalash people). In Antiquity, one of the regions that they dwelt was in the southern and eastern slopes of the Paropamisus Mountains (today's Hindu Kush in east central Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan) Ambautae Ashvakas / Assacenii / Assacani / Aspasii (Aspasians): A few scholars have linked the historical Afghans (modern Pakhtuns/Pashtuns) to the Ashvakas (the Ashvakayanas and Ashvayanas of Pāṇini or the Assakenoi and Aspasio of Arrian). The name Afghan is said to have derived from the Ashvakan of Sanskrit texts. Ashvakas are identified as a branch of the Kambojas. This people was known, by Greek and Roman authors, as Assakanoi and Assacani. The similarity of the name Assacani with the name Sacae/Sacans/Sakas made that the two peoples were confused by Greeks and Romans (as is shown in map 11 regarding the Pamir mountains on the upper right edge). However the Pamir mountains were dwelt by the Asvaka Kambojas and not by the Sacans although they were related peoples (they were both East Iranians, however the Asvaka Kambojas were or Southeast Iranians or ancestors of the Nuristani while the Sacans/Sakas, Scythians or Sarmatians, were Northeast Iranians). Apracharajas Cabolitae, in the region of Kabul (today's capital of Afghanistan), part of the old Kingdom of Kapisa Indo-Kambojas Western Kambojas (spread and scattered in Sindhu, Saurashtra, Malwa, Rajasthan, Punjab and Surasena) Eastern Kambojas (some formed the Kamboja-Pala Dynasty of Bengal) Parama Kambojas, Kumuda or Komedes, of the Alay Valley or Alay Mountains, north of Hindukush / Paropamisus in today's far southern Kyrgyzstan and far northern Tajikistan. They formed the Parama Kamboja Kingdom. In ancient Sanskrit texts, their territory was known as Kumudadvipa and it formed the southern tip of the Sakadvipa or Scythia. In classical literature, this people are known as Komedes. Indian epic Mahabharata designates them as Parama Kambojas Homodotes Rishikas, some historians believe the Rishikas were a part of, or synonymous with, the Kambojas. However, there are other theories regarding their origins. Tambyzi / Tambyzoi Iranian or Slavs Limigantes (may have been a non-Sarmatian subject people - slaves or serfs of the Sarmatians, some scholars think they were Slavs) Iranian or Thracian Sigynnae Iranian or Thracian-Iranian (Cimmerian) or Northwest Caucasian Tauri, they lived in the mountains of Southern Taurica or Tauris Peninsula (today's Crimea); non scythianized Tauri. Arichi Napaei Sinchi Iranian or Tocharian There are different or conflicting views among scholars regarding the ethnic and linguistic kinship of the peoples known by the Han Chinese as Wusun and Yuezhi and also other less known peoples (a minority of scholars argue that they were Tocharians, based, among other things, on the similarity of names like "Kushan" and the native name of "Kucha" (Kuśi) and the native name "Kuśi" and Chinese name "Gushi" or the name "Arsi" and "Asii", however most scholars argue that they were possibly Northeastern Iranian peoples) Argippaei Asii / Issedones / Wusun (may have been the same people called by different exonym names) Asii / Asioi / Osii, an ancient Indo-European people of Central Asia, during the 2nd and 1st Centuries BCE, known only from Classical Greek and Roman sources. Issedones, people that lived north and northeast of the Sarmatians and Scythians in Western Siberia or Chinese Turkestan (Xinjiang) (may have been the same people as the Asii or Asioi). Wusun - some speculate that they were the same as the Issedones / Essedones Gushi or Jushi or Gushineans (an obscure ancient people that lived in two regions: in the Turpan Basin, i.e. Chinese Jushi or Gushi, including Khocho or Qočo, known in Chinese as Gaochang; and also in a large northern region, roughly in many parts of the region later known as Dzungaria, south of the Altay Mountains; they were the basis of the Gushi or Jushi Kingdom. They spoke a language that eventually diverged into two dialects, as noted by diplomats from the Han empire) (they may have been one of the peoples misnamed "Tocharians", speakers of Tocharian A?) (there are different views among scholars about their ethnic and linguistic kinship) Nearer Gushi / Anterior Gushi, in the Turpan Basin Further Gushi / Posterior Gushi, the region north of the Turpan Basin, 10 km north of Jimasa, 200 km north of Jiaohe, roughly in Dzungaria. Yuezhi / Gara? (an ancient Indo-European speaking people, in the western areas of the modern Chinese province of Gansu, during the 1st millennium BC, or in Dunhong, in the Tian Shan, later they migrated westward and southward into south Central Asia, in contact and conflict with the Sogdians and Bactrians, and they possibly were the people called by the name Tocharians or Tukhara, which was possibly an Iranian speaking people not to be confused with another people misnamed or not as "Tocharians") (according to the Iranian historian Jahanshah Derakhshani the Kochi or Kuchi people, a group of nomadic Ghilji or Ghilzai Pakhtun, are descendants from the Yuezhi that were assimilated into the Pakhtun, the name derives from Guci, formerly Chinese: 月氏; pinyin: Yuèzhī) Greater-Yuezhi (Tu Gara?) (Dà Yuèzhī – 大月氏) (Tu Gara > Tu Kara? > Tu Khara?) Possibly the Iranian Tocharians (not to be confused with the peoples called "Tocharians" in a misnomer) (possibly they were the ancestors of the Kushans) Tusharas (Tukharas?), could have been identical with the Greater-Yuezhi, the greater part of Yuezhi, are the people that migrated from western Gansu and after from the Ili Valley, migrated southward and settled in Tukhara, another name for Bactria after the invasion of the Iranian Tocharians that came from the north and northeast (not to be confused with the peoples mistakenly called "Tocharians" which were of another Indo-European branch of peoples) Kushans (Chinese: 貴霜; pinyin: Guìshuāng), they were the basis of the Kushan Empire) Lesser-Yuezhi (Xiǎo Yuèzhī – 小月氏) Iranian, Tocharian or Turkic Ordos culture people (in the Upper or North Ordos Plateau or the Ordos Desert) (if ancient Indo-European, they would have been the easternmost people) (they may have been a people closely related to the Yuezhi) Iranian or Non-Indo-European peoples Iranian or Northeast Caucasian Cadusii, warlike people living just north of Medes with possible Iranian or Caucasian origin. Caspians, were a people of antiquity who dwelt along the southern and southwestern shores of the Caspian Sea, in the region known as Caspiane. Iranian or Turkic Xiongnu (ruling class) The Xiongnu could also be synonymous with the Huns, that are assumed to be a Turkic people, although there is not certainty or consensus about this matter. Iranian or Ugric Iyrcae / Iyrkai, people that lived northeast of the Thyssagetae, they dwelt in far southwestern Siberia, in the upper basins of the Tobol and the Irtysh rivers, possibly they are the ancestors of the Ugrian peoples, Khanty and Mansi and the more distantly related Magyars (Hungarians), they are speakers of Uralic languages and not Iranian. These peoples were collectively called Yugra, where the adjective "Ugric" comes from (possible phonetic change: Iurka > Iukra > Iugra > Jugra or Yugra; J = English Y; u or ü, Ancient Greek y = ü). They were culturally influenced by ancient Iranian peoples (including language borrowings). The name "Iyrcae" sometimes was wrongly spelt as "Tyrcae" "(Türkai)" by ancient authors (like Pliny the Elder and Pomponius Mela) but there is no connection to the Turkic peoples (Turks). Semi-legendary peoples (inspired by real Iranian peoples) Amazons-Gargareans Amazons, a semi-legendary people or tribe of women warriors (an all-female tribe) that Greek authors such as Herodotus and Strabo said to be related to the Scythians and the Sarmatians, however, there could be some historical background for a real people with Iranian etymology (ha-mazan- "warriors") that lived in Scythia and Sarmatia, but later became the subject of wild exaggerations and myths. Ancient authors said that they guaranteed their continuity through reproduction with the Gargareans (an all-male tribe). Gargareans, a semi-legendary people or tribe only formed by men (an all-male tribe), however, there could be some historical background for a real people, but later became the subject of wild exaggerations and myths. Ancient authors said that they guaranteed their continuity through reproduction with the Amazons (an all-female tribe). Arimaspae Arimaspae / Arimaspi / Arimphaei / Riphaeans, they lived north of the Scythians in the southeast foothills of the Riphean Mountains (Ural Mountains?), although a semi-legendary people or tribe there could be some historical background for a real people with Iranian etymology (Ariama: love, and Aspa: horses) that lived in that region but they were later turned as base for a myth, especially for the one-eyed beings that fought with the griffins. See also Iranian peoples Iranian languages List of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes List of Rigvedic tribes List of ancient Greek tribes List of ancient Germanic peoples and tribes List of ancient Slavic peoples and tribes List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes List of ancient Italic peoples References Literature H. Bailey, "ARYA: Philology of ethnic epithet of Iranian people", in Encyclopædia Iranica, v, pp. 681–683, Online-Edition, Link A. Shapur Shahbazi, "Iraj: the eponymous hero of the Iranians in their traditional history" in Encyclopædia Iranica, Online-Edition, Link R. Curzon, "The Iranian Peoples of the Caucasus", Jahanshah Derakhshani, "Die Arier in den nahöstlichen Quellen des 3. und 2. Jahrtausends v. Chr.", 2nd edition, 1999, ("The Arians in the Middle Eastern sources of the 3rd and 2nd Millennia BC") Richard Frye, "Persia", Zurich, 1963 Wei Lan-Hai; Li Hui; Xu Wenkan (2013). "The separate origins of the Tocharians and the Yuezhi: Results from recent advances in archaeology and genetics" in Research Gate External links - Source texts of ancient Greek and Roman authors - Strabo's work The Geography (Geographica). Book 11, Chapters 6 to 13, and Book 15, Chapters 2 and 3, are about regions dwelt by ancient Iranian peoples and tribes (each region has a chapter). List of Globally Famous People of Iran (M.I.T) Lists of ethnic groups Iranian Indo-European peoples
4183807	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Book%20of%20Ebenezer%20Le%20Page	The Book of Ebenezer Le Page	The Book of Ebenezer Le Page is a novel by English writer Gerald Basil Edwards first published in the United Kingdom by Hamish Hamilton in 1981, and in the United States by Alfred A. Knopf in the same year. It has since been published by Penguin books and New York Review Books in their classics series, as well as in French and Italian. It is the fictionalised autobiography of an archetypal Guernseyman, Ebenezer Le Page, who lives through the dramatic changes in the island of the Guernsey, Channel Islands from the late nineteenth century, through to the 1960s. Plot summary Ebenezer was born in the late nineteenth century and dies some time after the mid 1960s. He lived his whole life in the Vale. He is never married, despite a few flings with local girls, and a tempestuous relationship with Liza Queripel of Pleinmont. He only left the island once, to travel to Jersey to watch the Muratti. For most of his life he was a grower and fisherman, although he also served in the North regiment of the Royal Guernsey Militia (though not outside the island) and did some jobbing work for the States of Guernsey in the latter part of his life. Guernsey is a microcosm of the world as Dublin is to James Joyce and Wessex is to Hardy. After a life fraught with difficulties and full of moving episodes, Ebenezer is ready to die happy, bequeathing his pot of gold and autobiography ("The Book of Ebenezer Le Page") to the young artist he befriends, after an incident in which the latter smashed his greenhouse. Characters Ebenezer Le Page, tomato grower and fisherman Alfred Le Page, quarryman, Ebenezer's father, killed in the Boer War Charlotte Le Page, Ebenezer's mother, referred to throughout as "my mother" Tabitha Le Page ('La Tabby'), Ebenezer's sister Jean Batiste, Tabitha's husband, was killed in World War I Jim Mahy, Ebenezer's childhood friend, killed in World War I Liza Queripel, the love of Ebenezer's life William Le Page ('Uncle Willie'), Alfred's brother Nathaniel Le Page ('Uncle Nat'), Ebenezer's mother's brother Charlotte Le Page, Ebenezer's maternal grandmother Henriette Le Page ('La Hetty'), Ebenezer's mother's sister Priscille Le Page ('La Prissy'), Ebenezer's mother's sister Harold Martel, builder, married Hetty Percy Martel, Harold's brother and monumental builder married Prissy Raymond Martel, son of Hetty and Harold Horace Martel, eldest son of Percy and Prissy Cyril Martel, youngest son of Percy and Prissy, died at age 5 Christine Mahy, wife of Raymond (also the cousin of Jim) Abel Martel, son of Raymond and Christine Gideon Martel, son of Christine, as a result of an affair with Horace Neville Falla, young biker and artist who befriends Ebenezer in his old age Cousin Mary Ann, Ebenezer's third cousin (on both sides) Real people mentioned in the book Adolphus Edward Alfred Carrington (1876~1961), 'manager for John Leale (Leale Ltd.) on the Bridge'. Ambrose Sherwill (1890~1968), President of the Controlling Committee during Occupation of the Channel Islands and later Bailiff of Guernsey Rev. John ('Jack') Leale (1892~1969), Jurat, President of the Controlling Committee (Oct 1940~Aug 1945) during Occupation of the Channel Islands, knighted 1945 Arthur Dorey (1867~1953), fruit grower, of Rockmount (Delancey); Ebenezer's boss who makes him a foreman at his vineries off the 'Halfway' (Belgrave, Marais, Springfield, Primrose). Arthur also owns Oatlands Farm with its own large vinery. Arthur was a Jurat and president of the Board of Administration. Edward Arthur Dorey (1896~1982), mentioned as the son of the above, going to war in 1914, but unnamed in the book. Fruit grower; later owner of Arthur Dorey & Son, and Douzenier of St. Sampson. Philemon Fleure Dorey (1859~1941), 'Mr. Dorey of Oatlands'; fruit grower; brother of Arthur Dorey (above), from whom he was renting Oatlands Farm during Ebenezer's childhood. Clarrie Bellot, cobbler Steve Picquet, a hermit who lived in a German bunker at Pleinmont Frederick William Johns (1871~1957), 'Fred Johns from the Vale Avenue', trustee of St. Sampson's Chapel. Douglas Blackburn, 'from the top of Sinclair', of 'Malvern', St Clair Hill, St. Sampson, son of fruit grower Henry J. Blackburn. Dr. Josiah Leale (1842~c.1921), L.R.C.P. Edinburgh, M.R.C.S. London, St. Sampson's Parochial Medical Officer, of Vale House, Vale. Surgeon-Lieutenant-Colonel, 2nd Regt R.G.L.I.; resigned his medical rank on appointment as Lieutenant-Colonel Commanding in 1896. In the novel, Dr. Leale diagnoses Jim with appendicitis. Major themes Life in a close and, in many respects, closed community. Family relationships: falling in and out with one another. Non-sexual but close male friendship. The lifelong, tempestuous love affair, which includes prolonged periods of non-communication, with Liza Queripel. They have much sexual tension between them yet, somehow, seem to agree that sleeping together would make things ordinary. This plays out the truth that many of the most enduring love relationships are those that are never consummated. Life Art student Edward Chaney met Edwards in his old age, when he was living a reclusive life near Weymouth in Dorset. Edwards had had a fraught and difficult life. He left Guernsey to study at Bristol University. He then moved to London where he encountered a group of writers, which included his friends John Middleton Murry, J. S. Collis and Stephen Potter. There was an anticipation that he would become the next D. H. Lawrence, and he was in fact commissioned by Jonathan Cape to write Lawrence's biography, before his death. Instead, he published nothing more than a handful of articles for Murry's Adelphi magazine. He married, had children, divorced (leaving his children to be educated with the Elmhirsts at Dartington Hall) and went through a series of jobs, teaching at Toynbee Hall., as an itinerant drama teacher, a minor civil servant in London, eventually retiring to the West Country. His quarry-owning father had effectively disinherited him where the family home in Guernsey was concerned, by remarrying. When he met Chaney, he was pouring experience and literary know-how into one last attempt at a major novel. Chaney encouraged Edwards to complete his book, which Edwards then dedicated to him and his wife, giving him the copyright. The immaculate typescript was rejected by many publishers but, eventually, at Hamish Hamilton, Christopher Sinclair-Stevenson accepted it with enthusiasm. There is a parallel between this real-life story and the story in the novel, in which Ebenezer bequeaths his autobiography (The Book of Ebenezer Le Page) to his young artist friend Neville Falla, the motorcycling rebel with a heart of gold. Literary significance and criticism Since its publication in 1981, it has been critically acclaimed, as well as winning the admiration of the people of Guernsey for so accurately capturing the island and its character. John Fowles wrote an enthusiastic introduction to the Book, it was very favorably reviewed by William Golding, among several others, and Harold Bloom included it in The Western Canon. Stephen Orgel wrote that it was 'one of the greatest novels of the 20th century'. Although Penguin let it go out of print, it was reprinted by New York Review Books Classics in 2007. It has meanwhile been published in French and Italian. Film, TV or theatrical adaptations It has been adapted for a BBC Radio 4 series, as well as a stage play by Anthony Wilkinson The Islander which premiered at the Theatre Royal, Lincoln in 2002. In both of these adaptations, the role of Ebenezer was played by Guernsey-born actor Roy Dotrice, who also reads the unabridged audiobook of the novel, in an old man's voice and Guernsey accent. There have been unsuccessful attempts to turn the novel into a feature film. Release details The book was published by Hamish Hamilton in 1981, followed by Penguin and Knopf in America the following year. It had been the subject of numerous rejections during his lifetime, but attempts to get it published were continued after his death in 1976 by Edward Chaney, who had befriended the author in his old age. Christopher Sinclair Stevenson asked John Fowles to write an introduction which no doubt helped to draw attention to the publication. The novel was originally intended to form the first part of a trilogy, entitled Sarnia Cherie: The Book of Ebenezer Le Page. Sarnia Cherie refers to the Guernsey anthem, and was retained in the title of the French translation. The other two books were to be called Le Boud'lo: the Book of Philip Le Moigne and La Gran'-mère du Chimquière: the Book of Jean le Féniant. A draft of the second part was destroyed by the author before his death. For more details of the author, Gerald B Edwards, and how Edward Chaney eventually managed to get his Book published, see Chaney's biography Genius Friend: G.B. Edwards and The Book of Ebenezer Le Page. The work has been translated into French and Italian. The French version, under the title Sarnia, translated by Jeanine Hérisson, was published in 1982 by Editions du Seuil. The Italian version translation, Il Libro di Ebenezer Le Page was published by Elliot Edizioni, Rome in 2007. Critical reception "This extraordinary book" full of "wonderful writing": "To read it is not like reading but living", William Golding. Re Ebenezer himself, Golding wrote: "Nor are simple adjectives adequate... there is epic stature in his individualism". The following December (1981) Golding chose it as his "Book of the Year" in The Sunday Times. "The achievement is so intense and universal that the reader is rendered speechless... G.B. Edwards has succeeded in writing a great novel"; Isobel Murray in The Financial Times. "A startingly original book", The Times. "strong compelling voice, both wily and innocent... it holds the reader in an Ancient Mariner grip throughout this brilliant, unusual, and, a very sadly posthumous novel"; Nina Bawden in The Daily Telegraph. "G. B. Edwards, The Book of Ebenezer Le Page. I'd never heard of it. A friend gave it to me. It was written by an 80-year-old recluse on the island of Guernsey, which is where it's set, and it seems to be one of the greatest novels of the 20th century. Really." – Professor Stephen Orgel, Stanford University Department of English: Summer Reading: Top Picks 2004 "There may have been stranger recent literary events than the book you are about to read, but I rather doubt it", John Fowles in his 1981 Introduction; reprinted in Wormholes (1998). "a breathtaking novel": Newsweek. A masterpiece....One of the best novels of our time....I know of no description of happiness in modern literature equal to the one that ends this novel. Guy Davenport, The New York Times Book Review. Hubert Juin in Le Monde praised the freshness of the style and the literary ambitions of the author, whose aim was to speak rather than to write (Une sorte de miracle tient à l'étrange fraîcheur de l'écriture, sinon à la merveilleuse naïveté de l'écrivain. G.B. Edwards ne songe pas à écrire, il a pour seul impératif de parler). In the preface he wrote for his 1982 French edition, Maurice Nadeau (who died in 2013 aged 102), greeted the book as an exceptional achievement (réussite exceptionnelle), a subtle, complex and magical blend of space, time and humane sufferings and joys (un subtil, complexe et magique composé d'espace, de temps, de souffrances et de joies humaines). "Recently reprinted by New York Review Books, G.B. Edwards' novel tells the story of a Guernsey man who lived through the Nazi occupation of Britain's Channel Islands into garrulous old age. His reminiscence is couched in a musical Guernsey English that follows circular paths through past and present to delve into island secrets and sagas. Great stuff." Seattle Times "G.B. Edwards's miraculous novel...There is a rare wholeness about The Book of Ebenezer Le Page. You get the entire man, in a way that isn't usually within the gift of literature to procure... I have read few books of such wide and delightful appeal.... [it] is vast fun and vast life, a Kulturgeschichte... It is ‘the book of’ in the prosaic sense that Edwards's character speaks it (or writes it in his three big notebooks bought for 18/6 at ‘the Press Office in Smith Street’ in St Peter Port); but also ‘of’ in the sense of ‘made into’. It is Ebenezer made into a book. (Bohumil Hrabal's Too Loud a Solitude comes to mind, with its paper-baler who is finally baled up himself.) William Golding put it admirably when he said: ‘To read it is not like reading but living.’ It is like reading with no clothes on." (Michael Hofmann, London Review of Books, 24 January 2008, p. 23). "Quaint. Fascinating. Unique. Queer…The Book of Ebenezer Le Page is a eulogy for a way of life." The Los Angeles Times (Valerie Miner) "It reads like Beethoven’s Ninth. It charts island life from 1890 to 1970, including the German wartime occupation. In it, weather, darkness, hunger, blood-connectedness, shelter, and an almost painfully keyed-up sexual desire appear in odd, magical proportions never found in any novel conceived off-island. Coated with sea salt, its crannies spilling wildflowers, Edwards’s book still roars like some huge shell held, cutting, against your ear." Allan Gurganus, 'One Great Book Per Life', The Atlantic (March 2005). "Imagine a weekend spent in deep conversation with a superb old man, a crusty, intelligent, passionate and individualistic character at the peak of his powers as a raconteur, and you will have a very good idea of the impact of The Book of Ebenezer Le Page…It amuses, it entertains, it moves us… Ebenezer’s voice presides over all and its creation is a tremendous achievement." The Washington Post (Doug Lang) "[A] rare find…it is unique–a first novel that resists all categories–and it overflows with the sense of life… Its chief virtues are a story rich in human connection and a marvelously seductive language…For those who cherish style, it is also good to hear a fresh novelist’s voice telling the old story of the passions, generosities, and greeds that battle in us all." —Chicago Tribune (Lynne Sharon Schwartz) "G.B. Edwards, who died an unknown in 1976, constructed his novel out of the patterns of daily life–countless teas, lovers’ quarrels, accounts of friendships and the signs of change as Guernsey reluctantly assumes the characteristics of progress. The results are enchanting."The Washington Post (New In Paperback) "A remarkable achievement… The book’s voice and its methods are so unusual that it belongs nowhere on our conventional literary maps." —John Fowles "[A] knowing and beguiling chronicle of life on the English Channel isle of Guernsey…This deceptively plain-spoken story of a man’s years passing in review before him struck me, when I first read it in 1981, as a beautifully crafted job of writing. Upon rereading it recently, I redoubled my liking and admiration for both Ebenezer and Edwards."Ivan Doig, Christian Science Monitor. "The Book of Ebenezer Le Page, by G. B. Edwards, is an inexhaustible book I never tire of giving. It is literally one of a kind, a work with no precedent, sponsorship, or pedigree. A true epic, as sexy as it is hilarious, it seems drenched with the harsh tidal beauties of its setting, the isle of Guernsey…For every person nearing retirement, every latent writer who hopes to leave his island and find the literary mainland, its author–quiet, self-sufficient, tidy Homeric–remains a patron saint." —Allan Gurganus, O Magazine "The Book of Ebenezer Le Page, by G. B. Edwards, is an oddity and a great literary wonder, written in the beautiful French patios of Guernsey, one of the Channel Islands…[Edwards] feels intensely about everything and everyone in this deliciously rich novel of longing and love."—Archipelago "Here is an islander; an island man, solitary, unmarried, alienated, who describes the modern denaturing of our world. Granite quarries and tomatoes and early potatoes; but then come tourists, international companies, tax evaders, occupation by Germans, etcetera.” The New York Review of Books. "Books: Forced to choose, we'd pick The Book of Ebenezer Le Page by G. B. Edwards as our favorite novel of all time. The recollections of a cranky old man on the island of Guernsey, Guy Davenport of the Times wrote, when the book was first published here in 1981: ‘A masterpiece...One of the best novels of our time...I know of no description of happiness in modern literature equal to the one that ends this novel.’ Hard for us to imagine a more pleasurable weekend than one spent with Ebenezer Le Page." Manhattan User’s Guide "I actually went on holiday to Jersey twenty years ago and the cottage I was staying in had a copy of Ebenezer Le Page that I read while I was there. And it was absorbing, and one of my most emotional reading experiences. So when I was imagining Guernsey – the family, the way they lived and their relationships with the people around them I was sort of inspired by the way he talks about the island." Lisa Jewell (http://www.visitguernsey.com/article/102070/Author-Lisa-Jewell-writing-Before-I-Met-You-and-Guernsey)What books do you find yourself returning to again and again? "Iris Murdoch’s “A Word Child”; Vladimir Nabokov's “Pnin”; Evan Connell's “Mrs. Bridge” and “Mr. Bridge”; G. B. Edwards's “The Book of Ebenezer Le Page.” . . . Well, I could go on and on." Anne Tyler, on books she returns to again and again; New York Times, 5 February 2015. See also Ebenezer Le Page Gerald Basil Edwards Notes References Edward Chaney, Genius Friend: G.B. Edwards and The Book of Ebenezer Le Page (Blue Ormer Publishing, 2015). Edward Chaney, GB Edwards and Ebenezer Le Page, Review of the Guernsey Society, Parts 1–3, 1994–5. John Fowles, Foreword to The Book of Ebenezer Le Page, Hamish Hamilton, 1981 External links The Book of Ebenezer Le Page Reading Group Guide, New York Review of Books. Extraordinary Ebenezer follow-up by Edward Chaney, in The Arran voice, 30 October 2008. 'Blue Plaque could first of many to celebrate local heroes' – the unveiling of Guernsey's first Blue Plaque in honour of G.B.Edwards in 2008 G B Edwards and The Book of Ebenezer le Page, Edward Chaney, Arts and Humanities Research Council. Retrieved 1 September 2011. Complete unabridged recording of The Book of Ebenezer le Page by Roy Dotrice (21 hours plus), now available with Audible. ebook now available from New York Review Books NYRB Paperback edition Genius Friend has arrived – Announcement of Edward Chaney's biography of G.B.Edwards. Interview with Edward Chaney – Guille-Alles Library podcast. Novels set in Guernsey 1981 British novels British autobiographical novels Hamish Hamilton books Metafictional novels NYRB Classics
4183831	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandon%20Vera	Brandon Vera	Brandon Michael Vera (born October 10, 1977), or also known by his ring name as The Truth, is a Filipino-American (of Italian heritage) retired mixed martial artist where he was the inaugural ONE Heavyweight Champion and the 2005 WEC Heavyweight Grand Prix Champion. A professional competitor from 2002 until 2022, he competed in the Light Heavyweight and Heavyweight divisions of ONE Championship, World Extreme Cagefighting (WEC) and Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). Background Brandon Vera grew up in a house of seven boys and three girls. He was born to a Filipino father, Ernesto, and an Italian mother, but raised by his Filipino stepmother, Amelia. He also has two other brothers and another sister outside of the family in which he was raised and they were occasionally involved in his life. Vera was born and raised in Norfolk, Virginia, and attended Lake Taylor High School where he excelled in wrestling and earned a four-year athletic scholarship to Old Dominion University. However, he dropped out of Old Dominion after a year and a half when he felt college was not for him, and enlisted himself in the United States Air Force. In the Air Force, Vera joined the wrestling team and trained at the United States Olympic Training Center in Colorado Springs, Colorado. His military wrestling career was cut short in 1999 when he tore ligaments in his right elbow. Arthroscopic surgery repaired the ligaments, but he had nerve damage from the experience, causing him to be unable to use his right arm. He was released from the Air Force on a medical discharge. Vera returned to Virginia, where he steadily rehabilitated his arm, and eventually was fit enough to enter the Grapplers Quest submission wrestling competitions on the East Coast. There, his solitary training methods (he did not belong to a camp and trained and cut weight on his own) caught the attention of Lloyd Irvin, a Brazilian jiu-jitsu Black Belt and coach, who invited him to train with his school. At Irvin's school, he was introduced to mixed martial arts. Mixed martial arts career Early career Vera's first professional mixed martial arts bout was on July 6, 2002, while training under Lloyd Irvin. He won the fight against Adam Rivera via TKO in the first round. He fought and won another bout in 2004 before entering the WEC 13 Heavyweight Tournament in 2005, where he won two bouts in one night, including a bout against The Ultimate Fighter 2's Mike Whitehead in the final. Vera then moved to San Diego, California, on December 31, 2003, to accept a training position with City Boxing. At City Boxing, Vera excelled as a trainer and was taken under the wing of owner Mark Dion, who became his manager and introduced him to kickboxing great Rob Kaman. With Vera's success as a trainer and a mixed martial arts fighter, Dion gave Vera partial ownership of City Boxing. Ultimate Fighting Championship Vera made his UFC debut at Ultimate Fight Night 2 on October 3, 2005, against BJJ black belt Fabiano Scherner. Vera won the fight via KO due to knees from the clinch midway through the second round. Following the Scherner bout, he faced Justin Eilers at UFC 57, winning early in the first round by KO. At UFC 60, Vera defeated Assuerio Silva with a guillotine choke in the first round. On November 18, he stopped former heavyweight champion Frank Mir by TKO due to strikes in just 69 seconds at UFC 65 in Sacramento, California. White had been telling the media prior to UFC 65 that the winner of the Vera-Mir fight would face the winner of the Tim Sylvia-Jeff Monson bout, which was also being held that same night, for the championship. Vera's victory secured him a championship bout against then title-holder Tim Sylvia, but a contract dispute with the UFC forced him to be replaced by Randy Couture. In August, the UFC announced the "return" of Vera. His first fight was at UFC 77 against Sylvia, who had recently lost the UFC Heavyweight Championship to Couture. Vera lost for the first time via unanimous decision. He also broke his left hand at 4:40 of the first round. Vera had his second loss at UFC 85 against Brazilian jiu-jitsu specialist Fabrício Werdum via TKO. The fight was controversially stopped by referee Dan Miragliotta as Werdum mounted him and landed some ground and pound. After the stoppage, Vera was upset as he felt he was defending himself effectively. After his two recent losses, Vera dropped down to the Light Heavyweight division, facing IFL alum Reese Andy at UFC Fight Night 14 on July 19, 2008, on Spike TV. Vera defeated Andy via unanimous decision. At UFC 89, Vera lost to Keith Jardine via a narrow split decision. Following the fight, Vera incurred criticism for his performance since his return to the UFC having been victorious in only one of his last four fights. A more focused Vera appeared on the preliminary card of UFC 96. It was the first time Vera was not on the main card since he made his debut in the UFC. He had an impressive performance against Mike Patt, showing a more aggressive and intense striking approach and stopping him via TKO (leg kicks) in the second round. Vera fought Polish fighter Krzysztof Soszynski at UFC 102 after his original opponent, Matt Hamill, was forced to drop out due after suffering a meniscus tear while training. Vera won via unanimous decision (30–27, 30–27, and 30–27). Vera lost a close fight to Randy Couture via unanimous decision on November 14, 2009, at UFC 105, with the media comparing the decision to a previous UFC event (UFC 104 Machida-Rua) which prompted that MMA judging should be changed. Despite Vera significantly outstriking Couture and successfully defending numerous takedown attempts, judges awarded the victory to Couture. The verdict surprised many people; UFC commentator Joe Rogan was highly critical of the decision during the live event broadcast and in a post-fight interview, Randy Couture admitted that he didn't expect the decision to be made in his favor. Vera faced Jon Jones on March 21, 2010, at UFC Live: Vera vs. Jones and lost via TKO in the first round after an elbow from Jones broke Vera's face in three places. Vera was defeated by Brazilian Thiago Silva via unanimous decision (30–26, 30–27, and 30–27) on January 1, 2011, at UFC 125. At the end of the third round, Vera stood up to reveal a badly broken nose. Vera was released by the UFC with a 7–6 record in the organization. However following the fight it was revealed that his opponent Thiago Silva had failed the post-fight drug test. As a result of this, Vera was re-hired by the UFC and the result of the Silva fight was changed to a no contest, resulting in Vera's UFC record changing to 7–5–0–1. Vera defeated Eliot Marshall on October 29, 2011, at UFC 137 via unanimous decision (29–28, 29–28, and 29–28). Vera was briefly linked to a rematch Thiago Silva on May 15, 2012, at UFC on Fuel TV: Korean Zombie vs. Poirier. However, Vera was forced out the bout with an injury. Vera was expected to face Australian James Te-Huna on July 11, 2012, at UFC on Fuel TV: Munoz vs. Weidman. However, Vera was pulled from the bout with Te-Huna to face Maurício Rua on August 4, 2012, at UFC on Fox: Shogun vs. Vera. Vera was defeated via TKO late in the fourth round. Vera showed great heart after being rocked early in the second round, but as both fighters showed early signs of fatigue in the late stages of the second round, Vera ultimately succumbed to Rua's power. This fight is widely considered the best performance of Vera's career, despite the loss. Vera returned to the Heavyweight division after an absence of 5 years and faced Ben Rothwell at UFC 164 on August 31, 2013. After a competitive first and second round, Rothwell defeated Vera by TKO in the third round. Subsequent to the bout, Rothwell tested positive for elevated testosterone levels. The UFC suspended Rothwell for nine months, despite the Wisconsin commission only issuing him with an administrative warning. Vera was released from the UFC on June 17, 2014, ending his eight-year run with the promotion. ONE Championship On July 13, 2014, it was confirmed that Vera had signed with Singapore-based promotion ONE FC. His debut was on December 5, 2014, against Igor Subora at ONE Fighting Championship: Warrior's Way. Vera won the fight via knockout after landing a counter straight left at 3:54 minutes in the first round. On December 11, 2015, Vera faced Paul Cheng in the main event at ONE Championship: Spirit of Champions. He won the fight via knockout just 26 second into the first round to win the ONE Heavyweight Championship. After nearly a year away from the cage, Vera returned to face Hideki Sekine at ONE Championship: Age of Domination on December 2, 2016. He successfully defended his heavyweight title, winning by TKO in the first round. Vera successfully defended his title via knockout in the first round against Cage Warriors Heavyweight Champion, Mauro Cerilli who was on his promotional debut at ONE Championship: Conquest of Champions on November 23, 2018. As the first fight of his new ten-bout contract with ONE, Vera challenged Aung La Nsang for the ONE Light Heavyweight Championship at ONE Championship: Century on October 13, 2019. Vera lost by TKO in the second round. At ONE Championship: Fire & Fury on January 31, 2020, Vera announced that he would be defending his ONE Heavyweight Championship on May 29 in Manila, with an opponent yet to be announced. It was later announced that he would be defending his ONE Heavyweight title against Arjan Bhullar at ONE Infinity 2. Their fight was later postponed as a result of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports. Vera faced Bhullar at ONE Championship: Dangal on May 15, 2021. Vera lost to Bhullar by second-round technical knockout, ending his five-year reign as ONE Heavyweight World Champion. Vera faced Amir Aliakbari on December 3, 2022, at ONE 164. He lost the fight via technical knockout in the first round and announced his retirement during the post-fight interview. Post-MMA career After announcing his retirement in December 2022, Vera revealed that he signed a 10-movie deal as an actor in the Philippines. Prior to this announcement, Vera already appeared in a couple of Filipino movies. In 2018, Vera co-starred with Anne Curtis in the Philippine action-thriller BuyBust and starred as the lead actor in a 2022 Filipino zombie movie called Day Zero. Personal life Vera's former wife, Kerry, is also a mixed martial artist who formerly fought for the now-defunct Strikeforce. She was featured on the second season of Oxygen's Fight Girls. In September 2014, Kerry filed for divorce. Vera started dating Jessica Craven and announced their engagement in April 2017. They wed on April 20, 2018, in Guam. Vera has a tattoo on his back, inked in the Filipino writing system called Baybayin. Clockwise, it reads mundo (earth), hangin (wind), apoy (fire) and tubig (water). While staying in the Philippines, he trained Filipino actor Richard Gutierrez in martial arts and was given a role as an assassin for Philippine primetime television show, Kamandag on the GMA Network. In the latter part of his training for UFC 89, Vera was reportedly held at gun point by two men attempting to rob the house in which he was staying. Vera stated that the incident did not affect his performance against Keith Jardine. In 2016, Vera revealed that he was relocating to the Philippines full time, to help grow the sport of mixed martial arts in his ancestral homeland. He has been working on opening a branch of Alliance MMA. Vera holds dual citizenship: American (by jus solis) and Filipino (by jus sanguinis). Championships and accomplishments Kickboxing World Kickboxing Association WKA Super Heavyweight Champion Grappling Grappler's Quest 8 Time Grappler's Quest Champion Mixed martial arts World Extreme Cagefighting 2005 WEC Heavyweight Grand Prix Championship ONE Championship ONE Heavyweight Championship (One time, first) 2 title defenses Mixed martial arts record \|- \|Loss \|align=center\|16–10 (1) \|Amir Aliakbari \|TKO (elbows and punches) \|ONE 164: Pacio vs. Brooks \| \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|3:37 \|Pasay, Philippines \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\|16–9 (1) \| Arjan Bhullar \| TKO (punches) \| ONE: Dangal \| \| align=center\|2 \| align=center\|4:27 \| Kallang, Singapore \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\|16–8 (1) \| Aung La Nsang \| TKO (punches) \| ONE: Century Part 2 \| \| align=center\|2 \| align=center\|3:23 \| Tokyo, Japan \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\|16–7 (1) \| Mauro Cerilli \| KO (punch) \| ONE: Conquest of Champions \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 1:04 \| Pasay, Philippines \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\|15–7 (1) \| Hideki Sekine \| TKO (body kick and punches) \| ONE: Age of Domination \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 3:11 \| Pasay, Philippines \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\|14–7 (1) \| Paul Cheng \| KO (punch and head kick) \| ONE: Spirit of Champions \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 0:26 \| Pasay, Philippines \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 13–7 (1) \| Igor Subora \| TKO (punch and soccer kicks) \| ONE FC: Warrior's Way \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 3:54 \| Pasay, Philippines \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 12–7 (1) \| Ben Rothwell \| TKO (punches and knees) \| UFC 164 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 1:54 \| Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 12–6 (1) \| Maurício Rua \| TKO (punches) \| UFC on Fox: Shogun vs. Vera \| \| align=center\| 4 \| align=center\| 4:03 \| Los Angeles, California, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 12–5 (1) \| Eliot Marshall \| Decision (unanimous) \| UFC 137 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States \| \|- \| NC \| align=center\| 11–5 (1) \| Thiago Silva \| NC (overturned) \| UFC 125 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 11–5 \| Jon Jones \| TKO (elbows and punches) \| UFC Live: Vera vs. Jones \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 3:19 \| Broomfield, Colorado, United States \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 11–4 \| Randy Couture \| Decision (unanimous) \| UFC 105 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Manchester, England, United Kingdom \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 11–3 \| Krzysztof Soszynski \| Decision (unanimous) \| UFC 102 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Portland, Oregon, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 10–3 \| Michael Patt \| TKO (leg kicks) \| UFC 96 \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 1:27 \| Columbus, Ohio, United States \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 9–3 \| Keith Jardine \| Decision (split) \| UFC 89 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Birmingham, England, United Kingdom \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 9–2 \| Reese Andy \| Decision (unanimous) \| UFC Fight Night: Silva vs. Irvin \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 8–2 \| Fabrício Werdum \| TKO (punches) \| UFC 85 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 4:40 \| London, England, United Kingdom \| \|- \| Loss \| align=center\| 8–1 \| Tim Sylvia \| Decision (unanimous) \| UFC 77 \| \| align=center\| 3 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 8–0 \| Frank Mir \| TKO (knees and punches) \| UFC 65 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 1:09 \| Sacramento, California, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 7–0 \| Assuerio Silva \| Submission (guillotine choke) \| UFC 60 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 2:39 \| Los Angeles, California, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 6–0 \| Justin Eilers \| KO (head kick and knee) \| UFC 57 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 1:25 \| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 5–0 \| Fabiano Scherner \| TKO (knees and punches) \| UFC Fight Night 2 \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 3:22 \| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 4–0 \| Mike Whitehead \| TKO (doctor stoppage) \| rowspan=2\|WEC 13 \| rowspan=2\| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 1:12 \| rowspan=2\|Lemoore, California, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 3–0 \| Andre Mussi \| KO (knees and punches) \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 0:51 \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 2–0 \| Don Richards \| Decision (unanimous) \| Next Level Fighting 1 \| \| align=center\| 2 \| align=center\| 5:00 \| Steubenville, Ohio, United States \| \|- \| Win \| align=center\| 1–0 \| Adam Rivera \| TKO (punches) \| Excalibur Fighting 11 \| \| align=center\| 1 \| align=center\| 3:20 \| Richmond, Virginia, United States \| References Notes External links Official Brandon Vera Website Official UFC Profile 1977 births Living people Mixed martial artists from Virginia Light heavyweight mixed martial artists Mixed martial artists utilizing collegiate wrestling Mixed martial artists utilizing Greco-Roman wrestling Mixed martial artists utilizing Brazilian jiu-jitsu American people of Italian descent American male mixed martial artists Mixed martial arts trainers Heavyweight mixed martial artists American expatriates in the Philippines American male sport wrestlers American practitioners of Brazilian jiu-jitsu People awarded a black belt in Brazilian jiu-jitsu American mixed martial artists of Filipino descent Ultimate Fighting Championship male fighters ONE Championship champions ONE Championship mixed martial artists
4184370	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Hawthorne	Frank Hawthorne	Frank Christopher Hawthorne (born 8 January 1946 in Bristol, England) is a Canadian mineralogist, crystallographer and spectroscopist. He works at the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, and is currently Distinguished Professor Emeritus. By combining Graph Theory, Bond-Valence Theory and the moments approach to the electronic energy density of solids he has developed Bond Topology as a rigorous approach to understanding the atomic arrangements, chemical compositions and paragenesis of complex oxide and oxysalt minerals. Formal education Frank C. Hawthorne was born in Bristol, England, on January 8, 1946, to Audrey Patricia (née Miles) and Frank Hawthorne, and went to Begbrook Primary School (now Begbrook Primary Academy) and Bishop Road Primary School, Bristol. In 1956, he moved to Maidenhead, Berkshire, and went to Maidenhead County Boys School (later Maidenhead Grammar School, now Desborough College) where he focused on Mathematics, Physics and Geography, played rugby, hockey, cricket, and did athletics (track and field). He was captured by Physical Geography and at the age of 15, decided to become a geologist. He played rugby for Thames Valley (later Maidenhead) Rugby Club and cricket for the village of Cookham Dean. From late 1962 onward, he was exposed to early English rock-and-roll at pubs and clubs on the periphery of London and became a lifelong enthusiast of this form of music. In 1964, he entered Imperial College London to study Pure Geology, play rugby, hockey and cricket, and drink the occasional pint of beer. He became interested in hard-rock geology and his B.Sc. thesis work, 3 months on the island of Elba in the Mediterranean, convinced him that this was a good career choice. He graduated in 1968 and went to McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, to do a Ph.D. under the supervision of the crystallographer H. Douglas Grundy. Doug Grundy have him an amphibole to "look at", and this look developed into his Ph.D. thesis on the crystal chemistry of the amphiboles. McMaster University has a Materials Research Institute that was situated in the Senior Science Building together with the Departments of Geology, Chemistry and Physics. Everyone took coffee and lunch together in an atmosphere that was scientifically intoxicating for graduate students; all the disciplines mixed together and discussed science every day. The institute gave Hawthorne the opportunity for both hands-on use of single-crystal X-ray diffraction, single-crystal neutron diffraction, infrared spectroscopy and Mössbauer spectroscopy, and for making the acquaintance of prominent scientists. In particular, he met the physicist I. David Brown and the chemist R.D. Shannon (on sabbatical from DuPont) when they were developing Bond-Valence Theory. This theory went on to play a major role in Hawthorne's work and he became lifelong friends with Brown and Shannon. Career and informal education Frank Hawthorne graduated with a Ph.D. in 1973 and went on to a post-doctoral position with Professor Robert B. Ferguson in the Department of Geological Sciences at the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg, Canada. This was another important step in his development as it exposed him to a wide variety of minerals from granitic pegmatites, particularly through the influence of Petr Černý, and he worked on a wide variety of pegmatite minerals with Černý and Ferguson, returning several times a year to the Materials Research Institute at McMaster University to collect single-crystal X-ray data (at no cost). At the end of his post-doctoral fellowship, he became a Research Associate, operating the electron microprobe and lecturing for other faculty members when they went on sabbatical leave. After seven years of this rather precarious existence, he secured a University Research Fellowship in 1980, the first year of that program. The Federal Government recognized that there were few academic jobs available in the 1970s and introduced the URF program whereby a recipient received a salary and a modest research grant to act as a faculty member (lecture and do research) for 5 years. If at the end of this time, the URF was hired as a faculty member by the university, the salary was paid in part by the Federal Government over the next 5 years. In 1983, Frank Hawthorne received a Major Equipment Grant from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada for a Single-Crystal Diffractometer and began to build his laboratory and have graduate students. At this time, Hawthorne established connections with the Royal Ontario Museum as a source of crystals for minerals of unknown structure, and accompanied staff (Dr. Fred J. Wicks and Terri Ottaway to the Tucson Gem and Mineral Show where he connected with mineral collectors and dealers who were to become the principal source of crystals for his experimental work. In 1983, he was invited to give a lecture at the University of Pavia. This began one of the major scientific collaborations of his career with Drs. Roberta Oberti, Luciano Ungaretti and Giuseppi Rossi on the crystal chemistry of amphiboles, and he has spent ~4 years in Italy working with them on crystal chemistry and with Giancarlo Della Ventura in Rome on short-range order in amphiboles. In 1985, he went to the University of Chicago for 2 months to work with Joseph V. Smith on the topology of four-connected three-dimensional nets. There he met the theoretical chemist Jeremy Burdett who introduced him to the moments approach to the electronic energy density of solids. This was pivotal for Hawthorne's ideas on structure as it connected the topology of chemical bonds with the energy of the constituent crystals. In 2001, he was awarded a Tier I Canada Research Chair which relieved him of some of his undergraduate teaching and allowed him to attract another crystallographer, Dr. Elena Sokolova, to the department, first as a Research Associate and later as a Research Professor. Dr. Sokolova has had a major influence on his ideas concerning crystal structure and also introduced him to the Crystallography-Mineralogy community in Russia. He obtained funding from the Federal Government of Canada to develop a large laboratory: several X-ray diffractometers, polarized infrared spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy, bulk- and milli-Mössbauer spectroscopy, electron microprobe and a micro-SIMS for Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry, and formed a consortium with other local scientists for him and his students to have access to Magic-angle-Spinning Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, Atomic Force Microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, all of which were used extensively to characterize minerals and geochemical processes. Scientific work Traditionally, Mineralogy has been an observational science: Mineralogists describe new minerals, measure the stability fields of known minerals with respect to intensive thermodynamic variables, solve and refine crystal structures, and attempt to develop empirical schemes of organization of this knowledge, and apply these schemes to problems in the Earth and Environmental Sciences. Most minerals are complex (sensu lato) objects from both structural and chemical perspectives. On the one hand, this makes a quantitative theoretical understanding of the factors controlling structure, chemical composition and occurrence difficult to impossible by established theoretical methods in Physics and Chemistry. On the other hand, the more complicated a mineral, for example, veblenite: KNa(H2O)3[(Fe2+5Fe3+4Mn2+6Ca□)(OH)10(Nb4O4{Si2O7}2(Si8O22)2)O2], the more information it contains about its origin and properties. The principal thrust of Hawthorne's work has been to establish the theoretical underpinnings of more rigorous approach to Mineralogy. The patterns of linkage of chemical bonds in space contain significant energetic information that may be used for this purpose. Bond Topology combines aspects of Graph Theory, Bond-Valence Theory, and the moments approach to the electronic-energy density-of-states to interpret topological aspects of crystal structure, and allows consideration of many issues of crystal structure, mineral composition, and mineral behavior that are not addressed by established methods. Theoretical work Bond topology as a theoretical basis for Mineralogy Using Graph Theory, the topological characteristics of a bond network may be represented as a weighted chromatic digraph of coordination polyhedra and their connectivities. The elements of the adjacency matrix of this graph form a permutation group that is a subgroup of the symmetric group SN (where N is the number of unique off-diagonal elements of the adjacency matrix), and one may use counting theorems (e.g., Pólya enumeration theorem) to enumerate all edge sets (linkages between polyhedra) that are distinct, thereby counting all distinct local arrangements of coordination polyhedra. This approach allows all topologically possible local arrangements to be enumerated for specific sets of coordination polyhedra. Infinite arrangements with translational symmetry may be represented by finite graphs via wrapping and extends this method to crystals. Work by the late Jeremy Burdett showed that the electronic energy density of states can be derived using the method of moments, and that the energy difference between two structures depends primarily on the first few disparate moments of their respective energy density of states This leads to the following conclusions: (1) zero-order moments define chemical composition; (2) second-order moments define coordination numbers; (3) fourth- and sixth-order moments define local connectivity of coordination polyhedra; and (4) higher moments define medium- and long-range connectivity. Using the moments approach, it may be shown that anion-coordination changes in chemical reactions quantitatively correlate with the reduced enthalpy of formation of the reactants from the product phases for some simple mineral reactions and that changes in bond topology correlate with reduced enthalpy of formation for some simple hydrated phases Chemical reactions in minerals Using the moments approach (see above), chemical reactions in minerals may be divided into two types: (1) Continuous reactions in which bond topology is conserved; and (2) discontinuous reactions in which bond topology is not conserved. (1) For continuous reactions, thermal expansion and elastic compression must be accompanied by element substitutions that maintain commensurability between different components of the structure. Hence one can define from an atomistic perspective the qualitative changes caused by variation in temperature and pressure. Extensive experimental work has shown that short-range order is ubiquitous in amphiboles and defines the chemical pathways by which these minerals respond to varying temperature and pressure. The theoretical developments that underpin this behaviour indicate that they should apply to all other anisodesmic minerals (2) Minerals in which bond topology is not conserved in chemical reactions form the majority of mineral species, but are less quantitatively abundant; however, they form the majority of the environmentally relevant minerals. The criteria that control the chemical composition and stability of these minerals at the atomic level may be derived from the valence-sum rule and valence-matching principle and much of this complexity can be quantitatively predicted reasonably well, and species in aqueous solution also follow the valence-sum rule, and that their Lewis basicities scale with pH of the solution at maximum concentration of the species in solution Complex species in aqueous solution actually form the building blocks of the crystallizing minerals, and hence the structures retain a record of the pH of the solutions from which they crystallized. Structure hierarchy A mathematical hierarchy is an ordered set of elements where the ordering reflects a natural hierarchical relation between the elements. The structure hierarchy hypothesis states that structures may be ordered hierarchically according to the polymerization of coordination polyhedra of higher bond valence.Structure hierarchies have two functions: (1) they serve to organize our knowledge of minerals (crystal structures) in a coherent manner, and in this way relate to the original structure classifications of William Lawrence Bragg and Nikolai Belov; (2) if the basis of the classification involves factors that are related to the mechanistic details of the stability and behaviour of minerals, then the physical, chemical and paragenetic characteristics of minerals should arise as natural consequences of their crystal structures and the interaction of those structures with the environment in which they occur. The structure hierarchy hypothesis may be justified by considering a hypothetical structure-building process whereby higher bond-valence polyhedra polymerize to form the structural unit. This hypothetical structure-building process resembles our ideas of crystallization from an aqueous solution, whereby complexes in aqueous and hydrothermal solutions condense to form crystal structures, or fragments of linked polyhedra in a magma condense to form a crystal. Although our knowledge of these processes is rather vague from a mechanistic perspective, the foundations of the structure hypothesis give us a framework within which to think about the processes of crystallization and dissolution Structure hierarchies have been developed for several mineral families, e.g. borates, uranyl oxides and oxysalts, phosphate, sulfate, arsenate and oxide-centered Cu, Pb and Hg minerals Experimental work The role of hydrogen in crystal structures Hydrogen was long considered a fairly unimportant component in minerals, particularly when present as "water of hydration". This view has now changed: the polar nature of hydrogen controls the dimensions of polymerization of strongly bonded oxyanions in crystal structures, giving rise to cluster, chain, sheet and framework structures. Minerals forming in the core, mantle and deep crust do not incorporate so much hydrogen, and hydrogen is also far less polar at high pressures due to symmetrization of donor and acceptor bonds, and minerals generally crystallize as frameworks. Minerals forming in the shallow crust or at the Earth's surface have cluster, chain, sheet and framework structures in response to the constituent hydrogen. Short-range order-disorder in rock-forming minerals Long-Range Order (LRO) describes the tendency for atoms to order at a specific location in a structure, averaged over the whole crystal. Short-Range Order (SRO) is the tendency for atoms to locally cluster in arrangements that are discordant with random distribution. A local form of Bond-Valence Theory (i.e., NOT a mean-field approach) can be used to predict patterns of SRO Infrared spectroscopy (IR) in the fundamental OH-stretching region is sensitive to both LRO and SRO of species bonded to OH, and one can combine Rietveld structure refinement and IR spectroscopy to derive patterns of SRO. Thus H can act as a local probe of SRO in many complex rock-forming minerals. Light lithophile elements in rock-forming minerals Light lithophile elements (LLEs) can be important variable components in several groups of rock-forming minerals that were thought either to be free of LLEs, or to contain stoichiometrically fixed amounts of these components. Systematic examination of these types of crystal-chemical issues using a combination of SREF (Site-occupancy REFinement), SIMS (Secondary-Ion Mass Spectrometry) and HLE (Hydrogen-Line Extraction) showed this not to be the case. Of particular importance are the role of Li, Ti and H in amphiboles, Li and H in staurolite and Li in tourmaline This work has resulted in much improved understanding of the crystal chemistry of these minerals, and the possibility for more realistic activity models for their thermodynamic treatment. Crystal chemistry of amphibole-supergroup minerals In 1987, Hawthorne began collaboration with Roberta Oberti, Luciano Ungaretti and Giuseppe Rossi in Pavia using large-scale crystal-structure refinement and electron-microprobe analysis of amphiboles to solve many crystal-chemical problems, e.g. This work has had a major impact on the understanding of amphibole structure, chemical composition and occurrence and resulted in a more comprehensive classification and nomenclature for these minerals Crystal chemistry of tourmaline-supergroup minerals The tourmaline minerals rival the amphiboles in complexity, and were relatively neglected until twenty-five years ago. Hawthorne and his students began crystal-chemical work on these minerals and rapidly identified a new subgroup of tourmaline minerals, showed that tourmaline has more complicated cation-ordering patterns than was hitherto thought, and a new classification scheme for the tourmaline-supergroup minerals was approved by t Intrernational Mineralogical Association. There has since been a major increase in tourmaline studies, turning it into a petrogenetically useful mineral. Description of new minerals Systematic work on the crystal chemistry of rock-forming minerals have led to the discovery many hitherto unrecognized types of chemical substitution, e.g. The main interest with regard to rare accessory minerals is the opportunity to examine novel crystal structures in relation to the hierarchical organization of structural arrangements in general. Often by serendipity, this work has led to some very interesting findings [e.g., the discovery of thiosulphate in sidpietersite and [C4-Hg2+4]4+ groups in mikecoxite Hawthorne has been involved in the discovery of 180 new mineral species. Honours Frankhawthorneite is named after him 1978, elected Fellow of the Mineralogical Society of America 1983, awarded the Hawley Medal of the Mineralogical Association of Canada 1985, elected Fellow of the Geological Association of Canada 1990, elected Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada 1991, awarded the W.W. Hutchison Medal of the Geological Association of Canada 1991, awarded a Killam Fellowship by the Canada Council 1993, awarded the Willet G. Miller Medal of the Royal Society of Canada 1994, awarded the Hawley Medal of the Mineralogical Association of Canada 1995, awarded the Schlumberger Medal of the Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 1996, awarded the Logan Medal, the highest honour of the Geological Association of Canada 1997, Rh Institute Foundation Award for Excellence in Research 1997, appointed Distinguished Professor of the University of Manitoba 1998, awarded the Hawley Medal of the Mineralogical Association of Canada 1999, awarded the Peacock Medal of the Mineralogical Association of Canada 2001, awarded a Tier I Canada Research Chair in Crystallography and Mineralogy 2001, listed by Sciencewatch as the most highly cited Mineralogist/Crystallographer for 1990–2000 2005, appointed an Officer of the Order of Canada 2006, elected Foreign Fellow of the Russian Academy of Sciences 2007, listed by Thomson Scientific as the most highly cited Geoscientist in the world for the decade 1996–2007 2007, elected Fellow of the Geochemical Society 2007, elected Fellow of the European Association of Geochemistry 2008, awarded the Killam Prize in Natural Sciences by the Canada Council 2009, awarded the IMA Medal of the International Mineralogical Association 2009, awarded the Carnegie Medal by the Carnegie Museum of Natural History 2010, awarded the Bancroft Medal of the Royal Society of Canada 2012, awarded the Queen's Diamond Jubilee Medal 2013, awarded the Roebling Medal of the Mineralogical Society of America 2015, elected Life Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada 2015, elected Fellow of the Geological Society of America 2015, elected Honorary Fellow of the Russian Mineralogical Society 2016, elected Honorary Fellow of the Società Italiana di Mineralogia e Petrologia 2016, special issue of the Canadian Mineralogist published to honour the career of Frank Hawthorne 2017, awarded the Fersman Medal by the Fersman Mineralogical Museum of the Russian Academy of Sciences 2018, appointed Distinguished Professor Emeritus, University of Manitoba 2018, awarded Buerger Medal by the American Crystallographic Association 2018, appointed Companion of the Order of Canada 2020, elected to the Academia Europaea 2021, elected Fellow of the American Crystallographic Association Bibliography Journal articles Books References http://archive.sciencewatch.com/july-aug2007/sw_july-aug2007_page1.htm http://www.canadacouncil.ca/NR/rdonlyres/C1864FEC-D4CF-4616-AB46- http://www.chairs-chaires.gc.ca/chairholders-titulaires/profile-eng.aspx?profileId=305 http://archive.sciencewatch.com/nov-dec2001/sw_nov-dec2001_page2.htm#M https://web.archive.org/web/20100806085643/http://www.eag.eu.com/Fellows.html#h https://web.archive.org/web/20110604130413/http://www.geochemsoc.org/awards/geochemicalfellows.htm http://archive.sciencewatch.com/july-aug2007/sw_july-aug2007_page1.htm https://web.archive.org/web/20110706171052/http://www.canadacouncil.ca/news/releases/?Year=2008 https://web.archive.org/web/20110725141340/http://www.carnegiemnh.org/minerals/hillman/awardees.html 2009 – IMA medal https://web.archive.org/web/20110608123447/http://www.rsc.ca/awards.php 1946 births Living people Alumni of Imperial College London Canada Research Chairs Canadian mineralogists English emigrants to Canada Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada Companions of the Order of Canada McMaster University alumni Scientists from Bristol Academic staff of the University of Manitoba Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences Logan Medal recipients
4184438	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preston%20Lions%20FC	Preston Lions FC	Preston Lions Football Club (formerly Preston Makedonia Soccer Club) is a semi-professional soccer club from Preston, a northern suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. The club was established in 1947 to play non-professional soccer matches against other teams in the local community until 1959, and 12 years later, they joined the Victorian Soccer Federation (now Football Victoria), the club's first season in an officially sanctioned competition. The Lions currently compete in the National Premier Leagues Victoria 2 competition after being promoted in 2022, which is the third tier in the Australian soccer league system. The club won the Victorian Premier League in seasons 1980,1994, 2002 and 2007. History Foundation The club was founded in 1947 and was affiliated with the Victorian Soccer Federation (now Football Victoria) in 1959. Based in the suburb of Preston, Victoria, the Macedonia Soccer Club was originally created as a focal point for the newly immigrated Macedonian community to gather and socialise, and to provide the then youth with the opportunity to learn and play the "world game" that was so popular back in their homeland of Macedonia. Transformation of the club and affiliation to VSF In 1959 the club established itself from an amateur club to a semi-professional club, and a change of name to the Preston Makedonia Soccer Club with promotion to the Victorian Division Two (South Competition). Preston Makedonia moved forward in leaps and bounds to become champions of the Victorian Metropolitan League Division One in 1966, and as a result, was promoted to the state's top competition, the Victorian State League in 1967. The club first experienced championship success at the state's top level in 1975 and again in 1980. As Victorian champions, Preston Makedonia competed in a play-off against other state champions and in 1981 they were promoted to the then National Soccer League (NSL) competition. During this significant period of growth the need for much larger facilities became apparent and the club consequently moved from its home base of T.A. Cochrane Reserve in Collier Street, Preston, to its current home ground at B.T. Connor Reserve in nearby Reservoir. The Preston Lions Social Club was also established around the same time and is located directly opposite the ground. National Soccer League Preston Makedonia continued to compete successfully in the NSL for the next 13 years, achieving their best finish in 1987 as runner-up in the Southern Division Championship. In 1992 Preston Makedonia took out the prestigious Dockerty Cup in a thrilling penalty shootout against arch rivals South Melbourne. However financial difficulties led to poor performances and in 1993 Preston Makedonia played their last match in the NSL. Victorian Premier League Relegated to the Victorian Premier League, Preston Makedonia were once again crowned Victorian champions in 1994. Around this time, Soccer Australia forced VPL clubs to abolish any ethnicity associated with their club names. Preston Makedonia Soccer Club was renamed the Preston Lions Soccer Club. The club has since adopted the title of the Preston Lions Football Club, following the lead set by the sports’ governing body and keeping in line with how the game is known in the UK and countries where people don't speak English–as "football". The club experienced a disastrous campaign in 1995, being relegated to the Victorian State League Division 1 after finishing bottom of the Premier League. Championship winning coach Peter Ollerton was sacked after five games with a record of 1 win, 1 draw and 3 losses to start the '95 campaign. Sean Lane came in on 2 April but lasted just 13 games with a 3–5–5 record. Norrie Pate oversaw the rest of the campaign as head manager but was unable to avoid the drop. Preston bounced straight back to the Premier League, winning promotion with their 2nd-place finish in the '96 State League 1. Makedonia would once again become Victorian Premier League champions in both 2002 and 2007, adding to its already impressive collection of trophies. Preston had 3 points deducted at the start of the 2007 season, making the feat all the more impressive. The 2007 grand final at Bob Jane Stadium against Whittlesea Zebras was attended by an estimated 4,500 people. Recent History In season 2009, in the club's 50 year anniversary, Preston finished the season in 12th place and were relegated, just two seasons after being crowned VPL Champions. Makedonia managed just 7 points all season in what was one of the worst ever VPL seasons recorded. Preston narrowly avoided relegation in 2010, finishing one point above the relegated FC Clifton Hill, qualifying to the relegation playoff against State League 2 side Diamond Valley United, winning the encounter 1–0 through a Robert Najdovski goal. Preston's fall from grace was continued in the 2011 State League One season, where the club was not able to avoid relegation, finishing bottom of the table. Makedonia experienced many heavy defeats in the 2011 season, finished with 56 goals conceded, 17 more than any other side in the competition. Preston Lions, playing in the third tier of football in Victoria for the first time in over 30 years, had a disappointing 2012 season, finishing mid-table. 2013 was more of the same for the historic outfit, placing 7th in the regionalised Victorian State League 2 North-West. After the inception of the National Premier Leagues Victoria, Preston were "promoted" to the Victorian State League 1 North-West, but as the Premier League was split into two divisions, Preston remained at essentially the same tier, the third, as they were before in the Victorian football pyramid. The 2014 season saw the Lions manage a 2nd-place finish in the league, missing out on top spot and a State League 1 NW championship by just three points. The club parted ways with head manager Josip Biskic in May and replaced him with Englishman Andy O'Dell. When O'Dell came in after Round 7, Preston were at the bottom end of the ladder. The Lions then went on an incredible run under their new coach, not losing a game for the rest of the season. A landmark moment was achieved when in August 2014, Preston were able to announce that they had eradicated their ATO debt in full, with acknowledgement arriving form the ATO in September 2014. President Zoran Trajceski resigned at the end of 2014. The Lions followed up their 2nd-place finish in 2014 with a 4th-place finish in 2015. In June 2015, Andy O’Dell was sacked as head manager following poor results and was replaced by former player Željko Popović. Popović was initially brought in on an interim basis, but the good results he achieved until the end of the 2015 season saw him reappointed for the 2016 season. The 2016 season saw another runners-up finish in the league for the Lions, finishing six points behind champions Altona Magic SC. With one point from three games to start the 2017 State League One season, head coach Željko Popović was replaced by former Preston Lions goalkeeper and former Hume City FC coach Lou Acevski. Acevski's first game in charge was an FFA Cup 5th qualifying round thriller, losing on penalties to fellow State League One North-West side North Sunshine Eagles FC, after the match finished 4–4 in extra time. Preston striker Chris Davies scored all four goals for his side, but blazed his penalty over the bar to give the Eagles the win. Preston finished the season in fourth place, with Davies' 14 goals enough to clinch the club's golden boot award. Robert Stambolziev also played eight games for the club, scoring nine goals. Preston had a poor start to the 2018 season, winning just one of its opening six games. Club returnee Naum Sekulovski was given the club's captaincy. A late season charge that saw the club go 12 games undefeated, propelling the club from the bottom half to second place, saw the club come in with a chance to challenge Geelong SC for the title and subsequent promotion to the NPL. In the penultimate game of the 2018 State League 1 season, 3,869 people packed out BT Connor Reserve. A win would have seen Preston jump Geelong into first place, but the visiting club came away with a 2–0 victory, winning the championship. Queenslander Rhys Saunders was Preston's top goalscorer with 14 goals, managing the feat despite arriving mid-season. Makedonia started the 2019 season with a 7–0 win over FC Clifton Hill, a promising sign of things to come. Preston would go undefeated until Round 11 of the season when it went down 4-2 to fellow Macedonian-backed club Sydenham Park SC. However, the club quickly recovered and went on to confirm promotion from State League 1 with a 1–0 win over Keilor Park SC. One week later, Preston claimed the State League 1 North-West championship title with a 4–0 victory over Banyule City, the club's first league title in 12 years. Supporters Preston has typically garnered support from the local Macedonian community across Melbourne but received much support from Macedonians all across Australia when they were competing in the NSL. Preston is well known throughout Australian football for having one of the largest and most dedicated supporter bases with crowds in the NSL often exceeding that of 10,000, a large figure for the time. There have been numerous supporter groups throughout the year; including Pečalbari from the 1990s who were founded by recent Macedonian immigrants to Australia, many of whom had been involved with ultras groups back home such as Komiti and Čkembari. Other groups include the Lions Pride from the early to mid 2000s and the Preston Boys until around 2011. Today the club is supported by a variety of groups, including the Preston Makedonia Ultras and Lavovi Melbourne. The club also has fans across Australia who are not of Macedonian heritage, with the Lions working hard to appeal to the broader football community. Current squad Honours National National Soccer League Runner-Up: (1) 1987 National Soccer League(Southern Division) Runner-Up: (1) 1985 National Soccer League Third Place: (1) 1983 National Soccer League Cup Runner-Up: (2) 1985, 1990/91 National Soccer League Finalists: (2) 1985, 1989 Gold Cup Champions: (1) 1991 State Victorian Premier League/ NPL Victoria Champions: (4) 1980, 1994, 2002, 2007 Victorian Premier League/ NPL Victoria Minor Premiers: (3) 1994, 2003, 2007 Victorian Premier League/ NPL Victoria Runners-Up: 1978 Victorian Premier League/ NPL Victoria Finalists: (7) 1994, 1997, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2007, 2008 National Premier League 3/ Victorian Premier League 2 Champions: 2022 Victorian Division One/ State League Division One Champions: (2) 1966, 1975 Victorian Division One/ State League Division One Runners-Up: (3) 1964, 1965, 1996 Victorian State League 1 North-West Champions: 2019 Victorian State League 1 North-West Runners-Up: (2) 2014, 2016 Victorian Division Two/State League Division Two Champions: (2) 1961, 1973 Dockerty Cup Winners: (1) 1992 Dockerty Cup Runner-Up: (2) 1985, 1986 Victoria Cup: (1) 1980 Federation Cup Winners: (3) 1973, 1975, 1996 Federation Cup Runner-Up: (1) 1963 Victorian Womens Premier League (2nd Tiers) Champions: 2022 Victorian Womens Premier League (2nd Tiers) Minor Premiers: 2022 Metro (FFV) Metropolitan League 3 North-West Champions: 2015 Individual awards Victorian Premier League Gold Medal – Metropolitan Player of the Year 2015 Ibrahim Yattara Victorian Premier League Gold Medal – VPL Player of the Year 2001–Chris Emsovski 2003–Chris Emsovski 2005–Anthony Magnacca Bill Fleming Medal – Media voted VPL Player of the Year 1994–Adrian Pender 2006–Anthony Magnacca 2007–Tony Sterjovski Victorian Premier League Coach of the Year 2007–Goran Lozanovski Victorian Premier League Top Goalscorer 1979–Gary Ward Victorian Premier League Goalkeeper of the Year 1999–Lou Acevski Victorian Premier League Under 21 Player of the Year 2005–Serkan Oksuz Jimmy Rooney Medal – VPL Grand Final Man of the Match 1994–Chris Sterjovski 2002–John Spazaovski 2007–Zoran Petrevski Weinstein Medal Junior Player of the Year 1989-Robert Spasevski Representative Football Australian Representatives – Senior Level Doug Brown Billy Celeski Gary Cole Oscar Crino Robbie Dunn David Jones John Little George Jolevski Goran Lozanovski John Markovski Zarko Odzakov Sasa Ognenovski Peter Ollerton Con Opasinis George Slifkas Warren Spink Sean Lane Phil Traianedes Kris Trajanovski Andrew Zinni National Representatives – Youth Team John Little (AUS) Warren Spink (AUS) John Markovski (AUS) Robert Spasevski Naum Sekulovski (AUS) Kris Trajanovski (AUS) Goran Lozanovski (AUS) Vasco Trpcevski (AUS) Bill Tijuelo (AUS) Daniel Miller (AUS) George Campbell (SCO) Graham Heys (ENG) Robert Stambolziev (AUS) Victorian State Representatives – Senior Level George Campbell John Sapazovski Anthony Magnacca Pece Siveski Serkan Oksuz Jonathan Munoz Sean Lane Robert Spasevski Robert Stojcevski Steve Jackson Notable former coaches Records Most Games: Chris Emsovski 158, John Sapazovski 123, Sasa Ognenovski 122 Most Finals Games: Chris Emsovski 8 Most Career Goals: John Sapazovski 61 Most Season Goals: Saso Markovski 19 (1998) Season-to-season records ● Preston Makedonia Inaugural season Victorian Provisional League 1959 - 4th - 10 Teams in League. ● Victorian Metropolitan League Division 2 1960 -3rd - 10 Teams in League. 1961 - 1st - 10 Teams in League *Promoted* to Victorian Division 1 South. 1962 - 10th- 12 Teams in League. 1963 - 7th -12 Teams League. 1964 - 2nd - 12 Teams in League. 1965 - 2nd - 12 Teams in League. 1966 - 1st - 12 Teams in League. *CHAMPIONS Promoted to STATE LEAGUE. (Premier League). 1967 - 12th - 12 Teams in League. Relegated to Metropolitan League Division 1 1968 -3rd - 12 Teams in League. 1969 -7th - 12 Teams in League. 1970 -7th - 12 Teams in League. 1971 -8th - 12 Teams in League. Relegated to Metropolitan League Division 2 1972 - 3rd - 12 Teams in League. 1973 - 1st - 12 Teams in League *CHAMPIONSVictorian Metropolitan League Division 2 Promotedto Victorian Metropolitan League Division 1 1974 - 3rd - 12 Teams in League. 1975 - 1st Champions Victorian Metropolitan League Division 1Promoted to State League 1976 - 7th ' 12 Teams in League. 1977 - 10th - 12 Teams in League. 1978 - 2nd Runners up - 12 Teams in League. 1979 - 3rd-12 Teams in League. 1980 - 1st Champions - 12 Teams. ● Promoted to the National Soccer League (NSL) for 13 Seasons. 1981 - 12th- 16 Teams in League. 1982 - 5th- 16 Teams in League. 1983 - 3rd- 16 Teams in League. 1984 - 6th - 12 Teams in League. 1985 - 5th - 12 Teams in League. 1986 - 6th - 12 Teams in League. 1987 - 2nd - 14 Teams in League Runners Up 1988 - 12th - 14 Teams in League. 1989 - 5th - 14 Teams in League. 1989/1990 - 9th - 14 Teams in League. 1990/1991 - 8th - 14 Teams in League. 1991/1992 - 14th - 14 Teams in League. 1992/1993 - 13th - 14 Teams in League Season 92/93 Relegated to VPL Victorian Premier League 1994 - 1st Champions 1995 - 12th Relegated ** to Victorian State League Division 1 Victorian State League Division 1 1996 - 2nd Runners - up & Promoted to Victorian Premier League Victorian Premier League 1997 - 4th 1998 - 8th 1999 - 3rd 2000 - 5th 2001 - 9th 2002 - 5th in regular season Champions 2003 - 1st Minor Premiership 2004 - 4th 2005 - 7th 2006 - 7th 2007- 1st *Champions* 2008 - 6th 2009 - 12th Relegated to Victorian State League Division 1 Victorian State League Division 1 2010 - 10th 2011 - 12th Relegated to Victorian State League Division 2 N/W 2012 - 9th 2013 - 7th 2014 - 2nd 2014 season Renamed to Victorian State League Division 1 as a result of the re-structure from FFV and the Inaugural seasons of NPL & NPL 1 * 2015 - 4th 2016 - 2nd 2017 - 4th 2018 - 3rd 2019 - 1st *Champions* & Promoted to NPL 3 Victoria National Premier League 3 Victoria 2020 - Cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia 2021 - Cancelled mid-season due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia 2022 - 1st *Champions* & Promoted to NPL 2 Victoria Current League National Premier League 2 Victoria 2023 - 8th See also List of Preston Lions players References External links Preston Lions Official website Preston Lions Football Club Facebook page Preston Lions Football Club Instagram Page Preston Lions Football Club Twitter Page Preston Lions Football Club LinkedIn Page Archive Website Official Archive website Preston Lions Women's Football Club Official Archive Website Preston Lions Junior Football Club Official Archive Website Preston Lions FC Association football clubs established in 1947 Macedonian sports clubs in Australia Soccer clubs in Melbourne National Premier Leagues clubs National Soccer League (Australia) teams Victorian Premier League teams Sport in the City of Darebin Women's soccer clubs in Australia Fan-owned football clubs
4184446	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline%20Springs%20George%20Cross%20FC	Caroline Springs George Cross FC	Caroline Springs George Cross Football Club is an Australian soccer club based in Fraser Rise, a north-western suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, and plays in the National Premier Leagues Victoria 2, the second tier of football in Victoria, and third in Australia. George Cross play at the City Vista Recreation Reserve, following a move from Chaplin Reserve in 2019, where the club spent 38 seasons. The move to Fraser Rise coincided with a name change for the club, from Sunshine George Cross to the current name. The club was founded by Maltese immigrants. Having been one of eight Victorian clubs to have participated in Australia's National Soccer League, the club's best achievement was reaching the playoffs as finalists in the 1986 season. Winners of the Australian Cup in 1964, Sunshine George Cross were named champions of the 1977 Victorian State League and were also runners up on 9 occasions. Producing 5 Weinstein Medalists and three Bill Fleming Medalists throughout its history. The club was once proudly home to John Markovski, Craig Foster, Kevin Muscat, Emmanuel Muscat and Andrew Nabbout. Caroline Springs George Cross wear red and white stripes for their home colours, the colours on the Maltese flag. Caroline Springs George Cross FC are one of just three winners of the 1960s Australia Cup that are still active, the others being Hakoah Sydney City East FC and APIA Leichhardt FC. History George Cross Football Club Maltese migrants Danny Gatt, Bill Sandham and Angelo Puli instigated the formation of a Maltese backed football team after the Second World War. The club was officially launched on 12 March 1947, and was called George Cross Football Club. The club first entered a team in 1948, when they joined the Third Division. The club's first home ground was Royal Park. They played their first match on Saturday 8 May 1948, beating Woodlands 2–0. They finished the season in second place. The next year, the young club took out the championship and was promoted to Second Division. In 1954, the club won the Second Division and were promoted to the highest level, the First Division, despite being just seven years young. In 1958, the First Division was named the State League for the first time, with George Cross achieving their goal of surviving in the league. 1959 was a great year for the club, finishing runners up in the league, but taking out the Sun Cup, the State League Cup and the Dockerty Cup. The trophies were celebrated in front of our 1,000 people, with the number of supporters of the club rapidly growing. 1961 saw the club introduce Juniors for the first time. In 1962, the club won its second Dockerty Cup. In 1964, the club won the Australia Cup, beating A.PI.A from N.S.W. 3–2 in front of over 15,000 at Olympic Park. The following year George Cross won the Ampol Cup beating Hakoah 3–0 in front of 10,000 fans in South Melbourne. In 1967 George Cross moved to a new home ground in Selwyn Park in Sunshine. The club stayed at Selwyn Park for just two seasons, moving back to Olympic Park, struggling to find a permanent home ground solution. During the 1960s, grounds like the Showgrounds, Heidelberg's Olympic Village, Shintler Reserve, Olympic Park's number one and number two grounds, Elsternwick Park, Maribyrnong, Selwyn Park, St. Kilda Cricket Ground and Optus Oval were just few grounds the George Cross Football Club has used as home grounds. In 1968, long serving President Lou Debono retired, ending a 14-year spell as president. He was affectionately known as the father of George Cross. Between in 1958 and 1976, the club finished runners up in the State League competition eight times – earnings themselves the title of perennial runners up. That all changed in 1978, though. In 1977, Mooroolbark, J.U.S.T., Heidelberg and Hellas joined the NSL. This made the club more determined than ever before to win the State League, which they did. They finished 7 points above Slavia in the 1978 season. In 1979 and 1980, financial trouble began to hit and the club managed just seventh and eighth-placed finishes in the league. Hiring Olympic Park was a burden on the club, with gate takings not being enough to cover rent. In 1980, the club made the decision to move back to Selwyn Park. A longer-term solution was finally found in 1980, when the Sunshine Council gave a long-term lease on Chaplin Reserve to George Cross. In 1983, George Cross amalgamated with Sunshine City to become Sunshine George Cross. National Soccer League years In 1984, the club made an application to join the newly expanded National Soccer League and was accepted. The club finished bottom, but as no other Victorian club wished to join the league, they retained their place. In 1985, the club finished sixth. In 1986, the team finished in fourth place, just 1 point behind first. The club was almost relegated in '87, but a heroic effort saw them climb to just 2 points above Heidelberg to retain their NSL status. During this decade, players like John Markovski, Chris Taylor, Andrew Marth, Paul Trimboli and Kevin Muscat donned the George Cross crest. During the 80's, George Cross were known as they Great Survivors due to their numerous close brushes with relegation. In the 1989–90 NSL season, the first summer season, the Georgies played their first home game at their new ground in Skinner Reserve against the Ferenc Puskas led South Melbourne Hellas team. The Georgies won 2–0 in front of over 6,000. A 15-year-old Kevin Muscat debuted in this season. In the 1990–91 season, the Georgies finished second last and had to reapply for a position in the NSL. This was denied. Return to Victorian Football The Georgies returned to the VPL for the 1992 season. Most of the squad left, and the club did quite well to finish in sixth position. In 1993, John Markovski returned as a guest player, scoring 18 goals as the club reached the preliminary final. In 1994, the Victorian Soccer Federation renamed the club Sunshine Georgies. In 1997, Sunshine George Cross bought Chaplin Reserve from the State Government. Club officials made it official by signing the deal at the club's 50th Anniversary Dinner Ball held at the Lakeside Banquet & Convention Centre on Saturday 28 June 1997. Saso Markovski scored a club record 25 goals that season. In 1998, the club tightened the budget and cut many senior players, replacing them with much younger ones. The club struggled and were relegated to the First Division. This was the first time George Cross had been relegated from the Premier League since 1958. At the end of the 2000 season the club made the decision to go amateur. The club entered the 2001 season with what was practically the under 16 team from the previous season. Most of the supporters stopped attending matches, with only a handful, loyal supporters standing by the club. The club was at its lowest point in a long time and there were great fears the club would go bust. The team went all season without a win and were relegated. In 2002, a new committee took over with the goal of getting the Georgies out of this mess, consolidation and eventually back up into the First Division and above. The first win of 2002 came in round 13 when the Georgies won 2–1 at Croxton Park to end a run of 40 games without a win. The club managed to survive in the Second Division in 2002, and went about strengthening for 2003. The club went neck and neck with Pascoe Vale SC, just edging them to the 2003 Second Division championship. The team also won the State League Cup that year. It was the club's first cup win in 25 years. In 2004, the club shot up to the top of the First Division ladder, going neck and neck with Heidelberg United FC all season, who ended up winning the race by two points. The second-place finish meant promotion for the Georgies who, against all odds, returned to the Victorian Premier League. The return to the VPL was always going to be tough, with the Georgies in a relegation dogfight from the offset. In the final round of the season, a point achieved from a 0–0 draw with Melbourne Knights FC was enough to ensure VPL football for another year. George Cross survived again in the 2006 season, but only on a technicality, as Essendon Royals were relegated for fielding an ineligible player. In 2007, the Football Federation of Victoria announced that four sides would be relegated from the VPL as the number of teams was being reduced. George Cross finished third bottom and were relegated. In 2008, an Andy O'Dell lead George Cross took out the State League 1 championship, edging Dandenong Thunder by three points. In 2009, the club finished in eighth place. In 2010, players began to leave halfway through the season and Andy O'Dell quit his position as head manager. Sunshine George Cross slipped from fifth to last place, following 9 successive defeats. It was close with the relegation issue was not being settled until the final day when the Georgies lost 4–0 to South Melbourne and Bentleigh Greens upset the league leaders Richmond to avoid the drop. The club played their home matches at Knights Stadium that year, which incurred high costs on the club. The club's previous name of Sunshine George Cross FC was restored after a long time being known as Sunshine Georgies. In 2011, Sunshine George Cross finished in seventh position in the Victorian State League Division One. The following year, the club endured similar fortunes, finishing in eighth position. In 2013, the club's results improved and the Georgies just missed out on promotion, finishing in third place, three points off Werribee City. National Premier Leagues Victoria In 2014, after a restructuring of football in Victoria, Sunshine George Cross FC had their application for a place in the new National Premier Leagues Victoria accepted and were placed into National Premier Leagues Victoria Division One, effectively the second division of football in Victoria, the same tier they were in previously. The club finished in ninth position out of 14 teams in their first year in the NPL1. In 2015, the NPL1 was split into East and West conferences after more sides were accepted into the NPL. George Cross was placed into NPL1 West. The club finished in eighth place in the 10 team West conference and 15th overall. On 4 June 2015, Jamie Chetcuti, the president of Sunshine George Cross, announced that following the sale of Chaplin Reserve, the club is "currently working with a municipality with the intent of developing a state of the art facility that George Cross juniors and senior’s players, staff and parents will call home". Chaplin Reserve will be converted into townhouses, while Georgies will move out to a new facility in Fraser Rise, which will become a home base for both the club's senior and junior sides. Following a melee in a pre-season friendly in January 2016 against local rivals North Sunshine Eagles FC, George Cross were deducted 4 NPLV 2 West championship points and fined $1,000. Georgies finished the season in ninth place. In 2017, George Cross had an improved season, finishing equal third in the 10-team NPL2 West. Sunshine reached an agreement with Melbourne Knights FC to play out of Knights Stadium for 2018. After a 9–2 loss to Altona Magic SC and a 7–0 loss to St Albans Saints in the first four rounds of the 2018 season, long-serving head coach Tony Ciantar resigned and was replaced by Joe Kovacevic. Kovacevic resigned only a few weeks into his reign, with technical director Vaughan Coveny taking over until the end of the season. George Cross were relegated at the end of the 2018 season, finishing the season in bottom place. As a result of the senior side's relegation, the club's juniors were also relegated from the NPL competitions. Move to Fraser Rise and new club name For the 2019 season, coinciding with the move to Fraser Rise, the club changed its name to Caroline Springs George Cross FC. George Cross appointed Corey Smith as the new senior head coach. The squad went through a rebuild, with only a handful of the relegated 2018 squad remaining. Smith was relieved of his duties on 28 May 2019 after 2 wins, 2 draws and 5 losses, leaving George Cross in tenth place of the 12-team division. Former Port Melbourne player and coach Eric Vassiliadis was named as his replacement. George Cross played its first game at City Vista Recreation Reserve on the third pitch on 30 June 2019, defeating league-leading side Sydenham Park 1–0. The City Vista complex is a $13m facility, including two grass pitches, two synthetic pitches, clubrooms and a bistro. New A-League side Western United FC chose the complex as its inaugural home base. Western United's first official match as a club came against George Cross, winning 4–0 in front of 3,247 people at City Vista. Vassiliadis' appointment saw a significant upturn in form for George Cross, winning 8, drawing 1 and losing 2 of its last 11 games, propelling the club up to fifth position on the league table. After Vassiliadis appointment, he managed to bring in strong players including Andrezinho, Francesco Stella and Ethan Gage. The 2020 season was suspended and subsequently cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia. The 2021 season was also cancelled after 14 matches being played, with George Cross in top spot, with 33 points from 14 games, 1 point clear of Brimbank Stallions FC. As a result of the season cancellation, there was no promotion or relegation in 2021. On 14 August 2022, George Cross were promoted and confirmed as league champions of State League 1 North-West. The promotion saw Caroline Springs George Cross playing in National Premier Leagues Victoria 3 for 2023. On 29 July 2023, George Cross secured back-to-back promotions with three games to spare. Rivalries Rivalries of the club include Victorian former NSL clubs South Melbourne, Melbourne Knights, Green Gully, Heidelberg United and the Preston Lions. Other rivalries include Victorian club's that are based in Melbourne's west, such as St Albans Saints, Western Suburbs and Altona Magic. Affiliated clubs Sunshine George Cross FC has a sister club relationship with Maltese-founded and Western Melbourne based club Green Gully Cavaliers. It is believed that both clubs adopted their familiar stripes from the Maltese club Floriana. Current squad Updated 12 March 2019 Former players For details of former players, see: Caroline Springs George Cross FC players. Honours National Australian Cup Winners: 1964 National Soccer League Finalists (Playoffs): 1986 National Youth League Champions: 1989 National Youth League Runner-Up: 1986, 1987, 1988 National Youth League (Southern Division) Champions: 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989 State Victorian State League (VPL) Champions: 1977 Victorian State League (VPL) Runners Up: 1959, 1960, 1961, 1964, 1965, 1972, 1973, 1974 and 1978 State League Cup (Top 4 Series) Winners: 1959, 1973, 1977 National Premier Leagues Victoria 3 Champions: 2023 Victorian State League Division 1 Champions: 2008, 2022 Victorian State League Division 2 Champions: 1954, 1957, 2003 Victorian State League Division 3 Champions: 1949, 1953 Ampol Cup Winners: 1961, 1965, 1974 Dockerty Cup Winners: 1959, 1962, 1978 Federation Cup Winners: 2003 Armstrong Cup Winners: 1976, 1994 Individual honours Bill Fleming Medal 1961 – Fred Falzon 1962 – Fred Falzon 1972 – John Gardiner Victorian Premier League Top Goalscorer Award 1977 – Ken Reed 1997 – Sasha Markovski Weinstein Medal 1986 – John Markovski 1988 – Lorenz Kindter 1990 – Kevin Muscat 1997 – Sasha Markovski 1998 – Anthony Magnacca National Youth Player of the Year 1989 – John Markovski State League First Division Player of the Year 2008 – George Papadopoulos International representatives Australia Notable coaches John Gardiner Ernie Merrick John Markovski Ken Wagstaff See also Australian football (soccer) league system References External links Sunshine Georgies at the Football Federation Victoria website Association football clubs established in 1947 Caroline Springs George Cross FC National Soccer League (Australia) teams Soccer clubs in Melbourne Victorian Premier League teams 1947 establishments in Australia Sunshine, Victoria Victorian State League teams Sport in the City of Melton Sport in the City of Brimbank Diaspora sports clubs in Australia Maltese diaspora
4184506	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwen%20Cooper	Gwen Cooper	Gwen Cooper is a fictional character portrayed by Welsh actress Eve Myles in the BBC science-fiction television programme Torchwood, a spin-off of the long-running series Doctor Who. The lead female character, Gwen featured in every episode of the show's 2006–2011 run, as well as two 2008 crossover episodes of Doctor Who. Gwen appears in Expanded Universe material such as the Torchwood novels and audiobooks, comic books and radio plays. Within the series narrative, Gwen is a South Wales Police officer who discovers the mysterious Torchwood Institute, into which she is recruited by Jack Harkness (John Barrowman). Gwen initially operates as a field agent, bringing a humane and rounded approach to the team's investigations of the extraterrestrial. Gwen's work begins to take a toll on her personal life in the first series (2006), but her marriage to Rhys (Kai Owen) keeps her grounded, even as her responsibilities increase in Series 2 (2008). In Children of Earth (2009) and Miracle Day (2011), after Torchwood is destroyed to conceal a government conspiracy, a much hardened Gwen operates under her own mandate as the world undergoes crises linked with unprecedented alien threats. Gwen is introduced as an audience surrogate, in the mould of the "girl next door" archetype, much like the perennial "companion" character in Doctor Who. However, as the series progressed, the production team chose to emphasise contradictory aspects to her character by having Gwen make ethically dubious decisions. As the show progresses, and even after becoming a mother, Gwen evolves into a more militant action heroine and finds herself willing to make tough decisions to protect those closest to her. Reviewers have generally responded positively to the complexity of Gwen's character and Eve Myles' portrayal, though critics found fault with her more prosaic characterisation earlier on. Eve Myles' portrayal of Gwen has been cited as effective in both promoting the country of Wales and combating a perceived prejudice against the Welsh accent. Myles received a Welsh BAFTA for the first series of the show and was nominated for several other acting awards across each of Torchwoods four series'. Appearances Television Gwen is introduced in the first episode of Torchwood, in which she—a Cardiff police officer— witnesses Captain Jack Harkness (John Barrowman) and his team interrogating a dead man in an alley. After investigating the Torchwood team, she locates the Torchwood Institute's Cardiff branch, home to a team of alien hunters. Though Jack wipes her memories, they are later triggered by reports of murders committed with exotic weaponry. Torchwood's own Suzie Costello (Indira Varma) is the serial killer. Gwen is present at Suzie's attempt to kill Jack, and Suzie's ensuing suicide. Jack reveals that he cannot die and offers Gwen a job in Torchwood. Jack and Gwen's relationship takes on a romantic hue, despite her long-standing relationship with boyfriend Rhys (Kai Owen). Gwen falls into a short-lived destructive affair with colleague Owen (Burn Gorman), after a particularly traumatic experience with cannibals, which she cannot share with Rhys. Shortly afterwards, Gwen is targeted and almost killed by a vengeful undead Suzie. In their conversations, Gwen is shocked to realise the extent to which Torchwood neglected Suzie's emotional welfare, and Suzie is resentful towards Gwen, who has replaced her both professionally, and as Owen's lover. Wracked with guilt, Gwen confesses her affair with Owen after it ends in "Combat", but she drugs Rhys with an amnesia pill so he will not remember her confession. In the series one finale, her desire to resurrect a murdered Rhys motivates her to mutiny against Jack by opening the rift in time and space which Torchwood monitors. After Jack sacrifices himself to the released supernatural demon, Gwen maintains a vigil, certain that he will resurrect. As she loses hope, giving Jack a parting kiss, he awakens and thanks her. Shortly afterwards, Jack abandons Torchwood to reunite with the mysterious "Doctor" from his past. In 2008, as series two begins, Gwen has replaced Jack as team leader. When Jack returns to lead Torchwood, Gwen displays anger towards him for abandoning the team, and surprises him with the news she has become engaged. In a later episode she is forced to tell Rhys about her job at Torchwood when he assumes she is having an affair with Jack. After Rhys takes a bullet for her Gwen defies Jack by refusing to wipe Rhys' memories, feeling humbled by her partner's loyalty and bravery. In "Something Borrowed", despite being pregnant to an alien Nostrovite, Gwen refuses to postpone the wedding to Rhys. Her marriage makes Jack remember an earlier marriage of his own. In "Adrift" Rhys continues to push Gwen to unburden herself from her traumatic experiences, after her attempt to re-unite families with missing children stolen by the rift goes horribly wrong. In the series finale, Gwen's leadership skills allow her to co-ordinate Cardiff during the chaos caused by Captain John Hart (James Marsters) and Jack's younger brother Gray (Lachlan Nieboer). When Gray kills Gwen's teammates Toshiko (Naoko Mori) and Owen, Gwen is desolate. The character makes a crossover appearance in Doctor Who alongside Jack and Ianto (Gareth David-Lloyd) in its 2008 series' two-part finale, in which Torchwood help contact series protagonist the Doctor (David Tennant) during an invasion of the psychopathic mutant Daleks, and later must defend their headquarters from the attacking aliens. The Doctor suggests a connection to Gwyneth, a separate character portrayed by Eve Myles in the 2005 Doctor Who episode "The Unquiet Dead". She was also mentioned in the alternate universe created in the Doctor Who episode "Turn Left" when Rose Tyler (Billie Piper) mentioned that she and Ianto were killed in the attempt to stop the Sontarans' invasion of Earth with ATMOs devices, whilst Jack is imprisoned on their homeworld. In Children of Earth, a five-part serial broadcast in 2009, Gwen is a more militant heroine shaped by the increased responsibilities and pressures of her job. In part one, aliens called the 4-5-6 communicate to the world by taking possession of its children and a middle-aged man, Clem McDonald (Paul Copley). Gwen investigates by visiting Clem, who—being possessed of psychic abilities—announces to her she is pregnant, which she later confirms using technology at the Torchwood Hub. Gwen is forced to defend herself from assassins after the Hub is destroyed to conceal a government conspiracy, taking Rhys on the run with her, and re-establishing Torchwood Three in a London warehouse. By making contact with government PA Lois Habiba (Cush Jumbo), Gwen discovers her fugitive status and is able to survey cabinet meetings. When Ianto is killed fighting the 4-5-6, Gwen and Rhys return to Cardiff to protect his niece and nephew from the armed forces, ordered by the government to sacrifice a percentage of the country's children as appeasement. She feels she now understands the Doctor's periodic absence during various crises in Earth's history; believing him to sometimes "look at this planet, and turn away in shame". In the dénouement of the final part, Gwen is six months pregnant when she returns Jack's vortex manipulator to him. She insists he stay; he leaves her behind and abandons Earth. Fourth series Miracle Day (2011), an American co-production, re-establishes Gwen, Rhys and their daughter Anwen living reclusively in rural Wales. CIA agent Rex Matheson (Mekhi Phifer) renditions Gwen to the United States, believing a worldwide phenomenon wherein no one can die to be connected to Torchwood and she becomes part of a new Torchwood team alongside Jack, Rex and former CIA analyst Esther Drummond (Alexa Havins). In "The Categories of Life" and "The Middle Men" Gwen returns to Wales to rescue her ailing father Geraint (William Thomas), who survived a fatal heart attack on "Miracle Day", from a facility where the critically injured are incinerated. Upon her return to America her family are kidnapped as leverage to make her surrender Jack. Gwen tells Jack, now ostensibly mortal, that she would allow him to be killed to save Anwen. After Gwen is deported by senior CIA official Allen Shapiro (John De Lancie) because of her dissidence she focusses on protecting her father from the authorities; enclosing him in her mother Mary's (Sharon Morgan) cellar and supplying him with palliative medicine. The concluding episode, "The Blood Line" opens with Gwen eulogising her father as the kindest man she has ever known, before stating that she is about to kill him. When the power and profit driven conspirators behind Miracle Day try to thwart her resolve by wounding Esther, Gwen declares she will sacrifice her entire Torchwood team to restore order. She shoots Jack through the heart, allowing his unique blood to prompt an ancient phenomenon to reset the human morphic field. As Geraint and other "Miracle Day" survivors pass away peacefully, Jack's immortality is restored. Gwen is shocked to discover at Esther's funeral that Rex is now immortal too. In the 2021 New Year's Special "Revolution of the Daleks," Jack departs the TARDIS to reconnect with Gwen. Jack tells the Thirteenth Doctor that Gwen fought off a Dalek with a moped and her son's boxing gloves during the recent invasion, revealing that she has had another child in the years that have passed since the end of Miracle Day. Literature Gwen appears in all Torchwood novels published by BBC Books to date. The first wave, Another Life, Border Princes, and Slow Decay, set between the series one episodes of Torchwood, were published in January 2007. These novels expand on the difficult period in Gwen and Rhys' relationship. In Border Princes she engages in an affair with the mysterious James Mayer, while Rhys is endangering himself for her in Slow Decay by taking an alien diet pill to impress her. Published in March 2008, and tying in with the concurrently airing second series of Torchwood, Gwen appears in the novels Trace Memory, The Twilight Streets, and Something in the Water. Gwen's first day with Andy Davidson as her beat partner is portrayed in a flashback in Trace Memory. In The Twilight Streets an alternate-future Torchwood is depicted; headed by Gwen and Rhys, after the demise of Tosh, Owen, Ianto and Jack. Three more Torchwood books were released in October 2008: Pack Animals, SkyPoint, and Almost Perfect. These novels maintain the series chronology: Pack Animals depicts Gwen attempting to plan for her wedding alongside her Torchwood mission. SkyPoint, in which Gwen and Rhys discover an alien threat whilst flathunting, is set soon after their wedding in "Something Borrowed". Gwen's continued use of her maiden name is not specifically addressed in the TV show, but SkyPoint sees her consciously reject the name "Mrs Williams", after the unfamiliarity and awkwardness of hearing Jack address her this way. The novel Almost Perfect is the first to be set after the episode Exit Wounds in which Tosh and Owen are killed; Gwen becomes concerned at Rhys' increasing role in her investigations. The May 2009 wave of books consisted of Into the Silence, Bay of the Dead, and The House that Jack Built. Later novels published in October 2009 include Risk Assessment, The Undertaker's Gift, and Consequences, all set between "Exit Wounds" and Children of Earth. Gwen appears in three Torchwood: Miracle Day prequel novels released in Summer 2011. In First Born Gwen and Rhys encounter sinister forces in rural Wales whilst adjusting to parenthood and life in hiding. Gwen appears briefly in flashback material in Long Time Dead and The Men Who Sold the World, novels which explore the aftermath of the destruction of Torchwoods headquarters and the technology left behind. Written by John and Carole Barrowman and published in September 2012, the novel Exodus Code unites Gwen and Jack in a transatlantic mission following the events of Miracle Day. First published in January 2008, the monthly Torchwood Magazine included Torchwood comic strips in which Gwen appeared. Gareth David-Lloyd's comic, "Shrouded", includes a scene set after Children in Earth, which shows Gwen cradling her young child. As Gwen is busy, Rhys is required to team up with Captain John Hart to save the timeline. During series two, the Torchwood website hosted an interactive online game written by series writer Phil Ford. Eve Myles makes a brief appearance as Gwen towards the end of the game, alongside Gareth David-Lloyd, when her character and Ianto shut down a broadcast from the fictitious Dark Talk studio. Throughout both series one and two, the interactive websites co-written by James Goss featured electronic literature content (such as fictitious internet messaging conversations and letters) which depict aspects of Gwen and the other Torchwood characters' work and personal lives. The Torchwood Archives by Gary Russell — an insider's look into Torchwood — collects much of this ancillary online literature in hardback form, along with new material, some of which expands on Gwen's background and life before Torchwood. Details are given of Gwen's university attendance, a previous boyfriend named Bruce, and her time with Andy in the police force. Photographs are provided of Gwen and Rhys, which were used as set dressing in the TV series, and fictitious in-universe documents such as Gwen's personnel form and her Torchwood case reports. In a similar vein to The Torchwood Archives, from a real-world perspective, Gary Russell's The Torchwood Encyclopedia (2009) expands on "every fact and figure" for Gwen and the Torchwood world. Audio drama Gwen appeared in four original Torchwood audiobooks from BBC Books in 2008 which tied in with the second series of the television drama. The first of these—Hidden and Everyone Says Hello, narrated by Naoko Mori and Burn Gorman respectively— were released in February whilst two further releases—In the Shadows, narrated by Gwen's portrayer Eve Myles, and The Sin Eaters, narrated by Gareth David-Lloyd — were released in September. Two additional original audiobooks set following the events of the second series—Ghost Train and Department X—were published in March 2011 and narrated by Kai Owen. In Ghost Train Gwen is killed: as Jack is missing Rhys has to work alone to reverse his wife's fate. Gwen's investigations after Miracle Day are depicted in 2012 audio books. In Army of One, released in March, written by Ian Edginton and narrated by Kai Owen, Gwen and Rhys are drawn into the investigation of an alien serial killer in Washington DC. In Fallout, released April, written by David Llewellyn and read by Tom Price, Andy has an extraterrestrial investigation of his own in the UK and requires assistance from Gwen by telephone. In May's release, Red Skies written by Joseph Lidster and narrated by John Telfer, Jack has a premonition that Gwen has been ostensibly shot in the chest. However, in the following instalment, Mr Invincible, a brief appearance from Rhys and Gwen reveal that the characters have returned to Wales safely following their time in the United States. Joseph Lidster wrote a Torchwood radio drama, "Lost Souls", which aired in September 2008 as a Radio 4 Afternoon Play featuring the voices of John Barrowman, Eve Myles, Gareth David-Lloyd and Freema Agyeman (Martha). Set after the events of the 2008 series, Gwen and the team make their first international adventure in CERN in Geneva, as part of Radio 4's special celebration of the switching on of the Large Hadron Collider. The special radio episode's plot focuses both on the Large Hadron Collider's activation and the doomsday scenario some warned it might cause, and the team's mourning of Toshiko and Owen's recent deaths. Between 1 and 3 July 2009, Radio 4 aired three further audio dramas in the Afternoon Play time-slot, titled "Asylum", "Golden Age" and "The Dead Line", bridging the gap between Series 2 and 3. "The Dead Line" depicts Gwen working together with Rhys to investigate a mysterious case; she identifies him as a member of Torchwood during the mission. To tie in with the show's fourth series, Torchwood: Miracle Day, the BBC produced three more radio plays, airing between 11 and 13 July 2011. Titled "The Devil and Miss Carew", "Submission" and "House of the Dead", these plays fill narrative gaps between "Exit Wounds" and Miracle Day and feature the voices of Myles, Barrowman and David-Lloyd. Myles reprised the role of Gwen in a series of full cast audio dramas as part of an ongoing Torchwood series from Big Finish Productions. The third release of the series, Forgotten Lives, co-stars Kai Owen as Rhys and re-introduces the characters four years after the events of Miracle Day. Casting and initial characterisation Lead writer and executive producer Russell T Davies initially had the idea of an unnamed policewoman stumbling across a team of alien investigators in an alley as a premise, before Torchwood or the 2005 revival of Doctor Who were commissioned. Having been enamoured by her television performances, most notably in the 2005 episode of Doctor Who in which she guest-starred, Davies wrote the character of Gwen specifically for Eve Myles. Myles stated that having the part written for her was like her "own personal Oscar". Part of the attraction of playing Gwen for Myles was that she had the opportunity to play an action hero with her own accent. Speaking on the casting of Welsh actors on Torchwood, Davies commented that it was deliberately intended, to make the Welsh accent mainstream, "to make it as acceptable as Scottish or Irish". In an analysis of Welsh mythology in Torchwood, Lynette Porter observes that Gwen's national consciousness forms part of her characterisation: her knowledge of local myths "highlights her Welsh heritage and common knowledge from her experience and formal education." Discussing the international co-production behind series four, executive producer Julie Gardner commented that Myles' continued involvement helped ensure that the "flavour of Wales" remained evident. In the first series of Torchwood, Gwen functioned as an audience surrogate. Russell T Davies likened her character type to that of 2005–06 Doctor Who lead female Rose Tyler (Billie Piper): "She is the ordinary person who stumbles into something extraordinary and finds herself their equal." Eve Myles characterised Gwen as an ambitious and feisty young woman, who at the same time embodies many aspects of the girl next door archetype. Her distinct role within the team stems from the fact that "she's there for the people", who she feels "instinctive and passionate" about. Producer Richard Stokes noted that Gwen possesses more "human empathy" than the more mercenary members of the team, who are seen to be "technology-and-alien-obsessed". In this vein, lead actor John Barrowman commented that Gwen brings a "little bit of soul" back to Jack. Describing the ways in which Gwen's methods differ from the rest of the team, Myles explained how her police procedural training relates to the job: "she deals with the families, she deals with profiling, she deals with searching people's backgrounds. It's a new way of working she brings in". Myles stated that Gwen would have made a "fantastic policewoman" prior to joining Torchwood, drawing on the character's ability to get vulnerable characters to "open up by making them feel comfortable". Myles perceived Gwen to be "the heart and emotion of Torchwood", and "Torchwood's social worker" who can "run and fight and stand in her own corner and win". Gaining insight into Torchwood through curiosity, Gwen becomes part of Torchwood because they need her, just as she needs them. Gwen's friendship with former colleague Andy is used by the production team to juxtapose her extraordinary life with a mundane one, as well as highlighting her transformation into a harder woman. Andy is present immediately before Gwen first encounters Torchwood, and Myles feels his later appearances "takes you right back to the beginning, it reminds you where she came from, how Jack found Gwen". Myles observed that Gwen's many facets prevent her from getting bored; she feels constantly challenged "physically", "mentally" and "morally" through portraying the character. Eve Myles previously appeared in the 2005 Doctor Who episode "The Unquiet Dead" as Gwyneth, a 19th-century clairvoyant. Gwyneth had a connection to the Cardiff Rift, which later became a central plot device in Torchwood. In response to questions about the similarity of the characters' names, Russell T Davies denied they were connected, stating they are "just two names beginning with "G"." Subsequently however, Davies' 2008 Doctor Who episode "Journey's End" alluded to a familial relationship between the characters (with the Doctor specifically asking if Gwen was a family name and Gwen replying that it was), explaining their physical resemblance as the result of "spatial genetic multiplicity". Eve Myles said of the two characters, "it was never on the cards as such, but something in the back of my head always said that they were going to be connected somehow." Davies explained that the relationship between the characters is not literal, stating that "It's not familial as we understand it" instead characterising spatial genetic multiplicity as "an echo and repetition of physical traits across a Time Rift." Development Morality Despite being promoted as the show's heart and moral conscience, the flaws in Gwen's own morality are explored throughout the series; a press release noted that she is both selfless and selfish. The first series sees Gwen embark on a brief affair with colleague Owen Harper. Executive producer Russell T Davies explains that the episode "Countrycide" was deliberately structured in order to make the affair seem inevitable as Gwen struggles to cope with Torchwood life. For Davies, the dalliance is a "human" one, told in an adult manner characterised by "lust and anger and hurt and the joy you get out of the initial stages of having an affair". Myles commented that Gwen's compromised morality, as demonstrated by her affair was suitably challenging for a science fiction audience, and served to demonstrate that none of the Torchwood team were "safe" from temptation. Writer Stephen James Walker argues that Gwen's moral ambiguity made her a more compelling character. Since she was introduced as an audience surrogate, Walker claimed it would have been an easy trap to make her a "one-dimensional paragon of virtue". Instead, the writers made Gwen more "realistic" by giving her "distinct human failings", which Walker felt made her "arguably the most complex and interesting of the five regulars". He identified these failures as her "tendency towards egotism", "self-righteousness", and "selfishness", evident in her "highly questionable treatment" of boyfriend Rhys Williams. Walker cited her affair with Owen as an example, as well as the scene in "Combat" where she confesses this betrayal to Rhys after dosing him with the amnesia drug Retcon so he won't remember. Linnie Blake felt that Gwen's had a passive role in her own affair; as with her lesbian clinch with an alien and her forceable impregnation; she argues that the Gothic situations in Torchwood continually parallels in the "invasion" of her sexuality. Valerie Estelle Frankel argued that Gwen finds "the missing side of herself" with her immersion into the world of Torchwood, represented by "affairs and homosexuality and the threat of death" rather than her ordinary domestic life with Rhys. Daniel Rawcliffe noted that Indira Varma's character Suzie, featured in the premiere episode and in "They Keep Killing Suzie", is used as a "doppelgänger" for Gwen, (a trope of Gothic fiction – compare with the terms "Gothic double" and literary foil). Suzie's actions, and parallels with Gwen, help to illuminate some of Gwen's own ethically ambiguous decisions in the first series. Gwen must constantly fight against Suzie, and Suzie's example, "if she is to be proved worthy of working alongside Captain Jack". According to Frankel Gwen's confrontation with Suzie mirrored her confrontation with her "inner self"; her literal journey into death gave her "the wisdom and duality of both worlds, life and death, mundane and magical" and allowed her to become stronger. Whilst Lynette Porter thought that Gwen became a "fallen woman" through her affair with Owen, she observed that this made Gwen's role in relation to Jack in "End of Days", analogous to that of Mary Magdalene to Jesus, reinforcing a prevalent biblical subtext. Gwen keeps a vigil at Jack's "Torchwood tomb" and like Magdalene is rewarded for her loyalty by being the first to lay eyes upon the risen saviour. Valerie Frankel surmised that "Gwen's journey is one we all face [...] she discovers the dominant intuition within, and then embraces it within the darkest caves of her inner self". David Cornelius stated that Gwen's Torchwood adventures take her to the brink, and additionally show "she's strong enough to pull herself back". Stephen James Walker also felt that Gwen is still a redeemable character because she recognises her own moral failings, as seen in "Combat" where she sits alone sobbing over pizza, before picking herself up and trying to do better in the future. On this track, Torchwood actor Kai Owen justified Gwen's treatment of Rhys in her darkest moments by arguing that Gwen's intentions always remained pure, no matter how badly she treated Rhys. Ahead of the fourth series, Russell T Davies acknowledged that the character of Gwen can be both loved and hated by the audience. He stated that as an actress Myles isn't preoccupied with her character being presented in a sympathetic light, being able "to take that extraordinary deep breath and not care". io9's Charlie Jane Anders observed that the TV episode "The Categories of Life", written by Jane Espenson, exposed the character's "human vanity" by showing that she has "started to believe her own hype". In Anders' eyes, the character is responsible for her father's second heart attack because of her rash actions. Anders felt that later episodes in the fourth series continued to illuminate flaws in Gwen's character, describing her as someone with an "addictive personality" who "treats her Torchwood adventures like a drug that she craves" though she knows they "ruin her relationships with her husband and child". Rhys and Jack Much of Gwen's characterisation centers on her developing relationship with her partner Rhys. Eve Myles describes the character as Gwen's "normality base". The relationship is tested by Gwen's affair with colleague Owen Harper (Gorman), a betrayal which Myles believes to be "completely out of character" for Gwen, explaining that the guilt experienced over her actions tears her to pieces. The production team had originally planned for Rhys to die in the first series but he was given a reprieve. Producer Richard Stokes explains that Rhys' presence keeps Gwen from losing her "heart" and that without him "it simply becomes a sci-fi show about sci-fi people, running around and hunting aliens". Julie Gardner adds that in the discussion, the writers had felt they could not have written Gwen as ever recovering from Rhys' loss, and so chose not to kill off the character. In his analysis of Gwen, Daniel Rawcliffe opines that Rhys helps to keep her mental health intact, and argues that his presence prevents her from undergoing the same psychological deterioration as Suzie. Despite her ongoing relationship with Rhys, the series explores possibilities of a romantic connection between Gwen and her boss Jack. In a 2007 interview, Eve Myles describes the relationship between Jack and Gwen as a "palpable love" and stated that "it's the real thing and they're going to make you wait for that." AfterElton's Locksley Hall interprets Jack's attraction to Gwen as being influenced by "her warmth, her sense of justice, her very ordinariness and lack of glamour", whilst Myles states of Gwen's interest in Jack that "the most monogamous woman in the world would probably go for him". Stephen James Walker quotes the firing range sequence in 2006 episode "Ghost Machine" as an example of romantic tension between the pair as well as the scene where Jack discovers Gwen engagement. Gwen remains monogamous during the second series and "fights every day to be with [Rhys]" even though Jack remains "a huge temptation". Her suspension between Jack and Rhys becomes a central theme; Valerie Frankel believes that Gwen is caught between "Rhys, the sweet, kind handsome prince, and Jack, the compelling trickster". She suggests that Jack is not mature enough to occupy the role of "steady prince" for Gwen. John Barrowman feels that if Jack were to settle down with her "he'd have to commit completely"; this is why he does not act on his feelings, because though Gwen would let him flirt with other people, he could "never afford to do anything more". Stephen James Walker feels that Gwen's decision not to wipe Rhys' memory a second time in the episode "Meat" marks the end of any potential relationship between Gwen and Jack. As Davies felt it was essential that Rhys became enlightened to Gwen's true occupation, the episode "Meat" focused on Rhys discovering and coming to terms with Torchwood. Richard Edwards of SFX magazine comments that this development allows their relationship to become the most convincing on the show and makes it clear why Gwen would want to marry him. Ben Rawson-Jones of Digital Spy comments that overall, the relationship serves to create "a nice contrast with the fantastical elements of the show"; whilst Jason Hughes opines that their marriage is "handled in a painfully honest way" and serves as "a true definition of 'love' written with subtlety and perfection". When asked about her character's complex relationship with both Jack and Rhys, Myles explains that Gwen wouldn't be as much of a "strong character" without her ordinary life with Rhys. Davies felt that the relationship furthered the shows exploration of human sexuality stating that "open sexuality has to include everything" including "a husband/wife great big crime-fighting team ... happily in love". In 2009 Myles stated that to have Jack and Gwen act on their feelings would be "like feeding the baby when it's not hungry". Reinforcing this view, Julie Gardner feels the love between Gwen and Jack to be self-evident and that it did not need to be spoken. Lynette Porter argues that Gwen's apotheosis of Jack causes him to flee Earth, as hero is a role he cannot play because he feels responsible for the deaths of those he loved. A press release ahead of the 2011 series stated that though Gwen retreats to a rural idyll with her family, she still retains feelings for Jack and misses the exciting life she once led alongside him. Ahead of the fourth series Myles explains that Gwen and Jack's relationship is a "love-hate-love relationship", which she believes to be reminiscent of, concurrently, a sibling relationship, a husband and wife relationship and "the best friendship known to mankind". Myles feels that Gwen is not complete without Jack and that they are like "two missing parts of a jigsaw" and because the relationship works on so many different levels it cannot be labelled. Episode seven of Miracle Day features a scene where Gwen states that she would have Jack killed to save her daughter. Writer Jane Espenson explains that the two characters' differing needs means that they inevitably "clash like steel blades". Action hero and mother Original lead writer Chris Chibnall feels Gwen develops into a stronger character between series one and series two, becoming less "wide-eyed" over events happening around her. Frankel writes that "she is a whole woman now, integrated with all the parts of herself". In the second series, Eve Myles states, Gwen now "knows where her feet are". Costume Designer Ray Holman explains that these developments are reflected in how the production team dresses the character. In the first series Gwen is dressed in a "faded high street look" and keeps away from leather clothing. As she becomes more confident in her new vocation, her clothes becomes "a lot more designer and heroic looking". In the second series she wears more leather from brands such as Diesel and G-star which Holman describes as "sexy" and "practical". The overall effect is that Gwen's leathers "toughen her up a bit, but keep her stylish at the same time". For fourth series Miracle Day, costume designer Shawna Trpcic declared her intention to take Eve Myles "out of the nunnery". Myles recalled vetoing a brassiere she was asked to wear because she felt it to be unnecessarily sexualised and impractical for action sequences. She added that she views Gwen as "a real woman" and "not about tits and arse". Children of Earth director Euros Lyn remarks that by the third series Gwen has grown so that "she now is on a par with Jack, in terms of having the knowledge and the experience to make decisions and to be a heroine". Daniel Martin of The Guardian opines that her characterisation in the serial "shows just how far she's come", whilst Robert Lloyd of the Los Angeles Times feels that she is a "soulful leather-jacketed action heroine". Myles states that Gwen becomes a harsher character, but she feels that, "if she wasn't, people would die". David Cornelius observes that Gwen is no longer the kind-hearted outsider she was when she first joined Torchwood. By Children of Earth she has become "colder and much more aggressive". Her horrific experiences turn her into "a biting cynic"; when both government and army betray the British people, Gwen claims to understand finally why the Doctor does not save humanity from world crises. She believes he "must look at this planet and turn away in shame". A press release stated that Miracle Day had Gwen "make the most terrible decisions, on behalf of all mankind". This is evident in "The Blood Line", where her character is shown to be willing to sacrifice the entire Torchwood team, in addition to her dying father, for the good of the world. Commenting on Gwen's characterisation in this episode, Dan Martin notes that "Gwen sees transition into the Earth Mothering Tank Girl become complete, as she plays God and appears to love it." Press releases describe Gwen in light of contradictions between her heroic and conventionally feminine roles in the series; despite becoming a "tough, ruthless warrior, who loves the thrill of the fight" Gwen remains a "funny, salty, earthy woman who loves home and family". Children of Earth sees Gwen become pregnant by husband Rhys; a storyline which IGN writer Asham Haque thought provided "one of the few hope-giving threads" in the serial. She gives birth to a baby girl, Anwen, between the third and fourth series. Both Eve Myles and creator Russell T Davies have described this plot development as emblematic of a contradiction at the heart of Gwen's character. Myles, believing that motherhood gives Gwen a greater sense of responsibility, says it makes Gwen "even more human, and yet even more of a wonder woman". Whilst talking about the show's fourth series, Davies suggested that it would be "irresistible" to use the image of "Gwen Cooper with baby in one arm and gun in the other" as promotion. The production team have continued to emphasise this contradictory aspect to Gwen's character, which has proved popular with critics and viewers. For example, a promotional clip for Miracle Day features Gwen firing from her gun in one hand while protectively holding her baby in the other. Zap2it's Mikey O'Connell praised this as one of the trailer's best aspects, praising Gwen as "the coolest mum ever." Reviewing the opening episodes of Miracle Day Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times identified "the dark humor" of the sequence as representative of "the top notes of the British Torchwood". The Daily Telegraphs Catherine Gee praised the dichotomy between the character's two roles, stating that "Eve Myles's homely yet badass agent is incredibly charming". Critics have drawn comparisons with famous screen action heroines such as Ellen Ripley, portrayed by Sigourney Weaver in the original Alien trilogy. Ripley is seen as a ground-breaking depiction of a heroine, whose heroism is neither derived from male support nor hampered by femininity. Rawcliffe writes that Gwen's strength of character makes her a "half Ripley", insofar as she possesses all of Ripley's strength, and yet "is hampered by her reliance on the male characters of Jack, Rhys and Owen". Gwen has been compared, at least superficially, to Buffy Summers, as portrayed by Sarah Michelle Gellar. Reflecting on a scene from Miracle Day, one critic comments that Gwen is "channeling Season Two Buffy the Vampire Slayer" when she shoots at a helicopter from her bazooka (recalling the sequence depicted in Buffy episode "Innocence"). Gwen has attracted implicit comparisons with Lara Croft from the Tomb Raider video game and film franchise. Commenting on the first episode of Torchwood: Miracle Day Den of Geek's Simon Brew states that "whoever Hollywood producers cast in the planned reboot of the Tomb Raider movie franchise, I'm fully confident that Myles could kick their ass. Twice. Before breakfast." While critical of the typical portrayal of British female science fiction characters, The Guardians Krystina Nellis singles out Gwen and Doctor Whos River Song (Alex Kingston) as positive depictions of strong female characters, stating, "It'd be difficult to find two superwomen in less need of a man to save them." Reception Eve Myles has enjoyed an increased profile since being cast as Gwen Cooper in Torchwood and is now considered one of Wales' greatest drama exports. On casting her, Russell T Davies described Myles as "Wales best kept secret," and the actress has been described as a "Welsh icon" since appearing in Torchwood, with the Western Mail listing Myles' turn as "Torchwoods feisty female lead" as a contributing factor in making her one of Wales' sexiest women, as well as a national institution. In an analysis of Welsh representation in television, Geraint Telfan Davies cited Myles' role in Torchwood, coupled with the popularity of sitcom Gavin & Stacey, as combating prejudice against the Welsh accent. Backing up this claim, Samantha Bennet of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette describes Myles' "silvery, flowing" accent as "exotic" and Myles herself as a bona fide star. Shortly after Torchwoods premiere, Conservative MP Michael Gove described Gwen Cooper as a "Celtic Rosselini" and an example of Welsh sensuality, while in 2006, Wales on Sunday named Myles as its "Bachelorette of the Year". In July 2011, The Scotsmans Aidan Smith described Gwen Cooper as "the sexiest woman in Wales". The Guardian's "Organ Grinder" reviewer was full of praise for Myles' performance in "Everything Changes", expressing the opinion that, through her portrayal of Gwen Cooper, she managed to outshine Captain Jack. The character was described by The Stage as "the solid, down to earth character needed to anchor Torchwood to the real world" whilst functioning well as a foil to Captain Jack. Some reviews mocked the prosaic characterisation. Verity Stob, a technology columnist for online newspaper The Register, wrote a parody of Torchwood called Under Torch Wood (in the style of Dylan Thomas' Under Milk Wood). The piece mocks Gwen's role as "the viewer proxy" describing her as "plumply pop-eyed" and her boyfriend Rhys as 'Barry Backstory'. Jan Ravens played a parody version of Gwen in the impressionist television series Dead Ringers, in which she displays a badge labelling her with what Jon Culshaw's Captain Jack describes as her sole characteristic: Welsh. In November 2006 Jim Shelley from The Mirror stated Gwen to be "neither as interesting nor as sexy as she should be." A plot development that saw Gwen respond to the advances of an alien sex-gas in another woman's body was described by Karman Kregloe of AfterEllen as characterising "nearly every negative lesbian stereotype imaginable". Kregloe considers Gwen's inability to satiate the alien as a "play on a traditional, sexist social construct", and the fact that Gwen never again mentions this experience is also criticised. The more assertive Gwen in Torchwoods third series attracted praise from reviewers: Paul Collins of Total Sci-Fi expressed the opinion that Children of Earth finally shows Gwen's heroic characteristics in a way that had been missing in the first two series, while Daniel Martin from the Guardian stated that "it's great to see Gwen being so completely badass". David Cornelius wrote that Gwen succeeds as a strongly written female character that does not pander to stereotypes because writers avoid defining her by any aspect of her adventures. Reviewers commented on Myles' standing as a leading lady: Comic Book Resources''' Remy Minnick describes Gwen as "the true heart of Torchwood", while Scott Lewinski from Wired magazine described Myles' portrayal as the conscience of the Torchwood team, and the show itself. Total Sci-Fis Jonathan Wilkins felt that the five-part serial marked the emergence of Eve Myles as a star in her own right and opined that she could potentially carry the show without co-star Barrowman. Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune stated her belief that the third series' climax showed that Eve Myles has "grown into the role" of Gwen, describing her performance as "outstanding". Ryan later gave an "Honourable Mention" to Gwen when discussing Sci-Fi TV's Most Memorable Female Characters, making her the only Doctor Who franchise character to receive a mention. Critical response to the character remained positive in the fourth series. Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph felt Myles "took the acting honours with a bravura performance", whilst Charlie Jane Anders stated Gwen to have the strongest moments in the finale which led to "a new appreciation for her character". Eve Myles won the 2007 Bafta Cymru Award for Best Actress for her portrayal of Gwen Cooper, winning over the parent series' actress Billie Piper. She was nominated again for the award in 2008, and again in 2010. In 2010 Myles won the 'Best Actress" award in the SFX Reader's Awards poll, and was crowned best actress in the 11th annual Airlock Alpha Portal Awards. For her role as Gwen Cooper in Torchwood: Miracle Day Myles was nominated for a Satellite Award in the Best Television Actress category, and reached the shortlist for the 2012 UK National Television Awards. She has also received a nomination for Best Actress in Television at the 38th Saturn Awards, held in June 2012. Action figures of Gwen have been created in her likeness, which Myles' describes as "bizarre and wonderful" and at the same time "really kind of strange". In a reader's awards poll in the sixth issue of Torchwood Magazine, Gwen was voted second favourite Torchwood character behind Captain Jack, a ranking she received in a 2011 poll published by the Liverpool Daily Post'' as part of a live interview with writer John Fay. Myles, describing her experiences at various science-fiction conventions, has praised the fan response as "incredible" and "just extraordinary". Some fans have taken to blacking out their teeth at conventions to mimic her gap toothed appearance, which Myles finds particularly flattering. References External links Gwen Cooper on the BBC's Torchwood website Gwen Cooper on Starz' Torchwood website Gwen Cooper on the BBC-created Torchwood Institute website Torchwood characters British female characters in television Fictional British police officers Fictional secret agents and spies in television Fictional Welsh people Television characters introduced in 2006 Crossover characters in television
4184524	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998%20NCAA%20Division%20I-A%20football%20season	1998 NCAA Division I-A football season	The 1998 NCAA Division I-A football season, play of college football in the United States organized by the National Collegiate Athletic Association at the Division I-A level, began in late summer 1998 and culminated with the major bowl games in early January 1999. It was the first season of the Bowl Championship Series (BCS), which saw the Tennessee Volunteers win the national championship, one year after star quarterback Peyton Manning left for the National Football League (NFL). Tennessee defeated the Florida State Seminoles, 23–16, in the Fiesta Bowl in Tempe, Arizona, to secure the inaugural BCS National Championship. The BCS combined elements of the old Bowl Coalition and the Bowl Alliance it replaced. The agreement existed between the Rose, Fiesta, Sugar, and Orange bowl games, with the Cotton Bowl Classic diminishing in status since the breakup of the Southwest Conference. Like the Bowl Alliance, a national championship game would rotate between the four bowls, with the top two teams facing each other. These teams were chosen based upon a BCS poll, combining the AP Poll, the Coaches Poll, and a computer component. The computer factored in things such as strength of schedule, margin of victory, and quality wins without taking into account time (in other words, a loss early in the season and a loss late in the season were on equal footing). Like the Bowl Coalition, the BCS bowls not hosting the national championship game would retain their traditional conference tie-ins. The first run of the Bowl Championship Series was not without controversy as Kansas State finished third in the final BCS standings, but was not invited to a BCS bowl game. Ohio State (ranked 4th) and two-loss Florida (8th) received the at-large bids instead. Also, Tulane went undefeated, but finished 10th in the BCS standings and was not invited to a BCS bowl because of their low strength of schedule. Rule changes The following rule changes were adopted by the NCAA Rules Committee during their 1998 meeting: Defensive players are allowed to recover and advance backward passes. Previously the defense was only allowed to recover but not advance backward passes. Illegal touching of a forward pass by an ineligible receiver is a five-yard penalty from the previous spot but no loss-of-down. Defensive players may not rough an offensive player in position to receive a backward pass (i.e. trail man on option play). Standardized uniform recognition regarding memorializing of deceased or severely ill teammates/coaches. Eyeshields must be clear. The titles of side judge and field judge were swapped, with the field judge now working on the same side of the field as the line judge (and ruling on placements with the back judge), and the side judge on the same side as the head linesman. Coincidentally, the NFL swapped the titles of back judge and field judge to match the NCAA prior to its 1998 season. Conference and program changes With no teams upgrading from Division I-AA, the number of Division I-A schools was fixed at 112. Army broke away from almost one hundred years of tradition as an independent, joining Conference USA. Regular Season August–September The AP voters selected Ohio State as the top-ranked team to begin the season, followed by No. 2 Florida State and No. 3 Florida. Last year’s co-champions, Nebraska and Michigan, were ranked No. 4 and No. 5 respectively. August 29–31: No. 2 Florida State beat No. 14 Texas A&M 23-14 in the Kickoff Classic while No. 4 Nebraska defeated Louisiana Tech 56-27 in the Eddie Robinson Classic. Most other teams had not begun their schedules, so no new poll was taken until the following week. September 5: No. 1 Ohio State won 34-17 at No. 11 West Virginia. No. 2 Florida State was idle. No. 3 Florida opened their schedule with a 49-10 victory over The Citadel, while No. 4 Nebraska beat Alabama-Birmingham 38-7. No. 5 Michigan was upset 36-20 at No. 22 Notre Dame. No. 6 Kansas State blanked Indiana State 66-0 and moved up in the next poll: No. 1 Ohio State, No. 2 Florida State, No. 3 Florida, No. 4 Nebraska, and No. 5 Kansas State. September 12: No. 1 Ohio State shut out Toledo 49-0. No. 2 Florida State fell 24-7 at North Carolina State, just their second loss in ACC play since joining the conference in 1992. No. 3 Florida beat Northeast Louisiana 42-10, No. 4 Nebraska won 24-3 at California, No. 5 Kansas State blew out Northern Illinois 73-7, and No. 6 UCLA defeated No. 23 Texas 49-31. The next poll featured No. 1 Ohio State, No. 2 Florida, No. 3 Nebraska, No. 4 UCLA, and No. 5 Kansas State. September 19: No. 1 Ohio State beat No. 21 Missouri 35-14. The biggest game of the weekend took place in Knoxville between No. 2 Florida and No. 6 Tennessee. The Volunteers had lost to the Gators each of the past five years, despite having Hall of Famer Peyton Manning under center in four of those games. This time they finally came away with the victory, as Florida missed a 32-yard field goal in overtime to seal a 20-17 Tennessee triumph. No. 3 Nebraska was idle, No. 4 UCLA won 42-24 at Houston, and No. 5 Kansas State defeated Texas 48-7. The next poll featured No. 1 Ohio State, No. 2 Nebraska, No. 3 UCLA, No. 4 Tennessee, and No. 5 Kansas State. September 26: No. 1 Ohio State was idle. No. 2 Nebraska overwhelmed No. 9 Washington 55-7. No. 3 UCLA’s game against Miami was postponed due to a hurricane, a situation which would have repercussions later in the season. No. 4 Tennessee defeated Houston 42-7, and No. 5 Kansas State blew out Northeast Louisiana 62-7. The next poll featured No. 1 Ohio State, No. 2 Nebraska, No. 3 Tennessee, No. 4 UCLA, and No. 5 Kansas State. October October 3: No. 1 Ohio State opened conference play with a 28-9 victory over No. 7 Penn State. No. 2 Nebraska needed a fourth-quarter punt return for a touchdown and a game-ending goal line stand to get past Oklahoma State 24-17. No. 3 Tennessee won 17-9 at Auburn, No. 4 UCLA beat Washington State 49-17, and No. 5 Kansas State was idle. The next poll featured No. 1 Ohio State, No. 2 Nebraska, No. 3 UCLA, No. 4 Tennessee, and No. 5 Kansas State. October 10: No. 1 Ohio State shut out Illinois 41-0. No. 2 Nebraska suffered their first regular-season loss to a conference opponent since 1992, falling 28-21 to No. 18 Texas A&M. No. 3 UCLA visited No. 10 Arizona for a 52-28 victory. No. 4 Tennessee also had an easy time against a highly-ranked foe, beating No. 7 Georgia by a 22-3 score. After outscoring their first four opponents 249-21, No. 5 Kansas State was forced into a defensive battle against No. 14 Colorado, but the Wildcats still prevailed 16-9. No. 6 Florida beat No. 11 LSU 22-10 to move back into the top five: No. 1 Ohio State, No. 2 UCLA, No. 3 Tennessee, No. 4 Kansas State, and No. 5 Florida. October 17: No. 1 Ohio State defeated Minnesota 45-15. No. 2 UCLA ran out to a 17-point lead against No. 11 Oregon but allowed the Ducks to come all the way back; the lead changed hands several times before the Bruins finally won 41-38 on a field goal in overtime. No. 3 Tennessee was idle, No. 4 Kansas State beat Oklahoma State 52-20, and No. 5 Florida breezed past Auburn 24-3. The top five remained the same in the next poll. October 24: No. 1 Ohio State won 36-10 at Northwestern, No. 2 UCLA visited California for a 28-16 victory, No. 3 Tennessee beat Alabama 35-18, and No. 4 Kansas State crushed Iowa State 52-7. No. 5 Florida was idle, and No. 6 Florida State’s 34-7 win at No. 20 Georgia Tech was impressive enough to move the Seminoles ahead of their in-state rivals in the next AP Poll: No. 1 Ohio State, No. 2 UCLA, No. 3 Tennessee, No. 4 Kansas State, and No. 5 Florida State. The first-ever BCS standings were released on October 26 and featured UCLA in the top spot, followed by Ohio State in second and the next three teams in the same order as the AP Poll. October 31: AP No. 1 Ohio State posted another dominant win, 38-7 at Indiana. BCS No. 1 UCLA trailed by 10 points in the fourth quarter against a Stanford team with a 1-6 record, but the Bruins scored two late touchdowns for a 28-24 victory. UCLA’s close shave against inferior competition caused them to drop in both the BCS and the human polls. No. 3 Tennessee won 49-14 at South Carolina and No. 4 Kansas State visited Kansas for a 54-6 triumph. No. 5 Florida State beat North Carolina 39-13, but No. 6 Florida’s 38-7 blowout of No. 11 Georgia led the voters to switch the two teams again. The AP and BCS had the same top five: No. 1 Ohio State, No. 2 Tennessee, No. 3 UCLA, No. 4 Kansas State, and No. 5 Florida. November November 7: No. 1 Ohio State, having won all of their previous games by at least 17 points, was heavily favored to beat Michigan State at home. The Buckeyes held a 24-9 lead in the third quarter, but the Spartans (under the direction of up-and-coming head coach Nick Saban) responded with 19 unanswered points and sealed their 28-24 victory with an interception in the end zone on Ohio State’s last drive. No. 2 Tennessee defeated Alabama-Birmingham 37-13. No. 3 UCLA had another close call, needing a last-minute touchdown to beat Oregon State 41-34. No. 4 Kansas State won 49-6 at Baylor, No. 5 Florida visited Vanderbilt for a 45-13 win, and No. 6 Florida State handled No. 12 Virginia 45-14. The AP’s top five were No. 1 Tennessee, No. 2 Kansas State, No. 3 UCLA, No. 4 Florida, and No. 5 Florida State. The BCS also had Tennessee at No. 1, but placed UCLA over KSU and Florida State above Florida. The Coaches Poll further muddied the waters by placing Tennessee and Kansas State in a tie for first. November 14: No. 1 Tennessee trailed No. 10 Arkansas by double digits at the half, and the Razorbacks still led by four points with three minutes left. But a snap went over their punter’s head for a safety, and a fumble on Arkansas’ next possession enabled a Volunteers touchdown drive for a 28-24 win (the third time in three weeks that a No. 1 team played a game with that score). No. 2 Kansas State beat No. 11 Nebraska 40-30 to clinch the Big 12 North title and end the Cornhuskers’ 29-game winning streak over the Wildcats, one of the longest in NCAA history. No. 3 UCLA won 36-24 at Washington, No. 4 Florida defeated South Carolina 33-14, and No. 5 Florida State visited Wake Forest for a 24-7 victory. The AP and BCS top five remained the same, but Kansas State now stood alone at No. 1 in the Coaches Poll. November 21: No. 1 Tennessee clinched a spot in the SEC Championship Game by defeating Kentucky 59-21. No. 2 Kansas State completed an undefeated regular season with a 31-25 victory over No. 19 Missouri. No. 3 UCLA beat USC 34-17 and earned the outright Pac-10 title. No. 4 Florida fell 23-12 at No. 5 Florida State. After their crushing defeat two weeks earlier, No. 7 Ohio State found some solace in a 31-16 win over No. 11 Michigan, the team which had dealt them several upset losses in recent years. The next AP Poll featured No. 1 Tennessee, No. 2 Kansas State, No. 3 UCLA, No. 4 Florida State, and No. 5 Ohio State. The BCS standings kept their previous top four and elevated Texas A&M, champion of the Big 12 South, to fifth place. November 28: No. 1 Tennessee put an exclamation mark on their regular season with a 41-0 shutout of Vanderbilt. No. 2 Kansas State and No. 3 UCLA were idle, and No. 4 Florida State and No. 5 Ohio State had finished their schedules. The AP and Coaches top five remained the same, but the BCS standings moved Ohio State to No. 5 when Texas A&M lost their regular season finale 26-24 at Texas. December December 5: Despite being ranked first in the Coaches Poll and second in the AP ratings, Kansas State was No. 3 in the BCS standings and needed a loss by one of the teams ahead of them in order to have a shot at the championship. The game between UCLA and Miami—a makeup of the hurricane-canceled contest from September—turned out to be just what the Wildcats needed: the Bruins blew a 17-point second-half lead as Edgerrin James ran for a Miami record 299 yards and led the Hurricanes to a 49–45 win. As time was running out on UCLA, Kansas State held a 17–3 lead over No. 10 Texas A&M in the second quarter of the Big 12 Championship Game, and the crowd roared at the announcement of Miami’s victory. However, the Aggies chipped away at the Wildcats’ lead and tied the score at 27 with one minute to play. Kansas State quarterback Michael Bishop completed a 55-yard Hail Mary with time running out, but the receiver was tacked just short of the goal line and the game went into overtime. The teams traded field goals until A&M’s Branndon Stewart threw a 32-yard touchdown pass to Sirr Parker that gave the Aggies a 36–33 double-overtime triumph and ended Kansas State’s dreams of an unlikely championship. The day almost went three-for-three on upsets as No. 23 Mississippi State held a slim lead over No. 1 Tennessee in the fourth quarter of the SEC Championship Game. However, the Volunteers scored a touchdown on a long pass by Tee Martin, forced a fumble on the next play, and immediately picked up another TD on another throw by Martin. The game ended 24-14 in favor of Tennessee, and the final AP Poll of the regular season featured No. 1 Tennessee, No. 2 Florida State, No. 3 Ohio State, No. 4 Kansas State, and No. 5 Arizona. The final BCS standings were topped by Tennessee, Florida State, Kansas State, Ohio State, and UCLA in that order. The Fiesta Bowl would feature a battle for the national championship between No. 1 Tennessee—the only undefeated team from the major conferences—and No. 2 Florida State, the highest-rated of several one-loss teams. (The Seminoles had previously defeated Miami and Texas A&M, the two teams which had just ended UCLA and Kansas State’s perfect seasons.) The Rose Bowl featured the traditional Pac-10 vs. Big Ten matchup between No. 6 UCLA and No. 9 Wisconsin. No. 3 Ohio State, who had tied the Badgers for the conference title, went to the Sugar Bowl against No. 8 Texas A&M. The final at-large BCS spot went to No. 7 Florida, who would face Big East champion No. 18 Syracuse in the Orange Bowl. Controversially, No. 4 Kansas State was left out of the BCS bowls despite their high ranking, instead being sent to play unranked Purdue in the Alamo Bowl. No. 10 Tulane was undefeated, but their light schedule eliminated them from championship consideration; the Green Wave would match up against Brigham Young in the Liberty Bowl. Regular season top 10 matchups Rankings reflect the AP Poll. Rankings for Week 8 and beyond will list BCS Rankings first and AP Poll second. Teams that failed to be a top 10 team for one poll or the other will be noted. Week 3 No. 6 Tennessee defeated No. 2 Florida, 20–17 OT (Neyland Stadium, Knoxville, Tennessee) Week 4 No. 2 Nebraska defeated No. 9 Washington, 55–7 (Memorial Stadium, Lincoln, Nebraska) Week 5 No. 1 Ohio State defeated No. 7 Penn State 28–9, (Ohio Stadium, Columbus, Ohio) Week 6 No. 3 UCLA defeated No. 10 Arizona 52–28, (Arizona Stadium, Tucson, Arizona) No. 4 Tennessee defeated No. 7 Georgia 22–3, (Sanford Stadium, Athens, Georgia) Week 11 No. 1/1 Tennessee defeated No. 7/10 Arkansas, 28–24 (Neyland Stadium, Knoxville, Tennessee) Week 12 No. 4/5 Florida State defeated No. 5/4 Florida, 23–12 (Doak Campbell Stadium, Tallahassee, Florida) Week 14 No. 8/10 Texas A&M defeated No. 3/2 Kansas State, 36–33 2OT (1998 Big 12 Championship Game, Trans World Dome, St. Louis, Missouri) Conference standings Bowl games Rankings are from the AP Poll. Final polls Heisman Trophy voting The Heisman Trophy is given to the year's most outstanding player Other major awards Maxwell Award (College Player of the Year) - Ricky Williams, Texas Walter Camp Award (Back) - Ricky Williams, Texas Davey O'Brien Award (Quarterback) - Michael Bishop, Kansas St. Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award (Senior Quarterback) - Cade McNown, UCLA Doak Walker Award (Running Back) - Ricky Williams, Texas Fred Biletnikoff Award (Wide Receiver) - Troy Edwards, Louisiana Tech Bronko Nagurski Trophy (Defensive Player) - Champ Bailey, Georgia Chuck Bednarik Award - Dat Nguyen, Texas A&M Dick Butkus Award (Linebacker) - Chris Claiborne, USC Lombardi Award (Lineman or Linebacker) - Dat Nguyen, Texas A&M Outland Trophy (Interior Lineman) - Kris Farris, UCLA Jim Thorpe Award (Defensive Back) - Antoine Winfield, Ohio St. Lou Groza Award (Placekicker) - Sebastian Janikowski, Florida St. Paul "Bear" Bryant Award - Bill Snyder, Kansas St. Football Writers Association of America Coach of the Year Award - Phillip Fulmer, Tennessee References
4184623	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Old%20Carthusians	List of Old Carthusians	The following are notable Old Carthusians, who are former pupils of Charterhouse (founded in 1611). Politicians Thomas Chataway (1864–1925), Senator for Queensland (1907–1913) John Colville, 1st Baron Clydesmuir (1894–1954), politician, Financial Secretary to the Treasury, 1936–1938, Secretary of State for Scotland, 1938–1940, and Governor of Bombay, 1943–1948 Fox Maule-Ramsay, 11th Earl of Dalhousie (1801–1874), Secretary at War, 1846–1852, and Secretary of State for War, 1855–1858 Patrick Vanden-Bempde-Johnstone, 4th Baron Derwent (1901–1986), politician Henry William Newman Fane (1897–1976), Chairman of Kesteven County Council (1962–1967) and High Sheriff of Lincolnshire (1952) Thomas Milner Gibson (1806–1884), radical politician, President of the Board of Trade, 1859–1866 Major John Gouriet (1935–2010), Conservative political campaigner and founder of The Freedom Association William Haines (1810–1866), Premier of Victoria (1855–1857; 1857–1858) Richard Hope Hall (1924–2007), Deputy Speaker of the Rhodesia House of Assembly (1973–1977) General Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay (1887–1965), Secretary to the Committee of Imperial Defence, 1938–1946, Chief of Staff to the Viceroy of India, 1947–1948, and first Secretary General of NATO, 1952–1957 Kenneth Jeyaretnam (born 1959), Singaporean politician Charles Jenkinson, 1st Earl of Liverpool (1729–1808), Secretary at War, 1778–1782, first President of the Board of Trade, 1786–1804, and Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, 1786–1803 Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool (1770–1828), Prime Minister, 1812–1827 Sir Horatio Mann, 2nd Baronet (1744–1814), politician and patron of cricket Thomas Manners-Sutton, 1st Baron Manners (1756–1842), Lord Chancellor of Ireland (1807–1827) Hartland Molson (1907–2002), brewer and Canadian senator Geoffrey FitzClarence, 5th Earl of Munster (1906–1975), Paymaster General Matthew Oakeshott, Baron Oakeshott of Seagrove Bay (born 1947), Labour peer and Treasury minister in the 2010 Coalition government Ralph Bernal Osborne (c. 1808–1882), politician, Secretary of the Admiralty, 1852–1858 Ivan Power (1903–1954), British diplomat and London County Councillor Sir Garrard Tyrwhitt-Drake (1881–1964), Mayor of Maidstone, zoo keeper James Vernon (c. 1646–1727), Secretary of State James Stuart-Wortley, 1st Baron Wharncliffe (1776–1845), politician and Lord President of the Council, 1841–1845 MPs John Archer-Houblon (1773–1831), MP for Essex (1810–1820) William Bagot, 3rd Baron Bagot (1811–1887), MP for Denbighshire (1835–1852) Thomas Barrett-Lennard (1788–1856), MP for Ipswich (1820–1826) and Maldon (1826–1837; 1847–1852) Richard Fellowes Benyon (1811–1897), MP for Berkshire (1860–1876) Reginald Blaker (1900–1975), MP for Spelthorne (1931–1945) John Gordon Drummond Campbell (1864–1935), MP for Kingston-upon-Thames (1918–1922) Douglas Carswell (born 1971), MP for Harwich (2005-10) and Clacton (2010–17) Ronald Cartland (1907–1940), MP and rebel against Chamberlain's appeasement policies, killed near Dunkirk in 1940; portrayed in Lynne Olson's "Troublesome Young Men." Arthur Stuart, 7th Earl Castle Stewart (1889–1961), MP for Harborough Henry Cautley, 1st Baron Cautley (1863–1946), MP for Leeds East and East Grinstead Sir Charles Clifford, 4th Baronet (1821–1895), MP for Isle of Wight (1857–1865) and Newport (1870–1885) Thomas Cobbold (1833–1883), MP for Ipswich (1876–1883) and diplomat Anthony Coombs (born 1952), MP for Wyre Forest Coningsby Disraeli (1867–1936), MP for Altrincham Ralph Etherton (1904–1987), MP for Stretford Clavering Fison (1892–1985), MP for Woodbridge Walter Fletcher (1892–1956), MP for Bury (1945–1950) and Bury and Radcliffe (1950–1955) Stephen Furness (1902–1974), MP for Sunderland (1935–1945) Richard Gardner (1812–1856), MP for Leicester (1847–1848; 1852–1856) Mark Garnier (born 1963), MP for Wyre Forest George Gipps (1783–1869), MP for Ripon (1807–1826) Charles Goodson-Wickes DL (born 1945), former soldier, businessman, consulting physician, and former Conservative MP for Wimbledon Sir Douglas Hall, 1st Baronet (1866–1923), MP for Isle of Wight (1910–1922) Sir George Hamilton, 1st Baronet (1877–1947), MP for Altrincham (1913–1923) and Ilford (1928–1937) Henry Handley (1797–1846), MP for Heytesbury (1820–1826) and South Lincolnshire (1832–1841) George Harrison (1680–1759), MP for Hertford (1727–1734; 1741–1759) Edward Hicks (1814–1889), MP for Cambridgeshire (1879–1885) Frederick Hindle (1877–1953), MP for Darwen (1923–1924) Geoffrey Hirst (1904–1984), MP for Shipley (1950–1970) Kirkman Hodgson (1814–1879), MP for Bridport and Bristol, and Governor of the Bank of England Sir Henry Hoghton, 7th Baronet (1768–1835), MP for Preston (1795–1802) Henry Thomas Howard (1808–1851), MP for Cricklade (1841–1847) Jeremy Hunt (born 1966), MP for South West Surrey and Chancellor of the Exchequer Edward John Hutchins (1809–1876), MP for Penryn and Falmouth (1840–1841) and Lymington (1850–1857) William Fletcher-Vane, 1st Baron Inglewood (1909–1989), MP for Westmorland and government minister John Jenkinson (1734?–1805), MP for Corfe Castle (1768–1780) Sir Geoffrey Johnson-Smith (1924–2010), MP for Holborn and St Pancras South, East Grinstead and Wealden David Jones (1810–1869), MP for Carmarthenshire (1852–1868) Sydney Jones (1872–1947), MP for Liverpool West Derby (1923–1924) Seymour King (1852–1933), MP for Kingston upon Hull Central (1885–1911) Timothy Kitson (1931–2019), MP for Richmond, North Yorkshire (1959–1983) Sir Frederick Knight (1812–1897), MP Sir Edmund Lechmere, 3rd Baronet (1826–1894), MP William Cunliffe Lister (1809–1841), MP for Bradford (1841) Lord Cecil Manners (1868–1945), MP for Melton (1900–1906) James Martin (1807–1878), MP for Tewkesbury (1859–1865) William Meeke (1758–1830), MP for Penryn (1796–1802) John Mills (1879–1972), MP for New Forest and Christchurch (1932–1945) John Pretyman Newman (1871–1947), MP for Enfield (1910–1918) and Finchley (1918–1923) Sir Charles Nicholson, 1st Baronet, of Harrington Gardens (1857–1918), MP for Doncaster (1906–1918) Reginald Nicholson (1869–1946), MP for Doncaster (1918–1922) George Palmer (1772–1853), MP for Thomas Erskine Perry (1806–1882), MP for Devonport (1854–1859) Vivian Phillipps (1870–1955), MP for Edinburgh West (1922–1924) Richard Pilkington (1908–1976), MP for Widnes (1935–1945) and Poole (1951–1964) William Pole-Carew (1811–1888), MP for East Cornwall (1845–1852) Rafton Pounder (1933–1991), MP for Belfast South (1963–1974) Uvedale Tomkins Price (1685–1764), MP for Weobley (1713–1715; 1727–1734) Jim Prior, Baron Prior (1927–2016), MP for Lowestoft and Waveney, Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (1970–72), Secretary of State for Employment (1979–81) David Ricardo (1803–1864), MP for Stroud (1832–1833) Thomas Rider (1785–1847), MP for Kent (1831–1832) and West Kent (1832–1835) Benjamin Rodwell (1815–1892), MP for Cambridgeshire (1874–1881) George Schuster (1881–1982), MP for Walsall (1938–1945) McInnes Shaw (1895–1957), MP for Western Renfrewshire (1924–1929) Sir John Shelley, 7th Baronet (1808–1867), MP for Gatton (1830–1831), Great Grimsby (1831–1832), and Westminster (1852–1865) Waldron Smithers (1880–1954), MP for Chislehurst (1924–1945) and Orpington (1945–1954) Edward Richard Stewart (1782–1851), MP for Wigtown Burghs (1806–1809) Dick Taverne, Baron Taverne, (born 1928), MP for Lincoln, founder of Democratic Labour, co-founder of the Institute for Fiscal Studies, and Liberal Democrat peer William Thompson (1792–1854), MP for Callington (1820–1826), London (1826–1832), Sunderland (1833–1841), and Westmorland (1841–1854), and Lord Mayor of London (1828–1829) Mike Thornton (born 1953), MP for Eastleigh Lord Edward Thynne (1807–1884), MP for Weobley (1831–1832) and Frome (1859–1865) Anthony Trafford, Baron Trafford (1932–1989), MP for The Wrekin George James Turner (1798–1867), MP Philip Twells (1808–1880), MP for City of London (1874–1880) Kenyon Vaughan-Morgan (1873–1933), MP for Fulham East (1922–1933) John Wakeham, Baron Wakeham, (born 1932), MP for Maldon and South Colchester and Maldon and government minister Thomas Spencer Wilson (1727–1798), MP for Sussex (1774–1780) Henry Wilson-Fox (1863–1921), MP for Tamworth Ian Winterbottom, Baron Winterbottom (1913–1992), MP for Nottingham Central Edmund Workman-Macnaghten (1790–1876), MP for Antrim (1847–1852) Tim Yeo (born 1945), MP for South Suffolk and former chairman of the Energy and Climate Change Select Committee Henry Redhead Yorke (1802–1848), MP for City of York (1841–1848) Robert Curzon, 14th Baron Zouche (1810–1873), MP for Clitheroe Political scholars, activists, and others John Campbell (born 1947), political writer and biographer Adam Curle (1916–2006), British academic and Quaker peace activist Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson (1862–1932), political scholar Charles Evenden (1894–1961), British soldier who was the founder of the Memorable Order of Tin Hats Garry Thomson (1925–2007), British conservator and Buddhist Patrick Trevor-Roper (1916–2004), British eye surgeon and pioneer gay rights activist (witness before the Wolfenden Committee) Royalty Yashwant Rao Holkar II (1907–1990), Maharaja of Indore Prince Albert of Schleswig-Holstein (1869-1931), grandson of Queen Victoria Prince Dilok Nobaratana (1884-1912), son of King Rama V of Siam Nobility Sir Robert Abdy, 5th Baronet (1896–1976) Niall Campbell, 10th Duke of Argyll (1872–1949), hereditary peer Peter Baden-Powell, 2nd Baron Baden-Powell (1913–1962), hereditary peer Maxwell Aitken, 3rd Baron Beaverbrook (born 1951), hereditary peer Adrian Buckmaster, 4th Viscount Buckmaster (born 1949), hereditary peer Horace Lambart, 11th Earl of Cavan (1878–1950), Irish peer Sir Charles Clarke, 2nd Baronet (1812–1899) Robert Boyle, 11th Earl of Cork (1864–1934) Mark Pepys, 6th Earl of Cottenham (1903–1943), racing driver Edward Law, 5th Baron Ellenborough (1841–1915) Charles Campbell, 2nd Baron Glenavy (1885–1963), hereditary peer David Hacking, 3rd Baron Hacking (born 1938), hereditary peer Walter Angelo Fox-Strangways, 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Director of Brewin Dolphin plc John Fane, 10th Earl of Westmorland (1759–1841), Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, 1789–1794, and Lord Privy Seal, 1798–1827 Fiske Goodeve Fiske-Harrison (1793–1872), High Sheriff of Essex (1827) Charles Young (1795–1869), Garter Principal King of Arms (1842–1869) Colonial administration John Adam (1779–1825), acting Governor-General of the British East India Company (1823) Oswald Raynor Arthur (1905–1973), Governor of the Falkland Islands (1954–1957) and Governor of the Bahamas (1957–1960) Edward Beetham (1905–1979), Governor of the Windward Islands (1953–1955) and Governor of Trinidad and Tobago (1955–1960) James Samuel Berridge (1806–1885), Governor of Saint Christopher (1872–1873) George Bowen (1821–1899), Chief Secretary of the Ionian Islands, 1854–1859, first Governor of Queensland, 1859–1867, Governor of New Zealand, 1867–1873, Governor of Victoria, 1873–1879, Governor of Mauritius, 1879–1882, and Governor of Hong Kong, 1882–1885 Cavendish Boyle (1849–1916), Governor of Newfoundland (1901–1904) and of Mauritius (1904–1911) Sir Henry Ernest Gascoyne Bulwer (1836–1914), Governor of Natal 1882–1885 Major-General Sir James Carmichael-Smyth, 1st Baronet (1779–1838), Governor of the Bahamas (1829–1833) and Governor of British Guiana (1833–1838) Geoffrey Francis Taylor Colby (1901–1958), Governor of Nyasaland (1948–1956) Elliot James Dowell Colvin (1885–1950), Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir Robert Henry Davies (1824–1902), Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab (1871–1877) William Des Vœux (1834–1909), Administrator of St Lucia, 1869–1878, Governor of Fiji, 1880–1885, Governor of Newfoundland, 1886–1887, and Governor of Hong Kong, 1887–1891 Lieutenant-General Sir William Dobbie (1879–1964), Inspector, Royal Engineers, 1933–1935, General Officer Commanding Malaya and Singapore, 1935–1939, and Governor-General of Malta, 1940–1942 Edward Hay Drummond Hay (1815–1884), President of the British Virgin Islands (1839–1850), Lieutenant Governor of Saint Christopher (1850–1855), and Governor of Saint Helena (1856–1863) Charles Du Cane (1825–1889), Governor of Tasmania (1869–1874) Peter Fawcus (1915–2003), Resident Commissioner of Bechuanaland (1960–1965) Laurence Guillemard (1862–1951), British High Commissioner in Malaya (1920–1927) Frederick Seton James (1870–1934), Colonial Secretary of the Straits Settlements (1916–1924) and Governor of the Windward Islands (1924–1930) Henry Lushington (1812–1855), Chief Secretary of Malta, 1847–1855 Henry Augustus Marshall (c. 1776–1841), Civil Auditor General (1823–1841) Field Marshal Sir George Nugent, 1st Baronet (1757–1849), Lieutenant-Governor of Jamaica, 1801–1806, and Commander-in-Chief in India, 1811–1813 Aubrey Metcalfe (1883–1957), Chief Commissioner of Baluchistan (1939–1943) Arthur Wigram Money (1866–1951), Chief Administrator of Palestine (1918–1919) John Giles Price (1808–1857), British penal governor at Norfolk Island Leslie Probyn (1862–1938), Governor of Sierra Leone (1904–1910) and Governor of Jamaica (1918–1924) Arthur Somers-Cocks, 6th Baron Somers (1887–1944), Governor of Victoria, 1926–1931, Deputy Chief Scout, 1936–1941, and Chief Scout, 1941–1944 Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Knight Storks (1811–1874), last High Commissioner for the Ionian Islands, 1859–1863, Governor of Malta, 1864–1865, Governor of Jamaica, 1864–1866, Controller-in-Chief of the War Office, 1866–1870, and Surveyor-General of the Ordnance, 1870–1874 Ronald Storrs (1881–1955), Oriental Secretary in Cairo, 1909–1915, Governor of Jerusalem, 1917–1926, Governor of Cyprus, 1926–1932, and Governor of Northern Rhodesia, 1932–1934 John Sturrock (1875–1937), Resident Commissioner in Basutoland (1926–1935) Sir Charles Trevelyan, 1st Baronet (1807–1886), Assistant Secretary to HM Treasury & responsible for famine relief during the Irish famine, 1840–1859, Governor of Madras, 1859–1860, and Minister of Finance of India, 1862–1865 William Douglas Young (1859–1943), Governor of the Falkland Islands Diplomats Sir John Banham (born 1940), diplomat and business leader James Bowker (1901–1983), UK Ambassador to Burma (1948–1950), Turkey (1954–1958), and Austria (1958–1961) Francis Cornish (born 1942), diplomat and courtier Sir Frederick Currie, 1st Baronet (1799–1875), British diplomat Thomas Drew (1970–), British High Commissioner to Pakistan (2016–present) and Principal Private Secretary to the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (2012–2014) Gai Eaton (1921–2010), diplomat, writer and Sufist Islamic scholar Sir Leonard Figg (1923–2014), diplomat William Kerr Fraser-Tytler (1886–1963), envoy to Afghanistan (1935–1941) Donald Gainer (1891–1966), British ambassador to Venezuela (1939–1944), Brazil (1944–1947), and Poland (1947–1950) George Dixon Grahame (1873–1940), UK Ambassador to Belgium (1920) and UK Ambassador to Spain (1928–1935) John Hay Drummond Hay (1816–1893), British Ambassador to Morocco (1845–1886) George Labouchère (1905–1999), British diplomat and collector of modern art Ronald Macleay (1870–1943), British diplomat Guy Millard (1917–2013), British diplomat Hubert Montgomery (1876–1942), Ambassador to the Netherlands William Frederick Travers O'Connor (1870–1943), Irish diplomat involved in the British expedition to Tibet and the Nepal–Britain Treaty of 1923 Augustus Paget (1823–1896), British Ambassador to Austria-Hungary (1884–1893) David Aubrey Scott (1919–2010), High Commissioner to New Zealand (1973–1975) and British Ambassador to South Africa (1976–1979) Walford Selby (1881–1965), British diplomat Sir Eric Teichman (1884–1944), diplomat and traveller in Central Asia, Chinese Secretary in Peking, 1922–1936 Michael Walker (1916–2001), High Commissioner to Ceylon/Sri Lanka (1962–1966), Malaysia (1966–1971), and India (1974–1976) Charles Wingfield (1877–1960), British diplomat Civil servants Sir George Barrow, 2nd Baronet (1806–1876), civil servant William Beveridge, 1st Baron Beveridge (1879–1963), civil servant, politician, economist and social reformer, Permanent Secretary to the Ministry of Food, 1919, director of the London School of Economics, 1919–1937, and Master of University College, Oxford, 1937–1944 James Brooks (1863–1941), Director of Victualling (1911–1923) Harry Chester (1806–1868), Secretary to the Privy Council Richard Dean (1772–1850), British civil servant Denis Dobson (1908–1995), Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Office (1968–1977) George Engle (1926–2016), First Parliamentary Counsel (1981–1987) Edward Anthony Hawke (1895-1964), Common Serjeant of London and Recorder of London Neville Leigh (1922–1994), Clerk of the Privy Council (1974–1984) Evan MacGregor (1842–1926), British civil servant Sir William Hay Macnaghten (1793–1841), Chief Secretary, Indian Secret and Political Department, 1833–1841 Samuel March Phillipps (1780–1862), English civil servant Sir Reginald Palgrave (1829–1904), Clerk of the House of Commons, 1886–1900 C. K. Rhodes (1889–1941), British civil servant for the Indian Civil Service Martin Rowlands (1925–2004), Secretary for the Civil Service in Hong Kong (1978–1985) Patrick Shovelton (1919–2012), British civil servant and transport executive Sir Charles Trevelyan (1807-1886) Administrator of relief during the Irish potato blight famine who believed that the disaster was God's judgement. Also during Highland Potato Famine. Sir John Lovegrove Waldron (1910–1975), Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, 1968–1972 Businesspeople Eric Vansittart Bowater (1895–1962), English businessmen who was CEO and chairman of Bowater Christopher Buxton (1929–2017), British property developer who pioneered the subdivision of English country houses into smaller units that enabled their owners to continue to live in part of their former home John Cazenove (1788–1879), English businessman and political economist Ian Davies (born 1951), chairman of Rolls-Royce Group plc Basil Eddis (1881–1971), Anglo-Indian businessman who was president of the Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry (1927–1928) Dudley Hooper (1911–1968), British accountant, early promoter of electronic data processing, and President of the British Computer Society Philip Jeyaretnam (born 1964), Singaporean businessman and CEO of Dentons William Madocks (1773–1828), property developer and politician, founder of Tremadog and Porthmadog Sir William McAlpine, 6th Baronet (1936–2018), British businessman who was director of Sir Robert McAlpine John Murray III (1808–1892), British publisher associated with the company of the same name Anthony Nares (1942–1996), British publisher Robin Niblett (born 1961), Director of Chatham House Archie Norman (born 1954), businessman, chairman of ITV plc and former Conservative MP for Tunbridge Wells Harry Oppenheimer (1908–2000), Chairman of De Beers Shirish Saraf (born 1967), entrepreneur Peter de Savary (1944-2022), entrepreneur and former chairman of Millwall F.C. George Samuel Fereday Smith (1812–1891), industrialist and canal manager Brian Harold Thomson (1918–2006), British newspaper proprietor for DC Thomson Economists, financiers and bankers William Blake (1774–1852), English classical economist who contributed to the early theory of purchasing power parity Ronald Colville, 2nd Baron Clydesmuir (1917–1996), soldier, Governor of the Bank of Scotland Brien Cokayne, 1st Baron Cullen of Ashbourne (1864–1932), Governor of the Bank of England Arthur Lowes Dickinson (1859–1935), British chartered accountant who was senior partner of Price Waterhouse Maurice Dobb (1900–1976), economist Sir John Gieve KCB, (born 1950), Deputy Governor of the Bank of England Jonathan Goodwin (born 1975), British banker and investor Robert Neild (1924–2018), Cambridge economist and peace researcher Sir Inglis Palgrave (1827–1919), economist and banker John Horsley Palmer (1779–1858), Governor of the Bank of England Academics Sheldon Amos (1835–1886), Professor of Jurisprudence, University College, London, 1869–1879, and University of London, 1873–1879, and lawyer and judge in Egypt Cardale Babington (1808–1895), Professor of Botany, University of Cambridge, 1861–1895 Gregory Bateson (1904–1980), anthropologist and co-founder of cybernetics Sir William Blackstone (1723–1780), first Vinerian Professor of English Law, University of Oxford, 1758–1766, politician and judge Richard Lynch Cotton (1794–1880), Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford Edward Craig (born 1942), English academic philosopher, editor of the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, and cricketer who played one List-A and 50 first-class matches John Davies (1679–1732), Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge Edward Eastwick (1814–1883), orientalist, diplomat and politician, Professor of Urdu, East India College, 1845–1857 Sir Alan Gardiner (1879–1963), Egyptologist Herbert Giles (1845–1935), Sinologist, Professor of Chinese, University of Cambridge, 1897–1932, co-inventor of Wade–Giles transliteration system Geoffrey Gorer (1905–1985), anthropologist and author Thomas Greaves (1612–1676), English orientalist and a contributor to the London Polyglot Philip Seaforth James (1914-2001), an English Lawyer and Academic John Robert Kenyon (1807–1880), Vinerian Professor of English Law (1844–1880) Henry Liddell (1811–1898), Dean of Christ Church, Oxford, 1855–1891, editor of the Greek-English Lexicon Edmund Law Lushington (1811–1893), Rector of the University of Glasgow (1884–1887) John Sinclair Morrison (1913–2000), Professor of Greek, University of Durham, 1945–1950, Vice-Master of Churchill College, Cambridge, 1960–1965, first President of University College (later Wolfson College), Cambridge, 1965–1980, expert on Greek triremes Paul Oppé (1878–1957), English art historian, critic, art collector and museum official Arthur Rook (1918–1991), British dermatologist and the principal author of Rook's Textbook of Dermatology Kenneth Searight (1883–1957), linguist Horace Geoffrey Quaritch Wales (1900–1981), Southeast Asian studies Patrick Wilkinson, classical scholar Francis Wollaston (1762–1823), Jacksonian Professor of Natural Philosophy, University of Cambridge, 1792–1813 Henry Cecil Kennedy Wyld (1870–1945), philologist and lexicographer, first Baines Professor of English Language and Philology, University of Liverpool, 1904–1920, Merton Professor of English Language and Literature, University of Oxford, 1920–1945 Education leaders Samuel Berdmore (1739–1802), Master of Charterhouse School, 1769–1802 William Lloyd Birkbeck (1806–1888), Master of Downing College, Cambridge (1885–1888) Ronald Burrows (1867–1920), Principal of King's College London (1913–1920) Warin Foster Bushell (1885–1974), educationalist and president of the Mathematical Association Walter Empson (1856–1934), New Zealand headmaster Andrew Graham (born 1942), Master of Balliol College, Oxford Michael Hoban (1921–2003), headmaster of Harrow School Sir Cyril Jackson (educationist) (1863–1924), Inspector-General of Schools, Western Australia, 1896–1903, Chief Inspector of Elementary Schools, 1903–1905, and Chairman of London County Council, 1915–? Edmund Keene (1714–1781), Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, Bishop of Chester and Bishop of Ely John King (c. 1655–1737), Master of Charterhouse 1715-1737 Alexander Nowell (c. 1517–1602), Principal of Brasenose College, Oxford (1595–1596) J. F. Roxburgh (1888–1954), first head master of Stowe School, 1923–1949 John Russell (1787–1863), Headmaster of Charterhouse Augustus Saunders (1801–1878), Headmaster of Charterhouse Andrew Tooke (1673–1732), headmaster of Charterhouse (1728–1732), Gresham Professor of Geometry, Fellow of the Royal Society and translator of Tooke's Pantheon George Waddington (1793–1869), Warden of Durham University (1862–1869) Scientists Max Barclay (born 1970), entomologist Isaac Barrow (1630–1677), mathematician and theologian Richard Henry Beddome (1830–1911), British naturalist who was chief conservator of the Madras Forest Department Hugh Bostock (born 1944), British neuroscientist and Emeritus Professor of Neurophysiology at University College, London James Clark (born 1964), British computer programmer known for his open-source software work and writing groff J. Norman Collie (1859–1942), organic chemist and mountaineer, Professor of Organic Chemistry, University College, London, 1902–1928 Charles John Cornish (1858–1906), English naturalist and author William Rutter Dawes (1799–1868), astronomer Edward A. Guggenheim (1901–1970), English physical chemist noted for his contributions to thermodynamics William Hamilton (1805–1867), geologist and politician Sir Henry Head (1861–1940), neurologist George Hampson (1860–1936), British entomologist Henry Hayter (1821–1895), English-born Australian statistician Terence Kealey (born 1952), biochemist Bernard Kettlewell (1907–1979), lepidopterist Robert Heath Lock (1879–1915), English botanist and geneticist who wrote the first English textbook on genetics C. N. H. Lock (1894–1949), English aerodynamicist Guy Anstruther Knox Marshall (1871–1959), Indian-born British entomologist and authority on Curculionidae Peter Nye (1921–2009), soil scientist Chris Perrins (born 1935), ornithologist and Her Majesty's Warden of the Swans Bruce Ponder (born 1944), English geneticist and cancer researcher Sir Oliver Scott (1922-2016), radiobiologist William Fleetwood Sheppard (1863–1936), Australian-British mathematician and statistician known for Sheppard's correction James Smithson (1764–1829), mineralogist, traveller and founder of the Smithsonian Institution (probable Old Carthusian) William Hyde Wollaston (1766–1828), metallurgist, crystallographer and physiologist, discoverer of palladium and rhodium, researcher into platinum James Wood-Mason (1846–1893), English zoologist who was the director of the Indian Museum at Calcutta Engineers Geoffrey Binnie (1908–1989), British civil engineer Colonel Sir Proby Cautley (1802–1871), civil engineer and palaeontologist, Superintendent of the Doab Canal, India, 1831–1843, and Superintendent of Canals, North-Western Provinces, 1843–1854, architect of the Ganges Canal George Thomas Clark (1809–1898), civil engineer and antiquary, Manager, Dowlais Ironworks, 1855–1897 John Dewrance (1858–1937), British inventor and mechanical engineer Sir Eustace Tennyson d'Eyncourt FRS (1868-1951), distinguished British Naval Architect and Engineer and Director of naval Construction for the Royal Navy 1912–1924. Alfred Giles (1816–1895), President of the Institution of Civil Engineers (1893–1894) and MP for Southampton (1878–1880; 1883–1892) Francis McClean (1876–1955), British civil engineer and pioneer aviator Robert Sinclair (1817–1898), Locomotive Superintendent of the Caledonian Railway (1847–1856), of the Eastern Counties Railway (1856–1862), and of the Great Eastern Railway (1862–1865) Wallace Thorneycroft (1864–1954), President of the Institution of Mining Engineers Physicians George Francis Abercrombie (1896–1976), British physician who co-founded the Royal College of General Practitioners Benjamin Guy Babington (1794–1866), physician and orientalist, inventor of the laryngoscope John Carr Badeley (1794–1851), English physician Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 1st Baronet (1783–1862), surgeon and physiologist, Sergeant-Surgeon to William IV and Queen Victoria, 1832–1862 Sir Farquhar Buzzard (1871–1945), physician, Regius Professor of Medicine, University of Oxford, 1928–1943 Thomas Spencer Cobbold (1828–1886), first Professor of Helminthology, Royal Veterinary College, 1873–1886 Sir Thomas Gery Cullum (1741–1831), surgeon, botanist, and Bath King of Arms, 1771–1800 David Dane (1923–1998), virologist Arthur Farre (1811–1887), English obstetric physician Frederic John Farre (1804–1886), English physician Edward Price Furber (1864–1940), British obstetrician and surgeon Peter Alfred Gorer (1907–1961), British immunologist and pioneer of transplant immunology William Heberden the Younger (1767–1845), physician to George III John Hunt, Baron Hunt of Fawley (1905–1987), founder of the Royal College of General Practitioners Henry Levett (1668–1725), chief physician, Charterhouse 1712-1725 Archie Norman (1912–2016), British paediatrician George Edward Paget (1809–1892), English physician and academic William Wyatt Pinching (1851–1878), surgeon and early rugby union international who represented England in 1872. David Prior, Baron Prior of Brampton (born 1954), current chair of NHS England, chairman of University College Hospital, and MP for North Norfolk (1997–2001) Sir Harold Ridley (1906–2001), ophthalmic surgeon, inventor of the intraocular lens implant W. H. C. Romanis (1889–1972), British surgeon and medical author William Henry Stone (1830–1891), English physician known for his studies on electro-therapy and the electrical properties of the human body Thomas Hawkes Tanner (1824–1871), physician and medical writer Hubert Maitland Turnbull (1875–1955), British pathologist William Watson (1744–1824), English physician, naturalist, and Mayor of Bath (1801) Frederick Parkes Weber (1863–1962), English dermatologist Philosophers David Bostock (1936-2019), philosopher Don Cupitt (born 1934), philosopher of religion and Christian theologian Walking Stewart (1747–1822), philosopher, traveller and eccentric Historians and antiquaries Henry Balfour (1863–1939), British archaeologist, the first curator of the Pitt Rivers Museum and President of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland James Bindley (1737–1818), English antiquary and book collector Rawdon Brown (1806–1883), historian in Venice George Burges (1785 or 1786–1864), classicist Charles Burney (1757–1817), English classical scholar who gathered the Burney Collection of Newspapers Eric Christiansen (1937–2016), British medieval historian Peter Cowie (born 1939), film historian George Dennis (1814–1898), archaeologist and diplomat John Ehrman (1920–2011), historian and biographer of William Pitt the Younger I. H. N. Evans (1886–1957), British anthropologist, ethnographer and archaeologist Professor Peter Green (born 1924), classical scholar, historian and Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature George Grote (1794–1871), historian and radical politician John Edward Jackson (1805–1891), archivist at Longleat Sir Richard Claverhouse Jebb (1841–1905), classicist and politician, Professor of Greek, University of Glasgow, 1875–1889, and Regius Professor of Greek, University of Cambridge, 1889–1905 T. D. Kendrick (1895–1979), British archaeologist and art historian G. E. R. Lloyd (born 1933), English historian Sir Ellis Minns (1874–1953), archaeologist and palaeographer, Disney Professor of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, 1927–1939 Henry Nettleship (1839–1893), classicist, Corpus Christi Professor of Latin, University of Oxford, 1878–1893 Francis Peck (1692–1743), antiquary Charles Reed Peers (1868–1952), English architect and archaeologist Michael Prestwich (born 1943), former professor of Medieval History at the University of Durham George Cecil Renouard (1780–1867), classicist and orientalist Henry Thomas Riley (1816–1878), English translator and antiquary Joseph Rykwert (born 1926), English architectural historian Sir Richard Sorabji (born 1934), historian of ancient philosophy Maxwell Staniforth (1893–1985), British scholar and writer Lawrence Stone (1919–1999), historian and Dodge Professor of History, Princeton University, 1963–1990 Hugh Trevor-Roper (1914–2003), historian of early modern Britain and Nazi Germany, Regius Professor of Modern History at Oxford, later Baron Dacre of Glanton Simon Walker (1958–2004), British historian of late medieval England Robert Walpole (1781–1856), English classical scholar T. B. L. Webster (1905–1974), British archaeologist who studied Greek comedy Daniel Wray (1701–1783), English antiquary Claud William Wright (1917–2010), British civil servant, palaeontologist and archaeologist Judges, barristers, and lawyers Sir Edward Hall Alderson (c. 1787–1857), judge Richard Webster, 1st Viscount Alverstone (1842–1915), judge and politician, Attorney-General, 1885–1886, 1886–1892, 1895–1900, Master of the Rolls, 1900, and Lord Chief Justice, 1900–1913 Joseph Arnould (1813–1886), British judge in India and great-uncle of Laurence Olivier William Henry Ashurst (1725–1807), English judge Sir Philip Bailhache KC (born 1946), Bailiff of Jersey and later Minister for External Relations Sir William Bailhache KC (born 1953), Bailiff of Jersey Edward Bearcroft (1737–1796), Chief Justice of Chester (1788–1796) and MP for Hindon (1784–1790) and Saltash (1790–1796) Michael Briggs, Lord Briggs of Westbourne (born 1954), Justice of the High Court Alfred Townsend Bucknill (1880–1963), English judge specialising in maritime law John Alexander Strachey Bucknill (1873–1926), Attorney General of Hong Kong James Cockle (1819–1895), Chief Justice of Queensland (1863–1879) and mathematician Cresswell Cresswell (1793–1863), judge and politician Nigel Davis (born 1951), Lord Justice of Appeal Edward Law, 1st Baron Ellenborough (1750–1818), Lord Chief Justice, 1802–1818 Robert Fane (1796–1864), English judge John Fonblanque (1787–1865), barrister and legal writer Charles Freshfield (1808–1891), solicitor Henry Ray Freshfield (1814–1895), solicitor and conservationist Ralph Gibson (1922–2003), Lord Justice of Appeal (1985–1994) Peston Padamji Ginwala (1918–2008), barrister Sir Henry Gollan (1868–1949), Chief Justice of various British colonies, retired as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Hong Kong Sir James Goss Kt KC (born 1953), Justice of the High Court Harold Hanbury (1898–1993), jurist, Vinerian Professor of English Law, University of Oxford, 1949–1964 Ernest Pollock, 1st Viscount Hanworth (1861–1936), judge and politician, Solicitor-General, 1919–1922, Attorney-General, 1922, and Master of the Rolls, 1923–1935 Patrick Hastings (1880–1952), barrister and politician, first Labour Attorney-General, 1924 Lionel Heald (1897–1981), barrister and politician, Attorney-General, 1951–1954 John Hill (1912–2007), barrister, farmer and Conservative MP for South Norfolk Milner Holland (1902–1969), Attorney-General of the Duchy of Lancaster (1951–1969) David Jenkins, Baron Jenkins (1899–1969), Attorney-General of the Duchy of Lancaster Charles Shaw, Baron Kilbrandon (1906–1989), advocate and judge, Dean of the Faculty of Advocates, 1957–1959, Lord of Session, 1959–1965, Chairman of the Scottish Law Commission, 1965–1971, and Lord of Appeal in Ordinary, 1971–1976 Alfred Lutwyche (1810–1880), first judge of the Supreme Court of Queensland Herbert William Malkin (1883–1945), Legal Adviser to the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (1929–1945) Jonathan Mance, Baron Mance (born 1943), Law Lord and Justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom John McNeill QC (1899–1982), Crown Advocate of the British Supreme Court for China and chairman of the Hong Kong Bar Association S. F. C. Milsom (1923–2016), English legal historian Basil Montagu (1770–1851), author, barrister and Accountant-General in Bankruptcy, 1835–1846 J. H. C. Morris (1910–1984), British legal scholar best known for his contributions to the conflict of laws Kenneth Muir Mackenzie, 1st Baron Muir Mackenzie (1845–1930), barrister and civil servant, Clerk of the Crown in Chancery, 1880–1915, and Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor, 1884–1915 Montague Muir Mackenzie (1847–1919), Scottish barrister and legal writer Edward Sullivan Murphy (1880–1945), MP for Attorney General for Northern Ireland (1937–1939) and City of Londonderry (1929–1939) Sir Reginald Neville, 1st Baronet (1863–1950), barrister and politician Nicholas Padfield (born 1947), English barrister and deputy judge Edward Pearce, Baron Pearce (1901–1990), Law Lord John Pedder (1784–1859), Chief Justice of Van Diemen's Land (1824–1854) Henry Pollock (1864–1953), Acting Attorney General of Hong Kong (1896–1901), Attorney General of Fiji (1901–1903), and Senior Unofficial Member (1917–1941) Oliver Popplewell (born 1927), British judge and cricketer who played 41 first-class matches Sir Christopher Rawlinson (1806–1888), Recorder of Prince of Wales Island, Singapore and Malacca, 1847–1850, and Chief Justice of Madras, 1850–1859 Christopher Robinson (1766–1833), Judge of the High Court of Admiralty (1828–1833) and MP for Callington (1818–1820) Sir Henry Russell, 1st Baronet (1751–1836), Chief Justice of Bengal L. Gordon Rylands (1862–1942), British criminologist Eric Sachs (1898–1979), British barrister and judge Terence Skemp (1915–1996), British lawyer and parliamentary draftsman Sir Alfred Stephen (1802–1894), Solicitor-General of Van Diemen's Land, 1825–1833, Attorney-General of Van Diemen's Land, 1833–1837, Chief Justice of New South Wales, 1844–1873, and Lieutenant-Governor of New South Wales, 1875–1891 Thomas Strangman (1873–1971), British barrister who spent much of his career in India Samuel Toller (1764–1821), Advocate-General of Madras (1812–1821) Jeremy Varcoe (born 1937), ambassador to Somalia and Immigration Tribunal Appeal judge George Stovin Venables (1810–1888), barrister and journalist Thomas Webster (1810–1875), English barrister known for his involvement in patent legislation and for committee work leading up to the Great Exhibition John Walpole Willis (1793–1877), controversial judge in Canada, British Guiana and Australia Sir William Yorke, 1st Baronet (c. 1700–1776), judge Military General Sir Frederick Adam (1784–1853), army officer, commander of the 3rd Brigade at the Battle of Waterloo, commander in the Mediterranean, 1817–1824, Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian Islands, 1824–1832, and Governor of Madras, 1832–1837 Charles Philip de Ainslie (1808–1889), British Army general who was colonel of the 1st The Royal Dragoons (1869–1889) General Sir Kenneth Anderson (1891–1959), General Officer Commanding First Army, 1942–1943, GOC Second Army, 1943–1944, GOC Eastern Command, 1944–1945, GOC-in-C East Africa, 1945–1946, and Governor of Gibraltar, 1947–1952 Lieutenant-General Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell (1857–1941), soldier and founder of the Scouting Movement, commander of Mafeking garrison, 1899–1900, founder and first commander of the South African Constabulary, 1900–1902, Inspector of Cavalry, 1902–1908, General Officer Commanding Northumbrian Division, 1908–1910 General Henry Bates (1813–1893) William Becke (1916–2009), British Army lieutenant-colonel best known for his role during the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation Edward Beddington-Behrens (1897–1968), British Army major and art patron Geoffrey Biggs (1938–2002), British Royal Navy vice admiral who was Deputy Commander-in-Chief Fleet (1992–1995) Sir David Bill (born 1954), British Army lieutenant-general who was Commandant Royal College of Defence Studies (2012–2014) Brigadier Guy Boisragon (1864–1931), Victoria Cross Major-General Patrick Brooking (1937–2014), British Army officer and Commandant of the British Sector in Berlin 1985–1989 Brian Burnett (1913–2011), British RAF Air Chief Marshal who was Air Secretary (1967–1970) Thomas Pitt, 2nd Baron Camelford (1775–1804), Royal Navy officer and rake (left after 9 days) George Augustus Stewart Cape (1867–1918), British Army brigadier-general William Henry Carmichael-Smyth (1780–1861), British Army major Hubert Chevis (1902–1931), British Army lieutenant who died of strychnine poisoning after eating contaminated partridge Dudley Clarke (1899–1974), leading World War II deception planner and founder of the Commandos Colonel James Morris Colquhoun Colvin (1870–1945), Victoria Cross Vaughan Cox (1860–1923), British general in the Indian Army Richard Craddock (1910–1977), British Army lieutenant-general who was Commander British Forces in Hong Kong (1963–1964) and GOC-in-C Western Command (1964–1966) Sir Hugh Cunningham (1921–2019), soldier and Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff, 1976–1978 Major-General Philip Davies (1932–), GOC North West District (1983–1986) John Derry (1921–1952), British RAF Squadron Leader believed to be the first Briton to have exceeded the speed of sound in flight Moore Disney (1765–1846), British Army general Charles Macpherson Dobell (1869–1954), Canadian lieutenant-general served with the Royal Welch Fusiliers of the British Army Lionel Dorling (1860–1925), British Army colonel William Assheton Eardley-Wilmot, 3rd Baronet (1841–1896), Deputy Assistant Adjutant General in Ireland George Erskine (1899–1965), British Army general and multi-GOC Xan Fielding (1918–1991), SOE officer and author Sir Francis Fletcher-Vane, 5th Baronet (1861–1934), British military officer Brigadier William Fraser (1890–1964), Chief of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration Air Vice-Marshal Sir Philip Game (1876–1961), Director of Training and Organisation, Royal Air Force, 1919–1923, Air Officer Commanding India, 1923, Air Member for Personnel, 1923–1929, Governor of New South Wales, 1930–1935, and Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis, 1935–1945 General Sir Timothy Granville-Chapman (born 1947), Adjutant-General to the Forces, 2000–2003, Commander-in-Chief Land, 2003–2005, and Vice-Chief of the Defence Staff, 2005–2009 Hugh Griffiths, Baron Griffiths (1923–2015), soldier, cricketer, barrister, judge and life peer Alan Hartley (1882–1954), British Indian Army general Major-General Sir Henry Havelock (1795–1857), commander in the Indian Mutiny William Havelock (1793–1848), British Army lieutenant-colonel Assistant Commissary-General Sir George Head (1782–1855), army commissary, Deputy Knight-Marshal to William IV and Queen Victoria, 1831–1855 Lieutenant Richard Hill (1899–1918), British World War I flying ace credited with seven aerial victories Field Marshal Sir Richard Hull (1907–1989), Commander, Blade Force, 1942, General Officer Commanding 1st Armoured Division, 1944–1945, GOC 5th Infantry Division, 1945–1946, Commandant, Staff College, Camberley, 1946–1948, Director of Staff Duties, 1948–1950, Chief Army Instructor, Imperial Defence College, 1950–1952, Chief of Staff, Middle East Land Forces, 1953–1954, GOC British Troops in Egypt, 1954–1956, Deputy Chief of the Imperial General Staff, 1956–1958, Commander-in-Chief, Far East Land Forces, 1958–1961, Chief of the Imperial General Staff, 1961–1965, and Chief of the Defence Staff, 1965–1967 John Hulton (1882–1942), British Army officer Thomas Humphreys (1878–1955), GOC 5th Division (1931–1934) James Bruce Jardine (1870–1955), British Army brigadier-general Cecil Frederick King (1899–1919), British RAF captain who was a World War I fighter ace Stanley Kirby (1895–1968), British Army major-general George Lea (1912–1990), Head of the British Defence Staff – US (1967–1970) Lieutenant-Colonel Gerard Leachman (1880–1920), intelligence officer and traveller Rodney Lees (born 1944), Defence Services Secretary (1998–2001) Charles Longcroft (1883–1958), British RAF Air Vice-Marshal and GOC Alastair Mackie (1922–2018), Royal Air Force officer and nuclear disarmament campaigner Henry Maitland-Makgill-Crichton (1880–1953), British Army brigadier Eric Archibald McNair (1894–1918), First World War Victoria Cross Field Marshal Sir Archibald Montgomery-Massingberd (1871–1947), Chief of Staff, Fourth Army, 1916–1918, Chief of Staff, British Army of the Rhine, 1918–1920, Deputy Chief of Staff to the Commander-in-Chief, India, 1920–1925, General Officer Commanding Southern Command, Adjutant-General to the Forces, 1931–1933, and Chief of the Imperial General Staff, 1933–1936 Thomas Morland (1865–1925), British Army brigadier W. Stanley Moss (1921–1965), SOE officer, author and traveller Robert Francis Brydges Naylor (1889–1971), British Army general who was Vice Quartermaster-General (1943–1944) Oliver Newmarch (1934–1920), general who was Military Secretary to the India Office (1889–1899) Lieutenant-General Edward F. Norton (1884–1954), soldier and mountaineer, Acting Governor of Hong Kong, 1940–1941, and General Officer Commanding Western Independent District, India, 1941–1942 Thomas Pearson (1914–2019), Commander-in-Chief of Allied Forces Northern Europe (1972–1974) Arthur Potter (1905–1998), British Indian Army brigadier John Murray Prain (1902–2001), soldier and Scottish businessman Harry Pritchard (1871–1953), GOC Malaya Command (1929–1931) Neville Purvis (born 1936), Chief of Fleet Support (1991–1994) William Robert McClintock-Bunbury, 4th Baron Rathdonnell MC (1914–1959), soldier and Irish peer Thomas Leopold McClintock-Bunbury, 3rd Baron Rathdonnell (1881–1937), soldier and peer Edward Ravenshaw (1854–1880), Scottish footballer Colin Rawlins (1919–2003), British civil servant and RAF officer General Brian Robertson, 1st Baron Robertson of Oakridge (1896–1974), managing director, Dunlop, South Africa, 1935–1940, Chief Administrative Officer, Allied Forces in Italy, 1944–1945, Deputy Military Governor of the British Zone of Germany, 1945–1947, Commander-in-Chief, British Army of the Rhine, 1947–1949, British Commissioner, Allied High Commission, 1949–1950, C-in-C Middle East Land Forces, 1950–1953, and Chairman of the British Transport Commission, 1953–1961 Philip Robertson (1866–1936), GOC 17th (Northern) Division (1916–1919) and 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division (1919–1923) William Victor Trevor Rooper (1897–1917), British World War I captain and flying ace Richmond Shakespear (1812–1861), British Indian Army lieutenant-colonel who helped to influence the Khan of Khiva to abolish slavery in Khiva. Freddie Sowrey (1922–2019), British Air Marshal who was Commandant of the National Defence College (1972–1975) John Squire (1780–1812), Lieutenant-Colonel in the Royal Engineers Frank Noel Stagg (1884–1956), British Royal Navy commander known for his role in Danish and Norwegian resistance movements James Swaby (1798–1863), one of the first non-white commissioned officers in the British Army Brigadier John Tiltman (1894–1982), cryptographer, Chief Cryptographer, Bletchley Park Frank Weare (1896–1971), British RAF Flight Lieutenant who was a flying ace in World War I Ronald Weeks, 1st Baron Weeks (1890–1960), Deputy Chief of the Imperial General Staff Christopher Welby-Everard (1909–1996), GOC Nigerian Army (1963–1965) Major-General Orde Wingate (1903–1944), guerrilla warfare specialist, founder and commander of the Chindits F. W. Winterbotham (1897–1990), intelligence officer Religion and theologians Thomas Gilbank Ackland (1791–1844), English clergyman Gilbert Ainslie (1793–1870), clergyman, Master of Pembroke College, Cambridge, and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge James Allen (1802–1897), Dean of St David's (1879–1895) Arthur Anstey (1873–1955), Archbishop of the West Indies (1943–1945) John Armstrong (1813–1856), Bishop of Grahamstown, 1853–1856 William Alexander Ayton (1816–1909), clergyman, alchemist, and member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn Frederick Beadon (1777–1879), English clergyman who lived to 101 Philip Bearcroft (1695–1761), English clergyman and antiquary Martin Benson (1689–1752), Bishop of Gloucester John Ernest Bode (1816–1874), clergyman and poet Henry Bonney (1780–1862), English churchman and author Peter Bostock (1911–1999), Archdeacon of Mombasa and Doncaster Henry Bowlby (1823–1894), Bishop of Coventry (1891–1894) Henry Bowlby (1864–1940), Headmaster of Lancing College (1909–1925) George Boyle (1828–1901), Dean of Salisbury (1880–1901) Samuel Bradford (1652–1731), Bishop of Carlisle and Rochester John Buckner (1734–1824), Bishop of Chichester Andrew Burn (1864–1927), Dean of Salisbury Hedley Burrows (1887–1983), Dean of Hereford Leonard Burrows (1857–1940), Bishop of Lewes and Sheffield Eyton Butts (–1779), Dean of Cloyne (1770–1779) Sir Anthony Buzzard, 3rd Baronet (born 1935), biblical scholar and Christian theologian Donald Campbell (1886–1933), Archdeacon of Carlisle (1930–1933) Edward Churton (1800–1874), Archdeacon of Cleveland (1846–1874) and Spanish scholar Arthur Clarke (1848–1932), Archdeacon of Lancaster and Rochdale Sir William Cockburn, 11th Baronet (1773–1858), Dean of York (1823–1858) James Cropper (1862–1938), Dean of Gibraltar Christopher Cunliffe (born 1955), Archdeacon of Derby William Davey (1825–1917), Dean of Llandaff (1897–1913) Richard Eyre (1929–2012), Dean of Exeter Henry Felton (1679–1740), English clergyman John Finney (born 1932), churchman and former Bishop of Pontefract John Fisher (1788–1832), Archdeacon of Berkshire Henry FitzHerbert (1882–1958), Archdeacon of Derby Henry Formby (1816–1884), English Roman Catholic priest and writer Walter Frere (1863–1938), founder member of the Community of the Resurrection, Bishop of Truro, 1923–1935 Alfred Gatty (1813–1903), clergyman and writer Edgar Gibson (1848–1924), Bishop of Gloucester Charles Green (1864–1944), Archdeacon of Monmouth, 1914–1921, first Bishop of Monmouth, 1921–1928, Bishop of Bangor, 1928–1944, and Archbishop of Wales, 1934–1944 Charles Hahn (1870–1930), Archdeacon of Eshowe (1913–?) and Archdeacon of Damaraland (1924–1927) William Hale (1795–1870), Archdeacon of St Albans (1839–1840), Archdeacon of Middlesex (1840–1842), Archdeacon of London (1842–1870) Julius Hare (1795–1855), theological writer Peter Harrison (born 1939), Archdeacon of the East Riding (1999–2006) William Hayter (1858–1935), Dean of Gibraltar Joseph Henshaw (1603–1679), Bishop of Peterborough, 1663–1679 Mark Hiddesley (1698–1772), Bishop of Sodor and Man, 1755–1772 Air Marshal Sir John Frederick Andrews Higgins (1875–1948), founder member of the Royal Flying Corps, Commander, No.2 Brigade, RFC, 1916–1918, Royal Air Force commander, British Army of the Rhine, Air Officer Commanding Northern Area, Director of Personnel, AOC Inland Area, 1922–1924, AOC Iraq, 1924–?, Air Member for Supply and Research, and AOC-in-C India, 1939–1940 Samuel Hinds (1793–1872), Bishop of Norwich, 1849–1857 William Hornby (1810–1899), Archdeacon of Lancaster William Hurrell (1860–1952), Archdeacon of Loughborough Murray Irvine (1924–2005), churchman and Provost of Southwell Minster Henry Jacobs (1824–1901), Dean of Christchurch (1866–1901) Thomas James (1786–1828), Bishop of Calcutta, 1826–1828, and art historian William Jones of Nayland (1726–1800), controversial clergyman John Jortin (1698–1770), ecclesiastical historian and literary critic Peter Judd (1949–), Dean of Chelmsford (1997–2013) William Smyth King (1810–1890), Dean of Leighlin Hubert Larken (1874–1964), Archdeacon of Lincoln (1933–1937) George Henry Law (1761–1845), Bishop of Chester, 1812–1824, and Bishop of Bath and Wells, 1824–1845 John Law (1745–1810), bishop Henry Majendie (1764–1830), Bishop of Chester and Bangor Charles Manners-Sutton (1755–1828), Bishop of Norwich, 1792–1805, and Archbishop of Canterbury, 1805–1828 James Henry Monk (1784–1856), theologian and classicist, Bishop of Gloucester, 1830–1836, and Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol, 1836–1856 Thomas Mozley (1806–1893), clergyman and writer Arthur Munro (1864–1944), Rector of Lincoln College, Oxford William Foxley Norris (1859–1949), Dean of York and Westminster Ronald O'Ferrall (1890–1973), Bishop of Madagascar (1926–1940) William Bruère Otter (1805–1876), Archdeacon of Lewes Oswald Parry (1868–1936), Bishop of Guyana John Pelloe (1905–1983), Archdeacon of Huntingdon and Wisbech Lancelot Phelps (1853–1936), Provost of Oriel College, Oxford (1914–1930) Greville Phillimore (1821–1884), clergyman and author William Phillpotts (1807–1888), Archdeacon of Cornwall Venn Pilcher (1879–1961), Bishop of Sydney (1935–1961) Bertram Pollock (1863–1943), Bishop of Norwich Kenrick Prescot (1703–1779), Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge (1744–1745) Arthur Preston (1883–1936), Bishop of Woolwich John Pretyman (?–1817), Archdeacon of Lincoln (1793–1817) William Forbes Raymond (1785–1860), Archdeacon of Northumberland John Ryder (c. 1697–1775), Church of Ireland Bishop of Down and Connor, 1743–1752, and Archbishop of Tuam, 1752–1775 Leonard Savill (1869–1959), Archdeacon of Tonbridge (1942–1968) Alexander John Scott (1768–1840), English clergyman who was Horatio Nelson's personal chaplain at the Battle of Trafalgar Charles Scott (1847–1927), Bishop of North China (1880–1913) Albert Seymour (1841–1908), Archdeacon of Barnstaple Godfrey Smith (1878–1944), Bishop of Penrith (1926–1944) Pat Smythe (1860–1935), Provost of St Ninian's Cathedral (1911–1935) Henry Southwell (1860–1937), Bishop of Lewes Samuel John Stone (1839–1900), clergyman and hymn writer William Strong (1756–1842), Archdeacon of Northampton (1797–1842) Edward Talbot (1844–1934), first Warden of Keble College, Oxford, 1869–1888, Vicar of Leeds, 1889–1895, Bishop of Rochester, 1895–1905, first Bishop of Southwark, 1905–1911, and Bishop of Winchester, 1911–1923 Connop Thirlwall (1797–1875), Bishop of St Davids, 1840–1874, and historian John Thomas (1696–1781), Bishop of Winchester William Unwin (1745–1786), clergyman Peter Vaughan (born 1930), churchman and former Bishop of Ramsbury Wilmot Vyvyan (1861–1937), Bishop of Zululand (1903–1929) Thomas Wagstaffe (1645–1712), English clergyman Hampton Weekes (1880–1948), Archdeacon of the Isle of Wight John Wesley (1703–1791), founder of Methodism Samuel Wix (1771–1861), English cleric and controversialist George Wollaston (1738–1826), English Anglican priest Michael Whinney (born 1930), churchman and former Bishop of Aston and Bishop of Southwell George Whitaker (1811–1882), clergyman and first provost of Trinity College, Toronto Herbert Wild (1865–1940), Bishop of Newcastle (1915–1927) Thomas Wilson (1882–1961), Archdeacon of Worcester John Wollaston (1791-1856), Archdeacon of Western Australia John Woodhouse (1884–1955), Bishop of Thetford Writers, novelists, and poets Joseph Addison (1672–1719), writer and politician Martin Donisthorpe Armstrong (1882–1974), poet and novelist Mordaunt Roger Barnard (1828–1906), translator and author F. W. Bateson (1901–1978), English literary scholar and critic Thomas Lovell Beddoes (1803–1849), English poet and dramatist Max Beerbohm (1872–1956), satirist and caricaturist James Beresford (1764–1840), novelist James Shergold Boone (1799–1859), English cleric and writer T. E. B. Clarke (1907–1989), author and screenwriter Alexander Clifford (1909–1952), journalist and author Richard Crashaw (1612 or 1613–1648), poet Arthur Shearly Cripps (1869–1952), English Anglican priest who lived in Southern Rhodesia Patrick Cullinan (1932–2011), South African poet and biographer Lewis Dartnell (born 1980), science writer Thomas Day (1748–1789), author George Harcourt Vanden-Bampde-Johnstone, 3rd Baron Derwent (1899–1949), English poet and peer John Dighton (1909–1989), British playwright and screenwriter Brian Glanville (born 1931), football writer and novelist Richard Perceval Graves (born 1945), English biographer on his great-uncle Robert Graves Robert Graves (1895–1985), poet and novelist Peter Heyworth (1921–1991), American-born English music critic and biographer Aubrey Hopwood (1863–1917), lyricist and novelist Richard Hughes (1900–1976), novelist and dramatist James Innes (born 1975), author Christopher Jackson (born 1980), author and poet Peter James (born 1948), crime writer John Kenyon (1784–1856), English verse-writer and philanthropist best now known as a patron of Robert Browning Nathaniel Lee (c. 1647–1692), dramatist and poet Arthur Locker (1828–1893), English novelist and journalist Richard Lovelace (1618–1657), poet and soldier Henry Luttrell (1768–1851), wit and poet Andrew Lycett, English biographer and journalist Lachlan Mackinnon (born 1956), poet and critic G. D. Martineau (1897–1976), English cricket writer Gavin Menzies (born 1937), author Kenneth Newton (1927–2010), novelist Francis Turner Palgrave (1824–1897), critic and poet Robert Paltock (1697–1767), writer Omar Pound (1926–2010), Anglo-American writer, teacher, and translator Jim Powell (born 1949), novelist Henry Raper (1799–1859), writer on navigation Frederic Raphael (born 1931), writer Simon Raven (1927–2001), writer Édouard Roditi (1910–1992), American poet, short-story writer and translator William Seward (1747–1799), anecdotist and conversationalist Sir Richard Steele (c. 1672–1729), writer and politician, founder of The Tatler G. S. Street (1867-1936), critic, journalist and novelist A. S. J. Tessimond (1902–1962), poet William Makepeace Thackeray (1811–1863), novelist Edward Hovell-Thurlow, 2nd Baron Thurlow (1781–1829), poet Ben Travers (1886–1980), dramatist Martin Farquhar Tupper (1810–1889), poet and writer Richard Usborne (1910–2006), British journalist and author regarded as the leading scholar of P. G. Wodehouse William Edward Vickers (1889–1965), English mystery writer Hilary Wayment (1912–2005), author and historian of stained glass Actors George Asprey (born 1966), actor Sir Johnston Forbes-Robertson (1853–1937), actor-manager Richard Goolden (1895–1981), British actor (Toad of Toad Hall, The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, et al.) Basil Hallam (1889–1916), English actor and singer best known for the character of Gilbert the Filbert in The Passing Show Nicky Henson (1945-2019), actor Thomas Hull (1728–1808), English actor and dramatist Frederick Kerr (1858–1933), English actor Cyril Maude (1862–1951), actor-manager Sir Ronald Millar (1919–1998), actor, scriptwriter and speechwriter for Margaret Thatcher Richard Murdoch (1907–1990), actor and comedian Dennis Neilson-Terry (1895–1932), British actor and producer Graham Seed (born 1950), actor who played Nigel Pargetter in BBC radio programme The Archers Henry Siddons (1774–1815), English actor and theatrical manager now remembered as a writer on gesture Hugh Sinclair (1903–1962), British actor Sir C. Aubrey Smith (1863–1948), actor and cricketer Geoffrey Toone (1910–2005), actor Frederick Henry Yates (1797–1842), actor-manager Sam Crane (born 1979), actor Journalists and presenters Richard Dennen (born 1982), journalist and editor of Tatler David Dimbleby (born 1938), television presenter Jonathan Dimbleby (born 1944), television and radio presenter William Godwin the Younger (1803–1832), English journalist and author Sir Max Hastings (born 1945), journalist, writer and broadcaster Jonathan Holborow (born 1943), British newspaper editor Philip Hope-Wallace (1911–1979), English music and theatre critic associated with ‘’The Manchester Guardian’’ Tim Judah (born 1962), journalist and author Henry Longhurst (1909–1978), golf journalist and commentator Michael Melford (1916–1999), British sports journalist Basil Murray (1902–1937), British journalist and editor Cathy Newman (born 1974), journalist and Channel 4 presenter Benedict Nightingale (born 1939), British journalist Peter O'Sullevan (1918–2015), Irish-British horse racing commentator John Peet (born 1954), journalist for The Economist Gerald Priestland (1927–1991), broadcaster and writer Adam Raphael (born 1938), journalist William Rees-Mogg, Baron Rees-Mogg (1928–2012), public servant, journalist, and editor of The Times (1967–81) Olly Smith (born 1974), wine writer and television presenter Charles Spencer (1955–), British journalist David Walter (1948–2012), ITN and BBC correspondent, radio and television producer and later political advisor (President of the Oxford Union and winner of the Kennedy Memorial Scholarship to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology) Kent Walton (1917–2003), wrestling commentator Media producers and directors Colin Blumenau (born 1956), theatre director Sir Anthony Havelock-Allan (1904–2003), film producer John Mollo (1931–2017), costume designer for the film industry Farhad Safinia (born 1975), film producer Jack Whittingham (1910–1972), James Bond screenwriter Peter Yates (1929–2011), film director Artists Adrian Berg (1929–2011), painter Anthony Caro (1924–2013), sculptor John Cobbett (1929–), Scottish-born sculptor Adrian Daintrey (1902–1988), British portrait and landscape painter Charles Lock Eastlake (1793–1865), painter and first Director of the National Gallery, 1855–1865 Claud Lovat Fraser (1890–1921), artist and designer Anthony Froshaug (1920–1984), English typographer and designer Geoffrey Sneyd Garnier (1889–1970), English artist and printmaker John Percival Gülich (1864–1898), illustrator, engraver and artist David Nightingale Hicks (1929–1998), interior designer and author Johnny Jonas (born 1948), painter Sir Osbert Lancaster (1908–1961), cartoonist and designer John Leech (1817–1864), caricaturist John Lewis (typographer) (1912–1996), typographer and illustrator Sir Cedric Morris (1889–1982), painter and gardener Charles William Dyson Perrins (1864–1958), art, porcelain and book collector and benefactor Percy Robertson (1868–1934), English watercolour landscape painter and etcher John Tunnard (1900–1971), painter Architects Alfred Bossom, Baron Bossom (1881–1965), architect and politician Richard Carpenter (1841–1893), English Gothic Revival architect Richard Cromwell Carpenter (1812–1855), architect Basil Champneys (1842–1935), architect and author Francis William Deas (1862–1951), Scottish architect Major Rohde Hawkins (1821–1884), English architect of the Victorian era Owen Jones (1809–1874), architect, printer and designer Russell Page (1906–1985), British gardener and architect Richard Gilbert Scott (1923–2017), British architect Sir Eustace Tennyson d'Eyncourt (1868–1951), naval architect, Director of Naval Construction, 1912–1924 Richard Tyler (1916–2009), architect Thomas Bostock Whinney (1860–1926), chief architect of the Midland Bank Musicians and composers Ben Adams (born 1981), singer and member of a1 Tom Allom (born TBC), record producer and engineer. Most notably Judas Priest Tony Banks (born 1950), keyboardist and founding member of Genesis Mark Blatchly (born 1960), composer and organist at Charterhouse Ray Cooper (born 1954), English singer-songwriter and member of Oysterband Harold Fraser-Simson (1872–1944), composer Peter Gabriel (born 1950), singer-songwriter and founding member of Genesis H. Balfour Gardiner (1877–1950), composer Christopher Gibbons (c. 1615–1676), organist and composer John R. Graham, American film composer Peter Grant (1935–1995), manager of Led Zeppelin Basil Harwood (1859–1949), organist and composer Ernest Irving (1877–1953), musical director and composer Rivers Jobe (1950–1979), bass guitarist and member of Anon Jonathan King (born 1944), singer, writer, pop music, TV personality, film maker. Named and produced Genesis. Dave Lawson (1945–), English keyboardist and composer, member of Greenslade Richard Macphail (born 1950), vocalist for Anon Lionel Monckton (1861–1924), composer and songwriter Peter Oundjian (1955-), Canadian violinist and conductor Anthony Phillips (born 1951), guitarist and founding member of Genesis Rachel Portman (born 1960), composer Clement Power (born 1980), conductor Philip Radcliffe (1905–1986), composer and musicologist Christopher Raeburn (1928–2009), English record producer Alfred Edward Rodewald (1862–1903), English musician who developed the Liverpool Orchestral Society to become a large semi-professional orchestra of distinction Lettice Rowbotham (b. 1989), violinist, finalist in the 2014 season of Britain's Got Talent Mike Rutherford (born 1950), guitarist and founding member of Genesis and Mike + The Mechanics Chris Stewart (born 1951), founding member of Genesis Ian Wallace (1919–2009), singer and broadcaster Karl Wallinger (born 1957), rock musician Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872–1958), composer Sportspeople Cricketers Brigadier-General Anthony Abdy (1856–1924), English cricketer who played one first-class match in 1881 Anthony Allom (1938–2017), English cricketer who played five first-class matches Richard Bagge (1810–1891), English cricketer who played two first-class matches Andrew Barker (born 1945), English cricketer who played 6 List A and 44 first-class matches Francis Barmby (1863–1936), English cricketer who played one first-class match Aubrey Beauclerk (1817–1853), English cricketer who played in two first-class matches in 1837 Charles William Beauclerk (1816–1863), English cricketer who played ? first-class matches James Bovill (born 1971), English cricketer who played 26 List A and 38 first-class matches Robert Braddell (1888–1965), English cricketer who played 20 first-class matches Trevor Branston (1884–1969), English cricketer who played 89 first-class matches William Bristowe (born 1963), English cricketer who played 1 List A and 10 first-class matches James Bruce-Jones (1910–1943), Scottish cricketer who played 2 first-class matches John Buchanan (1887–1969), South African-born English cricketer who played 34 first-class matches Herbert Burrell (1866–1949), English cricketer who played three first-class matches Tom Bury (born 1958), English cricketer who played 4 first-class matches Arthur Ceely (1834–1866), English cricketer who played 3 first-class matches William Chetwynd-Talbot (1814–1888), English cricketer who played one first-class match Edward Colebrooke (1858–1939), cricketer Geoffrey Cooke (1897–1980), cricketer and British Army officer Alexander Cowie (1889–1916), English cricketer who played 14 first-class matches Wilfred Curwen (1883–1915), English cricketer who played 25 first-class matches Alfred Dallas (1895–1921), English cricketer who played in one first-class match William Davies (1825–1868), English cricketer who played 9 first-class matches Gilbert Sackville, 8th Earl De La Warr (1869–1915), hereditary peer and cricketer Christian Doll (1880–1955), cricketer and architect Mordaunt Doll (1888–1966), cricketer John Dyson (1913–1991), first-class cricketer Frederick Fane (1875–1960), Anglo-Irish cricketer who played 14 Test and 417 first-class matches Leonard Furber (1880–1912), English cricketer who played 2 first-class matches Tommy Garnett (1915–2006), Australian horticulturalist and English cricketer who played five first-class matches Edward Garrow (1815–1896), English cricketer who played one first-class match Humphrey Gilbert (1886–1960), Indian-born English cricketer who played in 118 first-class matches Ivor Gilliat (1903–1967), English cricketer who played 13 first-class matches Richard Gilliat (born 1944), English cricketer who played 269 first-class matches Guy Goodliffe (1883–1963), English cricketer who played one first-class match George Gowan (1818–1890), cricketer Herbert Green (1878–1918), English cricketer and soldier who played in one first-class match Guy Gregson-Ellis (1895–1969), English cricketer who played four first-class matches Lancelot Grove (1905–1943), English cricketer who played four first-class matches James Hamblin (born 1978), English cricketer who played 11 first-class matches, 48 List A matches and 5 Twenty20 matches Andrew Hamilton (born 1953), English cricketer who played 12 first-class matches Charles Harvey (1837–1917), English cricketer who played five first-class matches Charles Hooman (1887–1969), English cricketer who played 38 first-class matches Harry Hooper (born 1986), English cricketer who played 7 first-class matches Mike Hooper (1947–2010), English cricketer who played 17 List A and 21 first-class matches Campbell Hulton (1877–1947), English cricketer who played one first-class match, brother of the below John Hulton (1882–1942), English cricketer who played 3 first-class matches, brother of the above Francis Inge (1840–1923), English cricketer and clergyman who played nine first-class matches John Inge (1844–1919), English cricketer who played two first-class matches Tony Jakobson (born 1937), English cricketer who played 14 first-class matches Ben Jeffery (born 1991), English cricketer who played 6 first-class matches Antony Kamm (1931–2011), English historian and cricketer George Kemp-Welch (1907–1944), English cricketer who played 114 first-class matches John Larking (1921–1998), English cricketer who played three first-class matches Jeff Linton (1909–1989), Welsh cricketer who played two first-class matches Michael Livock (1936–1999), English cricketer who played two first-class matches John Lomas (1917–1945), English cricketer who played 23 first-class matches Christopher Lubbock (1920–2000), English cricketer who played nine first-class matches Herbert Malkin (1836–1913), English cricketer who played two first-class matches in 1858 Roger Marshall (born 1952), English cricketer who played 12 List A and 24 first-class matches Peter May (1929–1994), England cricket captain Alfred McGaw (1900–1984), English cricketer who played seven first-class matches William Meryweather (1809–1841), English cricketer who played ? first-class matches Niel Morgan (1904–1985), Welsh cricketer who played six first-class matches Trevil Morgan (1907–1976), Welsh cricketer who played 83 first-class matches John Stanton Fleming Morrison (1892–1961), English cricketer who played 38 first-class matches Charles Nepean (1851–1903), English cricketer who played ten first-class matches Henry Nethercote (1819–1886), English cricketer who played 19 first-class matches Oswald Norris (1883–1973), English cricketer who played 11 first-class matches Cecil Parry (1866–1901), English cricketer who played ? first-class matches Cecil Payne (1885–1976), English cricketer who played 29 first-class matches Alec Pearce (1910–1982), cricketer (Kent County Cricket Club, Hong Kong national cricket team, and Marylebone Cricket Club) Ernest Powell (1861–1928), English cricketer who played 21 first-class matches Jack Pritchard (1895–1936), English cricketer who played 2 first-class matches Bernard Randolph (1834–1857), English cricketer who played seven first-class matches R. C. Robertson-Glasgow (1901–1965), Scottish cricketer who played 144 first-class matches and wrote several books on cricket Gavin Roynon (1936–2018), English cricketer who played nine first-class matches and military historian Charles Rucker (1894–1965), English cricketer who played five first-class matches Patrick Rucker (1900–1940), English cricketer who played seven first-class matches Martin Souter (born 1976), English cricketer who played one first-class match Edward Spurway (1863–1914), English cricketer who played two first-class matches Hugh Stanbrough (1870–1904), English footballer and cricketer John Strachan (1896–1988), English cricketer who played one first-class match and British Army officer Edward Streatfeild (1870–1932), English cricketer who played nine first-class matches Alexander Streatfeild-Moore (1863–1940), English cricketer who played first-class matches Gilbert Vassall (1876–1941), English cricketer who played six first-class matches Charles Vintcent (1866–1943), South African cricketer who played in 3 Test and 6 first-class matches William Wakefield (1870–1922), cricketer Algernon Whiting (1861–1931), English cricketer who played nine first-class matches Reginald Wood (1860–1915), English cricketer who played one Test and 12 first-class matches Anthony Wreford-Brown (1912–1997), English cricketer who played five first-class matches Charles Wreford-Brown (1866–1951), English international football captain and cricketer Charles Wright (1863–1936), English cricketer who played seven first-class matches Teddy Wynyard (1861–1936), English cricketer who played 3 Test and 154 first-class matches Other sports Andrew Amos (1863–1931), England international footballer and clergyman Woolf Barnato (1895–1948), British racing driver among the Bentley Boys Alfred Bower (1895–1970), England footballer Oswald Carver (1887–1915), British Olympic rower who won bronze in the 1908 men's eight William "Nuts" Cobbold (1862–1922), England international footballer James Ogilvie Fairlie (1809–1870), Scottish golfer Walter Gilliat (1869–1963), England international footballer and clergyman Richard Clewin Griffith (1872–1955), British chess champion (1912) and chess author Alan Haig-Brown (1877–1918), English footballer and British Army officer who served as commander of the Lancing Officers' Training Corps Wyndham Halswelle (1882–1915), sprinter who won Olympic gold in 1908 in the 400m and was killed in battle during World War One. The school refused an offer to host his Olympic medals and other trophies in 2008. They are now displayed in the Scottish Sports Hall of Fame. Thomas Hooman (1850–1938), English footballer John Frederic Inglis (1853–1923), Scottish cricketer and footballer Stewart Morris (1909–1991), British Olympic sailor who won gold in the 1948 men's swallow Edward Hagarty Parry (1855–1931), English footballer Basil Patchitt (1900–1991), English footballer Vane Pennell (1876–1938), English Olympic rackets player who won gold in the 1908 men's doubles James F. M. Prinsep (1861–1895), footballer and holder of two 'youngest player' records until 2004 Tom Rowlandson MC (1880–1916), England amateur football goalkeeper G. O. Smith (1872–1943), English amateur footballer often referred to as "the first great centre forward" Ulric Oliver Thynne (1871–1957), British colonel and champion polo player Arthur Melmoth Walters (1865–1941), England and Corinthian footballer Percy Melmoth Walters (1863–1936), England and Corinthian footballer Peter Walwyn (1933–2017), racehorse trainer Alicia Wilson (swimmer) (born 2000) Adventurers, explorers, and colonists G. R. Blane (1791–1821), British surveyor and East India Company member David Carnegie (1871–1900), explorer and gold prospector in Western Australia Augustine Courtauld (1904–1959), yachtsman and British Arctic explorer Captain Mark John Currie (1795–1874), a figure in the formation of the Swan River Colony Jeremy Curl (born 1982–), Anglo-Irish explorer Ernest Ayscoghe Floyer (1852–1903), English colonial official and explorer John Richard Hardy (1807–1858), English-born Australian pastoralist and gold commissioner Wilfrid Noyce (1917–1962), mountaineer and writer, member of the 1953 Everest Expedition Gifford Palgrave (1826–1888), traveller and diplomat Stephen Venables (born 1954), mountaineer and writer John Washington (1633–1677), Virginia planter and great-grandfather of George Washington Roger Williams (c. 1603–1683), religious dissenter and co-founder of Rhode Island Others Merlin Minshall (1906–1987), Lieutenant-Commander in the Naval Intelligence Division often claimed to have been one of the inspirations for James Bond Peter Newton (1926–2008), winemaker Amar Singh (born 1989), art and non-fungible token (NFT) dealer, philanthropist, women's rights and LGBTQ+ activist, and film producer Fictional Old Carthusians Giles Wemmbley-Hogg (created 2002, born c. 1984), fictional BBC Radio 4 character Major Quive-Smith (created 1939, born c.1900) from Geoffrey Household's Rogue Male; a British-educated gestapo officer and the book's chief antagonist. References Charterhouse Old Carthusians
4184719	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drayton%20State%20School	Drayton State School	Drayton State School is a heritage-listed state school at 71–89 Brisbane Street, Drayton, Toowoomba Region, Queensland, Australia. It was designed by the Department of Public Works (Queensland) and built in 1912. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 28 February 2020. History Drayton State School (established 1851 as Drayton National School) is located in Drayton, a locality on the south-western fringe of Toowoomba, on the Darling Downs in southeast Queensland. It is important in demonstrating the evolution of state education and its associated architecture in Queensland. The school retains its Department of Public Works (DPW) timber school with two clerestory lights (Block A: 1912), set in landscaped grounds with a school bell (1852, installed ), date palms (1932) and a Cape Chestnut tree (1956). Drayton State School is sited within the traditional lands of the Western Wakka Wakka people. Pastoral settlement of the Darling Downs commenced in 1840, and Drayton (initially called "The Springs") began as a camping site near the intersection of Eton Vale, Westbrook and Gowrie pastoral stations, for those travelling from the northern Darling Downs to Brisbane. The settlement became the district's social and commercial centre. The area was known as Drayton by 1849, being the name of early settler Thomas Alford's house, store and post office, in commemoration of his birthplace in Drayton, Somerset.Town allotments were surveyed in May 1849 and land on Darling Street (allotments 9 and 10 of section 4) was set aside for a national school. In pre-separation Queensland (then part of New South Wales), education was provided initially by fee-charging religious schools and private academies. The standard of education varied and most of these early schools were short-lived. They catered principally for children in the main population centres of Brisbane and Ipswich. A more organised approach to education commenced with Governor Fitzroy's appointment of a National Board of Education in 1848. Modelled on the Irish system, the purpose of the Board was to provide state-assisted secular, elementary education for as many children as possible, particularly in isolated areas. The Board established and administered schools where parents contributed one-third of the building costs and guaranteed an average attendance of at least 30 pupils. Drayton townsfolk met at the Bull's Head Inn in 1848 to initiate the establishment of such a school. A school committee was elected and fund-raising for a building commenced. Application was made for a suitable site and a "mixed school", to cost £150. Drayton National School opened, on a one acre (0.41ha) site within its current grounds, on 16 August 1851, with 15 girls and 9 boys enrolled. It was the second of two National Schools opened in pre-separation Queensland. The school operated throughout the 1850s with enrolments ranging between 24 and 65 pupils; except in 1855 when it lacked a teacher and temporarily closed. In 1871, the one-acre reserve for a national school in Drayton was proclaimed. Following separation of the Colony of Queensland from New South Wales on 10 December 1859, the Queensland Government introduced the Education Act 1860, which created a Board of General Education to oversee the development and administration of all schools in the colony. Assuming control of existing national schools, the Board aimed to establish a system of national schools similar to the New South Wales model. Despite minimal resources and a shortage of teachers, the number of public or national schools increased from four schools in 1860 to 230 by 1875. The settlement of Toowoomba, which had been surveyed as the Drayton Agricultural Reserve in 1849, overtook Drayton as the principal urban centre of the northern Darling Downs by 1859. Nonetheless, Drayton was a centre for the sittings of the Circuit Court, and the Church of England had established a church in the town before 1859 and Drayton continued to grow. It formed a municipal council in 1862 and became the administrative centre of Drayton Shire in 1887. The town's population rose from 321 in1861 to 983 in 1891. Consequently, Drayton State School's enrolments also increased, to about 200 pupils in 1878, requiring more accommodation and facilities, and enlargement of the school grounds for a head teacher's residence. The original school building was reused as the head teacher's residence until 1867 when it was demolished and replaced with a new residence. In 1873, the schoolhouse was extended with the addition of an infants' wing. The teachers residence was replaced three times: in 1867, 1877 and 1907. In 1877, the teacher's residence was replaced on the newly purchased Lots 21-24 of section 1, opposite the school on Darling Street. A play shed was erected within the school grounds in November 1878. A room was added on the western side of the schoolhouse in 1900. The teacher's residence was replaced in 1907. By 1880, the school bell, reportedly donated by the local St Matthew's Church of England (1859) and dating from 1852 when it was installed at the parsonage, had been hung at the school. The bell was donated to the Church of England at Drayton by Mr Watson on 27 January 1852 and was temporarily hung on the verandah of the parsonage, which from November 1851 was used for services until a church was built. In 1908, one acre (0.41ha) of adjacent land was purchased for the school and the Department of Public Instruction (DPI) decided to construct a modern school building on this more level site. The head teacher's residence and the land on which it stood was sold in 1908. The new school building (known as Block A in 2019) was constructed by contractor, A Barr, for £866 and completed in 1912. The design was a standard plan by the Department of Public Works. The building was highset on timber stumps and comprised two open verandahs (10 ft / 3.1m wide) on either side of a single classroom (24 x 50 ft / 7.32 x 15.24m). Its gable roof, sheeted with corrugated iron, had two ridge ventilators and two centrally located clerestory (skillion dormer) windows, facing opposing directions. The external gable end walls were clad in weatherboards and contained large areas of windows arranged in three rows of eight narrow sashes, shaded by timber hoods. The verandahs had hat room enclosures at the southwest end and the verandah walls were left unclad, with framing and bracing exposed. The verandah walls featured centrally located double doors with fanlights, high-level windows, and hinged ventilation boards along the base of the walls. Access was via sets of timber stairs to the centre of each verandah, with the front (southeast) steps running parallel to the verandah and the rear (northwest) steps arranged perpendicularly, comprising a walkway and short flight of steps to the higher ground at the rear. A spoon drain ran around the rear and sides of the building and the ground beneath the building was concreted. The classroom had high coved ceilings lined with pressed metal, and timber tie rods were exposed. Walls were lined with vertical jointed (VJ), tongue and groove (T&G) boards which were originally left unpainted. Dual desks sufficient for 120 scholars were provided, and an early photograph shows a stove standing against one wall. Block A reflected changes in school building design introduced early in the 20th century. In high-set timber buildings were introduced, providing better ventilation as well as additional teaching space and a covered play area underneath. This was a notable new direction and this form became a characteristic of Queensland schools. A technical innovation developed at this time was a continuous ventilation flap on the wall at floor level. This hinged board could be opened to increase air flow into the space and, combined with a ceiling vent and large roof fleche, improved internal air quality and decreased internal temperatures effectively. This type was introduced around 1909 and was constructed until approximately 1920. From around 1909, windows were rearranged and enlarged to provide a greater amount of gentle, southern light into the room and desks were rearranged so that the light would fall onto students' left hand sides to avoid throwing shadows onto the pages, which presupposed that all students were right-handed. Windows were larger and sills were lowered to let in more light generally. Smaller classrooms were preferred as they were easier to light correctly. Interiors became lighter and airier and met with immediate approval from educationalists. At Drayton State School, Block A's clerestory windows were a recently introduced feature, designed to improve light and ventilation in the centre of the building, and were characteristic of the building type chosen for the school. The building was also constructed with a remodelled window scheme approved after the building's design had been finalised. This was a new arrangement of casement, swing and hopper windows, with transom, to improve lighting. On 6 July 1912, the Minister for Agriculture (Hon. James Tolmie) officially opened the building at Drayton State School on behalf of the Minister for Public Instruction (Hon. K. M. Grant). After World War I (WWI) there was a decline in Drayton's population despite the May 1915 opening of the deviation of the Southern railway line to pass through Drayton, but community involvement in the school remained strong, with improvements to the school grounds being a focus. An additional 2 roods (0.2ha) of land was added to the Drayton school grounds in 1922 (allotment 5 of section 4). During the Great Depression, relief workers levelled the tennis court site, and funds were raised for a windmill and bore to supply reticulated water for the school gardens. An important component of Queensland state schools was their grounds. The early and continuing commitment to play-based education, particularly in primary school, resulted in the provision of outdoor play space and sporting facilities, such as playing fields and tennis courts. Arbor Day celebrations began in Queensland in 1890, and trees and gardens were planted to shade and beautify schools. Aesthetically-designed gardens were encouraged by regional inspectors, and educators believed gardening and Arbor Days instilled in young minds the value of hard work and activity, improved classroom discipline, developed aesthetic tastes, and inspired people to stay on the land. Arbor Day was celebrated at Drayton State School from 1890. During the interwar period, Arbor Day plantings augmented a new garden scheme. The school's grounds were re-organised through fortnightly working bees in 1931, which repaired the front fence, realigned the front gate to Brisbane Street, laid a new gravel path and created an elaborate garden of flower beds and lawn occupying the land in front of Block A. Massed rose beds surrounded a central flag pole while two massive rose pergolas stood at each end of the path leading from the front gate to the school steps. Arbor Day planting in 1932 added a row of palms (Phoenix sp.) bordering the front fence.In the late 1930s, the school acquired further land for its grounds. In 1936, the School Committee leased allotments 1-4 of section 4 from the Drayton Shire Council and used this land in conjunction with allotment 5 of section 4, as a football ground. In 1938-9, Lots 1-4 and 6 of section 4 (one acre / 0.4ha each) were added to the school grounds. In July 1935, Block A's single classroom was partitioned to create two smaller classrooms, (27.5 ft x 24 ft / 8.38 x 7.32m and 22.3 ft x 24 ft / 6.8 x 7.32m), with desks rearranged so that daylight entered on the left hand side of students. A doorway was inserted in the northwest verandah wall to provide access to the smaller (southwest) classroom. A glazed door in the centre of the partition allowed the head teacher to monitor both rooms. With the threat of invasion of Australia from the commencement of the Pacific theatre of war during World War II, the Queensland Government closed all coastal state schools in January 1942, and, although most schools reopened on 2 March 1942, student attendance remained optional until the war ended. Typically, schools were a focus for civilian duty during this war. At many schools, students and staff members grew produce and flowers for donation to local hospitals and organised fundraising and the donation of useful items to Australian soldiers on active service. At Drayton State School, the garden maintained by the Poultry Raising and Vegetable Growing Project Club established , was enlarged to become the "War Effort Vegetable Garden". The post-WWII era brought change to Drayton and its state school. In May 1949, Drayton was incorporated into the Greater Toowoomba Area and the Drayton Shire Council ceased to exist. In 1947, Drayton's population was 443 – about the same as in 1921. Enhancements to the school grounds also took place. A pine lot was planted on 30 May 1951 on the Rudd Street side of the school grounds, but was later removed to form a playing field on the site. A Cape Chestnut tree (Calodendrum capense) planted near the Darling Street entrance by teacher Grace Earle in 1956 as part of Arbor Day celebrations, is still thriving in 2019. A site plan of school from 1956 shows the school building, a basket ball court, a water tank, a wind mill, and trees in front of the school. In 1963, three acres (1.2ha) were added to the school grounds on the eastern side of Darling Street. The school grounds comprised 2.93ha, spanning both sides of Darling Street. The parade area and pathways from the roadway to the school entrance were bitumenised in August 1958. Further changes to Block A were made in the post-WWII period. Between 1950 and 1960, the roof fleches were removed. New hat and bag racks approved in October 1958 were added. Before 1960, a doorway to the southwest classroom was inserted in the southeast verandah wall. In 1961, the southeast (front) verandah was enclosed, with weatherboards to sill height and awning windows above, to form a library, staffroom, and storeroom; and a glazed screen was also added to the northeast end of the northwest (rear) verandah. Between 1960 and 1975 the timber stumps were replaced with masonry piers, and louvred walls were added to the understorey. Classroom ceilings were lowered and lined with flat sheeting (potentially leaving the original pressed metal ceiling above), the understorey was reconcreted, and concrete pathways added. The clerestory windows were removed after 1975, possibly when the roof was re-sheeted, which was a common alteration. In 1984, the hat room on the northwest verandah was enclosed to form a store room, and a set of stairs to the understorey was inserted through the northwest verandah floor, leading to a new covered way to Block B. An access ramp was connected to the northwest verandah in . In the late 1960s and 1970s, the school's enrolments rose, requiring additional teachers and classroom accommodation, namely, Blocks B (, extended , ) and C (1992), and pre-school buildings. Town water, sewerage and a new perimeter fence were also added in the 1960s. More recently, other buildings have been added to the site. During the 1970s, extensive changes were made to the school grounds. In 1977, the front of the school was graded and all existing shrubbery removed, except the palm trees on the Brisbane Street boundary. Native trees and shrubs were planted in their place to create an "environmental garden". The tennis court was levelled and sealed in 1978. In 1987, extensive levelling of the netball courts occurred, retaining walls were constructed, and landscaping performed. The grounds were also increased by 0.84ha through addition of Lots 23-26 of Section 4, along Rudd Street in March 1978. Beginning with fundraising for its establishment, the school has been the focus and site of community interest and events throughout its history. It provided the venue for fetes and celebrations such as school anniversaries and Drayton's welcome home to its soldiers returning from WWI. The community has supported the school through donations, organising and attending events, working bees, and School Committee and Parent & Citizens Committee membership. Milestones in the school's history, including its 90th, 100th, and 125th anniversaries, which were celebrated with commemorative events, souvenirs and published school histories. In 1950, several hundred former pupils attended the celebration of the school's 90th anniversary as a Queensland state school; a memorial plaque marking the entrance of the original school building was unveiled by Drayton School Committee president, W Peak; and later that year, a Memorial to Steele Rudd was erected in the school grounds. Centenary celebrations were held at the school in March 1960, attracting over 1000 people. In 1975 the school commemorated its 125th anniversary celebrations with a ball, and an anniversary publication. In 2001, an updated history of the school was published. Block A is one of only two known buildings of its type that remain in the ownership of the Department of Education in 2019. The other building, at Bald Hills State School, has been heavily modified. In 2019, Drayton State School continues to operate from its original, but expanded, site and has an enrolment of 282 pupils. It retains its 1912 timber school building and its 19th century school bell and is set in landscaped grounds with mature trees and play areas. The school remains important to Drayton and its district, as a key social focus of the community. Description Drayton State School is a small school in the locality of Drayton, on the south-western fringe of Toowoomba. It occupies a large, gently sloping site, fronting Brisbane Street, the former main thoroughfare of the area. A complex of buildings stands on the eastern half of the site and a large playing field occupies the west. Block A, 1912 Block A (1912) stands at the eastern edge of the building complex and is surrounded by open space. It is a single-storey, highset, timber-framed and -clad teaching building with a gable roof. It faces southeast to the main road across a treed front garden. Offset from the rear of the building are retaining walls cut into the slope of the hill. The building has verandahs along the southeast (now enclosed) and northwest sides and accommodates two classrooms. It has large windows on its gable end walls (southwest and northeast), providing high levels of natural light and ventilation to the interior. Access to the first floor is via a single set of stairs to the southeast verandah, and by a walkway and second set of stairs to the northwest verandah. Grounds and views In 2019 Block A remains in its original location, fronted by open garden and play space that was historically occupied by formal gardens. Heritage listing Drayton State School was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 28 February 2020 having satisfied the following criteria. The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history. Drayton State School (established as Drayton National School in 1851) is important in demonstrating the evolution of state education and its associated architecture in Queensland. The place retains a good representative example of a standard government designed school building that was an architectural response to prevailing government educational philosophies, set in landscaped grounds with provision of play areas and mature trees. The Department of Public Works (DPW) timber school with two clerestory lights (Block A: 1912), demonstrates the evolution of timber school buildings designed by the Department of Public Works to provide abundant lighting and ventilation. The landscaped school grounds, with provision of play areas and mature trees, demonstrate educational philosophies that promoted the importance of play and aesthetics in the education of children. The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places. Drayton State School is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a Queensland state school. These include buildings constructed to standard government designs that incorporate understorey play areas, verandahs, and classrooms with high levels of natural light and ventilation; and a generous, landscaped site with mature trees and play areas. It is a good example of a small country school. Block A (1912) is a rare and intact example of a Department of Public Works (DPW) timber school with two clerestory lights, with later alterations by the DPW. It is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of this type, which include: its highset, gable-roofed form; timber-framed and -clad construction with single-skin verandah walls; open understorey play space; verandahs on two sides, with hat rooms; large windows with hoods to gable end walls; high-level windows to verandah walls; hinged timber ventilation boards at floor level; doors; interior linings; and classroom partition. The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons. Drayton State School has a strong and ongoing association with past and present pupils, parents, staff members, and the surrounding community through sustained use since its establishment in 1851 in the small rural township. The place is important for its contribution to the educational development of the Drayton community for more than 160 years, with generations of children taught at the school. Since its inception, Drayton State School has served as a venue for social interaction and community focus. The strength of the association is demonstrated through repeated local volunteer actions, donations, and more recently, an active Parents and Citizens Association. References Attribution External links Queensland Heritage Register Drayton, Queensland Public schools in Queensland Articles incorporating text from the Queensland Heritage Register
4184750	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific%20coast%20theater%20of%20the%20American%20Civil%20War	Pacific coast theater of the American Civil War	The Pacific coast theater of the American Civil War consists of major military operations in the United States on the Pacific Ocean and in the states and Territories west of the Continental Divide. The theater was encompassed by the Department of the Pacific that included the states of California, Oregon, and Nevada, the territories of Washington, Utah, and later Idaho. The operations of Union volunteer troop detachments, primarily from California, some from Oregon, and a few companies from Washington Territory, were directed mostly against Indigenous Americans in the theater. Union and Confederate regular forces did not meet directly within the Pacific Department except in New Mexico Territory. Operations were directed against Confederate irregulars in California and strong garrisons were placed in Southern California and southern New Mexico Territory to control the region which had strong secessionist sympathies. Confederate States Navy warships operated in the Pacific Ocean, but the naval operations did not succeed in interrupting commerce to the Eastern United States. The last of these commerce raiders, CSS Shenandoah, fired the last shot of the war in the Bering Sea off the coast of Alaska. Attempts by the Confederacy to buy or seize ships for commerce raiding on the West Coast were thwarted by alert Union officials and the Pacific Squadron. Secession Crisis on the West Coast During the secession crisis following Lincoln's election as President of the United States in 1860, a group of Southern sympathizers in California made plans to secede with Oregon to form a "Pacific Republic". Their plans rested on the cooperation of Colonel (Brevet Brigadier General) Albert Sidney Johnston, headquartered in Benicia, California, who commanded all the Federal troops of the Department of the Pacific. Johnston met with some of these Southern men, but before they could propose anything to him he told them that he had heard rumors of an attempt to seize the San Francisco forts and arsenal at Benicia, that he had prepared for that, and would defend the facilities under his command with all his resources and to the last drop of his blood. He told them to tell this to their friends. Deprived of his aid, the plans for California and Oregon to secede from the United States never came to fruition. Meanwhile, Union men feared Johnston would aid such a plot and telegraphed Washington asking for his replacement. Brig. Gen. Edwin Vose Sumner was soon sent west via Panama to replace Johnston in March 1861. Johnston resigned his commission on 9 April, and after Sumner arrived on 25 April, Johnston turned over his command and moved with his family to Los Angeles. On 28 March 1861, the newly formed Arizona Territory voted to separate from New Mexico Territory and join the Confederacy. This increased Union officials' fears of a secessionist movement to separate Southern California from the rest of California and join the Confederacy. This fear was based on the demonstrated Southern Californian desire for separation from the rest of California in the overwhelming vote for the 1859 Pico Act, the strength of secessionists in the area, and their declared intentions and activities, especially in forming militia companies. Operations against secessionists and the Confederacy Outbreak of the Civil War Securing Southern California At the outbreak of the Civil War, the secession of Southern California seemed possible. The populace was largely in favor of separation from California, militias with secessionist sympathies had been formed, and Bear Flags, the banner of the Bear Flag Revolt, had been flown for several months by secessionists in Los Angeles and San Bernardino counties. After word of the Battle of Fort Sumter reached California, there were public demonstrations by secessionists. Only San Diego had a small Union garrison. However, when three companies of Federal cavalry were moved from Fort Mojave and Fort Tejon into Camp Fitzgerald, in Los Angeles, in May–June 1861, secession quickly became impossible. Suspected by local Union authorities, General Johnston evaded arrest and joined the secessionist militia company, the Los Angeles Mounted Rifles as a private, leaving Warner's Ranch on 27 May in their journey across the southwestern deserts to Texas, crossing the Colorado River into the Confederate Territory of Arizona, on 4 July. A. J. King, Undersheriff of Los Angeles County, and other influential men in El Monte, California, that had formed another secessionist militia on 23 March, the Monte Mounted Rifles, were thwarted in their plans to assist Johnston when Undersheriff King ran afoul of Federal authorities and when army officers at San Pedro held up a shipment of arms from John G. Downey, the Governor of California, preventing the activation of the Rifles. Charged with all the supervision of Los Angeles, San Bernardino, San Diego, and Santa Barbara counties, on 16 August Major William Scott Ketchum steamed from San Francisco to San Pedro and made a rapid march to encamp near San Bernardino on 26 August, and with Companies D and G of the 4th Infantry Regiment later reinforced at the beginning of September by a detachment of 90 First U.S. Dragoons and a howitzer. Except for frequent sniping at his camp, Ketchum's garrison stifled any secessionist uprising from Belleville, California and a show of force by the Dragoons in the streets of San Bernardino at the end of election day quelled a secessionist political demonstration during the September gubernatorial elections in San Bernardino County. Union commanders would rely on the San Bernardino Mounted Rifles and Captain Clarence E. Bennett for intelligence and help in holding the pro-Southern San Bernardino County for the Union in late 1861 as Federal troops were being withdrawn and replaced by California Volunteers. On 25 September, the District of Southern California was established, with its first headquarters at Camp Latham, west of Los Angeles; this was later moved to Drum Barracks. This District was first formed to control the secessionist majority population in Southern California. This district included Tulare County to the north, which at the time was much larger than it is now, including all of what is now Kings, Kern, and Inyo counties and part of Fresno County. From Camp Latham, Ketchum's regular soldiers were relieved on October 20 by three companies of the 1st California Cavalry sent out to San Bernardino County and establish Camp Carleton and later Camp Morris. Volunteer troops were also sent to Camp Wright in San Diego County to watch the southern overland approach to California across the Colorado Desert from Fort Yuma, located on the west bank of the Colorado River. They were also to intercept secessionist sympathizers traveling to the east to join the Confederate Army. In March 1862, all the troops drilling at Camp Latham were transferred to Camp Drum, leaving a company of soldiers to observe the Los Angeles area. Following flooding at Camp Carleton in the Great Flood of 1862, the garrison moved to New Camp Carleton, near the secessionist hotbed of El Monte. For the rest of the Civil War, Union garrisons were maintained in Southern California. Campaign of the California Column In early 1862, the District headquarters was used as the base for the campaign of the California Column into Confederate Arizona. California sent some of their Volunteer Regiments east to clear the Confederate garrisons from southern New Mexico Territory and West Texas around El Paso. Subsequently, California units remained there as garrisons fighting the Navajo, the Comanche, and the Apache until after the Civil War when they were relieved by Federal Troops in 1866. In March 1865, Arizona Territory, under the military-controlled District of Arizona, was transferred from the Department of New Mexico to the Department of the Pacific and in July 1865 to the Department of California. Pacific Squadron Operations Because of the blockade of the Confederacy, the Union Navy could not spare many ships to guard the ports and shipping of the Pacific Coast and the Pacific Squadron remained small. One ship was always on station at Panama City to protect that Pacific Terminal of the gold shipments carried by the vessels of the Pacific Mail. The remaining ships patrolled the coast between Panama and British Columbia as needed. Mare Island Naval Shipyard in San Francisco Bay was the Squadron's permanent base. Pacific Coastal Defenses To protect the ports, especially San Francisco Bay, the shipping point of gold and silver from the Pacific Coast, from possible attacks by Confederate commerce raiders or the fleets of the British or French empires, forts were built or improved. Coastal fortifications at Fort Point and Camp Sumner were built at the edge of the Presidio, as well as at Fort Baker on the Marin Headlands. One Civil War-era fort, Post of Alcatraz Island or Fort Alcatraz, on a rocky island just inside the Golden Gate, served as a prison for secessionists and later became the infamous Federal penitentiary, Alcatraz. San Francisco Bay was also protected by the Benicia Arsenal, Fort Mason at San Francisco's Point San Jose, and Camp Reynolds on Angel Island. At the mouth of the Columbia River, two forts were established. In 1862, a camp called Post at Cape Disappointment (later Fort Cape Disappointment) was established in Washington Territory. Fortifications were built and artillery installed to cover the mouth of the river. In 1863, Fort at Point Adams (later Fort Stevens) was established in Oregon on the south bank at the mouth of the Columbia River to do the same function as Fort Cape Disappointment. Posts also existed or were established at the ports of San Diego, San Pedro Bay, Santa Barbara, Noyo, Humboldt Bay in California and Fort Vancouver in Oregon. In 1864, Santa Catalina Island was seized by Federal forces, a post established and garrisoned, and the population removed to prevent it being used as a base for privateers. For a time Federal authorities considered making it a reservation location for Indians captured in the Bald Hills War, but this never came to pass. Naval Incidents Following the failure of the New Mexico campaign and to the end of the Civil War, some attempts were made by the Confederate Navy to seize gold and silver for the Confederacy or to raid the commerce of the Union in the Pacific Ocean. J. M. Chapman Plot In 1863, Asbury Harpending, after traveling secretly to Richmond to obtain a letter of marque, joined with other California members of the Knights of the Golden Circle in San Francisco to outfit the schooner J. M. Chapman as a Confederate privateer in San Francisco Bay. Their object was to raid ships on the Pacific coast carrying gold and silver shipments to capture the gold and silver to support the Confederacy. Their attempt was detected and they were seized on 15 March, during the night of their intended departure by , revenue officers, and San Francisco police. Conspiracy to seize Shubrick Following the seizure of J. M. Chapman, Union men everywhere along the coast were alarmed and more alert for other attempts to get a vessel for the purpose. Among the papers captured on J. M. Chapman was one letter disclosing plans for the capture of Shubrick, but the scheme appeared to have been abandoned. However, in Victoria, British Columbia, Allen Francis, United States consul believed he had discovered a plot to seize Shubrick. Allen suspected the captain of the Shubrick and some of his crew of being part of this plot. He arranged for the ship to be taken and sailed back to the United States by a trusted second officer and members of the crew while the captain and the rest of the crew were ashore in Victoria. Allen later believed that there was a plot by Confederate sympathizers in Victoria to purchase ships in British Columbia and outfit them as Confederate privateers. However, this plot never came about. Salvador Pirates In the spring of 1864, the Confederate Navy ordered Captain Thomas Egenton Hogg and his command to take passage on board a coastal steamer in Panama City, seize her on the high seas, arm her, and attack the Pacific Mail steamers and the whalers in the North Pacific. In Havana, the American consul, Thomas Savage, learned about this conspiracy and notified Rear Admiral George F. Pearson in Panama City. The Admiral had the passengers boarding the steamers at Panama City watched and when Hogg's command was found aboard the Panama Railroad steamer Salvador, a force from arrested them and brought them to San Francisco. Tried by a military commission, the "Salvador Pirates" were sentenced to be hanged, but General Irvin McDowell commuted their sentences. To prevent any further attempts to seize Pacific coast shipping, General McDowell ordered each passenger on board American merchant steamers to surrender all weapons when boarding the ship and every passenger and all baggage was searched. All officers were armed for the protection of their ships. Confederate Commerce Raiding CSS Alabama operated in the Pacific for only a few weeks in the southwest Pacific, capturing three ships. CSS Shenandoah was the second and last Confederate raider to enter the Pacific Ocean. However, her attacks came too late, at the end of the war or afterward, and did most of her damage after the war was over, capturing 38 vessels, mostly whalers. When word of the attacks came, the Pacific Squadron sent ships out to hunt the raider down but did not find her. On 21 June 1865, the Shenandoah captured the whaler William Thompson. The captain of that ship, Francis Smith, informed an incredulous Commander James Waddell that the war had ended some weeks previous. Without concrete proof that the war had ended, the Confederate ship continued its raiding activities. Finally, on 2 August, sailors of a British bark headed back to Liverpool from San Francisco brought news of the surrender at Appomattox, the capture of Jefferson Davis, and the surrender of the last Confederate forces. With this incontrovertible proof, Commander Waddell ordered all operations against American ships cease and the Shenandoah set sail for Great Britain to avoid its sailors being tried for piracy. Indian Wars in the Department of the Pacific The campaign classification established by the United States National Park Service lists only one major campaign and battle in this theater, the Battle of Bear River. However, there were several campaigns against various Indian tribes besides the eastern Shoshone, as described below. In Northern California there was the ongoing Bald Hills War (1858–1864) against the Chilula, Lassik, Hupa, Mattole, Nongatl, Sinkyone, Tsnungwe, Wailaki, and Whilkut. From 12 December 1861, this theater was incorporated into the District of Humboldt with its headquarters at Fort Humboldt. The Bald Hills War was essentially a protracted irregular war requiring garrisons protecting settlements and escorting pack trains and also long patrols sometimes resulting in skirmishes. California units remained in New Mexico Territory and west Texas as garrisons defending the area from a return of the Confederacy and fighting the Navajo and the Apache Wars until after the Civil War when they were relieved by Federal Troops in 1866. In 1862–1863, California Cavalry units from the Southern California District fought the Owens Valley Indian War against the Owens Valley Paiutes, or Numa, and against their allies among the Kawaiisu in the Sierra Mountains to the west. Throughout the Civil War, Oregon and California Volunteer patrols had several clashes with the Ute, Goshute, Paiute, Bannock, and Shoshone bands in Oregon and the Territories of Washington (later Idaho), Utah, and Nevada (from 1863, the state of Nevada). However, the invasion of the territory of the Snake Indians by gold miners in 1863 brought on the Snake War. The Volunteers of California, Oregon, and Washington Territory fought the Snake Indians until relieved by Federal troops in late 1865; the war continued until 1868. Other operations east of the Rocky Mountains and west of the Mississippi River are included in the trans-Mississippi theater. See also California in the American Civil War Oregon in the American Civil War Washington Territory in the American Civil War Utah Territory in the American Civil War Nevada in the American Civil War New Mexico Territory in the American Civil War Arizona Territory in the American Civil War Notes External links West Point Atlas map of principal Civil War campaigns National Park Service Civil War at a Glance Theaters of the American Civil War California in the American Civil War Idaho in the American Civil War Idaho Territory Hawaiian Kingdom and the American Civil War Nevada in the American Civil War Oregon in the American Civil War Utah in the American Civil War Utah Territory Washington (state) in the American Civil War Washington Territory West Coast of the United States
4184775	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa%20P.%20Jackson	Lisa P. Jackson	Lisa Perez Jackson (born February 8, 1962) is an American chemical engineer who served as the administrator of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) from 2009 to 2013. She was the first African American to hold that position. Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Jackson is a graduate of Tulane University and Princeton University. Soon after entering the EPA as a staff-level engineer in 1987, she moved to the EPA's regional office in New York City, where she spent the majority of her 16-year EPA career. In 2002, she joined the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection as the Assistant Commissioner of Compliance and Enforcement and Assistant Commissioner for Land Use Management. New Jersey Governor Jon Corzine appointed Jackson the state's Commissioner of Environmental Protection in 2006. Jackson also briefly served as Corzine's Chief of Staff in late 2008. On December 15, 2008, President-elect Barack Obama nominated Jackson to serve as administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency; she was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on January 23, 2009, and took office that same day. During her tenure as EPA Administrator, Jackson oversaw the development of stricter fuel efficiency standards and the EPA's response to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill; authorized the recognition of carbon dioxide as a public health threat, granting the EPA authority to set new regulations regarding CO2 emissions; and proposed amending the National Ambient Air Quality Standards to set stricter smog pollution limits. In December 2012, Jackson announced she would step down as EPA Administrator effective February 15, 2013; she was succeeded by Deputy Administrator Bob Perciasepe, who served as Acting Administrator until the Senate confirmed Gina McCarthy as a permanent successor on July 18, 2013. Early life, education and family Jackson was born in Philadelphia and was adopted two weeks after her birth by Benjamin and Marie Perez. She grew up in Pontchartrain Park, a predominantly African-American middle-class neighborhood of New Orleans, Louisiana. In 1979, Jackson graduated as valedictorian from St. Mary's Dominican High School in New Orleans. Due to her exceptional performance in mathematics, she received a scholarship from the National Consortium for Graduate Degrees for Minorities in Engineering & Science, which allowed her to gain early exposure to a college environment. She attended Tulane University with a scholarship from Shell Oil Company. Jackson was also named a National Merit Scholar. A dean at the Tulane School of Engineering inspired her to pursue engineering, and she graduated summa cum laude with a Bachelor of Science in chemical engineering in 1983. Jackson went on to earn a Master of Science in chemical engineering from Princeton University in 1986. Jackson's mother was living in New Orleans at the time Hurricane Katrina flooded the city in 2005, and Jackson drove her out of the city. Jackson is married to Kenneth Jackson and is the mother of two children. Jackson has been a resident of East Windsor Township, New Jersey, along with her husband and two sons. On July 13, 2013, she was initiated into Delta Sigma Theta sorority as an honorary member during the organization's Centennial Celebration in Washington, DC. Early EPA and DEP career As a child, Jackson did not feel any particular affinity for the outdoors, but she became interested in environmental matters following the national and international coverage of the Love Canal Disaster. Prior to the EPA, she spent a year and a half working at Clean Sites, a nonprofit advocating for accelerated cleanup of contaminated areas. In 1987, Jackson joined the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) at its headquarters in Washington, D.C. as a staff-level engineer. She then moved to the agency's regional office in New York City. During her tenure at EPA, Jackson worked in the federal Superfund site remediation program, developing numerous hazardous waste cleanup regulations and directing multi-million dollar hazardous waste cleanup projects throughout central New Jersey. She later served as deputy director and acting director of the region's enforcement division. After 16 years with EPA, Jackson joined the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) in March 2002 as assistant commissioner of compliance and enforcement. She served as the assistant commissioner for land use management during 2005. Jackson headed numerous programs, including land use regulation, water supply, geological survey, water monitoring and standards, and watershed management. She focused on developing a system of incentives for stimulating what was in her opinion the right growth in the right places. Under her leadership, the state Department of Environmental Protection developed regulatory standards for implementing the landmark Highlands Water Protection and Planning Act. New Jersey Commissioner of Environmental Protection Jon Corzine, Governor of New Jersey, nominated her to serve as Commissioner of the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. Serving in that position, Jackson led a staff of 2,990 responsible for protecting and improving New Jersey's land, air, and water environment. In addition to overseeing environmental programs for the state, as commissioner, Jackson oversaw state parks and beaches, fish and wildlife programs and historic preservation. As commissioner in July 2006, she had to shut down all state parks and beaches due to the state governmental shutdown in relation to the state budget delay. As the state's chief environmental enforcer, Jackson led compliance sweeps in Camden and Paterson, two largely working-class cities in which people of color formed the majority of the population and where the effects of pollution on public health had long been neglected. She launched the environmental initiative following multicultural outreach efforts to inform and involve community residents and businesses. Working with county officials, New Jersey State Police and the federal Environmental Protection Agency, the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection then mobilized more than 70 inspectors to conduct upward of 1,000 compliance investigations in the two cities, the first of a series of enforcement sweeps. The online environmental magazine Grist interviewed several New Jersey environmental activists and reported that opinion about Jackson was divided: "The split seems to be between those who work on energy and climate policy in the state's capital [who were supportive of Jackson] and those who work on toxic cleanups at the local level [who were critical of her]." Chief of staff to the Governor of New Jersey On October 24, 2008, Corzine announced that Jackson would take over as his chief of staff, effective December 1, 2008, succeeding Bradley Abelow. As Chief of Staff Jackson would have served as Corzine's top advisor and chief political liaison to the State Legislature. However, Jackson was tapped by President Barack Obama to become administrator of the EPA just days after she became Corzine's chief of staff and resigned on December 15, 2008. EPA Administrator On December 15, 2008, then President-elect Barack Obama officially designated Jackson as the nominee for Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. She was confirmed by voice vote in the U.S. Senate on January 22, 2009. Jackson is the first African American to serve as EPA Administrator, along with being the fourth woman and second New Jerseyan to hold the position. Her Deputy Administrator was Bob Perciasepe, and additionally she has three associate, twelve assistant, and ten regional administrators overseeing some 17,000 agency employees. By the EPA's own statements, Administrator Jackson has pledged to focus on core issues of protecting air and water quality, preventing exposure to toxic contamination in U.S. communities, and reducing greenhouse gases. She has pledged that all of the agency's efforts will follow the best science, adhere to the rule of law, and be implemented with unparalleled transparency. By the same statements, she has made it a priority to focus on vulnerable groups – including children, the elderly, and low-income communities – that are particularly susceptible to environmental and health threats. She has promised that all stakeholders will be heard in the decision-making process. She has become the first EPA administrator to focus on reforming the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976, which regulates the introduction of new or already existing chemicals. Indeed, she has called this the issue "closest to my heart ... The law and the structure of the law in no way is modern enough or has enough teeth." On December 8, 2009, Jackson said in a written statement that the finding, which declares carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases a threat to public health, marks the start of a U.S. campaign to tackle greenhouse gas emissions. After the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig explosion, the Obama Administration ordered the EPA, the Department of Homeland Security and the Department of Interior to coordinate federal emergency response efforts. Jackson's agency oversaw environmental and public health concerns during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, including air and water monitoring and assessing aquatic life and other environmental destruction. Jackson authorized and defended BP's choice to use the dispersant Corexit to combat the 210 million gallons of oil spilled in the Gulf of Mexico. The use of Corexit was criticized because it's more toxic and less effective than other EPA approved dispersants, which later studies showed that Corexit had major effects on the aquatic life's food chain in the Gulf of Mexico. While testifying before the Senate Appropriations Subcommittee, Jackson called the use of dispersants an "environmental tradeoff", and that "We know dispersants are generally less toxic than the oils they break down." Jackson's agency is facing a lawsuit in response of the spill from health and environmental groups for not setting adequate guidelines on how and where dispersants can be used safely. Jackson was designated by President Obama to serve as chair on the Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Task Force, a federal effort to restore damages and preserve the ecosystem in the Gulf of Mexico. In 2011 Jackson laid out a plan for stricter limits on the National Ambient Air Quality Standards. The plan was based on adopting a 2007 recommendation from the EPA's science advisory board to set the NAAQS no higher than 70 parts per billion and no lower than 64 parts per billion, though it was later set to 75 parts per billion in 2008. Jackson met opposition to the smog standards proposal from economic advisors within Obama's administration, along with his Chief of Staff William Daley and Regulatory Affairs Administrator Cass Sunstein. After recommending the plan to President Obama, he conclusively rejected the proposal saying that "Ultimately, I did not support asking state and local governments to begin implementing a new standard that will soon be reconsidered." His decision was met with anger from Environmentalists and a lawsuit from environmental and health associations, with calls and speculation on whether Administrator Jackson would resign in protest. Jackson later announced that she would stay with the EPA, "respected President Obama's decision" and that her Agency would "aggressively implement" the curtailed version of the ozone standards. Media outlets and industry figures often refer to Jackson's testimony during a May 2011 Senate Hearing Committee that she is not aware of any cases where hydraulic fracturing itself has contaminated water. A 1987 EPA report and reports released since May 2011, however, have identified hydraulic fracturing as the likely source of water contamination in several cases. During an event with youth environmental leaders at Howard University, Jackson was asked by students about the controversial proposed Keystone Pipeline, she said that "To me, it's awesome; it's awesome that we're having this conversation in this country. This should be a moment where we're having a big conversation." She also urged caution on the proposed project saying that "This isn't a little tiny pipeline; this is a pipeline that cuts our country literally in half." Jackson spoke out against the Senate Joint Resolution 26 (the Murkowski Amendment), which would take away the EPA's authority to regulate greenhouse gas emissions under the Clean Air Act, which was expanded by the 2007 Supreme Court decision in Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency. In an op-ed in the Huffington Post on the Murkowski Amendment, Jackson said that "now is not the time to take a big step backward, by doubling down on the kinds of energy and environmental policies that keep America addicted to oil." Jackson has argued against claims by lobbying groups and members of congress that the EPA is responsible for a "train wreck" of new clean air regulations and the effect of existing EPA regulations on the economy. Jackson said that "Big polluters are lobbying Congress for loopholes to use our air and water as dumping grounds. The result won't be more jobs; it will be more mercury in our air and water and more health threats to our kids." (For her part, Senator Lisa Murkowski, the author of the amendment, argued that the regulations risked damaging the American economy.) During her tenure as head of the EPA, Jackson received criticism from the coal industry and Republican members of the House and Senate, most notably Oklahoma Senator Jim Inhofe, for claims of the EPA overreaching on regulating toxins released from coal ash and power plant mercury emissions. Senator Inhofe, who's a ranking member on the Senate Committee on the Environment, and does not believe that human activity causes global climate change, called on Jackson to reconsider new greenhouse gas regulations after the Climatic Research Unit email controversy. With Jackson responding saying that "The science behind climate change is settled, and human activity is responsible for global warming," and that "That conclusion is not a partisan one." Though Jackson and Inhofe have conflicted views on Environmental issues, in an interview he called her "One of my favorite Liberals." On December 13, 2012, the Assistant Inspector General notified the EPA they would be conducting an audit into record keeping practices associated with the use of private email accounts by Lisa Jackson under the name of "Richard Windsor." The Justice Department has agreed to release 12,000 emails at a rate of 3000 per week from this account beginning January 14, 2013, in response to a lawsuit brought by a Washington attorney. On December 27, 2012, Jackson announced that she would be stepping down from her position as EPA Administrator. According to the New York Post, Jackson submitted her resignation because she believed that the Obama administration would move to support the Keystone pipeline and she did not want this to occur on her watch. Jackson left office on February 15, 2013, and was succeeded by Deputy Administrator Bob Perciasepe. At a House hearing in September 2013, Jackson denied knowledge of any government secrecy and denied that she tried to evade federal record keeping laws. Apple In May 2013, it was announced that Jackson would be joining Apple Inc. as its environmental director. She reports directly to Tim Cook and oversees Apple's environmental issues. Jackson was promoted in 2015 to vice president of environment, policy, and social initiatives, a top policy position among the leaders of Apple. In 2018, Cook invited Jackson to accompany him to the U.S. state dinner held at the White House on April 24 for Emmanuel Macron, the president of France. Jackson is a strong supporter of the Paris climate accord and was the only former Barack Obama cabinet member attending the dinner. In 2022, Jackson again joined Cook to the U.S. state dinner held at the White House on December 1 for Emmanuel Macron, the president of France. Clinton Foundation Jackson has served on the board of directors of the Clinton Foundation since 2013. Awards and honors Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, elected 2021 References External links \|- \|- 1962 births 21st-century American politicians 21st-century American women politicians Administrators of the United States Environmental Protection Agency African-American members of the Cabinet of the United States African-American state cabinet secretaries African-American women in politics American adoptees American chemical engineers American women columnists Apple Inc. executives Chiefs of staff to United States state governors Clinton Foundation people Delta Sigma Theta members HuffPost writers and columnists Living people Obama administration cabinet members People from East Windsor, New Jersey Politicians from Philadelphia Politicians from New Orleans Princeton University School of Engineering and Applied Science alumni State cabinet secretaries of New Jersey Tulane University alumni Women members of the Cabinet of the United States
4184999	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20King	Big King	The Big King sandwich is one of the major hamburger products sold by the international fast-food restaurant chain Burger King, and was part of its menu for more than twenty years. As of March 2019, it is sold in the United States under its 1997 Big King XL formulation. During its testing phase in 1996–1997, it was originally called the Double Supreme and was configured similarly to the McDonald's Big Mac—including a three-piece roll. It was later reformulated as a more standard double burger during the latter part of product testing in 1997. It was given its current name when the product was formally introduced in September 1997, but maintained the more conventional double cheeseburger format. The product was renamed King Supreme in 2001 when it was slightly reformulated as part of a menu restructuring during a period of corporate decline. A later restructuring eliminated the King Supreme in favor of its new BK Stacker line of sandwiches. When the Stacker line was discontinued in the United States shortly after, the Big King returned in November 2013 as a permanent product. Despite being off the menu in the United States for several years, the product was still sold in several other countries under several names during the interim of its unavailability in the United States. One such example sold by BK's European arm of the company is a larger version of the sandwich called the Big King XXL, based on the company's Whopper sandwich. The Big King XXL is part of a line of larger double cheeseburgers known as the BK XXL line; the XXL line was the center of controversy over product health standards and advertising in Spain when first introduced. There was a chicken variant of the sandwich in the United States and Canada. To promote continuing interest in the product, Burger King occasionally releases limited-time variants on the Big King. The burger was introduced by Australian Burger King franchise Hungry Jack's in 2020 under the name Big Jack, with a slightly altered recipe and a controversial marketing campaign that highlighted its similarity to the Big Mac, leading to a trademark infringement lawsuit being filed by McDonalds. History Initial product run The sandwich that would eventually become the Big King was preceded by a similar sandwich called the Double Supreme cheeseburger. Burger King's take on rival McDonald's well-known Big Mac sandwich was released as a test product in January 1996 when McDonald's was having difficulties within the American market. Hoping to build on improving sales of Burger King and take advantage of perceived market weakness of McDonald's, the chain introduced the Double Supreme as part of an advertising blitz against its competitor. Originally, the burger had a look and composition that resembled the Big Mac: it had two beef patties, "King" sauce, lettuce, cheese, pickles and onions on a three-part sesame seed bun. Because its patties are flame-broiled and larger than McDonald's grill fried and seasoned patties, and the formulation of the "King Sauce" was different from McDonald's "Special sauce", the sandwich had a similar, but not exact, taste and different caloric content. The sandwich was reformulated after the initial test run, removing the center roll. The Double Supreme was advertised with a direct attack on the Big Mac, using the claims that it had 75% more beef and less bread than the McDonald's sandwich. A review of the Burger King sandwich by the Chicago Tribune verified these claims and also stated that the ingredients of the newer sandwich were of better quality than those of the McDonald's product. After the initial testing period, the sandwich was renamed the Big King and added to the national menu at the end of the summer of 1997the first major product introduction since the company added its BK Broiler chicken sandwich in 1990. Unlike the Double Supreme, the new Big King lacked the interior bread piece the Big Mac had, and the advertising used to promote the Big King continued to utilize the 75% more beef claim. However, the new sandwich was introduced while the company was dealing with a highly publicized beef recall from one of its key suppliers, Hudson Foods, and had to deal with accusations that the introduction was designed to distract the public and media from the recall. The sandwich was initially introduced in the United States at a 99¢ (USD) price point, which helped propel sales to nearly twice the estimated volume and causing many locations to sell out of the burger patties used to produce the sandwich. McDonald's initially downplayed the new sandwich, with a spokesman stating that there was only one place to get the real Big Mac. Despite McDonald's claims that the sandwich was not a major issue for the company, its highly promoted Arch Deluxe sandwich was not a success and its "Campaign 55" promotion, which reduced the price of certain sandwiches to 55¢ (USD), was eliminated after franchisees complained that it had failed to boost sales. Against McDonald's struggles, Burger King's successful introduction of the Big King was later paired with a newly introduced, improved type of french fry in November of the same year. Along with these two product introductions, the company began a massive financial investment in product development across all parts of its menu which, in total, provided a boost in the chain's market performance. The mirrored failure and success for the two companies showed itself in the market share of the United States fast-food market: Burger King's share rose a percentage point, to 19.2%, while McDonald's share slipped 0.4 points, to 41.9% by the end of 1997. The McDonald's drop capped a three-year decline in the larger chain's market share in the United States, which stood at 42.3% at the start of 1995. By 2001, Burger King's chain-wide sales were lagging. Corporate indifference from parent Diageo coupled with lagging sales at larger franchises caused by declining consumer demand for its products led the company to initiate a menu redesign to try to lure customers back into stores. The company decided to introduce a series of new product launches in a planned menu revamp. Along with a new Whopper-based burger designed to compete with McDonald's Quarter Pounder, a new breakfast sandwich designed to compete with the McMuffin sandwich, and other new products, Burger King introduced a reformulated Big King replacement called the King Supreme. The new sandwich's ingredients were basically the same as the Big King, but the King Sauce used in the sandwich was reformulated to, according to company claims, enhance the savory nature of the grilled burger patties Burger King uses in its sandwiches. This knock-off driven menu reorganization was designed to better compete with a similar menu expansion at McDonald's, called the New Tastes Menu, introduced earlier the same year. BK Stackers Burger King changed ownership in 2002 when Diageo sold its interest in the company to a group of investment firms led by TPG Capital. After assuming ownership, TPG's newly appointed management team began focusing menu development and advertising on a very narrow demographic group, young men aged 20–34 who routinely ate at fast food restaurants several times per month which the chain identified as the "super fan". Amid this new super-fan focused menu expansion the chain introduced its new BK Stacker sandwich in late 2006, a family of sandwiches featuring the same set of toppings served as a single, double, triple or quadruple hamburger. The Stacker line was part of a series of larger, more calorie-laden products introduced by the company to entice the super-fan into the chain's restaurants. These new additions helped propel same store profits for more than sixteen quarters. The Stacker consisted of anywhere from one to four beef patties, American cheese, bacon and a Thousand-Island dressing variant called Stacker sauce served on a sesame seed bun. The new sandwiches had a muted reaction in several reviews—Chowhound.com readers rated the Quad Stacker as one of the most over-the-top gluttonous burgers in a poll, while the Impulsive Buy stated that the sandwich was much like any other bacon cheeseburger but meatier. Despite its lukewarm reception, an internet meme relating to the sandwich developed rather quickly. Customers would create an "Octo-Stacker" sandwich by purchasing two quad Stackers and mashing the two together sandwiches to create a sandwich with eight patties, eight slices of cheese and sixteen half pieces of bacon. They would then film themselves trying to eat the sandwich in under five minutes. With the onset of the Great Recession in 2008–2009, this narrowly-defined demographic-based sales plan faltered and sales and profits for the chain declined; Burger King's same-store comparable sales in the United States and Canada declined 4.6% in the three months ended September 30, while McDonald's posted same-store comparable sales growth of 2.5% within the United States. The Stacker line underwent a minor reformulation in 2011 that involved deleting the top layer of cheese and changing the amount of bacon in the sandwiches, and moving the sandwiches from the core section of its menu to the company's value menu. The changed ingredient list and pricing structure created a situation such that the distribution of ingredients did not scale at the same rate as increasing numbers of burger patties. Consumer Reports' blog The Consumerist noted that two single Stackers at $1.00 included more cheese and more bacon than one double Stacker for $2.00. Three single Stackers had 50% more cheese and double the bacon of one triple Stacker. The Stacker line and other related calorie-heavy menu items were dropped in 2012 when 3G Capital of Brazil bought the company and initiated a menu restructuring focusing on a broader demographic base. BK Toppers The BK Toppers line was a line of cheeseburgers introduced by Burger King in October 2011 as a limited time offer in North America. The sandwiches featured a new chopped beef patty made with a coarser grind than the company's hamburger patty. The three sandwiches included a larger version of Burger King's Rodeo Cheeseburger, one made with sautéed mushrooms and processed Swiss cheese and the Cheeseburger Deluxe. The cheeseburger deluxe consisted of lettuce, pickles, onions, American cheese and Stacker sauce in a combinations similar to the King Supreme. The sandwiches were a part of the new ownership's plans to expand its customer base beyond the 18- to 34-year-old demographic which it had been targeting over the previous several years. The product resurrected a previous name from the BK Hot Toppers line of sandwiches from the 1980s. Reintroduction The TPG-led group of owners divested itself of Burger King in 2012 when the chain was sold to 3G Capital of Brazil. After 3G purchased Burger King, its new management team refocused on a broader menu strategy to lure a more diverse customer base. The first major change to the product base was a reformulation and name change of the company's chicken nuggets in January 2013. Along with other new products such as smoothies, wraps and chicken strips that broadly copied McDonald's menu once again, the chain reintroduced the Big King as a permanent menu item in November of the same year. The new version of the sandwich was originally made with two of the chain's hamburger patties, but after negative consumer response regarding the size of the patties the sandwich was reformulated to use two Whopper Jr. patties instead. A chicken variant was introduced in May 2014. The new chicken variant swapped out the burger patties with two chicken patties used for the chain's value menu chicken sandwiches and added a third layer of sauce to increase the moisture content of the sandwich. The sandwich was introduced nationwide in the U.S. after a period of testing in Indiana. While the chicken version of the sandwich was new to Burger King, it again copied a product from McDonald's—in the Middle East the competing chain offers a Chicken Big Mac sandwich. A primary reason the product was brought back was because of a new approach the company was taking regarding new and limited-time offering (LTO) products. Instead of putting out large numbers of products that may only appeal to a small audience, it would only add a smaller amount of products that have broader market appeal. Along with its BK Chicken Fries product, the Big King was part of that goal, with the reintroduction utilizing a three-prong approach: its stated intention to introduce products to those that will have most impact, a bid to appeal to Millennials utilizing social media focused campaigns, and to utilize a former product from its portfolio that the company probably should have thought about before discontinuing. The idea of reintroducing older, possibly discontinued products is appealing to companies such as Burger King and McDonald's because it is operationally easier than launching a completely new product. In many cases the reintroduction allows these companies to utilize older advertising along with its existing supply chain which is already established to deliver the product ingredients while catering to the public's feelings of nostalgia for these products. The limited-time offers allow chains to bring "new" products to the menu without adding permanent complexity to their kitchen operations. The Chicken Big King was introduced because of an increased spike in demand for chicken-based products, coupled with the success of the Big King's reintroduction. Burger King partially credited reintroduction of the Big King with a limited regain of domestic same-store comparable sales of 0.1% in 2014 over a 0.9% loss the previous fiscal year. At the same time the company's total sales were up 2%, with adjusted earnings per share increasing 19.7% to $0.20 per share. This contrasted with main competitor McDonald's only reporting a 3% increase in global system-wide sales, a 0.5% rise in same-store sales, and a 1.7% decrease in same-store sales in the U.S. and Canada which the competitor attributed to "challenging industry dynamics and severe winter weather." Competitive products As noted, the Big King sandwich was introduced to compete directly with the McDonald's Big Mac sandwich. It joins a group of sandwiches from other vendors that are designed as counters to the more well-known McDonald's sandwich. This includes the Big Shef sandwich originally from now-defunct chain Burger Chef and occasionally produced as a LTO from current trademark owner Hardee's. The Big King was introduced at a time when McDonald's was planning a similar move with a direct competitor to Burger King's signature Whopper sandwich. The Big N' Tasty was introduced in California at approximately the same time Big King was being nationally introduced in 1997. Other similar products from McDonald's were also undergoing testing at the same time; either called the Big Xtra or the MBX, these other two sandwiches were being test marketed in the Northeastern United States. The Big N' Tasty eventually won out in testing, however its national roll-out was delayed due to a corporate reorganization at McDonald's. Product description The Big King is a hamburger, consisting of two grilled beef patties, sesame seed bun, King Sauce (a Thousand Island dressing variant), iceberg lettuce, onions, pickles and American cheese. When first reintroduced in 2013, the sandwich was made with two of the company's hamburger patties, but was modified in February 2014 to use two of the larger Whopper Jr. patties. Notable variants The Chicken Big King was added April 2014. This new variation on the original Big King sandwich was part of a corporate menu restructuring that began the previous year. This was part of Burger King CEO Alex Macedo's plan to introduce simpler products that require few or no new ingredients in order to simplify operations. This new sandwich uses the company's existing Crispy Chicken Jr patty in place of the beef and adds an extra layer of King sauce to ensure that the product stays moist. The Big King XXL is part of a line of sandwiches consisting of larger, double cheeseburgers sold by Burger King in the European and Middle Eastern markets. It is one of their late-teen to young-adult male-oriented products. Besides the Big King XXL, there are double cheeseburger and bacon double cheeseburger variants. The Big Jack is the version of the burger introduced in Australia by Hungry Jack's in 2020. It debuted with a slightly altered recipe that included an extra layer of lettuce and shifted the pickles to the bottom half of the burger. It came in a standard size and the bigger "Mega Jack" size, and was later joined by the "Chicken Big Jack" (based on the Chicken Big King), and the "Outlaw Big Jack" variant which added two slices of bacon, barbeque sauce and replaced the special sauce of the standard version with peppercorn sauce. The close similarities in the name, appearance and the marketing of the burger led to McDonald's suing Hungry Jack's in the Federal Court of Australia in August 2020 over trademark infringement. Hungry Jack's proceeded to run an advertising campaign making fun of the lawsuit and defended their product in court, claiming that the burger's name was a play on the company's name and that of its founder Jack Cowin, and noting that the composition of a burger cannot be trademarked. The Big Jack and all its variants was removed from the menu in late 2021. Advertising Double Supreme The Double Supreme was promoted in a series of advertisements created by the New York firm of Ammirati Puris Lintas (APL). The first ad compared the Double Supreme cheeseburger to the Big Mac, with one 30-second television spot touting the Burger King product contained 75% more beef than the McDonald's one and asked the viewer if Big Mac lovers were "ready for a new relationship?" A second advertisement featured actors playing McDonald's employees going to Burger King to get the new sandwich because they had realized that they preferred the Burger King product over the sandwich they normally sold. The attack ads were the result of the comparatively strong sales year for Burger King in 1996 coupled with domestic sales problems for McDonald's, leaving BK acting in a "cocky" manner towards its main rival. While Burger King's advertising programs were highly focused on its new product, most of the company's sales gains were the result of aggressive price cutting by Burger King, specifically pricing its signature Whopper sandwich at 99¢, according to analysts at Salomon Brothers. The price-cutting promotions by Burger King, and number-three chain Wendy's, forced McDonald's into its own price-cutting program. According to Salomon, the burger segment's price wars would have a detrimental effect on the profits of segment leaders, allowing other smaller chains such as Sonic Drive-In, Jack in the Box and Carl's Jr to position themselves as attractive alternatives to the big three chains. 1997 Big King Advertising for the Big King was spearheaded by a national television program from APL that debuted on September 1, 1997. The television ads were part of a US$30 million program to promote the sandwich. It was introduced with a promotional price of 99¢ for the first two weeks of sales, which helped drive sales for the product. The advertisements featured the company's new "Get Your Burger's Worth" tagline and they attacked the Big Mac with the claim "Get ready for a new taste that beats the Big Mac." Additional ads continued the attacks, stating "just like a Big Mac, except it's got 75% more beef. And it's flame-broiled." King Supreme The King Supreme debuted with an advertising campaign created by the McCaffery Ratner Gottlieb & Lane agency and commercials produced by Aspect Ratio which featured blues legend B.B. King. The ads pushed the company's lunch and dinner periods as the best time to have the sandwich and had King doing a voice over in which he alternately talked or sang about the sandwiches. The advertisements featured 15- and 30-second television spots in which King is shown sitting on a crescent moon, playing his guitar Lucille while speaking about the products and singing the company's slogan. The 30-second ads were for both the King Supreme and the company's other copycat product, the Egg McMuffin clone called the Egg'Wich Muffin sandwich, while the 15-second ads were for each product individually. On the radio side, 30- and 60-second spots had King discussing the new sandwiches and singing their praise. The tag line for the ads was "BK and BB let you have it your way," a variation on the company's motto "Have it your way." Shortly after their debut, the ads came under fire from several fronts. Fans complained that the legendary musician was debasing himself by doing the commercials, that he was selling out by allowing his image to be used to peddle fast food. Other groups such as the American Diabetes Association pointed out that King, known for having weight issues and poorly controlled diabetes, was a questionable spokesperson for a burger chain that sells products that are not part of a healthier diet. Finally, several firms complained off the record that King was inconsistent in his endorsements, selling a highly fattening product while similarly endorsing diabetic products manufactured by the Johnson & Johnson company. 2014 Big King BK XXL The ads for the XXL bacon double cheeseburger described the XXL as a Whopper "with two enormous portions of flame-broiled meat that will give you all the energy you need to take the world by storm," and used the tag line of "It's awful being a vegetarian, right?". The British and German ad program for an LTO variant called the Cheesy Bacon XXL featured an edited version of the Manthem commercial created by Crispin Porter + Bogusky that was originally used for the company's LTO Texas Double Whopper. The line mentioning the Whopper was edited out and replaced and the picture of the product was digitally replaced with one of the Cheesy Bacon XXL. The ad was sung entirely in English; all signage, including road signs license plates on vehicles, etc., was not translated into German. Controversies The company's online advertising program in Spain described the BK XXL line as being made "with two enormous portions of flame-broiled meat that will give you all the energy you need to take the world by storm." This claim combined with the television advertising were the prime motivators behind the Spanish government's concerns with the XXL sandwich line. The government claimed that the campaign violated an agreement with the government to comply with an initiative on curbing obesity by promoting such a large and unhealthy sandwich. In response to the government's claims, Burger King replied in a statement: "In this campaign, we are simply promoting a line of burgers that has formed part of our menu in recent years. Our philosophy can be summed up with the motto 'As you like it,' in which our customers' taste trumps all." The company went on to say that it offers other healthier items such as salads and that customers are free to choose their own foods and modify them as they desire. Naming and trademarks The name Big King was originally a registered trademark of Burger King Brands, Inc., and displayed with the "circle-R" (®) symbol in its home market; however, the federal trademark registration was cancelled in 2005 due to failure to file the required 5-year declaration of use. It was reassigned in 2014 to a California-based ice cream manufacturer.[Notes 1] As of February 2015, the name is displayed with the lesser raised "TM" symbol. In most other markets in which the sandwich is sold, it is designated as a registered mark.[Notes 2] The names King Supreme and Double Supreme were formerly registered trademarks in the US,[Notes 3][Notes 4] while the King Supreme is still registered in Canada in both English and French spellings.[Notes 5][Notes 6] See also Whopper Similar sandwiches by other vendors Big Mac Baconator—similar to the BK Stacker line of sandwiches Notes 1. British trademarks with the "EU" prefix are European Community wide trademarks. 2. The New Zealand trademark office does not allow direct linking of trademark information. References External links Burger King foods Fast food hamburgers
4185076	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20film%20spoofs%20in%20Mad	List of film spoofs in Mad	This list of film spoofs in Mad includes films spoofed (parodied) by the American comic magazine Mad. Usually, an issue of Mad features a spoof of at least one feature film or television program. The works selected by the staff of Mad are typically from cinema and television in the United States. The authors parody the original titles with puns or other wordplay. Characters are caricatured, and lampooned with joke names. These articles typically cover five pages or more, and are presented as a sequential storyline with caricatures and word balloons. The opening page or two-page splash usually consists of the cast of the show introducing themselves directly to the reader; in some parodies, the writers sometimes attempt to circumvent this convention by presenting the characters without such direct exposition. This approach was also used for Mads television parodies, and came to be identified with the magazine. The style was widely copied by other humor publications. In 1973, the promotional movie poster for Robert Altman's The Long Goodbye was designed in the introductory manner of a Mad parody, including the rectangular word balloons with self-referential dialogue; for verisimilitude, the poster was written and drawn by Mad regulars Frank Jacobs and Jack Davis. Many parodies end with the abrupt deus ex machina appearance of outside characters or pop culture figures who are similar in nature to the film or TV series being parodied, or who comment satirically on the theme. For example, Dr. Phil arrives to counsel the Desperate Housewives, or the cast of Sex and the City show up as the new hookers on Deadwood. The parodies frequently make comedic use of the fourth wall, breaking character, and meta-references. Within an ostensibly self-contained storyline, the characters may refer to the technical aspects of filmmaking, the publicity, hype, or box office surrounding their project, their own past roles, any clichés being used, and so on. In 2013, Film Comment wrote, "While film studies majors gasp over the deconstruction of genre in the works of David Lynch and the meta-movies of Charlie Kaufman, 'the usual gang of idiots' over at MAD have been deconstructing, meta-narrativing, and postmodernizing motion pictures since the very first movie parody (Hah! Noon!) appeared in 1954." (However, that was actually Mad'''s second movie parody; the first had been Ping Pong three issues earlier.) Almost all of the parodies are of a single, particular film. However, Mad has occasionally done omnibus parodies of film series, such as the James Bond movies, the 1970s Planet of the Apes sequels, and the Twilight Saga movies. It has also combined multiple mini-parodies of unrelated films into a single article. Some actors and directors have said that they regarded ridicule by Mad as an indication of major success in their careers. In recent years, the parodies and their creators have been available outside the pages of the regular magazine. The March/April 2013 issue of Film Comment (Film Society of the Lincoln Center) carried Grady Hendrix's historical survey of Mads film parodies, titled Cahiers du CinéMAD. In August 2016, four of Mads longtime contributors—editor/artist Sam Viviano, writers Dick DeBartolo and Desmond Devlin, and artist Tom Richmond—appeared at a public symposium in Nebraska to discuss their work in this particular medium. Mad has also published thematic collections of their past spoofs, from Oscar-winning films to superhero movies to gangster films. In September 2020, with Mad having been reduced to a primarily reprint format, Tom Richmond and Desmond Devlin announced that they were crowdfunding a book of newly created movie parodies called Claptrap. They launched the campaign with the completed two-page opening spread for Star Worse: Plagiarizing Skywalker, a spoof of the ninth film in the Star Wars saga. The book will include twelve full parodies of older popular or iconic films that Mad had for various reasons opted not to parody at the time. Film spoofs list 1950s 1960s {\| class="wikitable sortable" ! Spoofed Title ! Actual Title ! Writer ! Artist ! Issue ! Date ! Index ! Ref \|- \| The Producer and I\| The King and I (June 1956)(Genre: Romantic musical) \| Nick Meglin \| Mort Drucker \|60 \|1961-01January 1961 \| \| \|- \| Mad Visits John Wayde on the set of "At the Alamo"\| The Alamo (October 1960)(Genre: Historical epic war) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \|63 \|1961-06June 1961 \| \| \|- \| The Guns of Minestrone\| The Guns of Navarone (June 1961)(Genre: War film) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \|68 \|1962-01January 1962 \| \| \|- \| If "Mardy" Were Made in Hollywood Today\| Marty (April 1955)(Genre: Romantic drama) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \|78 \|1963-04April 1963 \| \| \|- \| East Side Story\| West Side Story (October 1961)(Genre: Romantic musical) \| Frank Jacobs \| Mort Drucker \|78 \|1963-04April 1963 \| \| \|- \| Mutiny on the Bouncy\| Mutiny on the Bounty (November 1962)(Genre: Epic historical drama) \| Larry Siegel \| Wally Wood \|80 \|1963-07July 1963 \| \| \|- \| For the Birds\| The Birds (March 1963)(Genre: Horror-thriller) \| Arnie KogenLou Silverstone \| Mort Drucker \|82 \|1963-10October 1963 \| \| \|- \| Hood!\| Hud (May 1963)(Genre: Western) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \|83 \|1963-12December 1963 \| \| \|- \| Flawrence of Arabia\| Lawrence of Arabia (December 1962)(Genre: Epic historical drama) \| Frank JacobsStan HartLarry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \|86 \|1964-04April 1964 \| \| \|- \| Charades\| Charade (December 1963)(Genre: Romantic comedy/mystery) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \|88 \|1964-07July 1964 \| \| \|- \| The Carpetsweepers\| The Carpetbaggers (April 1964)(Genre: Drama) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \|92 \|1965-01January 1965 \| \| \|- \| The Flying Ace\| Mads tribute to fighter-pilot films \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \|93 \|1965-03March 1965 \| \| \|- \| 007: The James Bomb Musical \| Mads tribute to James Bond films \| Frank Jacobs \| Mort Drucker \|94 \|1965-07April 1965 \| \| \|- \| Son of Mighty Joe Kong \| Mad'''s tribute to great ape films \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \|94 \|1965-07April 1965 \| \| \|- \| Crazy Fists\| Mads tribute to past fight films \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \|96 \|1965-07July 1965 \| \| \|- \| Cheyenne Awful\| Cheyenne Autumn (October 1964)(Genre: Western) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \|97 \|1965-09September 1965 \| \| \|- \| Lord Jump\| Lord Jim (February 1965)(Genre: Adventure) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \|98 \|1965-10October 1965 \| \| \|- \| Hack, Hack, Sweet Has-Been or What Ever Happened to Good Taste?\| Hush... Hush, Sweet Charlotte (December 1964) (Genre: Psychological thriller)andWhat Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (October 1962) (Genre: Psychological thriller/Horror) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \|100 \|1966-01January 1966 \| \| \|- \| The Sinpiper\| The Sandpiper (June 1965)(Genre: Drama) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \|101 \|1966-03March 1966 \| \| \|- \| Bubby Lake Missed by a Mile\| Bunny Lake Is Missing (October 1965)(Genre: Psychological thriller) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \|102 \|1966-04April 1966 \| \| \|- \| The Agony and the Agony\| The Agony and the Ecstasy (October 1965)(Genre: Historical) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \|103 \|1966-06June 1966 \| \| \|- \| The Spy That Came in for the Gold\| The Spy Who Came In from the Cold (December 1965)(Genre: Spy film) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \|105 \|1966-09September 1966 \| \| \|- \| The Bunch\| The Group (March 1966)(Genre: Feminist film) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \|106 \|1966-10October 1966 \| \| \|- \| The Sound of Money\| The Sound of Music (March 1965)(Genre: Musical drama) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \|108 \|1967-01January 1967 \| \| \|- \| Who in Heck is Virginia Woolfe?\| Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (June 1966)(Genre: Black comedy-drama) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \|109 \|1967-03March 1967 \| \| \|- \| Fantastecch Voyage\| Fantastic Voyage (August 1966)(Genre: Science fiction) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \|110 \|1967-04April 1967 \| \| \|- \| The Amateurs\| The Professionals (November 1966)(Genre: Western) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \|112 \|1967-07July 1967 \| \| \|- \| Throw-Up\| Blow-Up (December 1966)(Genre: Thriller-drama) \| Arnie Kogen \| Bruce Stark \|113 \|1967-09September 1967 \| \| \|- \| Dr. Zhicago\| Doctor Zhivago (December 1965)(Genre: Epic romantic drama) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Jack Davis \|113 \|1967-09September 1967 \| \| \|- \| Is Paris Boring?\| Is Paris Burning? (October 1966)(Genre: War film) \| Lou Silverstone \| Mort Drucker \|113 \|1967-09September 1967 \| \| \|- \| Sombre\| Hombre (March 1967)(Genre: Revisionist western) \| Lou Silverstone \| Mort Drucker \|114 \|1967-10October 1967 \| \| \|- \| Grim Pix\| Grand Prix (December 1966)(Genre: Auto-racing/Drama) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \|115 \|1967-10December 1967 \| \| \|- \| Dirtier by the Dozen\| The Dirty Dozen (June 1967)(Genre: War film) \| Lou Silverstone \| Mort Drucker \|116 \|1968-01January 1968 \| \| \|- \| The "Sam Pebbles"\| The Sand Pebbles (December 1966)(Genre: Period war) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \|117 \|1968-03March 1968 \| \| \|- \| In the Out Exit\| Up the Down Staircase (July 1967)(Genre: Drama) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \|118 \|1968-04April 1968 \| \| \|- \| Balmy and Clod\| Bonnie and Clyde (August 1967)(Genre: Biographical crime) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \|119 \|1968-06June 1968 \| \| \|- \| Blue-Eyed Kook\| Cool Hand Luke (November 1967)(Genre: Prison drama) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \|120 \|1968-07July 1968 \| \| \|- \| Valley of the Dollars\| Valley of the Dolls (December 1967)(Genre: Drama) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \|121 \|1968-09September 1968 \| \| \|- \| The Post-Graduate\| The Graduate (December 1967)(Genre: Romantic comedy-drama) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \|122 \|1968-10October 1968 \| \| \|- \| Guess Who's Throwing Up Dinner?\| Guess Who's Coming to Dinner (December 1967)(Genre: Comedy-drama) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \|122 \|1968-10October 1968 \| \| \|- \| In Cold Blecch!\| In Cold Blood (December 1967)(Genre: Docudrama) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \|122 \|1968-10October 1968 \| \| \|- \| Can A Lot\| Camelot (October 1967)(Genre: Musical comedy-drama) \| Frank Jacobs \| Mort Drucker \|123 \|1968-12December 1968 \| \| \|- \| Rosemia's Boo-Boo\| Rosemary's Baby (June 1968)(Genre: Psychological horror) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \|124 \|1969-01January 1969 \| \| \|- \| 201 Minutes of a Space Idiocy\| 2001: A Space Odyssey (April 1968)(Genre: Epic science-fiction) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \|125 \|1969-03March 1969 \| \| \|- \| Bullbit\| Bullitt (October 1968)(Genre: Thriller) \| Al Jaffee \| Mort Drucker \|127 \|1969-06June 1969 \| \| \|- \| The Guru of Ours\| The Wizard of Oz (August 1939)(Genre: Musical fantasy) \| Frank Jacobs \| Mort Drucker \|128 \|1969-07July 1969 \| \| \|- \| The Brother Hoods\| The Brotherhood (December 1968)(Genre: Crime-drama) \| Lou Silverstone \| Mort Drucker \|129 \|1969-09September 1969 \| \| \|- \| Where Vultures Fare\| Where Eagles Dare (December 1968)(Genre: War film) \| Larry Siegel \| Angelo Torres \|130 \|1969-10October 1969 \| \| \|- \| Hoo-Boy, Columbus!\| Goodbye, Columbus (April 1969)(Genre: Romantic comedy-drama) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \|131 \|1969-12December 1969 \| \| \|} 1970s 1980s {\| class="wikitable sortable" ! Spoofed Title ! Actual Title ! Writer ! Artist ! Issue ! Date ! Index ! Ref \|- \| Alias\| Alien (May 1979)(Genre: Science fiction horror) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 212 \|1954-04 January 1980 \| \| \|- \| Moneyraker\| Moonraker (June 1979)(Genre: Science fiction) \| Stan Hart \| Harry North, Esq. \| 213 \|1954-04 March 1980 \| \| \|- \| Rockhead II\| Rocky II (June 1979)(Genre: Sports drama) \| Larry Siegel \| Angelo Torres \| 213 \|1954-04 March 1980 \| \| \|- \| The Calamityville Horror\| The Amityville Horror (July 1979)(Genre: Supernatural horror) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 214 \|1954-04 April 1980 \| \| \|- \| The Corncorde – Airplot '79\| The Concorde ... Airport '79 (August 1979)(Genre: Disaster film) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 214 \|1954-04 April 1980 \| \| \|- \| A Crock O' (Blip!) Now\| Apocalypse Now (August 1979)(Genre: War film) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \| 215 \|1954-04 June 1980 \| \| \|- \| Star Blecch: The (GACCK!) Motion Picture\| Star Trek: The Motion Picture (December 1979)(Genre: Science fiction) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 216 \|1954-04 July 1980 \| \| \|- \| Crymore vs. Crymore\| Kramer vs. Kramer (December 1979)(Genre: Drama) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 217 \|1954-04 September 1980 \| \| \|- \| Being Not All There\| Being There (December 1979)(Genre: Comedy-drama) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \| 218 \|1954-04 October 1980 \| \| \|- \| Throw Up the Academy\| Up the Academy (June 1980)(Genre: Teen comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 218 \|1954-04 October 1980 \| \| \|- \| Gold Mining Daughter\| Coal Miner's Daughter (March 1980)(Genre: Biographical musical) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 219 \|1954-04 December 1980 \| \| \|- \| Little "Star"lings\| Little Darlings (March 1980)(Genre: Teen comedy-drama) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 219 \|1954-04 December 1980 \| \| \|- \| The Empire Strikes Out\| The Empire Strikes Back (May 1980)(Genre: Space opera) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 220 \|1954-04 January 1981 \| \| \|- \| The Shiner\| The Shining (May 1980)(Genre: Psychological horror) \| Larry Siegel \| Angelo Torres \| 221 \|1954-04 March 1981 \| \| \|- \| Undressed to Kill\| Dressed to Kill (July 1980)(Genre: Crime thriller) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 222 \|1954-04 April 1981 \| \| \|- \| Extraordinary People\| Ordinary People (September 1980)(Genre: Drama) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 223 \|1954-04 June 1981 \| \| \|- \| Raving Bully\| Raging Bull (December 1980)(Genre: Sports drama) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \| 224 \|1954-04 July 1981 \| \| \|- \| Assaulted State\| Altered States (December 1980)(Genre: Science fiction horror) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 225 \|1954-04 September 1981 \| \| \|- \| Flopeye\| Popeye (December 1980)(Genre: Musical comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 225 \|1954-04 September 1981 \| \| \|- \| Superduperman II\| Superman II (December 1980)(Genre: Superhero film) \| Frank Jacobs \| Mort Drucker \| 226 \|1954-04 October 1981 \| \| \|- \|(Don Martin's Version of a Movie of) Ecchcaliber\|Excalibur (April 1981)(Genre: Medieval fantasy) \|Larry Siegel \|Don Martin \|227 \|1954-04 December 1981 \| \| \|- \| Outlandish\| Outland (May 1981)(Genre: Science fiction thriller) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 228 \|1954-04 January 1982 \| \| \|- \| Raiders of a Lost Art\| Raiders of the Lost Ark (June 1981)(Genre: Fantasy adventure) \| Dick DeBartoloFrank Jacobs \| Jack Davis \| 228 \|1954-04 January 1982 \| \| \|- \| For Her Thighs Only\| For Your Eyes Only (June 1981)(Genre: Spy film) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 229 \|1954-04 March 1982 \| \| \|- \| Deathcrap\| Deathtrap (March 1982)(Genre: Comedy thriller) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 234 \|1954-04 October 1982 \| \| \|- \| Death Which-Is-Which II\| Death Wish II (February 1982)(Genre: Crime thriller) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 234 \|1954-04 October 1982 \| \| \|- \| On Olden Pond\| On Golden Pond (December 1981)(Genre: Drama) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 234 \|1954-04 October 1982 \| \| \|- \| Conehead the Barbiturate\| Conan the Barbarian (March 1982)(Genre: Sword & Sorcery) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Don Martin \| 235 \|1954-04 December 1982 \| \| \|- \| Rockhead III\| Rocky III (May 1982)(Genre: Sports drama) \| Arnie Kogen \| Jack Davis \| 235 \|1954-04 December 1982 \| \| \|- \| Dumb Kind of Hero\| Some Kind of Hero (April 1982)(Genre: Comedy-drama) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \| 235 \|1954-04 December 1982 \| \| \|- \| Awful Annie\| Annie (June 1982)(Genre: Musical comedy-drama) \| Larry Siegel \| Angelo Torres \| 236 \|1954-04 January 1983 \| \| \|- \| Q.T. the Quasi-Terrestrial\| E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (June 1982)(Genre: Science fiction comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Jack Davis \| 236 \|1954-04 January 1983 \| \| \|- \| Star Blecch II: The Wreck of Korn\| Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan (June 1982)(Genre: Science fiction) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 236 \|1954-04 January 1983 \| \| \|- \| Paltry Guise\| Poltergeist (June 1982)(Genre: Supernatural horror) \| Arnie Kogen \| Jack Davis \| 237 \|1954-04 March 1983 \| \| \|- \| An Officer Ain't No Gentleman\| An Officer and a Gentleman (July 1982)(Genre: Military drama) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 238 \|1954-04 April 1983 \| \| \|- \| The Verdiccch\| The Verdict (December 1982)(Genre: Courtroom drama) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 239 \|1954-04 June 1983 \| \| \|- \| Tootsie Role\| Tootsie (December 1982)(Genre: Comedy-drama) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \| 240 \|1954-04 July 1983 \| \| \|- \| Star Bores: Re-hash of the Jeti\| Return of the Jedi (May 1983)(Genre: Space opera) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 242 \|1954-04 October 1983 \| \| \|- \| Stuporman ZZZ\| Superman III (June 1983)(Genre: Superhero film) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 243 \|1954-04 December 1983 \| \| \|- \| Psycho, Too\| Psycho II (June 1983)(Genre: Psychological horror) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 244 \|1954-04 January 1984 \| \| \|- \| Warped Games\| WarGames (May 1983)(Genre: Science fiction) \| Larry Siegel \| Mort Drucker \| 244 \|1954-04 January 1984 \| \| \|- \| Staying Awake\| Staying Alive (July 1983)(Genre: Dance film) \| Stan Hart \| Jack Davis \| 245 \|1954-04 March 1984 \| \| \|- \| Flashdunce\| Flashdance (April 1983)(Genre: Romantic drama) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 246 \|1954-04 April 1984 \| \| \|- \| Raunchy Business\| Risky Business (August 1983)(Genre: Romantic comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 246 \|1954-04 April 1984 \| \| \|- \| Trading Races\| Trading Places (June 1983)(Genre: Comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 246 \|1954-04 April 1984 \| \| \|- \| The Right Stiff\| The Right Stuff (October 1983)(Genre: Space adventure) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 247 \|1954-04 June 1984 \| \| \|- \| Scarred Face\| Scarface (December 1983)(Genre: Crime drama) \| Larry Siegel \| Jack Davis \| 248 \|1954-04 July 1984 \| \| \|- \| Mentl\| Yentl (November 1983)(Genre: Musical drama) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 248 \|1954-04 July 1984 \| \| \|- \| Grimlins\| Gremlins (June 1984)(Genre: Horror comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 249 \|1954-04 September 1984 \| \| \|- \| Inbanana Jones and the Temple of Goons\| Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (May 1984)(Genre: Fantasy adventure) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Jack Davis \| 250 \|1954-04 October 1984 \| \| \|- \| Splash-Dance\| Splash (March 1984)(Genre: Fantasy comedy) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 250 \|1954-04 October 1984 \| \| \|- \| Star Blecch III: The Search For Plot\| Star Trek III: The Search for Spock (June 1984)(Genre: Science fiction) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 251 \|1954-04 December 1984 \| \| \|- \| Ghost-Dusters\| Ghostbusters (June 1984)(Genre: Supernatural comedy) \| Arnie Kogen \| Sam Viviano \| 253 \|1954-04 March 1985 \| \| \|- \| The Karocky Kid\| The Karate Kid (June 1984)(Genre: Martial arts drama) \| Arnie Kogen \| Harry North, Esq. \| 253 \|1954-04 March 1985 \| \| \|- \| Purple Acid Rain\| Purple Rain (July 1984)(Genre: Rock & Roll musical) \| Arnie Kogen \| Angelo Torres \| 253 \|1954-04 March 1985 \| \| \|- \| Supergall\| Supergirl (July 1984)(Genre: Superhero film) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Jack Davis \| 253 \|1954-04 March 1985 \| \| \|- \| Gal of Me\| All of Me (September 1984)(Genre: Fantasy comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 255 \|1954-04 June 1985 \| \| \|- \| Beverly Hills Cop Out\| Beverly Hills Cop (December 1984)(Genre: Action comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 256 \|1954-04 July 1985 \| \| \|- \| Witless\| Witness (February 1985)(Genre: Thriller) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 257 \|1954-04 September 1985 \| \| \|- \| Getcha\| Gotcha! (May 1985)(Genre: Action comedy) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 258 \|1954-04 October 1985 \| \| \|- \| All the Right Movements\| All the Right Moves (October 1983)(Genre: Sports drama) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 258 \|1954-04 October 1985 \| \| \|- \| Classless\| Class (July 1983)(Genre: Comedy-drama) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 258 \|1954-04 October 1985 \| \| \|- \| Hot Dawg - The Movie\| Hot Dog…The Movie (January 1984)(Genre: Teen sex comedy ski) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 258 \|1954-04 October 1985 \| \| \|- \| The Breakfast Bunch\| The Breakfast Club (February 1985)(Genre: Teen comedy-drama) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 258 \|1954-04 October 1985 \| \| \|- \| Flashing Times at Ridgemont High\| Fast Times at Ridgemont High (August 1982)(Genre: Teen coming-of-age comedy-drama) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 258 \|1954-04 October 1985 \| \| \|- \| Caddyshlock\| Caddyshack (July 1980)(Genre: Sports comedy) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 258 \|1954-04 October 1985 \| \| \|- \| Cop Academy\| Police Academy (March 1984)(Genre: Comedy) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 258 \|1954-04 October 1985 \| \| \|- \| Revenge of the Nerdballs\| Revenge of the Nerds (July 1984)(Genre: Comedy) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 258 \|1954-04 October 1985 \| \| \|- \| Primate School\| Private School (July 1983)(Genre: Teen sex comedy) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 258 \|1954-04 October 1985 \| \| \|- \| Pokey's\| Porky's (November 1981)(Genre: Teen sex comedy) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 258 \|1954-04 October 1985 \| \| \|- \| Frisky Business\| Risky Business (August 1983)(Genre: Teen coming-of-age comedy) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 258 \|1954-04 October 1985 \| \| \|- \| Footloosed\| Footloose (February 1984)(Genre: Musical drama) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 258 \|1954-04 October 1985 \| \| \|- \| Zapping\| Zapped! (July 1982)(Genre: Teen sex comedy) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 258 \|1954-04 October 1985 \| \| \|- \| Pokey's Revenge\| Porky's Revenge! (March 1985)(Genre: Sex comedy) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 258 \|1954-04 October 1985 \| \| \|- \| Valley Chick\| Valley Girl (April 1983)(Genre: Teen romantic comedy) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 258 \|1954-04 October 1985 \| \| \|- \| Goofies\| The Goonies (June 1985)(Genre: Adventure comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Jack Davis \| 258 \|1954-04 October 1985 \| \| \|- \| Dumbo: More Blood Part II\| Rambo: First Blood Part II (May 1985)(Genre: Action) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 259 \|1954-04 December 1985 \| \| \|- \| Bleak for the Future\| Back to the Future (July 1985)(Genre: Science fiction comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 260 \|1954-04 January 1986 \| \| \|- \| Kookoon\| Cocoon (June 1985)(Genre: Science fiction fantasy) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 260 \|1954-04 January 1986 \| \| \|- \| Rockhead IV\| Rocky IV (November 1985)(Genre: Sports drama) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 262 \|1954-04 April 1986 \| \| \|- \| The Fool of the Nile\| The Jewel of the Nile (December 1985)(Genre: Action adventure) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 263 \|1954-04 June 1986 \| \| \|- \| Young Sureschlock Homely\| Young Sherlock Holmes (December 1985)(Genre: Mystery adventure) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 263 \|1954-04 June 1986 \| \| \|- \| Clown and Lout in Beverly Hills\| Down and Out in Beverly Hills (January 1986)(Genre: Comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 265 \|1954-04 September 1986 \| \| \|- \| Henna and Her Sickos\| Hannah and Her Sisters (February 1986)(Genre: Comedy-drama) \| Debbee Ovitz \| Mort Drucker \| 265 \|1954-04 September 1986 \| \| \|- \| Top Gunk\| Top Gun (May 1986)(Genre: Action-drama) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 267 \|1954-04 December 1986 \| \| \|- \| Alienators\| Aliens (July 1986)(Genre: Science fiction horror) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Jack Davis \| 268 \|1954-04 January 1987 \| \| \|- \| Fearless Buller's Day Off\| Ferris Bueller's Day Off (June 1986)(Genre: Teen comedy) \| Dennis Snee \| Angelo Torres \| 268 \|1954-04 January 1987 \| \| \|- \| The Karocky Kid Part II\| The Karate Kid Part II (June 1986)(Genre: Martial arts drama) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 268 \|1954-04 January 1987 \| \| \|- \| Stand But Me\| Stand By Me (August 1986)(Genre: Comedy-drama) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 269 \|1954-04 March 1987 \| \| \|- \| The Color of Monotony\| The Color of Money (October 1986)(Genre: Drama) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 270 \|1954-04 April 1987 \| \| \|- \| Jumbled Joke Flash\| Jumpin' Jack Flash (October 1986)(Genre: Spy comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 270 \|1954-04 April 1987 \| \| \|- \| Peggy Got Stewed and Married\| Peggy Sue Got Married (October 1986)(Genre: Comedy-drama) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 270 \|1954-04 April 1987 \| \| \|- \| Star Blecch IV: The Voyage Bombs\| Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home (November 1986)(Genre: Science fiction) \| Frank Jacobs \| Mort Drucker \| 271 \|1954-04 June 1987 \| \| \|- \| Crock O'Dull Dummee\| Crocodile Dundee (April 1986)(Genre: Adventure comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 273 \|1954-04 September 1987 \| \| \|- \| Legal Wreckin \| Lethal Weapon (March 1987)(Genre: Action comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 274 \|1954-04 October 1987 \| \| \|- \| Beverly Hills Slop, Too! \| Beverly Hills Cop II (May 1987)(Genre: Action comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 275 \|1954-04 December 1987 \| \| \|- \| Predecessor \| Predator (June 1987)(Genre: Science fiction horror) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Jack Davis \| 276 \|1954-04 January 1988 \| \| \|- \| The Unwatchables \| The Untouchables (June 1987)(Genre: Crime drama) \| Arnie Kogen \| Angelo Torres \| 276 \|1954-04 January 1988 \| \| \|- \| The Wretches of Ecchflick \| The Witches of Eastwick (June 1987)(Genre: Fantasy comedy) \| Frank Jacobs \| Mort Drucker \| 276 \|1954-04 January 1988 \| \| \|- \| Roboslop \| RoboCop (July 1987)(Genre: Science fiction) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 277 \|1954-04 March 1988 \| \| \|- \| Dorky Dancing \| Dirty Dancing (August 1987)(Genre: Romantic drama) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 278 \|1954-04 April 1988 \| \| \|- \| Stinkout \| Stakeout (August 1987)(Genre: Crime comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 278 \|1954-04 April 1988 \| \| \|- \| Feeble Attraction \| Fatal Attraction (September 1987)(Genre: Psychological thriller) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 279 \|1954-04 June 1988 \| \| \|- \| Broadcast Snooze \| Broadcast News (December 1987)(Genre: Romantic comedy-drama) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 280 \|1954-04 July 1988 \| \| \|- \| Three Morons and a Baby \| Three Men and a Baby (November 1987)(Genre: Comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 280 \|1954-04 July 1988 \| \| \|- \| Crock O'dull Dummee, Too \| Crocodile Dundee II (May 1988)(Genre: Adventure comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 283 \|1954-04 December 1988 \| \| \|- \| Rambull III \| Rambo III (May 1988)(Genre: Action) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 283 \|1954-04 December 1988 \| \| \|- \| Biggie \| Big (June 1988)(Genre: Fantasy comedy) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 284 \|1954-04 January 1989 \| \| \|- \| Numbing to America \| Coming to America (June 1988)(Genre: Romantic comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Sam Viviano \| 284 \|1954-04 January 1989 \| \| \|- \| Who De-Famed Robber Rabbit? \| Who Framed Roger Rabbit (June 1988)(Genre: Animated Fantasy comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 284 \|1954-04 January 1989 \| \| \|- \| Crocktale \| Cocktail (July 1988)(Genre: Romantic drama) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 285 \|1954-04 March 1989 \| \| \|- \| Kookoon: The Rehash \| Cocoon: The Return (November 1988)(Genre: Science fiction fantasy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Jack Davis \| 287 \|1954-04 June 1989 \| \| \|- \| Twinge \| Twins (December 1988)(Genre: Comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 288 \|1954-04 July 1989 \| \| \|- \| Lurking Girl \| Working Girl (December 1988)(Genre: Romantic comedy-drama) \| Frank Jacobs \| Angelo Torres \| 288 \|1954-04 July 1989 \| \| \|- \| Battyman \| Batman (June 1989)(Genre: Superhero film) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 289 \|1954-04 September 1989 \| \| \|- \| Grossbusters II \| Ghostbusters II (June 1989)(Genre: Supernatural comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 290 \|1954-04 October 1989 \| \| \|- \| Inbanana Jones and His Last Crude Days \| Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (May 1989)(Genre: Fantasy adventure) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 291 \|1954-04 December 1989 \| \| \|- \| No Hoax Barred \| No Holds Barred (June 1989)(Genre: Professional wrestling) \| Stan Hart \| Jack Davis \| 291 \|1954-04 December 1989 \| \| \|} 1990s {\| class="wikitable sortable" ! Spoofed Title ! Actual Title ! Writer ! Artist ! Issue ! Date ! Index ! Ref \|- \| Funny to Shrink the Kids \| Honey, I Shrunk the Kids (June 1989)(Genre: Comedy science fiction) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 292 \|1990-01 January 1990 \| \| \|- \| Legal Wreckin' Too! \| Lethal Weapon 2 (July 1989)(Genre: Buddy cop action comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Jack Davis \| 293 \|1990-04 March 1990 \| \| \|- \| Bleak for the Future Part II \| Back to the Future Part II (November 1989)(Genre: Science fiction-adventure comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 295 \|1990-06 June 1990 \| \| \|- \| Look Who's Squawking \| Look Who's Talking (October 1989)(Genre: Romantic comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 295 \|1990-06 June 1990 \| \| \|- \| The Gore of the Roses \| The War of the Roses (December 1989)(Genre: Dark comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 296 \|1990-07 July 1990 \| \| \|- \| The Hunt For Last October \| The Hunt For Red October (March 1990)(Genre: Espionage thriller) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 297 \|1990-09 September 1990 \| \| \|- \| Grimlins PTU!: The New Botch \| Gremlins 2: The New Batch (June 1990)(Genre: Comedy horror) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 298 \|1990-10 October 1990 \| \| \|- \| RoboCrap 2 \| RoboCop 2 (June 1990)(Genre: Cyberpunk action-superhero) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 298 \|1990-10 October 1990 \| \| \|- \| Teen Rage Moolah Nitwit Turtles \| Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (March 1990)(Genre: Superhero science fiction action comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Sam Viviano \| 298 \|1990-10 October 1990 \| \| \|- \| Totally Recalled \| Total Recall (June 1990)(Genre: Science-fiction action) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 299 \|1990-12 December 1990 \| \| \|- \| Casabonkers \| Casablanca (November 1942)(Genre: Romantic drama) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 300 \|1991-01 January 1991 \| \| \|- \| Schtick Tracy \| Dick Tracy (June 1990)(Genre: Action comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 300 \|1991-01 January 1991 \| \| \|- \| Groan with the Wind \| Gone with the Wind (December 1939)(Genre: Epic historical romance) \| Stan Hart \| Jack Davis \| 300 \|1991-01 January 1991 \| \| \|- \| The Wizard of Odds \| The Wizard of Oz (August 1939)(Genre: Musical fantasy) \| Frank Jacobs \| Sam Viviano \| 300 \|1991-01 January 1991 \| \| \|- \| Gauche \| Ghost (July 1990)(Genre: Romantic fantasy thriller) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 301 \|1991-03 March 1991 \| \| \|- \| A Knack For Phobias \| Arachnophobia (July 1990)(Genre: Horror-comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Paul Coker, Jr. \| 301 \| 1991-03 March 1991 \| \| \|- \| Die Even Harder 2 \| Die Hard 2 (July 1990)(Genre: Action) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 302 \|1991-06 April 1991 \| \| \|- \| Slutty Woman \| Pretty Woman (March 1990)(Genre: Romantic comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 302 \|1991-06 April 1991 \| \| \|- \| Days of Blunder \| Days of Thunder (June 1990)(Genre: Sports action drama) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 302 \|1991-06 April 1991 \| \| \|- \| Flopliners \| Flatliners (July 1990)(Genre: Science fiction psychological horror) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 302 \|1991-06 April 1991 \| \| \|- \| Dorkman \| Darkman (August 1990)(Genre: Superhero) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 302 \|1991-06 April 1991 \| \| \|- \| Presumed Impotent \| Presumed Innocent (July 1990)(Genre: Legal drama) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 302 \|1991-06 April 1991 \| \| \|- \| Home A-groan \| Home Alone (November 1990)(Genre: Christmas comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Sam Viviano \| 303 \|1991-06 June 1991 \| \| \|- \| Deadwood Scissorham \| Edward Scissorhands (December 1990)(Genre: Romantic dark fantasy) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 304 \|1991-07 July 1991 \| \| \|- \| The Oddfather Part III \| The Godfather Part III (December 1990)(Genre: Crime) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 304 \|1991-07 July 1991 \| \| \|- \| Dunces with Wolves \| Dances with Wolves (October 1990)(Genre: Epic Western) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 305 \|1991-09 September 1991 \| \| \|- \| The Violence of the Hams \| The Silence of the Lambs (February 1991)(Genre: Horror-thriller) \| Frank Jacobs \| Sam Viviano \| 305 \|1991-09 September 1991 \| \| \|- \| Teen Rage Moolah Nitwit Turtles II \| Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II (March 1991)(Genre: Superhero science fiction action comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 306 \|1991-10 October 1991 \| \| \|- \| Hackdraft \| Backdraft (May 1991)(Genre: Drama thriller) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 307 \|1991-12 December 1991 \| \| \|- \| Throbbin Hood, Prince of Heaves \| Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (June 1991)(Genre: Romantic action adventure) \| Stan Hart \| Jack Davis \| 307 \|1991-12 December 1991 \| \| \|- \| Interminable Too Misjudgment Day \| Terminator 2: Judgment Day (July 1991)(Genre: Science-fiction action) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 308 \|1992-01 January 1992 \| \| \|- \| The Adnauseam Family \| The Addams Family (November 1991)(Genre: Supernatural black comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 311 \|1992-06 June 1992 \| \| \|- \| Buggy \| Bugsy (December 1991)(Genre: Crime-drama) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 312 \|1992-07 July 1992 \| \| \|- \| Hook'em \| Hook (December 1991)(Genre: Fantasy adventure) \| Stan Hart \| Sam Viviano \| 312 \|1992-07 July 1992 \| \| \|- \| Prince of Tirades \| The Prince of Tides (December 1991)(Genre: Romantic drama) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 312 \|1992-07 July 1992 \| \| \|- \| The Ham That Robs the Cradle \| The Hand that Rocks the Cradle (January 1992)(Genre: Psychological thriller) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 313 \|1992-09 September 1992 \| \| \|- \| Star Blecch V: The Farcical Frontier & Star Blecch VI: The Uninspired Continuation \| Star Trek V: The Final Frontier (June 1989) & Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country (December 1991)(Genre: Science fiction) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Paul Coker, Jr. \| Special #83 \|1992-09 September 1992 \| \| \|- \| Basically It Stinks \| Basic Instinct (March 1992)(Genre: Neo-noir erotic thriller) \| Arnie Kogen \| Angelo Torres \| 314 \|1992-10 October 1992 \| \| \|- \| Buttman Returns \| Batman Returns (June 1992)(Genre: Superhero) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 314 \|1992-10 October 1992 \| \| \|- \| Lethal Wreckin' 3 \| Lethal Weapon 3 (May 1992)(Genre: Buddy cop action comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 315 \|1992-12 December 1992 \| \| \|- \| Patridiotic Games \| Patriot Games (June 1992)(Genre: Spy thriller) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 316 \|1993-01 January 1993 \| \| \|- \| Sister Axed \| Sister Act (May 1992)(Genre: Musical comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 316 \|1993-01 January 1993 \| \| \|- \| A League to Bemoan \| A League of Their Own (July 1992)(Genre: Sports comedy-drama) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 317 \|1993-03 March 1993 \| \| \|- \| Home A-groan 2: Loot in New York \| Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (November 1992)(Genre: Christmas comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 318 \|1993-04 April 1993 \| \| \|- \| Drek-ula \| Bram Stoker's Dracula (November 1992)(Genre: Gothic horror) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 319 \|1993-06 June 1993 \| \| \|- \| Blunder Siege \| Under Siege (October 1992)(Genre: Action-thriller) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 319 \|1993-06 June 1993 \| \| \|- \| A-Lad-Dim \| Aladdin (November 1992)(Genre: Animated comedy musical romantic fantasy adventure) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 320 \|1993-07 July 1993 \| \| \|- \| Beauty and the Beef \| Beauty and the Beast (November 1991)(Genre: Animated musical romantic fantasy) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 320 \|1993-07 July 1993 \| \| \|- \| A Few Goofy Men \| A Few Good Men (December 1992)(Genre: Legal drama) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 320 \|1993-07 July 1993 \| \| \|- \| Groundhog Deja Vu \| Groundhog Day (February 1993)(Genre: Fantasy comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 321 \|1993-09 September 1993 \| \| \|- \| A Decent Disposal \| Indecent Proposal (April 1993)(Genre: Drama) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 322 \|1993-10 October 1993 \| \| \|- \| Dive \| Dave (May 1993)(Genre: Comedy) \| Arnie Kogen \| Angelo Torres \| 323 \|1993-12 December 1993 \| \| \|- \| Jurass-Has-Had-It Park \| Jurassic Park (June 1993)(Genre: Science-fiction adventure) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 323 \|1993-12 December 1993 \| \| \|- \| In Line to be Fired \| In the Line of Fire (July 1993)(Genre: Political thriller) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 324 \|1994-01 January 1994 \| \| \|- \| Senseless in Seattle \| Sleepless in Seattle (June 1993)(Genre: Romantic comedy-drama) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 324 \|1994-01 January 1994 \| \| \|- \| The Stooge-itive \| The Fugitive (August 1993)(Genre: Thriller) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 325 \|1994-02 February 1994 \| \| \|- \| Mrs. Doubtful \| Mrs. Doubtfire (November 1993)(Genre: Comedy-drama) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 327 \|1994-05 May 1994 \| \| \|- \| The Flickstones \| The Flintstones (May 1994)(Genre: Buddy comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 331 \|1994-10 October–November 1994 \| \| \|- \| Mavershtick \| Maverick (May 1994)(Genre: Western comedy) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 331 \|1994-10 October–November 1994 \| \| \|- \| Fairest Shlump \| Forrest Gump (July 1994)(Genre: Romantic drama) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 332 \|1994-12 December 1994 \| \| \|- \| The Lion's Kin \| The Lion King (June 1994)(Genre: Animated epic musical) \| Stan Hart \| Sam Viviano \| 332 \|1994-12 December 1994 \| \| \|- \| Not Quite Up to Speed \| Speed (June 1994)(Genre: Action thriller) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 332 \|1994-12 December 1994 \| \| \|- \| It's Clear the President is a Danger \| Clear and Present Danger (August 1994)(Genre: Spy thriller) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 333 \|1995-01 January–February 1995 \| \| \|- \| Untrue Spies \| True Lies (July 1994)(Genre: Action) \| Stan Hart \| Tom Bunk \| 333 \|1995-01 January–February 1995 \| \| \|- \| Frankenslime \| Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (November 1994)(Genre: Horror drama) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 334 \|1995-03 March–April 1995 \| \| \|- \| Quease Show \| Quiz Show (September 1994)(Genre: Historical film) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 334 \|1995-03 March–April 1995 \| \| \|- \| Intravenous with the Vampire \| Interview with the Vampire (November 1994)(Genre: Drama horror) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 335 \|1995-05 May 1995 \| \| \|- \| Plot Friction \| Pulp Fiction (May 1994)(Genre: Crime black comedy) \| Arnie Kogen \| Sam Viviano \| 335 \|1995-05 May 1995 \| \| \|- \| Buttman Fershlugginer \| Batman Forever (June 1995)(Genre: Superhero) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 337 \|1995-07 July 1995 \| \| \|- \| Judge Dreck \| Judge Dredd (June 1995)(Genre: Science fiction) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 338 \|1995-08 August 1995 \| \| \|- \| Gasper \| Casper (May 1995)(Genre: Live-action/computer-animated fantasy comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Paul Coker Jr. \| 340 \|1995-10 October–November 1995 \| \| \|- \| Die Hard with No Variance \| Die Hard with a Vengeance (May 1995)(Genre: Action) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Drew Friedman \| 340 \|1995-10 October–November 1995 \| \| \|- \| Appalling 13 \| Apollo 13 (June 1995)(Genre: Space docudrama) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 341 \|1995-12 December 1995 \| \| \|- \| Hokeyhontas \| Pocahontas (June 1995)(Genre: Animated musical romantic drama) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Walt F. Rosenberg \| 341 \|1995-12 December 1995 \| \| \|- \| Mr. Hollow's Old Puss \| Mr. Holland's Opus (December 1995)(Genre: Drama) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 346 \|1996-06 June 1996 \| \| \|- \| Broke 'N' Narrow \| Broken Arrow (February 1996)(Genre: Action) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 347 \|1996-07 July 1996 \| \| \|- \| Wishin' for the Impossible \| Mission Impossible I (May 1996)(Genre: Action spy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 347 \|1996-07 July 1996 \| \| \|- \| The Nerdcage \| The Birdcage (March 1996)(Genre: Comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 348 \|1996-08 August 1996 \| \| \|- \| Twit-sters \| Twister (May 1996)(Genre: Disaster adventure) \| Arnie Kogen \| Paul Coker Jr. \| 349 \|1996-09 September 1996 \| \| \|- \| It's Depends Day \| Independence Day (July 1996)(Genre: Science fiction action) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 350 \|1996-10 October 1996 \| \| \|- \| It's a Blunderful Life \| It's a Wonderful Life (December 1946)(Genre: Christmas fantasy comedy-drama) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 350 \|1996-10 October 1996 \| \| \|- \| Disgracer \| Eraser (June 1996)(Genre: Action thriller) \| Arnie Kogen \| Angelo Torres \| 351 \|1996-11 November 1996 \| \| \|- \| The Hunchback and Note the Dame \| The Hunchback of Notre Dame (June 1996)(Genre: Animated musical drama) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Sam Viviano \| 351 \|1996-11 November 1996 \| \| \|- \| The Crock \| The Rock (June 1996)(Genre: Action thriller) \| Stan Hart \| Mort Drucker \| 351 \|1996-11 November 1996 \| \| \|- \| Star Blecch: Worst Contact \| Star Trek: First Contact (November 1996)(Genre: Science fiction) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Paul Coker Jr. \| 352 \|1996-12 December 1996 \| \| \|- \| Marred Attack! \| Mars Attacks! (December 1996)(Genre: Comedy science fiction horror) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 353 \|1997-01 January 1997 \| \| \|- \| Rancid \| Ransom (November 1996)(Genre: Crime thriller) \| Stan Hart \| Sam Viviano \| 354 \|1997-02 February 1997 \| \| \|- \| The People vs. Larry Fylth \| The People vs. Larry Flynt (October 1996)(Genre: Biographical drama) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 357 \|1997-05 May 1997 \| \| \|- \| Buttman & Rubbin''' \| Batman & Robin (June 1997)(Genre: Superhero) \| Arnie Kogen \| Mort Drucker \| 359 \|1997-07 July 1997 \| \| \|- \| Howeird Stern, Private Putz\| Howard Stern, Private Parts (February 1997)(Genre: Biographical comedy) \| Stan Hart \| Sam Viviano \| 359 \|1997-07 July 1997 \| \| \|- \| Corn Air\| Con Air (June 1997)(Genre: Action) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 360 \|1997-08 August 1997 \| \| \|- \| The Last Word on Jurass-Has-Had-It Park\| The Lost World: Jurassic Park (May 1997)(Genre: Science-fiction adventure) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Paul Coker Jr. \| 361 \|1997-09 September 1997 \| \| \|- \| Corntact\| Contact (July 1997)(Genre: Science fiction drama) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Sam Viviano \| 363 \|1997-11 November 1997 \| \| \|- \| F!@/OFF\| Face/Off (June 1997)(Genre: Science fiction action) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 363 \|1997-11 November 1997 \| \| \|- \| Air Farce One\| Air Force One (July 1997)(Genre: Political action-thriller) \| Stan Hart \| Sam Viviano \| 364 \|1997-12 December 1997 \| \| \|- \| G.I. Shame\| G.I. Jane (August 1997)(Genre: Action) \| Josh Gordon \| Angelo Torres \| 365 \|1998-01 January 1998 \| \| \|- \| Starless Troopers\| Starship Troopers (November 1997)(Genre: Military science-fiction action) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 367 \|1998-03 March 1998 \| \| \|- \| Alien Resuscitated\| Alien Resurrection (November 1997)(Genre: Science-fiction action horror) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 368 \|1998-04 April 1998 \| \| \|- \| Screech 2\| Scream 2 (December 1997)(Genre: Slasher/Horror) \| Arnie Kogen \| Angelo Torres \| 368 \|1998-04 April 1998 \| \| \|- \| Trypanic\| Titanic (December 1997)(Genre: Epic romance-disaster) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Sam Viviano \| 369 \|1998-05 May 1998 \| \| \|- \| Gotsilly\| Godzilla (May 1998)(Genre: Monster film) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 370 \|1998-06 June 1998 \| \| \|- \| Sleep Impact\| Deep Impact (May 1998)(Genre: Science-fiction disaster) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 373 \|1998-09 September 1998 \| \| \|- \| The Ecch-Files: Fight This Feature\| The X-Files: Fight the Future (June 1998)(Genre: Science fiction thriller) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Timothy Shamey \| 374 \|1998-09 September 1998 \| \| \|- \| The Truedumb Show\| The Truman Show (June 1998)(Genre: Satirical science fiction) \| Stan Hart \| Sam Viviano \| 374 \|1998-10 October 1998 \| \| \|- \| AHM-A-GETTIN' (The Hell Outta Here!)\| Armageddon (July 1998)(Genre: Science fiction disaster) \| Arnie Kogen \| Angelo Torres \| 375 \|1998-11 November 1998 \| \| \|- \| Hollow-Scream: It's 2 Slow\| Halloween H2O (August 1998)(Genre: Slasher/Horror) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Sam Viviano \| 376 \|1998-12 December 1998 \| \| \|- \| Whattabore\| The Waterboy (November 1998)(Genre: Sports comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Timothy Shamey \| 379 \|1999-03 March 1999 \| \| \|- \| Flushmore\| Rushmore (October 1998)(Genre: Comedy-drama) \| Stan Hart \| Angelo Torres \| 380 \|1999-04 April 1999 \| \| \|- \| Star Blecch: Imperfection\| Star Trek: Insurrection (December 1998)(Genre: Science fiction) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 380 \|1999-04 April 1999 \| \| \|- \| Playback\| Payback (February 1999)(Genre: Neo-noir crime) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 382 \|1999-06 June 1999 \| \| \|- \| Satirize This\| Analyze This (March 1999)(Genre: Gangster comedy) \| Josh Gordon \| Angelo Torres \| 383 \|1999-07 July 1999 \| \| \|- \| Putz Adams\| Patch Adams (December 1998)(Genre: Semi-biographical comedy-drama) \| Stan Hart \| Bill Wray \| 383 \|1999-07 July 1999 \| \| \|- \| The Faketrix\| The Matrix (April 1999)(Genre: Science fiction action) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 384 \|1999-08 August 1999 \| \| \|- \| Mild Mild Mess\| Wild Wild West (June 1999)(Genre: Western action comedy) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 384 \|1999-08 August 1999 \| \| \|- \| Detroit Rock Sissies\| Detroit Rock City (August 1999)(Genre: Comedy) \| Desmond Devlin \| Ray Alma \| 385 \|1999-09 September 1999 \| \| \|- \| Star Bores Epic Load I: The Fandumb Megamess\| Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (May 1999)(Genre: Epic space opera) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Mort Drucker \| 385 \|1999-09 September 1999 \| \| \|- \| Tarzany\| Tarzan (June 1999)(Genre: Animated musical drama adventure) \| Dick DeBartolo \| Angelo Torres \| 386 \|1999-10 October 1999 \| \| \|- \| I'm Enterin' Pie\| American Pie (July 1999)(Genre: Teen sex comedy) \| Desmond Devlin \| Ray Alma \| 387 \|1999-11 November 1999 \| \| \|- \| Big Bladder\| Big Daddy (June 1999)(Genre: Comedy) \| Desmond Devlin \| Angelo Torres \| 387 \|1999-11 November 1999 \| \| \|- \| The Bland Witch Project (Profits)\| The Blair Witch Project (July 1999)(Genre: Supernatural horror) \| Desmond Devlin \| Bill Wray \| 387 \|1999-11 November 1999 \| \| \|- \| Mouth Park: Piggish, Lamer & Uncouth\| South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut (June 1999)(Genre: Adult animated musical comedy) \| Desmond Devlin \| Grey Blackwell \| 387 \|1999-11 November 1999 \| \| \|} 2000s 2010s 2020s 2023 (Claptrap) See also List of television show spoofs in Mad Mad (magazine) Notes References Hendrix, Grady: "Cahiers du CinéMAD", Film Comment'', Film Society of the Lincoln Center, March/April 2013 External links The Mad Cover Site's list of film and television parodies Film spoofs Parodies of films
4185088	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crazy%20Horse%20Too	Crazy Horse Too	Crazy Horse Too is a closed strip club located at 2476 Industrial Road in Las Vegas, Nevada, a few blocks west of the Las Vegas Strip. The club was known as Billy Jo's during the 1970s. In 1978, the club was purchased by Mob member Tony Albanese and renamed Billy Jo's Crazy Horse Too, after the Crazy Horse Saloon, another Las Vegas strip club owned by Albanese. In 1984, Rick Rizzolo took over operations of the club when it was purchased by his father, Bart Rizzolo. Rick Rizzolo was a majority owner by 1986. In 1995, federal officials began an investigation of activities at Crazy Horse Too. The club endured a history of violent crimes, including the alleged beating of a tourist in 2001. In 2003, Crazy Horse Too was searched by multiple government officials who were investigating possible links between the club and organized crime. As part of a plea bargain, Rick Rizzolo and 16 club officials pleaded guilty to multiple charges in May and June 2006; Rizzolo was ordered to sell the club within a year as part of the deal. Crazy Horse Too subsequently closed in September 2006, after its liquor license was revoked. The club reopened with a temporary liquor license in October 2006. Rizzolo's attempts to sell Crazy Horse Too failed, and the club was closed again in August 2007, when it was seized by the United States Marshals Service. After multiple failed attempts to sell Crazy Horse Too, the federal government auctioned the club in 2011. California strip club owner Mike Galam reopened the club in May 2013, as The Horse Gentlemen's Club; another Las Vegas strip club, Crazy Horse III, alleged that "Crazy Horse Too" was a trademark infringement. The Horse reverted to its previous name in February 2014, after a judge ruled that Galam had purchased the rights to the name. Crazy Horse Too closed in August 2014, because of poor customer attendance and liquor license violations. The club continued to open once a month for eight hours to retain its erotic dance establishment license and land use rights. However, the license was revoked in August 2019, as the building had fallen into disrepair and was the target of vagrant break-ins. The building was heavily damaged in a June 2022 fire, and was demolished at the end of the year. Background Early history (1972–2000) Crazy Horse Too operated in a strip mall, constructed in 1972, on Industrial Road, directly north of an overpass used for West Sahara Avenue. By 1978, a popular discothèque named Billy Jo's, which included strippers, had been operating in the strip mall. Tony Albanese, a member of the Mob, purchased Billy Jo's that year after its owner died of health complications. Albanese had already opened a strip club named Crazy Horse Saloon at the intersection of Paradise Road and Flamingo Road, and chose to rename his new club as Billy Jo's Crazy Horse Too. Henry Rapuano took over operations of the club in 1981, after Albanese's severed head was found in the desert in Needles, California. Rapuano renamed the club simply as Crazy Horse Too. Rapuano died of a sudden heart attack in 1982. Frederick "Rick" Rizzolo – a close associate of Henry Rapuano's son, Al Rapuano – took over operations on February 1, 1984; Rick Rizzolo's father, Bart Rizzolo, purchased the club that month. The club at that time contained and had 12 strippers employed. In 1985, a man named Rick Sandlin suffered permanent brain damage after being beaten outside the club with a baseball bat by Rick Rizzolo, who claimed he was defending himself. Rizzolo, represented by criminal defense attorney Oscar Goodman, pleaded no contest to a misdemeanor charge and avoided jail time. By 1986, Rizzolo was the club's majority owner. From 1984 until 2006, Rick Rizzolo was involved in an ongoing dispute over parking with "Buffalo" Jim Barrier, a well-known Las Vegas personality and a commercial tenant of Rizzolo. According to numerous newspaper and television reports, for 22 years Rizzolo engaged in an unsuccessful pattern of harassment in attempts to drive Buffalo Jim and his automotive repair business off the Crazy Horse Too property so the club could expand. In 1991, future pornographic film actress Jenna Jameson began working at the club. In 1998, Rizzolo invested $800,000 in a expansion of the club. The club was expanded into a closed adjacent adult novelty store named L.A. Hot. The expansion brought the club up to approximately , and served as a new dressing room for the club's 600 workers. Rizzolo planned to eventually convert the former dressing room – which served as office space – into a new entertainment area with a bar and stage. Rizzolo learned during construction that he needed a variance for his expansion, as a zoning ordinance prohibited strip clubs from expanding if they were located within 1,000 feet of other sexually oriented businesses. Rizzolo chose to continue construction, as he believed he would be approved for a variance; he said he would likely sue if he was denied. In January 1999, the expansion was approved by the city's Board of Zoning Adjustments. However, the vote was appealed by a nearby resident and a business, with claims that the expansion would increase traffic and cause parking problems. Another complaint was that hundreds of local children would be exposed to an increased number of drug dealers and drug seekers who would visit the expanded club. City planners allowed Rizzolo to use his expansion pending the outcome of a vote by the City Council, which approved Rizzolo's request for a variance in February 1999. In October 2000, Crazy Horse Too filed a lawsuit against MGM Grand Las Vegas, seeking an injunction to prevent the resort from using the Crazy Horse name for their debut of a topless show titled Crazy Horse Paris. Crazy Horse Too also sought $10,000 in damages. Criminal investigations (2001–2006) On October 2, 2001, a lawsuit was filed against the club by Kirk Henry, a tourist from Kansas City, Kansas, who suffered a broken neck after visiting the club on September 20, 2001. Henry alleged that he was beaten up in the club's parking lot after a dispute involving an $80 tab at the club's bar. Representatives of the club contend that Henry was heavily drunk and fell in the parking lot, breaking his own neck. The lawsuit allowed authorities to pursue a criminal RICO investigation of the club. On October 4, 2001, police utilized search warrants to search the club and confiscate business records, although the club was allowed to remain open during the search. The Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department was investigating the case as of April 2002. Nearly a year after the incident, agents from the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) interviewed Henry, who identified Bobby D'Apice, a shift manager at the club, as the man who allegedly attacked him. The Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department launched a criminal investigation in October 2002. By the end of the month, the Federal Bureau of Investigation was now leading the investigation. As part of the investigation, Rick Rizzolo was questioned about his relationships with various crime figures. Henry's lawyers alleged that many of Crazy Horse Too's employees had extensive criminal records for various offenses. In November 2002, police detectives declined to turn over documents from their investigation, saying, "Premature disclosure of this information would prejudice the criminal investigation and endanger the safety of possible witnesses." Police officials and the FBI expected the investigation to continue at least another six months. Raid On February 20, 2003, around 5:00 a.m., the club was raided by approximately 80 to 100 law enforcement officers, some of them armed with rifles. The group included agents from the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Drug Enforcement Administration, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), and the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department, as well as two SWAT teams. Crazy Horse Too's attorney, Tony Sgro, said, "They handled (Thursday's) search with the scope and intensity that would be expected if they had located a terrorist cell within the club." Sgro also said, "It was like they found somebody in the al-Qaida network in there. That's how many agents were in there." Sgro criticized the search warrant, as he believed that it contained vague and generic wording. Sgro noted the presence of the news media as the raid began, and called it "nothing short of a publicity stunt." The raid, which lasted 11 hours, was conducted as part of an investigation to determine possible links between the club and organized crime. The investigation had been ongoing for at least 15 months. Officers seized a variety of records – a total of 170 items – that dated back to 1995. The search ended around 4:00 p.m., and the club reopened later that night. The only drugs found on the premises was a marijuana cigarette in a stripper's locker. On February 21, 2003, Sgro filed a motion in U.S. District Court, seeking the return of certain items seized during the raid: "The club is making a request for the return of only a tiny fraction of the truckloads of equipment, furniture and records taken from the club. These items are basic to the running of the business and are required immediately." The items included nine cash registers, valued at over $10,000 each. Other requested items included computers and current financial documents needed for preparing 2002 tax returns. According to Bart Rizzolo, who had a 10 percent interest in the club, officers also seized all of the club's money in the raid, at least $250,000. Sgro said the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure was violated during the raid, claiming that a Crazy Horse Too representative was not allowed to observe the search: "It cannot be determined, with any accuracy, what was actually taken by officers or what might have been left behind." Rick Rizzolo, who denied any involvement in criminal activity, said his club made more than $10 million a year: "It makes so much money, I wouldn't do something stupid to jeopardize it." Rick Rizzolo also planned to sue the federal government for money lost during the hours of the raid, estimated to be between $40,000 and $60,000. One of the items under investigation was the $20,000 monthly consulting fee from the Crazy Horse Too bar in Chicago that was being paid to Rizzolo. Actors Robert De Niro and Joe Pesci were interviewed as part of the investigation, as well as George Clooney, who was a longtime friend of Rick Rizzolo. In late February 2003, employees alleged that they were held at gunpoint during the raid and were forced to provide videotaped statements in exchange for their release from the club. In March 2003, a judge ordered for the return of all items seized during the raid. Rick Rizzolo said business had improved at the club as a result of publicity from the raid. As of March 2003, Crazy Horse Too had approximately 100 employees and more than 5,700 strippers. Talks about a possible plea bargain began a few months after the raid. Further developments In October 2003, Rick Rizzolo filed a lawsuit against the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department and several of its officers for their search of the club in October 2001. Rizzolo alleged that the officers persuaded a judge to issue the search warrant by using false information and omitting facts, saying that "there was not in fact probable cause to search the club." That same month, Sgro revealed that Rick Rizzolo had been informed recently that federal authorities had wiretapped Rizzolo's phones and had been intercepting his phone conversations as early as 1996. At the end of the month, a man suffered multiple gunshot wounds after arguing with another person in the club's parking lot. The shooter, unaffiliated with the club, was not found. In November 2003, the Las Vegas Review-Journal noted that the club's violent crimes tend to occur in its parking lot. From 2001 through 2003, officers from the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department had been called out to the club more than 700 times. In November 2004, D'Apice's home was searched by FBI and IRS agents as part of their investigation into the club. On January 19, 2005, D'Apice was arrested for alleged activities he participated in at the club including federal racketeering charges, assault from a 2001 crime, aided and abetted in prostitution or illegal sexual activity, and distribution of narcotics. It was the first arrest in the ongoing investigation. D'Apice had worked at the club for approximately a decade. It was also revealed that federal officials had been investigating the club since August 1995. D'Apice and a cocktail waitress were also charged with making false statements to a federal grand jury in January 2003 and August 2002 respectively, regarding Henry's incident at the club in September 2001. In March 2005, Rizzolo's lawyers anticipated an indictment would be made soon. In January 2006, Luke Brugnara planned to purchase the club. In April 2006, talks increased regarding a group plea deal. In May 2006, 16 people involved with the club pleaded guilty as part of the group plea deal. The plea agreements revealed that strippers at Crazy Horse Too were required to pay 15 percent of their earnings to certain employees at the club. The agreements also revealed that management and other employees at the club had agreed to underreport financial income at the end of each shift, from 2000 to 2003. On June 1, 2006, Rick Rizzolo pleaded guilty as part of the group plea deal, in which Rizzolo agreed to sell Crazy Horse Too within 12 months. It had been reported that Rizzolo was in talks with potential buyers, including one who was willing to pay $36 million for the club. Rizzolo was required to pay $17 million in fines, including $4.2 million to the federal government and $1.7 million to the IRS. The deal also required Rizzolo to pay $10 million to Henry, after the sale of the club. As part of the deal, prosecutors agreed not to press criminal charges against Rizzolo's sister, Annette Patterson; his brother, Ralph; or his father, Bart, all of whom had been employed or involved at the club. The investigation, which generated more than 8,000 hours of wiretapped conversations, focused on allegations of money laundering, prostitution, tax evasion, and violence. In July 2006, the Las Vegas City Council voted to hold a hearing in September to discuss penalties for Crazy Horse Too following the guilty pleas from club officials. On September 6, 2006, the City Council voted to revoke the club's liquor license and to impose a fine of nearly $2.2 million, as council members were concerned that some of the people who had pleaded guilty earlier that year were still operating the club. Deputy City Attorney Bill Henry said that Rizzolo "ran the Crazy Horse Too like Tony Soprano runs the Bada Bing." Crazy Horse Too stopped serving alcoholic beverages on September 7, 2006, after city officials and police served an order revoking the club's liquor license. However, the club resumed sales of alcohol later that night, after Sgro determined that "the way the city served the order was invalid". Sgro filed a complaint to halt the city's order, claiming that potential buyers would not be interested in purchasing the club if were operating without a liquor license. Closures and reopenings (2006–2019) Crazy Horse Too closed on the afternoon of September 8, 2006, after a temporary restraining order against the city's decision was denied. While Sgro believed that Crazy Horse Too still had the right to serve alcohol, Rizzolo chose cautiously to have the club closed until a judge issued his decision. Sgro alleged that the city's "true intent" was to seize the property for a widening expansion of Industrial Road. On September 12, 2006, the judge upheld the city's decision to revoke the club's liquor license. Stuart Cadwell, a strip club owner and operator, had agreed in the previous week to purchase the club for $45 million. Although the deal was in escrow, Cadwell said the lack of a liquor license would probably nullify the deal. On September 19, 2006, Michael Signorelli, who owned the nearby Golden Steer Steakhouse, applied for a temporary six-month liquor license at Crazy Horse Too. Signorelli would temporarily lease the club from Rizzolo, as Cadwell was still considered a potential buyer. At the end of September 2006, an opponent of Crazy Horse Too opened a nearby church; because of a Las Vegas city code, businesses that serve alcohol were prohibited from operating within 1,500 feet of a church. The church's deacon denied that he was attempting to sabotage Signorelli's plans for the club. Signorelli was considered a potential buyer of the club in early October 2006, while a city attorney said the nearby church would not be able to prevent Crazy Horse Too from serving alcohol, saying the club would only become ineligible for a liquor license if it went six months without serving alcohol. Crazy Horse Too reopened under new management on October 18, 2006, after Signorelli had been granted a temporary three-month liquor license earlier that day. Signorelli leased the club from Rizzolo for $400,000 a month. In January 2007, the city council extended Signorelli's temporary liquor license for another 90 days, despite various concerns, including Rizzolo's possible involvement with the club's operations. Despite lower lease payments as a result of poor business, Signorelli still planned to purchase the club, possibly for another use. Despite concerns, particularly from Las Vegas police, the City Council approved Signorelli for a permanent liquor license in April 2007. The license came with 12 conditions, one being that Signorelli had to close escrow on the club by June 30, 2007, which was Rick Rizzolo's deadline for selling the club. Signorelli, who was considered a straw man, had until May 31, 2007, to deposit $38 million into escrow for the sale to close in time; Signorelli failed to do so. In early June 2007, Crazy Horse Too had four other potential buyers, while officials from the FBI, IRS, and U.S. attorney's office were preparing to take over the club and liquidate it. By late June 2007, Crazy Horse Too had at least two potential buyers: nightclub owner Tommy Karas, and Brugnara, both of whom were willing to pay over $30 million for the club. Crazy Horse Too's liquor license was revoked on July 1, 2007, although the club remained open. Later that month, Signorelli offered $31 million for the club, with $3 million in an escrow account. It was unclear why Signorelli missed the initial deadline. Signorelli also appealed the city's decision to revoke the club's liquor license. Rizzolo declined Signorelli's offer, citing Signorelli's past failure to meet certain obligations. At that time, there were two potential buyers interested in purchasing the club. In August 2007, Crazy Horse Too had several offers ranging from $31 million to $34 million, with Rick Rizzolo facing a deadline to sell the club by September 30, 2007. At that time, the club's value was believed to have decreased significantly following Signorelli's management. In late August 2007, a retired NBA player was reportedly considering purchasing the club. The club closed later that month after it was seized by the United States Marshals Service. Prospective buyers In November 2007, an unnamed buyer planned to purchase the club for $31 million. In May 2008, David Dupont and Maheshkumar Patel, the principals of LCC Cafe Nevada, planned to purchase the closed club for $32 million. The men had approximately half of the money, and attempted to obtain a liquor license in hopes of securing the remaining funds necessary to purchase the club. The club had a deadline of June 30, 2008, after which it would no longer be eligible to offer topless dancing and alcohol because of current zoning codes. In June 2008, Dupont and Patel's request for a liquor license was denied. Later that month, a federal prosecutor urged a judge to override the city's ordinance in order to maintain the club's estimated value of $32 million to $35 million, for the sake of Henry's compensation. Without the special permits, the club's value was expected to drop to between $8 million and $10 million. The judge chose not to extend the deadline. In September 2009, Christopher Condotti and his Chicago company, CC Holdings, planned to purchase the club. That month, CC Holdings filed a lawsuit against a Las Vegas strip club operating under the name "Crazy Horse III Gentlemen's Club." Condotti claimed that the club infringed on the "Crazy Horse Too" trademark, with the lawsuit claiming that the other club "is confusingly similar in sight, sound and meaning" to the trademark. The lawsuit sought damages and an injunction against the club's owner. In April 2010, Condotti filed a $10.5 million sales contract in federal court, with one condition being that the club receive all the necessary licenses – a liquor license, a sexually oriented business license, a tobacco license, and a retail sales license – by November 30, 2010. The club would also need a special-use zoning permit, which would require approval from the city council. Las Vegas mayor Oscar Goodman demanded that the city be paid the $2 million fine owed by the club since September 2006, before issuing any of the licenses. Condotti challenged the fine in court. In December 2010, after failed sales attempts, a judge ordered the U.S. Marshals Service to sell the club "by any lawful means, including public auction," with a deadline of May 3, 2011. At that time, the club's value was estimated to be as low as $5 million. In February 2011, the government scrapped its plans to sell the club and chose to let it enter foreclosure, after realizing that the property could not be sold for the amount of liens against it. The club, at that time, was only valued at $2 million to $3 million, due to a poor economy and the lack of liquor and adult entertainment licenses. A foreclosure sale was expected to take place by April 1, 2011. Rizzolo's lawyer, Dominic Gentile, accused the government of mismanaging the sale: "This is the worst case of bad faith that I've experienced in almost 40 years as a lawyer. The only reason it's worth what it is today is because of the government's deliberate, malignant conduct. This is really, truly outrageous. It won't surprise me if they did it on purpose." On July 1, 2011, a public auction failed to turn out any potential bidders. As a result, Canico Capital Group, the owner of the property's first deed of trust, purchased the club for $3 million. Canico left open the possibility of persuading the city to reconsider its zoning laws, to allow for a strip club and bar to operate on the property again. Canico and city officials had been discussing the club's future for months as of May 2012. An attorney for Canico said that it was difficult to "imagine that such a funky little strip mall is the most talked about piece of real estate in Clark County." In June 2012, the city council approved a city ordinance that would allow Crazy Horse Too to reopen as a strip club and bar, allowing Canico to sell the property to a potential buyer at a higher value. The vote was approved with the belief that Canico would donate $1.4 million to the city, an amount of money similar to what Rick Rizzolo owed from his September 2006 fine. In July 2012, the city council voted against diverting $750,000 of the $1.4 million donation to Henry, who had only received $1 million of the $10 million he was owed following his injury at the club in 2001. New ownership In March 2013, California strip club owner Mike Galam purchased Crazy Horse Too as part of a $5 million, 59 percent stake in Canico. In early May 2013, Crazy Horse III filed a complaint against Galam, claiming that the club's use of the "Crazy Horse" name was a trademark infringement. The club was renamed as The Horse Gentlemen's Club. Crazy Horse Too's old sign was kept up, but covered with a new sign. Other potential names included "Crazy Mike's" and "The Two." Nearly 60 strippers were hired for the club's grand reopening, which occurred on May 31, 2013. Galam hoped to have 200 to 250 strippers employed at The Horse within a couple months. A new $75,000 sound system was installed, as well as $30,000 worth of new lights, and 96 infrared cameras located inside and outside the club. Galam also had 26 air conditioners installed for $187,000. The building's copper wiring, which had been stolen by thieves during its long closure, was also replaced. Galam said the club would be free of violence. Galam also planned a reality documentary television series about the club's reopening and its employees, although the series was not produced. On February 11, 2014, a judge ruled that Galam had purchased the rights to the "Crazy Horse" name when he bought the club. The club reverted to its previous name on the following day. Five people were arrested for prostitution at the club on March 13, 2014. Under Galam's ownership, the club suffered a lack of business, and was criticized for an inadequate video surveillance system. Problems continued at Crazy Horse Too after the sudden death of Galam's longtime girlfriend in April 2014, as Galam subsequently became inattentive in managing the club. The club had been operating with a temporary liquor license, but had amassed between 18 and 27 violations. In June 2014, Craig Franze joined as part owner and a major remodeling of the club was completed. In early August 2014, Galam was told by city officials that he would not be able to attain a permanent liquor license if he could not avoid future violations. At the advice of city officials and legal counsel, Galam withdrew his application for a permanent liquor license. Crazy Horse Too closed on August 23, 2014, after Galam's temporary liquor license expired. City officials also revoked the club's cabaret license, forcing the club's closure. Franze took over management of the closed property, along with Galam's father and sister: Victor Galam and Jackie Barnes. The club continued to open once a month for eight hours to retain its erotic dance establishment license and land use rights, without serving alcohol. As of July 2019, the property had opened for eight hours under the name Sin City Teaser's Gentlemen's Club. By that time, the building was considered to be in disrepair and unsafe, with criminal activity frequently occurring on the property and requiring police assistance. Such activity included vagrant break-ins. In August 2019, the city council unanimously voted to revoke the erotic dance license as the club could not comply with municipal codes. The majority landowner and licensee wanted to remedy the issues, but progress was hampered by the other owners. Fires and demolition (2022) On the early morning of June 5, 2022, a fire broke out at the strip club and tore through the roof. The structure was heavily damaged, and a second fire occurred at the rear of the building later that month. A closed diner, connected to the club via the strip mall, caught on fire in July 2022. The fires were believed to have been started by homeless people living within the buildings. The city announced that it would proceed with demolition of the club and adjoining buildings on its own, as the property owner failed to secure the site. The property owner ultimately hired a demolition crew, and the club was torn down in December 2022. Other lawsuits Scott Fau (1995) In August 1995, an interstate truck driver named Scott Fau got into a fight with four bouncers at the club. The fight was taken outside and continued in the parking lot, where police and paramedics responded to stop the fighting. Fau, who was nearly dead, was found approximately three hours later near railroad tracks behind the club. Fau, who had a broken nose, foot, and leg, and a severe wound to the head died shortly thereafter. Fau's widow, Camille Fau, filed a wrongful death lawsuit against the four employees, two of whom died before the case went to trial. On January 13, 2003, after two days of deliberations, jurors found that the bouncers were not liable in Fau's death. According to testimony, just over 30 minutes had passed from the time the fight was stopped to the time the club employees arrived at a hospital for treatment of their broken hands. The jury felt that there was not enough time for a second beating to have taken place during that 30-minute period. Fau's attorney, disappointed with the verdict, said, "We had witnesses that were intimidated. We had witnesses who didn't show up. It just shows that the ongoing criminal activity of employees of the Crazy Horse Too is a lot more far-reaching than they would like people to believe." Stripper lawsuit (1997) In March 1997, two strippers filed a lawsuit against Crazy Horse Too, claiming they were not paid any minimum wage and were required to pay $30 of tip money to the club owner at the end of every work shift. The lawsuit sought $30,000 for each stripper who had worked at the club, as well as class action status to cover all strippers who had worked in Las Vegas strip clubs for the previous two years. Crazy Horse Too, which planned to countersue, denied the allegations: "This club receives no payment or income from entertainers who are hired as, and are treated as, independent contractors." The lawsuit was expanded to other strip clubs in June 1997, with Crazy Horse Too's attorney, Tony Sgro, responding "we stand by our original assessment." Brian Devlin (2001) In March 2001, a man named Brian Devlin declined to pay an entertainer $600 for lap dances that he believed would only cost $100. As of January 2005, a lawsuit against the club was pending in District Court. Devlin alleged that after he refused to pay, he was escorted outside to the parking lot by several bouncers, who beat him until he was unconscious. Devlin claimed that he woke up covered in blood, with torn clothes and his wallet missing. Eben Kostbar (2001) In July 2001, a man named Eben Kostbar visited the club and offered to pay for a friend to receive a table dance. Kostbar refused to pay for the $40 dance, as he believed it was a $20 dance. Kostbar claimed that after exiting the club, he was beat up by multiple bouncers and doormen. Kostbar suffered a concussion, and a contusion to his nose, and had plastic surgery performed on his eye. Kostbar filed a lawsuit against the club in September 2002, alleging "battery, infliction of emotional distress and negligent training and supervision and negligent infliction of emotional distress." In April 2003, Kostbar offered to settle the case for $140,000. The case was dismissed in September 2003, approximately one month before the trial was scheduled to begin. Michael Silverman (2002) A man named Michael Silverman attended the club with his wife in May 2002. While looking for his wife, Silverman got into an argument with a bouncer after saying that his wife had probably left with a stripper to obtain cocaine. Silverman was told by the bouncer not to say "cocaine" inside the club, and was hit by the bouncer after repeating the word. The bouncer was cited for misdemeanor battery. Silverman sued the bouncer, Rick Rizzolo, and Crazy Horse Too for "pain and suffering caused by the assault, emotional distress, negligent hiring and punitive damages." By December 2002, the case had been settled. Film history In October 2000, Crazy Horse Too was among scheduled filming locations for Legends in Las Vegas, an A&E documentary. Interior and exterior scenes were shot at the club in April 2001, for Ocean's Eleven. For filming at the club, Rick Rizzolo turned down an offer of $100,000 from the film's producers, which included longtime friend Jerry Weintraub. Rizzolo felt that the club's appearance in the film was enough. In March 2003, scenes were expected to be shot at the club for the pilot episode of NBC's Las Vegas. In June 2006, scenes were shot at the club for Food Network's reality television series, The Family Restaurant. See also Las Vegas Dancers Alliance List of strip clubs References Defunct nightclubs in the Las Vegas Valley Sex industry in Nevada Strip clubs in the United States Buildings and structures in Las Vegas Prostitution in Nevada
4185266	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20Red	Deep Red	Deep Red (), also known as The Hatchet Murders, is a 1975 Italian giallo film directed by Dario Argento and co-written by Argento and Bernardino Zapponi. It stars David Hemmings as a musician who investigates a series of murders performed by a mysterious figure wearing black leather gloves. The cast also stars Daria Nicolodi, Gabriele Lavia, Macha Méril, and Clara Calamai. The film's score was composed and performed by Goblin, the first in a long-running collaboration with Argento. The film was released during the height of the "giallo craze" of Italian popular cinema, and was a critical and commercial success. Retrospective reviews have been equally positive, and the film is considered one of the genre's definitive entries, as well as one of Argento's best works. Plot During Christmas at a family home, one figure stabs another to death. A bloody knife falls to the floor at a child's feet. Twenty years later in Turin, Professor Giordani chairs a parapsychology conference featuring psychic medium Helga Ulmann. Helga is suddenly overwhelmed by the "twisted, perverted, murderous" thoughts of someone in the audience. Speaking later with Giordani, Helga says she believes she can identify this person, unaware that someone is listening from the shadows. Later that night, a black-gloved figure invades Helga's apartment and kills her with a meat cleaver. English Jazz musician and bandleader Marcus Daly sees the murder from the window as he passes by and rushes to her apartment, finding her mutilated corpse. After the police arrive, Marcus thinks one of the apartment's paintings has disappeared, but he cannot pinpoint what exactly is missing. The media identifies Marcus as the eyewitness and shows reporter Gianna Brezzi's photo of him. The next morning, Marcus visits the home of his heavy-drinking friend, Carlo, but only finds Carlo's eccentric mother Martha, who seems interested in Marcus. That night, the killer plays a recording of a child's song outside Marcus's door; he manages to lock the door before the person can enter, but he hears the gruff whisper, "I'll kill you sooner or later." Feeling guilty for endangering him by taking his photo, Gianna begins helping Marcus investigate. Marcus tells Giordani, whom he met at Helga's funeral, about the encounter. Giordani, noting that Helga also mentioned hearing child's song during her vision, recalls a book of modern folklore describing a local haunted house where a child's song is sometimes heard. Marcus finds the folklore book at the library. He rips out a picture of the house and plans to learn more by visiting the book's author. However, the killer, who has been watching Marcus, attacks the author and drowns her in scalding water before Marcus arrives. Marcus uses the photo from the book to find the huge, abandoned house. Under sheetrock he uncovers a disturbing mural: a child holding a bloody knife over a dead body. After he leaves, a loose chunk of sheetrock falls away, revealing another figure in the drawing. Meanwhile, Giordani, who has been assisting Marcus' investigation, is murdered by the killer after being distracted by a large mechanized doll. Continuing his search of the abandoned house, Marcus finds a walled-off room. In the middle of the dusty floor sits a desiccated corpse. Someone knocks Marcus unconscious as he backs away in horror. He awakens outside the house, which is burning. Gianna appears, explaining that she got his message about investigating the house and arrived in time to save him. As Marcus and Gianna wait at the caretaker's house for the police, Marcus notices that the caretaker's daughter has drawn a picture identical to the hidden mural he found in the house. She tells him she saw the picture in the archives of the local school. Marcus and Gianna immediately go to the school. Marcus finds the drawing in a schoolboy's record. When Gianna leaves to call the police, someone stabs her. Marcus corners the attacker; it is his friend Carlo, who as a child drew the disturbing pictures. The police arrive, and Carlo flees into the dark street where a garbage truck hits him and drags him. When the truck stops, an oncoming car runs over Carlo's head. At the hospital, Marcus learns that Gianna has survived. Marcus remembers that on the night of Helga's murder he met an utterly intoxicated Carlo coming from a different direction than the killing, meaning that Carlo couldn't have been the killer. Marcus reinvestigates Helga's apartment. There, he has an epiphany: the night of Helga's murder it was not a missing painting he saw when he entered the apartment, but rather a reflection of the killer, framed in a mirror. As Marcus realizes he saw Martha, Carlo's mother, she appears behind him with a meat cleaver. Martha explains that after her husband said he would re-commit her to an insane asylum, she murdered him in front of the young Carlo. She walled off the room containing his body. Carlo, scarred psychologically, compulsively drew the scene as a youth and as an adult tried to repress the memory of the homicide with alcohol: he attacked Marcus and Gianna to protect his murderous mother from their investigation. Martha attacks Marcus and wounds him with the cleaver. After Martha's necklace tangles in the bars of the building's elevator, Marcus sends the elevator down, decapitating her. Cast Background Deep Red represented Argento's return to the horror genre after an attempted breakaway with the historical dramedy The Five Days (1974). It was his last giallo film before Tenebre (1982), which was produced years after the genre's heyday. The film was also his first collaboration with actress Daria Nicolodi, with whom he would begin a relationship during this film, and progressive rock band Goblin, who composed and performed the film score. Argento would collaborate with Nicolodi five more times, and Goblin or its frontman Claudio Simonetti ten more times. Nicolodi would also co-write the screenplay for Suspiria. Production The film was shot mainly on-location in Turin in sixteen weeks. Additional scenes were shot in Rome and Perugia. Argento chose Turin because at the time there were more practising Satanists there than in any other European city, excluding Lyon. He had previously shot parts of The Cat o' Nine Tails (1971) in the city. Filming locations included Santa Costanza Church and Teatro Carignano. Argento would later revisit Carignano 25 years later in Sleepless (2001). The "House of the Screaming Child" was Villa Scott, a historical villa owned at the time by a convent of nuns and operated as a boarding school. Argento's original working title for the film was La Tigre dei Denti a Sciabola (The Sabre-Toothed Tiger), matching the "animal" motif of his previous gialli. Co-writer Bernardino Zapponi said the inspiration for the murder scenes came from him and Argento thinking of painful injuries to which the audience could relate, as the pain of being stabbed or shot is outside the experience of most viewers. Their original screenplay ran approximately 500 pages, but after it was deemed unfilmable, Argento shortened it to 321. The use of a psychic medium originated from an early draft of Four Flies on Grey Velvet (1971). The close-up shots of the killer's hands, clad in black leather gloves, were performed by director Dario Argento himself. Argento was convinced that having all the killing scenes performed by himself would be quicker and easier than teaching the moves to an actor, who would require endless re-takes to perform everything to the director's satisfaction. The film's special effects, which include several mechanically operated heads and body parts, were created and executed by Carlo Rambaldi. As was common in Italian filmmaking at the time, Deep Red was shot without sync sound, and all dialogue was dubbed in post-production. The screenplay was written in both Italian and English, all actors except for Clara Calamai spoke in English. The Italian dub cast included Isa Bellini (Calamai), Wanda Tettoni (Del Balzo), and Corrado Gaipa (Meniconi). The English dub cast included Cyril Cusack, Ted Rusoff, Carolyn De Fonseca, Geoffrey Copleston, Michael Forest, and Edward Mannix. David Hemmings dubbed himself. Release Deep Red was released in Milan and Rome in Italy on 7 March 1975. In the United States, the film first premiered in New York City on 9 June 1976 and saw a wide theatrical release on 11 June 1976 by the defunct US independent film distributor Howard Mahler Films. The film was once again re-released and re-titled in the US on 18 January 1980, as The Hatchet Murders, and again in 1982 as The Phantom of Terror. Unlike Argento's previous features, the film did not have a wide cinema release in the UK. The 1982 video release on Fletcher Video was uncertificated. The first formal submission to the BBFC for classification was made by Redemption Films for their VHS release in 1993. It was passed 18 with 11s of cuts (to 'fighting' dogs), and reframing (of a lizard apparently impaled alive on a blade) on 03/12/1993 (all cuts were subsequently waived, see below). Critical reception The film holds a 93% approval rating on review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 29 reviews with an average rating of 8.1/10. The site's consensus reads: "The kinetic camerawork and brutal over-the-top gore that made Dario Argento famous is on full display, but the addition of a compelling, complex story makes Deep Red a masterpiece." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 89 out of 100 based on 7 critic reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". One negative review upon the film's original American release came from Vincent Canby in The New York Times, who referred to the film as a "bucket of ax-murder-movie cliches" and called Dario Argento "a director of incomparable incompetence." From retrospective reviews, Kim Newman wrote in the Monthly Film Bulletin that Deep Red was a transitional work for Argento between his earlier whodunit plots and the more supernatural themed films. Newman concluded that Deep Red is "nothing if not an elaborate mechanism, with the camera crawling among objets trouvés" and "what sets Argento apart from imitators like Lucio Fulci is his combination of genuine pain (the murders are as nasty as one could wish, but the camera flinches where Fulci's would linger) and self-mocking humour" Total Film gave the film four stars out of five, noting that Argento's films "can be an acquired taste; it's necessary to attune yourself with the horror director's style in order to get the most from his movies." The review stated that the film "presents some striking visual compositions that raise it above the level of the usual subgenre offerings." and that the film was "A great introduction to Dario Argento's evolving style of horror". The A.V. Club wrote, "Operating under the principle that a moving camera is always better than a static one – and not above throwing in a terrifying evil doll – Deep Red showcases the technical bravado and loopy shock tactics that made Argento famous." AllMovie compared the film to other in Argento's work, noting that the film script was "significantly stronger and the actors much better" AllMovie noted that "Each of the murders is perfectly choreographed with particular praise going to Glauco Mauri's killing" and that "The final reel wraps the film up in a thrilling manner and features two extremely graphic deaths that leave the viewer stunned as the credits roll" Quentin Tarantino described being "rattled" by the movie as a teenager, and picked it as one of his favorite horror movies. Home media Multiple versions of the film exist on DVD and VHS, in large part due to the fact that Argento removed twenty-six minutes (largely scenes between Nicolodi and Hemmings) from the film, footage that was never dubbed in English. For years, it was assumed that the film's American distributors were responsible for removing said scenes, but the recent Blu-ray release confirmed that Argento oversaw and approved the edits to the film. Eleven seconds of animal cruelty cuts made to the film by the BBFC in 1993 were waived when the film was re-submitted in 2010. Upon consideration, examiners concluded that the 'fighting' dogs were actually playing, and a letter sent from the production company stated that the lizard on a knife was a 'visual effect'. In 1999, Anchor Bay acquired the rights to release the film uncut on both DVD and VHS. Their version restored the missing footage but kept the American end credit scene (a freeze-frame shot of Hemmings looking down into a pool of blood). As there were no dubbed versions of the missing scenes, the scenes (and additional dialogue omitted in the dubbed version) were featured in their original Italian language. The DVD offered both English and Italian audio tracks as well. Blue Underground obtained the rights to the film in 2008 and released it as a standard DVD. Their Blu-ray release, released in 2011, contains the US version of the film (which is referred to as "The Director's Cut") and the original edit (referred to as "Uncut" and contains option to watch it in either language). Arrow Films, a distributor of the United Kingdom, acquired the rights to the film and released it on January 3, 2011. The 2-disc set was released uncut as part of the now out-of-print window slip cover sets which released a number of films by Argento and other directors; it contained several special features including interviews, a documentary, trailers, audio commentary, four cover artwork designs, an exclusive collector's booklet written by Alan Jones on the film, and a double-sided poster. Both the director's cut and the theatrical cut are available on the set with an English and Italian audio track, and English subtitles. On January 25, 2016, Arrow Films released Deep Red in a 3-disc Limited Edition set of 3000 copies. The edition is available in new 4K restoration, with new commissioned artwork exclusive from Arrow Films. The original version of the film, as well as US cut are available, with new special features including a soundtrack CD featuring 28 tracks, 6 lobby cards, double-sided poster, reversible sleeve, and a limited edition booklet written by Mikel J. Koven. Bonus features from the previous edition are also included. A standard version of the Limited Edition was released on May 30, 2016 in a single-disc set and contains only the director's cut/original version. Special features from the edition are available. On November 6, 2013, Australian distributor, Umbrella Entertainment made the film available with both the director's cut and the theatrical cut included. Soundtrack Argento originally contacted jazz pianist and composer Giorgio Gaslini to score the film; however, he was unhappy with Gaslini's output. After failing to get Pink Floyd to replace Gaslini, Argento turned back to Italy and found Goblin, a local progressive rock band. Their leader Claudio Simonetti impressed Argento by producing two compositions within just one night. Argento signed them immediately, and they ended up composing most of the film's musical score (three Gaslini compositions were retained in the final version). Subsequently, Goblin composed music for several other films by Dario Argento. The soundtrack was made available for the first time ever on vinyl after Waxwork Records released the complete score by Goblin on a triple LP. In addition to Goblin's music, the LP also included instrumental and alternate tracks by Gaslini. Legacy Two key sequences in this film influenced directors of later horror movies: the lead-up to the famous exploding head scene in David Cronenberg's Scanners is modeled after the parapsychology discussion at the beginning of Deep Red, and Rick Rosenthal's Halloween II contains a scalding water death inspired by the death of Giuliana Calandra's character Amanda Righetti here. Director James Wan has cited the works of Dario Argento as an influence for the Saw horror series, and Billy the Puppet, the avatar of the series' villain, is visually similar to the mechanical doll that menaces Giordani in Deep Red. The film's title, Profondo Rosso, is the name of a Rome horror memorabilia store owned and operated by Argento and Luigi Cozzi. Unproduced remake In 2010, George A. Romero was contacted by Claudio Argento to direct a 3D remake of Deep Red, which Claudio said would also involve Dario. Romero showed some interest in the film; however, after contacting Dario – who said he knew nothing about the remake – Romero declined Claudio's offer. Stage adaptation In 2007, Argento directed a musical theatre adaptation of Deep Red with music by Claudio Simonetti. The role of Marcus was played by Michel Altieri. Alternate versions The original Italian version is 126 minutes long. Most US versions remove 22 minutes' worth of footage, including the most graphic violence, all humorous scenes, almost all of the romantic scenes between David Hemmings and Daria Nicolodi, and part of the subplot regarding the house of the screaming child. The US video release by Anchor Bay Entertainment is mostly restored, reinstating gore shots and scenes with dialogue that were cut from the initial US release. It was likely that these scenes were cut before the English dub was prepared, so they now only exist with an Italian dub (English subtitles are provided for these scenes). In the original theatrical version, the end credits are displayed over a shot of Marcus' reflection in a pool of blood. The image is moving (blood drips into the pool, Hemmings' face changes expression, etc.) while the credits are displayed. Anchor Bay's release features the credits over a freeze-frame of the original shot. Other than this change, the Anchor Bay VHS/DVD is the full, uncut version of the film. The later DVD release from Blue Underground is the exact version mentioned above. Also, Blue Underground released an "Uncensored English Version" on DVD on 17 May 2011. This cut of the film runs no more than 105 minutes, with the gore from the original Italian version intact but the other cuts from the edited English version again excised. The film had no UK theatrical release. The 1993 Redemption video was cut by 11 seconds to remove a brief scene of two dogs fighting and shots of a live lizard impaled with a pin. The 2005 Platinum DVD issue was pre-cut (to exclude the shot of the lizard) and restored the dog sequence (as it was evident that they were playing rather than fighting). It was finally passed uncut for the 2010 Arrow DVD release. The full-length Italian version (with English subtitles and one small cut by UK censors) is available on video in the UK in pan and scan format from Redemption Films. The only known widescreen print of this version can be found in Australia on both SBS TV and its pay-TV channel World Movies, completely uncut. (Note that the widescreen laserdisc release is in English language and was cut by director Argento himself by about 12 minutes). Some releases of the film incorporate a still from the film, revealing the murderer. See also Profondo Rosso (store) References External links – 98 minute edited U.S. theatrical version (101 minutes with credits) in pan-and-scan format Commentary by DVD Talk critic Michael Mackenzie 1975 LGBT-related films 1970s horror thriller films 1975 films Films scored by Goblin (band) Films directed by Dario Argento Giallo films Italian LGBT-related films Italian horror thriller films 1970s Italian-language films Home invasions in film LGBT-related horror films Paranormal films Films with screenplays by Dario Argento Italian serial killer films Films set in country houses Films set in Turin Films shot in Turin Films shot in Rome 1970s Christmas horror films Italian exploitation films 1970s Italian films
4185496	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Characters%20of%20the%20Star%20Wars%3A%20Knights%20of%20the%20Old%20Republic%20series	Characters of the Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic series	This is a list of characters appearing in the video games Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic (2003) and Star Wars Knights of the Old Republic II: The Sith Lords (2004). The main and player character of the first game is Revan, and the main and player character of the second game is the Jedi Exile. Both can be either a human male or a human female. Various other characters join the player's party and become controllable, with a maximum of three characters at a time. Concept and creation Chris Avellone, the lead designer of The Sith Lords, has said that "a core part of what made KOTOR I so great was the story and your companions, and that was our intention in the sequel as well", and has also said that he thought that the characters and voice-acting were some of the key strengths of The Sith Lords, and said that they got a lot of help and support from LucasArts in the voice-acting and sound department. Avellone stated that in some cases, the characters turned out "better than we thought they would be". According to Avellone, while "there was some stuff we wanted to add", overall they "got almost everything we wanted in there". Avellone has said he has been surprised by the positive feedback of some of the characters. Player characters Revan The main protagonist and player character of the first game is Revan, an amnesiac Sith Lord who is reassigned a new identity as a member of the Republic army. Revan's true identity is not revealed until a predetermined point in the narrative where the player is confronted by the game's central antagonist Darth Malak for the first time. According to continuity established by supplementary material, as well as the massively multiplayer online role-playing game Star Wars: The Old Republic, in Star Wars Legends, Revan is male and follows the light-side path. Jedi Exile The Jedi Exile, also known simply as the Exile, is the main protagonist and player character of the second game. The player may choose the gender and decide what path to take. According to continuity established by Star Wars: The Old Republic and its associated supplementary material, in Star Wars Legends, the Jedi Exile is named Meetra Surik, who is female and aligned to the light-side of the Force. Other playable characters Recurring characters Canderous Ordo Canderous Ordo, voiced by John Cygan, is a Mandalorian who appears in both the first game and in The Sith Lords. Ordo is a veteran Mandalorian warrior who joins the player's party in Knights of the Old Republic. After the game's conclusion, he becomes "Mandalore the Preserver", leader of the Mandalorians. Mandalore pledges himself and his warriors to the service of the Jedi Exile in The Sith Lords. UGO Networks ranked Ordo among their list of top fifty Expanded Universe characters. T3-M4 T3-M4 is an astromech droid who appears in both games. It was constructed by a Twi'lek named Janice Nall of Taris for local crime lord, Davik Kang. The droid features code-breaking and computer "slicing" skills in addition to being able to mount armor and weapon upgrades. If the player attempts to talk to T3 it will simply communicate in a series of bleeps, similar to other astromech droids like R2-D2. HK-47 HK-47, voiced by Kristoffer Tabori, is an assassin droid owned by Revan, who appears in both of the games. In 2003 HK-47 won Computer Gaming World "NPC of the Year" award, and later won the category of "Original Game Character of the Year" in the 2004 Game Developers Choice Awards. Knights of the Old Republic characters Carth Onasi Carth Onasi, voiced by Raphael Sbarge, is a Republic soldier and pilot. During the Mandalorian wars, Carth served under Admiral Saul Karath, who would become his mentor and, later, object of revenge. He met Revan while the two were fleeing the Endar Spire, following a Sith attack on the ship. He is the second character to become a party member in the first game, after Trask Ulgo sacrifices himself to fend off the Sith apprentice Darth Bandon. It is later revealed that Carth had a family on Telos who were killed by the Sith: his son Dustil later turns up as a Sith convert and the player has the option of killing him or opening his eyes. He is a romance option for the female Revan. Carth can appear briefly in the sequel, The Sith Lords, via recorded audio and video messages. Mission Vao Mission Vao, voiced by Catherine Taber, appears in Knights of the Old Republic. She is a fourteen-year-old Twi'lek and the best friend of Zaalbar. Mission joins the player's party after encountering her in the Undercity on Taris. Zaalbar Zaalbar is a character from Knights of the Old Republic. He is a Wookiee who is friends with Mission Vao and joins the player's party, swearing a life-debt to the player for helping Mission rescue him from a group of Gammorrean slavers in the Undercity of Taris. Zaalbar is the brother to Chuundar, the leader of a tribe on their home planet Kashyyyk. When the player's party first lands on Kashyyyk, Zaalbar is referred to as "mad-claw". Through Zaalbar's and Chuundar's father, Freyyr, Revan learns why Zaalbar was banished from the tribe: Zaalbar learned that Chuundar was selling Wookiee slaves to Czerka Corporation, and in a fit of rage attacked him with his bare claws, breaking a major Wookiee taboo; this led Freyyr to side with Chuundar and thus Zaalbar was exiled. When Revan and Freyyr confront Chuundar, Zaalbar sides with Freyyr and Revan and in turn kills Chuundar, freeing the Wookiees and driving Czerka off the planet. A dark-side alternative has Revan kill Freyyr, allowing Czerka's slave trade on Kashyyyk to continue: a dark-sided Revan can also order Zaalbar to kill Mission in order to fulfill his life-debt - this may cause Zaalbar to turn against Revan as well. Bastila Shan Bastila Shan, voiced by Jennifer Hale, is a Jedi who defeated Revan prior to the beginning of Knights of the Old Republic. The first part of the game is spent searching for her after the Endar Spire is destroyed, and she joins the party upon her rescue. Darth Malak later captures her and seduces her to the dark side. Revan later confronts Bastila in a lightsaber duel and has the option of killing her or allowing her to live: a dark-side character makes her their apprentice, while a light-side character helps her redeem herself by helping the Republic fleet. Bastila is a romance option for a light-sided male player character. Juhani Juhani, voiced by Courtenay Taylor, is a Cathar padawan who incorrectly believed she killed her master. She turned to the dark side and tainted the grove on Dantooine where she lived. Depending on which path the conversation is steered in by the player, Revan may either fight (and kill) her, or redeem her, where she joins the party to discover the location of the Star Forge and returns to the Order as a Jedi Knight. Juhani is the first explicitly LGBTQ character in Star Wars media. Jolee Bindo Jolee Bindo, voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson, is a character in Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic. Jolee is an old hermit living in the Shadowlands on the forest floor of Kashyyyk and a former Jedi Padawan. Bindo helps Revan bypass shield generators that lead deeper into the Shadowlands to find the Star Map and remains with Revan's party. After the main character gains experience, Jolee tells the tale of how he was once a smuggler, and through this met his wife. Against the wishes of the Jedi Council, he trained her in the way of the Force. She was then seduced to the dark side by Exar Kun, upon failing to convince Jolee to join Exar Kun as well, she drew her lightsaber on him. Jolee won the fight, but he was unable to bring himself to kill her. She escaped and went on to kill many Jedi. Jolee expected to be punished harshly for his mistakes, but the Council said he had learned his lesson the hard way, and even considered promoting him to knighthood. Disappointed with the Jedi’s decision, Jolee left the Order and started wandering the galaxy before crash landing on Kashyyyk, where he lived for 20 years until he met Revan. Kimberley Wallace of Game Informer included Jolee Bindo in her list of best BioWare characters; she called him a "cranky old man who hacks the hell out of enemies is hard to top". According to Wallace, "he almost beats HK-47 for his power with sarcasm, as Jolee Bindo's self-ridicule is part of his charm", and claims that he will perhaps never live down his infamous line, "I did it all for the Wookiees!" The Sith Lords characters Kreia Kreia, voiced by Sara Kestelman, is the teacher and mentor to the Jedi Exile in The Sith Lords. Near the end of the game, she is revealed to have been Darth Traya, the Lord of Betrayal, all along. Her character received mixed reception since the game's publication, but is generally thought to be one of the most well developed backgrounds and characterizations in retrospective reviews. Atton Rand Atton Rand, voiced by Nicky Katt, is a character in The Sith Lords. Atton is a human pilot that the Exile meets on the asteroid mining station Peragus II, and is patterned after the iconic Star Wars character Han Solo. Atton can become a Jedi Sentinel once the player character accrues enough influence with him. Bao-Dur Bao-Dur, voiced by Roger G. Smith, is a character in Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic II: The Sith Lords. He is a Zabrak engineer from Iridonia, who fought under the command of the Jedi Exile during the Mandalorian Wars. Bao-Dur is the inventor of the Mass Shadow Generator that ended the battle on Malachor V by completely obliterating the Mandalorian Armada and inadvertently killing many Republic soldiers on his own side of the battle, leading to a great deal of guilt later in his life. The Exile, who did not know Bao-Dur on a personal level at the time, gave the command, which sent massive echoes in the Force throughout the galaxy. Bao-Dur is trainable as a Jedi Guardian. Visas Marr Visas Marr, voiced by Kelly Hu, appears in The Sith Lords as an apprentice of Darth Nihilus. She is a Miraluka from the planet of Katarr where all living things except for her were consumed by Darth Nihilus. While she is considered blind, she is able to see through the Force which allowed her to find the Jedi Exile. When she confronts the Exile, she loses and in turn becomes part of the Exile's party. Eventually the player confronts Nihilus with Visas, and needs to kill him. The player may choose to have Visas sacrifice herself to weaken Nihilus. Brian Menze designed the character, and drew on ninjas, the look of previous Sith Lords, and G.I. Joe character the Baroness in creating her concept art. As the character was mostly covered – only the lower half of her face is visible – Menze decided to make what was shown "as sexy as possible". Menze deviated from the usual black Sith Lords dressed in and instead added some color to soften her, based on the written description of the character. Menze noted that the character has since become a fan favorite and a popular choice for cosplay activities at fan conventions. Voice directors Will Beckman and Darragh O'Farrell wanted someone "special" and "maybe a little sexy" to voice the part. It was Hu's first role as a voice-actress, and she has said she enjoyed the role. Brianna Brianna, voiced by Grey DeLisle, is the "Last Handmaiden" on a Jedi Academy located on Telos IV in Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic II: The Sith Lords. She initially does not reveal her name to the Exile; until she mentions her name late in the game, she is referred to as the Handmaiden. Brianna joins the party after leaving Telos on the Ebon Hawk if the player's character is male. Her training before joining the Exile's party makes her a skilled close quarter combatant and, after fulfilling certain combat and conversation requirements, she can be trained to become a Jedi Guardian or a Dark Jedi Guardian. It is revealed by Kreia that Brianna takes up Atris' role as the historian of the Jedi. Mical Mical, also known as the Disciple, is a character in The Sith Lords voiced by Greg Ellis. He is a soldier and force-adept that was refused for training because of the Mandalorian Wars. He eventually tells the player character that he wishes the player to be his master. He is a playable character that joins the player's party on Dantooine if your character is female. The Disciple can be influenced by light side acts and can be trained as a Jedi Consular. Mira Mira, voiced by Emily Berry, appears in The Sith Lords. Mira lost her family during the Mandalorian Wars. By the end of the wars, the Galactic Republic was flooding with refugees, and many of them, including Mira, ended up in the refugee sector of Nar Shaddaa. To survive in the hostile environment, she became a bounty hunter with the sole purpose of earning credits. A rival bounty hunter, the Wookiee Hanharr, was employed to hunt her by an unknown person. Mira will join player characters who are oriented towards light-sided or neutral alignments, and can become a Jedi Sentinel. Menze had a "shaggy-like character from the Hanna-Barbera cartoon Speed Buggy" as a reference for Mira. Her visual design was based on the appearances of women Menze described as the "gothic girl gamer" who attend shows or fan conventions in the early 2000’s, and whose stylistic choices included dyed hair, strapped platform leather boots and Hello Kitty backpacks, as he had hoped to tap into a likeness that these fans would respond to. Hanharr Hanharr is a Wookiee bounty hunter in The Sith Lords, and can play different roles within the game, depending on the alignment of the player character. Hanharr is encountered on the planet Nar Shaddaa, as is Mira, another bounty hunter. One of these will join the party of the Jedi Exile, as is determined by the personality of the player character. Light-side and neutral players are joined by Mira, dark-side players are joined by Hanharr. G0-T0 G0-T0, voiced by Daran Norris, is a droid who appears in The Sith Lords. Built to oversee and aid in the planetary reconstruction of the planet Telos, its programming included two directives: produce options to rebuild the Republic and follow all the laws of the Republic. Sadly, all options G0-T0 could think of to assist the Republic would involve breaking a Republic law. Following this, the droid 'broke'; it overrode the second directive, and set up The Exchange, the greatest smuggling organization in the galaxy. Eventually the droid would be destroyed, but not before the organization had helped countless systems achieve prosperity. Major antagonists Darth Malak Darth Malak, voiced by Rafael Ferrer, is the old Sith apprentice of Revan and the main antagonist of the first game. As Jedi, Malak and Revan disobeyed the Jedi Council and helped the Republic defend against the Mandalorians. During the war, Malak was captured by them for a time and experimented upon, which caused his baldness. It was also during the Mandalorian Wars that he got the name "Malak", his birth name being "Alek". He first started calling himself Malak to escape the arrest warrant issued by the Jedi Council, and he later decided to keep this name in protest until the war is over. At the end of the Mandalorian Wars, however, both Revan and Malak fell to the dark side and turned against the Republic, although Malak viewed Revan as too soft, which led to a duel that ended with Revan cutting off his lower jaw. Malak later betrays Revan when he is facing Jedi and usurps the title of Dark Lord of the Sith. But Revan survives the attack, at the cost of his memory. Under Malak's leadership, the Sith devastate planets Taris and Dantooine, while Revan regains his power in the search for the ancient space factory The Star Forge where he defeats Malak in the game's final battle. GamePro's Hugh Sterbakov ranked Darth Malak as 22nd most diabolical videogame villain of all time, saying he was "one of, if not the coolest expanded universe Star Wars character yet". UGO Networks put the character as their 19th top Star Wars Expanded Universe character. On GameSpot's "All-Time Greatest Villain" competition in 2011, Darth Malak managed to get into the top sixteen. GameDaily's Robert Workman put Darth Malak as their 16th top evil mastermind of all time. Workman also listed Malak as one of his favourite Star Wars video game characters. Darth Sion Darth Sion, voiced by Louis Mellis, is an antagonist in The Sith Lords. Darth Traya trained both Sion and Nihilus, who in turn betrayed her. He holds his ravaged, necrotic body together by drawing on his constant pain using the dark side of the Force, making himself virtually unkillable. The player's character Jedi Exile eventually defeats Sion several times, and convinces him to end his own miserable existence by letting go of the Force. Chris Avellone, lead designer of The Sith Lords, was inspired to create Sion by Tessai's death scene in Ninja Scroll. In contrast to other characters, Sion's design took much longer to hone down. Brian Menze, creator of the concept art and in-game model, had difficulty finding a design that Avellone was satisfied with, and the two had many conversations on how he should appear. It was planned that Sion would have small parts of him orbiting around him. Engine troubles, however, made that difficult, ultimately resulting in a character looking far more "human". Voice directors Will Beckman and Darragh O'Farrell originally sought to hire someone with an English accent, rather than the Scottish one found in the game. Problems arose due to most English actors lacking deep voices, though afterwards they wished to avoid making Sion "too Scottish", wishing to avoid creating a caricature to American ears. They called Sion's voice one of their favorites in The Sith Lords. Darth Nihilus Darth Nihilus appears in Knights of the Old Republic II - The Sith Lords as one of the titular Sith Lords. He is known as the Lord of Hunger, capable of draining the life force out of any living thing, and intends to consume as much life in the galaxy as possible. He is depicted as a wraith-like being who speaks in unintelligible rasps and feasts on the Force like a parasite. Nihilus bound his consciousness into his robes and mask in order to preserve his physical form. Prior to the game's events, Darth Sion, Darth Nihilus and Darth Traya formed a short-lived Triumvirate as leaders of the resurgent Sith based on Malachor V, though Traya was later cast out and driven into exile. Nihilus then uses the might of the Sith Armada not to conquer planets, but to contain them so that he could "feed" off the Force energy of each planet's lifeforms, wiping planets of life. Nihilus is defeated in the game after being drawn out and tricked into launching an attack on Telos, believing it to harbour the last of the Jedi. The Exile, together with Canderous Ordo and Nihilus' former associate Visas Marr confront the Sith Lord on his ship, and Nihilus is slain either after Visas sacrifices herself due to their shared link in the Force, or after his attempt to feast on the Exile's connection to the Force backfires and weakens him. Nihilus appears in the "Unseen, Unheard" story in the final issue of Star Wars Tales, which recounts Nihilus using his power to decimate all life on the Miraluka colony world of Katarr, including the vast majority of the Jedi Order's leadership. Visas Marr is shown as the sole survivor of the catastrophic event, which impressed Nihilus and moved him to claim her as his apprentice and slave. Nihilus is mentioned in a few other stories in the original Star Wars Expanded Universe, and makes a short appearance in Star Wars: Legacy. The character's distinctive mask is also made available as a loot item for Star Wars: The Old Republic if the Crime Lord's Cartel Pack DLC is installed. Nihilus is introduced to the Galaxy of Heroes mobile game as a playable character in a 2017 update. As the “face” of the marketing for The Sith Lords, the character has been featured prominently in promotional material and subject to merchandise, including several action figures. Nihilus was written so players would identify him less as a "human" and more a "force of nature". Avellone described him as without personality beyond "just a feeling of hunger" due to having succumbed so far to the dark side. Avellone felt beating such a force seemed "more heroic" or "far more epic" than taking on an individual person. The character's visual was quick to define; Eurogamer describes him as "a concept created and greenlit in all of 15 minutes". Character modeller and lead concept artist Brian Menze was asked to create a Sith Lord with No-Face from Hayao Miyazaki's Spirited Away (2001) as a reference; Avellone felt that the final design, which employs a lot of voluminous black, was closer to the Studio Ghibli character than was intended. One idea behind Nihilus's design was that there should be nothing behind the mask – representative of him being a void. A "pet peeve" of Avellone's is promotional art of Nihilus with a visible nose, which contradicted his concept of a character who lack facial features; Menze had drawn a nosed Nihilus for a magazine cover which had become widely circulated and Avellone had "let it go", to Menze's now regret. Nihilus is considered to be one of the best remembered aspects of The Sith Lords's story. IGN's Jesse Schedeen singled out his obliteration of Visas' homeworld as the Sith Lord's "defining moment of villainy". Chris Freiberg from Den of Geek ranked the introduction of Darth Nihilus as one of the most memorable moments in Star Wars video game history. Glixel listed him as one of twenty "awesome" Star Wars characters originating in video games, and considered him "terrifying" and "more of a malevolent ghost than a typical self-serving Sith". Nihilus' visual design proved to be very popular with Star Wars fandom. Revan aside, Eurogamer's Robert Purchese described The Sith Lords villains as "far more memorable" than those of the first game, and described Nihilus as the most recognisable of the trio. Schedeen remarked that "Nihilus probably wins the award for coolest-looking Star Wars villain ever". The Citizen's Lake Life editor David Wilcox opined that Darth Nihilus is the best designed character outside of the Star Wars saga's "main players". The character has been frequently referenced in fan art, cosplay and other derivative works since his appearance in The Sith Lords. The character was also featured on The Howard Stern Show for several weeks. Nihilus' popularity has led to discussions about the supposed references to the character in canon Star Wars works, such as the identity of an ancient Sith statue in Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker, as well as the origins of the Nihil, a faction set to be the overarching antagonists of the upcoming Star Wars: The High Republic subseries. Obsidian Entertainment acknowledged their creation of Darth Nihilus and the character's popularity as a notable contribution to the Star Wars license. Menze noted in retrospect that co-creating Darth Nihilus with Avellone is a career highlight for him, and acknowledged that the character "has gone on to be bigger than the game we created". Atris Atris, voiced by Elizabeth Rider, is a former member of the Jedi Council and one of the Jedi largely responsible for banishing the Jedi Exile from the Jedi Order. Prior to the events of The Sith Lords, Atris had an idealistic view of the Jedi that bordered on fanaticism, believing that they were the perfect guardians of the galaxy and, as a result, did not tolerate any criticism directed towards them. However, Atris' beliefs were challenged during the events of the Mandalorian War and the war against Darth Malak in the first game. This drove her to betraying the Jedi by leaking the location of their hidden conclave, resulting in them being driven to near-extinction by Darth Nihilus. Atris then planned to rebuild the Jedi Order under her own dogmatic doctrine, and started an unethical campaign against the Sith. This included leaking information of the Jedi Exile's return to the rest of the galaxy, setting off the events of The Sith Lords. Other characters Trask Ulgo was a Republic soldier who appears in the first game aboard the Republic battleship Endar Spire before it is shot down over Taris by Malak's forces at the beginning of the game. He serves as a "tutorial" companion and is killed holding off Darth Bandon- allowing the player to escape. Once the player meets Darth Bandon again, they may choose a dialogue option to avenge Ulgo. Vrook Lamar was a Jedi Master who was on the Jedi Council that decided to exile the Jedi Exile. Vrook is one of the masters that helps retrain Revan in the first game. In the second, the Exile finds Vrook on Dantooine, where he is later killed by Kreia (if he has not already been killed by the player following the dark side path). Kavar was a Jedi Master who was on the Jedi Council that decided to exile the Jedi Exile. In the second game, he is in exile on Onderon. He goes to meet with the other Jedi Masters on Dantooine, where he is killed by Kreia (if he has not already been killed by the player following the dark side path). Zez-Kai Ell was a Jedi Master who was on the Jedi Council that decided to exile the Jedi Exile. In the second game, he is in exile on Nar Shadaa. He goes to meet with the other Jedi Masters on Dantooine, where he is killed by Kreia (if he has not already been killed by the player following the dark side path). Darth Bandon was a Sith apprentice of Malak who attacked the player, and was defeated. He appears in the first game after Calo Nord fails to slay Revan. Calo Nord was a bounty hunter in the first game. Nord was originally a slave, until he murdered his captors and escaped when he was sixteen years old. He is a notorious bounty hunter with a legendary fast draw who bears a grudge against Revan for escaping him, and can be fought on any of the Star Map worlds in the first game. Zax the Hutt was a Hutt found on Taris in the video game Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic. Players go to him to obtain bounties. Ajuur the Hutt was a Hutt who worked in the Upper City cantina who ran the duelling ring in KOTOR I. He can arrange the player's character to fight the Mandalorian death-match champion Bendak Starkiller, which can be redeemed for a bounty to Zax. Davik Kang was the Exchange leader of Taris, and used elite mercenaries such as Canderous Ordo and Calo Nord to carry out his dirty work. He was killed in the orbital bombardment of Taris, from which point the player has to make their escape from the planet in his ship, the Ebon Hawk. He appeared in the first game. Saul Karath was Carth Onasi's old mentor who betrayed him to join the Sith. He appeared in the first game where he was killed by Revan onboard the Leviathan. He was voiced by Robin Sachs. Queen Talia is a descendant of the ancient Sith Lord Freedon Nadd and the ruler of Onderon who is at odds with her cousin Vaklu when the Exile comes to the planet. She appeared in the second game. Azkul is a battle-scarred mercenary who served under Malak and later settled on Dantooine, attempting to destroy the local community of Khoonda but was thwarted by the Jedi Exile. He appeared in the second game. General Vaklu is the power-crazed cousin of Queen Talia who seeks to overthrow his young cousin and take the royal throne. Chuundar is a Wookiee character in Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic. Zaalbar was exiled for attacking Chuundar, his brother, with his claws after discovering his brother was selling fellow Wookiees into slavery. Chuundar then later took over his tribe and exiled his own father, the former Wookiee chieftain, Freyrr. Once the player comes with Zaalbar to Kashyyyk in search of a Star Map, Chuundar imprisons Zaalbar and tells Revan that he must kill their father, Freyrr, in the Shadowlands to free the Wookiee. If Revan chooses to kill Freyrr, the player leaves with the gratitude of Chuundar. Chuundar continues to enslave Wookiees and the player can no longer return to the Wookiee village. If Revan spares Freyyr, he kills Chuundar and the slavers, frees the Wookiees, frees Zaalbar, and leaves with the gratitude of Freyrr, able to return to the village on Kashyyyk at any time, although the player is unable to trade on Kashyyk any longer after Freyyr leads a Wookiee rebellion that expels the slavers from the planet. B4-D4: An administrative protocol droid that works for Czerka on Telos in the Outer Rim. It is possible for the player to assume control of B4-D4 if the Exile helps the Ithorians with their restoration project. is a Mandalorian Neo-Crusader who was famous for his proficiency in the Taris duelling ring. Refusing to leave an opponent alive, Bendak retired from the ring after the Tarisian government outlawed death matches some ten years earlier. During the Jedi Civil War, he remained on Taris, watching matches in the cantina and hoping for the day he could return to the arena for another death match with a worthy opponent. In a dark side option, the player can duel Bendak in a death match after defeating the reigning Taris duelling champion, Twitch. The player will receive credits from Ajuur for winning the illegal death match and receive Bendak's blaster pistol, and will receive the bounty fee from Zax as well. Reception The characters have overall been well-received, with the first Knights of the Old Republic winning the Academy of Interactive Art's "Outstanding Achievement in Character and Story Development", and both Kreia and HK-47 receiving other awards. The characters of the Knights Of The Old Republic series have remained highly popular, often being cited as some of the best characters in both the Star Wars franchise and video games in general by both critics and fans. IGN ranked several characters from the series in their list of Top 100 Star Wars Characters: Darth Revan, Darth Malak, HK-47, Canderous Ordo, Darth Nihilus, Bastila Shan, Darth Sion, and Darth Traya placed 12th, 28th, 33rd, 52nd, 56th, 62nd, 73rd and 81st respectively. Darth Revan and Darth Malak jointly ranked fifth place in a Top 15 list of Star Wars villains by IGN's Jesse Schedeen, who remarked that "[v]isually, both Jedi are immediately memorable". The members of the Sith Triumvirate, Darth Nihilus, Darth Sion and Darth Traya, came second place in a modified supplementary list of the best Star Wars villains based on reader requests for characters left out of the original Top 15 list published by IGN. In a 2020 fan poll organized by IGN for best Star Wars characters of all time, Revan, Darth Malak and Bastila Shan placed 30th, 34th and 69th place out of 200 characters. Several characters from the series dominated GameSpot's 2019 list of "15 Great Star Wars Characters Who Came From Video Games". References Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic Knights of the Old Republic Characters
4185711	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model%20warship%20combat	Model warship combat	Model warship combat is an international club activity, in which participants construct radio-controlled scale models of actual warships, most commonly those built by various nations prior to 1946, such as the , , or the . The models are armed with pneumatic cannons, and fight against one another on ponds and lakes. Model warship combat is sometimes considered to be a form of Naval Wargaming, but can also be considered a water-based version of Robot Combat, since much of the internal systems and concepts are the same as radio control electronics, and in some cases possess similar pneumatic systems. The sport is predominantly divided into 'Big Gun' and 'Fast Gun' (or 'Small Gun') clubs. Both 'Big Gun' and 'Fast Gun' formats host annual national/international inter-club events. There is one major 'Fast Gun' club, the International Radio Control Warship Combat Club (IRCWCC). As of January 2015, the other major club, Model Warship Combat, Incorporated (MWCI) has been dissolved, and its members are being incorporated into IRCWCC. IRCWCC hosts a yearly week-long national event, called "Nats", where the fleets, divided up by historical alliances, (Allied and Axis), wage war against each other. Whichever team has the most points at the end of the week, wins that year's Nationals. 'Big Gun' clubs have the annual event known as North American Big Gun Open (NABGO). Since 2008 - the annual Big Gun Robotic Warship Combat open invitational at California Maker Faire. The Australian Battle Group (AUSBG) has two annual National Battles, held in January and June. History Radio controlled warship combat was invented by a small group of men living in Texas (USA) in the late 1970s. The founding members are Stan Watkins, D.W. Fluegel, and Jeff Poindexter. These men "toyed" with the idea of using radio controlled ships and equipping them with some kind of cannon so that they could then engage in combat, eventually developing the sport. In 1977, Stan Watkins created the "Mark I" cannon using a variety of plumbing parts. In this early system, freon was used as a propelling agent, resulting in engagements with little if any damage. After some time and further improvements, the group was able to "sink" an opponent in combat by shooting steel balls through balsa wood hulls. Organized groups formed very quickly after this achievement, with the formation of the IRCWCC, Big Gun groups, and the NASWCA in 1982. The Mark I cannon was made out of a set of valves, a hose, and a freon tank. Iron pipe fittings were affixed to the freon 22 tank, which provided the pressure that powered the gun. Small water valves were used to fill the tank, and to supply pressure to an O-ring spool valve. When the gun was not in the fire position, the O-ring separated the pressure source from the magazine hose; however, when the radio control unit was activated the servo moved the spool valve into position, allowing freon to flow from the pressurized tank to the magazine hose. As the magazine was pressurized, BBs flowed into the restrictor tube until the pressure built high enough to force the BBs through the restrictor and out of the barrel. The exit velocity of the BBs was high enough to punch holes in the model ship’s 1/32 inch balsa wood skin. However, this linear magazine and barrel assembly was too bulky to be fit to a small model ship’s gun turret. To improve scale appearance, a brass elbow fitting was added to reduce the above deck size of the gun. This enabled the magazine to exit the deck vertically, with the BBs running into the base leg of the elbow before entering the restrictor. This led to the development of the new Mk II breach/barrel assembly. The first Mk II was installed on Stan Watkins' model of the USS Arizona (l/144 scale). The BBs (about 100) were loaded into a clear hose which, when pressurised, would feed the BBs into a smaller clear plastic tubing behind the barrel brass tubing. The pressure would build until the force pushed the BBs through the restrictor tubing and out the barrel. The force of this design had adequate power to penetrate the 1/32 balsa hull skin. The design of the restrictor caused a number of BBs to “spurt” out each time the pressure was great enough, however to have sufficient pressure to get more than one spurt, the warship combatant had to rapidly close the spool valve after the start of the spurt. This was made possible as the freon feed hoses were very thin, and had low flow. After several decades of technological advances, the hobby has improved dramatically in both reliability and playability. Many different groups having formed, fighting scale model warships ranging from the reasonably rare 1:48 scale to the most common 1:144 scale, with several different and regional variations on the rules used. Design conventions and model construction Extensive design conventions exist to provide that the fighting effectiveness under various conditions remain proportional to the prototype vessels. These conventions also dictate safety features as well as mandating design features to allow for recovery of defeated vessels. The model warships are fully functional, with small electric motors or servo-operated sails for propulsion, servo-operated steering systems, and armaments consisting of self-reloading pneumatic cannons. The models cannot be purchased, unlike many scale models, and instead must be built from scratch. There are, however, several suppliers that sell many of the necessary parts for construction, such as Strike Models and Battlers Connection. Mechanical systems While many models use a combination of switches and/or relays physically actuated by servos to control the propulsion system, most newer models now use either Electronic Speed Control units or solid-state switching boards, such as those found in Robot combat, greatly reducing the complexity of the wiring of the propulsion system. Propulsion is provided by electric motors coupled to shafts passing through stuffing tubes driving semi-scale propellers. All active mechanical systems are required to be operated via electrical or pneumatic means. Any and all mechanisms relying upon chemical combustion which could contaminate the water with fuels, oils, or other chemicals are banned. Weapons systems The cannons use steel balls ranging from .177" to .25" in diameter as projectiles, typically propelled by CO2 or compressed air. As of 2009, a small number of smaller "Big Gun" ships are equipped with cannons powered by compression springs. In Big Gun combat, club rules usually include provisions for the arming of torpedoes, usually represented by a fixed cannon firing 0.25" diameter projectiles. Although individuals have attempted to construct self-propelled 0.25" diameter torpedoes, their use has yet to be formally documented or demonstrated. Additionally, vendors have demonstrated working prototypes of weapons control systems suitable for Big Gun combat that would enable multiple turrets on a single vessel to be coordinated as a single weapons battery, allowing multiple weapons to simultaneously target a single vessel. All Pyrotechnics are specifically banned from use to protect the safety of people and animals, in addition to preventing environmental damage. Cannon types Arizona Cannon/Single Barrel Gun System - easy to manufacture cannon named after one of the first model ships in which it was successfully implemented Ball-bearing interrupter - one or two steel balls in-line with the gas supply line interrupts the feed of ammunition into the breech, ensuring that only one projectile is fired at a time JC White Rotating Cannon - first widely successful multi-barrel rotating turret JC White Torpedo cannon - similar to the rotating cannon without the rotating magazine on top Indiana Cannon - a refinement of the JC White Rotating Cannon so named due to the US State in which it was first manufactured. Evolution of the JC White design into the Indiana Cannon marked the point at which the design encountered widespread adoption in the Big Gun format. Jam elbow - Negative pressure/Quick Exhaust Valve - Typically uses a Clippard Exhaust Valve in its construction and relies upon a discharge of pressure from a pneumatic control circuit to actuate the cannon. O-ring breech - Piston interrupter - a "piston" in-line with the gas supply line interrupts the feed of ammunition into the breech, ensuring that only one projectile is fired at a time Sliding breech - Spring-loaded breech - Spring-fired/Spring-powered cannon - instead of directly utilizing exclusively compressed gas to impart kinetic energy to the projectile, a spring affixed to a piston to compress gas in a chamber or a spring directly acting on the projectile is used. Spurt cannon - a spurt cannon is a type of fast gun cannon that lacks a mechanism to interrupt feeding of steel balls into the breech. Subsequently, it will continuously fire until either the supply of ammunition or compressed gas is depleted. Cannon configuration Depressing - due to concerns for safety and the goal of inflicting damage to an opposing ship at or below the waterline, cannon can be configured to incorporate negative elevation with an adjustable mechanism Fixed - Fixed cannon cannot be trained, requiring the captain to maneuver the ship to bring them to bear on a target instead. Rotating - To enable a ship to bring the maximum possible firepower to bear on a given target, cannon can be equipped with a mechanism to facilitate rotation if the corresponding cannon on the real ship were so equipped. Additionally, cannon rotation permit a ship to continue to fire upon a target while maneuvering, potentially increasing the number of successful hits within a given period of time. While uncommon in Fast Gun due to a combination of complexity and limited tactical benefit, cannon rotation is common in the Big Gun format. Ammunition magazine configuration Straight-magazine — Steel ball ammunition is housed in a relatively straight length of rigid or flexible tubing and can be gravity or force-fed into the cannon breech. Coil-magazine - Ammunition is housed in tubing as with the straight-magazine configuration; however, the magazine tubing is tightly coiled, sometimes around the cannon riser and/or valve so as to reduce the longitudinal volume required for the cannon. Ammunition can be gravity or force-fed into the cannon breech. Canister-magazine - In a canister-magazine configuration, ammunition is housed within a cylindrical chamber integrated into the cannon body. Ammunition is typically gravity-fed into the cannon breech. Structure While some early vessels were built in 1/150 scale, scales have become standardized with the most common construction scale of 1:144, although 1:96, 1:72 and 1:48 scale modeling groups also do exist. The majority of hulls are constructed from either fiberglass (with penetration windows cut into it), or scratch built with wood ribs. The exteriors of the ship's hulls are sheeted balsa wood, which allows the relatively low velocity cannon projectiles to penetrate them. The penetration is intended to let in water, with the model sinking if the onboard bilge pumps cannot compensate for the rate at which water enters the hull. Superstructures are often constructed with a combination of lightweight wood, plastic sheets, thermoset plastic resins, and corrosion-resistant metals. Smaller vessels such as light cruisers and destroyers often incorporate a less-durable but lighter superstructure in order to maximize the displacement available for weapons systems. After combat, the models typically escape real damage other than that to the balsa skin, and can typically be patched and turned around in 15–30 minutes. Combat formats Campaign Instead of a single battle, multiple battles or sorties are combined to form a campaign of combat events, sometimes with a preceding battle dictating the available of rearming opportunities afforded to a team in the following battle. A campaign can also consist of multiple objective-oriented battles, or team free-for-all battles. Free-for-all Typically held in sessions divided by vessel combat units or combat value, during a free-for-all each captain operates his or her vessel to sink or damage as many of the other vessels on the water as possible while minimizing the damage incurred. It is often played in a "last-man-standing" format where the winning vessel is identified simply as the last to sink or be disabled. Objective Objective format combat is typically executed in the form of a scenario, requiring each team to accomplish specific objectives to earn points and/or win the scenario. Such combat may involve sides of asymmetrical strength, such as when attempting to simulate a recreation of a historic battle. Team free-for-all One of the most common combat format across the different model warship clubs, team free-for-all involves the division of players present into two teams that are equal based upon a combat strength rubric (i.e. units in Fast Gun or a combination of displacement tonnage and cannon count in Big Gun), which then sortie against each other in accordance with the club's rules and scoring system. Club formats Big Gun Unlike Fast Gun clubs, Big Gun clubs operate based upon a loose confederation, with each club reserving the ability to establish and maintain its own rules, provided that they coincide with the spirit of Big Gun Model Warship Combat. With versions in 1/48, 1/72, 1/96, and 1/144 scale, Big Gun Model Warship combat clubs have provisions for cannon caliber and armor thickness to be scaling according to what existed on the prototype vessel. Big Gun Model Warships allow weapons to be installed in rotating turrets as if they were mounted on the historical vessel. Damage Control is accomplished via a centrifugal bilge pump capable pumping a regulated volume of water out of the hull. The volume allowed is based on the prototype vessel's displacement. Typically, the flow rate varies from 30 gallons per hour (GPH) for the smallest ships to 90GPH for the largest ships. Big Gun clubs are largely descended from the now defunct "North American Warship Combat Association" (NASWCA) dating back to late 1981/early 1982. Fast/Small Gun Principally known as Fast Gun by its members due to few restrictions on rate of fire, this format is sometimes also identified as Small Gun because of its exclusive use of .177" (BB) caliber guns. About 80% of active clubs are of the fast gun variety, in which all ships are built in 1/144 scale and use .177" caliber guns, which in most cases are installed in fixed mounts but may rotate depending upon ship class. Additionally, all ships are fitted with a standardized 1/32" thick balsa wood 'Armor' to yield an easily penetrable hull. Damage control is accomplished through the use of centrifugal bilge pumps fitted with either a 1/8" or 1/16" diameter flow restrictor. Clubs that follow this format include the International Radio-Controlled Warship Combat Club (IRCWCC) and Model Warship Combat, Incorporated (MWCI). A subset or adaptation of small gun is known as Treaty Combat. Treaty Combat, abbreviated simply as Treaty, incorporates uniform caliber weapons, armor, and combat units in a way similar to that defined in IRCWCC or MWCI rules; however, speeds and pump capacities are limited based upon the prototype vessel and displacement, respectively. Thus, Treaty Combat incorporates some of the reduced-cost aspects of the Fast Gun format with some of the scaled characteristics of Big Gun. Notes External links RCWarships.org - Informational website dating back from 1995 and still going strong General, but primarily Big Gun related R/C Warship Combat Community Forum Supporting All Formats of model warship combat. IRCWCC Main Site Fast Gun MWC official site Fast Gun North Texas Battle Group site 1/144 Big Gun Australian Battle Group site 1/144 Big Gun Western Warship Combat Club site 1/144 Big Gun Chesapeake Battle Group Group site 1/144 Big Gun Battlestations! 1/96 Big Gun Mid-Atlantic Battle Group site 1/144 Big Gun Queen's Own Scale Model Warship Club 1/48, 1/72 Big Gun Robotic Warship Combat at Maker Faire 1/144 Big Gun Washington Cascade Column Seattle Area 1/144 Fast-Gun https://web.archive.org/web/20110901234547/http://washingtontreatycombat.webs.com/index.htm http://www.combatenaval.com.ar Live-action battle gaming ja:船舶模型#海戦競技
4186046	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier%20mass%20balance	Glacier mass balance	Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance of which surface mass balance (SMB), the difference between accumulation and ablation (sublimation and melting). Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall, causing changes in the surface mass balance. Changes in mass balance control a glacier's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier. From 1980 to 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is −16 m. This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances. A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat, while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance. Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier. Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones, the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation, thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium. However, if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative, it is in disequilibrium with the local climate. Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate. The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier. For example, Easton Glacier (pictured below) will likely shrink to half its size, but at a slowing rate of reduction, and stabilize at that size, despite the warmer temperature, over a few decades. However, the Grinnell Glacier (pictured below) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears. The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered, while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare, melting and has thinned. Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate. In the case of positive mass balance, the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area, resulting in more melting. If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance. If a glacier is near a large body of water, especially an ocean, the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium. Definitions Accumulation The different processes by which a glacier can gain mass are collectively known as accumulation. Snowfall is the most obvious form of accumulation. Avalanches, particularly in steep mountain environments, can also add mass to a glacier. Other methods include deposition of wind-blown snow; the freezing of liquid water, including rainwater and meltwater; deposition of frost in various forms; and the expansion of a floating area of ice by the freezing of additional ice to it. Snowfall is the predominant form of accumulation overall, but in specific situations other processes may be more important; for example, avalanches can be much more important than snowfall in small cirque basins. Accumulation can be measured at a single point on the glacier, or for any area of the glacier. The units of accumulation are meters: 1 meter accumulation means that the additional mass of ice for that area, if turned to water, would increase the depth of the glacier by 1 meter. Ablation Ablation is the reverse of accumulation: it includes all the processes by which a glacier can lose mass. The main ablation process for most glaciers that are entirely land-based is melting; the heat that causes melting can come from sunlight, or ambient air, or from rain falling on the glacier, or from geothermal heat below the glacier bed. Sublimation of ice to vapor is an important ablation mechanism for glaciers in arid environments, high altitudes, and very cold environments, and can account for all the surface ice loss in some cases, such as the Taylor Glacier in the Transantarctic Mountains. Sublimation consumes a great deal of energy, compared to melting, so high levels of sublimation have the effect of reducing overall ablation. Snow can also be eroded from glaciers by wind, and avalanches can remove snow and ice; these can be important in some glaciers. Calving, in which ice detaches from the snout of a glacier that terminates in water, forming icebergs, is a significant form of ablation for many glaciers. As with accumulation, ablation can be measured at a single point on the glacier, or for any area of the glacier, and the units are meters. Rates, mass flux, and balance year Glaciers typically accumulate mass during part of the year, and lose mass the rest of the year; these are the "accumulation season" and "ablation season" respectively. This definition means that the accumulation rate is greater than the ablation rate during the accumulation season, and during the ablation season the reverse is true. A "balance year" is defined as the time between two consecutive minima in the glaciers mass—that is, from the start of one accumulation season through to the start of the next. The snow surface at these minima, where snow begins to accumulate again at the start of each accumulation season, is identifiable in the stratigraphy of the snow, so using balance years to measure glacier mass balance is known as the stratigraphic method. The alternative is to use a fixed calendar date, but this requires a field visit to the glacier each year on that date, and so it is not always possible to strictly adhere to the exact dates for the fixed year method. Mass balance The mass balance of a glacier is the net change in its mass over a balance year or fixed year. If accumulation exceeds ablation for a given year, the mass balance is positive; if the reverse is true, the mass balance is negative. These terms can be applied to a particular point on the glacier to give the "specific mass balance" for that point; or to the entire glacier or any smaller area. For many glaciers, accumulation is concentrated in winter, and ablation in the summer; these are referred to as "winter-accumulation" glaciers. For some glaciers, the local climate leads to accumulation and ablation both occurring in the same season. These are known as "summer-accumulation" glaciers; examples are found in the Himalayas and Tibet. The layers that make winter-accumulation glaciers easy to monitor via the stratigraphic method are not usable, so fixed date monitoring is preferable. Equilibrium line For winter-accumulation glaciers, the specific mass balance is usually positive for the upper part of the glacier—in other words, the accumulation area of the glacier is the upper part of its surface. The line dividing the accumulation area from the ablation area—the lower part of the glacier—is called the equilibrium line; it is the line at which the specific net balance is zero. The altitude of the equilibrium line, abbreviated as ELA, is a key indicator of the health of the glacier; and since the ELA is usually easier to measure than the overall mass balance of the glacier it is often taken as a proxy for the mass balance. Symbols The most frequently used standard variables in mass-balance research are: a – ablation c – accumulation b – mass balance (c + a) ρ – density h – glacier thickness S – area V – volume AAR – accumulation-area ratio ELA – equilibrium-line altitude By default, a term in lower case refers to the value at a specific point on the glacier's surface; a term in upper case refers to the value across the entire glacier. Measurement methods Mass balance To determine mass balance in the accumulation zone, snowpack depth is measured using probing, snowpits or crevasse stratigraphy. Crevasse stratigraphy makes use of annual layers revealed on the wall of a crevasse. Akin to tree rings, these layers are due to summer dust deposition and other seasonal effects. The advantage of crevasse stratigraphy is that it provides a two-dimensional measurement of the snowpack layer, not a point measurement. It is also usable in depths where probing or snowpits are not feasible. In temperate glaciers, the insertion resistance of a probe increases abruptly when its tip reaches ice that was formed the previous year. The probe depth is a measure of the net accumulation above that layer. Snowpits dug through the past winters residual snowpack are used to determine the snowpack depth and density. The snowpack's mass balance is the product of density and depth. Regardless of depth measurement technique the observed depth is multiplied by the snowpack density to determine the accumulation in water equivalent. It is necessary to measure the density in the spring as snowpack density varies. Measurement of snowpack density completed at the end of the ablation season yield consistent values for a particular area on temperate alpine glaciers and need not be measured every year. In the ablation zone, ablation measurements are made using stakes inserted vertically into the glacier either at the end of the previous melt season or the beginning of the current one. The length of stake exposed by melting ice is measured at the end of the melt (ablation) season. Most stakes must be replaced each year or even midway through the summer. Net balance Net balance is the mass balance determined between successive mass balance minimums. This is the stratigraphic method focusing on the minima representing a stratigraphic horizon. In the northern mid-latitudes, a glacier's year follows the hydrologic year, starting and ending near the beginning of October. The mass balance minimum is the end of the melt season. The net balance is then the sum of the observed winter balance (bw) normally measured in April or May and summer balance (bs) measured in September or early October. Annual balance Annual balance is the mass balance measured between specific dates. The mass balance is measured on the fixed date each year, again sometime near the start of October in the mid northern latitudes. Geodetic methods Geodetic methods are an indirect method for the determination of mass balance of glacier. Maps of a glacier made at two different points in time can be compared and the difference in glacier thickness observed used to determine the mass balance over a span of years. This is best accomplished today using Differential Global Positioning System. Sometimes the earliest data for the glacier surface profiles is from images that are used to make topographical maps and digital elevation models. Aerial mapping or photogrammetry is now used to cover larger glaciers and icecaps such found in Antarctica and Greenland, however, because of the problems of establishing accurate ground control points in mountainous terrain, and correlating features in snow and where shading is common, elevation errors are typically not less than 10 m (32 ft). Laser altimetry provides a measurement of the elevation of a glacier along a specific path, e.g., the glacier centerline. The difference of two such measurements is the change in thickness, which provides mass balance over the time interval between the measurements. Mass balance research worldwide Mass balance studies have been carried out in various countries worldwide, but have mostly conducted in the Northern Hemisphere due to there being more mid-latitude glaciers in that hemisphere. The World Glacier Monitoring Service annually compiles the mass balance measurements from around the world. From 2002 to 2006, continuous data is available for only 7 glaciers in the southern hemisphere and 76 glaciers in the Northern Hemisphere. The mean balance of these glaciers was its most negative in any year for 2005/06. The similarity of response of glaciers in western North America indicates the large scale nature of the driving climate change. Alaska The Taku Glacier near Juneau, Alaska has been studied by the Juneau Icefield Research Program since 1946, and is the longest continuous mass balance study of any glacier in North America. Taku is the world's thickest known temperate alpine glacier, and experienced positive mass balance between the years 1946 and 1988, resulting in a huge advance. The glacier has since had a negative mass balance trend. The Juneau Icefield Research Program also has studied the mass balance of the Lemon Creek Glacier since 1953. The glacier has had an average annual balance of −0.44 m per year from 1953 to 2006, resulting in a mean loss of over 27 m of ice thickness. This loss has been confirmed by laser altimetry. Austrian Glacier Mass Balance The mass balance of Hintereisferner and Kesselwandferner glaciers in Austria have been continuously monitored since 1952 and 1965 respectively. Having been continuously measured for 55 years, Hintereisferner has one of the longest periods of continuous study of any glacier in the world, based on measured data and a consistent method of evaluation. Currently this measurement network comprises about 10 snow pits and about 50 ablation stakes distributed across the glacier. In terms of the cumulative specific balances, Hintereisferner experienced a net loss of mass between 1952 and 1964, followed by a period of recovery to 1968. Hintereisferner reached an intermittent minimum in 1976, briefly recovered in 1977 and 1978 and has continuously lost mass in the 30 years since then. Total mass loss has been 26 m since 1952 Sonnblickkees Glacier has been measured since 1957 and the glacier has lost 12 m of mass, an average annual loss of −0.23 m per year. New Zealand Glacier mass balance studies have been ongoing in New Zealand since 1957. Tasman Glacier has been studied since then by the New Zealand Geological Survey and later by the Ministry of Works, measuring the ice stratigraphy and overall movement. However, even earlier fluctuation patterns were documented on the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers in 1950. Other glaciers on the South Island studied include Ivory Glacier since 1968, while on the North Island, glacier retreat and mass balance research has been conducted on the glaciers on Mount Ruapehu since 1955. On Mount Ruapehu, permanent photographic stations allow repeat photography to be used to provide photographic evidence of changes to the glaciers on the mountain over time. An aerial photographic survey of 50 glaciers in the South Island has been carried out for most years since 1977. The data was used to show that between 1976 and 2005 there was a 10% loss in glacier volume. North Cascade glacier mass balance program The North Cascade Glacier Climate Project measures the annual balance of 10 glaciers, more than any other program in North America, to monitor an entire glaciated mountain range, which was listed as a high priority of the National Academy of Sciences in 1983. These records extend from 1984 to 2008 and represent the only set of records documenting the mass balance changes of an entire glacier clad range. North Cascade glaciers annual balance has averaged −0.48 m/a from 1984 to 2008, a cumulative thickness loss of over 13 m or 20–40% of their total volume since 1984 due to negative mass balances. The trend in mass balance is becoming more negative which is fueling more glacier retreat and thinning. Norway mass balance program Norway maintains the most extensive mass balance program in the world and is largely funded by the hydropower industry. Mass balance measurements are currently (2012) performed on fifteen glaciers in Norway. In southern Norway six of the glaciers have been measured continuously since 1963 or earlier, and they constitute a west–east profile reaching from the maritime Ålfotbreen Glacier, close to the western coast, to the continental Gråsubreen Glacier, in the eastern part of Jotunheimen. Storbreen Glacier in Jotunheimen has been measured for a longer period of time than any other glacier in Norway, starting in 1949, while Engabreen Glacier at Svartisen has the longest series in northern Norway (starting in 1970). The Norwegian program is where the traditional methods of mass balance measurement were largely derived. Sweden Storglaciären The Tarfala research station in the Kebnekaise region of northern Sweden is operated by Stockholm University. It was here that the first mass balance program was initiated immediately after World War II, and continues to the present day. This survey was the initiation of the mass balance record of Storglaciären Glacier, and constitutes the longest continuous study of this type in the world. Storglaciären has had a cumulative negative mass balance from 1946 to 2006 of −17 m. The program began monitoring the Rabots Glaciär in 1982, Riukojietna in 1985, and Mårmaglaciären in 1988. All three of these glaciers have had a strong negative mass balance since initiation. Iceland Glacier mass balance Glacier mass balance is measured once or twice annually on numerous stakes on the several ice caps in Iceland by the National Energy Authority. Regular pit and stake mass-balance measurements have been carried out on the northern side of Hofsjökull since 1988 and likewise on the Þrándarjökull since 1991. Profiles of mass balance (pit and stake) have been established on the eastern and south-western side of Hofsjökull since 1989. Similar profiles have been assessed on the Tungnaárjökull, Dyngjujökull, Köldukvíslarjökull and Brúarjökull outlet glaciers of Vatnajökull since 1992 and the Eyjabakkajökull outlet glacier since 1991. Swiss mass balance program Temporal changes in the spatial distribution of the mass balance result primarily from changes in accumulation and melt along the surface. As a consequence, variations in the mass of glaciers reflect changes in climate and the energy fluxes at the Earth's surface. The Swiss glaciers Gries in the central Alps and Silvretta in the eastern Alps, have been measured for many years. The distribution of seasonal accumulation and ablation rates are measured in-situ. Traditional field methods are combined with remote sensing techniques to track changes in mass, geometry and the flow behaviour of the two glaciers. These investigations contribute to the Swiss Glacier Monitoring Network and the International network of the World Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS). United States Geological Survey (USGS) The USGS operates a long-term "benchmark" glacier monitoring program which is used to examine climate change, glacier mass balance, glacier motion, and stream runoff. This program has been ongoing since 1965 and has been examining three glaciers in particular. Gulkana Glacier in the Alaska Range and Wolverine Glacier in the Coast Ranges of Alaska have both been monitored since 1965, while the South Cascade Glacier in Washington State has been continuously monitored since the International Geophysical Year of 1957. This program monitors one glacier in each of these mountain ranges, collecting detailed data to understand glacier hydrology and glacier climate interactions. Geological Survey of Canada-Glaciology Section (GSC) The GSC operates Canada's Glacier-Climate Observing System as part of its Climate Change Geoscience Program. With its University partners, it conducts monitoring and research on glacier-climate changes, water resources and sea level change using a network of reference observing sites located in the Cordillera and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. This network is augmented with remote sensing assessments of regional glacier changes. Sites in the Cordillera include the Helm, Place, Andrei, Kaskakwulsh, Haig, Peyto, Ram River, Castle Creek, Kwadacha and Bologna Creek Glaciers; in the Arctic Archipelago include the White, Baby and Grise Glaciers and the Devon, Meighen, Melville and Agassiz Ice Caps. GSC reference sites are monitored using the standard stake based glaciological method (stratigraphic) and periodic geodetic assessments using airborne lidar. Detailed information, contact information and database available here: Helm Glacier (−33 m) and Place Glacier (−27 m) have lost more than 20% of their entire volume, since 1980, Peyto Glacier (−20 m) is close to this amount. The Canadian Arctic White Glacier has not been as negative at (−6 m) since 1980. Bolivia mass balance network The glacier monitoring network in Bolivia, a branch of the glacio-hydrological system of observation installed throughout the tropical Andes mountains by IRD and partners since 1991, has monitored mass balance on Zongo (6000 m asl), Chacaltaya (5400 m asl) and Charquini glaciers (5380 m asl). A system of stakes has been used, with frequent field observations, as often as monthly. These measurements have been made in concert with energy balance to identify the cause of the rapid retreat and mass balance loss of these tropical glaciers. Mass balance in former USSR Nowadays, glaciological stations exist in Russia and Kazakhstan. In Russia there are 2 stations: Glacier Djankuat in Caucasus, is located near the mountain Elbrus, and Glacier Aktru in Altai Mountains. In Kazakhstan there is glaciological station in Glacier Tuyuk-Su, in Tian Shan, is located near the city of Almaty. PTAA-Mass balance model A recently developed glacier balance model based on Monte Carlo principals is a promising supplement to both manual field measurements and geodetic methods of measuring mass balance using satellite images. The PTAA (precipitation-temperature-area-altitude) model requires only daily observations of precipitation and temperature collected at usually low-altitude weather stations, and the area-altitude distribution of the glacier. Output are daily snow accumulation (Bc) and ablation (Ba) for each altitude interval, which is converted to mass balance by Bn = Bc – Ba. Snow Accumulation (Bc) is calculated for each area-altitude interval based on observed precipitation at one or more lower altitude weather stations located in the same region as the glacier and three coefficients that convert precipitation to snow accumulation. It is necessary to use established weather stations that have a long unbroken records so that annual means and other statistics can be determined. Ablation (Ba) is determined from temperature observed at weather stations near the glacier. Daily maximum and minimum temperatures are converted to glacier ablation using twelve coefficients. The fifteen independent coefficients that are used to convert observed temperature and precipitation to ablation and snow accumulation apply a simplex optimizing procedure. The simplex automatically and simultaneously calculates values for each coefficient using Monte Carlo principals that rely on random sampling to obtain numerical results. Similarly, the PTAA model makes repeated calculations of mass balance, minutely re-adjusting the balance for each iteration. The PTAA model has been tested for eight glaciers in Alaska, Washington, Austria and Nepal. Calculated annual balances are compared with measured balances for approximately 60 years for each of five glaciers. The Wolverine and Gulkana in Alaska, Hintereisferner, Kesselwandferner and Vernagtferner in Austria. It has also been applied to the Langtang Glacier in Nepal. Results for these tests are shown on the GMB (glacier mass balance) website at ptaagmb.com. Linear regressions of model versus manual balance measurements are based on a split-sample approach so that the calculated mass balances are independent of the temperature and precipitation used to calculate the mass balance. Regression of model versus measured annual balances yield R2 values of 0.50 to 0.60. Application of the model to Bering Glacier in Alaska demonstrated a close agreement with ice volume loss for the 1972–2003 period measured with the geodetic method. Determining the mass balance and runoff of the partially debris-covered Langtang Glacier in Nepal demonstrates an application of this model to a glacier in the Himalayan Range. Correlation between ablation of glaciers in the Wrangell Range in Alaska and global temperatures observed at 7000 weather stations in the Northern Hemisphere indicates that glaciers are more sensitive to the global climate than are individual temperature stations, which do not show similar correlations. Validation of the model to demonstrate the response of glaciers in Northwestern United States to future climate change is shown in a hierarchical modeling approach. Climate downscaling to estimate glacier mass using the PTAA model is applied to determine the balance of the Bering and Hubbard Glaciers and is also validated for the Gulkana, a USGS benchmark glacier. See also Climate change Glacier retreat (disambiguation) Notes References Sources External links World Glacier Monitoring Service How does mass balance vary over Antarctica? An introduction to Glacier Mass Balance Glaciology Effects of climate change
4186431	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Frederick%20Kunz	George Frederick Kunz	George Frederick Kunz (September 29, 1856 – June 29, 1932) was an American mineralogist and mineral collector. Biography Kunz was born in New York City, USA, and began an interest in minerals at a very young age. By his teens, he had amassed a collection of over four thousand items, which he sold for four hundred dollars to the University of Minnesota. Kunz attended Cooper Union but did not finish and did not attend college. Nonetheless, he taught himself mineralogy from books and field research. This expertise landed him a job with Tiffany & Co., and his knowledge and enthusiasm propelled him into a vice presidency by the time he was 23. He gained much notoriety for identifying a new gem variety of the mineral spodumene which was named "Kunzite" in his honor. He also supervised the cutting of the very large stone that became the Tiffany Yellow Diamond. He headed up the US mining and mineralogical exhibits at the international expositions in Paris (1889), Chicago (1893), Atlanta (1895), Paris (1900), and St. Louis (1904). He gave a series of eight lectures on "Precious Stones" for the Lowell Institute's 1894–95 season. As a gentleman scientist, he was a member of the Mineralogical Society of America, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, New York Academy of Sciences (of which he was once a vice president), the New York Mineralogical Club, the American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society (for which he served as president), the American Chemical Society, the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers (of which he was once a vice president), and many other cultural, scientific, and naturalist organizations. He was the founder and president of the Museums of the Peaceful Arts in 1913, special agent for the US Geological Survey (1883–1909), a research curator at the Museum of Natural History in New York City, and the leading advocate in the establishment of the international carat as a unit of measure for precious gems. He also assembled the Morgan-Tiffany collection of gems in the American Museum of Natural History. Kunz had an active life dedicated to science and public service. Kunz promoted the adoption of the decimal metric system of weights and measures in the United States and was President of the American Metric Association. He wrote over 300 articles during his life. More than ninety years after his death, many of his books are still in print. Kunz married Sophia Hanforth in 1879, who died in 1912. In 1923, Kunz married Opal Logan Giberson, a noted aviator, but the marriage was annulled in 1929. Nonetheless, Opal Kunz continued to maintain Kunz's household until his death, on June 29, 1932. Awards He was given many honorary degrees from US and European universities. He was awarded a Bachelor of Science degree from the Cooper Union in 1872. Columbia University (AM, June 8, 1898) The award was presented by Professor James F. Kemp, professor of Geology at Columbia; University of Marburg (Ph.D., 1903), especially for his contributions to European and German mineralogy. Surprisingly, in 1920, in a highly unusual act, this honorary award was withdrawn by the university faculty due [according to Dr. Kunz] to his efforts to help reforest France, and his supposed sympathies to the French and English allies against Germany. Knox College of Illinois (Sc. D., 1907). Personal library After his death, his personal collection of several thousand rare books, pamphlets and articles on gems and precious stones were sold to the United States Geological Survey Library for one dollar. Acquired by the Library in 1933, the George F. Kunz Collection is a significant special collection on gems and minerals including rare books on gemology, the folklore of gemstones through history, lapidary arts and archival gem trade records important to the provenance of named stones such as the "Hope Diamond." In December 2012, the discovery of a rare photographic album dated 1922 among the books from Mr Kunz' personal library was announced by the USGS. The album contained 81 photographs of the Russian Crown Jewels and pre-dates the official catalog by the Soviet government by 3 years. Researchers have identified four pieces of jewelry that were documented in 1922 that were not included in the later catalog and that are assumed missing today. Selected writings Kunz, George F. and Charles Hugh Stevenson (1869-?). The Book of the Pearl: The History, Art, Science and Industry of the Queen of Gems. New York: The Century Co., 1908. 548 pages, 125 plates and illustrations (17 colored); maps. Kunz, George F. Catskill Aqueduct Celebration Publication: A Collection of Pamphlets Published in Connection with the Celebration of the Completion of the Catskill Aqueduct, being Chiefly Catalogues of Exhibitions Held by Art, Scientific and Historical Museums and Institutions in New York City in Cooperation with the Mayor’s Catskill Aqueduct Celebration Committee in 1917. Arranged by George Frederick Kunz, Chairman of the Committee on Art, Scientific and Historical Exhibitions. New York: The Mayor's Catskill Aqueduct Celebration Committee. 1917. 266 pages, illustrations including maps, facsimiles, portraits. Kunz, George F. 1913. Curious Lore of Precious Stones: Being a Description of their Sentiments and Folk Lore, Superstitions, Symbology, Mysticism, Use in Medicine, Protection, Prevention, Religion, and Divination, Crystal Gazing, Birth Stones, Lucky Stones and Talismans, Astral, Zodiacal and Planetary. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co. 1913. Six color plates (including the tissue-guarded frontispiece), scores of double-tone photographs and inter-textual line cuts. 406 pages, 86 illustrations in color, doubletone and in-line. Kunz, George Frederick. "The genesis of the diamond" Science, pp. 450–456, 1897 Baskerville, Charles; Kunz, G F. "Kunzite and its unique properties" American Journal of Science, vol.18, no.103, pp. 25–28, July 1904 Kunz, George Frederick. "The cause of the San Francisco earthquake" Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, pp. 289–290, 1908 Kunz, George Frederick. "Diamonds in North America" Geological Society of America Bulletin, vol.42, no.1, pp. 221–222, March 1931. Kunz, George F. Gems and Precious Stones of North America: A Popular Description of Their Occurrence, Value, History, Archaeology, and of the Collections in Which They Exist; Also a Chapter on Pearls, and on Remarkable Foreign Gems Owned in the United States. Illustrated with eight colored plates and numerous minor engravings. New York: The Scientific Publishing Co. 1890. 336 pages. Second edition with Appendix, 367 pp. 24 Pls., 1892. Kunz George F. Gems, Jewelers’ Materials, and Ornamental Stones of California. Bulletin of the California State Mining Bureau. 1905. California State Mining Bureau, Bulletin #37. 171 pages. 1905. (K480(276) K96) Also published as a second edition with a slightly changed title: "Semi-precious Stones, Gems, Jewelers’ Materials and Ornamental Stones of California." "The report referred to is Kunz’s Gems, Jeweler’s Materials and Ornamental Stones of California, 1905. Even the publication of this work evoked controversy. Kunz’s name does not appear on the title page nor the outside of the book. However, Lewis Aubury, State Mineralogist of California, does give Kunz a thank you in print for all his efforts. Kunz, although he must have been upset by the snub, according to tradition, promptly obtained a quantity of the reports for personal distribution, had them bound in a kunzite-pink cloth, and had his name stamped on the title page and cover!" Pages 36–44 give a summary of the diamond occurrences in California. Kunz, George Frederick. History of the Gems Found in North Carolina. Raleigh: E.M. Uzzell & Co., public printers and binders, 1907. xvii, 60 p., 15 pages of plates, 4 colored plates. Bulletin (North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey); no. 12. North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey. A hard bound copy of this item is also held in the Kunz Collection of the USGS Library, but is not cataloged. [302] A thorough report, prepared by Kunz at the behest of the North Carolina authorities in time for distribution at the Jamestown [Virginia] Exposition. The illustrations include a number of notable specimens, some drawn from the Morgan-Tiffany and Morgan-Bement Collections at the American Museum of Natural History. The four color plates, for which this work is especially noted, were printed by Prang. Pages 5–9 discusses the history of various diamond occurrences. Gemology bibliographer John Sinkankas states, "The photographs are of very good quality, but it is the richly colored lithographs that make this work as highly prized for them as for the text. ..Plate 3 facing page 9 depicts what was then the largest emerald crystal mined in North Carolina; it is the same that was stolen in 1950 from the American Museum of Natural History in New York and never recovered. Also upon this plate, pasted in its upper right-hand corner, is a small rectangle of a diamond crystal from Dysortville, while the plate numeral of "III" is obviously an erased area which bore some other number, now unknown." Of all of Kunz's major works, "History of the Gems Found in North Carolina" is by far his rarest book in the antiquarian book market. Kunz, George F. Ivory and the Elephant in Art, in Archaeology, and in Science. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page & Co. Pages: 527. 1916. Illustrated with over 150 full-page plates, four folding plates and maps, text illustrations. Kunz's classic study of the procuring and working of ivory, from the ancient period to modern times. Chapters on evolution and development of the elephant, on elephant hunting and on the art and commerce of ivory carving. The book is dedicated to Prof. Alfred Lacroix, curator of the Mineralogical Department of the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. This is the most scarce of all Dr. Kunz' works, and includes information not found in other publications by Dr. Kunz. There were at least three editions of this book printed. After the public edition, a separate edition was published first for the "Belgian Congo Edition," then a third copy run was published for the "Hobby Club", established 1911. Kunz, George F. The Magic of Jewels and Charms. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company. 1915. 422 pages with 90 illustrations in color, doubletone and line. Facts and fancies about a fascinating subject, including anecdotal history and research from India to the Americas. "Magic jewels and electric gems; meteorites or celestial stones; stones of healing; fabulous stones; concretions and fossils; snake stones and bezoars; charms of ancient and modern times; facts and fancies about precious stones. Each profusely illustrated in color, doubletone and line. Octavo. Handsome cloth binding, gilt top, in a box..." Kunz, George F. Natal Stones; Sentiments and Superstitions Associated with Precious Stones. New York: Tiffany & Co. 1891. (American Museum of Natural History’s copy signed by Dr. Kunz on October 8, 1927). This interesting little book helped sell many precious and semi-precious stones associated with birthdays. The first edition had 15 pages, and gradually expanded over the years, reaching a high of 40 pages. The final 31st edition appeared in 1931. Kunz, George F. "Remarkable Crystal Skull." Exchanger's Monthly: Devoted to Mineralogy, Geology and Archaeology. Jersey City, NJ. Volume II, Number 12, October 1887, page 95. Read before the meeting of the New York meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, August 12, 1887. Mr. Kunz relates the provenance of the skull, and proposes that the rock crystal came from California and is made in a Mexican fashion. Kunz, George F. "Reminiscences of Dr. George Frederick Kunz as Told to Marie Benyon Bey." Journal of the Geo-Literary Society. "American Travels of a Gem Expert." Volume 15, number 2, pages 6–14, May 2000; "American Travels of a Gem Collector, Parts 1&2." Volume 15, number 3, pages 10–19, August 2000; "Part III: Reminiscences of Dr. George F. Kunz- American Travels of a Gem Collector as Told to Marie Beynon Ray (From the Saturday Evening Post, January 21, 1928)" Volume 15, number 4, pages 15–24. "Indestructible Value…" Volume 16, number 3, pages 14–24, 2001. Reprint of his Saturday Evening Post series, from 1927 and 1928. Kunz, George F. "On Phosphorescent Diamonds [Tiffanyite]." Read before the academy on May 20, 1895. Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences. Volume 14, page 260. 1895. Also Mineralogical Magazine. Volume 11, page 241. 1897. The various colors of diamonds are attributed to the presence of hydrocarbons, and phosphorescence and fluorescence of certain diamonds are attributed to a bluish white substance, which is undoubtedly a hydrocarbon, and for which the name Tiffanyite is proposed. See also: "Tiffanyite." Transactions of the New York Academy of Science, vol. 14. Kunz, George F. Rings for the Finger, from the Earliest Known Times to the Present, with Full Descriptions of the Origin, Early Making, Materials, the Archaeology, History, For Affection, For Love, For Engagement, For Wedding, Commemorative, Mourning, Etc. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company. 1917. Frontispiece is an oil painting of the Maharani of Sikkim (northeastern Hindustan), and illustrated with 381 pages, plates, partly colored, portraits, etc., plus a holographic facsimile letter from Admiral Peary to the author on the question of ring usage by Eskimo peoples. The Kunz Collection copy is inscribed by the author to his daughter, Bessie: "For Elizabeth Handforth Kunz, with the love of her father, the author, George Frederick Kunz, 30 January 1916. New York." A fine copy of a work that John Sinkankas says "remains the largest single storehouse of information on rings available in any language". Kunz, George F. Shakespeare and Precious Stones, Treating of the Known References of Precious Stones in Shakespeare's Works, With Comments as to the Origin of his Material, the Knowledge of the Poet Concerning Precious Stones, and References to Where the Precious Stones of His Time Came From. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott. 1916. 100 pages with illustrations, portraits, etc. "Treating of the known references to precious stones in Shakespeare’s works, with comments as to the origin of his material, the knowledge of the poet concerning precious stones, and references as to where the precious stones of his time came from. Four illustrations. Square octavo. Decorated cloth" [412] "Diamonds are discussed on pages 24-27, 73-76, 89-91 and 93. Interesting historical notes are given concerning the contemporary knowledge of gem-stones, the goldsmiths and jewelers of the period." The Central Park Shakespeare Garden Committee Edition, containing 4 extra pages with list of Committee and Cut of Garden. The Hobby Club Mission, containing a list of Hobby Club Members. Kunz, George F. "The Spanish Missions in California." Albany, NY: American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society. Seventeenth Annual Report, 1912. Appendix F, pages 387–410. Includes five plates. Dr. Kunz uses the occasion of the forthcoming Panama Exposition to press for the purchase of privately owned missions, the restoration of existing ones, and the renovation of El Camino Real, the old Spanish road that connected all the California missions together. References Bibliography Ahlborn, Richard E. and Vera Beaver-Bricken Espinola, eds. Russian Copper Icons and Crosses From the Kunz Collection: Castings of Faith. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. 1991. 85 pages with illustrations, some colored. Includes bibliographical references pages 84–85. Smithsonian Studies in History and Technology: No. 51. Burchard, Hank. "Wright Idea, Wrong Stuff." The Washington Post. June 10, 1988, page WE49. Discusses new display of the Kunz collection of Russian icons sold to the Smithsonian Institution. Conklin, Lawrence H. "On Kunz and Kunzite." Mineralogical Record. Volume 18, pages 369–372. Conklin, Lawrence H. "The Original Specimens of Kunzite." The Matrix: A Journal on the History of Minerals. Volume 1, number 3, page 45. An account of the first specimen of kunzite from Charles Baskerville's collection, used in 1903 in the original determination and naming of that species. Conklin, Lawrence H. "Curious Lore of George F. Kunz." Matrix: A Journal of the History of Minerals. Dillburg, PA. Volume 5 (3), 1997, pages 108–114. Conklin, Lawrence H. Notes and commentaries on letters to George F. Kunz: correspondence from various sources, including Clarence S. Bement: with facsimiles. New Canaan, Ct.: L. H. Conklin, 1986. 137 pages, ill., portraits. ; 29 cm. Title on spine: Letters to George F. Kunz. Bibliography: p. 137. Tiffany & Co. did a reprint of this limited edition book (only 150 copies) in 1987. Kerr, Paul Francis. "Memorial of George Frederick Kunz [1856-1932]" American Mineralogist, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 91–94, March 1933 Purtell, Joseph. "[George F. Kunz] The All-American Collector." IN: The Tiffany Touch. New York: Pocket Books, Inc. (Originally published by Random House, in 1972). Pages 71–94. Evidently Mrs. Ruby Kunz Zinsser, Dr. Kunz's daughter, aided the author in his work, and told him her reminiscences of her father. Whitlock, Herbert Percy. "Memorial of George Frederick Kunz [1856-1932]" Geological Society of America Bulletin, vol.44, Part 2, pp. 377–394, April 1933 Spencer, Leonard James. "George Frederick Kunz [1856-1932]" Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, August 1933 NOTE: Mr. Kunz' personal library was acquired by the U.S. Geological Survey Library in 1933. The George F. Kunz Collection is a significant special collection on gems and minerals including rare books on gemology, the folklore of gemstones through history, lapidary arts and archival gem trade records important to the provenance of named stones such as the "Hope Diamond." Kunz was a former USGS employee. The collection is held in Reston, Virginia and is available to researchers by appointment. External links Contributions of George Frederick Kunz - blog collection of information on Kunz The book of the pearl (1908) available online and in pdf downloads from the Gem and Diamond Foundation. Also available at the Internet Archive (NOTE: Kunz worked with Mathilde Laigle to write the Book of Pearl (part : "Années de professorat aux États-Unis")) George F. Kunz Papers at New-York Historical Society Gems and precious stones of North America. Overview of all locations of famous gemstones such as emeralds, sapphire, rubies to rare ones such as hiddenite(1890) available online and in pdf downloads from the Gem and Diamond Foundation. Also available at the Internet Archive John H. Betts The Minerals of New York City originally published in Rocks & Minerals magazine, Volume 84, No . 3 pages 204-252 (2009). 1856 births 1932 deaths Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science Gemologists American mineralogists Diamond cutting United States Geological Survey personnel Independent scientists People from Manhattan Burials at Trinity Church Cemetery
4186456	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston%20riot%20of%201917	Houston riot of 1917	The Houston riot of 1917, also known as the Camp Logan Mutiny, was a mutiny and riot by 156 soldiers from the all-black 24th Infantry Regiment of the United States Army, taking place on August 23, 1917, in Houston, Texas. The incident occurred within a climate of overt hostility from members of the all-white Houston Police Department (HPD) against members of the local black community and black soldiers stationed at Camp Logan. Following an incident where police officers arrested and assaulted some black soldiers, many of their comrades mutinied and marched to Houston, where they opened fire and killed eleven civilians and five policemen. Five soldiers themselves were also killed as a result of the riot. In accordance with policies of the time, the soldiers were tried at three courts-martial; thirteen were executed, and 41 were sentenced to life imprisonment. Gregg Andrews, author of Thyra J. Edwards: Black Activist in the Global Freedom Struggle, wrote that the riot "shook race relations in the city and created conditions that helped to spark a statewide surge of wartime racial activism". Preliminary situation Shortly after the United States declared war on Germany in the spring of 1917, the War Department rushed to construct two new military installations in Harris County, Texas — Camp Logan and Ellington Field. On July 27, 1917, the United States Army ordered the 3rd Battalion of the all-black 24th Infantry Regiment to guard the Camp Logan construction site. The regiment traveled to Houston by train from their camp at Columbus, New Mexico, accompanied by seven commissioned officers. Precipitating causes Almost from their arrival, the presence of black soldiers in strictly-segregated Houston raised tensions. Jim Crow laws were in place, and the soldiers were forced to contend with segregated accommodations including drinking facilities at the construction site. Prior to the riot, the soldiers were involved in a number of "clashes" with members of the Houston Police Department (HPD), several of which resulted in the soldiers sustaining injuries after being beaten and attacked. Around noon August 23, 1917, Lee Sparks and Rufus Daniels, two HPD officers, disrupted a gathering on a street corner in Houston's predominantly-black San Felipe district by firing warning shots. Sparks, pursuing those who fled the gunshots, burst into the home of a local woman named Sara Travers. He did not find any of the citizens he was chasing. Refusing to believe Travers' protestations that she had no knowledge of their whereabouts, Sparks dragged her outside of her house and arrested her. As Sparks and Daniels called in the arrest from a patrol box, they were approached by Private Alonzo Edwards. Edwards offered to take custody of Travers, but instead was pistol-whipped repeatedly by Sparks and then arrested himself. Later that afternoon, Corporal Charles Baltimore approached Sparks and Daniels to inquire about the status of Edwards. Sparks struck Baltimore with his pistol and fired three shots at him as he fled into a nearby home. Sparks and Daniels pursued Baltimore, eventually finding him under a bed. They pulled him out, beat him, and placed him under arrest. Rumor reached Camp Logan that Baltimore had been shot and killed. The soldiers immediately began meeting in small groups to vent their anger and eventually plot their retaliation by initiating a battle with the HPD. An officer from the 24th Infantry Regiment retrieved the injured Baltimore from the police station, which seemed to calm the soldiers for the moment. The mutiny and riot The soldiers soon received reports of impending violence by an angry white mob. Major K.S. Snow revoked all passes for the evening and ordered the guard around Camp Logan to be increased, but later that evening stumbled upon a group of men attempting to arm themselves from one of the supply tents. Snow ordered the men to assemble without arms and warned them that it was "utterly foolish, foolhardy, for them to think of taking the law into their own hands." One of the men, who had smuggled his rifle into the formation, fired it and cried out that a mob was approaching the camp. At this point, order broke down completely and the soldiers mobbed the supply tents, grabbing rifles and ammunition to defend themselves. The soldiers began firing indiscriminately into the surrounding buildings. After several minutes of shooting at Camp Logan, Sergeant Vida Henry ordered the men in the area – about 150 – to fill their canteens, grab extra ammunition, and fall in to march on Houston. The group marched through neighborhoods on the outskirts of the city and fired at houses with outdoor lights. They fired on a car with two white occupants, but let a second car with black occupants pass. They marched nearly two and a half miles, all the way to the San Felipe district, before they encountered any police officers. Due to the disorganization of the HPD and the belief that the black soldiers would be unable to arm themselves, officers had been sent out only in small numbers, expecting to quickly subdue unarmed men. The first police casualties occurred when a group of six officers stumbled upon large numbers of armed soldiers. Two policemen (including Daniels) were killed immediately, and one later died of wounds he had sustained. As the soldiers moved through Houston, an open-topped car carrying a man in an olive-drab uniform approached them. Believing this to be the uniform of a mounted policeman, the soldiers opened fire only to discover later that they had killed Captain Joseph W. Mattes of the Illinois National Guard. The killing of a military officer drove home the seriousness of their uprising and of the consequences faced by black men for attacking white people. At this point, soldiers began to desert the group, and Sergeant Henry led the remainder on a march back to Camp Logan. Just outside the San Felipe district, Henry shook hands with the remaining soldiers and informed them that he planned to kill himself after they left. Henry's body was found in the area the next day, with his skull crushed and a bayonet or knife wound to his shoulder. By the time the firing ceased seventeen people were dead, including four police officers, nine civilians, and two soldiers. One soldier and a police officer later died from wounds sustained during the riot, and one soldier died from wounds sustained during his capture the next day. Immediate aftermath The next morning, Houston was placed under martial law. The remaining soldiers at Camp Logan were disarmed, and a house-to-house search uncovered a number of soldiers hiding within the San Felipe district. Soldiers in local jails were turned over to the Army, and the 3rd Battalion was sent by train back to New Mexico. In the ensuing court-martial, almost two hundred witnesses testified over twenty-two days, and the transcripts of the testimony covered more than two thousand pages. Author Robert V. Haynes suggests that the Army's Southern Department commanding general, General John Wilson Ruckman was "especially anxious for the courts-martial to begin". Ruckman had preferred the proceedings take place in El Paso, but eventually agreed to allow them to remain in San Antonio. Haynes posits the decision was made to accommodate the witnesses who lived in Houston, plus "the countless spectators" who wanted to follow the proceedings. Ruckman "urged" the War Department to select a "prestigious court". Three brigadier generals were chosen, along with seven full colonels and three lieutenant colonels. Eight members of the court were West Point graduates. The Departmental Judge Advocate General (JAG), Colonel George Dunn, reviewed the record of the first court-martial (known as "the Nesbit Case") and approved the sentences. He forwarded the documents materials to Ruckman on December 3. Six days later, thirteen of the prisoners (including Corporal Baltimore) were told that they would be hanged for murder, but they were not informed of the time or place. The court recommended clemency for a Private Hudson, but Ruckman declined to grant it. Although 169 witnesses testified at the court-martial, the darkness and rain meant that many of the witnesses were unable to correctly identify any of the alleged assailants. Historians have also questioned the veracity of witness testimony, noting that some of the witnesses who testified as participants were granted immunity or promised leniency. The first hanging The condemned soldiers (one sergeant, four corporals, and eight privates) were transferred to a barracks on December 10. That evening, motor trucks carried new lumber for scaffolds to some bathhouses built for the soldiers at Camp Travis near a swimming pool in the Salado Creek. The designated place of execution was several hundred yards away. Army engineers completed their work by the light of bonfires. The thirteen condemned men were awakened at 5:00 am and taken to the gallows. They were hanged simultaneously, at 7:17am, one minute before sunrise. The scaffolds were disassembled and every piece returned to Fort Sam Houston. The New York Times, commenting on the clean-up operations, observed the place of execution and place of burial were "indistinguishable." The soldiers were buried in unmarked graves by the Salado Creek, their surnames were written on paper placed in empty soda bottles that were buried with each man. Ruckman told reporters he had personally approved the death sentences and said that forty-one soldiers had been given life sentences and four received sentences of two and a half years or less. He said he was the one who chose the time and place for the executions. Military jurist Frederick Bernays Wiener has observed that Ruckman's approval and execution of the death sentences were "entirely legal" and "in complete conformity" with the 1916 Articles of War. Second and third courts martial A second court-martial, the "Washington" case, began six days later. Fifteen men of the Lower A Division were tried and five were sentenced to death. On January 2, 1918, Ruckman approved the sentences in a public statement. A new rule, General Orders 167 (December 29, 1917), prohibited the execution of any death sentence until the JAG could review the sentences (the JAG Boards of Review to review death sentences were created by a subsequent rule, General Orders 7, on January 7, 1918). The boards, though they had advisory power only, were the Army's first appellate courts.) While waiting for the JAG review to occur, Ruckman approved a third court-martial, the "Tillman" case, of forty more soldiers. On March 26, 1918, twenty-three of those forty soldiers were found guilty. Eleven of the twenty-three were sentenced to death and the remaining twelve to life in prison. On May 2, Ruckman approved the sentences. Wilson's clemency and commentary On August 31, 1918, President Woodrow Wilson granted clemency to ten soldiers by commuting their death sentences to life in prison. Wilson issued a rare public statement in order that the basis of his action might be "a matter of record." The President's statement began by recounting the events that led to the deaths of "innocent bystanders" who were "peaceable disposed civilians of the City of Houston." He noted the investigations that followed were "very searching and thorough", in the fashion of most investigations involving alleged attacks by black citizens. In each of the three proceedings, the court was promised to be "properly constituted" and composed of "officers of experience and sobriety of judgment." Wilson also took pains to claim that "extraordinary precautions" were taken to "insure the fairness of the trials" and, in each instance, the rights of the defendants were "surrounded at every point" by the "safeguards" of "a humane administration of the law." As a result, technically there were "no legal errors" which had "prejudiced the rights of the accused." Wilson stated that he affirmed the death sentences of six soldiers because there was "plain evidence" that they "deliberately" engaged in "shocking brutality." On the other hand, he commuted the remaining sentences because he believed the "lesson" of the lawless riot had already been "adequately pointed." He desired the "splendid loyalty" of African American soldiers be recognized and expressed the hope that clemency would inspire them "to further zeal and service to the country." Most importantly, from Ruckman's standpoint, Wilson (a former law professor) wrote the actions taken by the former Commander of the Southern Department were "legal and justified by the record." Indeed, the President agreed that "a stern redress" of the rioters' "wrongs" was the "surest protection of society against their further recurrence". As historian Calvin C. Smith noted in 1991, there was no proof of a "conspiracy", and many of the sentenced were not conclusively identified in the dark and rainy night as having even participated in the riot, despite the pledge of fair trials and absolute transparency. Release and rehabilitation On 14 December 1924, four of the rioters were released on parole, with 34 remaining imprisoned in Fort Leavenworth. On 8 March 1927, President Calvin Coolidge reduced the sentences for the last 20 imprisoned rioters, making them eligible for parole within one year. In 1937, the remains of the 13 executed soldiers were exhumed from their unmarked graves and reburied with military headstones in Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery. In 1938, President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered the release of last rioters still in prison. As of February 2022, the Pentagon is reviewing a clemency petition for all those convicted in the riot. Camp Logan today The area where Camp Logan was located is now called Memorial Park. It is bordered by highways I-10 and I-610. In popular culture The hanging of the first 13 soldiers is mentioned in part 4 of the 1979 television miniseries Roots: The Next Generations. KHOU, a CBS affiliated TV station located in Houston produced a documentary of the riot in 2006 entitled Mutiny on the Bayou: The Camp Logan Story. The 24th, a movie about the riot, was filmed partly in the Brooklyn-South Square section of Salisbury, North Carolina in June 2019. Fire and Movement is a newly commissioned public performance by interdisciplinary Chicago-based artist Jefferson Pinder in 2019. The uprising saw African American soldiers of the 3rd Battalion of the 24th United States Infantry revolt and attempt to march on the city police department after experiencing abuse from white citizens and the police in Jim Crow-era Houston. On July 11, 2019, Pinder and a trained group of performers retraced the route taken by African American soldiers. This incident is one of Houston's most complicated and often-misrepresented historical events. In August 2021, Latino author and lawyer Jaime Salazar (Legion of the Lost, Escaping the Amazon) released an updated account of the mutiny and courts martial, Mutiny of Rage. The work is published by Rowman & Littlefield and represented by Leticia Gomez of Savvy Literary Agency. A foreword was penned by distinguished military law professor and retired US Army JAG lieutenant colonel Geoffrey Corn. Salazar, a graduate of South Texas College of Law Houston, had access to recently declassified archives, court transcripts, and historical archives. See also 1917 in the United States Woodrow Wilson and race History of the African-Americans in Houston Turner W. Bell – famous black lawyer who defended some of the soldiers Military history of African Americans List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States References Further reading James, Rawn Jr. The Double V: How Wars, Protest, and Harry Truman Desegregated America's Military. New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2013. . (Novelization of the riot.) External links List of 13 executed List of five sentenced to be executed Symposium: The Largest Murder Trial in American History: Exploring the Houston Riot of 1917 and its Impact on Military Justice Today 1917 in Texas 1917 murders in the United States 1917 riots African-American history in Houston African-American history of the United States military African-American riots in the United States August 1917 events Events that led to courts-martial History of Houston Mass murder in 1917 Mutinies in World War I Riots and civil disorder in Texas United States home front during World War I
4186524	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1945%20in%20baseball	1945 in baseball	Champions Major League Baseball World Series: Detroit Tigers over Chicago Cubs (4-3) All-Star Game cancelled due to flight restrictions. However, inter-league games were played during the All-Star break. Other champions Amateur World Series: Venezuela Negro League World Series: Cleveland Buckeyes over Homestead Grays (4-0) Negro League Baseball All-Star Game: West, 9-6 All-American Girls Professional Baseball League: Rockford Peaches Awards and honors Baseball Hall of Fame Roger Bresnahan Dan Brouthers Fred Clarke Jimmy Collins Ed Delahanty Hugh Duffy Hughie Jennings King Kelly Jim O'Rourke Wilbert Robinson Most Valuable Player Hal Newhouser (AL) – P, Detroit Tigers Phil Cavarretta (NL) – 1B, Chicago Cubs The Sporting News Player of the Year Award Hal Newhouser – P, Detroit Tigers The Sporting News Most Valuable Player Award Eddie Mayo (AL) – 2B, Detroit Tigers Tommy Holmes (NL) – OF, Boston Braves The Sporting News Pitcher of the Year Award Hal Newhouser (AL) – Detroit Tigers Hank Borowy (NL) – Chicago Cubs The Sporting News Manager of the Year Award Ossie Bluege – Washington Senators MLB statistical leaders Major league baseball final standings American League final standings National League final standings Negro league baseball final standings Negro American League final standings Negro National League final standings Events January–July January 25 - Dan Topping, along with Del Webb and Larry MacPhail purchase a majority control of ownership of the New York Yankees from the estate of Col. Ruppert for $2.8 million. The trio would later purchase the remaining 3.12% in March 1945, with Webb and Topping buying out MacPhail after a few years. March 6 - Harry O'Neill, who appeared in one game for the Philadelphia A's in 1939, is killed in the battle for Iwo Jima. April 7 - Pitcher Terris McDuffie and infielder Dave Thomas partake in a special tryout for the Brooklyn Dodgers. What made the tryout unique was that both players were black. April 17 – Amputee Pete Gray makes his major league debut with the St. Louis Browns. April 24 - Happy Chandler is selected by the owners to replace Kenesaw Mountain Landis as commissioner of baseball. Landis died after being elected to a new seven-year term. Chandler agrees to fulfil his term in the U.S. Senate, which overlapped his first six months in office. May 3 - The New York Yankees released outfielder Paul Waner after just one game. Waner had come out of retirement the previous season due to a shortage of players because of World War II. May 17 – For the fourth time in four days, every American League game was postponed due to rain. May 21 - The Brooklyn Dodgers released Leo Durocher. May 25 - In the Boston Red Sox 5–0 home loss to the St. Louis Browns, outfielder Leon Culberson of the Red Sox makes an unassisted double play. Culberson raced from center field to catch a short fly ball. He then ran to second and stepped on the bag and doubled up Vern Stephens of the Browns. July 1 - Hank Greenberg makes his return to the major leagues. Greenberg had been one of the first players to register for the peacetime draft. In his return after forty-seven months away from the majors, Greenberg hits a home run, helping the Detroit Tigers beat the Philadelphia A's 9–5. July 3 - Stan Hack, Phil Cavarretta and Don Johnson of the Chicago Cubs each scored five runs apiece, trying a major league record. The Cubs went on to defeat the Boston Braves 24–2. July 4 - Augie Bergamo of the St. Louis Cardinals gets eight heads in a double header versus the New York Giants. In the second game alone, Bergamo in the second game got five of his eight hits. In the second game he hit three singles, a two run home run, and a grand slam. In all, Bergamo totaled 11 bases on the day as the Cardinals swept the Giants. July 5 - Whitey Lockman hits a home run in his first major league at bat. In the game matching the Giants versus the Cardinals, Lockman hits his home run off Cardinals pitcher George Dockins, but the Giants end up losing 7–5. July 6 - Tommy Holmes of the Boston Braves passes Rogers Hornsby in hitting in his 34th consecutive game. Hornsby's record had stood since 1922. Holmes record would stand until 1978 when it is broken by Pete Rose of the Cincinnati Reds. Holmes streak would end six days later. July 21 – The Detroit Tigers and Philadelphia A's battle for 24 innings, ending the game tied at one. Tigers starter Les Mueller pitches 19.2 innings, while his A's counterpart, Russ Christopher, lasts thirteen. August–September August 1 – Mel Ott hits the 500th home run of his major league career. August 4 World War II amputee Bert Shepard pitches in a game for the Washington Senators. Tom McBride of the Boston Red Sox ties a major league record with 6 RBI in the 4th inning of a game with the Washington Senators. Senators pitcher Joe Cleary becomes the last native of Ireland as of today to appear in a major league game. Bill Salkeld, a catcher for the Pittsburgh Pirates, hits for the cycle and drives in all of Pittsburgh's runs in their 6–5 loss to the St. Louis Cardinals. August 19 - In his final major league season, outfielder Jimmie Foxx makes his debut as a pitcher. He pitches seven innings, giving up just four hits as the Phillies defeated the Cincinnati Reds 4–2. August 28 - Seventeen year old Tommy Brown of the Brooklyn Dodgers hits a triple off Rene Monteagudo of the Philadelphia Phillies. Brown then takes advantage of Monteagudo's wide-up to steal home. Brown became the youngest player in major league history to steal home plate. The Dodgers defeated the Phillies 7–1. September 1- Vince DiMaggio of Philadelphia ties a major league mark with his fourth grand slam of the season. The Phillies defeated the Braves 8–3. September 8 - In a contest between the Washington Senators and St. Louis Browns, Harry Truman, sworn in back in April after the death of FDR, becomes the first left hander and oldest president to ever throw out a ceremonial pitch. Washington defeated St. Louis 4–1. September 9 – Cleveland Indians first baseman Mickey Rocco leads the way to a doubleheader sweep of the New York Yankees with two home runs, two doubles, and two singles. A crowd of 72,252 is on hand at Yankee Stadium to see their team lose 10-3 and 4–3. September 9 – In the second game of a doubleheader, Dick Fowler pitches a no-hitter as the Philadelphia Athletics defeat the St. Louis Browns, 1–0. September 13 - The Cincinnati Reds defeat the New York Giants 3–2. There were only 281 fans in attendance, making it the smallest crowd to see a game at Crosley Field. September 29 – Chicago Cubs catcher Paul Gillespie homers in his final major league at bat. In 1942 he homered in his first major league at bat. He was the first player in MLB history to do both. John Miller was the second, in 1966 and 1969. October–December October 6 - Attempting to promote his pub, the Billy Goat Tavern, William Sanis purchases a ticket to game 4 of the world series. He attempts to bring his Billy Goat, Murphy, into the stadium but is turned away by the ushers. Sanis is so angered that vows to place a curse on the team, ensuring they'd never win another World Series. This became part of Cubs fork lore, known as the curse of the Billy Goat. October 10 – The Detroit Tigers defeat the Chicago Cubs, 9–3, in Game 7 of the World Series to win their second World Series, four games to three. Chicago's next trip to the World Series occurred on 22 October 2016. October 23 – Jackie Robinson is signed by the Dodgers; he is later assigned to the Montreal Royals for the 1946 season. December 14 - The Cleveland Indians traded outfielder Jeff Heath, who'd led the team in home runs, to the Washington Senators for George Case. Date unknown The Mexican Winter League is born with the name Liga Invernal de Sonora Births January January 3 – Larry Barnett January 7 – Tony Conigliaro January 8 – Jesús Hernáiz January 12 – Paul Gilliford January 12 – Bob Reed January 18 – Tom Harrison January 18 – Rich Severson January 20 – Dave Boswell January 22 – Jophery Brown January 25 – Wally Bunker January 29 – Dick Mills February February 9 – Jim Nash February 11 – John Paciorek February 12 – Don Wilson February 14 – Bob Terlecki February 15 – Ross Moschitto February 21 – Tom Shopay February 24 – Gary Moore February 26 – Steve Hertz March March 1 – Jim Panther March 5 – Dave Bakenhaster March 11 – Dock Ellis March 12 – Don O'Riley March 12 – Horacio Piña March 25 – Jim Ellis March 30 – Dick Woodson April April 2 – Mike Kekich April 2 – Reggie Smith April 2 – Don Sutton April 4 – Nick Bremigan April 9 – Jerry Hinsley April 11 – Mike Kilkenny April 15 – Ted Sizemore April 17 – Dennis Paepke April 18 – Mike Paul April 19 – Tommy Gramly April 23 – Jorge Rubio April 30 – Ray Miller May May 3 – Davey Lopes May 4 – Rene Lachemann May 5 – Jimmy Rosario May 25 – Bill Dillman May 26 – Al Yates May 29 – Clyde Mashore May 29 – Blue Moon Odom June June 5 – Chip Coulter June 6 – Larry Howard June 7 – George Mitterwald June 12 – Gary Jones June 20 – Ray Newman June 25 – Dick Drago June 30 – Jerry Kenney June 30 – Otis Thornton July July 1 – Billy Rohr July 2 – Ron Slocum July 7 – Chuck Goggin July 7 – Bill Melton July 8 – Jim Ollom July 10 – Hal McRae July 17 – Greg Riddoch July 29 – Roy Foster August August 4 – Mike Davison August 6 – Andy Messersmith August 15 – Duffy Dyer August 15 – Bobby Treviño August 16 – Jan Dukes August 21 – Jerry DaVanon August 30 – Tommy Dean September September 8 – Ossie Blanco September 13 – Rick Wise September 14 – Curtis Brown September 16 – Bob Chlupsa September 16 – Ed Sprague September 16 – Héctor Torres September 20 – Mike Jurewicz September 25 – Steve Arlin September 25 – Bill Hepler September 26 – Dave Duncan September 28 – Gene Ratliff October October 1 – Rod Carew October 4 – John Duffie October 7 – Dick Bates October 11 – Bob Stinson October 12 – Herman Hill October 14 – Tom Silverio October 15 – Jim Palmer October 17 – Bob Christian October 18 – Don Young October 19 – Al Gallagher October 19 – Gary Taylor October 27 – Mike Lum October 30 – Roe Skidmore November November 1 – Bobby Brooks November 3 – Ken Holtzman November 3 – Jim Johnson November 7 – Dave Bennett November 10 – Bill Southworth November 12 – Rafael Batista November 17 – Bill Harrelson November 19 – Bobby Tolan November 20 – Jay Johnstone November 20 – Rick Monday November 20 – John Sanders November 22 – Denny Riddleberger November 25 – Wayne Redmond December December 3 – Steve Huntz December 3 – Lou Marone December 6 – Larry Bowa December 6 – Jay Dahl December 12 – Ralph Garr December 14 – Greg Goossen December 15 – Gil Blanco December 19 – Art Kusnyer December 19 – Geoff Zahn December 20 – Vince Colbert December 20 – Keith Lampard December 30 – Tom Murphy Deaths January January 3 – George Stone, 68, left fielder for the Boston Americans and St. Louis Browns during seven seasons spanning 1903–1910, who led the American League in his 1905 rookie season with 187 hits, and topped the league in 1906 with a .358 batting average, total bases (291), on-base percentage (.417) and slugging percentage (.501), while finishing second in hits (208) and triples (20), third in RBI (71), and seventh in home runs (6). January 5 – Bill Hobbs, shortstop who played with the Cincinnati Reds in the 1913 and 1916 seasons. January 11 – Harry McNeal, 67, pitcher for the 1901 Cleveland Bluebirds of the American League. January 14 – Ted Blankenship, 43, a hard throwing pitcher who played from 1922 through 1930 for the Chicago White Sox. January 17 – Roy Radebaugh, 63, pitcher for the St. Louis Cardinals in the 1911 season. January 17 – Rube Ward, 65, backup outfielder for the 1902 Brooklyn Superbas of the National League. January 18 – Mike Fitzgerald, 53, outfielder who played for the New York Highlanders in 1911 and the Philadelphia Phillies in 1918. January 18 – Gene Lansing, 47, pitcher who played briefly for the 1922 Boston Braves of the National League. February February 1 – Tubby Spencer, 61, backup catcher who played for the St. Louis Browns, Boston Red Sox, Philadelphia Phillies and Detroit Tigers in all or parts of nine seasons spanning 1905–1918. February 11 – Ham Iburg, 71, pitcher for the Philadelphia Phillies in 1902, who later posted three 20-win consecutive seasons at the Pacific Coast League from 1903 to 1905. February 13 – Jocko Halligan, 76, backup outfielder who played from 1890 through 1892 in the National League for the Baltimore Orioles, Cincinnati Reds and Buffalo Bisons. February 14 – Jim Curtiss, 83, outfielder who divided his playing time between the Cincinnati Reds and the Washington Statesmen from 1891 to 1892. February 15 – Steve Behel, 84, backup outfielder who played with the Milwaukee Brewers of the Union Association in 1884 and for the New York Metropolitans of the American Association in 1886. February 18 – John Munyan, 84, catcher who played for the Cleveland Blues, Columbus Solons and St. Louis Browns of the National League in a span of three seasons from 1887 to 1891. February 20 – Charlie Heard, 73, pitcher and outfielder who played for the Pittsburgh Alleghenys of the National League during the 1890 season. February 21 – Paul Radford, 83, outfielder and shortstop for nine different teams in a 12-season career from 1883 to 1894, who collected 1206 hits and 346 stolen bases in 1361 games, while being a member of the 1884 World Champion Providence Grays and three pennant-winning teams. March March 6 – Harry O'Neill, 27, catcher for the 1939 Philadelphia Athletics, whose name is linked forever to that of Elmer Gedeon as the only two major leaguers that were killed during World War II. March 11 – Sam Mertes, 72, left fielder for five clubs in 10 seasons spanning 1896–1906, who was a member of the 1905 World Champions New York Giants and led the National League with 32 doubles and 104 RBI in 1903. March 29 – Ray Tift, 60, pitcher for the 1907 New York Highlanders of the American League. March 29 – Jim Hughey, 76, pitcher who played for the Milwaukee Brewers, Chicago Colts, St. Louis Browns, Cleveland Spiders and St. Louis Cardinals in a span of seven seasons from 1891 to 1900. April April 4 – Dick Cotter, 55, catcher who played from 1911 to 1912 for the Philadelphia Phillies and Chicago Cubs. April 9 – Ted Cather, 55, outfielder who played from 1912 through 1915 for the St. Louis Cardinals and Boston Braves, as well as a member of the 1914 World Champion Cardinals Team. April 13 – Joe Kutina, 60, first baseman who played in 1911 and 1912 with the St. Louis Browns of the American League. April 16 – Chick Fewster, 49, second baseman who played from 1917 through 1927 for the New York Yankees, Boston Red Sox, Cleveland Indians and Brooklyn Robins, perhaps best known for being one of those involved in one of the most famous flubs in MLB history, the three men on third incident occurred in the 1926 season. April 25 – Jim Murray, 67, outfielder who played for the Chicago Orphans, St. Louis Browns and Boston Braves in parts of three seasons spanning 1902–1914. May May 2 – Joe Corbett, 69, pitcher who played for the Washington Senators, Baltimore Orioles and St. Louis Cardinals National League clubs during four seasons between 1895 and 1904. May 3 – Bill Stemmyer, 79, fireball pitcher for the Boston Beaneaters and Cleveland Blues from 1885 to 1898, who in 1886 led the National League in SO/9IP (6.17), but threw 63 wild pitches which is still the highest single-season total in MLB history. May 6 – Eddie Zimmerman, 62, third baseman who played for with the St. Louis Cardinals in 1906 and for the 1911 Brooklyn Dodgers in 1911. May 18 – Pete Cregan, 70, backup outfielder for the 1899 New York Giants and the 1903 Cincinnati Reds. May 22 – Jake Atz, 65, middle infielder who played with the Washington Senators in 1902 and Chicago White Sox from 1907 to 1909; spent 27 years as a minor-league manager, winning six consecutive Texas League pennants with the Fort Worth Panthers from 1920 to 1925. May 25 – Charlie Frye, 30, pitcher for the 1940 Philadelphia Phillies. May 27 – Walter Carlisle, 63, English left fielder for the 1908 Boston Red Sox, who entered the records books as the only outfielder ever to make an unassisted triple play in organized baseball, while playing for the 1911 Vernon Tigers of the Pacific Coast League. June June 5 – Fred Lewis, 86, outfielder who played from 1881 through 1886 for the Boston Red Caps, Philadelphia Quakers, St. Louis Browns, St. Louis Maroons, and Cincinnati Red Stockings National League clubs. June 8 – Bill Kemmer, 71, third baseman for the 1895 Louisville Colonels of the National League. June 17 – Joe Visner, 85, catcher and outfielder who played with the Baltimore Orioles, Brooklyn Bridegrooms, Pittsburgh Burghers, Washington Statesmen and St. Louis Browns in a span of four seasons from 1885 to 1891, being also a member of the Brooklyn club that won the 1889 American Association pennant title. June 18 – Sid Mercer, 64, Hall of Fame sportswriter who covered mostly boxing and baseball in St. Louis, Missouri and in New York City, and also served as an official with the St. Louis Browns from 1903 through 1905. June 19 – Bob Gandy, 51, outfielder for the 1916 Philadelphia Phillies. June 25 – Jack Mercer, 56, pitcher who played for the Pittsburgh Pirates in 1910. June 29 – Clarence Winters, 45, pitcher who made four mound appearances for the 1924 Boston Red Sox. July July 2 – Frank Grube, 40, catcher who played in 394 games from 1931 through 1936 and in 1941 for the Chicago White Sox and St. Louis Browns. July 7 – Ollie Anderson, 65, who spent almost 40 years as a minor-league umpire, and officiated in 152 games for the 1914 Federal League, then considered an "outlaw" circuit now thought of as a major league. July 7 – Cal Crum, 55, pitcher who played for the Boston Braves in the 1917 and 1918 seasons. July 10 – Bill Barnes, 87, outfielder who played in 1887 for the St. Paul Saints of the Union Association. July 16 – Tuck Turner, 72, outfielder who played from 1893 through 1898 for the Philadelphia Phillies and St. Louis Browns of the National League, a .320 career hitter who accomplished a rare feat by hitting an inside-the-park grand slam in 1897, whose .418 batting average posted in 1894 is ninth all-time for a single-season in MLB history, as well as the highest for a switch hitter. July 18 – Frank Butler, 85, backup outfielder for the 1895 New York Giants. July 31 – Snapper Kennedy, 66, outfielder who played in 1902 with the Chicago Orphans of the National League. August August 7 – Bobby Veach, 57, left fielder for the Detroit Tigers who batted .310 lifetime, while leading the American League in RBI three times and in doubles twice. August 9 – Art Nichols, 74, catcher, first baseman and outfielder who played from 1898 through 1903 for the Chicago Orphans and the St. Louis Cardinals. August 14 – Tommy Clarke, 57, a fine defensive catcher who spent ten years from 1909 to 1918 for the Cincinnati Reds and Chicago Cubs, and also served as a coach on the 1933 World Championship Giants team. September September 4 – William Fischer, 54, catcher for the Brooklyn Dodgers/Robins, Chicago Whales, Chicago Cubs and Pittsburgh Pirates during five seasons from 1913 to 1917, who led the Whales to the 1915 Federal League pennant. September 12 – Cy Pieh, 58, pitcher who played from 1913 to 1915 with the New York Yankees. September 12 – Dave Zearfoss, 77, backup catcher for the New York Giants and St. Louis Cardinals in parts of five seasons spanning 1896–1905. September 13 – Cy Blanton, 37, All-Star pitcher and one of the mainstays of the Pittsburgh Pirates rotation in the 1930s, who won 18 games and led the National League in earned run average (2.58) and shutouts (4) in his 1935 rookie season, while leading again the league in shutouts in 1936 (4) and starts in 1937 (34). September 18 – Ducky Holmes, 63, fine outfielder and smart base runner for seven different teams from 1895 through 1905, who posted a .281 career average and stole 236 bases in 933 games, and also managed 13 seasons in the Minor Leagues. September 21 – Bert Humphries, 64, pitcher who played from 1910 through 1915 for the Cincinnati Reds, Chicago Cubs and Philadelphia Phillies. September 27 – Lou Nordyke, 69, first baseman who played for the St. Louis Browns of the American League in 1906. September 29 – George Van Haltren, 79, center fielder, primarily with the New York Giants, who hit a .316 lifetime average and ranked sixth all-time in both hits (2500+) and runs upon retirement; led the National League in triples and stolen bases once each, and also won 40 games as pitcher, including a six-inning no-hitter. October October 9 – Bob Ganley, 70, outfielder who played from 1905 through 1909 for the Pittsburgh Pirates, Washington Senators and Philadelphia Athletics. October 12 – Henry Oxley, 87, a Canadian catcher who played in 1884 with the New York Gothams and the New York Metropolitans. October 14 – Fred Tyler, 53, catcher for the 1914 Boston Braves. October 16 – Hack Eibel, 51, outfielder and pitcher who played in 1912 with the Cleveland Naps and for the Boston Red Sox in 1920. October 18 – Monty Pfyl, 59, first baseman for the New York Giants in the 1907 season. October 25 – Ernie Baker, 70, pitcher for the 1905 Cincinnati Reds. October 26 – Ernie Gust, 57, first baseman who played in 1911 for the St. Louis Browns of the American League. October 27 – Jack Hannifin, 62, infielder who played for the Philadelphia Athletics, New York Giants and Boston Doves in a span of three seasons from 1906 through 1908. October 27 – Taylor Shafer, 79, second baseman and outfielder who divided his playing time between the Altoona Mountain City, Kansas City Cowboys and Baltimore Monumentals of the Union Association in 1883, and later played for the Philadelphia Athletics of the National League in 1890. November November 1 – George Hale, 51, backup catcher for the St. Louis Browns in four seasons from 1914 to 1918. November 3 – Mike Smith, 77, left fielder and pitcher who posted a .310 career batting average and a 75-57 pitching record with six teams from 1886 through 1901, while leading the American Association pitchers with a 2.94 ERA in 1887. November 16 – Jake Northrop, pitcher for the Boston Braves from 1918 to 1919. November 18 – Morrie Rath, 58, speedy and skilled second baseman for four teams in a span of six years from 1909 to 1920, who led both the American and National Leagues in fielding percentage, putouts, assists and double plays, and also was a member of the 1919 World Champion Cincinnati Reds. November 22 – Dick Carroll, 61, pitcher for the 1909 New York Highlanders of the American League. November 25 – Ham Patterson, 68, first baseman and outfielder who played for the St. Louis Browns and the Chicago White Sox during the 1909 season. December December 3 – Bill Kay, 67, outfielder who played in 1907 for the Washington Senators of the American League. December 8 – Henry Fournier, 80, pitcher for the 1894 Cincinnati Reds. December 14 – Connie Murphy, 75, catcher who played from 1893 to 1894 for the Cincinnati Reds. December 15 – Tom Hess, 70, catcher for the 1892 Baltimore Orioles of the National League. December 22 – Bill Crouch, 59, pitcher who played in 1910 with the St. Louis Browns of the American League. December 24 – Hughie Miller, 59, first baseman who played with the Philadelphia Phillies in 1911 and from 1914 to 1915 for the St. Louis Terriers of the Federal League. December 26 – Frank Lange, 62, pitcher for the 1910 Chicago White Sox. December 27 – Gene Cocreham, pitcher who played from 1897 to 1898 for the Washington Senators of the National League. December 27 – Hugh Fullerton, 72, Chicago sportswriter who helped break the story of the Black Sox Scandal and, as an early advocate of the value of baseball statistics, gained wide attention for correctly predicting the White Sox' upset of the Cubs in the 1906 World Series, even getting right the winner of each game and the day of a rainout. December 27 – Cy Swaim, 71, pitcher who played with the Washington Senators of the National League in the 1897 and 1898 seasons. Sources External links Baseball Reference – 1945 MLB Season Summary Baseball Reference – MLB Players born in 1945 Baseball Reference – MLB Players died in 1945
4186812	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bribri%20people	Bribri people	The Bribri are an Indigenous people in eastern Costa Rica and northern Panama. Today, most Bribri people speak the Bribri language or Spanish. There are varying estimates from government officials of the group's population. Estimates of the total Bribri population range as high as 35,000 people, although official estimates assert there are about 11,500 Bribri people in Costa Rica, and about 1000 Bribri people in Panama. According to a census by the Ministerio de Salud of Costa Rica however, there are 11,500 Bribri living within service range of the Hone Creek Clinic alone, suggesting the total Costa Rican Bribri population is larger. They are also a voting majority in the Puerto Viejo de Talamanca area. The Bribri historically struggled to remain on their land and preserve their culture, though the Costa Rican government currently recognizes their use of designated Indigenous Territories, and they are one of the formally recognized Indigenous peoples of Panama. Political struggles by some Bribri activists for the legal recognition of further claims to the land they inhabit and autonomy are ongoing in both countries. Demographics The Bribri are indigenous to the Talamanca region, living in the mountains and Caribbean coastal areas of Costa Rica and Northern Panama. The majority live with running water but many have scarce electricity. Their economy centers on the growth of cacao, bananas, and plantains to sell along with the consumption of beans, rice, corn, and a variety of other produce. Many Bribri are isolated from Hispanic culture and the global economy. This has allowed them to maintain their indigenous culture and language, although it has also resulted in less access to education and health care. Although the group has the lowest income per capita in Costa Rica, they are able to fulfill their basic needs by growing their food, finding medicine, and collecting housing materials in the forest. They also earn money to purchase what they cannot grow themselves through tourism and by selling cacao, bananas, and plantains. History The Bribri people of Costa Rica trace their legendary roots in Talamancan mythology to Ditsö, the first name given to the ethnic group by Sibú, the creator of Earth and humanity. Colonial and Independence Periods The name "Bribri," according to contemporary accounts by some Bribri elders, comes from their word for "strong." The earliest written accounts of their people come from Spanish colonial officials and Franciscan missionaries in the early 17th century, who referred to the Bribri and the neighboring Cábecar as the "Talamanca." Bribri forces were able to conquer the neighboring Cábecar and defeat other tribes in the Talamanca region to establish the Kingdom of Talamanca prior to the early 19th century, while a splinter group settled to the west of the Talamanca range at some point towards the end of the 19th century, although these events are poorly documented in written Spanish sources. Geographic isolation kept Spanish settlers, commerce, and agricultural practices out of the Talamanca region during the colonial period, as did resistance by Indigenous groups across the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica. Armed resistance by Indigenous groups in the Talamanca region in the 17th and 18th centuries destroyed Franciscan missions and halted the extension of Spanish power. This allowed the Bribri to preserve their language, spiritual practices, and some elements of their culture. However, some Bribri communities which fell under Spanish control were forcibly resettled to the north and in highland regions of Costa Rica in response to resistance by Indigenous groups, ultimately being assimilated into Spanish culture and no longer practicing old traditions. While able to maintain their political power and cultural practices, the Bribri suffered from depopulation in the colonial period from Old World diseases as well as conflict with the Spanish. Raids by Miskitu forces from the north along the Caribbean coast targeting Spanish and Indigenous settlements alike further depopulated the Bribri and forced them away from the coast to inland areas from the 17th to 19th centuries. The Kingdom of Talamanca By the mid 19th century, the Bribri and Cábecar were organized under a hereditary Bribri nobility led by various kings (often with multiple people who claimed the role), along with a useköl, the highest Cábecar religious authority. The Kingdom of Talamanca received official recognition of its political leadership from the government of Costa Rica in 1867, although the US marine John Lyon who had settled in the region was appointed as director de reducciones, or director of reductions (a kind of Spanish settlement), in Talamanca and held much of the power to govern as recognized by the national government. One of the last kings of Talamanca, Antonio Saldaña, came to power in 1880 after the previous king, William Forbes, was accused of homicide and declared to be in a state of rebellion by the Costa Rican government, leading to his removal from power. Saldaña ruled about 3,200 people from the seat of his power in Túnsula. Saldaña was resistant to policy from the Costa Rican government which could have led to the cultural assimilation of the Bribri, like the occupation of their land, the presence of teachers, or their service in the national military, though he did not support policy which would have abandoned the region either. Saldaña came into conflict with the United Fruit Company, a major US-based company with significant control over the banana industry in the Caribbean and Central America, in the early 20th century. The development of United Fruit plantations followed the company's construction of railroads, and as the company expanded north from Panama its railways pushed into the formerly geographically isolated Talamanca Valley and the Bribri heartland in 1908. Saldaña sought to resist the expansion of United Fruit land claims in his territory, but in 1910 died from poisoning, as did his nephew and successor 8 days later. While no definitive proof demonstrates that the United Fruit Company was responsible for the poisonings, many contemporary observers believed they were, and regardless of guilt the poisonings ended the Talamanca monarchy and paved the way for United Fruit's expropriation of Bribri land. United Fruit The United Fruit Company was able to use the legal system to their advantage to force the Bribri off the most fertile lands in the Talamanca Valley. Local intermediaries were able to purchase Bribri land, acting as landlords before selling the legal title to United Fruit. The company could then declare the local inhabitants to be squatters, and by providing minimal financial compensation, tricking people into signing away their legal rights to the land, or having workers clear the forests and disrupt settlements by force, were able to displace the Bribri from their old heartland. The Bribri remained in the Talamanca region, although forced off lands useful for banana growing to marginal lands where they continued to practice subsistence agriculture and raise livestock. While some Bribri worked part time for United Fruit, most were never fully incorporated into the workforce because of cultural barriers as they insisted on working on their own terms and schedules. However, the extension of their system of bartering to plantation workers and other banana farmers, as well as the sale of their excess produce, partially integrated their farming into a broader economy. United Fruit's operations in the Talamanca region faced plant diseases which ravaged their banana crops and flooding which damaged the infrastructure they built. While some contemporary studies suggest that United Fruit policy, like monocrop plantations frequented by workers traveling from infected farms which rapidly spread disease, and deforestation which removed barriers to the flow of rainwater into the Sixaola River and intensified flooding, were to blame, Bribri shamans at the time took credit for the devastation these forces wreaked on United Fruit's operations. The company ultimately abandoned its banana plantations in Talamanca in 1931. After United Fruit left, only a small population of Costa Rican and West Indian farmers remained in the Talamanca region, and some Bribri communities were able to resettle the Talamanca Valley. While the Union Oil Company began to operate in the region, they did not displace Bribri communities to the degree that the United Fruit Company had. The area has remained fairly inaccessible to outsiders and culturally and economically independent since United Fruit left the region. However, some Bribri people outside of the Talamanca region live in areas which have been more accessible and have a higher degree of economic integration with the rest of Costa Rica. Reservations In Costa Rica in 1973, the Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica charged the National Committee on Indigenous Affairs (CONAI) with promoting projects on behalf of indigenous communities. In 1976, President Daniel Oduber Quiros signed Executive Decree No. 5904-G, defining the terms of establishing indigenous reserves. Later that year, Executive Decree No. 6036-G established several indigenous reserves, including for the Bribri, which the Legislative Assembly ratified on November 16, 1977, in Indigenous Law No. 6172. In Panama, while a system for semi-autonomous Indigenous regions exists in the country under the comarca system, the Bribri population is relatively small and as such has not yet been granted a comarca. However, the passage of Law Number 72 by the National Assembly of Panama in 2008 provided a pathway to grant legal title to collective landholdings for Indigenous groups like the Bribri without comarcas. In Costa Rica, the recognition of Bribri reservations granted them legal title to some of their traditional lands. However, as parts of this territory were legally occupied by non-Indigenous settlers prior to 1977, some of these settlers remain on territory which after 1977 has legally belonged to the Bribri, and have not yet accepted compensation for their removal. This has led Bribri activists and organizers, or land defenders, to politically organize to reclaim their traditional territory within reservation bounds. Some activists have faced threats from the people and business interests seeking to remain on the land which is now recognized as belonging to the Bribri, including the Bribri activist Sergio Rojas who was murdered in 2019, following threats to his life over his land recovery efforts. In Panama, Bribri activists strive for a collective land title under Law Number 72, part of efforts for the legal recognition of collective landholdings which have been ongoing for over 30 years. Without legal protection, some Bribri activists, including King Joaquín González, fear they may be displaced or assimilated by neighboring Indigenous groups or settlers, or that the forests necessary for their subsistence economy may be stripped away by logging operations. While the Bribri and Cábecar peoples inhabit some of the same regions and maintain similar political goals, the groups have been reported to have a history of ethnic tension, including Bribri discrimination against Cábecar people. Some Bribri political organizers see the restoration of old institutions as necessary for political advocacy, though this is a strategy some Cábecar activists have argued excludes other Indigenous groups. However, Indigenous advocates have expressed the hope that tensions will be resolved through dialogue. Culture and spirituality The Bribri people live in the mountains and islands of southern Costa Rica and northern Panama both on reservations and non-protected areas. The Bribri social structure is organized in clans. Each clan is composed of an extended family. The clan system is matrilineal; that is, a child's clan is determined by the clan his or her mother belongs to. This gives women a very important place in Bribri society since they are the only ones that can inherit land and prepare the sacred cacao (Theobroma cacao) drink that is essential for their rituals. Men's roles are defined by their clan, and these roles often are exclusively for men. Examples of these roles are the "awa" or shaman, and the "oko", the only person allowed to touch the remains of the dead, sing funeral songs, and prepare the food eaten at funerals. Cacao, as in most of the indigenous groups in southern Costa Rica and northern Panama, has a special significance in Bribri culture. For them the cacao tree used to be a woman that Sibú (God) turned into a tree. Cacao branches are never used as firewood and only women are allowed to prepare and serve the sacred drink. Cacao is used in special occasions, ceremonies and in certain rites of passage such as when young girls have their first menstruation. Currently there exists several Bribri women's associations that produce organic, hand made chocolate that helps them in their livelihoods. The Shaman, or "awa" holds a very important place in Bribri society. Awapa (plural for awa) train since they are about 8 years old; the training is said to last between 10 and 15 years. Only certain clans are allowed to become awapa. Since the clan comes from the mother's side of the family, an awa cannot teach his own sons, but rather the sons of his female relatives. All of the knowledge is transmitted orally from an older awa to the apprentice. Bribri healing practices combine herbal medicine and spiritual healing. In their tradition illnesses can come from evil spirits that come in from the ocean in the west, they can also be caused by the person's immoral behavior, or by witchcraft from envious neighbors. In order to heal, the Awa must learn special songs that allow him to connect to the spirits of the plant, the disease and the person. Once this connection is established the awa converses with all three spirits until, with the aid of the plant spirit, convinces the disease to leave the person. The Bribri spiritual practice centers about the conical house. Conical houses can be found in many Amazonian groups belonging to the Macro-chibchan language family. The conical house is a symbolic representation of the universe. It is supported by eight pillars symbolizing the animals that helped Sibú construct the Universe. The house has four levels representing the four levels of the world, being the ground level the plane we inhabit. On the second level dwell the spirits of plants and animals, and the owners of the rivers, this is where Sibú's helpers live. On the third level of the universe live the spirits who cause disease and suffering and descend periodically to cause grief on earth. The final and highest level of the conical house is where Sibú, accompanied by his helper the king of vultures lives. In this same level live the most malign spirits as well. The Bribri explanation for this is that Sibú keeps them enclosed there, like a warden keeps the inmates in a prison. There are also three other levels beneath the world we inhabit. One of them is the place where Bribri souls go after death. The king vulture (Sarcoramphus papa) holds an important place in the Bribri cosmology. He is the only one that can fly high enough to reach the top of the Universe and thus serves as a link between Sibú and the other worlds. It is believed that while regular vultures, who are his helpers, roost in trees like other birds, the vulture king rises up to sleep with Sibú after eating. Agriculture is the main activity of the Bribri. The Bribri are isolated, and have developed an extensive bartering system. One small group of Bribri, who live in the community called Kekoldi, only has about 200 people. They partake in the unique practice of iguana farming. These iguanas are released into the forest so any other Bribri can hunt them for their food and skin. The farm has been operating for 11 years and has about 2,000 iguanas and 2,000,000 eggs. The iguanas stay on the farm until five years of age at which time they are released into the wild. The Kekoldi have maintained their own culture. Some Bribri from the younger generation have adopted digital technologies, which have introduced them to new cultural influences. However, some Bribri elders believe this outside cultural influence is a threat to their traditions and their culture which historically resisted assimilation by outsiders. Non-profit organizations in the area El Puente is a non-profit organization working with the Bribri people, offering educational assistance, food, and micro-loans. Their goal is to help families and individuals become self-sufficient. El Puente also offers educational working volunteer opportunities, including documentation and preservation of a medicinal plant garden, preparing and serving meals at the community kitchen, and working with local family farmers. Surf For Life is a non-profit organization designed to connect travelers with community service activities benefitting coastal communities around the world. Their mission is to assemble teams of 'voluntourists' to travel to various project sites where they serve as hands-on workers and goodwill advocates. Volunteers team up to raise money for projects benefiting the Bribri. In March 2010, Surf For Life teams successfully restored the core structure and wooden planks of a suspension bridge up in the mountains. Now the families living on the other side of the river can safely use the bridge again for everyday access to necessities like food and water supplies, school and medical services. The Tropical Adventures Foundation works inside the reservation. They provide training to help the Bribri create sustainable income for their communities, while striving to help the tribe preserve their language and culture. Tropical Adventures welcomes volunteers and provides opportunities including: teaching English, recycling and environmental education, medicinal plant project, organic farming, wildlife rehabilitation, chocolate factory, public relations and marketing, retirement home assistance, painting, building and general maintenance, elementary school projects, and trail maintenance. Project Talamanca provides free medical and dental care to the Bribri and Cabécar people of Talamanca, in cooperation with the CCSS (Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social) and local tribal organizations. Under the direction of the founder, Dr. Peter S. Aborn DDS, groups of professional and student volunteers treat patients in week-long visits to the reserve twice a year. Dr. Aborn's team of volunteers is committed to providing free care to patients in the least accessible regions of Talamanca. They are also doing research into viral diseases that are endemic to the area, and sponsoring a scholarship for a Bribri student to study dentistry professionally. Notable people with Bribri ancestry Benjamín Mayorga (b. 1966), football player Guillermo Rodriguez Romero (b. 1958), Costa Rica's first Indigenous ambassador Antonio Saldaña, cacique and one of the last kings of Talamanca References External links Bribri people, Minnesota State University, Mankato A Bribri course with audio files: Jara Murillo, Carla con Alí García Segura. 2008. Materiales y Ejercicios para el Curso de Bribri I, Universidad de Costa Rica. An Interview with BriBri Leader Don Timoteo Jackson Circum-Caribbean tribes Indigenous peoples in Costa Rica Indigenous peoples of Central America
4187004	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political%20families%20of%20India	Political families of India	Although India is a parliamentary democracy, the country's politics has become dynastic or with high level of nepotism, possibly due to the absence of party organizations, independent civil-society associations which mobilize support for a party, or centralized financing of elections. The dynastic phenomenon is present at the national, state, regional, and district level. The Nehru–Gandhi family has produced three Indian prime ministers, and family members have largely led the Congress party since 1978. The ruling Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) also has several dynastic leaders. In addition to the major national parties, other national and regional parties such as Shiromani Akali Dal, Shiv Sena, Samajwadi Party, Rashtriya Janata Dal, Janata Dal Secular, Jharkhand Mukti Morcha, Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, Kerala Congress, Jammu & Kashmir National Conference, Indian Union Muslim League, AIMIM, and the Nationalist Congress Party are all dominated by families, mostly those of the party founders. National Nehru–Gandhi family The Nehru–Gandhi family's involvement with the Congress Party began with Motilal Nehru in the 1920s, when India was still part of the British Empire. The family became more influential under his son, Jawaharlal Nehru, who became a prominent figure in India's nationalist movement. After Jawaharlal's death, his daughter Indira Gandhi became his political heir (her surname came from her husband, Feroze Gandhi. The Nehru-Gandhi dynasty has dominated the Congress Party since Indian independence in 1947. The party was defeated in the 2014 elections, however, and high-level defections took place in Maharashtra, Assam, West Bengal, and Jammu and Kashmir. The family still has widespread name recognition. Motilal Nehru - Freedom fighter, politician and lawyer Jawaharlal Nehru - Freedom fighter, First Indian Prime Minister, 1947–1964 (son of Motilal) Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit - Member of Parliament, diplomat (daughter of Motilal) Kamala Nehru - Congress Party leader (wife of Jawaharlal) Indira Gandhi - Prime Minister, 1966–1977 and 1980–1984 (daughter of Jawaharlal) Feroze Gandhi - Freedom fighter, politician, journalist (husband of Indira) Rajiv Gandhi - Prime minister, 1984–1989 (son of Feroze and Indira) Sonia Gandhi - Former President of the Congress Party, leading it to victory in two successive Lok Sabha elections (wife of Rajiv) Rahul Gandhi - Member of Parliament, former Congress Party president (son of Rajiv and Sonia) Priyanka Gandhi - Congress Party general secretary (daughter of Rajiv and Sonia) Robert Vadra - Businessman, entrepreneur (husband of Priyanka) Sanjay Gandhi - Politician (son of Feroze and Indira) Maneka Gandhi - Cabinet member of Narendra Modi's government (wife of Sanjay Gandhi) Varun Gandhi - Former Member of Parliament (son of Sanjay) Uma Nehru - Member of Parliament (cousin of Indira) Arun Nehru - Former minister (nephew of Indira, son of Uma) Andhra Pradesh & Telangana Bihar Mehta Family Tulsidas Mehta— five time Member of Bihar Legislative Assembly from Jandaha Assembly constituency, former Minister in Lalu Prasad Yadav cabinet, one of the founder of Rashtriya Janata Dal. Alok Kumar Mehta— multiple times Member of Bihar Legislative Assembly, former Member of Lok Sabha from Ujiarpur Lok Sabha constituency, multiple times minister in Rashtriya Janata Dal government. (son of Tulsidas Mehta) Chaudhary Family Shakuni Choudhary— five time Member of Bihar Legislative Assembly from Tarapur Assembly constituency and former Minister in Government of Bihar, a close accomplice of Lalu Prasad Yadav. Samrat Choudhary— Former Minister in Government of Bihar, President of Bihar wing of Bharatiya Janata Party (son of Shakuni Chaudhary) Prasad Family Jagdeo Prasad— Founder of Shoshit Samaj Party and Former Deputy Chief Minister of Bihar. Satish Prasad Singh— Former Chief Minister of Bihar for shortest tenure. (brother-in-law of Jagdeo Prasad) Nagmani— Former Minister for Social Justice and Empowerment in Atal Bihari Vajpayee's cabinet, several time Member of Bihar Legislative Assembly and Minister in Government of Bihar. (son of Jagdeo Prasad and son-in-law of Satish Prasad Singh). Verma Family Upendra Nath Verma— Former Minister in Vishwanath Pratap Singh's cabinet, several time Member of Bihar Legislative Assembly, Former Minister For Education in Government of Bihar. Bagi Kumar Verma— Former Minister in Government of Bihar, several time Member of Bihar Legislative Assembly. (son of Upendra Nath Verma) Kushwaha Family Janardan Manjhi— several times Member of Bihar Legislative Assembly from Amarpur Assembly constituency in Banka district. Jayant Raj Kushwaha— Member of Bihar Legislative Assembly from Amarpur Assembly constituency, served as Minister for Rural Works and Minister for Minor Water Resources in Government of Bihar. (son of Janardan Manjhi) Yadav family Lalu Prasad YadavFormer Chief Minister of Bihar and former Railway Minister of India Rabri Devi — Former Chief Minister of Bihar (wife) Tejashwi Yadav — Deputy CM of Bihar and former leader of the opposition (son of Lalu Prasad Yadav & Rabri Devi) Tej Pratap Yadav — Former Minister of Health and Environment, Government of Bihar (son of Lalu Prasad Yadav & Rabri Devi) Misa Bharti — Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha (daughter of Lalu Prasad Yadav & Rabri Devi) Mishra family Lalit Narayan MishraFormer Railway Minister of India Vijay Kumar MishraFormer MLA from Jale and former MP, Lok Sabha from Darbhanga (son of Lalit Narayan Mishra) Rishi MishraFormer MLA from Jale (son of Vijay Kumar Mishra) Jagannath MishraFormer Chief Minister of Bihar and former Cabinet Minister, Government of India (younger brother of Lalit Narayan Mishra) Nitish MishraFormer Rural Development Minister, Government of Bihar (son of Jagannath Mishra) Sinha family Sadhu Sharan Singh - Nationalist, congressman and father of Thakur Jugal Kishore Sinha Thakur Jugal Kishore SinhaFreedom fighter, member of the first Lok Sabha, known as the father of India's cooperative movement Ram Dulari SinhaFreedom fighter, member of the first Vidhan Sabha, former Union Minister and governor (wife) Madhurendra Kumar Singh - Member All India Congress Committee, former Director Central Warehousing Corporation and Bihar State Cooperative Bank. Mrigendra Kumar Singh - son of Dr. Madhurendra Kumar Singh. State Secretary of Bihar Pradesh Congress Committee, former President of Sheohar Loksabha Youth Congress. Chhattisgarh Jogi family Ajit JogiFormer Chief Minister of Chhattisgarh Renu JogiFormer MLA from Kota, Chhattisgarh (wife of Ajit Jogi) Amit JogiFormer MLA from Marwahi, Chhattisgarh (son of Ajit Jogi & Renu Jogi) Shukla family Shyama Charan ShuklaFormer Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh Amitesh ShuklaFormer Rural Development Minister, Government of Chhattisgarh (son of Shyama Charan Shukla) Vidya Charan Shukla Former Cabinet Minister, Government of India (younger brother of Shyama Charan Shukla) Kashyap family Baliram KashyapFormer MP, Lok Sabha from Bastar Dinesh KashyapFormer MP, Lok Sabha from Bastar (son of Baliram Kashyap) Singh (Raman) family Raman SinghFormer Chief Minister of Chhattisgarh Abhishek SinghFormer MP, Lok Sabha from Rajnandgaon (son) Goa Alemao family Churchill AlemaoFourth Chief Minister of Goa, former MP from South Goa, former MLA from Benaulim and Navelim Joaquim AlemaoFormer MLA from Benaulim and Cuncolim (brother) Yuri AlemaoMLA from Cuncolim (son) Bandodkar family Dayanand BandodkarFirst Chief Minister of Goa, former MLA from Mandrem and Marcaim Shashikala KakodkarSecond Chief Minister of Goa, former MLA from Ponda, Bicholim and Maem (daughter) Dhavalikar family Sudin DhavalikarMLA from Marcaim Deepak DhavalikarFormer MLA from Priol (brother) D'Souza family Francis D'SouzaFormer MLA from Mapusa Joshua D'SouzaMLA from Mapusa (son) Fernandes family Victoria Fernandes Former MLA from St. Cruz Rodolfo FernandesMLA from St. Cruz (son) Gauns family Gurudas GaunsFormer MLA from Pale Pratap GaunsFormer MLA from Pale (brother) Lobo family Michael LoboMLA from Calangute Delilah LoboMLA from Siolim (wife) Monserrate family Atanasio MonserrateMLA from Panaji, former MLA from Taleigao and St. Cruz Jennifer MonserrateMLA from Taleigao (wife) Rane family Pratapsingh RaneThird Chief Minister of Goa, former MLA from Sattari and Poriem Vishwajit Pratapsingh RaneMLA from Valpoi (son) Deviya Vishwajit RaneMLA from Poriem (wife) Saldanha family José Matanhy de SaldanhaFormer MLA from Cortalim Alina Saldanha Former MLA from Cortalim (wife) Sequeira family Jack de SequeiraFirst opposition leader from Goa, former MLA from Panaji and St. Cruz Erasmo de SequeiraFormer MP from South Goa (son) Shet family Anant ShetFormer MLA from Maem Premendra ShetMLA from Maem (brother) Vaz family John Manuel VazFormer MLA from Mormugao Giovanni Karl VazFormer MLA from Mormugao (son) Zantye family Harish Narayan Prabhu ZantyeFormer MP from North Goa, former MLA from Bicholim and Maem Pravin Zantye Former MLA from Maem (son) Gujarat Patel family Chimanbhai Patel Family Chimanbhai Patel, Former Chief Minister of Gujarat. Siddharth Patel, Former Member of Legislative Assembly, Former President of Gujarat Pradesh Congress Committee. Keshubhai Patel Family Keshubhai Patel, Former Chief Minister of Gujarat. Bharat Patel, BJP member. The Patel Family Of Ikhar Juned Patel, Indian Politician Haryana Chautala family Chaudhari Devi Lal (1915–2001) – Deputy Prime Minister of India (1989–91), Chief Minister of Haryana (1977–79 and 1987–1989) Om Prakash Chautala – Former Chief Minister of Haryana (son) Ranjit Singh Chautala – Former MLA and Minister of Haryana (son) Abhay Chautala – MLA in Haryana and former MLA in Rajasthan (son of Om) Ajay Chautala – MLA, Former MP from Haryana (son of Om) Naina Chautala – MLA in Haryana (wife of Ajay) Dushyant Chautala – Current Deputy Chief Minister, former Member of Parliament from Haryana (son of Ajay) Jindal family Om Prakash Jindal (1930–2005) – Minister of Power of Haryana (2005), Lok Sabha member (1996–1997), member of Haryana Legislative Assembly (1991–1996, 2005) Savitri Jindal (1950–) – Member of Haryana Legislative Assembly (2005–), Minister of Power of Haryana 2005–2010 (wife) Naveen Jindal (1970–) – Lok Sabha member 2004–present (son) Himachal Pradesh Singh (Virbhadra) family Virbhadra Singh (23 June 1934 – 8 July 2021), popularly known as Raja Saheb, was Chief Minister of Himachal Pradesh, member of the Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly, and a Union Minister in Manmohan Singh and Indira Gandhi's governments. He was a Lok Sabha member from Mandi and Shimla. Pratibha Singh (born 16 July 1956) – Congress Lok Sabha MP from Mandi (wife) Vikramaditya Singh (born 17 October 1989)Congress member of the Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly (son) Dhumal family Prem Kumar Dhumal (born 10 April 1944)Chief Minister of Himachal Pradesh (March 1998March 2003 and 1 January 200825 December 2012), former Lok Sabha member from Hamirpur Anurag Singh Thakur (born 24 October 1974)Lok Sabha member from Hamirpur, Minister of State for Finance and Corporate Affairs in Narendra Modi's government (son) Sukh Ram family Sukh Ram (b. 27 July 1927)Minister of Communications and Information Technology from 1993 to 1996 in the P. V. Narasimha Rao government, Lok Sabha member from Mandi and an MLA Anil Sharma (b. 30 June 1956)Congress MLA from Mandi in 1993, 2007 and 2012, and a Bharatiya Janata Party MLA in 2017; rejoined the Indian National Congress in 2019 (son) Jammu and Kashmir Abdullah family Sheikh AbdullahFormer Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir Begum Akbar Jehan AbdullahFormer Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha (wife of Sheikh Abdullah) Sheikh Mustafa KamalFormer Member of the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly (son of Sheikh Abdullah & Begum Akbar Jehan Abdullah) Farooq AbdullxahFormer Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir (son of Sheikh Abdullah & Begum Akbar Jehan Abdullah) Omar AbdullahFormer Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir and former Minister of State for External Affairs (son of Farooq Abdullah) Sachin PilotFormer Deputy Chief Minister of Rajasthan and former Member of Parliament and former Union Minister, Government of India (son-in-law of Farooq Abdullah) Sayeed family Mufti Mohammad SayeedFormer Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir and former Minister of Home Affairs Mehbooba MuftiFormer Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir (daughter of Mufti Mohammad Sayeed) Tassaduq Hussain MuftiFormer member of Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Council (son of Mufti Mohammad Sayeed) Jharkhand Soren family Shibu SorenCurrent Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha and former Chief Minister of Jharkhand Hemant SorenCurrent Chief Minister of Jharkhand (son of Shibu Soren) Durga SorenFormer member of Jharkhand Legislative Assembly (son of Shibu Soren) Sita SorenCurrent member of Jharkhand Legislative Assembly (wife of Durga Soren) Verma family Rati Lal Prasad Verma, six time Member of Indian Parliament (Lok Sabha) from Kodarma Lok Sabha constituency in Jharkhand. Jagdish Prasad Kushwaha, considered as founding leader of Bharatiya Jana Sangh in Jharkhand. (brother of Rati Lal Prasad Verma) Jai Prakash Verma, Former Member of Jharkhand Legislative Assembly from Gandey Assembly constituency. (son of Jagdish Prasad Kushwaha and nephew of Rati Lal Prasad Verma) Karnataka Devegowda family H. D. Devegowda - Former Prime Minister of India, only prime minister from Karnataka, Former Chief Minister of Karnataka and Current Member of Rajya Sabha H. D. Kumaraswamy - MLA and former chief Minister of Karnataka.(Son of H. D. Devegowda) Anitha Kumaraswamy - Member of Karnataka Legislative Assembly. (Wife of H. D. Kumaraswamy) H. D. Revanna - MLA, former Minister of the Karnataka Public Works Department(Son of H. D. Devegowda) Bhavani Revanna - Member of Zilla Panchayth Hassan. (Wife of H. D. Revanna) Prajwal Revanna - Member of the 17th Lok Sabha from Hassan (son of H. D. Revanna) Suraj Revanna - Member of Legislative Council from Hassan Constituency (Son of H. D. Revanna) Kerala Madhya Pradesh Singh family (Churhat) Rao Shiv Bahadur Singh (1894–1955) from ChurhatMember of Jawaharlal Nehru's cabinet Arjun Singh - Former Union Minister for Human Resources Department and former Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh (son of Rao) Ajay Arjun SinghFormer cabinet minister in the Madhya Pradesh government and former opposition leader (son of Arjun) Chaudhary family Chaudhary Dilip Singh ChaturvediMLA from Bhind Chaudhary Rakesh Singh ChaturvediFormer cabinet minister, former leader of the opposition, MLA from Bhind (son) Chaudhary Mukesh Singh ChaturvediMLA from Mehgaon (son) Chaturvedi family Vidyawati ChaturvediMLA from Laundi Satyavrat ChaturvediMember of the Rajya Sabha (son) Nath family Kamal NathFormer Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh, former Minister of Urban Development, former member of the Lok Sabha from Chhindwara Alka NathFormer MP from Chhindwara (wife) Nakul NathMember of the Lok Sabha from Chhindwara (son) MP Singh family Balbhadra SinghMLA from Raghogarh Digvijaya Singh15th Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh (son) Lakshman SinghMLA from Raghogarh (son) Mool SinghMLA from Raghogarh (nephew) Jaivardhan Singh—Ex minister madhyaprdesh kamalnath cabinet, MLA from Raghogarh (Grand son) Vajpayee family Atal Bihari Vajpayee10th Prime Minister of India Karuna ShuklaMember of the 14th Lok Sabha (niece) Maharashtra Ambedkar family B. R. Ambedkar (1891-1956) - Father of the Constitution of India, first Minister of Law and Justice, Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha, labour member of the Viceroy's Executive Council, opposition leader in the Bombay Legislative Assembly, member of the Bombay Legislative Council Yashwant Ambedkar (1912-1977) - Leader of the Republican Party of India, member of the Maharashtra Legislative Council (son of B. R. Ambedkar) Prakash Ambedkar - Leader of the Vanchit Bahujan Aghadi, former Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha MP (son of Yashwant) Anandraj Ambedkar - Leader of the Republican Sena (son of Yashwant) Thackeray family Bal Thackeray - Founder of the Shiv Sena political party Uddhav Thackeray - Former Chief Minister of Maharashtra (son) Aditya Thackeray - Former Cabinet minister in the Government of Maharashtra (grandson) Pawar family Sharad Pawar – Former Defence Minister of India and Chief Minister of Maharashtra Supriya Sule – Member of the Lok Sabha From Baramati (daughter) Ajit Pawar – Deputy Chief Minister of Maharashtra, Former Leader of Opposition in the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly (nephew) Rohit Rajendra Pawar - Member of Maharashtra assembly (nephew's son) Odisha Patnaik family Biju Patnaik - Former Chief Minister of Odisha (earlier known as Orissa) Naveen Patnaik - Chief Minister of Odisha (son) Biswal family Basant Kumar Biswal - Former Deputy Chief Minister of Odisha Chiranjib Biswal - Former deputy opposition leader of the Odisha Legislative Assembly (son) Puducherry Reddiar family V. Venkatasubha ReddiarFormer Chief Minister of Pondicherry and freedom fighter V. Vaithilingam ReddiarFormer Chief Minister of Pondicherry (son) Farook family M. O. H. FarookFormer Chief Minister of Pondicherry M. O. H. F. ShahjahanFormer Education Minister of Pondicherry (son) Punjab Talwandi family Jagdev Singh Talwandi – Former President Shiromani Akali Dal; Former President Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee; Former MP (Lok Sabha); Former MP (Rajya Sabha); Former Minister, Punjab Ranjit Singh Talwandi – former MLA from Raikot constituency Jagjit Singh Talwandi – SGPC member Harjit Kaur Talwandi – President women's wing Shiromani Akali Dal(Sanyukt) Dev Raj Singh Talwandi – former MLA from Raikot constituency Jakhar family Chaudhari Rajaram Jakhar, zaildar from Panjkosi, Abohar, Fazilka, Punjab Balram Jakhar, 2 times MLA and leader of opposition, MP Ferozepur 1980, Speaker of Lok Sabha. Governor of Madhya Pradesh Sajjan Kumar Jakhar, MLA and Minister Sunil Kumar Jakhar, 3 times MLA, President of the Bharatiya Janata Party, Punjab, former leader of opposition, Member of Parliament from Gurdaspur. Former chief of Punjab Pradesh Congress Committee Sandeep Jakhar, MLA Badal family Prakash Singh Badal – Former Chief Minister of Punjab Sukhbir Singh Badal – Former Deputy Chief Minister of Punjab, MP (Lok Sabha), president Shiromani Akali Dal (Badal) (son) Harsimrat Kaur Badal – Member of the Lok Sabha (wife of Sukhbir Singh) Bikram Singh Majithia – Former minister, Punjab (brother of Harsimrat Kaur) Adesh Pratap Singh Kairon – Minister, Punjab (son-in-law of Prakash Singh) Brar (Harcharan) family Harcharan Singh Brar – Former Chief Minister of Punjab Gurbinder Kaur Brar – Former MP (wife of Harcharan Singh Brar) Adesh Kanwarjit Singh Brar – Former MLA (son of Harcharan Singh Brar and Gurbinder Kaur Brar) Karan Kaur Brar – Former MLA (wife of Adesh Kanwarjit Singh Brar) Brar (Jaswinder) family Jaswinder Singh Brar – Former Corporate Minister of Punjab Mantar Singh Brar – MLA and Chief Parliamentary Secretary, Punjab SAD (son) Singh (Amarinder) family Amarinder Singh Former CM Punjab, former Lok Sabha member, member of the Punjab Legislative Assembly Preneet KaurMember of the Lok Sabha, former member of the Punjab Legislative Assembly (wife) Sidhu family Navjot Singh SidhuMember of the Punjab Legislative Assembly, former minister in the Amarinder Singh government, former Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha member Navjot Kaur SidhuFormer member of the Punjab Legislative Assembly (wife) Rajasthan The Beniwal Family (Jats) On 29 October 2018, Hanuman Beniwal founded the Rashtriya Loktantrik Party, becoming its national convenor in the process. This made Beniwal family as one of the most influential political families of Rajasthan since Rashtriya Loktantrik Party (RLP) is the only successful party in the state besides Indian National Congress and Bhartiya Janta Party. Ramdeo Beniwal, former two term Member of Rajasthan Legislative Assembly in 1977 and 1985 from Mundwa constituency. Hanuman Beniwal, Member of Lok Sabha from Nagaur, former two term Member of Rajasthan Legislative Assembly from Khinvsar, founder and National Convenor of the Rashtriya Loktantrik Party. He is son of Ramdeo Beniwal. Narayan Beniwal, Member of Rajasthan Legislative Assembly from Khinvsar, Nagaur, Rajasthan. He is son of Ramdeo Beniwal. Kamla Beniwal, former Deputy Chief Minister of Rajasthan in 2003, first women to became minister in Rajasthan at the age of 27 in 1954, former Governor of Tripura, Gujarat and Mizoram between 2009 and 2014. Alok Beniwal, Member of Rajasthan Legislative Assembly from Shahpura. He is son of Kamla Beniwal. Bishnoi family Ram Singh Bishnoi - Former Cabinet Minister and 7 times member of Rajasthan Legislative Assembly Malkhan Singh Bishnoi - Former member of Rajasthan Legislative Assembly (son of Ram Singh Bishnoi) Mahendra Bishnoi - MLA from Luni in Jodhpur district (son of Malkhan Singh Bishnoi) Gehlot family Ashok Gehlot - Current Chief Minister of Rajasthan Vaibhav Gehlot - chairman, Rajasthan Cricket Association (son of Ashok Gehlot) Maderna family Parasram Maderna - Former cabinet minister Government of Rajasthan and former Speaker of Rajasthan Legislative Assembly Mahipal Maderna - Former cabinet minister Government of Rajasthan (son of Parasram Maderna) Divya Maderna - Member of Rajasthan Legislative Assembly (daughter of Mahipal Maderna) Meena family Bharat lal meena former cabinet minister in Rajasthan government. 4 time MLA from bamanwas constituency. Namo Narain Meena, former minister of state, former union minister of state from congress party Harish Meena, former DGP of rajasthan and MP of Dausa constituency from Bjp party Om Prakash Meena, chief secretary of Rajasthan Mirdha family Baldev Ram Mirdha Ram Niwas Mirdha - Former central cabinet minister (son of Baldev Ram Mirdha) Harendra Mirdha - Former cabinet minister Government of Rajasthan Raghuvendra Mirdha - Member Rajasthan Pradesh Congress Committee Nathuram Mirdha - Former Member of the Rajasthan Legislative Assembly (nephew of Baldev Ram Mirdha) Bhanu Prakash Mirdha - Former MP, Lok Sabha (son of Nathuram Mirdha) Richpal Mirdha - Member of Legislative Assembly Jyoti Mirdha - Member of Parliament Pilot family Rajesh Pilot - Former Central cabinet minister Rama Pilot - Former Member of Parliament (wife) Sachin Pilot - Member of the Rajasthan Legislative Assembly, Former Deputy Chief Minister and Former Union Minister in Government of India. (son of Rajesh Pilot and son-in-law of Farooq Abdullah) Raje family Vasundhara Raje - Former Chief Minister of Rajasthan Dushyant Singh - MP, Lok Sabha (son of Vasundhara Raje) Sharma family Banwari Lal Sharma - Former Cabinet Minister and 5 time MLA from Dholpur Assembly constituency Ashok Sharma - MLA and former Dholpur President of Congress Ritesh Sharma - Mayor of Dholpur Murari Lal Sharma - Nagar Palika Chairman of Dholpur Singh family Jaswant Singh - Former Union Minister in Government of India Manvendra Singh - MP, Lok Sabha (son of Jaswant Singh) Verma family Manikya Lal Verma - First Prime Minister of Undivided Rajasthan, Former MP, Lok Sabha from Tonk and Chittorgarh Naraini Devi Verma - Former Member of Parliament (wife of Manikya Lal Verma) Deen Bandhu Verma - Former Member of Parliament from Udaipur, Former Member of Legislative Assembly from Kapasan, Former Minister of State, Govt of Rajasthan (son of Manikya Lal Verma) Vishnoi family Poonam Chand Vishnoi - Former Speaker of Rajasthan Legislative Assembly Vijay Laxmi Bishnoi - Member of PCC (daughter of Poonam Chand Vishnoi) Tamil Nadu Families in DMK The Karunanidhi Family - DMK M. Karunanidhi, Former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu M. K. Alagiri, Former Minister of Chemicals and Fertilizers of the Republic of India (Second son of Karunanidhi) M. K. Stalin, Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (Third son of Karunanidhi) Udhayanidhi Stalin, Minister for Youth Welfare and Sports Development of Tamil Nadu (Grandson of Karunanidhi and Son of Stalin) Kanimozhi Karunanidhi, Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha (Second daughter of Karunanidhi) Murasoli Maran, Former Minister of Commerce and Industry of the Republic of India (Nephew of Karunanidhi) Dayanidhi Maran, Former Minister of Textiles of the Republic of India (Son of Murasoli) The Durai Murugan Family - DMK Durai Murugan (Current Minister for Water Resources of Tamil Nadu) Kathir Anand Member of Parliament from Vellore (Lok Sabha constituency) (Only Son of Durai Murugan) The P.T.R Family - DMK P. T. Rajan, Chief Minister of Madras Presidency in 1936. P. T. R. Palanivel Rajan, former Speaker of the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly and Minister in the State Cabinet. P.T.R.Palanivel Thiyagarajan, finance minister of Tamil Nadu. The T R Baalu Family - DMK T R Baalu, MP from Sriperumbudur and Treasurer of DMK T R B Rajaa, MLA from Mannargudi, Member of TN State Planning Commission and Secretary of DMK IT Wing The V. Thangapandian Family - DMK V. ThangapandianFormer MLA Aruppukottai (state assembly constituency) Thangam Thennarasu, Son of [V. Thangapandian]. Minister for Department of Industries, Tamil Official Language, Tamil Culture and Archeology Minister of Tamil Nadu]] Thamizhachi Thangapandian, Daughter of [V. Thangapandian]. She is member of Parliament Chennai South (Lok Sabha constituency) The I. Periyasamy Family - DMK I. Periyasamy, 2021 Minister of Co-operation, Government of Tamil Nadu. I P Senthil Kumar, Son of I.Periyasamy, an MLA from Attur (state assembly constituency) The Anbil P. Dharmalingam Family - DMK Anbil P. Dharmalingam, was one of the founder-members of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) Anbil Poyyamozhi, son of Anbil P. Dharmalingam, Former minister of School Education of Tamil Nadu, Anbil Mahesh Poyyamozhi, son of Anbil Poyyamozhi a member of Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, Minister for School Education in Tamil Nadu Anbil Periyasamy, son of Anbil P. Dharmalingam, Former Member of the Legislative Assembly of Tamil Nadu, Tiruchirappalli – II The K. Anbazhagan Family - DMK K. Anbazhagan, Former minister of Finance. A.Vetriazhagan, Grandson of K. Anbazhagan, an MLA from Villivakkam (state assembly constituency) The K. Ponmudy Family - DMK K. Ponmudy, Minister of Higher Education of Tamil Nadu Gautham Sigamani, Son of K.Ponmudy, an MP from Kallakurichi (Lok Sabha constituency) The Aladi Aruna (alias) V Arunachalam Family - DMK Aladi Aruna, Former Minister of Law Poongothai Aladi Aruna, Daughter of Aladi Aruna, Former minister of Tamil Nadu for Information Technology The N. V. Natarajan Family - DMK N. V. Natarajan Founding member of DMK. He was former minister for Labour and Backward classes in Tamil Nadu Government during 1969 - 1975 N. V. N. Somu Son of N. V. Natarajan. He was former Lok Shaba member. Kanimozhi NVN Somu Daughter of N. V. N. Somu Member of Rajya Shaba from DMK. The Arcot N. Veeraswami Family - DMK Arcot N. Veeraswami Former treasurer of DMK, Former Minister of DMK Kalanidhi Veeraswamy Member of Lok Shaba from North Chennai constituency The N. Periasamy Family - DMK N. Periasamy, former Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) from Tuticorin constituency in the 1989[1] and 1996 elections. Geetha Jeevan is the daughter of N. Periasamy, Minister for Social Welfare and Women Empowerment The K. P. P. Samy Family - DMK K. P. P. Samy, former Minister for Fisheries in Tamil Nadu state of India K P Shankar, brother of K. P. P. Samy, member Legislative Assembly from the Tiruvottiyur constituency in 2021 The S. Sivasubramanian Family - DMK S. Sivasubramanian, Member of the Legislative Assembly of Tamil Nadu from Andimadam constituency in 1989 election S. S. Sivasankar, Minister for Transport The Families in Congress The Rajagopalachari Family - Congress Late C. Rajagopalachari, Chief Minister of Madras Presidency (1937–40), Madras State (1952–54), Governor of West Bengal (1946–48), Governor-General of India (1948–50). Union Minister in Government of India (1950–52). Gopalkrishna Gandhi, Governor of West Bengal. C. R. Narasimhan, Former Member of Lok Sabha from Krishnagiri. The C.P.Ramaswami Iyer family - Congress C. P. Ramaswami Iyer, Member of Madras Legislative Council and Diwan of Travancore. C. R. Pattabhi Raman, Former Member of Lok Sabha from Kumbakonam. The Bhaktavatsalam Family - Congress M. Bhaktavatsalam, Chief Minister of Madras state (1962–1967). Jayanthi Natarajan, Former Member of Indian Parliament. The Families in AIADMK The M. G. Ramachandran Family - AIADMK M. G. Ramachandran, Former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu V. N. Janaki Ramachandran, Former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (Wife of Ramachandran) The O. Panneerselvam Family - AIADMK O. Panneerselvam, Former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu P. Ravindhranath, Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha (First son of Panneerselvam) Families in multiparties The Kumaramangalam Family - Multiparty Late P. Subbarayan, former Chief Minister of Madras Presidency (1926–1930), Member of Lok Sabha from Tiruchengode Radhabai Subbarayan, Famous human rights activist Mohan Kumaramangalam, politician and trade union leader from the Communist Party of India and later the Indian National Congress. Rangarajan Kumaramangalam, Indian politician. Member of Lok Sabha from Salem and later, Tiruchirapalli and Union Minister in Government of India Lalitha Kumaramangalam, politician and member of the BJP's national executive. Parvathi Krishnan, Former Member of Lok Sabha from Coimbatore. The V. K. Sasikala Family - Multi Parties VK Sasikala, Indian Businesswoman turned Politician M. Natarajan, Sasikala's husband V. K. Dhivakaran, Founding General Secretary Of Anna Dravidar Kazhagam and brother of VK Sasikala T. T. V. Dhinakaran, General Secretary Of Ammk and Sasikala's elder Sister Vanimani's Son Anuradha Dhinakaran, Dhinakaran's wife. V. N. Sudhakaran, Jayalalithaa's foster son and brother of TTV Dhinakaran T. T. V. Bhaskaran, Founding General Secretary Of Anna Mgr Makkal Munnetra Kazhagam and brother of TTV Dhinakaran J. Illavarsi, Sasikala's brother Jayaraman's widow Vivek Jayaraman, Sasikala's brother Jayaraman's son Family in MDMK The Vaiko Family - MDMK Vaiko, founder of the Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam. Durai Vaiyapuri, Internet wing MDMK. Family in PMK The Ramadoss Family - PMK S. Ramadoss PMK founder Anbumani Ramadoss Member of Parliament from Rajya Sabha and former Cabinet Minister (Ministry of Health) during 2004-09 Family in TMC The G. K. Moopanar Family - TMC Late G. K. Moopanar, Indian politician and founder of the Tamil Maanila Congress. G. K. Vasan, Former Union Minister in Government of India. Tripura Singh family Sachindra Lal Singh - Former chief minister of Tripura Asish Lal Singh - State president of Trinamool Congress (son) Uttar Pradesh Maurya family Swami Prasad Maurya; former minister in Government of Uttar Pradesh, former leader of opposition in Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly, National General Secretary of Samajwadi Party Sanghmitra Maurya; Member of Indian Parliament (Lok Sabha) (daughter of Swami Prasad Maurya) Chaudhary Family Chaudhary Charan Singh, ex-Prime Minister of India Chaudhary Ajit Singh, founder of Rashtriya Lok Dal Jayant Chaudhary, Member of Parliament Rajya Sabha Gorakhnath Math family Digvijay Nath, former state president of Hindu Mahasabha and MP. Mahant Avaidyanath, adopted son of Digvijay Nath, MP & MLA, later joined the Bhartiya Janta Party Yogi Adityanath, adopted son of Mahant Avaidyanath, MP & MLA, Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh Yadav family Mulayam Singh Yadav – former Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh, former Defence Minister of India Akhilesh Yadav – Former chief minister of Uttar Pradesh (son of Mulayam) Dimple Yadav – Former Lok Sabha MP (daughter-in-Law of Mulayam) Abhay Ram Yadav (brother) Dharmendra Yadav – Former Lok Sabha MP (nephew of Mulayam) Shivpal Singh Yadav – Former Minister in the government of Uttar Pradesh (brother) Rajpal Singh Yadav (brother) Abhishek Yadav alias Anshul Yadav - District Panchayat Chairman of Etawah (nephew of Mulayam) Ram Gopal Yadav – MP Rajya Sabha (cousin brother) Akshay Yadav – Former Lok Sabha MP (son of Ram Gopal) Khan family Azam Khan (born 1948), former Leader of the Opposition Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly; former Cabinet Minister in the Government of Uttar Pradesh; former MP Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha; ten-term MLA Rampur constituency Tazeen Fatma, former Member of parliament, Rajya Sabha; former MLA Rampur constituency Abdullah Azam Khan, twice elected MLA for the Suar Assembly constituency West Bengal Subhas Chandra Bose family Subhas Chandra BoseIndian nationalist Sharat Chandra Bose Subrata Bose - Member of parliament (MP) from Barasat Lok Sabha constituency 2004-2009 (youngest son of Sarat Chandra Bose and nephew of Subhas Chandra Bose) Sisir Kumar Bose - Indian freedom fighter, pediatrician and legislator (nephew of Subhas Chandra and husband of Krishna Bose) Krishna Bose - MP from Jadavpur 1996-2004 (wife of Sisir Kumar Bose, Subhas Chandra Bose's nephew) Sugata Bose - Lok Sabha MP from Jadavpur 2014-2019 (Sisir Kumar Bose and Krishna Bose's son) Dasmunsi family Priya Ranjan Dasmunsi - Former cabinet minister in the government of India Deepa Dasmunsi - Former Minister of State for Urban Development in the government of India (wife) Konar family Hare Krishna Konar, freedom fighter and politician, one of the founding member of Communist Consolidation and later one of the co-founder of Communist Party of India (Marxist), first Minister of Land and Land Reforms Benoy Krishna Konar, Former MLA and president of All India Kisan Sabha, younger brother of Hare Krishna Konar Banerjee family Mamata Banerjee - Chief Minister of West Bengal Abhishek Banerjee - MP from Diamond Harbour constituency (nephew) Bandopadhyay family Sudip Bandyopadhyay - MP from the Kolkata Uttar constituency Ahmed family Sultan Ahmed - MP and former Union Minister of State for Tourism Department, government of India Sajda Ahmed - MP from the Uluberia constituency (wife) Iqbal Ahmed - MLA and former deputy mayor of Kolkata (brother) Chatterjee family Nirmal Chandra Chatterjee - MP from Hoogly Somnath Chatterjee - Speaker of the Lok Sabha and MP from Bolpur (son) References India politics-related lists Lists of Indian families Lists of political families
4187167	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sone%20Aluko	Sone Aluko	Omatsone Folarin "Sone" Aluko (born 19 February 1989) is a professional footballer who plays as a forward or winger for Ipswich Town. Aluko began his career at Birmingham City, graduating from the club's academy to make his senior debut in 2007. He joined Aberdeen on loan in the 2007–08 season and was loaned to Blackpool at the beginning of the 2008–09 season. After just two appearances for Blackpool, he signed for Aberdeen permanently in August 2008. He left Aberdeen in July 2011 at the end of his contract. Aluko signed for Rangers in November 2011 and scored 12 goals in 21 appearances during the 2011–12 season. After one season at Rangers, he returned to England to join Hull City. He made over 100 appearances for Hull during a four-year spell at the club, helping Hull win promotion to the Premier League in 2013 and reach the 2014 FA Cup Final. He left Hull to join Fulham in 2016, before joining Reading in 2017. He spent four seasons at Reading, making over 100 appearances for the club, while also spending time out on loan at Beijing Renhe in 2019. In August 2021, he signed for Ipswich Town. Born in England, Aluko was capped by England at all youth levels up to under-19 before accepting an offer to play for Nigeria. He won caps at under-20 and under-23 levels, before making his senior debut in 2009. His sister Eniola Aluko was born in Nigeria and is a former professional footballer. She formerly played for Juventus and England. Club career Birmingham City Aluko was born in Hounslow, London, and brought up from a young age in Birmingham. He progressed through Birmingham City's youth system, which he joined at the age of eight. He was given a first-team squad number in the 2005–06 season, and was an unused substitute in a Premier League match against Arsenal at Highbury in October 2005. He made his first-team debut for Birmingham on 28 August 2007 as a late substitute in a League Cup tie against Hereford United. Aberdeen (loan) In August 2007, Aluko joined Scottish Premier League club Aberdeen on loan until January 2008. He made his debut for Aberdeen as a late substitute in the UEFA Cup group match against Panathinaikos on 25 October 2007. He scored his first goal for the club the following week, opening the scoring in a 2–0 victory over Dundee United. In January, the loan deal was extended to keep Aluko at Aberdeen for the rest of the season. On 14 February 2008, as part of a performance which earned him the man-of-the-match award, he scored Aberdeen's second goal in a 2–2 draw against Bayern Munich in the UEFA Cup Round of 32. He scored 4 goals in 31 appearances during his loan at Aberdeen. Blackpool (loan) Aluko signed for Blackpool on a month's emergency loan on 8 August 2008, and made his debut the following day as a late substitute in the Seasiders' 0–1 home defeat to Bristol City. He made 2 appearances for Blackpool before returning from loan at the end of August. Aberdeen On transfer deadline day, 1 September 2008, Aluko returned to Aberdeen on a permanent basis, signing a three-year contract for a fee of £50,000. He made his return in a 1–2 home defeat to Hamilton Academical on 13 September, and scored his first goal since rejoining the club to clinch Aberdeen's first home win of the season, a single-goal victory over Kilmarnock on 1 November. Aluko went on to win the SPL Young Player of the Month award for November 2008. Aluko featured regularly following his return to Aberdeen, playing 37 matches during the 2008–09 season, scoring 4 goals. He continued to be a key part of the Aberdeen first-team during the 2009–10 season. He scored his first goal of the season in a 1–3 loss against Celtic on 15 August. In total, Aluko scored 3 times in 26 appearances over the course of the season. Aluko made his first appearance of the 2010–11 season in Aberdeen's opening match of the campaign, starting the match in a 4–0 home win against Hamilton Academical at the Pittodrie Stadium. On 15 February, he scored his first goal of the season in a 1–2 home loss against Motherwell. He also scored in Aberdeen's following match, a 5–0 home win against Kilmarnock on 19 February. He did not score again for the rest of the season, scoring twice in 33 appearances in total during the season. He left the club at the end of his contract in July 2011. Rangers Following his release from Aberdeen, Aluko had a trial with Juventus prior to the 2011–12 season. He then went on trial at Rangers. Rangers were impressed with Aluko and offered him a contract, but the move was held up while Aberdeen and Rangers negotiated compensation. Aluko signed for Rangers until the end of the season on 24 November 2011 after a deal was agreed. He made his Rangers debut in a 0–1 away loss to Kilmarnock on 27 November. Aluko was banned for two games for diving to win a penalty in a match between Rangers and Dunfermline on 3 December 2011. Rangers' manager, Ally McCoist, stated "The three gentlemen on the panel have effectively called my player a cheat and a liar, neither of which he is". Aluko scored his first goal for Rangers in a 3–0 home win against Motherwell at Ibrox on 2 January. On 25 March 2012, Aluko scored the opening goal in Rangers' 3–2 victory over Celtic. He scored his first senior hat-trick in Rangers 4–0 victory at St Johnstone on the final day of the 2011–12 Scottish Premier League season. He scored 12 goals in 23 appearances during his first season at Rangers, his best goal return to date. In June 2012, with his contract set to expire but the club holding an option to extend it, Aluko lodged an objection against the contract being transferred from Rangers to a new company set up by Charles Green. PFA Scotland had previously commented that players were entitled to become free agents if they objected to the transfer. Aluko raised a constructive dismissal claim against Rangers. Hull City 2012–13 season On 25 July 2012, it was confirmed that Aluko had signed a two-year deal with Hull City. He made his debut in a home match against Brighton & Hove Albion on 18 August. On 1 September 2012 he scored his first goal for the club against Bolton Wanderers at the KC Stadium. After the international break, Aluko scored his second goal for Hull City in the following game against Millwall to make it 4–0 before half-time, with Hull going onto win the match 4–1. On 2 October, Aluko made scored his third goal in a Hull City shirt by scoring a wonderful strike from 20 yards out into the top corner against Blackpool. His next goal came at the end of October against Bristol City, himself and Jay Simpson linked up to put Hull 1–0 ahead inside 8 minutes, to which the commentator compared the goal to Barcelona. He bagged another goal in the next game, at home to Barnsley, with teammate Ahmed Elmohamady's cross was half-cleared and Aluko, unlike Barnsley's defenders, was alert to the ball and fired home from a tight angle. He then made it 3 in 3 and 6 goals for the season against Wolverhampton Wanderers on 6 November, putting in a free-kick from 25 yards into the bottom-left corner past Wolves goalkeeper Carl Ikeme. On 17 November, Aluko scored twice against former club Birmingham City to put Hull 0–2 up, they went on to win the game 2–3. This made it five goals in five games for Aluko and eight goals for the season. In November 2012, Aluko picked up an Achilles injury, initially ruling him out for a month, which Hull City incidentally won all four games he was missing, but later in January the injury flared up again. This meant he would require surgery, with fears he would be out for 6 months, but after successful surgery, he was expected to be back in 2 months time. Aluko scored 8 goals in 24 appearances during the 2012–13 season, helping Hull win promotion to the Premier League following a second placed league finish in the Championship. 2013–14 season Aluko made his Premier League debut in a 0–2 away defeat against Chelsea on 18 August. His first goal of the season, a 76th-minute "stunning volley", was Hull's winner in a 3–2 victory away to Newcastle United on 21 September. In November Steve Bruce announced that Aluko denied a contract extension, this blow to Hull came shortly after Aluko tore his Achilles again which would see him out of action until February. He signed a new two-and-a-half-year contract with the club on 3 January 2014, telling the club website "I'm happy to be extending my stay here and I was always hopeful it would get sorted". On 17 May 2014 he played as a substitute in the 2014 FA Cup Final against Arsenal. 2014–15 season Aluko's first appearance of the 2014–15 season came in Hull's UEFA Europa League tie against AS Trenčín on 31 July. He scored his first goal of the season in the second leg of the tie against Trenčín, netting an 80th-minute winner in a 2–1 victory. His first Premier League goal of the season came on 3 December when he scored the equaliser in a 1–1 draw against Everton. Aluko scored twice in 31 appearances during the season, as Hull suffered relegation from the Premier League after finishing 18th. 2015–16 season He continued to feature regularly for Hull during the 2015–16 season, scoring a late winner in a 2–1 win against Fulham on 19 August. His next goal did not come until March, when he scored an equalising goal in a 1–1 draw with Nottingham Forest. He helped Hull to a 4th placed league finish, qualifying for the Championship play-offs as a result, with Hull going onto win promotion back to the Premier League after winning the play-off final against Sheffield Wednesday. On 2 June 2016, it was announced that Aluko and teammate Ryan Taylor would leave the club prior to their contract expiry. Fulham On 8 July 2016, Aluko joined Fulham on a free transfer. Aluko signed a two-year deal with an option for a further year. He made his debut for Fulham in a 1–0 win over Newcastle United on the opening day of the 2016–17 season. On 13 August 2016, Aluko scored his first goal for Fulham, the opener in a 2–1 victory over Preston North End. He quickly became a key part of the Fulham first-team during his first season at the club, starting 44 league games and making 50 appearances in all competitions, scoring 9 goals. He helped Fulham reach the EFL Championship play-offs following a 6th placed league finish, with Fulham eventually losing out to Reading following a 1–2 aggregate loss over two legs in the semi-finals. He made his first appearance of the 2017–18 season in the opening match against Norwich City on 5 August, with the match ending in a 1–1 draw. He started Fulham's opening four league matches of the season, before leaving to join Reading at the end of August. Reading On 29 August 2017, Aluko joined Reading for an undisclosed fee, signing a four-year deal, with the fee later being reported to be £7.5 million. He made his Reading debut in a 0–1 away loss against Bristol City on 9 September. He scored his first goal for the club on 31 October, netting the final goal in a 3–1 win against Nottingham Forest. He scored again in the following match in a 4–2 win against Derby County on 4 November. On 30 March, he scored the winning goal in a 1–0 win against Rotherham United. Aluko scored 3 goals in 40 appearances during his first season at Reading. Aluko started in the opening match of the 2018–19 season against Derby County, a match which ended in a 1–2 loss. He scored his first goal of the season in the reverse fixture against Derby, a match which also ended in a 1–2 win for Derby. He featured less frequently for Reading during his second season at the club, making 20 appearances in all competitions, scoring once. Beijing Renhe (loan) On 26 February 2019, Aluko joined Beijing Renhe on loan until the end of the 2019 season. He made 16 appearances in the Chinese Super League during his loan spell, scoring 3 goals. Return to Reading After returning from his loan spell at Beijing Renhe in January, he made his first appearance for Reading in an FA Cup third-round tie against former loan club Blackpool. He made his first league appearance of the season in a 0–1 loss against Bristol City. Aluko struggled for regular game time during the second half of the 2019–20 season, making 6 appearances, with only 2 appearances coming in the league. He managed to work his way back into the Reading first-team during the 2020–21 season. He made his first appearance of the season in a 3–1 EFL Cup first round win against Colchester United on 5 September. On 21 November, Aluko scored his first goal of the season in a 2–4 defeat against Bournemouth. He scored twice in 36 appearances over the course of the 2020–21 season. Aluko was released by Reading when his contract expired at the end of the 2020–21 season. Ipswich Town Aluko joined Ipswich Town on a free transfer on 6 August 2021, signing a one-year contract with the option to extend the deal by an additional year. He made his debut in a 0–1 loss against Newport County in an EFL Cup first-round tie on 10 August. On 16 October 2021, Aluko scored his first goals for Ipswich with a brace in a 2–2 draw against Cambridge United. Three days later, he scored again in a 4–0 win against Portsmouth. Aluko quickly became an important part of the Ipswich squad, as the most senior player in the team during his first season at the club. He captained the team in FA Cup and EFL Trophy matches during the first half of the season. Ipswich manager Kieran McKenna praised him for his contributions both on and off the pitch; “I can't speak highly enough of him as a person really, around the place he's great with the younger players, he mentors, he speaks, he gives advice but he never sticks it in your face, he doesn't go around telling everyone that he's played in the Premier League, but he's there for advice whenever people need it. He has a quiet word in his own way whenever it's needed.” On 26 April 2022, Aluko activated the one-year extension in his contract having made 36 appearances in all competitions during the season, keeping him at the club until 2023. International career England Youth Aluko represented England at under-16, under-17 and under-18 level before making his debut for the England under-19 team on 11 September 2007 in a friendly against Belarus under-19. He was involved in two of the goals in a 4–0 win. He was selected in the 23-man provisional squad for the 2008 UEFA European Under-19 Football Championship but did not make the final 18. Nigeria Aluko was named in the squad for the Nigeria under-20 national football team for the 2009 FIFA U-20 World Cup in Egypt. He played in games against Venezuela, Spain and Tahiti. Aluko was called up to the Nigerian national team for a friendly against the Republic of Ireland on 29 May 2009, an offer which with the support of his family he chose to accept. He made his full international debut in the starting eleven, forcing the Irish goalkeeper to save his 40-yard lobbed free kick and playing the first 61 minutes of the game. In April 2010, he was named in the provisional Nigeria squad for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, but failed to make the final cut. He was finally called up by former Nigerian coach Stephen Keshi and therefore has a chance to add to his one cap against Republic of Ireland in May 2009 after he represented England at various age-group levels. He was brought into the squad to face Namibia and Malawi in the World Cup Qualifiers in the month of June 2012, but was an unused sub for both games. Aluko was included in a pre-selection for the 2013 Africa Cup of Nations but had to renounce because of an injury. Nigeria later won the tournament. He scored his first goals for Nigeria against South Africa in a 2–2 draw on 19 November 2014 in the qualifying round for the 2015 Africa Cup of Nations. Personal life Aluko's older sister, Eniola, is a former footballer who played for England 102 times at full international level; she played in two World Cup quarter finals and reached the quarter finals of the London 2012 Olympics football tournament with Great Britain. His father Gbenga is a former MP in Nigeria, while Bolaji Aluko, a chemical engineering professor, is his uncle. In 2023, Aluko had to deny rumours that he and his sister were in a sexual relationship. Career statistics Club International International goals As of match played 19 November 2014. Nigeria score listed first, score column indicates score after each Aluko goal. Honours Hull City Football League Championship runner-up: 2012–13 FA Cup runner-up: 2013–14 Ipswich Town EFL League One runner-up: 2022–23 Individual Scottish Premier League Young Player of the Month: November 2008 EFL Championship Player of the Month: November 2012, October 2016 References External links Sone Aluko profile at the Ipswich Town F.C. website Profile and Aberdeen stats at AFC Heritage Trust website 1989 births Living people Footballers from Hounslow English sportspeople of Nigerian descent Citizens of Nigeria through descent Black British sportsmen English men's footballers England men's youth international footballers Nigerian men's footballers Nigeria men's youth international footballers Nigeria men's under-20 international footballers Nigeria men's international footballers Men's association football wingers Birmingham City F.C. players Aberdeen F.C. players Blackpool F.C. players Rangers F.C. players Hull City A.F.C. players Fulham F.C. players Reading F.C. players Beijing Chengfeng F.C. players Ipswich Town F.C. players Scottish Premier League players English Football League players Premier League players Chinese Super League players Expatriate men's footballers in China Nigerian expatriate sportspeople in China
4187217	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homicide%3A%20Life%20on%20the%20Street%20%28season%201%29	Homicide: Life on the Street (season 1)	The first season of Homicide: Life on the Street, an American police procedural drama television series, originally aired in the United States on NBC between January 31 and March 31, 1993. The show was created by Paul Attanasio, with film director Barry Levinson and television writer and producer Tom Fontana serving as executive producers. Adapted from David Simon's 1991 non-fiction book Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets, the season followed the fictional detectives of Baltimore Police Department homicide unit and the murder cases they investigate. The show was broadcast on Wednesdays at 9 p.m. EST, with the exception of the series premiere, which aired immediately after Super Bowl XXVII. The season introduced regular cast members Daniel Baldwin, Ned Beatty, Richard Belzer, Andre Braugher, Clark Johnson, Yaphet Kotto, Melissa Leo, Jon Polito and Kyle Secor. Most of the primary characters were based on real-life Baltimore detectives from Simon's book, including Gary D'Addario, Terrence McLarney, Harry Edgerton, Donald Worden and Jay Landsman. Many of the first season story arcs were also adapted from the book, most notably the 1988 Baltimore slaying of 11-year-old Latonya Kim Wallace, which was the basis for the murder case of Adena Watson in Homicide. Another multi-episode arc included Lee Tergesen as an officer who is friends with the homicide squad and later gets shot. "Night of the Dead Living," originally written as the third episode, was moved to become the season finale at the insistence of NBC executives, which led to several notable continuity errors. The first season received consistently positive reviews, with several commentators declaring it one of the best shows on television at the time. The episode "Three Men and Adena", which consists almost entirely of one police interrogation with three actors, received particularly positive reviews and was declared one of the 100 greatest television moments by Entertainment Weekly. The series premiere, "Gone for Goode", opened to a season-high viewership of 18.2 million households due to a lead-in from the Super Bowl. The Nielsen ratings declined throughout the season, which Homicide producers attributed to a poor time-slot and heavy competition from the ABC comedies Home Improvement and Coach. The ratings led NBC executives to demand changes to the show before renewing Homicide for a second season. Homicide: Life on the Street received four Emmy Award nominations during its first season and won two, and also received a Writers Guild of America award and a Directors Guild of America Award. The first and second seasons of Homicide were released together in a four-DVD box-set on May 27, 2003. Episodes When first shown on network television, Night of the Dead Living aired out of order as the season finale. The DVD present the episodes in the correct chronological order, restoring all storylines and character developments. Development Conception Film director Barry Levinson sought to create a police drama television series based on Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets, a 1991 non-fiction book by David Simon based on one year he spent with Baltimore Police Department homicide detectives. In addition to the book's being set in Levinson's home city of Baltimore, the director was attracted to the realistic way Simon portrayed police work and the detectives. The book contradicted many popular myths that had been built into past police dramas: it portrayed the detectives as not always getting along with each other and told stories of criminals who were not always caught or punished. It also portrayed detectives as solving cases primarily through physical evidence, witnesses and confessions, not by investigating motives like on many other police shows. Simon also sought to dispel the popular television perception that all detectives take their cases very personally and identify with their victims: in Simon's experience, homicide cases were primarily a job to the detectives, not personal. Levinson and Tom Fontana, who had past television experience as executive producer on the drama series St. Elsewhere, hired screenwriter Paul Attanasio to adapt elements of the book into the teleplay for the first episode. It was the first television script Attanasio ever wrote. Attanasio based the characters in Homicide on the detectives featured in Simon's book. Frank Pembleton was based on Detective Harry Edgerton, although the two were so different that both the producers and detectives agreed their only true similarity was that they were black. Meldrick Lewis was only loosely based on Detective Donald Waltemeyer, and Levinson admitted Lewis did not start to become strongly developed until season three because, "I thought it'd be great to have a character who was totally unwilling to share with the people he worked with." Tim Bayliss was based on the real-life Baltimore detective Tom Pellegrini, the primary detective who investigated the 1988 Baltimore slaying of 11-year-old Latonya Kim Wallace. The extremely personal approach Bayliss took in attempting to solve Adena Watson's murder, and his strong disappointment over failing to solve it, was based on the emotions Pellegrini went through in the Wallace case. Pellegrini provided advice to actor Kyle Secor about how to play the Bayliss role. The part of John Munch was based on Jay Landsman, a practical joker who was known in his homicide unit for his morbid wit. Both Belzer and the character Munch he portrays are cynical, caustic former hippies who are so similar that Belzer declared the character "exactly as I would be if I were a cop". Stanley Bolander was inspired by Detective Donald Worden who, like his on-screen counterpart, was nicknamed "The Big Man". Ned Beatty only met Worden once before taking on the role, and he said the detective had "an uncluttered mind and a near-photographic memory". Beau Felton was based on Detective Donald Kincaid, and Felton's clashes with Pembleton were based on Kincaid's real-life strong dislike for Harry Edgerton. Kay Howard was based in part on the female Detective Bert Silver, and in part on the male Detective Rich Garvey, who experienced a real-life string of good luck in solving consecutive cases, just as Howard did in the first season. NBC ordered a full season of Homicide: Life on the Street before a pilot episode was even produced. Planned as a mid-season replacement, the network ordered six episodes for their 1993 winter season, and then ordered another three after watching the completed pilot episode. The network had been consistently placing third behind their competitor networks ABC and CBS, and was suffering due to the loss of several successful shows in 1992, including The Cosby Show, The Golden Girls and Matlock, as well as the upcoming end of Cheers in 1993. NBC had tried appealing to audiences in their 20s through several comedies, but those efforts proved unsuccessful and the network decided to focus on high-quality dramas like Homicide. NBC Entertainment president Warren Littlefield considered it the most promising new series of the season. Crew Paul Attanasio was billed as the creator of Homicide: Life on the Street, with Barry Levinson and Tom Fontana serving as executive producers. The show was produced by Levinson's company Baltimore Pictures, which partnered with Reeves Entertainment. Wayne Ewing, who was cinematographer for Levinson's film Toys (1992), was director of photography during the first season and also directed the episode "Smoke Gets in Your Eyes". Stan Warnow started out working as editor on the season premiere "Gone for Goode", but he departed before the process was done due to creative differences with Levinson. Tony Black finished the editing for that episode, but did not return for the rest of the season. Jay Rabinowitz worked as editor for the remaining episodes, along with editors Cindy Mollo and Richard Harkness. Van Smith designed the costumes for "Gone for Goode", but he did not return to work on subsequent episodes, where the costumes were handled by Rolande Berman. The real-life detectives portrayed in Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets signed waivers allowing themselves to be portrayed in the show, and some became consultants for the series. Gary D'Addario, the homicide lieutenant with the Baltimore Police Department and inspiration for the Al "Gee" Giardello character, worked as a consultant and approved the teleplays for accuracy. Fontana said of the real-life detectives' contributions: "They have great stories, and the rhythms of their different personalities are so special that it's great to have them around." Cast Barry Levinson and Tom Fontana took the unusual step of basing the ethnicity and gender of the characters on the actors they cast, even though the roles were based on real-life detectives. For example, the role of Frank Pembleton, although based on the African-American Detective Harry Edgerton, was not race-specific until Andre Braugher auditioned and was cast. This impressed Braugher, who believed fully developed roles were often written for white characters and black roles were generally two-dimensional and stereotypical. This belief developed in part from Braugher's poor experience playing Detective Winston Blake on the television series Kojak, where he objected to the show's treatment of race. Ned Beatty, the best-known member of cast when the series debuted, was personally approached by Levinson and Fontana to play Stanley Bolander. Although Beatty respected the two men and liked the show, he was reluctant to take the role because he believed NBC would corrupt the series and change it to a typical police show. Beatty claimed his agents and managers "pushed, dragged and hauled" him into meeting with Levinson, but Beatty ultimately accepted the role. Kyle Secor was cast as Tim Bayliss by Fontana, who remembered the actor from his role as gay AIDS patient Bret Johnson in Fontana's previous show, St. Elsewhere. In casting Al "Gee" Giardello, Levinson decided not to make the character Italian-American like the real-life counterpart Gary D'Addario, but rather cast Yaphet Kotto and made the character a Sicilian-African American. Kotto, who turned down two feature film offers to accept the Homicide role, was extremely impressed with Levinson's choices for the character, saying, "They had the daring to make the artistic choice without prejudice of any kind. I don't think there's another network show on the air with this sort of cast composition." Kotto struggled at first with the show's production style and constantly moving camera style, which flustered him and made him forget his lines. Levinson had to personally reassure him that he could handle the part. Clark Johnson was cast as Meldrick Lewis, and Jon Polito as his partner, Steve Crosetti. When Polito first auditioned, he read the role of a Polish cop, then did a second reading for an Irish role based on Detective Sergeant Terrence McLarney. He was cast in the McLarney role, but it was rewritten to an Italian character for Polito. The actor found working on Homicide intense and demanding, claiming, "Everybody's working so hard. This is much more of a theater atmosphere." The first Homicide season featured the first performances of Richard Belzer as Detective John Munch, a character the actor has been credited for in 459 television episodes (as of a May 2016 appearance) in nine different television series, including Homicide and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Levinson asked Belzer to audition for the part after hearing the comedian ranting on The Howard Stern Show, where Belzer was a frequent guest. Levinson said Belzer was a "lousy actor" during his first audition with the "Gone for Goode" script. Levinson asked Belzer to take some time to reread and practice the material, then come back and read it again. During his second reading, Levinson said Belzer was "still terrible", but that the actor eventually found confidence in his performance. Daniel Baldwin was cast as Beau Felton, and dyed his naturally blond hair black for the role. Baldwin became one of the most vocal supporters of the show, giving many press interviews about it and defending it amid declining ratings. Baldwin declared, "Homicide is the best material I've had the chance to do." Melissa Leo was cast as Kay Howard, which was considered a particularly strong part compared to other female characters in police dramas at the time, which were usually limited to love interests or minor parts. While most cast members shadowed real-life Baltimore detectives to prepare for the roles, Leo did not because, she said, "I don't like to look at the horror that's in the world." Wendy Hughes was cast as medical examiner Carol Blythe. The first season also introduced several minor characters that would make recurring appearances throughout the rest of the series. Colonel Burt Granger and Captain George Barnfather, the Baltimore Police Department bosses, were introduced in the second episode, "Ghost of a Chance". They were played, respectively, by Gerald F. Gough and Clayton LeBouef, the latter of whom later portrayed drug front worker-turned-informer Wendell "Orlando" Blocker in David Simon's other police drama, The Wire. Also introduced in "Ghost of a Chance" was prosecutor Ed Danvers, who was played by Željko Ivanek, a long-time friend of Tom Fontana. The executive producer felt Danvers was written in a dull and simple way, but felt confident Ivanek could "make it a real character". Ami Brabson, the real-life wife of actor Andre Braugher, played Mary Pembleton, the spouse of Braugher's detective counterpart character. Brabson auditioned for the role shortly after Braugher was cast in the series, and Braugher said of their on-screen pairing, "We have an instant rapport that we don't have to create." Michael Willis made his first of several appearances as defense attorney Darin Russom in the first season. Willis also later appeared in The Wire as the corrupt property developer Andy Krawczyk. Lee Tergesen played Officer Chris Thormann, a patrolman who is shot in the head and blinded. His wife, Eva Thormann, was portrayed by Edie Falco, whom Fontana cast after watching her performance in Laws of Gravity (1992). Fontana was so impressed with Falco's work in Homicide that he later cast her in his HBO series Oz. Film and theater actor Moses Gunn's final performance before his death was as Risley Tucker, a murder suspect questioned for 12 hours by Pembleton and Bayliss in "Three Men and Adena". Several other notable actors made guest appearances throughout the first season of Homicide, including Gwen Verdon, Luis Guzmán, Paul Schulze, Walt MacPherson, Bai Ling, Lisa Gay Hamilton, Steve Harris, Alexander Chaplin, N'Bushe Wright, and Baltimore filmmaker John Waters. Larry Gilliard, Jr., who later starred as drug dealer D'Angelo Barksdale in The Wire, made a brief appearance in the Homicide episode "A Dog and Pony Show". Mel Proctor, then the home team sports announcer for the Washington Bullets, made his first of five guest performances in "Son of a Gun" as recurring reporter character Grant Besser. Detective Tom Pellegrini, the basis for the Tim Bayliss character, made an on-screen cameo in "Ghost of a Chance" as the police officer who discovered Adena Watson's body. Production Writing Homicide: Life on the Street was unique among police dramas for weaving multiple intricate story-lines into single episodes; the season premiere "Gone for Goode", for example, included four separate subplots. As the first season of Homicide progressed, NBC officials complained to the show's producers about the large number of subplots, but the producers resisted the pressure to scale them back until the second season. Despite intense advance promotion of the Homicide premiere due to a planned Super Bowl lead-in, Attanasio deliberately sought to introduce the show with little fanfare, avoiding sensational gimmicks in favor of character-driven plot, quirky dialogue and morbid dark humor. Homicide was noted for its deliberate lack of gun-play and car chases in favor of dialogue and story. The writers also wanted the dialogue to reflect the kinds of things detectives would talk about when not discussing murders or cases, which led to the inclusion of several scenes in which detectives talk casually among themselves during lunch or around the office. One of the "running gags" was Crosetti's obsession of the Lincoln assassination and his quest to discover the "truth" and his arguments with Lewis or anyone else willing to listen. Fontana, who compared the scenes to Levinson's 1982 film Diner, said, "That really made the show different from other shows, because we had the room to have conversations that seemingly didn't [storywise] connect anything, but they did reveal a lot about the characters." "Gone for Goode" included several storylines, and even exact bits of dialogue, adapted straight from Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets. One of the biggest story arcs from the first season was the murder of 11-year-old Adena Watson, which is introduced in "Gone for Goode" and lasts for five episodes until "Three Men and Adena". The case was based on the murder of 11-year-old Latonya Kim Wallace, which made up a major part of Simon's book. The Watson case, like the Wallace case, ultimately goes unsolved. A subplot from "Gone for Goode" and "Son of a Gun" involved the investigation into Calpurnia Church, an elderly woman suspected of murdering five husbands in order to collect their life insurance policies. This was based on the real-life case of Geraldine Parrish, who was also accused of killing five husbands for insurance money, and was eventually convicted for three of their murders. Another multi-episode arc involved the near-fatal shooting of Patrolman Chris Thormann, which leaves the officer blind. This was also adapted from true-life events in Simon's book, although Homicide writers added the twist of Steve Crosetti taking the case personally based on his close friendship with the victim. Attanasio, Levinson and Fontana strove to make Homicide more realistic than other police dramas, even in minor details. For example, Levinson specifically asked that a dead body found by detectives in "Gone for Goode" be badly decomposing and attracting flies because he felt other shows did not portray corpses in a realistic way. Some episodes, like "Ghost of a Chance", focus on murders that take place in wealthy rural settings, rather than an urban or predominantly poorer location as most police dramas did. Homicide was noted for demonstrating better than most American television police shows that murders can take place in various socioeconomic circumstances. In striving for realism, some cases in Homicide remain unsolved and murderers go free, most notably in the Adena Watson case. This theme often put the show's producers at odds with NBC executives, who wanted happier endings with more closure. Fontana said of the Watson investigation, "We never solved it because we felt that it would be a disservice to the real girl, to have this fake TV solution. Because it's not O.K. that she died, that no one took responsibility." The writers also used details from real-life criminal investigations in their script. During one scene in "Ghost of a Chance", a busload of rookie police officers straight out of the academy are brought in to investigate a crime scene. The New York Police Department employed exactly the same tactic while searching for the remains of a missing girl in upstate New York in 1987. One episode written by Tom Fontana, "Three Men and Adena", took place entirely within the confines of the police interrogation room known colloquially by the detectives as "The Box". Fontana was partially inspired to write it by comments made by Barry Levinson during filming of an interrogation scene in "Gone for Goode", when Levinson said the acting by Braugher and Secor was so good, an entire episode could be filmed around it. Fontana acknowledged a certain amount of risk in producing such an unusual episode in only the fifth week of the show, but he said, "It was important for [exec producer] Barry Levinson and I to establish that we weren't going to do the same old show every week." Multiple police departments have requested copies of "Three Men and Adena" for use in training sessions due to its accurate portrayal of the intricacies of the police interrogation process. "Smoke Gets in Your Eyes" was originally supposed to be the first-season finale, while "Night of the Dead Living" was meant to be the third episode. However, NBC programmers felt it was too slow-paced to run so early in the season: the episode takes place entirely within the squad room and lacked traditional police drama action, which NBC executives felt was not appropriate for an early stage when the series was still trying to woo viewers. As a result, "Night of the Dead Living" was shown out of sequence and made the season finale. This created several notable continuity errors. For example, Officer Chris Thormann has not yet been shot and blinded in "Night of the Dead Living", and Tim Bayliss is still working on the Adena Watson case, which was already ended earlier in the season. These errors were addressed by Homicide producers by adding the words "One hot night, last September ..." to the beginning of the episode, thus establishing the events of the episode took place within the correct timeline of the series, even though the episodes are shown out of order. Filming The inaugural season of Homicide established a realistic visual style that would remain largely intact throughout the duration of the series. Among the stylistic elements were the near-constant movement with hand-held Super 16 cameras to give the show a naturalistic documentary look and an editing style involving jump cuts that was unusual for television at the time. Wayne Ewing had used Super 16 cameras while filming promotional material for Toys, and that format allowed Homicide producers to film cheaply and with a smaller crew, giving them more time to focus on the actor's performances. While filming, Levinson said he would simply allow the actors to perform while he switched back and forth between them with the hand-held camera instead of filming carefully planned shots and individual scenes from multiple angles. Levinson said the camera and editing style was partially inspired by the Jean-Luc Godard film Breathless (1960), which he would often ask his directors to watch before filming Homicide episodes. Some individual scenes involved several jump cuts repeated several times in fast succession. Another unusual stylistic element used throughout the season involved sudden changes in jump-screen direction; a shot with an actor looking from left to right might immediately jump to another shot of the same actor looking from right to left. This process came from Levinson's insistence that the footage be edited together to include the actor's best performances. While editing "Gone for Goode", Tony Black cut together two shots that did not match and began looking for a cutaway shot he could use to disguise the edit. Levinson liked the technique that came from cutting the two conflicting shots together and insisted it stay in. This technique became commonly used throughout the series, although it was toned down in future seasons at the insistence of NBC executives who found it too unconventional. Like the rest of the series, the scenes for the first-season episodes were shot on-location in Baltimore. The use of hand-held cameras allowed the film to be shot more easily in the city, rather than on a sound-stage in Los Angeles or New York City, where most shows are typically shot. Levinson said being on location at all times allowed Baltimore "to be a character in the show". The Recreation Pier Building, a Fells Point structure built in 1914 which once housed Baltimore's marine police, was used as the set of the police department station, which was the principal set for the show. The building looked so realistic that Baltimore residents would occasionally wander into it to report actual crimes. Production director Vincent Peranino created the squad room set inside the Recreation Pier Building. While most sets include a few fake walls opposite an open space for the cameras and crew, Peranino designed the entire room as if it were a real setting, including separate areas for the detectives' coffee room and the interrogation room known as "The Box". The actors began storing their actual belongings at their desks on the set, left real personal messages to each other on the bulletin boards, and got business cards with their characters' actual names for their desks. Many other scenes in Homicide were filmed primarily in the Fells Point neighborhood, including actual streets, bars and houses to create authenticity. Scenes at the Homicide morgue were filmed inside Baltimore's actual Office of the Medical Examiner, which the actors hated performing in due to the unsettling atmosphere; Ned Beatty said of filming there, "The one thing you can't get on camera is, oh boy, it smells." Homicide footage was transferred from film to videotape for editing at the Maryland studio Colorlab Motion Picture Services. There, Levinson and Ewing worked with colorist Drexel Williams to drain the footage of color value, leaving a gritty visual style almost reminiscent of black-and-white. This technique was downplayed starting in the second season, giving the show a more colorful look. The opening credits for season one were developed by Mark Pellington, a director and Baltimore native. Pellington filmed the images used in the credits with an 8 mm camera to give it a gritty look. Levinson and Fontana wanted images of all the regular cast members in the credits, but wanted a different approach than the typical image of an actor looking at the camera, which they felt was a television cliche. Instead, Pellington included each of their images, but in quick close-up shots using a variety of lighting methods and camera angles; the names were only shown after the last close-up, and not in the same order. This approach was used until the beginning of the show's fifth season. Music The theme song for Homicide: Life on the Street was composed by Lynn F. Kowal, who submitted one of several tapes sent to the producers for consideration. Homicide producers initially had trouble finding the right song, and Levinson ultimately chose Kowal's themes because, while most of the candidates too closely resembled typical television theme songs, Levinson felt Kowal's song "had that odd quality to it, drums or whatever, and it was very unusual". Music is presented in various ways throughout the first season of Homicide. Some songs are played on radios that play in the homicide squad room, like "Lay Down My Life" by Carole King, "Texas Slide" by Jean-Jacques Milteau, "N.Y.C (Can You Believe This City?)" by Charles & Eddie, "Little Boy Blues" and "Break Up" by Gary Fitzgerald, and "Tropic Call" by Mitchell Coodley and Andrew Snitzer, all of which are featured in "Night of the Dead Living". Other songs are more integrated into the show itself, like "Hazy Shade of Blue", a Tor Hyams song that plays while the police raid several neighborhood homes in search of clues during "Ghost of a Chance", and the hymn "The Sweet By and By", which is sung at a church during Adena Watson's funeral in that same episode. Several other songs are featured in episodes throughout the first season, including "Elephant Walk" by The Kings, "The Beat Goes On" by Sonny Bono, "Going' Around in Circles" by Jules Taub, "Telephone Blues" by Sam Ling and George Smith, and "It's So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday" by Freddie Perren and Christine Yarian. Reception Reviews Reviews were consistently positive from the beginning of the series. The Washington Post television critic Tom Shales called Homicide "the least compromised and the most intense" drama show on television, adding, "In every department, the level of excellence has been awesome." Shales complimented it for portraying the tension of a homicide squad without resorting to gratuitous violence. Harold Schindler of The Salt Lake Tribune said the series "ranks among the best programs of their kind to appear on television anywhere". He praised the acting and called the filming style "camera vérité at its best without actually becoming a documentary". Lon Grahnke of the Chicago Sun-Times called it "the season's best new series of any genre", praising it for not depending on action sequences and claiming it "has the spice, dry wit and ethnic diversity of the Hill Street Blues crew, with even more eccentricities and a heightened sense of realism". Paul Lomartire of The Palm Beach Post called it "the best new drama to come along on any network since NBC canceled Shannon's Deal". Newsday critic Marvin Kitman called Homicide "an old-fashioned NBC signature show" remnisicent of the network during the time of Grant Tinker and Brandon Tartikoff. Associated Press writer Scott Williams praised the series as unique: "It had superb writing, a gifted cast that created complex, fully realized characters, a unique visual style, and stories of compelling power and intensity." Knight Ridder Newspapers television writer Mike Duffy praised what he called the show's witty writing, stylish visuals and superb acting, and declared it the best police drama since Hill Street Blues. The Scripps Howard News Service called Homicide "the best new drama of the season", and The Buffalo News writer Alan Pergament ranked it among the ten best television shows of 1993. Eric Kohanik of The Hamilton Spectator called it "the best new series of the midseason", and praised it for not resorting to "silly car chases [and] blazing guns". Not all reviews were positive. James Endrst, television columnist for The Hartford Courant, felt the series was over-hyped and said "seen it, done it, been there before" of the filming techniques otherwise being praised as cutting edge. In writing about "Gone for Goode", Time reviewer Richard Zoglin praised the "strong cast" and said he appreciated the lack of violence, but said, "the characters are too pat, their conflicts too predictable", particularly the rookie character Bayliss. The New York Times writer John O'Connor praised the acting and originality of the series, which he called "simultaneously funny and harrowing". He also said Homicide occasionally gratuitously emphasized style over substance in an attempt to be original, "[as if] trying to signal, 'See how much better we are than ordinary television.'" Many commentators were impressed with the high number of strong, complex, well-developed and non-stereotypical African American characters like Pembleton, Lewis and Giardello. When the show risked facing cancellation due to poor Nielsen ratings, Benjamin Hooks, executive director of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, took what was considered an unusual move and wrote a letter to NBC Entertainment president Warren Littlefield urging the network not to cancel Homicide. Hooks said the show presented many positive portrayals of African Americans, as well as "a compelling and realistic rendering of today's multiracial and multicultural urban society". "Three Men and Adena" received especially positive reviews and has been described as one of the "classic episodes" of Homicide: Life on the Street. It ranked number 74 in an Entertainment Weekly list of the 100 greatest television moments, and number 15 among the top television moments from the 1990s. David Bianculli of the New York Daily News said the episode "remains one of TV's best drama hours ever", Entertainment Weekly writer Bruce Fretts said the episode was "one of the most powerful prime-time hours ever" and literary critic John Leonard called it "the most extraordinary thing I've ever seen in a television hour". Emily Nussbaum of The New York Times called "Three Men and Adena" the standout episode of the series, and described it as "a potent showcase for the series' smartly mordant dialogue, and its willingness to explore the cliches of TV detectives instead of merely repeating them". Ratings The series premiered on January 31, 1993, in the time slot immediately following Super Bowl XXVII. Having consistently placed third in the Nielsen ratings during prime time since September 1992, NBC hoped a large football audience coupled with an extensive advertising campaign would allow Homicide: Life on the Street to give the network a large ratings boost. NBC ran numerous television commercials advertising the premiere episode, some of which focused on the involvement of Barry Levinson with the hope of capitalizing on the feature film director's household name. "Gone for Goode" was seen by 18.24 million household viewers, which was largest viewership of the first season, and marked the best ratings performance of a preview or premiere following a Super Bowl since The Wonder Years in 1988. Nevertheless, NBC considered it a disappointing performance based on the amount of advertising and press coverage the episode received. "Gone for Goode" received less than half the audience that the Super Bowl itself did. Ratings for Homicide: Life on the Street gradually declined throughout the first season, and it ultimately finished 99th in the Nielsen ratings among network shows for the season. It aired Wednesdays at 9 p.m. EST and was consistently defeated in the ratings by a high-rating comedy block featuring Home Improvement and Coach on ABC. Barry Levinson said the scheduling was a serious detriment to Homicide which, like many other drama series at the time, was designed for a 10 p.m. time-slot. Tom Fontana also believed Homicide suffered in the ratings because it aired between Unsolved Mysteries and Law & Order, which he believed was too many police dramas for one night: "I never understood the concept of three hours of people in handcuffs as a way to entice an audience." Viewership also suffered in part due to heavy competition in its time-slot from several major television events, such as a live Oprah Winfrey 90-minute interview with pop singer Michael Jackson on February 10, the 35th Grammy Awards ceremony on February 24, and the Sixth Annual American Comedy Awards on March 3. As the ratings declined, NBC announced to fans that a decision about whether Homicide would be renewed or canceled would depend on how the last four episodes of the season fared in the ratings. During the first week of March, the network started airing a television commercial with Barry Levinson making a direct appeal to viewers to watch the show, in which he said: Homicide was considered at high risk of cancellation by the end of the first season. When questioned, NBC spokesman Curt Block only said the network was "on the fence" about the series. By the time the season ended, four additional scripts had already been written, but NBC executives asked for several refinements – including fewer episode subplots and less camera movements and jump cuts – before approving a second season. Fontana said he was willing "to do anything to keep NBC from forgetting us", although Levinson said the show would maintain its realistic visual style, claiming, "We want a camera that's almost a participant in the show." Homicide was ultimately renewed, but the producers slightly toned down the show's bleak visual style and hand-held photography motif, and focused more strongly on single stories rather than multiple subplots. Tom Fontana said of the changes to the series, "We were experimenting with our first nine episodes. Whenever you try something new, you tend to err on the side of breaking ground. But we'd rather have more people watching, so the colors and lighting are slightly brighter, and the camera movements are not as jarring." Awards Homicide: Life on the Street won two Emmy Awards during its first season and received two additional nominations. Barry Levinson won an Emmy for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for his work on "Gone for Goode" and Tom Fontana won for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for the "Three Men and Adena" script. After winning his Emmy, Fontana made an emotional acceptance speech about the need to save the hour-long television drama, in which he said: "It's not the fault of the American public that the drama is in trouble. It's us: the writers, producers, the network executives, the studio money-crunchers. We have to figure out a way to reignite the imagination of the American people." Fontana said of the response to his speech: I didn't think I was going to win, but I decided if they were going to give it to me, I was going to yell ... Writers told me, 'Boy, you really gave it to the producers.' Producers told me, 'Boy, you really stuck it to the networks.' The networks told me, 'Boy, you really hammered the studios.' Nobody got to the point. I was indicting all of us. What is frustrating about this is nothing has changed. Everybody wants to do everything the way it has been done 100 times before. Mark Pellington received a Creative Arts Emmy nomination for the main title sequence of the show, and Gwen Verdon was nominated for the Emmy for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series her guest performance in "Ghost of a Chance" as Jessie Doohan, an unhappily married woman accused of killing her husband of 60 years. That same year, Verdon was also nominated for an Emmy for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for her performance in the series Dream On. The first season also received other awards and nominations. Frank Pugliese and Tom Fontana won a Writers Guild of America award for Outstanding Achievement in Television Writing for Episodic Drama for the "Night of the Dead Living" teleplay. Paul Attanasio was nominated for the same award his "Gone for Goode" script. Levinson was nominated for a Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Direction in a Drama Series for "Gone for Goode", but lost to Gregory Hoblit for his direction of the pilot episode of the police drama NYPD Blue. Homicide was nominated for best drama series at the American Television Awards, a new awards show established in 1993 by the producers of the American Music Awards. The American Television Awards differed from the Emmys in that nominees were determined by reporters and critics rather than members of the television industry. Homicide was defeated by I'll Fly Away, an NBC drama series that was canceled in 1993. DVD release The first and second seasons of Homicide were released together in a four-DVD box-set "Homicide: Life on the Street: The Complete Seasons 1&2", which was released by A&E Home Entertainment/NBC Entertainment on May 27, 2003. The set included an audio commentary by Barry Levinson and Tom Fontana for the "Gone for Goode" episode, as well as a collection of the commercials that advertised the episode during the Super Bowl. References 1993 American television seasons
4187252	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvadoran%20Civil%20War	Salvadoran Civil War	The Salvadoran Civil War () was a twelve-year period of civil war in El Salvador that was fought between the government of El Salvador and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN), a coalition or "umbrella organization" of left-wing groups backed by the Cuban regime of Fidel Castro as well as the Soviet Union. A coup on 15 October 1979 followed by government killings of anti-coup protesters is widely seen as the start of civil war. The war did not formally end until 16 January 1992 with the signing of the Chapultepec Peace Accords in Mexico City. The United Nations (UN) reports that the war killed more than 75,000 people between 1979 and 1992, along with approximately 8,000 disappeared persons. Human rights violations, particularly the kidnapping, torture, and murder of suspected FMLN sympathizers by state security forces and paramilitary death squads – were pervasive. The Salvadoran government was considered an ally of the U.S. in the context of the Cold War. During the Carter and Reagan administrations, the US provided 1 to 2 million dollars per day in economic aid to the Salvadoran government. The US also provided significant training and equipment to the military. By May 1983, it was reported that US military officers were working within the Salvadoran High Command and making important strategic and tactical decisions. The United States government believed its extensive assistance to El Salvador's government was justified on the grounds that the insurgents were backed by the Soviet Union. Counterinsurgency tactics implemented by the Salvadoran government often targeted civilian noncombatants. Overall, the United Nations estimated that FMLN guerrillas were responsible for 5 percent of atrocities committed during the civil war, while 85 percent were committed by the Salvadoran security forces. Accountability for these civil war-era atrocities has been hindered by a 1993 amnesty law. In 2016, however, the Supreme Court of Justice of El Salvador ruled in case Incostitucionalidad 44-2013/145-2013 that the law was unconstitutional and that the Salvadoran government could prosecute suspected war criminals. Background El Salvador has historically been characterised by extreme socioeconomic inequality. In the late 19th century, coffee became a major cash crop for El Salvador, bringing in about 95 percent of the country's income. This income was restricted to only 2 percent of the population, however, exacerbating a divide between a small but powerful land-owning elite and an impoverished majority. This divide grew through the 1920s and was compounded by a drop in coffee prices following the stock-market crash of 1929. In 1932, the Central American Socialist Party was formed and led an uprising of peasants and indigenous people against the government. The FMLN was named after Farabundo Martí, one of the leaders of the uprising. The rebellion was brutally suppressed in La Matanza, during which approximately 30,000 civilians were murdered by the armed forces. La Matanza – 'the slaughter' in Spanish, as it came to be known – allowed military dictatorships to monopolize political power in El Salvador while protecting the economic dominance of the landed elite. Opposition to this arrangement among middle-class, working-class, and poor Salvadorans grew throughout the 20th century. On 14 July 1969, an armed conflict erupted between El Salvador and Honduras over immigration disputes caused by Honduran land reform laws. The conflict (known as the Football War) lasted only four days but had major long-term effects for Salvadoran society. Trade was disrupted between El Salvador and Honduras, causing tremendous economic damage to both nations. An estimated 300,000 Salvadorans were displaced due to battle, many of whom were exiled from Honduras; in many cases, the Salvadoran government could not meet their needs. The Football War also strengthened the power of the military in El Salvador, leading to heightened corruption. In the years following the war, the government expanded its purchases of arms from sources such as Israel, Brazil, West Germany and the United States. The 1972 Salvadoran presidential election was marred by massive electoral fraud, which favored the military-backed National Conciliation Party (PCN), whose candidate Arturo Armando Molina was a colonel in the Salvadoran Army. Opposition to the Molina government was strong on both the right and the left. Also in 1972, the Marxist–Leninist Fuerzas Populares de Liberación Farabundo Martí (FPL) – established in 1970 as an offshoot of the Communist Party of El Salvador – began conducting small-scale guerrilla operations in El Salvador. Other organizations such as the People's Revolutionary Army (ERP) also began to develop. The growth of left-wing insurgency in El Salvador occurred against a backdrop of rising food prices and decreased agricultural output exacerbated by the 1973 oil crisis. This worsened the existing socioeconomic inequality in the country, leading to increased unrest. In response, President Molina enacted a series of land reform measures, calling for large landholdings to be redistributed among the peasant population. The reforms failed, thanks to opposition from the landed elite, reinforcing the widespread discontent with the government. On 20 February 1977, the PCN defeated the National Opposing Union (UNO) in the presidential elections. As was the case in 1972, the results of the 1977 election were fraudulent and favored a military candidate, General Carlos Humberto Romero. State-sponsored paramilitary forces – such as the infamous Organización Democrática Nacionalista (ORDEN) – reportedly strong-armed peasants into voting for the military candidate by threatening them with machetes. The period between the election and the formal inauguration of President Romero on 1 July 1977 was characterized by massive protests from the popular movement, which were met by state repression. On 28 February 1977, a crowd of political demonstrators gathered in downtown San Salvador to protest the electoral fraud. Security forces arrived on the scene and opened fire, resulting in a massacre as they indiscriminately killed demonstrators and bystanders alike. Estimates of the number of civilians killed range between 200 and 1,500. President Molina blamed the protests on "foreign Communists" and immediately exiled a number of top UNO party members from the country. Repression continued after the inauguration of President Romero, with his new government declaring a state-of-siege and suspending civil liberties. In the countryside, the agrarian elite organized and funded paramilitary death squads, such as the infamous Regalado's Armed Forces (FAR) led by Hector Regalado. While the death squads were initially autonomous from the Salvadoran military and composed of civilians (the FAR, for example, had developed out of a Boy Scout troop), they were soon taken over by El Salvador's military intelligence service, National Security Agency of El Salvador (ANSESAL), led by Major Roberto D'Aubuisson, and became a crucial part of the state's repressive apparatus, murdering thousands of union leaders, activists, students and teachers suspected of sympathizing with the left. The Socorro Jurídico Cristiano (Christian Legal Assistance) – a legal aid office within the archbishop's office and El Salvador's leading human rights group at the time – documented the killings of 687 civilians by government forces in 1978. In 1979 the number of documented killings increased to 1,796. The repression prompted many in the Catholic Church to denounce the government, which responded by repressing the clergy. Historian M. A. Serpas posits displacement and dispossession rates with respect to land as a major structural factor leading ultimately to civil war. El Salvador is an agrarian society, with coffee fueling its economy, where "77 percent of the arable land belonged to .01 percent of the population. Nearly 35 percent of the civilians in El Salvador were disfranchised from land ownership either through historical injustices, war or economic downturns in the commodities market. During this time frame, the country also experienced a growing population amidst major disruption in agrarian commerce and trade." Coup d'état, repression and insurrection: 1979–1981 Military coup October 1979 With tensions mounting and the country on the verge of an insurrection, the civil-military Revolutionary Government Junta (JRG) deposed Romero in a coup on 15 October 1979. The United States feared that El Salvador, like Nicaragua and Cuba before it, could fall to communist revolution. Thus, Jimmy Carter's administration supported the new military government with vigor, hoping to promote stability in the country. While Carter provided some support to the government, the subsequent Reagan administration significantly increased U.S. spending in El Salvador. By 1984 Ronald Reagan's government would spend nearly $1 billion on economic aid for the Salvadoran government. The JRG enacted a land reform program that restricted landholdings to a 100-hectare maximum, nationalised the banking, coffee and sugar industries, scheduled elections for February 1982, and disbanded the paramilitary private death squad Organización Democrática Nacionalista (ORDEN) on 6 November 1979. The land reform program was received with hostility from El Salvador's military and economic elites, however, which sought to sabotage the process as soon as it began. Upon learning of the government's intent to distribute land to the peasants and organize cooperatives, wealthy Salvadoran landowners began killing their own livestock and moving valuable farming equipment across the border into Guatemala, where many Salvadoran elites owned additional land. In addition, most co-op leaders in the countryside were assassinated or "disappeared" soon after being elected and becoming visible to the authorities. The Socorro Jurídico documented a jump in documented government killings from 234 in February 1980 to 487 the following month. Under pressure from the military, all three civilian members of the junta resigned on 3 January 1980, along with 10 of the 11 cabinet ministers. On 22 January 1980, the Salvadoran National Guard attacked a massive peaceful demonstration, killing up to 50 people and wounding hundreds more. On 6 February, US ambassador Frank Devine informed the State Department that the extreme right was arming itself and preparing for a confrontation in which it clearly expected to ally itself with the military. Aims of the junta's violent repression "The immediate goal of the Salvadoran army and security forces—and of the United States in 1980, was to prevent a takeover by the leftist-led guerrillas and their allied political organizations. At this point in the Salvadoran conflict the latter were much more important than the former. The military resources of the rebels were extremely limited and their greatest strength, by far, lay not in force of arms but in their 'mass organizations' made up of labor unions, student and peasant organizations that could be mobilized by the thousands in El Salvador's major cities and could shut down the country through strikes." Critics of US military aid charged that "it would legitimate what has become dictatorial violence and that political power in El Salvador lay with old-line military leaders in government positions who practice a policy of 'reform with repression.'" A prominent Catholic spokesman insisted that "any military aid you send to El Salvador ends up in the hands of the military and paramilitary rightist groups who are themselves at the root of the problems of the country." "In one case that has received little attention", Human Rights Watch noted, "US Embassy officials apparently collaborated with the death squad abduction of two law students in January 1980. National Guard troops arrested two youths, Francisco Ventura and José Humberto Mejía, following an anti-government demonstration. The National Guard received permission to bring the youths onto Embassy grounds. Shortly thereafter, a private car drove into the Embassy parking lot. Men in civilian dress put the students in the trunk of their car and drove away. Ventura and Mejía were never seen again." Motivation for the resistance As the government began to expand its violence towards its citizens, not only through death squads but also through the military, any group of citizens that attempted to provide any form of support whether physically or verbally ran the risk of death. Even so, many still chose to participate. But the violence was not limited to activists but also anyone who promoted ideas that "questioned official policy" were tacitly assumed to be subversive against the government. A marginalized group that metamorphosed into a guerilla force that would end up confronting these government forces manifested itself in campesinos or peasants. Many of these insurgents joined collective action campaigns for material gain; in the Salvadoran Civil War, however, many peasants cited reasons other than material benefits in their decision to join the fight. Piety was a popular reason for joining the insurrection because they saw their participation as a way of not only advancing a personal cause but a communal sentiment of divine justice. Even prior to the civil war, numerous insurgents took part in other campaigns that tackled social changes much more directly, not only the lack of political representation but also the lack of economic and social opportunities not afforded to their communities. While the FMLN can be characterized as an insurrectionist group, other scholars have classified it as an "armed group institution." Understanding the differentiation is crucial. Armed group institutions use tactics to reinforce their mission or ideology. Ultimately influencing the behavior and group norms of their combatants. In this regard, the FMLN had a more effective approach than El Salvador's army in politically educating their members about their mission. Individuals who aligned themselves with the FMLN were driven by a profound sense of passion and purpose. They demonstrated a willingness to risk their lives for the greater good of their nation. The FMLN strategy focused on community organization, establishing connections within the church and labor unions. In contrast, El Salvador's army had inadequate training, and many of its combatants reported joining out of job insecurity or under intimidation from the government.These disparities were notably reflected in their respective combat methods. Further, the Salvadorean military caused more civilian casualties than the FMLN. In addition, the insurgents in the civil war viewed their support of the insurrection as a demonstration of their opposition to the powerful elite's unfair treatment of peasant communities that they experienced on an everyday basis, so there was a class element associated with these insurgencies. They reveled in their fight against injustice and in their belief that they were writing their own story, an emotion that Elisabeth Wood titled "pleasure of agency". The peasants' organization thus centered on using their struggle to unite against their oppressors, not only towards the government but the elites as well, a struggle that soon evolved into a political machine that came to be associated with the FMLN. In the early months of 1980, Salvadoran guerilla groups, workers, communists, and socialists, unified to form the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN). The FMLN immediately announced plans for an insurrection against the government, which began on 10 January 1981, with the FMLN's first major attack. The attack established FMLN control of most of Morazán and Chalatenango departments for the war's duration. Attacks were also launched on military targets throughout the country, leaving hundreds of people dead. FMLN insurgents ranged from children to the elderly, both male and female, and most were trained in FMLN camps in the mountains and jungles of El Salvador to learn military techniques. Much later, in November 1989, the FMLN launched a large offensive that caught Salvadoran military off guard and succeeded in taking control of large sections of the country and entering the capital, San Salvador. In San Salvador, the FMLN quickly took control of many of the poor neighborhoods as the military bombed their positions—including residential neighborhoods to drive out the FMLN. This large FMLN offensive was unsuccessful in overthrowing the government but did convince the government that the FMLN could not be defeated using force of arms and that a negotiated settlement would be necessary. Assassination of Archbishop Romero In February 1980, Archbishop Óscar Romero published an open letter to US President Jimmy Carter in which he pleaded with him to suspend the United States' ongoing program of military aid to the Salvadoran regime. He advised Carter that "Political power is in the hands of the armed forces. They know only how to repress the people and defend the interests of the Salvadoran oligarchy." Romero warned that US support would only "sharpen the injustice and repression against the organizations of the people which repeatedly have been struggling to gain respect for their fundamental human rights". On 24 March 1980, the Archbishop was assassinated while celebrating Mass, the day after he called upon Salvadoran soldiers and security force members to not follow their orders to kill Salvadoran civilians. President Carter stated this was a "shocking and unconscionable act". At his funeral a week later, government-sponsored snipers in the National Palace and on the periphery of the Gerardo Barrios Plaza were responsible for the shooting of 42 mourners. On 7 May 1980, former army major, Roberto D'Aubuisson, was arrested with a group of civilians and soldiers at a farm. The raiders found documents connecting him and the civilians as organizers and financiers of the death squad who killed Archbishop Romero, and of plotting a coup d'état against the JRG. Their arrest provoked right-wing terrorist threats and institutional pressures forcing the JRG to release D'Aubuisson. In 1993, a U.N. investigation confirmed that D'Aubuisson ordered the assassination. A week after the arrest of D'Aubuisson, the National Guard and the newly reorganized paramilitary ORDEN, with the cooperation of the Military of Honduras, carried out a large massacre at the Sumpul River on 14 May 1980, in which an estimated 600 civilians were killed, mostly women and children. Escaping villagers were prevented from crossing the river by the Honduran armed forces, "and then killed by Salvadoran troops who fired on them in cold blood". Over the course of 1980, the Salvadoran Army and three main security forces (National Guard, National Police and Treasury Police) were estimated to have killed 11,895 people, mostly peasants, trade unionists, teachers, students, journalists, human rights advocates, priests, and other prominent demographics among the popular movement. Human rights organizations judged the Salvadoran government to have among the worst human rights records in the hemisphere. Murder and rape of US nuns On 2 December 1980, members of the Salvadoran National Guard were suspected to have raped and murdered four American, Catholic church women (three religious women, or nuns, and a laywoman). Maryknoll missionary sisters Maura Clarke and Ita Ford, Ursuline sister Dorothy Kazel, and laywoman Jean Donovan were on a Catholic relief mission providing food, shelter, transport, medical care, and burial to death squad victims. In 1980 alone, at least 20 religious workers and priests were murdered in El Salvador. Throughout the war, the murders of church figures increased. For example, the Jesuit University of Central America stated that two bishops, sixteen priests, three nuns, one seminarian, and at least twenty-seven lay workers were murdered. By killing Church figures, "the military leadership showed just how far its position had hardened in daring to eliminate those it viewed as opponents. They saw the Church as an enemy that went against the military and their rule." U.S. military aid was briefly cut off in response to the murders but was renewed within six weeks. The outgoing Carter administration increased military aid to the Salvadoran armed forces to $10 million, which included $5 million in rifles, ammunition, grenades and helicopters. In justifying these arms shipments, the administration claimed that the regime had taken "positive steps" to investigate the murder of four American nuns, but this was disputed by US Ambassador, Robert E. White, who said that he could find no evidence the junta was "conducting a serious investigation". White was dismissed from the foreign service by the Reagan administration after he had refused to participate in a coverup of the Salvadoran military's responsibility for the murders at the behest of Secretary of State Alexander Haig. Repression stepped up Other countries allied with the United States also intervened in El Salvador. The military government in Chile provided substantial training and tactical advice to the Salvadoran Armed Forces, such that the Salvadoran high command bestowed upon General Augusto Pinochet the prestigious Order of José Matías Delgado in May 1981 for his government's avid support. The Argentine military dictatorship also supported the Salvadoran armed forces as part of Operation Charly. During the same month, the JRG strengthened the state of siege, imposed by President Romero in May 1979, by declaring martial law and adopting a new set of curfew regulations. Between 12 January and 19 February 1981, 168 persons were killed by the security forces for violating curfew. "Draining the Sea" In its effort to defeat the insurgency, the Salvadoran Armed Forces carried out a "scorched earth" strategy, and adopted tactics similar to those being employed in neighboring Guatemala by its security forces. These tactics were inspired and adapted from U.S. counterinsurgency strategies used during the Vietnam War. An integral part of the Salvadoran Army's counterinsurgency strategy entailed "draining the sea" or "drying up the ocean", that is, eliminating the insurgency by eradicating its support base in the countryside. The primary target was the civilian population – displacing or killing them in order to remove any possible base of support for the rebels. The concept of "draining the sea" had its basis in a doctrine by Mao Zedong that emphasized that "The guerrilla must move amongst the people as a fish swims in the sea." Aryeh Neier, the executive director of Americas Watch, wrote in a 1984 review about the scorched earth approach: "This may be an effective strategy for winning the war. It is, however, a strategy that involves the use of terror tactics—bombings, strafings, shellings and, occasionally, massacres of civilians." Beginning in 1984, the Salvadoran Air Force was able to locate guerrilla strongholds reportedly using intelligence from U.S. Air Force planes flying over the country. Scorched earth offensives of 1981 On 15 March 1981, the Salvadoran Army began a "sweep" operation in Cabañas Department in northern El Salvador near the Honduran border. The sweep was accompanied by the use of scorched earth tactics by the Salvadoran Army and indiscriminate killings of anyone captured by the army. Those displaced by the "sweep" who were not killed outright fled the advance of the Salvadoran Army; hiding in caves and under trees to evade capture and probable summary execution. On 18 March, three days after the sweep in Cabañas began, 4–8,000 survivors of the sweep (mostly women and children) attempted to cross the Rio Lempa into Honduras to flee violence. There, they were caught between Salvadoran and Honduran troops. The Salvadoran Air Force, subsequently bombed and strafed the fleeing civilians with machine gun fire, killing hundreds. Among the dead were at least 189 persons who were unaccounted for and registered as "disappeared" during the operation. A second offensive was launched, also in Cabañas Department, on 11 November 1981 in which 1,200 troops were mobilized, including members of the Atlácatl Battalion. Atlácatl was a rapid response counter-insurgency battalion organized at the U.S. Army School of the Americas in Panama in 1980. Atlácatl soldiers were trained and equipped by the U.S. military, and were described as "the pride of the United States military team in San Salvador. Trained in antiguerrilla operations, the battalion was intended to turn a losing war around." The November 1981 operation was commanded by Lt. Col. Sigifredo Ochoa, a former Treasury Police chief with a reputation for brutality. Ochoa was close associate of Major Roberto D'Aubuisson and was alleged to have been involved in the assassination of Archbishop Oscar Romero. D'Aubuisson and Ochoa were both members of La Tandona, the class of 1966 at the Captain General Gerardo Barrios Military School. From the start, the invasion of Cabanas was described as a "cleansing" operation by official sources. Hundreds of civilians were massacred by the army as Col. Ochoa's troops moved through the villages. Col. Ochoa claimed that hundreds of guerrillas had been killed but was able to show journalists only fifteen captured weapons, half of them virtual antiques, suggesting that most of those killed in the sweep were unarmed. El Mozote massacre This operation was followed by additional "sweeps" through Morazán Department, spearheaded by the Atlácatl Battalion. On 11 December 1981, one month after the "sweep" through Cabañas, the Battalion occupied the village of El Mozote and massacred at least 733 and possibly up to 1,000 unarmed civilians, including women and 146 children, in what became known as the El Mozote Massacre. The Atlácatl soldiers accused the adults of collaborating with the guerrillas. The field commander said they were under orders to kill everyone, including the children, who he asserted would just grow up to become guerrillas if they let them live. "We were going to make an example of these people," he said. The US steadfastly denied the existence of the El Mozote massacre, dismissing reports of it as leftist "propaganda", until secret US cables were declassified in the 1990s. The US government and its allies in US media smeared reporters of American newspapers who reported on the atrocity and, more generally, undertook a campaign of whitewashing the human rights record of the Salvadoran military and the US role in arming, training and guiding it. The smears, according to journalists like Michael Massing writing in the Columbia Journalism Review and Anthony Lewis, made other American journalists tone down their reporting on the crimes of the Salvadoran regime and the US role in supporting the regime. As details became more widely known, the event became recognized as one of the worst atrocities of the conflict. In its report covering 1981, Amnesty International identified "regular security and military units as responsible for widespread torture, mutilation and killings of noncombatant civilians from all sectors of Salvadoran society." The report also stated that the killing of civilians by state security forces became increasingly systematic with the implementation of more methodical killing strategies, which allegedly included use of a meat packing plant to dispose of human remains. Between 20 and 25 August 1981, eighty-three decapitations were reported. The murders were later revealed to have been carried out by a death squad using a guillotine. The repression in rural areas resulted in the displacement of large portions of the rural populace, and many peasants fled. Of those who fled or were displaced, some 20,000 resided in makeshift refugee centers on the Honduran border in conditions of poverty, starvation and disease. The army and death squads forced many of them to flee to the United States, but most were denied asylum. A US congressional delegation that, on 17–18 January 1981, visited the refugee camps in El Salvador on a fact finding mission, submitted a report to Congress that found: "[T]he Salvadoran method of 'drying up the ocean' is to eliminate entire villages from the map, to isolate the guerrillas, and deny them any rural base off which they can feed." In total, Socorro Jurídico registered 13,353 individual cases of summary execution by government forces over the course of 1981. Nonetheless, the true figure for the number of persons killed by the Army and security services could be substantially higher, due to the fact that extrajudicial killings generally went unreported in the countryside and many of the victims' families remained silent in fear of reprisal. An Americas Watch report described that the Socorro Jurídico figures "tended to be conservative because its standards of confirmation are strict"; killings of persons were registered individually and required proof of being "not combat related". Socorro Jurídico later revised its count of government killings for 1981 up to 16,000 with the induction of new cases. Lieutenant Colonel Domingo Monterrosa was chosen to replace Colonial Jaime Flores and became military commander of the whole eastern zone of El Salvador. He was a rare thing: "pure, one-hundred-percent soldier, a natural leader, a born military man." Monterrosa did not want wholesale bloodshed, but he wanted to win the war at any costs. He tried to be more relatable and less arrogant to the local population in the way he presented his military. When he first executed massacres he didn't think much of it because it was part of his military training and because it was tactically approved by the High Command, but he didn't consider whether it would become a political problem. He was accused of responsibility for what happened at El Mozote, though he denied it. Monterrosa later began to date a Salvadoran woman who worked in the press corps, for an American television network. Monterrosa's girlfriend let her co-worker know that something had gone wrong at El Mozote, though she did not go into detail. But people knew that he had lost radio contact with his men and that it was unfortunate and something that later brought regrettable consequences. Although he says he lost contact with his men, the guerrillas did not believe it and said it was well known to everyone that he had ordered the massacre. In an interview with James LeMoyne, however, he stated that he did in fact order his men to "clean out" El Mozote. Interim government and continued violence: 1982–1984 Peace offer and rejection In 1982, the FMLN began calling for a peace settlement that would establish a "government of broad participation". The Reagan administration said the FMLN wanted to create a Communist dictatorship. Elections were interrupted with right-wing paramilitary attacks and FMLN-suggested boycotts. El Salvador's National Federation of Lawyers, which represented all of the country's bar associations, refused to participate in drafting the 1982 electoral law. The lawyers said that the elections couldn't possibly be free and fair during a state of siege that suspended all basic rights and freedoms. FMLN steps up campaign Attacks against military and economic targets by the FMLN began to escalate. The FMLN attacked the Ilopango Air Force Base in San Salvador, destroying six of the Air Force's 14 Bell UH-1 Iroquois helicopters, five of its 18 Dassault Ouragan aircraft and three C-47s. Between February and April, a total of 439 acts of sabotage were reported. The number of acts of sabotage involving explosives or arson rose to 782 between January and September. The United States Embassy estimated the damage to the economic infrastructure at US$98 million. FMLN also carried out large-scale operations in the capital city and temporarily occupied urban centres in the country's interior. According to some reports, the number of rebels ranged between 4,000 and 5,000; other sources put the number at between 6,000 and 9,000. Interim government Pursuant to measures implemented by the JRG junta on 18 October 1979, elections for an interim government were held on 29 April 1982. The Legislative Assembly voted on three candidates nominated by the armed forces; Álvaro Alfredo Magaña Borja was elected by 36 votes to 17, ahead of the Party of National Conciliation and the hard right Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA) candidates. Roberto D'Aubuisson accused Jaime Abdul Gutiérrez Avendaño of imposing on the Assembly "his personal decision to put Álvaro Alfredo Magaña Borja in the presidency" in spite of a "categorical no" from the ARENA deputies. Magana was sworn into office on 2 May. Decree No. 6 of the National Assembly suspended phase III of the implementation of the agrarian reform, and was itself later amended. The Apaneca Pact was signed on 3 August 1982, establishing a Government of National Unity, whose objectives were peace, democratization, human rights, economic recovery, security and a strengthened international position. An attempt was made to form a transitional government that would establish a democratic system. Lack of agreement among the forces that made up the government and the pressures of the armed conflict prevented any substantive changes from being made during Magaña's presidency. More atrocities by the government The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights reported that, on 24 May 1982, a clandestine cemetery containing the corpses of 150 disappeared persons was discovered near Puerta del Diablo, Panchimalco, approximately twelve kilometers from San Salvador. On 10 June 1982, almost 4,000 Salvadoran troops carried out a "cleanup" operation in the rebel-controlled Chalatenango province. Over 600 civilians were reportedly massacred during the Army sweep. The Salvadoran field commander acknowledged that an unknown number of civilian rebel sympathizers or "masas" were killed, while declaring the operation a success. Nineteen days later, the Army massacred 27 unarmed civilians during house raids in a San Salvador neighborhood. The women were raped and murdered. Everyone was dragged from their homes into the street and then executed. "The operation was a success," said the Salvadoran Defense Ministry communique. "This action was a result of training and professionalization of our officers and soldiers." During 1982 and 1983, government forces killed approximately 8,000 civilians a year. Although the figure is substantially less than the figures reported by human rights groups in 1980 and 1981, targeted executions as well as indiscriminate killings nonetheless remained an integral policy of the army and internal security forces, part of what Professor William Stanley described as a "strategy of mass murder" designed to terrorize the civilian population as well as opponents of the government. General Adolfo Blandón, the Salvadoran armed forces chief of staff during much of the 1980s, has stated, "Before 1983, we never took prisoners of war." Government murder of human rights and labor union leaders In March 1983, Marianella García Villas, president of the non-governmental Human Rights Commission of El Salvador, was captured by army troops on the Guazapa volcano, and later tortured to death. Garcia Villas had been on Guazapa collecting evidence about the possible army use of white phosphorus munitions. In April 1983, Melida Anaya Montes, a leader of the Popular Forces for Liberation (FPL) "Farabundo Martí", a communist party-affiliated militia, was murdered in Managua, Nicaragua. Salvador Cayetano Carpio, her superior in the FPL, was allegedly implicated in her murder. He committed suicide in Managua shortly after Anaya Montes' murder. Their deaths influenced the course within the FMLN of the FPL's Prolonged Popular War strategy. On 7 February 1984, nine labor union leaders, including all seven top officials of one major labor federation, were arrested by the Salvadoran National Police and sent to be tried by a military court. The arrests were part of Duarte's moves to crack down on labor unions after more than 80 trade unionists were detained in a raid by the National Police. The police confiscated the union's files and took videotape mugshots of each union member. During a 15-day interrogation, the nine labor leaders were beaten during late-night questioning and were told to confess to being guerrillas. They were then forced to sign a written confession while blindfolded. They were never charged with being guerrillas but the official police statement said they were accused of planning to "present demands to management for higher wages and benefits and promoting strikes, which destabilize the economy." A U.S. official said the embassy had "followed the arrests closely and was satisfied that the correct procedures were followed." Duarte presidency: 1984–1989 Fixed elections and lack of accountability In 1984 elections, Christian Democrat José Napoleón Duarte won the presidency (with 54 percent of the votes) against Army Major Roberto d'Aubuisson of the Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA). The elections were held under military rule amidst high levels of repression and violence, however, and candidates to the left of Duarte's brand of Christian Democrats were excluded from participating. Fearful of a d'Aubuisson presidency for public relations purposes, the CIA financed Duarte's campaign with some two million dollars. $10 million were put into the election as a whole, by the CIA, for electoral technology, administration and international observers. After Duarte's victory, human rights abuses at the hands of the army and security forces continued, but declined due to modifications made to the security structures. The policies of the Duarte government attempted to make the country's three security forces more accountable to the government by placing them under the direct supervision of a Vice Minister of Defense, but all three forces continued to be commanded individually by regular army officers, which, given the command structure within the government, served to effectively nullify any of the accountability provisions. The Duarte government also failed to decommission personnel within the security structures that had been involved in gross human rights abuses, instead simply dispersing them to posts in other regions of the country. Days of Tranquillity Following a proposal from Nils Thedin to UNICEF, "Days of tranquillity" were brokered between Government and rebel forces, under the direction of UNICEF Executive Director James Grant. For three days in 1985, all hostilities ceased to allow for mass-immunisation of any child against polio, measles, diphtheria, tetanus and whooping cough. The program was successful. More than half of El Salvador's 400,000 children were immunised from 2,000 immunisation centres by 20,000 health workers, and the program was repeated in subsequent years until the conclusion of the war. Similar programs have since been instituted in Uganda, Lebanon, Afghanistan, and Sudan. Army massacres continue While reforms were being made to the security forces, the army continued to massacre unarmed civilians in the country side. An Americas Watch report noted that the Atlácatl Battalion killed 80 unarmed civilians in Cabanas in July 1984, and carried out another massacre one month later, killing 50 displaced people in the Chalatenango province. The women were raped and then everyone was systematically executed. Through 1984 and 1985, the Salvadoran Armed Forces enacted a series of "civic-action" programs in Chalatenango province, consisting of the establishment of "citizen defense committees" to guard plantations and businesses against attacks by insurgents and the establishment of a number of free-fire zones. These measures were implemented under former Cabanas commander, Lieutenant Colonel Sigifredo Ochoa Perez, who had previously been exiled to the US Army War College for mutiny. By January 1985 Ochoa's forces had established 12 free-fire zones in Chalatenango in which any inhabitants unidentified by the army were deemed to be insurgents. Ochoa stated in an interview that areas within the free fire zone were susceptible to indiscriminate bombings by the Salvadoran Air Force. Ochoa's forces were implicated in a massacre of about 40 civilians in an Army sweep through one of the free fire zones in August 1985. Ochoa refused to permit the Red Cross to enter these areas to deliver humanitarian aid to the victims. Ochoa's forces reportedly uprooted some 1,400 civilian rebel supporters with mortar fire between September and November 1984. In its annual review of 1987, Amnesty International reported that "some of the most serious violations of human rights are found in Central America", particularly Guatemala and El Salvador, where "kidnappings and assassinations serve as systematic mechanisms of the government against opposition from the left". On 26 October 1987, unknown gunmen shot and killed Herbert Ernesto Anaya, Director of El Salvador's nongovernmental Human Rights Commission. Anaya was in his car in his driveway with his wife and children at the time. Some human rights groups linked the increase of death squad-style killings and disappearances to the reactivation of the popular organizations, which had been decimated by mass state terror in the early 1980s. Col. Renee Emilio Ponce, the Army operations chief, asserted that the guerrillas were "returning to their first phase of clandestine organization" in the city, "and mobilization of the masses". Peace talks During the Central American Peace Accords negotiations in 1987, the FMLN demanded that all death squads be disbanded and the members be held accountable. In October 1987, the Salvadoran Assembly approved an amnesty for civil-war-related crimes. The Amnesty law required the release of all prisoners suspected of being guerrillas and guerrilla sympathizers. Pursuant to these laws, 400 political prisoners were released. Insurgents were given a period of fifteen days to turn themselves over to the security forces in exchange for amnesty. Despite amnesty being granted to guerillas and political prisoners, amnesty was also granted to members of the army, security forces and paramilitary who were involved in human rights abuses. Army death squads continue In October 1988, Amnesty International reported that death squads had abducted, tortured, and killed, hundreds of suspected dissidents in the preceding eighteen months. Most of the victims were trade unionists and members of cooperatives, human rights workers, members of the judiciary involved in efforts to establish criminal responsibility for human rights violations, returned refugees and displaced persons, and released political prisoners. The squads comprised intelligence sections of the Armed Forces and the security services. They customarily wore plain clothes and made use of trucks or vans with tinted windows and without license plates. They were "chillingly efficient", said the report. Victims were sometimes shot from passing cars, in the daytime and in front of eyewitnesses. At other times, victims were kidnapped from their homes or on the streets and their bodies found dumped far from the scene. Others were forcefully "disappeared." Victims were "customarily found mutilated, decapitated, dismembered, strangled or showing marks of torture or rape." The death squad style was "to operate in secret but to leave mutilated bodies of victims as a means of terrifying the population." FMLN offensive of 1989 and retaliation Outraged by the results of the 1988 fixed elections and the military's use of terror tactics and voter intimidation, the FMLN launched a major offensive known as the "final offensive of 1989" with the aim of unseating the government of President Alfredo Cristiani on 11 November 1989. This offensive brought the epicenter of fighting into the wealthy suburbs of San Salvador for essentially the first time in the history of the conflict, as the FMLN began a campaign of selective assassinations against political and military officials, civil officials, and upper-class private citizens. The government retaliated with a renewed campaign of repression, primarily against activists in the democratic sector. The non-governmental Salvadoran Human Rights Commission (CDHES) counted 2,868 killings by the armed forces between May 1989 and May 1990. In addition, the CDHES stated that government paramilitary organizations illegally detained 1,916 persons and disappeared 250 during the same period. On 13 February, the Atlácatl Battalion attacked a guerrilla field hospital and killed at least 10 people, including five patients, a physician and a nurse. Two of the female victims showed signs that they had been raped before they were executed. US message Nearly two weeks earlier, US Vice President Dan Quayle on a visit to San Salvador told army leaders that human rights abuses committed by the military had to stop. Sources associated with the military said afterword that Quayle's warning was dismissed as propaganda for American consumption aimed at the US Congress and public. At the same time, critics argued US military advisors were possibly sending a different message to the Salvadoran military: "Do what you need to do to stop the commies, just don't get caught". A former US intelligence officer suggested the death squads needed to leave less visual evidence, that they should stop dumping bodies on the side of the road because "they have an ocean and they ought to use it". The School of the Americas, founded by the United States, trained many members of the Salvadoran military, including Roberto D'Aubuisson, organizer of death squads, and military officers linked to the murder of Jesuit priests. In a 29 November 1989 press conference, Secretary of State James A. Baker III said he believed President Cristiani was in control of the army and defended the government's crackdown on opponents as "absolutely appropriate". The US Trade Representative told Human Rights Watch that the government's repression of trade unionists was justified on the grounds that they were guerrilla supporters. Government terrorism in San Salvador In San Salvador on 1 October 1989, eight people were killed and 35 others were injured when a death squad bombed the headquarters of the leftist labor confederation, the National Trade Union Federation of Salvadoran Workers (UNTS). Earlier the same day, another bomb exploded outside the headquarters of a victims' advocacy group, the Committee of Mothers and Family Members of Political Prisoners, Disappeared and Assassinated of El Salvador, injuring four others. Death squads take on the church As early as the 1980s, the University of Central America fell under attack from the army and death squads. On 16 November 1989, five days after the beginning of the FMLN offensive, uniformed soldiers of the Atlácatl Battalion entered the campus of the University of Central America in the middle of the night and executed six Jesuit priests—Ignacio Ellacuría, Segundo Montes, Ignacio Martín-Baró, Joaquín López y López, Juan Ramón Moreno, and Amando López—and their housekeepers (a mother and daughter, Elba Ramos and Celia Marisela Ramos). The priests were dragged from their beds on the campus, machine gunned to death and their corpses mutilated. The mother and daughter were found shot to death in the bed they shared. The Atlácatl Battalion was reportedly under the tutelage of U.S. special forces just 48 hours before the killings. One day later, six men and one youth were slaughtered by government soldiers in the capital, San Salvador. According to relatives and neighbors who witnessed the killings, the six men were lined up against a masonry wall and shot to death. The seventh youth who happened to be walking by at the time was also executed. The Salvadoran government then began a campaign to dismantle a liberal Catholic church network that the army said were "front organizations" supporting the guerrillas. Church offices were raided and workers were arrested and expelled. Targets included priests, lay workers and foreign employees of humanitarian agencies, providing social services to the poor: food programs, healthcare, relief for the displaced. One church volunteer, who was a U.S. citizen, said she was blindfolded, tortured and interrogated in Treasury Police headquarters in San Salvador while a U.S. vice consul "having coffee with the colonel in charge" did nothing to intervene. Pressures to end stalemate The murder of the six Jesuit priests and the November 1989 "final offensive" by the FMLN in San Salvador, however, were key turning points that increased international pressure and domestic pressure from war-weary constituents that alternatives to the military stalemate needed to be found. International support for the FMLN was declining with the end of the Cold War just as international support for the Salvadoran armed forces was weakening as the Reagan administration gave way to the less ideological Bush administration, and the end of the Cold War lessened the anti-Communist concerns about a potential domino effect in Central America. By the late 1980s, 75 percent of the population lived in poverty. The living standards of most Salvadorans declined by 30 percent since 1983. Unemployment or underemployment increased to 50 percent. Most people, moreover, still didn't have access to clean water or healthcare. The armed forces were feared, inflation rose almost 40 percent, capital flight reached an estimated $1 billion, and the economic elite avoided paying taxes. Despite nearly $3 billion in American economic assistance, per capita income declined by one third. American aid was distributed to urban businesses although the impoverished majority received almost none of it. The concentration of wealth was even higher than before the U.S.-administered land reform program. The agrarian law generated windfall profits for the economic elite and buried the cooperatives in debts that left them incapable of competing in the capital markets. The oligarchs often took back the land from bankrupt peasants who couldn't obtain the credit necessary to pay for seeds and fertilizer. Although, "few of the poor would dream of seeking legal redress against a landlord because virtually no judge would favor a poor man." By 1989, 1 percent of the landowners owned 41 percent of the tillable land, while 60 percent of the rural population owned 0 percent. Death squads and peace accords: 1990–1992 After 10 years of war, more than one million people had been displaced out of a population of 5,389,000. 40 percent of the homes of newly displaced people were completely destroyed and another 25 percent were in need of major repairs. Death squad activities further escalated in 1990, despite a UN Agreement on Human Rights signed 26 July by the Cristiani government and the FMLN. In June 1990, U.S. President George Bush announced an "Enterprise for the Americas Initiative" to improve the investment climate by creating "a hemisphere-wide free trade zone." President Bush authorized the release of $42.5 million in military aid to the Salvadoran armed forces on 16 January 1991. In late January, the Usulután offices of the Democratic Convergence, a coalition of left-of-center parties, were attacked with grenades. On 21 February, a candidate for the Democratic National Unity (UDN) party and his pregnant wife were assassinated after ignoring death squad threats to leave the country or die. On the last day of the campaign, another UDN candidate was shot in her eye when Arena party gunmen opened fire on campaign activists putting up posters. Despite fraudulent elections orchestrated by Arena through voter intimidation, sabotage of polling stations by the Arena-dominated Central Elections Council and the disappearing of tens of thousands of names from the voting lists, the official U.S. observation team declared them "free and fair." Death squad killings and disappearances remained steady throughout 1991 as well as torture, false imprisonment, and attacks on civilians by the Army and security forces. Opposition politicians, members of church and grassroots organizations representing peasants, women and repatriated refugees suffered constant death threats, arrests, surveillance and break-ins all year. The FMLN killed two wounded U.S. military advisers and carried out indiscriminate attacks, kidnappings and assassinations of civilians. The war intensified in mid-1991, as both the army and the FMLN attempted to gain the advantage in the United Nations-brokered peace talks prior to a cease-fire. Indiscriminate attacks and executions by the armed forces increased as a result. Eventually, by April 1991, negotiations resumed, resulting in a truce that successfully concluded in January 1992, bringing about the war's end. On 16 January 1992, the Chapultepec Peace Accords were signed in Chapultepec Castle, Mexico City, to bring peace to El Salvador. The Armed Forces were regulated, a civilian police force was established, the FMLN metamorphosed from a guerrilla army to a political party, and an amnesty law was legislated in 1993. Aftermath The peace process set up under the Chapultepec Accords was monitored by the United Nations from 1991 until June 1997 when it closed its special monitoring mission in El Salvador. In 1996, U.S. authorities acknowledged for the first time that U.S. military personnel had died in combat during the civil war. Officially, American advisers were prohibited from participating in combat operations, but they carried weapons, and accompanied Salvadoran army soldiers in the field and were subsequently targeted by rebels. 21 Americans were killed in action during the civil war and more than 5,000 served. During the 2004 elections, White House Special Assistant Otto Reich gave a phone-in press conference at ARENA party headquarters. He reportedly said he was worried about the impact an FMLN win could have on the country's "economic, commercial, and migratory relations with the United States." In February 2004, Assistant Secretary of State Roger Noriega told voters to "consider what kind of a relationship they want a new administration to have with us." He met with all the candidates except Schafik Handal, the FMLN candidate. This prompted 28 US Congress members to send a letter to Secretary of State Colin Powell saying Mr. Noriega "crossed a boundary" and that his remarks were perceived as "interference in Salvadoran electoral affairs." A week later, two US congressmen blasted Reich's comments as inflammatory. Truth Commission At war's end, the Commission on the Truth for El Salvador registered more than 22,000 complaints of political violence in El Salvador, dating between January 1980 and July 1991, 60 percent about summary killing, 25 percent about kidnapping, and 20 percent about torture. These complaints attributed almost 85 percent of the violence to the Salvadoran Army and security forces alone. The Salvadoran Armed Forces, which were massively supported by the United States (4.6 billion dollars in 2009), were accused in 60 percent of the complaints, the security forces (i.e. the National Guard, Treasury Police and the National Police) in 25 percent, military escorts and civil defense units in 20 percent of complaints, the death squads in approximately 10 percent, and the FMLN in 5 percent. The Truth Commission could collect only a significant sample of the full number of potential complaints, having had only three months to collect it. The report concluded that more than 70,000 people were killed, many in the course of gross violation of their human rights. More than 25 per cent of the populace was displaced as refugees before the U.N. peace treaty in 1992. The statistics presented in the Truth Commission's report are consistent with both previous and retrospective assessments by the international community and human rights monitors, which documented that the majority of the violence and repression in El Salvador was attributable to government agencies, primarily the National Guard and the Salvadoran Army. A 1984 Amnesty International report stated that many of the 40,000 people killed in the preceding five years had been murdered by government forces, who openly dumped their mutilated corpses in an apparent effort to terrorize the population. The government mostly killed peasants, but many other opponents suspected of sympathy with the guerrillas—clergy (men and women), church lay workers, political activists, journalists, labor unionists (leaders, rank-and-file), medical workers, liberal students and teachers, and human-rights monitors were also killed. The killings were carried out by the security forces, the Army, the National Guard, and the Treasury Police; but it was the paramilitary death squads that gave the Government plausible deniability of, and accountability for the killings. Typically, a death squad dressed in civilian clothes and traveled in anonymous vehicles (dark windows, blank license plates). The deaths squads tactics included publishing future-victim death lists, delivering coffins to said future victims, and sending the target-person an invitation to his/her own funeral. Cynthia Arnson, a Latin American-affairs writer for Human Rights Watch, says: the objective of death-squad-terror seemed not only to eliminate opponents, but also, through torture and the gruesome disfigurement of bodies, to terrorize the population. In the mid-1980s, state terror against civilians became open with indiscriminate bombing from military airplanes, planted mines, and the harassment of national and international medical personnel. Author George Lopez writes that "although death rates attributable to the death squads have declined in El Salvador since 1983, non-combatant victims of the civil war have increased dramatically". Though the violations of the FMLN accounted for five percent or less of those documented by the Truth Commission, the FMLN continuously violated the human rights of many Salvadorans and other individuals identified as right-wing supporters, military targets, pro-government politicians, intellectuals, public officials, and judges. These violations included kidnapping, bombings, rape, and killing. Military reform In accordance with the peace agreements, the constitution was amended to prohibit the military from playing an internal security role except under extraordinary circumstances. During the period of fulfilling of the peace agreements, the Minister of Defense was General Humberto Corado Figueroa. Demobilization of Salvadoran military forces generally proceeded on schedule throughout the process. The Treasury Police and National Guard were abolished, and military intelligence functions were transferred to civilian control. By 1993—nine months ahead of schedule—the military had cut personnel from a wartime high of 63,000 to the level of 32,000 required by the peace accords. By 1999, ESAF's strength stood at less than 15,000, including uniformed and non-uniformed personnel, consisting of personnel in the army, navy, and air force. A purge of military officers accused of human rights abuses and corruption was completed in 1993 in compliance with the Ad Hoc Committee's recommendations. National Civilian Police The new civilian police force, created to replace the discredited public security forces, deployed its first officers in March 1993, and was present throughout the country by the end of 1994. In 1999, the PNC had over 18,000 officers. The PNC faced many challenges in building a completely new police force. With common crime rising dramatically since the end of the war, over 500 PNC officers had been killed in the line of duty by late 1998. PNC officers also have arrested a number of their own in connection with various high-profile crimes, and a "purification" process to weed out unfit personnel from throughout the force was undertaken in late 2000. Human Rights Commission of El Salvador On 26 October 1987, Herbert Ernesto Anaya, head of the Human Rights Commission of El Salvador (CDHES), was assassinated. His killing provoked four days' of political protest—during which his remains were displayed before the U.S. embassy and then before the Salvadoran armed forces headquarters. The National Union of Salvadoran Workers said: "Those who bear sole responsibility for this crime are José Napoleón Duarte, the U.S. embassy...and the high command of the armed forces". In its report the Commission on the Truth for El Salvador, established as part of the El Salvador peace agreement, stated that it could not establish for sure whether the death squads, the Salvadoran Army or the FMLN was responsible for Anaya's death. Moreover, the FMLN and the Revolutionary Democratic Front (FDR) also protested Mr. Anaya's assassination by suspending negotiations with the Duarte government on 29 October 1987. The same day, Reni Roldán resigned from the Commission of National Reconciliation, saying: "The murder of Anaya, the disappearance of university labor leader Salvador Ubau, and other events do not seem to be isolated incidents. They are all part of an institutionalized pattern of conduct". Mr. Anaya's assassination evoked international indignation: the West German government, the West German Social Democratic Party, and the French government asked President Duarte to clarify the circumstances of the crime. United Nations Secretary General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Americas Watch, Amnesty International, and other organizations protested against the assassination of the leader of the Human Rights Commission of El Salvador. Post-war international litigation Groups seeking investigation or retribution for actions during the war have sought the involvement of other foreign courts. In 2008 the Spanish Association for Human Rights and a California organization called the Center for Justice and Accountability jointly filed a lawsuit in Spain against former President Cristiani and former defense minister Larios in the matter of the 1989 slaying of several Jesuit priests, their housekeeper, and her daughter. The lawsuit accused Cristiani of a cover-up of the killings and Larios of participating in the meeting where the order to kill them was given; the groups asked the Spanish court to intervene on the principle of universal jurisdiction for crimes against humanity. Long after the war, in a U.S. federal court, in the case of Ford vs. García the families of the murdered Maryknoll nuns sued the two Salvadoran generals believed responsible for the killings, but lost; the jury found Gen. Carlos Eugenio Vides Casanova, ex-National Guard Leader and Duarte's defense minister, and Gen. José Guillermo Garcia—defense minister from 1979 to 1984, not responsible for the killings; the families appealed and lost, and, in 2003, the U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear their final appeal. A second case, against the same generals, succeeded in the same Federal Court; the three plaintiffs in Romagoza vs. García won a judgment exceeding US$54 million compensation for having been tortured by the military during El Salvador's Civil War. The day after losing a court appeal in October 2009, the two generals were put into deportation proceedings by the Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), at the urging of U.S. Senators Richard Durbin (Democrat) and Tom Coburn (Republican), according to the Center for Justice and Accountability (CJA). Those deportation proceedings had been stalled by May 2010. The Spanish judge who issued indictments and arrest warrants for 20 former members of the Salvadoran military, charged with murder, Crimes Against Humanity and Terrorism requested that U.S. agencies declassify documents related to the killings of the Jesuits, their housekeeper and her daughter but were denied access. In his report, Judge Velasco writes: "The agencies in charge of making the information public have identified 3,000 other documents that remain secret and are not available; the reasoning given is that privacy is needed to protect sources and methods. Many of the documents, from the CIA and the Defense Department, are not available..." The Cold War with the Soviet Union and other communist nations at least partially explains the backdrop against which the U.S. government aided various pro-government Salvadoran groups and opposed the FMLN. The U.S. State Department reported on intelligence that the FMLN was receiving clandestine guidance and arms from the Cuban, Nicaraguan, and Soviet governments. While this White Paper on El Salvador later received criticism from some academics and journalists, it has also been largely substantiated based on the evidence available at the time. The closure of the Cold War between 1989 and 1991 reduced the incentive for ongoing U.S. involvement and invited broad international support for the negotiation process that would lead to the 1992 peace accords. The political and economic divisions at play in El Salvador during the civil war were complex, which is often overlooked by scholars and analysts eager to vindicate one side or the other. More research is needed, for example, to shed light on Salvadorans that resisted as political independents or as part of pro-democracy coalitions. After a 2012 historians seminar at the University of El Salvador commemorating the 20th anniversary of the peace accords, Michael Allison concluded: "Most postwar discourse has been driven by elites who participated in the conflict either on the part of the guerrillas or the government. It's not that these individuals' perspectives are wrong; it is just healthier if they are challenged or supplemented by outside views." See also Central American crisis Children of Memory, a documentary film Command responsibility El Mozote massacre History of El Salvador Human rights in El Salvador International law Latin America–United States relations Pro-Búsqueda Romero (film) Salvador (film) Voces inocentes, a film Weapons of the Salvadoran Civil War Bullet the Blue Sky References Further reading Books Journals/academic studies UNHCR Refworld search for FMLN Report of the Commission on the Truth for El Salvador (1993) CIA World Factbook on El Salvador UN General Assembly Resolution on the "Situation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in El Salvador" CIA Threat Assessment of El Salvador in 1979 External links Unrest in El Salvador from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives El Salvador at the Uppsala Conflict Data Program Conflicts in 1986 1979 in El Salvador 1970s in El Salvador 1980s in El Salvador 1990s in El Salvador 20th century in El Salvador Communism in El Salvador Guerrilla wars Coup-based civil wars Civil wars involving the states and peoples of North America Civil wars of the 20th century Communism-based civil wars Revolution-based civil wars Cold War Proxy wars MS-13
4187283	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatio%20Potter	Horatio Potter	Horatio Potter (February 9, 1802 – January 2, 1887), was an educator and the sixth bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of New York. Dearth of biographical information Potter "shrank from public notice, left no literary monument and has, regrettably, no biography. He is scarcely mentioned in the biographies of his older brother Alonzo, Bishop of Pennsylvania, and of his nephew, Henry Codman Potter, his successor in the See of New York." His life is described in a book about the Potter family of colonial New England. Early life and education Horatio Potter, D.D., LL.D., S.T.D. was born on February 9, 1802, the youngest of the nine children to Joseph and Anne Potter. Through his grandparents Thomas Potter and Esther Sheldon, respectively, Horatio was descended from the co-founders of Rhode Island, William Arnold and Roger Williams. The Potters were Quaker farmers who lived near Beekman (now LaGrange) in Dutchess County, New York. "Their Quaker devotion appears in the names they bestowed on their oldest son, Paraclete, and only daughter, Philadelphia." Potter spent his earliest years at the family homestead. Paraclete Potter, Horatio's elder brother, was established in Poughkeepsie, New York, where the Poughkeepsie Academy was located. Therefore, in 1812, he had his ten-year-old brother Horatio move in with him and enroll in the Academy, which offered a better education than did the district schools in Beekman. While living with his brother, Horatio went with him to Christ Episcopal Church in Poughkeepsie, and he was impressed by the worship service. During his ten years in Poughkeepsie, Horatio "clerked at various times in his brother’s book store." Horatio remained with his brother through 1822. He wanted a college education, and, with his brother Alonzo's help. Horatio went to Union College, Schenectady, New York. He graduated in 1826 with a Bachelor of Arts degree. After graduation, Horatio Potter followed his older brother Alonzo into the Episcopal Church. He was confirmed by Bishop John Henry Hobart at St. Thomas' Church in New York and began studying for holy orders. Thus, Potter had no seminary training. Professor at Washington College: 1828-1833 Potter was ordained deacon on July 15, 1827, and priest on December 14, 1828. He served his several months diaconate at Trinity Church, Saco, Maine.” In 1828, Potter was elected professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Washington College (now Trinity College), Hartford, Connecticut). While there, Potter "took an active part in plans for the enlargement of the college and the erection of its new buildings." Marriages and Children Potter was twice married. His first marriage was to Mary Jane Tomlinson on September 22, 1827, with whom he had six children. On June 8, 1847, Mrs. Potter, “who had been the loved helpmeet of her husband in every good work,” died. She left six children, five of them under twelve. In his loss, Potter perceived “the loving purposes of God.” He believed that his loss would add “earnestness and tenderness” to his “efforts to edify and console” his parishioners. Their children were as follows: Charles Henry [born July 6, 1828; died January 30, 1830] Mary Jane [born February 23, 1830; died September 30, 1834] Anna [born September 10, 1831] David T. [1836], Phoebe [1838], Horatio [1840], Robert Minturn [1843], William Bleecker [born March 25, 1845; died July 14, 1914](Professor of Geology), and Mary Jane Potter Chauncey [born May 1, 1847; died September 9, 1936] (Mrs. Elihu Chauncey). In 1852, Potter took a holiday in Scotland, during which he met Mary Atchison Pollock, a forty-two-year-old Scottish lady. They corresponded after his return to Albany, during which Potter proposed marriage. Pollock accepted his proposal in 1853. When she arrived in New York, Potter met her at the dock and escorted her to Trinity Church for their wedding. There were no children by this marriage. St. Peter's Church, Albany: 1833-1854 On February 27, 1833, Potter accepted the rectorship of St. Peter's Church, Albany, New York. He was instituted as rector on Saturday, May 11, 1833. In his first sermon, preached the next day, Potter said, “My brethren, I present myself before you today as your spiritual pastor–as your servant for Jesus' sake! . . . Give me, then, my brethren, I entreat you, your sympathy, your hearty support, and above all your fervent prayers.” Potter soon “gained the respect and regard of all his parishioners,” and “a high position” among the men of Albany. In all the “charitable and philanthropic” enterprises, he served not only as a “judicious adviser,” but also as a financial contributor. His ability was also recognized by other clergy. Potter remained as rector of St. Peter's for twenty-one years until his election as provisional bishop of New York in 1854. During his tenure there, “he modernized the church both spiritually and physically.” The first act of modernizing the church physically was in 1834 by the purchase of a new organ. This was followed in 1835 by renovating the church building: repairing the floors and pews, painting the interior, a new pulpit, addition of a vestry room, and new lamps. In 1847, a new Rectory was built. On June 1, 1835, the parish, having noticed Potter's impaired heath, the Vestry requested Potter to do whatever he thought best to restore his health. Following the Vestry's request, Potter spent the summer of 1835 abroad, principally in England. "He returned much refreshed." On November 7, 1837, in Alton, Illinois, a pro-slavery mob killed the abolitionist and newspaper publisher Elijah Parish Lovejoy. In response, on November 26, 1837, Potter preached a sermon in which he defended a free press and opposed slavery. Regarding the latter, he said, “Let us not refuse to think sometimes of the poor slave, whose rights to the products of his own labour, to the care of his own happiness, to the direction of his own physical, intellectual and moral energies are all invaded. . . . Let us not sit down contentedly with the thought, that this train of misery and guilt, this national blot, is to be perpetuated forever.” In 1837, Potter declined his election as president of Washington College (now Trinity College), Hartford, Connecticut. On April 25, 1841, Potter was invited to deliver a Discourse on the Death of William Henry Harrison to the New York State Legislature in St. Peter's Church, after the death of President William Henry Harrison. His theme was "Uprightness and Religious Character in Rulers." Rather than a conventional eulogy, Potter's address included “a probing analysis of the evils of political life” and an “eloquent characterization” of Harrison. On July 23, 1843, Potter preached a sermon on The Stability of the Church, as Seen in Her History and in Her Principles. In the sermon, he said that “our Church occupies, let it ever be remembered, a middle ground, in regard to its doctrines, discipline and worship, between Romanism on the one side and ultra Protestantism on the other.” In this statement, Potter articulated the via media position. On January 3, 1845, Potter's bishop, Benjamin T. Onderdonk was sentenced to suspension from “the exercise of his ministry and of his office as bishop.” This gave Potter the additional task of overseeing the missions in upstate New York. Later in 1845, a voyage to England was offered made to Potter. On May 26, 1845, the Vestry of St. Peter's "resolved unanimously” that their Rector should take the voyage and expressed “their high estimate of his services and character." Potter was accompanied by his wife. In England, being of the high church persuasion, he met with “several of the leaders of the Oxford Movement,” such as John Keble, Isaac Williams, Edward Bouverie Pusey, George Moberly, and William Skinner, Bishop of Aberdeen. Potter returned to Albany in the autumn of 1845 “in greatly improved health and spirits.” In January 1849, St. Peter's faced a debt crisis, which, if not solved, would result in the loss of all of St. Peter's property including the church building and rectory. Previous vestries had paid annual deficits by selling of portions of the income producing real estate owned until all of it had been sold, leaving only the lot on which the church building and rectory were located. The 1849 Vestry took immediate action to relieve the parish's “great burden of debt.” With the debt crisis resolved, St. Peter's was freed to devote “greater energy and devotion” for work by Potter and his parishioners “for the advancement of the Church in the city, and the engaging in new works of piety and mercy.” Potter was characterized by Joseph Hooper, who wrote A History of Saint Peter's Church in the City of Albany, as one of "the most honored and distinguished of the rectors of St. Peter's." While at St. Peter's, Potter was often asked whether he would accept election as a bishop, but he "discouraged every movement toward his election" until his election as bishop of the Diocese of New York of which St. Peter's was a part. Ministry as Bishop: New York 1854-1887 In 1854, Bishop Wainwright, the provisional bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of New York died after two years of strenuous work repairing “the neglect caused by the seven years' vacancy in the episcopate.” At the September 1854 Diocesan Convention, Potter was elected provisional bishop. He accepted the election. In his acceptance speech, Potter pleaded with his fellow Churchmen to "try to love each other, try to banish hard words, and satirical speeches, and uncharitable judgments from the Church of God." On Wednesday, November 22, 1854, in Trinity Church, New York City, Potter was consecrated bishop. The church was filled to overflowing and "the service was probably the most impressive and elaborate that had ever been held in the American Church. He became bishop of a diocese in "a state of great depression and disquiet, owing to the controversies that resulted from the trial and suspension of the Bishop Onderdonk." Potter's episcopate spanned “years of national division, ecclesiastical tensions between high and low church factions, and momentous economic and social changes in New York.” Bard College In 1860, St. Stephen's College at Annandale-on-Hudson, New York, was established under Potter's leadership. It was subsequently renamed Bard College. In Chapter Two (“The Professor, the Bishop, and the Country Squire: Bard College”) of the History of Bard College, Potter is “the Bishop” and he is described as one of the three men “whose efforts brought the College into being.” He “gave the College his unfaltering support,” and he was a member of the College's original Board of Trustees. Bard College's "Stone Row" (now used as a dormitory) was built as part of the original St. Stephen's College campus. It consists of four adjacent buildings: North Hoffman, South Hoffman, Potter, and McVickar. The Potter building was named after Bishop Horatio Potter. Bishop Onderdonk died on April 30, 1861. With this, Potter's position changed from "provisional bishop" to Bishop of the Diocese of New York. He "discharged the duties" of this office until three years and eight months before he died. On December 12, 1860, Potter issued a pastoral letter addressed To the Clergy and Laity of the Diocese of New York. The date was a month after the election of Abraham Lincoln as president of the United States and a month before the beginning of the American Civil War. He said that the occasion for the letter was the "impending calamity" of the "political fabric" of the United States being torn apart "by the conflict of sectional passions." In the face of this "crisis," Potter called on "every man that loves his country" to the "duty of carrying out those principles of conciliation and compromise, on which this government was founded, and by adhering to which alone it can be maintained." At the same time, he recognized that "such a work calls for kindness, and patience and conciliation in rulers and in people. It demands a magnanimous and patriotic spirit." Cathedral of St. John the Divine The Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York City was founded by Potter. About 1828, the general idea of the cathedral had been formulated. However, nothing was done about it until 1872, when Potter's Diocesan Convention gave the idea unanimous support. The next year, Potter obtained from the New York state legislature a charter for the cathedral. Potter was the first president of the board of trustees. However, nothing more was done until the episcopate of his nephew Henry C. Potter. Community of Saint Mary Potter instituted the Community of St. Mary on February 2, 1865. The Institution was held in St. Michael's Church, Bloomingdale. The five candidates stood in front of Potter. He addressed and questioned the candidates about “their willingness to live in obedience and persevere in the work of the Lord.” After the questions had been answered satisfactorily, the candidates knelt. Potter and the priests encircled and prayed for them. Then, Potter took each candidate by the right hand, received her into the Community of Saint Mary, gave her his episcopal blessing. This was the first time since the Dissolution of the Monasteries in England in the sixteenth century that an Anglican Bishop constituted a religious community. Strict Interpretation of Canons Potter, unlike his older brother Alonzo Potter was a “High Church” proponent” This position led to an 1865 pastoral letter to his clergy in which Potter said that he expected a strict interpretation of the Episcopal Church's “exclusionary canon.” This meant that no person not episcopally ordained in the Episcopal Church would be allowed to officiate or teach in an Episcopal Church and that no Episcopal Church clergyman should officiate or preach in the church of another denomination. Potter's “Evangelical clergy” were “dumbfounded” by his interpretation of the canon, and a number of them protested it. These included Eli Hawley Canfield and Stephen H. Tyng whose son Stephen H. Tyng, Jr. soon thereafter preached in a Methodist church. For this action, the younger Tyng was subjected to a Board of Inquiry and "condemned for breach of the canons." When Potter sentenced the younger Tyng to an "admonition," the elder Tyng stepped forward and handed Potter a written protest against "this whole proceeding." In 1873, after Bishop George David Cummins had left the Protestant Episcopal Church to establish the Reformed Episcopal Church, a New York Herald reporter “cajoled” a “flustered and reluctant” Potter out of his sickroom. The reporter asked how much the “Reformed Episcopal” movement would affect the Protestant Episcopal Church. Potter answered, “No more, Sir, than a mosquito bite would affect the stonewall of the reservoir on Fifth Avenue.” On November 29, 1879, the twenty-fifth anniversary of Potter's consecration was celebrated at New York's Academy of Music. He was given a testimonial in the form of a casket of gold, silver, and steel, modeled after the ancient Ark of the Covenant." Failing health In September 1883, his "failing health" forced Potter to ask for an assistant so that he could "be relieved of the administration of the diocese." The Diocesan Convention elected his brother Bishop Alonzo Potter's son Henry C. Potter, who was at the time rector of Grace Church, New York. Horatio Potter remained “bishop in name” until he died. Bourgeois (2003), 14, 34.</ref> Evaluation of Potter’s Ministry Potter's ministry both "as rector and as bishop was marked by energy and success." During Potter's episcopate, the Diocese of New York grew so much that in 1868 the new dioceses of Albany, Central New York, and Long Island were removed from his diocese. Potter worked "to reach the laboring classes and the poor, to popularize the church, draw the plainer sort of people into its fold, and push Episcopal home missions in New York city and in the rural districts." The former controversies in his diocese became "practically unknown." Potter was "known and respected at home and abroad." Honorary degrees In 1938, Potter "received the degree of Doctor in Divinity (D.D.) from Washington College (now Trinity College), Hartford, Connecticut." In 1856, he received the degree of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) from Hobart College In 1860, the University of Oxford conferred on him the degree of Doctor of Sacred Theology (S.T.D.). Illness, Death, and Funeral On May 3, 1883, in the Church of the Incarnation in New York City, Potter held his last service. After that, he became ill, an "illness from which he never recovered." His last days were spent at his home in New York. He died at home on January 2, 1887. Potter was buried in the Poughkeepsie Rural Cemetery at Poughkeepsie, New York. On January 8, 1887 The New York Times ran article entitled "Bishop Potter’s Funeral" with the subtitle "Trinity Thronged with Sorrowing Friends." The article said,From the time of the brief services at the Bishop’s home early in the morning, until the interment at Poughkeepsie, when the shadows of the day were lengthening, the ceremonies were marked by a quiet taste akin to the prelate’s habits of life, and through all coursed manifest sorrow for the dead and sympathy for the mourners. The special train bringing the Bishop’s remains to Poughkeepsie arrived at 2:30. When the cortege started from the railway station for Poughkeepsie Rural Cemetery it was composed of twenty carriages and two large carryall sleighs. As the cortege made its way through Poughkeepsie city streets the tolling of the bells of the Episcopal churches added to the solemnity of the occasion. Following services at the gravesite, the casket was lowered into the grave with the lid covered with violets and evergreens for what was thought to be at the time Bishop Potter’s final rest. The funeral party departed for the railway station for their return to New York City. Re-interred in the Cathedral of St. John the Divine In 1921, the remains of Potter were moved to a tomb directly behind the high altar in the Cathedral of St. John the Divine. Above the tomb was placed a white marble Sarcophagus. This is the place which is traditionally reserved for founders of cathedrals. The tomb was consecrated on December 27, 1921. Legacy During the American Civil War, Potter's "patriotism was marked, and at all times his labors for the ignorant, poor, and sick were continuous and efficient." An 1884 book described Potter in this way:Bishop Horatio Potter is regarded as one of the ablest scholars in the denomination. . . . In person he is tall and thin, erect in carriage, and of active step. His utterances are calm and dignified, full of earnestness, and ever displaying a gentle Christian spirit. Universally popular in his denomination among both clergy and laity, he has labored in the ministry with very great success. The National Cyclopedia of American Biography published in 1898 was composed of "the biographical sketches of all persons prominently connected with the history of the nation." A sketch of Potter was included in the book. Works by or relating to Potter MC: Potter was marked by developed scholarship and literary skill. His addresses, sermons, and contributions to Church periodicals "exerted a strong and wholesome influence." Discourses and Writings by Potter Truth to Be Maintained by Reason, Not by Physical Power: A Discourse Preached in St. Peter's Church, Albany on the 26th of November, 1827. An Introductory Sermon, preached in St. Peter's Church, Albany, on Sunday Morning, May 12, 1833 Being the Day After His Institution As rector of Said Church. (Packard and Van Benthuysen, 1833). Importance of Liberal Tastes and Good Intellectual Habits as a Provision for Pure and Permanent Enjoyment: Being an Introductory Lecture, delivered on the 5th December, 1837, before the Young Men's Association of Troy. (Tuttle, Belcher & Burton, 1837.) Intellectual Liberty; Or, Truth to be Maintained by Reason, Not by Physical Power: A Discourse Preached in St. Peter's Church, Albany, on the 26th of November, 1837 (Packard and Benthuysen, 1837). Discourse on the Death of William Henry Harrison, Late President of the United States: Delivered before the Two Houses of the Legislature of the State of New-York, in St. Peter's Church, Albany, on the 25th day of April, 1841 (Hoffman, White and Visscher, 1841). The Stability of the Church, as Seen in Her History and in Her Principles: A Sermon, preached in St. Peter's Church, Albany, on Sunday, the Twenty-third Day of July (Erastus H. Pease, 1843). http://anglicanhistory.org/usa/hpotter/rightly_dividing1844.html Rightly Dividing the Word of Truth: A Sermon, on the Religious Tendencies of the Age, and the Consequent Duty of the Christian Minister. Preached in St. Peter's Church, Albany, on Sunday, Nov. 23, 1844 (Erastus H. Pease, 1844).] Remarks in Favor of Free Churches: Being Part of an Address delivered on the Occasion of Laying the Corner Stone of a Free Church at Fort Edward, Washington County, N.Y. (Erastus H. Pease, 1845). Submission to Government: The Christian's Duty: A Sermon for the Third Sunday after Easter (Stanford and Swords, 1848). Christian Suffering, Its Dignity and Its Efficacy: A Sermon Occasioned by the Death of the Hon. Ambrose Spencer and Preached in St. Peter's Church, Albany, on Sunday, March 19, 1848 (Joel Munsell, 1849). A Tribute to the Memory of a Faithful Public Servant: A Sermon on Occasion of the Death of President Taylor (Aaron Hill, 1850). The Duties of Justice as They Affect the Individual and the State: A Sermon (Weed, Parsons and Co., 1850). Free Will Offerings with An Holy Worship: A Sermon Preached at the Consecration of St. James' Church, Syracuse, November 15, 1853. (No place: no publisher, 1853). The Minister of Christ Not of the World. A Discourse Delivered in the Chapel of the General Theological Seminary, N.Y., Dec. 16, 1855, Being the Third Sunday in Advent, on Occasion of the Annual Matriculation (Pudney and Russell, 1856. A Pastoral Letter to the Laity of the Diocese of New-York, on the Duty of Making a More Just and Adequate Provision for the Support of the Parochial Clergy (Pudney and Russell, 1857). Remarks on Confirmation, or Duties of Pastors and People in Reference to the Use of the Means of Grace (Thomas C. Butler, 1857). To the Clergy and Laity of the Diocese of New York (New York, no publisher, 1860). Bishop Potter of New-York to Strangers Arriving from Foreign Parts, and to the Dispersed Members of the Episcopal Church in the Diocese of New-York (New York, no publisher, c. 1860). To the Clergy and Laity of the Diocese of New York: Prayers Appointed to Be Used in the Diocese of New York (New York, no publisher, 1861). A Sermon Commemorative of the Life and Services of the Rev. Samuel H. Turner, D.D., Late Professor of Biblical Literature in the General Theological Seminary. Preached in St. Peter's Church, New York, October 8, 1862, by the Rev. Samuel R. Johnson, D.D., to which is Prefixed the Address Delivered at the Funeral, December 24, 1861, by the Rt. Rev. Horatio Potter (Edward O. Jenkins, 1863). A Form of Prayer to Be Used in the Diocese of New-York, on Thursday, the Thirtieth of April, A.D. 1863, set apart by the President of the United States, as a day of National Humiliation, Fasting and Prayer. (New York: no publisher, 1863). A Pastoral Letter to the Clergy of the Diocese of New York from the Bishop (New York: no publisher, 1865). The Light of the World: A Sermon Preached at the Consecration of the Right Rev. Henry A. Neely, D.D., as Bishop of Maine (F. J. Huntington and Company, 1867). Annual Address of the Bishop of New York Delivered in S. Paul's Chapel, New York, on Thursday, Oct 1st 1868 (No place: no publisher, 1868). Sermon Delivered at the Opening of the Primary Convention in the Church of the Holy Trinity, Brooklyn, N.Y. November 18th 1868 (American Church Press Company, 1869). Sermon Preached at St. Peter's Church, Albany, at the Opening of the Primary Convention of the Diocese of Albany, Wednesday, December 2, 1868 (Charles van Benthuysen and Sons, 1869). A Pastoral Letter to the Clergy and Laity of the Diocese of New York (Pott & Amery, 1869). Considerations for a Candid Mind Inquiring after Divine Truth (Pott, Young & Co., 1871). Faith in the Seen and in the Unseen. A Sermon Preached at the Consecration of St. Thomas' Chapel, New York, on the Feast of St. Thomas the Apostle, Saturday, December 21, 1872 (St Thomas Association for Parish Work, 1873). Some Observations on Science and Revelation: From the Episcopal Address to the Convention of the Diocese of New York, 1873 (Pott, Young & Co., 1873). A Letter from the Bishop of New-York, on the Proposed "Church Congress," Appointed to be Held in the Week of the Opening of the General Convention (J. W. Amerman, 1874). Address Delivered at the Annual Commencement of Union College, June 23, 1875, by Horatio Potter, D.D., LL.D., D.C. L. (Oxon.), Bishop of new York, An Alumnus and Honourary Chancellor of Union University (William H. Young, 1875). A Few Plain Truths and Serious Counsels for Young Men Preparing for the Sacred Ministry of the Church: An Address by the Bishop of New York to the Students of the General Theological Seminary, Delivered in the Chapel, on occasion of the Annual Matriculation, All Saints Day, Nov. 1st A.D., 1879 (Styles and Cash, 1879). Works relating to Potter The Sermon at the Consecration of Horatio Potter, D.D., to the Episcopate, Preached by Appointment, in Trinity Church, New-York, on Wednesday, November 22, 1854 by Francis Fulford, Lord Bishop of Montreal (Church Depository, 1854.] The Pastoral Letter of the Rt. Rev. Horatio Potter, D.D., LL.D., D.C.L. and Its Assailants. Reprinted from the American Quarterly Church Review for October, 1865. (New York: no publisher, 1865). Review of "A Pastoral Letter to the Clergy of the Diocese of New York from the Bishop" by a Presbyter (New York: no publisher, 1865). The Pastoral Letter of the Rt. Rev. H. Potter with the Replies of the Rev. S. H. Tyng, the Rev. E. H. Canfield, the Rev. John Cotton Smith, the Rev. W. A. Muhlenberg (John A. Gray & Green, 1865). A Letter to the Right Rev'd Horatio Potter, D.D., LL.D., Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Diocese of New York, Relating to the Proceedings Pending against the Rev. Stephen H. Tyng, Jr. by Effingham H. Nichols (Gibson Brothers, 1868).] Publications of the American Church Union, No. 1. The Tyng Case. A Narrative together with the Judgment of the Court and the Admonition by the Bishop of New York (Pott & Amery, 1868). Publications of the American Church Union, No. 2. Speech of Stephen P. Nash, Esq., For the Prosecution, in the Trial of the Rev. S. H. Tyng, Jr. (Pott & Amery, 1868).] Report of the Committee of Investigation in the Case of Rev. Edward Cowley. June 6, 1881 made to Potter (A. Livingston, 1881). References Bourgeois, Michael. All Things Human: Henry Codman Potter and the Social Gospel in the Episcopal Church (University of Illinois Press, 2003). External links Documents by Horatio Potter from Project Canterbury Horatio Potter papers at Trinity Wall Street Archives 1802 births 1887 deaths Episcopal bishops of New York Union College (New York) alumni People from Beekman, New York 19th-century American educators 19th-century Anglican bishops in the United States Educators from New York City
4187903	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Watcher%20in%20the%20Woods%20%281980%20film%29	The Watcher in the Woods (1980 film)	The Watcher in the Woods is a 1980 American supernatural horror film directed by John Hough and Vincent McEveety and starring Bette Davis, Carroll Baker, Lynn-Holly Johnson, Kyle Richards, and David McCallum. Based on the 1976 novel by Florence Engel Randall, the film tells the story of a teenage girl and her little sister who become encompassed in a supernatural mystery regarding a missing girl in the woods surrounding their new home in the English countryside. Filmed at Pinewood Studios and the surrounding areas in Buckinghamshire, England, The Watcher in the Woods was one of several live-action films produced by Walt Disney Productions in the 1980s, when the studio was targeting young adult audiences. The film had its premiere at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City on April 17, 1980, but was pulled from release after ten days, and future screenings were canceled by the studio because of an overwhelming negative response from critics and audiences. Several changes were made thereafter, including the excision of a pre-credits sequence, as well the filming of an entirely new ending, which was directed by Vincent McEveety without Hough's involvement. Disney re-released the revised cut of the film on October 9, 1981, and it grossed $5 million. Though critical response to the film was varied and included numerous unfavorable reviews, the film went on to gain a cult following in the years following its release. Another adaptation of the novel was released for television in 2017 starring Anjelica Huston. Plot Americans Helen and Paul Curtis and their daughters, Jan and Ellie, move into a manor in rural England. Mrs. Aylwood, the owner of the residence who now lives in the guest house next door, notices that Jan bears a striking resemblance to her daughter, Karen, who disappeared inside an abandoned chapel in the woods thirty years earlier. Jan senses something unusual about the property almost immediately, and begins to see strange blue lights in the woods, triangles, and glowing objects. On one occasion, she sees the apparition of a blindfolded girl in a mirror in front of her. Shortly after the family settles in, Ellie goes to buy a puppy she inexplicably names "Nerak". After seeing the reflection of the name "Nerak" (Karen spelled backwards), Jan is told about the mystery of Mrs. Aylwood's missing daughter by Mike Fleming, the teenage son of a local woman, Mary. One afternoon, Nerak runs into woods, and Ellie chases after him. Jan, realising that her sister has disappeared from the yard, goes into the woods to find her, eventually locating her at a pond. In the water, she sees a blue circle of light, and is blinded by a flash, causing her to fall in; she nearly drowns, but Mrs. Aylwood saves her. Mrs. Aylwood brings Jan and Ellie to her home, and recounts the night her daughter disappeared. Later, Mike discovers that his mother, Mary, was with Karen when she disappeared, but she evades his questions. Meanwhile, Jan attempts to get information from John Keller, a reclusive aristocrat who was also there that night, but he refuses to speak to her. On her way home, Jan cuts through the woods, where she encounters a local hermit, Tom Colley, who tells Jan he was also present at Karen's disappearance. He claims that during a seance-like initiation ceremony on the night of a lunar eclipse, Karen vanished when lightning struck the church bell tower. Jan decides to recreate the ceremony during the upcoming solar eclipse, hoping it will bring Karen back. She gathers Mary, Tom, and John at the abandoned chapel, and they attempt to repeat the ceremony. Meanwhile, Ellie, while watching the eclipse from the front yard, suddenly goes into a trance-like state, apparently possessed, and enters the woods. At the chapel, the ceremony is interrupted by a powerful wind that shatters the windows, and Ellie appears. In a voice that is not her own, she explains that an accidental switch took place thirty years ago, in which Karen traded places with an alien presence from an alternate dimension; thus, the Watcher has been haunting the woods since, while Karen has remained suspended in time. The Watcher leaves Ellie's body, manifesting as a pillar of light, fueled by the "circle of friendship". It engulfs Jan and lifts her into the air, but Mike intercedes and pulls her away before the Watcher disappears. Simultaneously, the eclipse ends, and Karen, still the same age as when she disappeared, reappears – still blindfolded. She removes the blindfold just as Mrs. Aylwood enters the chapel. Cast Production Development The Watcher in the Woods is based on Florence Engel Randall's 1976 novel A Watcher in the Woods. Producer Tom Leetch pitched the project to Disney executive Ron Miller, stating that "This could be our Exorcist." Brian Clemens adapted the novel into a screenplay. However, Disney decided that Clemens' version—which had a different conclusion than that of the novel—was "too dark and threatening and black," and had Rosemary Anne Sisson revise it. This script was later revised again by Gerry Day in July 1979. Miller recruited John Hough to direct the film after seeing his previous movie, The Legend of Hell House with Roddy McDowall. When the film was pulled from theatres, several new endings were penned by various writers at Disney to substitute for the original. In addition to the work of studio writers, a number of science fiction writers, including Robert Silverberg, Joe Haldeman, and the Niven/Pournelle team, all working separately, were brought in and paid for alternate endings, but apparently none of those were used. Harrison Ellenshaw, the visual effects designer, later stated that there were "roughly 152" possible endings. Ellenshaw wrote the version of the ending that eventually accompanied the final 1981 re-released version of the film. Casting According to director John Hough during his audio commentary on the 2002 Anchor Bay DVD release, casting the role of the young Mrs. Aylwood was complicated, since the character is featured in two separate time periods; Bette Davis, who was already cast as Mrs. Aylwood, was considered for playing both the young and old versions of the character. According to Hough, Davis "desperately" wanted to play both parts; so much so, that the production crew had make-up and hair specialists flown in from Los Angeles in order to work on Davis in preparation for screen tests; the goal was to reverse her age appearance by thirty years. After the screen tests were completed and viewed by the crew, Hough was concerned about Davis playing the younger character, and felt that the make-up and hair work had "maybe knocked about twenty years off of her age, but not forty"; Davis was 72 years old at the time. Upon viewing the tests, Hough cued for the crew to leave the screening room, and said, "Bette, I don't think you've made it". After taking one long drag from her cigarette, Davis replied: "You're goddamn right". British actress Georgina Hale ended up taking the role of the younger Mrs. Aylwood; according to Hough, she took the part largely because of her admiration for Davis. In casting the leading part of Jan, Diane Lane had been the initial choice, but she declined. The part eventually went to Lynn-Holly Johnson, who had gained attention in the United States as a professional figure skater, as well as for her acting role as a blind ice skater in the 1978 film, Ice Castles, for which she received a Golden Globe nomination. Carroll Baker, who was living in London at the time, was asked to play the part for Hough (who had long admired her work). She accepted the role. Eleven-year-old Kyle Richards - who played Ellie, the youngest sister in the film - had previously worked with Hough on Escape to Witch Mountain in an uncredited role as a younger version of her sister, Kim Richards. Filming Principal photography for The Watcher of the Woods began in August 1979, on a budget of approximately $7 million. The film was shot primarily at Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire, England, and the surrounding areas. St. Hubert's Manor, the house used in the film was located near Iver Heath; it has since been deconstructed and turned into apartments. Hough used several locations that are also seen in Robert Wise's The Haunting, most notably the grand mansion in which John Keller's character lives; this was the same house used for filming The Haunting (Ettington Park, Warwickshire). The shoot lasted a total of twelve weeks. During filming, producer Ron Miller would often intervene to tone down intense scenes, leading to "unhappy compromises" between him and the filmmakers. Special effects The special effects sequences (much of which appear in the film's excised alternate endings) were completed at Disney studios in Burbank, California by Harrison Ellenshaw after filming in England was completed. Ellenshaw's previous credits included Star Wars (1977) and The Black Hole (1979). Art Cruickshank and Bob Broughton oversaw the photographic effects, while Cruickshank completed miniature photography. Hough was disappointed with the way the alien appeared on film, and recalled: "The animation was out of my control. I had no say. The last four minutes undid all the good work of the previous 87 minutes when the monster came out,” he continues. “It moved in a very stiff way, and it really wasn’t up to what we were later going to see in later films." Post-production Ending reshoots The film's original intended ending featured an appearance by the growling Watcher, a skeletal, insectoid alien, which picks Jan up in the chapel and disappears. At this point, the two were supposed to fly across an alien landscape to the Watcher's crippled spacecraft. Inside, Karen was trapped in a pyramidal prism. According to Sam Nicholson, the visual effects supervisor, "For some reason, the girl who disappeared imbalanced this alien's craft when she went through this portal. Which in turn caused this alien to crash." Jan reached out to Karen, and when the two embraced they were teleported back to the chapel. The girls then returned to the manor, where Mrs. Aylwood and her daughter were reunited. As they walk arm in arm, Jan explains everything to Ellie: the Watcher – who was switched with Karen by accident during the eclipse – needed Jan to free the girl. The visual effects for the "other world" scenes were not finished in time for the release because the film was rushed out to coincide with Bette Davis's 50th anniversary as a film actor in 1980 (Davis was first hired by Universal Studios in 1930). Rather than finish the existing effects shots, Disney opted to rewrite and reshoot the ending, toning down the references to the occult. The first official theatrical ending, which was shown in the film's brief 1980 screening in New York City (see Release history) featured only part of the original ending, eliminating the "other world" sequence and replacing it with Helen's interrogation of Tom, Mary, and John at the chapel, after Jan disappears during their re-enactment of the séance. It did, however, include the appearance of the alien creature as it picks up Jan and disappears into thin air. While Helen is questioning everyone in the chapel, Jan re-appears, and emerges from a beam of light, hand-in-hand with Karen. The girls return to the house, where Mrs. Aylwood and Karen are re-united in the front yard, and Jan discusses the watcher with Ellie. This ending forced the film to rely on Jan's brief, cryptic explanation to provide closure. This conclusion to The Watcher in the Woods was nearly unintelligible as a result, thus giving the film the reputation of not having an ending. It also omitted Mrs. Aylwood's condemnation of recreating the séance on the basis that it was witchcraft. After critical backlash during the film's limited theatrical run in New York on April 17, 1980, the film was pulled from theaters and reshoots of its ending began without director Hough in the late spring of 1980. Due to the 1980 actors strike, Davis was unable to return to England to film reshoots, so her additional footage was shot in California. The 1981 theatrical release is the "official" version of the film and can be found on any VHS, laserdisc, or DVD release of The Watcher in the Woods (except for Blu-ray). It is summarized above in the film's synopsis. In this third, official ending, the re-imagined Watcher (an ectoplasmic pillar of light) was less threatening and more supernatural. The nature of Karen and the Watcher's switch was clearly explained by Ellie in the chapel (whilst possessed by the Watcher). The new footage (including the forest scenes that replaced the original opening credits) was directed by Vincent McEveety, although he was not credited due to union rules which forbade a screen credit unless the director worked on the film for a certain number of hours. Excised opening scene In addition to the replaced ending, the film's opening sequence was also changed: In Hough's original cut, the opening credits sequence was played after a sequence in which a young girl playing in the woods encounters the Watcher, who strikes her doll with a blue beam of light, incinerating it. Release The Watcher in the Woods had a limited release showing at New York City's Ziegfeld Theatre beginning April 17, 1980. Initially, the studio had planned to expand the film's release to between 600 and 700 theaters by June 1980. However, following an overwhelmingly negative reaction from audiences and critics, the film was pulled from the Ziegfeld Theater after only 10 days, and other scheduled screenings were canceled. The negative response prompted Disney to undertake reshoots of the film's ending, which cost the production an additional $1 million. In its place, Disney re-released Mary Poppins (1964). The film was re-released eighteen months later on October 9, 1981, after extensive reshoots and the addition of an entirely new ending. Promotional material for the film presented it as a straightforward suspense film aimed for more mature audiences, a new endeavor for Disney; the film's theatrical trailer began with a title card reading: The re-release was regionally staggered, with the film opening on the East Coast first, and expanding to the West Coast in late November 1981. Box office During its original April 17, 1980 run in New York City, the film grossed only $40,000 before being pulled from theaters due to poor audience response. It was re-released on October 9, 1981, on 240 screens, and grossed $1.2 million during its opening week. It went on to gross a total of $5 million domestically, Home media The film was released on VHS in the 1980s. In 1999, Anchor Bay Entertainment announced a special edition DVD release of the film, but it was removed from their schedule shortly after and delayed indefinitely. Anchor Bay released the film three years after their initial announcement, on April 2, 2002. Their edition of the film features an audio commentary with director Hough, three theatrical trailers, a television spot, as well as two alternate endings viewable separate from the film: the "other world" footage as an abbreviated (14 minute long) and unfinished alternate ending. The second alternate ending (6 minutes long) is an approximation of the first theatrical ending. Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment re-released a Region 2 DVD of the film in early 2004, and in the United States on August 3, 2004. Hough's audio commentary commissioned for the Anchor Bay release is not present on this disc. On September 7, 2021, the film was released on Blu-ray exclusively through Disney Movie Club. The film is not available on Disney+ at this time. However, it is available to watch for free on YouTube. Reception Critical response Initial run Vincent Canby of The New York Times panned the film during its original 1980 theatrical run, writing: "I challenge even the most indulgent fan to give a coherent translation of what passes for an explanation at the end." He also criticized the special effects, noting that the creature in the film's finale "looks as if it had been stolen from a Chinese New Year's parade." Kathleen Carroll of the New York Daily News similarly deemed it a "somewhat tantalizing but ultimately ridiculous suspense movie." Gene Shalit of Ladies Home Journal also criticized the film, writing: "The Watcher in the Woods wastes the talents of Bette Davis and wastes our time with the non-talents of two children who speak in monotones... This dreary Disney movie may scare some ten-year-old girls who enjoy teenage mysteries, but parents and other adults will be exasperated. In a review published in Essence, Bonnie Allen noted: "I could not figure out what audience the film was made for. The plot has no new twist on the haunted English mansion scenario. Bette Davis, as the mother of the hauntee, is not enough to legitimize this horrid horror. As a matter of fact, The Watcher in the Woods is best left unwatched." Jim Wright of the Hackensack Record similarly felt the film was unoriginal, and that "when the payoff arrives... it is filled with absurdities rather than answers." A review published in Variety gave the film a middling review, noting: "The acting and writing are barely professional but the art direction, especially Alan Hume’s stunning camerawork, gives the pic a gloss." At the time, producer Miller stated he felt the film had fared poorly with critics and audiences because "most of the film is a mysterious suspenseful movie but ends with a sci-fi twist. We're now looking for a more clever ending." Al Frank of the Morristown Daily Record felt that, though the film had a flawed conclusion, "John Hough's direction mixes the light with the spooky so well you're always surprised at what comes next." The Central New Jersey Home Newss Ted Serrill noted that the film was "entertaining without let-up" and praised its cinematography, concluding that it "will do as a tasty forerunner of The Shining, which is to come next month." Christopher John reviewed The Watcher in the Woods in Ares Magazine #3 and commented that "It must be put on record that for a studio unused to being totally serious, this is a big step forward. The Watcher In The Woods takes its creators quite a distance from the syrup of Disney's past. It is just unfortunate that a baby's first steps are usually awkward, stumbling ones." Re-release The film's second theatrical run with a brand new ending garnered it some critical praise, with The Hollywood Reporter calling it a "A rattlingly good suspense yarn. The ending is seamless, satisfying, resolving the mystery. The film is genuinely eerie and scary." An article published in The New York Times commented on the revised version of the film, writing: "The early good reviews for the revised Watcher in the Woods do not, by any means, solve all of Disney's problems. The PG-rated (Parental Guidance Suggested) movie is tense and scary enough to appeal to the teen-age audience that the studio has been trying to woo for the last four or five years. But can any film with a Disney label attract teen-agers?" A review published in TV Guide criticized the film even with the revised ending and gave it one out of four stars, noting: "From the start it's apparent that [the setting] is no ordinary glen teeming with cute little Disney squirrels. Johnson, however, isn't intimidated by the woods, but strange incidents begin occurring when she becomes possessed by the spirit of Davis's long-dead daughter. Though the filmmakers make some effort to create a creepy atmosphere, they fail at one of horror's most basic formats—the haunted house story." Michael Blowen of The Boston Globe was also critical, deeming Davis "sour-faced," adding: "Everything in the filmdirection, acting, writing, music arrangements, and editingis as transparent as Casper the Friendly Ghost." , The Watcher in the Woods holds a rating of 50% based on 25 reviews with the consensus: "The Watcher in the Woods boasts plenty of spooky atmosphere and a typically strong performance from Bette Davis, but it builds to a conclusion so dissatisfying that it undermines all that came before." Accolades, awards and nominations See also List of films featuring eclipses The Watcher in the Woods (2017 film), a second adaptation of the book Notes References Sources External links Digital Cinema, detailed articles on the controversies surrounding The Watcher in the Woods by journalist Scott Michael Bosco. , as featured in the 1980 theatrical release , featuring the "other world" sequence Internet Archives, free download of The Watcher in the Woods. 1980 films 1980 horror films 1980s mystery horror films 1980 thriller films American supernatural horror films American mystery horror films American thriller films British supernatural horror films British mystery horror films British thriller films Demons in film Films based on American novels Films based on mystery novels Films directed by John Hough Films produced by Ron W. Miller Films scored by Stanley Myers Films set in country houses Films set in forests American ghost films American haunted house films Films shot at Pinewood Studios American supernatural thriller films Walt Disney Pictures films 1980s ghost films 1980s English-language films 1980s American films 1980s British films
4188183	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criollo%20people	Criollo people	In Hispanic America, criollo () is a term used originally to describe people of full Spanish descent born in the viceroyalties. In different Latin American countries the word has come to have different meanings, mostly referring to the local-born majority. Historically, they have been misportrayed as a social class in the hierarchy of the overseas colonies established by Spain beginning in the 16th century, especially in Hispanic America. They were locally-born people–almost always of Spanish ancestry, but also sometimes of other European ethnic backgrounds. Criollos supposedly sought their own identity through the indigenous past, of their own symbols, and the exaltation of everything related to the American one. Their identity was strengthened as a result of the Bourbon reforms of 1700, which changed the Spanish Empire's policies toward its colonies and led to tensions between criollos and peninsulares. The growth of local criollo political and economic strength in the separate colonies, coupled with their global geographic distribution, led them to each evolve separate (both from each other and Spain) organic national identities and viewpoints. During the Spanish American Wars of Independence, criollos like Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín became the main supporters of independence from Spanish rule in their respective countries. The word is used today in some countries as an adjective defining something local or very typical of a particular Latin American country. Origin The word criollo and its Portuguese cognate crioulo are believed by some scholars, including the eminent Mexican anthropologist Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán, to derive from the Spanish/Portuguese verb criar, meaning "to breed" or "to raise"; however, no evidence supports this derivation in early Spanish literature discussing the origin of the word. Originally, the term was meant to distinguish the members of any foreign ethnic group who were born and "raised" locally, from those born in the group's homeland, as well as from persons of mixed ethnic ancestry. In Spanish colonies, an español criollo was an ethnic Spaniard who had been born in the colonies, as opposed to an español peninsular born in Spain. Spaniards born in the Spanish East Indies were called insulares. Whites born in colonial Brazil, with both parents born in the Iberian Peninsula, were known as mazombos. The English word "creole" was a loan from French créole, which in turn is believed to come from Spanish criollo or Portuguese crioulo. Colonial society Europeans began arriving in Latin America during the Spanish conquest; and while during the colonial period most European immigration was Spanish. In the 19th and 20th centuries millions of European and European-derived populations from North and South America did immigrate to the region. According to church and censal registers for Acatzingo in 1792, during colonial times, 73% of Spanish men married with Spanish women. Ideological narratives have often portrayed criollos as a "pure Spanish" people, mostly men, who were all part of a small powerful elite. However, Spaniards were often the most numerous ethnic group in the colonial cities, and there were menial workers and people in poverty who were of Spanish origin throughout all of Latin America. Criollo culture The criollos allowed a syncretism in their culture and gastronomy, and they, in general, felt more identified with the territory where they were born than with the Iberian peninsula. Evidence is their authorship of works demonstrating an attachment to and pride in the natives and their history. They sometimes criticized the crimes of the conquistadores, often denouncing and defending natives from abuse. In the colony's last two centuries criollos rebelled in response to the harsh suppression of Indigenous uprisings. They allowed the natives and the mestizos (indigenous/European mixed) to be schooled in the universities and art schools, and many natives and mestizos were actually notable painters and architects, mostly in the Andes, but also in Mexico. The mixed religious or secular music appears since the 16th century in Spanish and indigenous languages. Baroque music is imported from Spain but with European and African instruments (such as drums and congas) appears. The Spanish also introduce a wider musical scale than the indigenous pentatonic, and a melodic and poetic repertoire, transmitted by writings such as songbooks, common of it is the sung voice, common in the European baroque music, the mixed aesthetics are the fruit of diverse contributions indigenous, African and especially, Spanish and European. Instruments introduced by the Spanish are the chirimías, sackbuts, dulcians, orlos, bugles, violas, guitars, violins, harps, organs, etc., along with percussions (that can be indigenous or African), everything converges on music heard by everyone. The Dominican Diego Durán in 1570 writes, "All the peoples have parties, and therefore it is unthinkable to remove them (because it is impossible and because it is not convenient either)", himself parade like the natives with a bouquet of flowers at a Christian party that coincides with the celebration of Tezcatlipoca in Mexico. The Jesuits develop with great success a "pedagogy of theatricality", with this the Society of Jesus attracts the natives and blacks to the church, where children learn to play European instruments. In Quito (1609): "there were many dances of tall and small Indigenous, and there was no lack of Moscas Indigenous who danced in the manner of the New Kingdom [European] (...) and dances of Spaniards and blacks and other dances of the Indigenous must dance before the Blessed Sacrament and in front of the Virgin Mary and the saints at parties and Easter, if they don't do it then they are punished". The well-known Zambra mora was commonly danced by blacks, to the sound of castanets and drums. The Spanish Sarabande was danced by whites and blacks. Blacks also have their chiefs. In these local events, the brotherhoods of the Congos give rise to the Congadas (Brazil, Caribbean). Actually, there were no relevant black artists during the colony; also, one must consider the fact that many of the pure blacks were slaves, but the Law of Coartación or "slave law" was created since the 16th century, reaching its maximum peak in the 18th century, which made the black slaves to buy their freedom, through periodic payments to their owner, which eventually led to freedom. Others were freed and purchased by family members or allied whites. It was a consuetudinary act in Spanish America; it allowed the appearance of a large population of free blacks in all of the territory. Freedom could also be obtained through baptism, with the white recognizing his illegitimate children; his word was sufficient for the newborn child to be declared free. Legal freedom was more common in the cities and towns than in the countryside. Also, from the late 1600s to the 19th century, the Spanish encouraged slaves from the British colonies and the United States to come to Spanish Florida as refuge; King Charles II of Spain and his court issued a royal decree freeing all slaves who fled to Spanish Florida and accepted Catholic conversion and baptism (since 1690), most went to the area around St. Augustine, but escaped slaves also reached Pensacola and Cuba. Also, a substantial number of blacks from Haiti (a French colony) arrived as refugees to Spanish Louisiana because of these greater freedoms. The Spanish Santa Teresa de Mose (Florida) became the first legally sanctioned free black town in the present-day United States. The popularity of the Law of coartación resulted in a large population of free black people in Spanish America. Also, Mexican historian Federico Navarrete comments: that "if they received the surname of the white father and incorporated them into their family, those children counted as American whites having the same rights, regardless of the race", Also, a fact is in every marriage, including the most mixed, they are characterized, portrayed and named the caste product that was according to their ancestry, and if this can not, according to their appearance and color. In several documents mention that indigenous people called Criollos with the same name as one of their gods. For example, Juan Pablo Viscardo relates (1797) that the Indigenous (from Peru) call to the Criollos 'Viracocha'; also, he says that Criollos are born in the middle of the Indigenous, are respected, and also loved by many, that they speak the language of the natives (in addition to Spanish) and used to Indigenous customs. After suppressing the Túpac Amaru II Uprising of 1780 in the viceroyalty of Peru, evidence began against the criollos ill will from the Spanish Crown, especially for the Oruro Rebellion prosecuted in Buenos Aires, and also for the lawsuit filed against Dr. Juan José Segovia, born in Tacna, and Colonel Ignacio Flores, born in Quito, who had served as President of the Real Audiencia of Charcas and had been Governor Mayor of La Plata (Chuquisaca or Charcas, current Sucre). Criollos and the wars of independence Until 1760, the Spanish colonies were ruled under laws designed by the Spanish Habsburgs, which granted the American provinces broad autonomy. That situation changed by the Bourbon Reforms of 1700 during the reign of Charles III. Spain needed to extract increasing wealth from its colonies to support the European and global wars it needed to maintain the Spanish Empire. The Crown expanded the privileges of the Peninsulares, who took over many administrative offices that had been filled by Criollos. At the same time, reforms by the Catholic Church reduced the roles and privileges of the lower ranks of the clergy, who were mostly Criollos. By the 19th century, this discriminatory policy of the Spanish Crown and the examples of the American and French revolutions, led Criollo factions to rebel against the Peninsulares. With increasing support of the other castes, they engaged Spain in a fight for independence (1809–1826). The former Spanish Empire in the Americas separated into a number of independent republics. Modern colloquial uses The word criollo retains its original meaning in most Spanish-speaking countries in the Americas. In some countries, however, the word criollo has over time come to have additional meanings, such as "local" or "home-grown". For instance, comida criolla in Spanish-speaking countries refers to "local cuisine", not "cuisine of the criollos". In Portuguese, crioulo is also a racist slang term referring to blacks. In some countries, the term was extended or changed over the years: In Argentina, criollo is used for people whose ancestors were already present in the territory in the colonial period, regardless their race. The exception are dark-skinned blacks and current indigenous (while non-indigenous amerindians usually also are referred as criollos). In Peru, criollo is associated with the syncretic culture of the Pacific Coast, a mixture of Spanish, African, Indigenous, and Gitano elements. Its meaning is, therefore, more similar to that of "Louisiana Creole people" than to the criollo of colonial times. In the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico, natives of the town of Caguas are usually referred to as criollos; professional sports teams from that town are also usually nicknamed Criollos de Caguas ("Caguas Creoles"). Caguas is located near Puerto Rico's Cordillera Central mountain area. In Venezuela, criollo is associated with the national culture of Venezuela. Pabellón criollo is Venezuela's national dish, and the baseball Corporación Criollitos de Venezuela is a seeder to the well-renowned Venezuelan Professional Baseball League, among other examples. Música Criolla is a way to refer to Venezuelan traditional music i.e., joropo. In Venezuela, novelists like Rómulo Gallegos with his novel Doña Bárbara, Pedro Emilio Coll, and Luis Manuel Urbaneja Achelpohl with the novel Peonía were major exponents of the Criollismo movement. Criollo also often refers to a mongrel dog, or something traditional to the country or its citizens. In Cuba, Puerto Rico and Colombia, the word Criollo has similar meanings to those of Venezuela. In Mexico Colonial period As early as the sixteenth century in the colonial period in New Spain, , or the "descendants of Spanish colonists," began to "distinguish themselves from the richer and more powerful ," whom they referred to as , as an insult. At the same time, Mexican-born Spaniards were referred to as , initially as a term that was meant to insult. However, over time, "those insulted who were referred to as began to reclaim the term as an identity for themselves. In 1563, the sons of Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés, attempted to remove Mexico from Spanish-born rule and place Martín, their half-brother, in power. However, their plot failed. They, along with many others involved, were beheaded by the Spanish monarchy, which suppressed expressions of open resentment from the towards for a short period. By 1623, were involved in open demonstrations and riots in Mexico in defiance of their second-class status. In response, a visiting Spaniard by the name of Martín Carrillo noted, "the hatred of the mother country's domination is deeply rooted, especially among the ." Despite being descendants of Spanish colonizers, many in the period peculiarly "regarded the Aztecs as their ancestors and increasingly identified with the Indians out of a sense of shared suffering at the hands of the Spanish." Many felt that the story of the Virgin of Guadalupe, published by priest Miguel Sánchez in (Appearance of the Virgin Mary) in 1648, "meant that God had blessed both Mexico and particularly , as "God's new chosen people." By the eighteenth century, although restricted from holding elite posts in the colonial government, the notably formed the "wealthy and influential" class of major agriculturalists, "miners, businessmen, physicians, lawyers, university professors, clerics, and military officers." Because were not perceived as equals by the Spanish , "they felt they were unjustly treated and their relationship with their mother country was unstable and ambiguous: Spain was, and was not, their homeland," as noted by Mexican writer Octavio Paz.They [] felt the same ambiguity in regard to their native land. It was difficult to consider themselves compatriots of the Indians and impossible to share their pre-Hispanic past. Even so, the best among them, if rather hazily, admired the past, even idealized it. It seemed to them that the ghost of the Roman empire had at times been embodied in the Aztec empire. The criollo dream was the creation of a Mexican empire, and its archetypes were Rome and Tenochtitlán. The criollos were aware of the bizarre nature of their situation, but, as happens in such cases, they were unable to transcend it — they were enmeshed in nets of their own weaving. Their situation was cause for pride and for scorn, for celebration and humiliation. The criollos adored and abhorred themselves. [...] They saw themselves as extraordinary, unique beings and were unsure whether to rejoice or weep before that self-image. They were bewitched by their own uniqueness. Independence movement As early as 1799, open riots against Spanish colonial rule were unfolding in Mexico City, foreshadowing the emergence of a fully-fledged independence movement. At the conspiración de los machetes, soldiers and criollo traders attacked colonial properties "in the name of Mexico and the Virgen de Guadalupe." As news of Napoleon I's armies occupying Spain reached Mexico, Spanish-born peninsulares such as Gabriel de Yermo strongly opposed criollo proposals of governance, deposed the viceroy, and assumed power. However, even though Spaniards maintained power in Mexico City, revolts in the countryside were quickly spreading. Ongoing resentment between criollos and peninsulares erupted after Napoleon I deposed Charles IV of Spain of power, which, "led a group of peninsulares to take charge in Mexico City and arrest several officials, including criollos." This, in turn, motivated criollo priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla to begin a campaign for Mexican independence from Spanish colonial rule. Launched in Hidalgo's home city of Dolores, Guanajuato, in 1810, Hidalgo's campaign gained support among many "Amerindians and Mestizos, but despite seizing a number of cities," his forces failed to capture Mexico City. In the summer of 1811, Hidalgo was captured by the Spanish and executed. Despite being led by a criollo, many criollos did not initially join the Mexican independence movement, and it was reported that "fewer than one hundred criollos fought with Hidalgo," despite their shared caste status. While many criollos in the period resented their "second-class status" compared to peninsulares, they were "afraid that the overthrow of the Spanish might mean sharing power with Amerindians and Mestizos, whom they considered to be their inferiors." Additionally, due to their privileged social class position, "many criollos had prospered under Spanish rule and did not want to threaten their livelihoods." Criollos only undertook direct action in the Mexican independence movement when new Spanish colonial rulers threatened their property rights and church power, an act which was "deplored by most criollos" and therefore brought many of them into the Mexican independence movement. Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821 under the coalitionary leadership of conservatives, former royalists, and criollos, who detested Emperor Ferdinand VII's adoption of a liberal constitution that threatened their power. This coalition created the Plan de Iguala, which concentrated power in the hands of the criollo elite as well as the church under the authority of criollo Agustín de Iturbide who became Emperor Agustín I of the Mexican Empire. Iturbide was the son of a "wealthy Spanish landowner and a Mexican mother" who ascended through the ranks of the Spanish colonial army to become a colonel. Iturbide reportedly fought against "all the major Mexican independence leaders since 1810, including Hidalgo, José María Morelos y Pavón, and Vicente Guerrero," and according to some historians, his "reasons for supporting independence had more to do with personal ambition than radical notions of equality and freedom." Post-independence Mexican independence from Spain in 1821 resulted in the beginning of criollo rule in Mexico as they became "firmly in control of the newly independent state." Although direct Spanish rule was now gone, "by and large, Mexicans of primarily European descent governed the nation." The period was also marked by the expulsion of the peninsulares from Mexico, of which a substantial source of "criollo pro-expulsionist sentiment was mercantile rivalry between Mexicans and Spaniards during a period of severe economic decline," internal political turmoil, and substantial loss of territory. Leadership "changed hands 48 times between 1825 and 1855" alone, "and the period witnessed both the Mexican-American War and the loss of Mexico's northern territories to the United States in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the Gadsden Purchase." Some credit the "criollos' inexperience in government" and leadership as a cause for this turmoil. It was only "under the rule of noncriollos such as the Indian Benito Juárez and the Mestizo Porfiro Díaz" that Mexico "experienced relative [periods of] calm." By the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the criollo identity "began to disappear," with the institution of mestizaje and Indigenismo policies by the national government, which stressed a uniform homogenization of the Mexican population under the Mestizo identity. As a result, "although some Mexicans are closer to the ethnicity of criollos than others" in contemporary Mexico, "the distinction is rarely made." During the Chicano movement, when leaders promoted the ideology of the "ancient homeland of Aztlán as a symbol of unity for Mexican Americans, leaders of the 1960s Chicano movement argued that virtually all modern Mexicans are Mestizos." In the United States As the United States expanded westward, it annexed lands with a long-established population of Spanish-speaking settlers. This group became known as Hispanos. Prior to incorporation into the United States (and briefly, into Independent Texas), Hispanos had enjoyed a privileged status in the society of New Spain, and later in post-colonial Mexico. Regional subgroups of Hispanos were named for their geographic location in the so-called "internal provinces" of New Spain: Californios in Las Californias ("The Californias"), and later Alta California ("Upper California") Nuevomexicanos in Spanish New Mexico, and later Mexican New Mexico (Nuevo México) Tejanos in Spanish Texas, and later Mexican Texas (Tejas) Another group of Hispanos, the Isleños ("Islanders"), are named after their geographic origin in the Old World, namely the Canary Islands. In the US today, this group is primarily associated with the state of Louisiana. Floridanos in Spanish Florida See also Academia Antártica Caguas, Puerto Rico - the "Criollo City" Conquistadores Creole peoples Criollismo Currency lads and lasses Encomienda (1492–1542) European diaspora Hispanics Latin Americans of Spanish descent List of Criollos Vecino (historical use) White Hispanic Americans White Hispanics White Angolans White Brazilians Notes References Bibliography Will Fowler. Latin America, 1800–2000: Modern History for Modern Languages. Oxford University Press, 2000. https://web.archive.org/web/20111003084354/http://www.rena.edu.ve/cuartaEtapa/literatura/ModerCriollismo.html Further reading Creole peoples Ethnic groups in Mexico Ethnic groups in South America European diaspora Latin American caste system Ethnic groups in Latin America History of South America White Latin American es:Criollo
4188548	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9e%27s%20Arctic%20balloon%20expedition	Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition	Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897 was a failed Swedish effort to reach the North Pole, resulting in the deaths of all three expedition members, S. A. Andrée, Knut Frænkel, and Nils Strindberg. Andrée, the first Swedish balloonist, proposed a voyage by hydrogen balloon from Svalbard to either Russia or Canada, which was to pass, with luck, straight over the North Pole on the way. The scheme was received with patriotic enthusiasm in Sweden, a northern nation that had fallen behind in the race for the North Pole. Andrée ignored many early signs of the dangers associated with his balloon plan. Being able to steer the balloon to some extent was essential for a safe journey, but there was much evidence that the drag-rope steering technique he had invented was ineffective. Worse, the polar balloon (Eagle) was delivered directly to Svalbard from its manufacturer in Paris without being tested. When measurements showed it to be leaking more than expected, Andrée failed to acknowledge the risk. After Andrée, Strindberg, and Frænkel lifted off from Svalbard in July 1897, the balloon lost hydrogen quickly and crashed on the pack ice after only two days. The explorers were unhurt but faced a grueling trek back south across the drifting icescape. Inadequately clothed, equipped, and prepared, and shocked by the difficulty of the terrain, they did not make it to safety. As the Arctic winter closed in on them in October, the group ended up exhausted on the deserted Kvitøya (White Island) in Svalbard and died there. For 33 years the fate of the expedition remained one of the unsolved riddles of the Arctic. The chance discovery in 1930 of the expedition's last camp created a media sensation in Sweden, where the dead men had been mourned and idolized. Andrée's motives and mindset have been the subject of extensive fictional and historical discussion, particularly inspired by his apparent foolhardiness. An early example is Per Olof Sundman's fictionalized bestseller novel of 1967, The Flight of the Eagle, which portrays Andrée as weak and cynical, at the mercy of his sponsors and the media. Modern writers have been generally critical of Andrée. Background Andrée's scheme The second half of the 19th century has often been called the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration. The inhospitable and dangerous Arctic and Antarctic regions appealed powerfully to the imagination of the age, not as lands with their own ecologies and cultures, but as challenges to be conquered by technological ingenuity and manly daring. Salomon August Andrée, an engineer at the patent office in Stockholm, shared these enthusiasms. A keen balloonist, Andrée proposed a plan for letting the wind propel a hydrogen balloon across the Arctic Sea to the Bering Strait, to fetch up in Alaska, Canada, or Russia, and passing near or even right over the North Pole on the way. In 1893, Andrée purchased his own balloon, the Svea, and subsequently made nine journeys with it, starting from either Stockholm or Gothenburg and traveling a combined distance of . In the prevailing westerly winds, the Svea flights had a strong tendency to carry him uncontrollably out to the Baltic Sea and drag his basket perilously along the surface of the water or slam it into one of the many rocky islets in the Stockholm archipelago. On one occasion, Andrée was blown clear across the Baltic to Finland. His longest trip was due east from Gothenburg, across the breadth of Sweden and out over the Baltic to Gotland. Even though Andrée saw a lighthouse and heard breakers off Öland, he remained convinced that he was traveling over land and seeing lakes. During a couple of Svea flights, Andrée tested and tried out the drag-rope steering technique which he had developed and wanted to use on his projected North Pole expedition. Drag ropes, which hang from the balloon basket and drag part of their length on the ground, are designed to counteract the tendency of lighter-than-air craft to travel at the same speed as the wind, a situation that makes steering by sails impossible. The friction of the ropes was intended to slow the balloon to the point where the sails would have an effect (beyond that of making the balloon rotate on its axis). Andrée reported, and presumably believed, that with drag-rope steering he had succeeded in deviating about ten degrees either way from the wind direction. This notion is rejected by modern balloonists; the Swedish Ballooning Association maintains that Andrée's belief that he had deviated from the wind was mistaken, being misled by inexpertise and a surfeit of enthusiasm in an environment of variable winds and poor visibility. Use of drag ropes—prone to snapping, falling off, or becoming entangled with each other or the ground, in addition to being ineffective—is not considered by any modern expert to be a useful steering technique. Promotion and fundraising The Arctic ambitions of Sweden were still unrealized in the late 19th century, while neighboring and politically subordinate Norway was a world power in Arctic exploration through such pioneers as Fridtjof Nansen. The Swedish political and scientific elite were eager to see Sweden take that lead among the Scandinavian countries which seemed her due, and Andrée, a persuasive speaker and fundraiser, found it easy to gain support for his ideas. At a lecture in 1895 for the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Andrée thrilled the audience of geographers and meteorologists; a polar exploration balloon, he explained, would need to fulfill four conditions: It must have enough lifting power to carry three people and all their scientific equipment, advanced cameras for aerial photography, provisions for four months, and ballast, altogether about It must retain the gas well enough to stay aloft for 30 days The hydrogen gas must be manufactured, and the balloon filled, at the Arctic launch site It must be at least somewhat steerable Andrée gave a glowingly optimistic account of the ease with which these requirements could be met. Larger balloons had been constructed in France, he claimed, and more airtight, too. Some French balloons had remained hydrogen-filled for over a year without appreciable loss of buoyancy. As for the hydrogen, filling the balloon at the launch site could easily be done with the help of mobile hydrogen manufacturing units; for the steering he referred to his own drag-rope experiments with Svea, stating that a deviation of 27 degrees from the wind direction could be routinely achieved. Andrée assured the audience that Arctic summer weather was uniquely suitable for ballooning. The midnight sun would enable observations round the clock, halving the voyage time required, and do away with all need for anchoring at night, which might otherwise be a dangerous business. Neither would the balloon's buoyancy be adversely affected by the cold of the night. The drag-rope steering technique was particularly well adapted for a region where the ground, consisting of ice, was "low in friction and free of vegetation". He said that the minimal precipitation in the area posed no threat of weighing down the balloon. If some rain or snow did fall on the balloon, Andrée argued, "precipitation at above-zero temperatures will melt, and precipitation at below-zero temperatures will blow off, for the balloon will be traveling more slowly than the wind." The audience was convinced by Andrée's arguments, so disconnected were they from the realities of the Arctic summer storms, fogs, high humidity, and the ever-present threat of ice formation. The Royal Swedish Academy approved Andrée's expense calculation of 130,800 kronor in all, corresponding in today's money to just under US$1 million, of which the single largest sum, 36,000 kronor, was for the balloon. With this endorsement, there was a rush to support Andrée's project, headed by King Oscar II, who personally contributed 30,000 kronor, and Alfred Nobel, the dynamite magnate and founder of the Nobel Prize. Andrée's proposed expedition also elicited considerable international interest, and the European and American newspaper-reading public was curious about a project that seemed as modern and scientific as the books of the contemporary author Jules Verne. The press fanned the interest with a wide range of predictions, from certain death for the explorers to a safe and comfortable "guidance" of the balloon (upgraded by the reporter to an "airship") to the North Pole in a manner planned by Parisian experts and Swedish scientists. "In these days, the construction and guidance of airships have been improved greatly", wrote the Providence, Rhode Island Journal, "and it is supposed, both by the Parisian experts and by the Swedish scientists who have been assisting M. Andree, that the question of a sustained flight, in this case, will be very satisfactorily answered by the character of the balloon, by its careful guidance and, providing it gets into a Polar current of air, by the elements themselves." Faith in the experts and in science was common in the popular press, but with international attention came also for the first time informed criticism. Andrée being Sweden's first balloonist, no one had the requisite knowledge to second-guess him about buoyancy or drag-ropes; but both France and Germany had long ballooning traditions and several of their more experienced balloonists expressed skepticism about Andrée's methods and inventions. However, just as with the Svea mishaps, all objections failed to dampen Andrée's optimism. Eagerly followed by national and international media, he began negotiations with the well-known aeronaut and balloon builder Henri Lachambre in Paris, the world capital of ballooning, and ordered a varnished three-layer silk balloon, in diameter, from his workshop. The balloon, originally called , was to be renamed (Eagle). Special technical solutions had to be designed for the accommodations for three adults to be confined in a small balloon basket for up to 30 days. The sleeping berths for the crew were fitted at the floor of the basket, along with some of the stores and provisions. The highly flammable hydrogen meant that cooking could not be done in the basket itself. The solution was a modified primus stove—designed by a friend of Andrée's—that could be dangled below the crew and then lit from the basket, at a safe distance. An angled mirror attached to the specially designed stove allowed the crew to determine whether it was successfully lit or not. First expedition For his 1896 attempt to launch the balloon, Andrée had many eager volunteers to choose from. He picked Nils Gustaf Ekholm, an experienced Arctic meteorological researcher and formerly his boss during an 1882–1883 geophysical expedition to Spitsbergen, and Nils Strindberg, a brilliant student who was doing original research in physics and chemistry. The main scientific purpose of the expedition was to map the area by means of aerial photography, and Strindberg was both a devoted amateur photographer and a skilled constructor of advanced cameras. This was a team with many useful scientific and technical skills, but lacking any particular physical prowess or training for survival under extreme conditions. All three men were indoor types, and only one, Strindberg, was young. Andrée expected a sedentary voyage in a balloon basket, and strength and survival skills were far down on his list. Modern writers all agree that Andrée's North Pole scheme was unrealistic. He relied on the winds blowing more or less in the direction he wanted to go, on being able to fine-tune his direction with the drag ropes, on the balloon being sealed tight enough to stay airborne for 30 days, and on no ice or snow sticking to the balloon to weigh it down. In the attempt of 1896, the wind battered Andrée's optimism by blowing steadily from the north, straight at the balloon hangar at Danes Island, Svalbard, until the expedition had to pack up, let the hydrogen out of the balloon, and go home. It is now known that northerly winds are to be expected at Danes Island; but in the late-19th century, information on Arctic airflow and precipitation existed only as contested academic hypotheses. Even Ekholm, an Arctic climate researcher, had no objection to Andrée's theory of where the wind was likely to take them. The observational data simply did not exist. On the other hand, Ekholm was skeptical of the balloon's ability to retain hydrogen, from his own measurements. His buoyancy checks in the summer of 1896, during the process of producing the hydrogen and pumping it into the balloon, convinced him that the balloon leaked too much to ever reach the Pole, let alone go on to Russia or Canada. The worst leakage came from the approximately eight million tiny stitching holes along the seams, which no amount of glued-on strips of silk or applications of special secret-formula varnish seemed to seal. The balloon was losing of lift force per day. Taking into account its heavy load, Ekholm estimated that it would be able to stay airborne for 17 days at most, not 30. When it was time to go home, he warned Andrée that he would not take part in the next attempt, scheduled for summer 1897, unless a stronger, better-sealed balloon was bought. Andrée resisted Ekholm's criticisms to the point of deception. On the boat back from Svalbard, Ekholm learned from the chief engineer of the hydrogen plant the explanation of some anomalies he had noticed in his measurements: Andrée had from time to time secretly ordered extra topping-up of the hydrogen in the balloon. Andrée's motives for such self-destructive behavior are not known. Several modern writers, following Sundman's Andrée portrait in the semi-documentary novel, The Flight of the Eagle (1967), have speculated that he had by this time become the prisoner of his own successful fundraising campaign. The sponsors and the media followed every delay and reported on every setback, and were clamoring for results. Andrée, Strindberg, and Ekholm had been seen off by cheering crowds in Stockholm and Gothenburg, and now all the expectations were coming to nothing with the long wait for southerly winds at Danes Island. Especially pointed was the contrast between Nansen's simultaneous return, covered in polar glory from his daring yet well-planned expedition on the ship Fram, and Andrée's failure even to launch his own much-hyped conveyance. Sundman theorizes that Andrée could not face letting the press report that he did not know the prevailing wind direction, and had also miscalculated in ordering the balloon, and needed a new one to rectify his error. After the 1896 launch was called off, enthusiasm declined for joining the expedition for the second attempt in 1897. From the candidates Andrée picked the 27-year-old engineer, Knut Frænkel, to replace Ekholm. Frænkel was a civil engineer from the north of Sweden, an athlete who was fond of long mountain hikes. He was enrolled specifically to take over Ekholm's meteorological observations. Despite lacking Ekholm's theoretical and scientific knowledge, he handled this task efficiently. His meteorological journal has enabled researchers to reconstruct the movements of the three men during their last few months with considerable precision. Expedition of 1897 Launch, flight, and landing Returning to Danes Island in the summer of 1897, the expedition found that the balloon hangar built the year before had weathered the winter storms well. The winds were more favorable, too. Andrée had strengthened his leadership position by replacing the older and critical Ekholm, an authority in his field, with the more enthusiastic Frænkel. On 11 July, in a steady wind from the south-west, the top of the plank hangar was dismantled, the three explorers climbed into the already heavy basket, and Andrée dictated one last-minute telegram to King Oscar and another to the newspaper Aftonbladet, holder of press rights to the expedition. The large support team cut away the last ropes holding the balloon and it rose slowly. Moving out low over the water, it was pulled so far down by the friction of the several-hundred-meter-long drag ropes against the ground as to dip the basket into the water. The friction also twisted the ropes around, detaching them from their screw holds. These holds were a new safety feature that Andrée had reluctantly been persuaded to add, whereby ropes that got caught on the ground could be more easily dropped. Most of the ropes unscrewed at once and of rope were lost, while the three explorers could simultaneously be seen to dump of sand overboard to get the basket clear of the water. of essential weight was thus lost in the first few minutes. Before it was well clear of the launch site, Eagle had turned from a supposedly steerable craft into an ordinary hydrogen balloon with a few ropes hanging from it, at the mercy of the wind; its crew had no means to direct it to any particular goal and had too little ballast for stability. Lightened, the balloon rose to , an unimagined height, where the lower air pressure made the hydrogen escape all the faster through the eight million stitching holes. The balloon had two means of communication with the outside world: buoys and homing pigeons. The buoys, steel cylinders encased in cork, were intended to be dropped from the balloon into the water or onto the ice, to be carried to civilization by the currents. Only two buoy messages have ever been found. One was dispatched by Andrée on 11 July, a few hours after takeoff, and reads: "Our journey goes well so far. We sail at an altitude of about , at first N 10° east, but later N 45° east [...] Weather delightful. Spirits high." The second was dropped an hour later and gave the height as . Aftonbladet had supplied the pigeons, bred in northern Norway with the optimistic hope that they would manage to return there, and their message cylinders contained pre-printed instructions in Norwegian asking the finder to pass the messages on to the paper's address in Stockholm. Andrée released at least four pigeons, but only one was ever retrieved, by a Norwegian steamer where the pigeon had alighted and been promptly shot. Its message is dated 13 July and gives the travel direction at that point as East by 10° South. The message reads: "The Andree Polar Expedition to the 'Aftonbladet', Stockholm. 13 July, 12.30 p.m., 82 deg. north latitude, 15 deg. 5 min. east longitude. Good journey eastwards, 10 deg. south. All goes well on board. This is the third message sent by pigeon. Andree." Lundström and others note that all three messages fail to mention the accident at takeoff, or the increasingly desperate situation, which Andrée described fully in his main diary. The balloon was out of equilibrium, sailing much too high and thereby losing hydrogen faster than even Ekholm had feared, then repeatedly threatening to crash on the ice. It was weighed down by being rain-soaked ("dripping wet", writes Andrée in the diary), and the men were throwing all the sand and some of the payload overboard to keep it airborne. Free flight lasted for 10 hours and 29 minutes and was followed by another 41 hours of bumpy riding with frequent ground contact before the inevitable final crash. Eagle traveled for two days and three-and-a-half hours altogether, during which time, according to Andrée, none of the three men got any sleep. The definitive landing appears to have been gentle. Neither the men nor the homing pigeons in their wicker cages were hurt, and none of the equipment was damaged, not even the delicate optical instruments and Strindberg's two cameras. On foot on the ice From the moment the three were grounded on 14 July, Strindberg's highly specialized cartographic camera, which had been brought to map the region from the air, became instead a means of recording daily life in the icescape and the constant danger and drudgery of the trek. Strindberg took about 200 photos with his camera over the course of the three months they spent on the pack ice, one of the most famous being his picture of Andrée and Frænkel contemplating the fallen Eagle. Andrée and Frænkel also kept meticulous records of their experiences and geographical positions, Andrée in his "main diary", Frænkel in his meteorological journal. Strindberg's own stenographic diary was more personal in content, and included his general reflections on the expedition, as well as several messages to his fiancée Anna Charlier. All three manuscripts were eventually retrieved from the ice on Kvitøya in 1930. Eagle had been stocked with safety equipment such as guns, snowshoes, sleds, skis, a tent, a small boat (in the form of a bundle of bent sticks, to be assembled and covered with balloon silk), most of it stored not in the basket but in the storage space arranged above the balloon ring. These items had not been put together with great care, and little attention was paid to existing designs used by societies living in polar regions. In this, Andrée contrasted not only with later but also with many earlier explorers. Andrée's rigid sleds proved impractical for the difficult terrain, with channels separating the ice floes, high ridges, and partially iced-over melt ponds. The men's clothes included no furs but were woolen coats and trousers, plus oilskins. They wore the oilskins but the explorers reported always seeming to be damp or wet from the half-frozen pools of water on the ice and the typically foggy, humid Arctic summer air, and preoccupied with drying their clothes, mainly by wearing them. It would have meant certain death to lose the provisions lashed to one of the cumbersome sleds into one of the many channels that had to be laboriously crossed. Before starting the march, the three men spent a week in a tent at the crash site, packing up and making decisions about what and how much to bring and where to go. The far-off North Pole was discounted as an option; the choice lay between two depots of food and ammunition laid down for their safety, one at Sjuøyane in Svalbard and one at Cape Flora in Franz Josef Land. Inferring from their faulty maps that the distances to each were about equal, they decided to try for the bigger depot at Cape Flora. Strindberg took more pictures during this week than he would at any later point, including 12 frames that make up a 360-degree panorama of the crash site. The balloon had carried a lot of food, of a kind adapted more for a balloon voyage than for travels on foot. Andrée had reasoned that they might as well throw excess food overboard as sand if losing weight was necessary; and if it was not, the food would serve if wintering in the Arctic desert did, after all, become necessary. There was, therefore, less ballast and large amounts of heavy-type provisions, altogether, including of water and some crates of champagne, port, beer, etc., donated by sponsors and manufacturers. There was also lemon juice, though not as much of this precaution against scurvy as other polar explorers usually thought necessary. Much of the food was in the form of cans of pemmican, meat, sausages, cheese, and condensed milk. By the time they crashed, they had thrown some of the provisions overboard. The three men took most of the rest with them on leaving the crash site, along with other necessities such as guns, tent, ammunition, and cooking utensils, making a load on each sled of more than . This was not practical, as it broke the sleds and wore out the men. After one week, they sorted out and left behind a big pile of food and non-essential equipment, bringing the loads down to per sled. It became more necessary than ever to hunt for food. They shot and ate seals, walruses, and especially polar bears throughout the march. Starting out for Franz Josef Land to the south-east on 22 July, the three soon found that their struggle across the ice, which had ridges two stories high, was hardly bringing the goal any nearer: the drift of the ice was in the opposite direction, moving them backward. On 4 August they decided, after a long discussion, to aim for Sjuøyane in the southwest instead, hoping to reach the depot there after a six- to seven-week march, with the help of the current. The terrain in that direction was mostly extremely difficult, sometimes necessitating a crawl on all fours, but there was occasional relief in the form of open water—the little boat was apparently a functional and safe conveyance—and smooth, flat ice floes. "Paradise!" wrote Andrée. "Large even ice floes with pools of sweet drinking water and here and there a tender-fleshed young polar bear!" They made fair headway at first, but the wind turned and they were again being pushed backward, away from Sjuøyane. The wind varied between southwest and northwest over the coming weeks; they tried in vain to overcome this by turning more and more westward, but it was becoming clear that Sjuøyane was out of their reach. On 12 September, the explorers resigned themselves to wintering on the ice and camped on a large floe, letting the ice take them where it would, "which", writes Kjellström, "it had really been doing all along". Drifting rapidly due south towards Kvitøya, they hurriedly built a winter "home" on the floe against the increasing cold, with walls made of water-reinforced snow to Strindberg's design. Observing the rapidity of their drift, Andrée recorded his hopes that they might get far enough south to feed themselves entirely from the sea. However, the floe began to break up directly under the hut on 2 October, from the stresses of pressing against Kvitøya, and they were forced to bring their stores on to the island itself, which took a couple of days. Despite these difficulties, Andrée recorded in his diary, "Morale remains good. With such comrades one should be able to manage under, I may say, any circumstances." Strindberg's briefer diary entries indicate that on October 5 the party landed on the island. Strindberg then wrote "Snowstorm reconnaissance" on October 6 and the single word "Moving" on October 7. Later scientific analysis revealed the contents of the final pages of Andrée's diary, with its last entry on October 8 reading: "It feels fine to be able to sleep here on fast land as a contrast with the drifting ice out upon the ocean where we constantly heard the cracking, grinding, and din. We shall have to gather driftwood and bones of whales and will have to do some moving around when the weather permits." It is inferred from the end of Strindberg's diary on October 7 and Andreé's on October 8 that the three men died shortly afterwards. Speculation For the next 33 years, the fate of the expedition was shrouded in mystery, and its disappearance became part of the cultural lore in Sweden and to a certain extent elsewhere. It was actively sought for a couple of years and remained the subject of myth and rumor, with frequent international newspaper reports of possible findings. An extensive archive of American newspaper reports from the first few years, 1896–1899, titled "The Mystery of Andree", shows a much richer media interest in the expedition after it disappeared than before. A great variety of fates are suggested for it, inspired by finds, or reported finds, of remnants of what might be a balloon basket or great amounts of balloon silk, or by stories of men falling from the sky, or visions by psychics, all of which would typically locate the stranded balloon far from Danes Island and Svalbard. Lundström points out that some of the international and national reports took on the features of urban legends. They reflected a prevailing disrespect for the indigenous peoples of the Arctic, who were portrayed by newspapers as uncomprehending savages who had killed the three men or showed a deadly indifference to their plight. These speculations were refuted in 1930, upon the discovery of the expedition's final resting place on Kvitøya by the crews of two ships, the Bratvaag and the Isbjørn. Recovery The Norwegian Bratvaag expedition, studying the glaciers and seas of the Svalbard archipelago from the Norwegian sealing vessel Bratvaag of Ålesund, found the remains of the Andrée expedition on 5 August 1930. Kvitøya was usually inaccessible to the sealing or whaling ships of the time, as it is typically surrounded by a wide belt of thick polar ice and often hidden by thick ice fogs. However, summer in 1930 had been particularly warm, and the surrounding sea was practically free of ice. As Kvitøya was known to be a prime hunting ground for walrus and the fogs over the island on that day were comparatively thin, some of the crew of Bratvaag took this rare opportunity to land on what they called the "inaccessible island". Two of the sealers in search of water, Olav Salen and Karl Tusvick, discovered Andrée's boat near a small stream, frozen under a mound of snow and full of equipment, including a boathook engraved with the words "Andrée's Polar Expedition, 1896". Presented with this hook, Bratvaags captain, Peder Eliassen, assigned the crew to search the site together with the expedition members. Among other finds, they uncovered a journal and two skeletons, identified as Andrée's and Strindberg's remains by monograms found on their clothing. Bratvaag left the island to continue its scheduled hunting and observations, with the intent of coming back later to see if the ice had melted further and uncovered more artifacts. Further discoveries were made by M/K Isbjørn of Tromsø, a sealing sloop chartered by news reporters to waylay Bratvaag. Unsuccessful in this, the reporters and Isbjørns crew made instead for Kvitøya, landing on the island on 5 September in fine weather and finding even less ice than Bratvaag had. After photographing the area, they searched for and found Frænkel's body, and additional artifacts, including a tin box containing Strindberg's photographic film, his logbook, and maps. The crews of both ships turned over their finds to a scientific commission of the Swedish and Norwegian governments in Tromsø on 2 and 16 September, respectively. The bodies of the three explorers were transported to Stockholm, arriving on 5 October. Causes of death The bodies of the three men were cremated in 1930 without further examination upon being returned to Sweden. The question of what, exactly, caused their deaths has attracted both interest and controversy among scholars. Several medical practitioners and amateur historians have read the extensive diaries with a detective's eye, looking for clues in the diet, for telltale complaints of symptoms, and for suggestive details at the death site. They agree on many particulars. For instance, the explorers are known to have eaten mainly scanty amounts of canned and dry goods from the balloon stores, plus huge portions of half-cooked meat of polar bears and occasionally seals. The explorers frequently suffered from foot pains and diarrhea, and were always tired, cold, and wet. After September 10, Andree's diary entries, formerly made daily, grew more sporadic, and his penmanship deteriorated. When the three men moved on to Kvitøya from the ice, they left much of their valuable equipment and stores outside the tent, and even down by the water's edge, as if they were too exhausted, indifferent, or ill to carry it further. Strindberg, the youngest, died first. He was "buried" (wedged into a cliff aperture) by the others. However, the interpretation of these observations is contested. The best-known and most widely credited suggestion is that made by Ernst Tryde, a medical practitioner, in his book De döda på Vitön (The Dead on Kvitøya ) in 1952: that the men succumbed to trichinosis, which they had contracted from eating undercooked polar bear meat. Larvae of Trichinella spiralis were found in parts of a polar bear carcass at the site. Lundström and Sundman both favor this explanation. Critics note that diarrhea, which Tryde cites as the main symptomatic evidence, hardly needs an explanation beyond the general poor diet and physical misery, but some more specific symptoms of trichinosis are missing. Also, Fridtjof Nansen and his companion Hjalmar Johansen had lived largely on polar bear meat in exactly the same area for 15 months without any ill effects. Author and physician Bea Uusma notes that the rate of death of trichinosis is only 0.2 percent and that the main symptom – fever – is never noted in any of the men's diaries, also commenting that no medicines against fever appear to have been consumed by the trio. Other suggestions have included vitamin A poisoning from eating polar bear liver; however, the diary shows Andrée to have been aware of this danger. Vitamin A poisoning from eating seal liver is another theory, mentioned by Bea Uusma, who however rejects it based on the fact that the men killed a large seal on September 19 and never noted any related illness; also the rate of death from vitamin A poisoning is low. Carbon monoxide poisoning is a theory that has found a few adherents, such as the explorer Vilhjalmur Stefansson. The chief objection is that their primus stove had kerosene still in the tank when found, and that the primus stove was most likely not located inside the tent. Stefansson argues that they were using a malfunctioning stove, something he had experienced in his own expeditions. Lead poisoning from the cans in which their food was stored is an alternative suggestion, as is scurvy, botulism, suicide (they had plenty of morphine and opium), and polar bear attack. A combination favored by Kjellström is that of cold and hypothermia as the Arctic winter closed in, with dehydration and general exhaustion, apathy, and disappointment. Kjellström argues that Tryde never takes the nature of the explorers' daily life into account, and especially the crowning blow of the ice breaking up under their promisingly mobile home, forcing them to move onto a glacier island. "Posterity has expressed surprise that they died on Kvitøya, surrounded by food," writes Kjellström. "The surprise is rather that they found the strength to live so long." In 2010, writer and researcher Bea Uusma, of the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, rejected the theory that larvae of Trichinella spiralis killed the expedition members. After examining the men's clothes, finding what was most likely rips from polar bears in Strindberg's preserved underpants (which he wore while being buried and which were subsequently salvaged in 1930), she concluded that at least Strindberg was killed by polar bears. In Uusma's award-winning book about the expedition, partly based on her own new research (including analysis of a rarely seen autopsy report from 1930), she puts forth the theory that Strindberg was attacked and killed by a polar bear, which possibly also injured Frænkel, who appears to have died shortly thereafter in the tent, wearing no mittens and shoes. Andree, having buried Strindberg and finding himself trapped alone on the island, unable to leave by himself, then possibly decided to commit suicide via morphine. This theory on Andree's cause of death is supported by the fact that his remains were found in a semi-upright position against a rock, a situation unlikely to have been caused by polar bears, rifle by his side. In addition, nearly emptied morphine bottles were found on the site, as well as Andree's diary neatly wrapped with a sweater, hay and balloon cloth, indicating that he perhaps wanted it to be preserved as a last measure in case someone would later find it. Legacy In 1897, Andrée's daring or foolhardy undertaking nourished Swedish patriotic pride and Swedish dreams of taking the scientific lead in the Arctic. The title of Engineer——was generally and reverentially used in speaking of him, and expressed high esteem for the late 19th-century ideal of the engineer as a representative of social improvement through technological progress. The three explorers were fêted when they departed and mourned by the nation when they disappeared. When they were found, the explorers were celebrated for the heroism of their doomed two-month struggle to reach populated areas and were seen as having selflessly perished for the ideals of science and progress. The procession carrying their mortal remains from the ships into Stockholm on 5 October 1930, writes Swedish historian Sverker Sörlin, "must be one of the most solemn and grandiose manifestations of national mourning that has ever occurred in Sweden. One of the rare comparable events is the national mourning that followed the Estonia disaster in the Baltic Sea in September 1994." More recently, Andrée's heroic motives have been questioned, beginning with Per Olof Sundman's bestselling semi-documentary novel of 1967, The Flight of the Eagle. Sundman portrays Andrée as the victim of the demands of the Swedish media and establishment, and as ultimately motivated by fear rather than courage. Sundman's interpretation of the personalities involved, the blind spots of the Swedish national culture, and the role of the press are reflected in the film adaptation, Flight of the Eagle (1982), based on his novel and directed by Jan Troell. It was nominated for an Academy Award. Historian Edward Guimont has proposed that the 1930 discovery of the expedition's remains influenced H. P. Lovecraft in the writing of At the Mountains of Madness. Appreciation of Strindberg's role seems to be growing, both for the fortitude with which the untrained and unprepared student kept photographing, in what must have been a more or less permanent state of near-collapse from exhaustion and exposure, and for the artistic quality of the result. Out of the 240 exposed frames that were found on Kvitøya in waterlogged containers, 93 were saved by John Hertzberg at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Strindberg's former workplace. In his article, "Recovering the visual history of the Andrée expedition" (2004), Tyrone Martinsson has lamented the traditional focus by previous researchers on the written records—the diaries—as primary sources of information; he renewed his claim for the historical significance of the photographs. Footnotes Sources A digital version is available at Project Runeberg (accessed on 16April 2014). The London edition of the English translation, by Edward Adams-Ray, is The Andrée diaries being the diaries and records of S. A. Andrée, Nils Strindberg and Knut Fraenkel written during their balloon expedition to the North Pole in 1897 and discovered on White Island in 1930, together with a complete record of the expedition and discovery; with 103 illustr. and 6 maps, plans and diagrams (1931); while the New York edition of the same translation is Andrée's Story: The Complete Record of His Polar Flight, 1897, Blue Ribbon Books, 1932. Lundström is the curator of the Andreexpedition Polarcenter in Gränna, Sweden. This paper is based on Martinsson's doctoral dissertation from 2003. "The Mystery of Andree" , an extensive archive of American daily newspaper articles 1896–1899, from reports of the preparation and the launch to guesswork and rumours about the explorers' fate. Accessed on 5 March 2006. Translated in 1970 by Mary Sandbach as The Flight of the Eagle, London: Secker and Warburg. The 1982 film Flight of the Eagle by Jan Troell is based on this novel. Further reading Pavlopoulos, George (2007). A novel in Greek about the echo of that expedition today, in Western societies. Sollinger, Guenther (2005), S.A. Andree: The Beginning of Polar Aviation 1895–1897. Moscow. Russian Academy of Sciences. Sollinger, Guenther (2005). S.A. Andree and Aeronautics: An annotated bibliography. Moscow. Russian Academy of Sciences. Wilkinson, Alec (2012). "The Ice Balloon. S. A. Andree and the Heroic Age of Arctic Exploration". External links Andrzej M. Kobos "Orłem" do bieguna, high-quality photos from the expedition. The Balloonist by MacDonald Harris, New York, Farrar, Straus, & Giroux, 1976, is a fictional account of a polar expedition that bears a striking resemblance to and was presumably inspired by, S. A. Andrée's expedition. . "Why Go To The Arctic", January 1931, Popular Mechanics drawing of ill-fated Andree balloon flight top page 26 "Ice Balloon: Doomed Arctic expedition to the North Pole", bbc.co.uk video William Hillman Collection on S. A. Andrée's ill fated balloon expedition at Dartmouth College Library 19th century in the Arctic Accidents and incidents involving balloons and airships Arctic expeditions Aviation accidents and incidents in 1897 Aviation accidents and incidents in Norway Ballooning Expeditions from Sweden History of Svalbard Kvitøya North Pole 1897 disasters in Norway
4188933	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Route%20of%20the%20Lincoln%20Highway	Route of the Lincoln Highway	Note: A fully interactive online map of the Lincoln Highway and all of its re-alignments, markers, monuments and historic points of interest can be viewed at the Lincoln Highway Association Official Map website. As the Lincoln Highway was one of the earliest transcontinental highways for automobiles across the United States and was widely publicized since its inception, the route of the Lincoln Highway was determined not only by civil engineering considerations but also by politics. In many regions, there was general consensus among those who had power or interest in influencing the route. But in a few regions the choice of route was a contentious topic during the 1920s. The highway took the following route: New York The very short Lincoln Highway section in New York went west from Times Square on 42nd Street to the Weehawken Ferry. It was realigned down Broadway from which it turned right and passed through the Holland Tunnel after it opened in 1927. New Jersey The original route of Lincoln Highway came off the New York Central Railroad's ferry at Weehawken Terminal and climbed the Palisades on Pershing Road. At the top it went west on 5th Street (now 49th Street) to the Hudson County Boulevard (now John F. Kennedy Boulevard) on which it travelled south to Communipaw Avenue in Jersey City. After the opening of the Holland Tunnel and part of the Route 1 Extension, the Lincoln Highway travelled along the upper level of what is known as State Highway to the Boulevard. Veering west it crossed the Hackensack River via the Lincoln Highway Bridge and traveled on what is now U.S. Route 1-9 Truck through Kearny Point, where the road is still known as Lincoln Highway. Some sources indicate the Highway bypassing the corner of Hudson County Boulevard and Communipaw Avenue by passing through Lincoln Park, which had been the route of Newark Plank Road. Crossing the Passaic River, the Highway entered the Ironbound district of Newark along Ferry Street and Market Street, now the eastbound side of a one-way pair with Raymond Boulevard. In downtown Newark at Four Corners, it turned south on Broad Street, at what was claimed to be the "third busiest traffic center in the United States". By 1924 this had been bypassed using Jackson and Lafayette Streets. From Broad Street, the Highway cut over to Frelinghuysen Avenue, possibly on Clinton Avenue or Poinier Street, or via Elizabeth Avenue and Meeker Avenue. After construction of the Holland Tunnel the ferry portion was abandoned and traffic travelled over Bergen Hill to connect with Hudson Boulevard. A reroute in 1928 took the Lincoln Highway onto the new Route 1 Extension (now U.S. Route 1/9) from east of downtown Newark to North Avenue in Elizabeth, and west on North Avenue back to the old road. The Highway was also moved to the new Holland Tunnel and approach east of the Hudson County Boulevard (now Route 139). By then the U.S. Highway System was marked, and the Lincoln Highway was fading in importance. From the corner of Frelinghuysen Avenue and Poinier Street in Newark to Brunswick Circle in Trenton, the Lincoln Highway followed today's Route 27 and U.S. Route 206. Many parts are still known as Lincoln Highway. The only changes have been the following: The original road may have followed Clinton Avenue to Elizabeth Avenue in Newark and North Broad Street in Elizabeth. Route 27 now has a one-way pair in Elizabeth. The northbound side, on Cherry Street, is the old Lincoln Highway. In 1919, the New Jersey State Highway Commission built a new road on the west side of the Pennsylvania Railroad (now the Northeast Corridor) from near the northeast of Dow Avenue between Colonia and Iselin to Cedar Street in Menlo Park, to avoid two railroad crossings. The old road is now Middlesex-Essex Turnpike and Thornall Street, on the east side of the tracks. A 1905 map shows the main road using Thornall Street all the way to its end at Evergreen Road and crossing the tracks there, with the road on the west side existing north to Cedar Street as a stub; this may have changed between then and 1919. However, until 1919, the main road used Colonia Boulevard, New Dover Road and Middlesex Avenue to get from Rahway to Green Street. Until 1919, the main road was what is now named Old Road, lying east of the current road north of Kingston. The old bridge over the Millstone River at Kingston still exists, south of the current bridge (built in 1969). The Lincoln Highway entered Trenton along Brunswick Avenue, now northbound US 206 and BUS US 1. Until 1920 the Highway used the Calhoun Street Bridge over the Delaware River into Pennsylvania; a 1920 map indicates that it probably used Warren Street (now southbound US 206 and BUS US 1) and West State Street to reach the bridge. In 1920 the Highway was moved from the tolled Calhoun Street Bridge to the free Bridge Street Bridge. To get there it probably continued south on Warren Street, turning west on Bridge Street to the bridge. This path is now followed by southbound BUS US 1, with a realignment from Assunpink Creek to the bridge due to redevelopment. In 1916, the Lincoln Highway was designated the following State Highway numbers: Route 1 (Later Renumbered to Route 25) from Elizabeth to New Brunswick Route 13 (Present Route 27) from New Brunswick to Trenton The Highway in Trenton, and in and north of Elizabeth, did not receive a number. In 1927, the whole Lincoln Highway in New Jersey was assigned the number U.S. Route 1, though that number was soon moved to newer bypasses. The Route 1 Extension, built in the late 1920s, was considered a bypass of the Lincoln Highway, but the old road has continued to be known as the Lincoln Highway, except possibly between Communipaw Avenue and Tonnelle Circle in Jersey City, where the name may have moved to the new road (now TRUCK US 1–9). Pennsylvania The path of the Lincoln Highway was first laid out in September 1913; it was defined to run through Canton, Ohio, Beaver Falls, Pittsburgh, Greensburg, Ligonier, Bedford, Chambersburg, Gettysburg, York, Lancaster and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and Camden, New Jersey. This bypassed Harrisburg to the south, and thus did not use the older main route across the state between Chambersburg and Lancaster. From Pittsburgh to Philadelphia, this incorporated a number of old turnpikes, some of which still collected tolls. This original 1913 path of the Lincoln Highway continued east from Philadelphia, crossing the Delaware River to Camden, New Jersey on the Market Street Ferry. By 1915, Camden was dropped from the route, allowing the highway to cross the Delaware on a bridge at Trenton (initially the Calhoun Street Bridge, later the Bridge Street Bridge). In 1924, the entire Lincoln Highway in Pennsylvania was designated Pennsylvania Route 1. In late 1926 the route from West Virginia to Philadelphia (using the new route west of Pittsburgh) was assigned U.S. Route 30, while the rest of the Lincoln Highway and PA 1 became part of U.S. Route 1. West Virginia The Lincoln Highway did not enter West Virginia until 1927, when it was rerouted between Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and East Liverpool, Ohio. The piece in West Virginia ran roughly along present U.S. Route 30, splitting onto the old route at Chester. There it turned southwest on Carolina Avenue (West Virginia Route 2) before turning northwest on 3rd Street, southwest on Virginia Avenue and north on 1st Street to cross the Ohio River into East Liverpool on the 1897 Chester Bridge. The only realignment before the bridge was demolished in 1970 was in 1938, when US 30 was moved to take Carolina Avenue directly to 1st Street after a new bridge opened over the railroad. Until the current US 30 was finished in 1977, US 30 continued along Carolina Avenue to the Newell Bridge in Newell. Ohio The routing through Ohio followed modern US Route 30 to Canton, then west on State Route 172 through Massillon to Dalton (where it rejoins US Route 30). West of Wooster it turns northwest on U.S. Route 250 to Ashland, then southwest on Clairmont Avenue which eventually becomes modern U.S. Route 42 to Mansfield. West Fourth Street to US Route 30 which it followed to Bucyrus (temporarily leaving US 30 to follow Mansfield Street and Lincoln Highway), then continued to Upper Sandusky (went through on Wyandot Avenue to County Route 330). It is a combination of US Route 30 and local roads (mainly former alignments of US 30) to the Indiana state line. Indiana The Lincoln Highway entered Indiana on current US Route 30 to Fort Wayne. It turned northwest on modern U.S. Route 33 to Elkhart. It turned west on Lincoln Way through South Bend to U.S. Route 20. It followed US Route 20 to Rolling Prairie and continued on State Road 2 to Valparaiso where it rejoined US Route 30 to the Illinois state line. In time, the route was shortened, following U.S. Route 30 through the entire state. Many cities along U.S. 30, including Warsaw, Plymouth, Merrillville and Schererville contain stretches of the Lincoln Highway (usually marked as "Old Lincoln Highway", "Lincolnway", "Joliet St" or "Joliet Rd") while modern U.S. 30 runs just outside the cities. Illinois The route through Illinois was chosen to deliberately avoid Chicago, instead providing "feeder routes" to the city. The main feeder routes included Illinois Route 1 at Chicago Heights, Illinois Route 4 (later U.S. Route 66) at Joliet, and Illinois Route 38 at Geneva. The Lincoln Highway entered Illinois on U.S. Route 30, which it followed to Aurora where it became Illinois Route 31, which it followed to Illinois Route 38 at Geneva where it turned west to Dixon. From Dixon, it continued west on Illinois Route 2 to Sterling where it rejoins U.S. Route 30. It followed U.S. Route 30 to just east of the Iowa state line, where it turned slightly northwest of Illinois Route 136. Lincoln Highway enters Illinois on the eastern border in Sauk Village, as Joliet Street in Dyer separates from being one Native American trail into two separate paths: the current route of Lincoln Highway turns north to cross Ford Heights and Chicago Heights at 14th Street, and the original route following Sauk Trail to South Chicago Heights before turning north on Chicago Road. Chicago Road in Chicago Heights is also Dixie Highway, leading to a major intersection of Carl Fisher's two major auto trails. Continuing west, Lincoln Highway crosses Olympia Fields (211th Street), Matteson, Frankfort, and New Lenox (Maple Street) before its next major directional change in Joliet. In Joliet, Cass Street is the original path, but when several roads were redesigned as one-way streets, a loop was added to include Jefferson Street (US-52), Center Street and Collins Street (Archer Avenue, IL-171). Lincoln Highway also crosses Chicago Street, part of the alternate route of Route 66. After crossing the Des Plaines River, US30 travels northwest and is known as Plainfield Road. It crosses Crest Hill before entering Plainfield. The route originally changes direction to west on Lockport Street, through downtown Plainfield, then north on Wallin Drive, stepping north and west every few blocks towards Aurora. It presently follows Division Street north before a more direct diagonal path. When originally designed, Lincoln Highway crossed the Fox River near downtown at Benton Street and Downer Place, following Lake Street (IL-31) to Geneva, where the road shifted to leave Chicagoland and move west towards the Iowa border. Presently, Lincoln Highway never enters Aurora as it crosses Montgomery as Baseline Road. At the intersection of IL-47, it travels north to Sugar Grove before turning west towards the Iowa border. Iowa The Lincoln Highway entered Iowa on the Lyons-Fulton bridge, since torn down, north of the present-day Iowa Highway 136 bridge. It then went south on Second Street in Clinton along what is now U.S. Route 67. From there, it generally followed these present-day roads: U.S. Route 30 from Clinton to Lisbon, including some roads known today as "Old Highway 30" Local roads and city streets from Lisbon to Marion and later Cedar Rapids, rejoining present-day 30 on the southwest side of Cedar Rapids U.S. 30 from there to northeast of Belle Plaine, where it turned south and followed County Roads V40 and E66 through Chelsea and rejoined 30 east of Tama. The famous bridge is just west of where 30 and the Lincoln Highway currently separate. Local streets in Tama and County Road E49, rejoining 30 near Le Grand U.S. 30 to four miles (6 km) west of Le Grand, where it followed city streets through Marshalltown and left town on Lincoln Way County Road E41 from west of Marshalltown which passes through State Center, then runs west crossing U.S. Route 65 at Colo and continues onto Nevada. The Nevada Lincoln Highway Committee has hosted for the past 25 years an annual celebration called Lincoln Highway Days. The route continues on "Old 30" to Ames, about a mile north of "New 30", going along the south and west sides of Iowa State University. Gravel roads to Iowa Highway 17, where it again followed County Road E41 through Boone to Ogden U.S. 30 from Ogden to Grand Junction, County Road E53 through Greene County, and north through Scranton, then west to near Ralston From there it generally followed U.S. 30 to the Missouri Valley, where it turned south to Council Bluffs on County Road L20. It crossed the Missouri River to Omaha, Nebraska via Broadway and the Ak-Sar-Ben Bridge Nebraska Traveling westward from the Douglas Street Bridge. West to 18th or 24th Street depending on year. South to Farnam Street. West to 40th where it turned North to Dodge Street, Dodge to 78th and North to Cass/West Dodge Road. The Lincoln Highway in Omaha went by several landmarks, including The Blackstone Hotel, John Sutters Mill (1847) with the oldest billboard on The Lincoln Highway (1913-1930), Highway 30 (1930-1969 until the Douglas Street/AK-SAR-BEN Bridge was torn down) and Highway 6 (which meets in Council Bluffs and says good-bye at Saddle Creek and Dodge to go under The Saddle Creek Bridge South to Center Street), The Tower Gas Station and campgrounds at 78th and Dodge and Peony Park at 78th and Cass St./West Dodge Road. The longest stretch of original Lincoln Highway brick roadway in the country is in Omaha from approx. 174th to approx 203rd. The best way to access is at 180th and Dodge St. and travel North. Leaving the city it took city streets through Waterloo where it joined U.S. Route 275 to Fremont. From Fremont, it continued west on U.S. Route 30 through Central City, Grand Island, Wood River, Kearney, Lexington, Cozad, Gothenburg, North Platte, Sutherland, Ogallala, Chappell, Sidney, and Kimball to the Wyoming state line. Colorado The 1913 proclamation included a loop through Denver, Colorado, touching the main route at Big Springs, Nebraska and Cheyenne, Wyoming. This loop was included, as Colorado had felt betrayed by the decision not to run through it after supporting the Hoosier Tour earlier that year. The loop was quietly dropped in 1915, but Colorado continued to promote the loop, including a billboard at the Big Springs end. The route is now paralleled by Interstate 76 and Interstate 25; it became the following in 1926: U.S. Route 138, Big Springs to Sterling, Colorado U.S. Route 38 (now U.S. Route 6), Sterling to Wiggins, Colorado unnumbered (State Highway 52 and State Highway 79?), Wiggins to Bennett, Colorado U.S. Route 40, Bennett to Denver U.S. Route 287, Denver, Lafayette, Longmont, Loveland, Fort Collins to Cheyenne, Wyoming. US 287 was not created until 1935, so the Lincoln Highway may well have used a portion of: Unnumbered (State Highway 1), Fort Collins to Cheyenne. Today this highway does not run north out of Ft. Collins, but it may well have in 1915 or so, perhaps having been absorbed in the "new" US 287 (which does not enter Wyoming at Cheyenne, but rather at Laramie). Wyoming The Lincoln Highway entered Wyoming east of Pine Bluffs. It followed county roads through Egbert and Hillsdale to Archer where it rejoined US Route 30. It followed US Route 30 (now largely Interstate 80) through Cheyenne, Laramie, Medicine Bow, and Rawlins to Granger Junction. From there, it followed former U.S. Route 30S and U.S. Route 530 (now Interstate 80) through Fort Bridger and Evanston to the Utah state line. At places, the road itself is now Business I-80 in Lyman and follows frontage roads in many places. Utah The Lincoln Highway entered Utah on modern Interstate 80 to Echo Junction where it joined I-84 and followed the Weber River to Ogden. In Ogden, it turned south to Salt Lake City. In western Utah, the original chosen alignment headed west from Salt Lake City to Timpie in order to run around the north side of the Stansbury Mountains, largely along present State Route 171 and State Route 138. From Timpie it turned south roughly along present State Route 196, past Iosepa, to Orr's Ranch (). Orr's Ranch is now a bit north of the east gate of the Dugway Proving Ground). Between Orr's Ranch and the north edge of the Dugway Range, the original highway ran through the current Dugway Proving Ground around the north side of the Dugway Range (). From there it headed south to the Black Rock Hills, joining the old Pony Express route there (). The Lincoln Highway then went west past Fish Springs () and Callao () and across the Deep Creek Range through the Overland Canyon () to Ibapah (), crossing into Nevada soon after. This route is now known by the names of Simpson Springs-Callao Road, Pony Express Road, Overland Canyon Road, Lower Goldhill Road, Ibapah Road and Willow Road. Around 1919 a new route, known as the Goodyear Cutoff, and named after Goodyear Tire and Rubber, a major donor to the project, was built across desert that is now largely the Dugway Proving Ground. Around the same time, a realignment was made further east. Thus the new route split from the old at Mills Junction and ran south on present State Route 36 through Tooele and Stockton to St. John, where it turned west on present State Route 199 and Redding Road, crossing the Stansbury Mountains at Fisher Pass, also known as Johnson's Pass. At Orr's Ranch it rejoined the old road west to County Well (now the Dog Area of the Dugway Proving Ground), where the Goodyear Cutoff began. The Goodyear Cutoff cut largely across the Great Salt Lake Desert, hitting high areas at Granite Mountain () and Black Point (), and then passing through the Deep Creek Mountains via Gold Hill () and rejoining the older route about halfway from Gold Hill to Ibapah (). However, Utah did not care much for the Lincoln Highway, instead preferring the Victory Highway via Wendover (present Interstate 80). Nevada and northern California also favored that route, northern California because it would assure that travelers did not take the Midland Trail to Los Angeles, and so the federal aid route chosen under the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 (Phipps Act) was the Victory Highway, separate from the Lincoln Highway between Mills Junction, Tooele County, Utah and Wadsworth, Nevada. Thus the Goodyear Cutoff was never paved, and was closed to the public in the 1940s when the Dugway Proving Ground was formed. In late 1926 the system of United States Numbered Highways was assigned, and U.S. Route 40 was assigned to the Victory Highway through western Utah. The next year the Lincoln Highway was rerouted to use the Wendover route, turning south on an unnumbered route (numbered U.S. Route 50 ca. 1929 and now U.S. Route 93 Alternate and U.S. Route 93) at West Wendover, Nevada and rejoining the old route at Schellbourne before turning west on U.S. Route 50 at Ely. Nevada In Nevada, the original 1913 highway entered on county roads west of Ibapah, Utah near the Pony Express stop of Eightmile, Nevada, and then past the ghost towns of Tippett and Schellbourne. At what is now U.S. Route 93, the Lincoln Highway turned south, passing through McGill to Ely. In the mid-1920s, the routing was realigned to enter Nevada via the Wendover Cut-off. The road then headed south towards Ely along what is now Alternate U.S. Route 93. From Ely to Fallon, the highway followed U.S. Route 50 through Eureka and Austin. A shortcut is now Nevada State Route 722 between Austin and Middlegate. West of Fallon, the Sierra Nevada Northern Route followed Alternate US Route 50 to Fernley, then old US 40 (paralleling I-80) through Reno to Verdi, Nevada on the California state line. To get to Carson City from Reno, the current routing of US 395 Alternate was used. The Sierra Nevada Southern Route continued down US Route 50 from Fallon through Carson City up King's Canyon Grade, over Spooner Summit, or to Genoa following the old Pony Express route then up Kingsbury Grade and around the south end of Lake Tahoe to Stateline, Nevada on the California state line. California In California, the Lincoln Highway followed two different routes over the Sierra Nevada. The Sierra Nevada Northern Route from Verdi, Nevada to Sacramento followed the old Dog Valley / Henness Pass route from Verdi to Truckee, then westbound on Donner Pass Road (old US 40) up to the top of Donner Pass, then continuing west on Donner Pass Rd, Hampshire Rocks Rd and various other mountain roads parallelling I-80 through Emigrant Gap, Magra, Colfax, Weimar, Applegate, and Auburn. The route then continued southwest on what became old US 40 through the northeastern Sacramento outreaches of Newcastle, Loomis, Rocklin, and Roseville, then turned south on Auburn Blvd to Citrus Heights, then turned southwest, following Auburn Blvd, Del Paso Blvd, and 12th Street into downtown Sacramento to the California State Capitol. The Sierra Nevada Southern Route from Stateline, Nevada and Lake Tahoe to Sacramento followed the Pioneer Trail and Meyers Grade Road to the top of Echo Summit, then westbound on Johnson Pass Rd to US 50, then westbound on 50 (with many adjacent parallel jogs on mountain roads) through Twin Bridges, Strawberry, Kyburz, Whitehall, Riverton, and Pacific House. At Pollock Pines, the route followed the Pony Express Trail and Carson Road to Broadway and Main Street in Placerville. West of Placerville the route followed Forni Rd, Pleasant Valley Rd, Mother Lode Dr, Durock Rd, Country Club Dr, Old Bass Lake Rd, White Rock Rd, Placerville Rd, and East Bidwell St into Folsom. It turned west through downtown Folsom, then southwest on Folsom Blvd following it all the way into downtown Sacramento, arriving at the California State Capitol on M St (now Capitol Mall). From Sacramento to San Francisco, the original 1913–1927 Central Valley Route departed Sacramento southbound on Stockton Blvd to Rt 99, then southbound on 99 to Galt, then south on Lower Sacramento Rd to Pacific Ave and El Dorado St into downtown Stockton. From Stockton, the route departed southbound on Center St to French Camp Turnpike, Manthey Rd, and French Camp Rd to the town of French Camp, then Harlan Rd and Manthey Rd (again) southwest to 11th St into Banta, jogging through Banta, then west on 11th (again) into Tracy (old US 50). From Tracy, it followed Byron Rd, Grant Line Rd and Altamont Pass Rd to the top of Altamont Pass. It continued west on Altamont Pass Rd arriving in Livermore via Northfront Rd, Vasco Rd, First St and Junction Ave. From Livermore, the route followed today's I-580 westbound into Dublin, then Dublin Canyon Rd, East Castro Valley Rd, Grove Way and A Street into downtown Hayward. From Hayward to downtown Oakland it followed Foothill Blvd, I-580 (again), MacArthur Blvd, Foothill Blvd (again), First Ave, 13th St, Harrison St, 9th St and Broadway to a ferry pier on the Oakland Estuary (now Jack London Square) for an automobile ferry to the Ferry Slips at the south end of the Ferry Building, at the base of Market Street, in San Francisco. Upon the completion of the first Carquinez Strait Bridge at Vallejo in 1927, the Lincoln Highway from Sacramento to San Francisco was re-routed over this much shorter alignment. The 1928 Central Valley Route departed the California State Capitol in Sacramento heading westbound on Capitol Mall, West Capitol Avenue, and across the Yolo Causeway to Davis on Olive Drive. West of Davis the route followed old US 40 as it "stairstepped" through the towns of Dixon from I 80, beginning at CA 113 south to Vacaville, Fairfield, Rockville, and Cordelia. From Cordelia the route followed Rt 12 (Jameson Canyon Rd) into the base of Napa Valley to an area that includes the city of American Canyon, then turned south to follow Rt 29 and Broadway into Vallejo where it followed Alameda St and Fifth St to the Carquinez Strait Bridge. South of the bridge, it followed San Pablo Avenue all the way through Rodeo, Pinole, San Pablo, Richmond, El Cerrito and Albany to Berkeley, where it turned west on University Ave to end at the Berkeley Pier for a ferry to the Hyde Street Pier in San Francisco. Arriving in San Francisco from 1913 to 1921, you departed the ferry from Oakland at the Ferry Slips at the south end of the Ferry Building, drove west on Market St, right on Van Ness Ave, left on Chestnut St (past the 1915 Panama-Pacific Exhibition), entered the Presidio via the Lombard Gates, departed the Presidio via the Arguello Gates, right on Lake St, left on El Camino del Mar, entering into Lincoln Park from the northwest. Arriving in San Francisco from 1922 to 1927, you departed the ferry from Oakland at the Ferry Slips at the south end of the Ferry Building, drove west on Market St, right on Post St (a traffic movement that is impossible today, as Post runs one-way eastbound), left on Presidio Ave, right on Geary Boulevard, right on 36th Ave, entering into Lincoln Park from the south (now enter via 34th). Arriving in San Francisco in 1928, you departed the ferry from Berkeley at the Hyde Street Pier, drove south on Hyde, right on North Point St, left on Van Ness Ave, right on California St, right on 32nd Avenue, left on El Camino del Mar, entering into Lincoln Park from the northwest. The Lincoln Highway Western Terminus is the plaza and fountain in front of the Palace of the Legion of Honor in Lincoln Park. The Western Terminus Marker and the Interpretive Plaque is located at the southeast corner of the plaza, next to the bus stop, adjacent to the entrance drive leading up from 34th Ave. References Route
4189127	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River%20ecosystem	River ecosystem	River ecosystems are flowing waters that drain the landscape, and include the biotic (living) interactions amongst plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as abiotic (nonliving) physical and chemical interactions of its many parts. River ecosystems are part of larger watershed networks or catchments, where smaller headwater streams drain into mid-size streams, which progressively drain into larger river networks. The major zones in river ecosystems are determined by the river bed's gradient or by the velocity of the current. Faster moving turbulent water typically contains greater concentrations of dissolved oxygen, which supports greater biodiversity than the slow-moving water of pools. These distinctions form the basis for the division of rivers into upland and lowland rivers. The food base of streams within riparian forests is mostly derived from the trees, but wider streams and those that lack a canopy derive the majority of their food base from algae. Anadromous fish are also an important source of nutrients. Environmental threats to rivers include loss of water, dams, chemical pollution and introduced species. A dam produces negative effects that continue down the watershed. The most important negative effects are the reduction of spring flooding, which damages wetlands, and the retention of sediment, which leads to the loss of deltaic wetlands. River ecosystems are prime examples of lotic ecosystems. Lotic refers to flowing water, from the Latin , meaning washed. Lotic waters range from springs only a few centimeters wide to major rivers kilometers in width. Much of this article applies to lotic ecosystems in general, including related lotic systems such as streams and springs. Lotic ecosystems can be contrasted with lentic ecosystems, which involve relatively still terrestrial waters such as lakes, ponds, and wetlands. Together, these two ecosystems form the more general study area of freshwater or aquatic ecology. The following unifying characteristics make the ecology of running waters unique among aquatic habitats: the flow is unidirectional, there is a state of continuous physical change, and there is a high degree of spatial and temporal heterogeneity at all scales (microhabitats), the variability between lotic systems is quite high and the biota is specialized to live with flow conditions. Abiotic components (non-living) The non-living components of an ecosystem are called abiotic components. E.g. stone, air, soil, etc. Water flow Unidirectional water flow is the key factor in lotic systems influencing their ecology. Streamflow can be continuous or intermittent, though. Streamflow is the result of the summative inputs from groundwater, precipitation, and overland flow. Water flow can vary between systems, ranging from torrential rapids to slow backwaters that almost seem like lentic systems. The speed or velocity of the water flow of the water column can also vary within a system and is subject to chaotic turbulence, though water velocity tends to be highest in the middle part of the stream channel (known as the thalveg). This turbulence results in divergences of flow from the mean downslope flow vector as typified by eddy currents. The mean flow rate vector is based on the variability of friction with the bottom or sides of the channel, sinuosity, obstructions, and the incline gradient. In addition, the amount of water input into the system from direct precipitation, snowmelt, and/or groundwater can affect the flow rate. The amount of water in a stream is measured as discharge (volume per unit time). As water flows downstream, streams and rivers most often gain water volume, so at base flow (i.e., no storm input), smaller headwater streams have very low discharge, while larger rivers have much higher discharge. The "flow regime" of a river or stream includes the general patterns of discharge over annual or decadal time scales, and may capture seasonal changes in flow. While water flow is strongly determined by slope, flowing waters can alter the general shape or direction of the stream bed, a characteristic also known as geomorphology. The profile of the river water column is made up of three primary actions: erosion, transport, and deposition. Rivers have been described as "the gutters down which run the ruins of continents". Rivers are continuously eroding, transporting, and depositing substrate, sediment, and organic material. The continuous movement of water and entrained material creates a variety of habitats, including riffles, glides, and pools. Light Light is important to lotic systems, because it provides the energy necessary to drive primary production via photosynthesis, and can also provide refuge for prey species in shadows it casts. The amount of light that a system receives can be related to a combination of internal and external stream variables. The area surrounding a small stream, for example, might be shaded by surrounding forests or by valley walls. Larger river systems tend to be wide so the influence of external variables is minimized, and the sun reaches the surface. These rivers also tend to be more turbulent, however, and particles in the water increasingly attenuate light as depth increases. Seasonal and diurnal factors might also play a role in light availability because the angle of incidence, the angle at which light strikes water can lead to light lost from reflection. Known as Beer's Law, the shallower the angle, the more light is reflected and the amount of solar radiation received declines logarithmically with depth. Additional influences on light availability include cloud cover, altitude, and geographic position. Temperature Most lotic species are poikilotherms whose internal temperature varies with their environment, thus temperature is a key abiotic factor for them. Water can be heated or cooled through radiation at the surface and conduction to or from the air and surrounding substrate. Shallow streams are typically well mixed and maintain a relatively uniform temperature within an area. In deeper, slower moving water systems, however, a strong difference between the bottom and surface temperatures may develop. Spring fed systems have little variation as springs are typically from groundwater sources, which are often very close to ambient temperature. Many systems show strong diurnal fluctuations and seasonal variations are most extreme in arctic, desert and temperate systems. The amount of shading, climate and elevation can also influence the temperature of lotic systems. Chemistry Water chemistry in river ecosystems varies depending on which dissolved solutes and gases are present in the water column of the stream. Specifically river water can include, apart from the water itself, dissolved inorganic matter and major ions (calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium, bicarbonate, sulphide, chloride) dissolved inorganic nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, silica) suspended and dissolved organic matter gases (nitrogen, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, oxygen) trace metals and pollutants Dissolved ions and nutrients Dissolved stream solutes can be considered either reactive or conservative. Reactive solutes are readily biologically assimilated by the autotrophic and heterotrophic biota of the stream; examples can include inorganic nitrogen species such as nitrate or ammonium, some forms of phosphorus (e.g., soluble reactive phosphorus), and silica. Other solutes can be considered conservative, which indicates that the solute is not taken up and used biologically; chloride is often considered a conservative solute. Conservative solutes are often used as hydrologic tracers for water movement and transport. Both reactive and conservative stream water chemistry is foremost determined by inputs from the geology of its watershed, or catchment area. Stream water chemistry can also be influenced by precipitation, and the addition of pollutants from human sources. Large differences in chemistry do not usually exist within small lotic systems due to a high rate of mixing. In larger river systems, however, the concentrations of most nutrients, dissolved salts, and pH decrease as distance increases from the river's source. Dissolved gases In terms of dissolved gases, oxygen is likely the most important chemical constituent of lotic systems, as all aerobic organisms require it for survival. It enters the water mostly via diffusion at the water-air interface. Oxygen's solubility in water decreases as water pH and temperature increases. Fast, turbulent streams expose more of the water's surface area to the air and tend to have low temperatures and thus more oxygen than slow, backwaters. Oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis, so systems with a high abundance of aquatic algae and plants may also have high concentrations of oxygen during the day. These levels can decrease significantly during the night when primary producers switch to respiration. Oxygen can be limiting if circulation between the surface and deeper layers is poor, if the activity of lotic animals is very high, or if there is a large amount of organic decay occurring. Suspended matter Rivers can also transport suspended inorganic and organic matter. These materials can include sediment or terrestrially-derived organic matter that falls into the stream channel. Often, organic matter is processed within the stream via mechanical fragmentation, consumption and grazing by invertebrates, and microbial decomposition. Leaves and woody debris recognizable coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM) into particulate organic matter (POM), down to fine particulate organic matter. Woody and non-woody plants have different instream breakdown rates, with leafy plants or plant parts (e.g., flower petals) breaking down faster than woody logs or branches. Substrate The inorganic substrate of lotic systems is composed of the geologic material present in the catchment that is eroded, transported, sorted, and deposited by the current. Inorganic substrates are classified by size on the Wentworth scale, which ranges from boulders, to pebbles, to gravel, to sand, and to silt. Typically, substrate particle size decreases downstream with larger boulders and stones in more mountainous areas and sandy bottoms in lowland rivers. This is because the higher gradients of mountain streams facilitate a faster flow, moving smaller substrate materials further downstream for deposition. Substrate can also be organic and may include fine particles, autumn shed leaves, large woody debris such as submerged tree logs, moss, and semi-aquatic plants. Substrate deposition is not necessarily a permanent event, as it can be subject to large modifications during flooding events. Biotic components (living) The living components of an ecosystem are called the biotic components. Streams have numerous types of biotic organisms that live in them, including bacteria, primary producers, insects and other invertebrates, as well as fish and other vertebrates. Biofilm A biofilm is a combination of algae (diatoms etc.), fungi, bacteria, and other small microorganisms that exist in a film along the streambed or the benthos. Biofilm assemblages themselves are complex, and add to the complexity of a streambed. The different biofilm components (algae and bacteria are the principal components) are embedded in an exopolysaccharide matrix (EPS), and are net receptors of inorganic and organic elements and remain submitted to the influences of the different environmental factors. Biofilms are one of the main biological interphases in river ecosystems, and probably the most important in intermittent rivers, where the importance of the water column is reduced during extended low-activity periods of the hydrological cycle. Biofilms can be understood as microbial consortia of autotrophs and heterotrophs, coexisting in a matrix of hydrated extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). These two main biological components are respectively mainly algae and cyanobacteria on one side, and bacteria and fungi on the other. Micro- and meiofauna also inhabit the biofilm, predating on the organisms and organic particles and contributing to its evolution and dispersal. Biofilms therefore form a highly active biological consortium, ready to use organic and inorganic materials from the water phase, and also ready to use light or chemical energy sources. The EPS immobilize the cells and keep them in close proximity allowing for intense interactions including cell-cell communication and the formation of synergistic consortia. The EPS is able to retain extracellular enzymes and therefore allows the utilization of materials from the environment and the transformation of these materials into dissolved nutrients for the use by algae and bacteria. At the same time, the EPS contributes to protect the cells from desiccation as well from other hazards (e.g., biocides, UV radiation, etc.) from the outer world. On the other hand, the packing and the EPS protection layer limits the diffusion of gases and nutrients, especially for the cells far from the biofilm surface, and this limits their survival and creates strong gradients within the biofilm. Both the biofilm physical structure, and the plasticity of the organisms that live within it, ensure and support their survival in harsh environments or under changing environmental conditions. Microorganisms Bacteria are present in large numbers in lotic waters. Free-living forms are associated with decomposing organic material, biofilm on the surfaces of rocks and vegetation, in between particles that compose the substrate, and suspended in the water column. Other forms are also associated with the guts of lotic organisms as parasites or in commensal relationships. Bacteria play a large role in energy recycling (see below). Diatoms are one of the main dominant groups of periphytic algae in lotic systems and have been widely used as efficient indicators of water quality, because they respond quickly to environmental changes, especially organic pollution and eutrophication, with a broad spectrum of tolerances to conditions ranging, from oligotrophic to eutrophic. Primary producers Algae, consisting of phytoplankton and periphyton, are the most significant sources of primary production in most streams and rivers. Phytoplankton float freely in the water column and thus are unable to maintain populations in fast flowing streams. They can, however, develop sizeable populations in slow moving rivers and backwaters. Periphyton are typically filamentous and tufted algae that can attach themselves to objects to avoid being washed away by fast currents. In places where flow rates are negligible or absent, periphyton may form a gelatinous, unanchored floating mat. Plants exhibit limited adaptations to fast flow and are most successful in reduced currents. More primitive plants, such as mosses and liverworts attach themselves to solid objects. This typically occurs in colder headwaters where the mostly rocky substrate offers attachment sites. Some plants are free floating at the water's surface in dense mats like duckweed or water hyacinth. Others are rooted and may be classified as submerged or emergent. Rooted plants usually occur in areas of slackened current where fine-grained soils are found. These rooted plants are flexible, with elongated leaves that offer minimal resistance to current. Living in flowing water can be beneficial to plants and algae because the current is usually well aerated and it provides a continuous supply of nutrients. These organisms are limited by flow, light, water chemistry, substrate, and grazing pressure. Algae and plants are important to lotic systems as sources of energy, for forming microhabitats that shelter other fauna from predators and the current, and as a food resource. Insects and other invertebrates Up to 90% of invertebrates in some lotic systems are insects. These species exhibit tremendous diversity and can be found occupying almost every available habitat, including the surfaces of stones, deep below the substratum in the hyporheic zone, adrift in the current, and in the surface film. Insects have developed several strategies for living in the diverse flows of lotic systems. Some avoid high current areas, inhabiting the substratum or the sheltered side of rocks. Others have flat bodies to reduce the drag forces they experience from living in running water. Some insects, like the giant water bug (Belostomatidae), avoid flood events by leaving the stream when they sense rainfall. In addition to these behaviors and body shapes, insects have different life history adaptations to cope with the naturally-occurring physical harshness of stream environments. Some insects time their life events based on when floods and droughts occur. For example, some mayflies synchronize when they emerge as flying adults with when snowmelt flooding usually occurs in Colorado streams. Other insects do not have a flying stage and spend their entire life cycle in the river. Like most of the primary consumers, lotic invertebrates often rely heavily on the current to bring them food and oxygen. Invertebrates are important as both consumers and prey items in lotic systems. The common orders of insects that are found in river ecosystems include Ephemeroptera (also known as a mayfly), Trichoptera (also known as a caddisfly), Plecoptera (also known as a stonefly, Diptera (also known as a true fly), some types of Coleoptera (also known as a beetle), Odonata (the group that includes the dragonfly and the damselfly), and some types of Hemiptera (also known as true bugs). Additional invertebrate taxa common to flowing waters include mollusks such as snails, limpets, clams, mussels, as well as crustaceans like crayfish, amphipoda and crabs. Fish and other vertebrates Fish are probably the best-known inhabitants of lotic systems. The ability of a fish species to live in flowing waters depends upon the speed at which it can swim and the duration that its speed can be maintained. This ability can vary greatly between species and is tied to the habitat in which it can survive. Continuous swimming expends a tremendous amount of energy and, therefore, fishes spend only short periods in full current. Instead, individuals remain close to the bottom or the banks, behind obstacles, and sheltered from the current, swimming in the current only to feed or change locations. Some species have adapted to living only on the system bottom, never venturing into the open water flow. These fishes are dorso-ventrally flattened to reduce flow resistance and often have eyes on top of their heads to observe what is happening above them. Some also have sensory barrels positioned under the head to assist in the testing of substratum. Lotic systems typically connect to each other, forming a path to the ocean (spring → stream → river → ocean), and many fishes have life cycles that require stages in both fresh and salt water. Salmon, for example, are anadromous species that are born in freshwater but spend most of their adult life in the ocean, returning to fresh water only to spawn. Eels are catadromous species that do the opposite, living in freshwater as adults but migrating to the ocean to spawn. Other vertebrate taxa that inhabit lotic systems include amphibians, such as salamanders, reptiles (e.g. snakes, turtles, crocodiles and alligators) various bird species, and mammals (e.g., otters, beavers, hippos, and river dolphins). With the exception of a few species, these vertebrates are not tied to water as fishes are, and spend part of their time in terrestrial habitats. Many fish species are important as consumers and as prey species to the larger vertebrates mentioned above. Trophic level dynamics The concept of trophic levels are used in food webs to visualise the manner in which energy is transferred from one part of an ecosystem to another. Trophic levels can be assigned numbers determining how far an organism is along the food chain. Level one: Producers, plant-like organisms that generate their own food using solar radiation, including algae, phytoplankton, mosses and lichens. Level two: Consumers, animal-like organism that get their energy from eating producers, such as zooplankton, small fish, and crustaceans. Level three: Decomposers, organisms that break down the dead matter of consumers and producers and return the nutrients back to the system. Example are bacteria and fungi. All energy transactions within an ecosystem derive from a single external source of energy, the sun. Some of this solar radiation is used by producers (plants) to turn inorganic substances into organic substances which can be used as food by consumers (animals). Plants release portions of this energy back into the ecosystem through a catabolic process. Animals then consume the potential energy that is being released from the producers. This system is followed by the death of the consumer organism which then returns nutrients back into the ecosystem. This allow further growth for the plants, and the cycle continues. Breaking cycles down into levels makes it easier for ecologists to understand ecological succession when observing the transfer of energy within a system. Top-down and bottom-up affect A common issue with trophic level dynamics is how resources and production are regulated. The usage and interaction between resources have a large impact on the structure of food webs as a whole. Temperature plays a role in food web interactions including top-down and bottom-up forces within ecological communities. Bottom-up regulations within a food web occur when a resource available at the base or bottom of the food web increases productivity, which then climbs the chain and influence the biomass availability to higher trophic organism. Top-down regulations occur when a predator population increases. This limits the available prey population, which limits the availability of energy for lower trophic levels within the food chain. Many biotic and abiotic factors can influence top-down and bottom-up interactions. Trophic cascade Another example of food web interactions are trophic cascades. Understanding trophic cascades has allowed ecologists to better understand the structure and dynamics of food webs within an ecosystem. The phenomenon of trophic cascades allows keystone predators to structure entire food web in terms of how they interact with their prey. Trophic cascades can cause drastic changes in the energy flow within a food web. For example, when a top or keystone predator consumes organisms below them in the food web, the density and behavior of the prey will change. This, in turn, affects the abundance of organisms consumed further down the chain, resulting in a cascade down the trophic levels. However, empirical evidence shows trophic cascades are much more prevalent in terrestrial food webs than aquatic food webs. Food chain A food chain is a linear system of links that is part of a food web, and represents the order in which organisms are consumed from one trophic level to the next. Each link in a food chain is associated with a trophic level in the ecosystem. The numbered steps it takes for the initial source of energy starting from the bottom to reach the top of the food web is called the food chain length. While food chain lengths can fluctuate, aquatic ecosystems start with primary producers that are consumed by primary consumers which are consumed by secondary consumers, and those in turn can be consumed by tertiary consumers so on and so forth until the top of the food chain has been reached. Primary producers Primary producers start every food chain. Their production of energy and nutrients comes from the sun through photosynthesis. Algae contributes to a lot of the energy and nutrients at the base of the food chain along with terrestrial litter-fall that enters the stream or river. Production of organic compounds like carbon is what gets transferred up the food chain. Primary producers are consumed by herbivorous invertebrates that act as the primary consumers. Productivity of these producers and the function of the ecosystem as a whole are influenced by the organism above it in the food chain. Primary consumers Primary consumers are the invertebrates and macro-invertebrates that feed upon the primary producers. They play an important role in initiating the transfer of energy from the base trophic level to the next. They are regulatory organisms which facilitate and control rates of nutrient cycling and the mixing of aquatic and terrestrial plant materials. They also transport and retain some of those nutrients and materials. There are many different functional groups of these invertebrate, including grazers, organisms that feed on algal biofilm that collects on submerged objects, shredders that feed on large leaves and detritus and help break down large material. Also filter feeders, macro-invertebrates that rely on stream flow to deliver them fine particulate organic matter (FPOM) suspended in the water column, and gatherers who feed on FPOM found on the substrate of the river or stream. Secondary consumers The secondary consumers in a river ecosystem are the predators of the primary consumers. This includes mainly insectivorous fish. Consumption by invertebrate insects and macro-invertebrates is another step of energy flow up the food chain. Depending on their abundance, these predatory consumers can shape an ecosystem by the manner in which they affect the trophic levels below them. When fish are at high abundance and eat lots of invertebrates, then algal biomass and primary production in the stream is greater, and when secondary consumers are not present, then algal biomass may decrease due to the high abundance of primary consumers. Energy and nutrients that starts with primary producers continues to make its way up the food chain and depending on the ecosystem, may end with these predatory fish. Food web complexity Diversity, productivity, species richness, composition and stability are all interconnected by a series of feedback loops. Communities can have a series of complex, direct and/or indirect, responses to major changes in biodiversity. Food webs can include a wide array of variables, the three main variables ecologists look at regarding ecosystems include species richness, biomass of productivity and stability/resistant to change. When a species is added or removed from an ecosystem it will have an effect on the remaining food web, the intensity of this effect is related to species connectedness and food web robustness. When a new species is added to a river ecosystem the intensity of the effect is related to the robustness or resistance to change of the current food web. When a species is removed from a river ecosystem the intensity of the effect is related to the connectedness of the species to the food web. An invasive species could be removed with little to no effect, but if important and native primary producers, prey or predatory fish are removed you could have a negative trophic cascade. One highly variable component to river ecosystems is food supply (biomass of primary producers). Food supply or type of producers is ever changing with the seasons and differing habitats within the river ecosystem. Another highly variable component to river ecosystems is nutrient input from wetland and terrestrial detritus. Food and nutrient supply variability is important for the succession, robustness and connectedness of river ecosystem organisms. Trophic relationships Energy inputs Energy sources can be autochthonous or allochthonous. Autochthonous (from the Latin "auto" = "self) energy sources are those derived from within the lotic system. During photosynthesis, for example, primary producers form organic carbon compounds out of carbon dioxide and inorganic matter. The energy they produce is important for the community because it may be transferred to higher trophic levels via consumption. Additionally, high rates of primary production can introduce dissolved organic matter (DOM) to the waters. Another form of autochthonous energy comes from the decomposition of dead organisms and feces that originate within the lotic system. In this case, bacteria decompose the detritus or coarse particulate organic material (CPOM; >1 mm pieces) into fine particulate organic matter (FPOM; <1 mm pieces) and then further into inorganic compounds that are required for photosynthesis. This process is discussed in more detail below. Allochthonous energy sources are those derived from outside the lotic system, that is, from the terrestrial environment. Leaves, twigs, fruits, etc. are typical forms of terrestrial CPOM that have entered the water by direct litter fall or lateral leaf blow. In addition, terrestrial animal-derived materials, such as feces or carcasses that have been added to the system are examples of allochthonous CPOM. The CPOM undergoes a specific process of degradation. Allan gives the example of a leaf fallen into a stream. First, the soluble chemicals are dissolved and leached from the leaf upon its saturation with water. This adds to the DOM load in the system. Next microbes such as bacteria and fungi colonize the leaf, softening it as the mycelium of the fungus grows into it. The composition of the microbial community is influenced by the species of tree from which the leaves are shed (Rubbo and Kiesecker 2004). This combination of bacteria, fungi, and leaf are a food source for shredding invertebrates, which leave only FPOM after consumption. These fine particles may be colonized by microbes again or serve as a food source for animals that consume FPOM. Organic matter can also enter the lotic system already in the FPOM stage by wind, surface runoff, bank erosion, or groundwater. Similarly, DOM can be introduced through canopy drip from rain or from surface flows. Invertebrates Invertebrates can be organized into many feeding guilds in lotic systems. Some species are shredders, which use large and powerful mouth parts to feed on non-woody CPOM and their associated microorganisms. Others are suspension feeders, which use their setae, filtering aparati, nets, or even secretions to collect FPOM and microbes from the water. These species may be passive collectors, utilizing the natural flow of the system, or they may generate their own current to draw water, and also, FPOM in Allan. Members of the gatherer-collector guild actively search for FPOM under rocks and in other places where the stream flow has slackened enough to allow deposition. Grazing invertebrates utilize scraping, rasping, and browsing adaptations to feed on periphyton and detritus. Finally, several families are predatory, capturing and consuming animal prey. Both the number of species and the abundance of individuals within each guild is largely dependent upon food availability. Thus, these values may vary across both seasons and systems. Fish Fish can also be placed into feeding guilds. Planktivores pick plankton out of the water column. Herbivore-detritivores are bottom-feeding species that ingest both periphyton and detritus indiscriminately. Surface and water column feeders capture surface prey (mainly terrestrial and emerging insects) and drift (benthic invertebrates floating downstream). Benthic invertebrate feeders prey primarily on immature insects, but will also consume other benthic invertebrates. Top predators consume fishes and/or large invertebrates. Omnivores ingest a wide range of prey. These can be floral, faunal, and/or detrital in nature. Finally, parasites live off of host species, typically other fishes. Fish are flexible in their feeding roles, capturing different prey with regard to seasonal availability and their own developmental stage. Thus, they may occupy multiple feeding guilds in their lifetime. The number of species in each guild can vary greatly between systems, with temperate warm water streams having the most benthic invertebrate feeders, and tropical systems having large numbers of detritus feeders due to high rates of allochthonous input. Community patterns and diversity Local species richness Large rivers have comparatively more species than small streams. Many relate this pattern to the greater area and volume of larger systems, as well as an increase in habitat diversity. Some systems, however, show a poor fit between system size and species richness. In these cases, a combination of factors such as historical rates of speciation and extinction, type of substrate, microhabitat availability, water chemistry, temperature, and disturbance such as flooding seem to be important. Resource partitioning Although many alternate theories have been postulated for the ability of guild-mates to coexist (see Morin 1999), resource partitioning has been well documented in lotic systems as a means of reducing competition. The three main types of resource partitioning include habitat, dietary, and temporal segregation. Habitat segregation was found to be the most common type of resource partitioning in natural systems (Schoener, 1974). In lotic systems, microhabitats provide a level of physical complexity that can support a diverse array of organisms (Vincin and Hawknis, 1998). The separation of species by substrate preferences has been well documented for invertebrates. Ward (1992) was able to divide substrate dwellers into six broad assemblages, including those that live in: coarse substrate, gravel, sand, mud, woody debris, and those associated with plants, showing one layer of segregation. On a smaller scale, further habitat partitioning can occur on or around a single substrate, such as a piece of gravel. Some invertebrates prefer the high flow areas on the exposed top of the gravel, while others reside in the crevices between one piece of gravel and the next, while still others live on the bottom of this gravel piece. Dietary segregation is the second-most common type of resource partitioning. High degrees of morphological specializations or behavioral differences allow organisms to use specific resources. The size of nets built by some species of invertebrate suspension feeders, for example, can filter varying particle size of FPOM from the water (Edington et al. 1984). Similarly, members in the grazing guild can specialize in the harvesting of algae or detritus depending upon the morphology of their scraping apparatus. In addition, certain species seem to show a preference for specific algal species. Temporal segregation is a less common form of resource partitioning, but it is nonetheless an observed phenomenon. Typically, it accounts for coexistence by relating it to differences in life history patterns and the timing of maximum growth among guild mates. Tropical fishes in Borneo, for example, have shifted to shorter life spans in response to the ecological niche reduction felt with increasing levels of species richness in their ecosystem (Watson and Balon 1984). Persistence and succession Over long time scales, there is a tendency for species composition in pristine systems to remain in a stable state. This has been found for both invertebrate and fish species. On shorter time scales, however, flow variability and unusual precipitation patterns decrease habitat stability and can all lead to declines in persistence levels. The ability to maintain this persistence over long time scales is related to the ability of lotic systems to return to the original community configuration relatively quickly after a disturbance (Townsend et al. 1987). This is one example of temporal succession, a site-specific change in a community involving changes in species composition over time. Another form of temporal succession might occur when a new habitat is opened up for colonization. In these cases, an entirely new community that is well adapted to the conditions found in this new area can establish itself. River continuum concept The River continuum concept (RCC) was an attempt to construct a single framework to describe the function of temperate lotic ecosystems from the headwaters to larger rivers and relate key characteristics to changes in the biotic community (Vannote et al. 1980). The physical basis for RCC is size and location along the gradient from a small stream eventually linked to a large river. Stream order (see characteristics of streams) is used as the physical measure of the position along the RCC. According to the RCC, low ordered sites are small shaded streams where allochthonous inputs of CPOM are a necessary resource for consumers. As the river widens at mid-ordered sites, energy inputs should change. Ample sunlight should reach the bottom in these systems to support significant periphyton production. Additionally, the biological processing of CPOM (coarse particulate organic matter larger than 1 mm) inputs at upstream sites is expected to result in the transport of large amounts of FPOM (fine particulate organic matter smaller than 1 mm) to these downstream ecosystems. Plants should become more abundant at edges of the river with increasing river size, especially in lowland rivers where finer sediments have been deposited and facilitate rooting. The main channels likely have too much current and turbidity and a lack of substrate to support plants or periphyton. Phytoplankton should produce the only autochthonous inputs here, but photosynthetic rates will be limited due to turbidity and mixing. Thus, allochthonous inputs are expected to be the primary energy source for large rivers. This FPOM will come from both upstream sites via the decomposition process and through lateral inputs from floodplains. Biota should change with this change in energy from the headwaters to the mouth of these systems. Namely, shredders should prosper in low-ordered systems and grazers in mid-ordered sites. Microbial decomposition should play the largest role in energy production for low-ordered sites and large rivers, while photosynthesis, in addition to degraded allochthonous inputs from upstream will be essential in mid-ordered systems. As mid-ordered sites will theoretically receive the largest variety of energy inputs, they might be expected to host the most biological diversity (Vannote et al. 1980). Just how well the RCC actually reflects patterns in natural systems is uncertain and its generality can be a handicap when applied to diverse and specific situations. The most noted criticisms of the RCC are: 1. It focuses mostly on macroinvertebrates, disregarding that plankton and fish diversity is highest in high orders; 2. It relies heavily on the fact that low ordered sites have high CPOM inputs, even though many streams lack riparian habitats; 3. It is based on pristine systems, which rarely exist today; and 4. It is centered around the functioning of temperate streams. Despite its shortcomings, the RCC remains a useful idea for describing how the patterns of ecological functions in a lotic system can vary from the source to the mouth. Disturbances such as congestion by dams or natural events such as shore flooding are not included in the RCC model. Various researchers have since expanded the model to account for such irregularities. For example, J.V. Ward and J.A. Stanford came up with the Serial Discontinuity Concept in 1983, which addresses the impact of geomorphologic disorders such as congestion and integrated inflows. The same authors presented the Hyporheic Corridor concept in 1993, in which the vertical (in depth) and lateral (from shore to shore) structural complexity of the river were connected. The flood pulse concept, developed by W. J. Junk in 1989, further modified by P. B. Bayley in 1990 and K. Tockner in 2000, takes into account the large amount of nutrients and organic material that makes its way into a river from the sediment of surrounding flooded land. Human impacts Humans exert a geomorphic force that now rivals that of the natural Earth. The period of human dominance has been termed the Anthropocene, and several dates have been proposed for its onset. Many researchers have emphasised the dramatic changes associated with the Industrial Revolution in Europe after about 1750 CE (Common Era) and the Great Acceleration in technology at about 1950 CE. However, a detectable human imprint on the environment extends back for thousands of years, and an emphasis on recent changes minimises the enormous landscape transformation caused by humans in antiquity. Important earlier human effects with significant environmental consequences include megafaunal extinctions between 14,000 and 10,500 cal yr BP; domestication of plants and animals close to the start of the Holocene at 11,700 cal yr BP; agricultural practices and deforestation at 10,000 to 5000 cal yr BP; and widespread generation of anthropogenic soils at about 2000 cal yr BP. Key evidence of early anthropogenic activity is encoded in early fluvial successions, long predating anthropogenic effects that have intensified over the past centuries and led to the modern worldwide river crisis. Pollution River pollution can include but is not limited to: increasing sediment export, excess nutrients from fertilizer or urban runoff, sewage and septic inputs, plastic pollution, nano-particles, pharmaceuticals and personal care products, synthetic chemicals, road salt, inorganic contaminants (e.g., heavy metals), and even heat via thermal pollutions. The effects of pollution often depend on the context and material, but can reduce ecosystem functioning, limit ecosystem services, reduce stream biodiversity, and impact human health. Pollutant sources of lotic systems are hard to control because they can derive, often in small amounts, over a very wide area and enter the system at many locations along its length. While direct pollution of lotic systems has been greatly reduced in the United States under the government's Clean Water Act, contaminants from diffuse non-point sources remain a large problem. Agricultural fields often deliver large quantities of sediments, nutrients, and chemicals to nearby streams and rivers. Urban and residential areas can also add to this pollution when contaminants are accumulated on impervious surfaces such as roads and parking lots that then drain into the system. Elevated nutrient concentrations, especially nitrogen and phosphorus which are key components of fertilizers, can increase periphyton growth, which can be particularly dangerous in slow-moving streams. Another pollutant, acid rain, forms from sulfur dioxide and nitrous oxide emitted from factories and power stations. These substances readily dissolve in atmospheric moisture and enter lotic systems through precipitation. This can lower the pH of these sites, affecting all trophic levels from algae to vertebrates. Mean species richness and total species numbers within a system decrease with decreasing pH. Flow modification Flow modification can occur as a result of dams, water regulation and extraction, channel modification, and the destruction of the river floodplain and adjacent riparian zones. Dams alter the flow, temperature, and sediment regime of lotic systems. Additionally, many rivers are dammed at multiple locations, amplifying the impact. Dams can cause enhanced clarity and reduced variability in stream flow, which in turn cause an increase in periphyton abundance. Invertebrates immediately below a dam can show reductions in species richness due to an overall reduction in habitat heterogeneity. Also, thermal changes can affect insect development, with abnormally warm winter temperatures obscuring cues to break egg diapause and overly cool summer temperatures leaving too few acceptable days to complete growth. Finally, dams fragment river systems, isolating previously continuous populations, and preventing the migrations of anadromous and catadromous species. Invasive species Invasive species have been introduced to lotic systems through both purposeful events (e.g. stocking game and food species) as well as unintentional events (e.g. hitchhikers on boats or fishing waders). These organisms can affect natives via competition for prey or habitat, predation, habitat alteration, hybridization, or the introduction of harmful diseases and parasites. Once established, these species can be difficult to control or eradicate, particularly because of the connectivity of lotic systems. Invasive species can be especially harmful in areas that have endangered biota, such as mussels in the Southeast United States, or those that have localized endemic species, like lotic systems west of the Rocky Mountains, where many species evolved in isolation. See also Betty's Brain software that "learns" about river ecosystems Flood pulse concept Lake ecosystem Rheophile Riparian zone River continuum concept River drainage system RIVPACS The Riverkeepers Upland and lowland rivers References Further reading Brown, A. L. 1987. Freshwater Ecology. Heinimann Educational Books, London. P. 163. Carlisle, D. M. and M. D. Woodside. 2013. Ecological health in the nation's streams, United States Geological Survey. P. 6. Edington, J. M., Edington, M. A., and J. A. Dorman. 1984. Habitat partitioning amongst hydrophyschid larvae of a Malaysian stream. Entomologica 30: 123–129. Hynes, H. B. N. 1970. Ecology of Running Waters. Originally published in Toronto by University of Toronto Press, 555 p. Morin, P. J. 1999. Community Ecology. Blackwell Science, Oxford. P. 424. Ward, J. V. 1992. Aquatic Insect Ecology: biology and habitat. Wiley, New York. P. 456. External links USGS real time stream flow data for gauged systems nationwide Aquatic ecology Ecosystems Freshwater ecology Limnology Riparian zone Rivers Water streams
4189422	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alt-Tab	Alt-Tab	is the common name for a keyboard shortcut that has been in Microsoft Windows since Windows 2.0 (1987). This shortcut switches between application-level windows without using the mouse; hence it was named Task Switcher (Flip in Windows Vista). orders windows by most recently used, thus repeated keystrokes will switch between the two most recent tasks. It can also be used alternate between a full-size window and the desktop. The window environment maintains a Z-order list of top-level windows (tasks) with the most recently used tasks at the front and the desktop at the bottom, so the most recently used tasks can be switched to the most quickly. The keyboard combination has also been incorporated in other operating systems and desktop environments such as KDE, Xfce, and GNOME. iOS and macOS have similar functionality by pressing but that switches applications rather than windows. Behavior The use of the modifier key in using differs from typical modifier key use in the following ways: There is a difference in behavior when the user releases and presses again vs. holding continuously while pressing repeatedly. Releasing has an immediate effect: it closes the task switcher and switches to the selected task. There are many subtleties to the behavior of , and they have remained mostly unchanged over the years. The behavior follows these rules: If there is more than one window, the task list appears as soon as is pressed while is being held down. The task list remains open until is released. moves the cursor forward in the list; moves it backward. or will autorepeat if held down (useful if there are many windows). With the initial press of or , the selection cursor starts on the window immediately following or immediately preceding the active one. If there are no topmost windows above the active window, an initial wraps the cursor around to the end of the list. Using the mouse to click on a task icon in the task window switches to that task (does not work on Windows XP and earlier). Pressing or clicking the mouse outside of the task window while is still down cancels the switch. The windows are listed by their Z-order. Any windows that are "always on top" are placed at the front of the Z-order sequence, followed by the current window and the windows underneath it. The desktop is given a window just like it was a top-level window. This no longer works on Windows 10. Switching to a window moves it to the front of the Z-order, with the exception that "always on top" windows remain topmost and at the front of the list. When the task switcher window is not active, places the active window at the bottom of the Z-order. In Windows 8 the behavior has changed: the window will be moved one level down the Z-order instead of going to the end. is equivalent to one except that minimized windows are selected without being restored. Minimizing a window also sends it to the back of the Z-order in the same way as . The rules have the following consequences: In the absence of "always on top" windows such as Task Manager, pressing , pressing , releasing , and releasing (the typical way keyboard modifiers are used) will always alternate between the two most recent tasks. can restore the most recently minimized window. (If there are "always on top" windows, the lowest of these will be selected instead.) Pressing - (two tabs with continuously held down) performs the same quick switch back and forth, but between three programs. Any number of presses can be used to achieve this with any number of windows. When the task list is initially activated by pressing , the list is populated in this order: Any 'always-on-top' top-level windows according to Z-order, front-to-back. All ordinary top-level windows according to Z-order, front-to-back. The task list does not change order while it is open, but the order of tasks can change between invocations of the task list. Windows Vista changed the default behavior (under most default installations) with its Flip interface. The six most recently used items in the Flip order work as described, then remaining windows are ordered alphabetically by application path (and optionally grouped, depending on the 'group similar taskbar buttons' setting which is enabled by default). Windows 10 removed the desktop from the task list. Illustrative examples Windows may be divided into two categories, 'always-on-top' and ordinary. When a task is switched to, it is moved to the head of its category. For the following example, suppose there are no 'always-on-top' windows. Let A be the current window title. Hold down Alt and press and release Tab once, leaving Alt pressed. The window list comes up. A is guaranteed to be first in the list. Suppose the complete list is A W Z E U B C. The selection cursor will initially be on W. Suppose we want to switch to window U. Without releasing Alt, press Tab three more times and then release Alt. Then hold down Alt and press-release Tab once leaving Alt down. The window list will now show U A W Z E B C. Then Tab over to E and release Alt, selecting window E. Press and hold down Alt and press-release Tab once leaving Alt down. The window list will now show E U A W Z B C. Note that the windows switched to with (E, U, A) are in order of how recently they were switched to. Now Tab over to A and release Alt. Press and hold down Alt and press-release Tab leaving Alt down. The window list will show A E U W Z B C. The effect of this most-recently used behavior is that to return to the most recent task, Tab is pressed once, for the second most recent task Tab is pressed twice, and so on for all tasks. The priority of a window in terms of accessibility is how recently it was used. If A is now minimized, the list will become E U W Z B C A, and if Z is minimized the list becomes E U W B C A Z. Thus minimizing a window mimics the effect of not using it for a long time. The commonplace alternation between the 2 most recent tasks (using a fast with all keys released immediately) is precisely a special case of the above behavior. Suppose the windows are A B C and we want to alternate between A and B. Hold Alt while pressing and releasing Tab; continue holding Alt. The list will show A B C and the cursor will initially be over B. When Alt is released B will be selected, Tab having been pressed a total of 1 time, and zero attention to the task selection cursor having been necessary. Again, press and release Tab while holding Alt. The list will show B A C and the cursor will initially be over A. When Alt is released we have switched back to A. Displaying the list again, the order has returned to A B C and this sequence can recur. On close inspection, in the course of typing and releasing both keys quickly, the task list window can be observed to flicker for a split second, so . If the user has been switching among 3 applications and wants to dispense with one of them by minimizing, one of the remaining ones will be on top immediately after minimizing, and ordinarily will alternate between the 2 remaining windows. If a program fails to move to the end of the list when minimized, pressing once will return to the minimized program. Failures such as this can result in a frenzied reordering of the list by means of several --... sequences to compensate for the program misbehavior. The algorithm for this reshuffling is intuitive after using for a long time. If the user attempts to switch to an application using but the application fails to update its place in the z-order (for example, if its window procedure is hung), then the next time is invoked, the task selection cursor may initially point unexpectedly far into the list of icons, just past the application in question, which will not have been moved to the head of the list. Applications have some say in where they are located in the order. The list of windows is altered by the creation and destruction of windows, programmatic hiding, showing, raising, and lowering of windows, and alterations to the window z-order . The order of the list corresponds directly to the z-order, once the windows have been sorted according to 'always-on-top' status. Alt-Shift-Esc is equivalent to one Alt-Shift-Tab except that minimized windows are selected without being displayed. Windows-specific issues and hacks works even if Windows Explorer is no longer running. On Windows NT 3.51 and prior, is managed by CSRSS (Client/Server Runtime Subsystem). On Windows NT 4.0 and later, it's handled by the kernel mode windowing system driver (win32k.sys). It works even when and (Task Manager) (which are managed by Winlogon) do not. may be intercepted (or effectively disabled) by means of a low-level keyboard hook. Such a technique is used by applications such as the Virtual Network Computing (VNC) viewer to pass keystrokes to the remote desktop when the VNC window is active. Under Windows XP, the Tweak UI PowerToy, can adjust the number of rows and columns in the task list window, or it can be adjusted via a registry edit. This is helpful if there are so many windows that the list would spill over into multiple pages. Another Microsoft PowerToy, Replacement, is available for Windows XP that displays a screenshot of each application in the task list rather than just its icon, and allows the user to use the mouse to select the desired application. A more advanced version of this functionality, named Windows Flip, is built into Windows Vista. A number of third-party tools, similar to Replacement, are also available that add additional functionality to . Additionally, Windows Vista and Windows 7 allow the user to navigate through the menu using mouse or arrow keys. When the Aero Glass theme is enabled, Windows Vista also offers a 3D view of the windows themselves that animates as the user cycles through it. The behaviour is very similar to and is accessed by holding down the key instead of while pressing . While this view is visible, windows can be selected and made active by clicking on them with the mouse, and the list can be scrolled forward or backward using the mouse scroll wheel. If there is only one window on the system, Windows does not show a selector dialog at all when is pressed; the key sequence will simply restore or give focus to that window in case it is minimized or not focused. This means that under Windows 10, no longer functions as a way to switch out of a full-screen application, since the desktop is no longer a window. If the user prefers the smaller XP icons over the larger Vista "thumbnail" icons, they can change the functionality by: Start → Computer Hit the "System Properties" button (on the Toolbar under the File \| Edit toolbar) Select "Advanced System Settings" (under Tasks grouping in the left-hand column); this brings up the "System Properties" dialog box, which should show the "Advanced Tab". Hit the Settings Button under Performance. Uncheck the "Enable Desktop Composition" checkbox (the 3rd checkbox from the top in the Custom list box). Hit OK The user may also stop the Dwm.exe process via Windows' Task Manager. In Windows 7 , after a one-second delay, displays the full-sized application window immediately each time the cursor position changes, hiding all other windows. This is a part of Aero Peek feature, new in Windows 7. This behavior can be disabled along with Aero Peek: Control Panel - Performance Information and Tools - Adjust visual effects - uncheck Enable Aero Peek. Delay is adjustable by setting the LivePreview_ms value in HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Explorer\AltTab registry key. Some users report that the switcher dialog does not stay on top while it is displayed, but one can navigate through this dialog using mouse even if it is completely overlapped by some window. This bug is reported to be user profile specific. Some user profiles on the same machine may encounter this bug, some not. As discovered, the problem is sometimes caused by desktop gadgets system. After killing sidebar.exe process (which hosts the gadgets), the problem disappears. After restarting sidebar the problem appears again. This bug also happens when ipoint.exe, the Microsoft Intellipoint mouse driver, is running. Other programs causing this behaviour were reported as well. The actual reason this problem occurs is because [zero-sized always-on-top windows at (0,0)] cause Windows Explorer to set the alt-tab properties incorrectly. The solution is to download and run a program which will remove these flags. download To show the XP icons in Windows 7 advanced users can add a new DWORD value AltTabSettings in the registry key HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Explorer\ and set its value to 1. Using Windows 7 the additional key combination brings up the switcher dialog and it remains on screen after all the keys have been released. A user can move through the dialog in any direction using the arrow keys, or through in a linear manner, wrapping at the end of the list back to the beginning. In this mode, the key or a mouse click selects the desired window which gains the focus and the dialog is dismissed; dismisses with no change of focus. In Windows 7, to use a switcher dialog similar to that in XP, one can keep Left- pressed, tap on Right- and then press . There is a common problem associated with the use of . It is very easy for the user to mistakenly use instead, changing the system language through the use of a default keybind. To solve this issue, go into Control Panel/Regional Settings/Languages/Details and there is a button that allows the user to configure the shortcuts to switch languages - he/she can disable it or change it to something harder to press by mistake. This problem is reported on Windows XP and Windows 7. Non-Windows functionality macOS Similar functionality exists on macOS using instead of , and switching between applications rather than windows. The Mac's switcher has the additional capabilities of pointing at the desired icon with the mouse (also present in Windows Vista and above), and dropping files on applications' icons. Selected application can be hidden or closed using or keys without closing the menu. works similarly to switch between windows within the same application. Once has been invoked, changes behavior to mimic (i.e. it cycles backwards). Using or allows the user to select the window to focus on. The and arrow keys may also be used to navigate the application switcher. This functionality does not automatically restore windows from an application in which all windows been minimized. To restore a window, one needs to press as many times as necessary to choose the desired application, and hold the Option key just prior to releasing the Command button. This will restore the most relevant window in the application. There was no default key binding for application switching in Classic Mac OS. Third party control panels (such as ApplWindows and LiteSwitch) provided this behavior. iOS iOS adds comparable functionality using instead of , as with macOS. The iOS switcher allows the user to move between recently used applications (nine in landscape, six in portrait), as opposed to "open" applications, since the concept of an open application is considerably less clear on iOS than other desktop operating systems. cycles backwards, as in OS X. Unix Unix-like desktop systems such as fvwm, KDE, Xfce, and GNOME have added a compatible function. On some systems including Sun's CDE and old versions of fvwm, the key combination is mapped to less sophisticated functionality such as only alternating between two windows, cycling forward or backward in a list of all windows in a fixed order, or opening a task applet in which one has to use arrow keys or the mouse to select a task and then click or push Enter. Some window managers such as WindowLab forego the onscreen window list and simply bring each window to the front in turn as is pressed. Not all window managers provide this functionality as a core feature. For example, Blackbox does not; users desiring this behavior can add it by running a helper application such as bbkeys. Compiz Fusion Compiz Fusion (aka Beryl, Compiz) has similar functionality, but displays a preview of the window as well as its icon (Present in Windows Vista and above, with DWM enabled). It also makes use of Alt-Shift-Tab by moving backwards through the displayed programs, and it is possible to activate a Windows Flip 3D alternative using the Windows key and Tab. GNOME The Metacity window manager has similar functionality to versions of Windows released before Vista, but it only displays the outline of the currently selected window on the screen. Windows, on the other hand shows the whole selected window, which helps the user to pick the correct window from multiple windows with a similar title or icon. History The key combination to switch between windows has been present in all versions of Windows since Windows 1.0. However, there was no visual indication of the list of windows available when switching between windows until Windows 3.1, when this feature was introduced as the 'Fast "Alt+TAB" Switching' checkbox in the Display control panel applet, internally known as "CoolSwitch". Before CoolSwitch, the combination was similar to the combination (which also switched windows), but redrew each window immediately on each stroke, while brought the windows to the top but did not redraw them until the Alt key was released. Inconsistency An example of a program that violates the expectation that pressing one time will switch to the previous application is Adobe Reader 7.0.x. Like newer versions of Microsoft Word it attempts to give a separate icon in the task menu to each MDI document. However, unlike Word, it brings two items to the front of the list whenever a document is selected using : first an icon representing the main Reader window and then an icon for the individual document. While in Adobe Reader, pressing one time selects the second item in the list, which is the icon for the PDF document. Adobe Reader remains the current task when is released. Thus it is demonstrated that the correct operation of , like some other aspects of the Windows environment such as the Clipboard chain, depends on individual applications being written correctly. See also Table of keyboard shortcuts Windows Alt keycodes Task manager MultiFinder References External links Raymond Chen, The Old New Thing: What is the Alt+Tab order? User interface techniques Windows administration MacOS user interface
4189537	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20Denver	List of people from Denver	This is a list of some notable people who have lived in the City and County of Denver, Colorado, United States. People born elsewhere but raised in Denver are marked with a §. People born and raised elsewhere who have lived in Denver as adults are marked with a #. Academia Harold Agnew (1921–2013), physicist Hal Anger (1920–2005), electrical engineer, biophysicist Lena Lovato Archuleta (1920–2011), administrator, librarian # John Arthur (1946–2007), philosopher Alfred Marshall Bailey (1894–1978), ornithologist # Jacques Bailly (1966– ), classics scholar, Scripps National Spelling Bee pronouncer Thomas Bopp (1949–2018), astronomer and co-discoverer of comet Hale-Bopp Jason Box (1970– ), climatologist, geographer Hendrika B. Cantwell (1925– ), Dutch-American clinical professor of pediatrics, advocate for abused and neglected children Louis George Carpenter (1861–1935), engineer, mathematician # John Cotton Dana (1856–1929), librarian, museum director # Gertrude Crotty Davenport (1866–1946), biologist, eugenicist David Brion Davis (1927-2019), Sterling Professor of History at Yale University and director of Yale's Gilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance, and Abolition Edwina Hume Fallis (1876–1957), educator, writer, toy designer Alan Fowler (1928– ), physicist Margaret Hayes Grazier (1916–1999), librarian, educator Margaret Storrs Grierson (1900–1997), archivist, philosophy professor John L. Hall (1934– ), physicist Donna Haraway (1944– ), feminist studies scholar, sociologist Orin Hargraves (1953– ), lexicographer Robert Heizer (1915–1979), archaeologist Arnold Kramish (1923–2010), nuclear physicist Tony Laubach, meteorologist with the TWISTEX team Henry F. May (1915–2012), historian David Messerschmitt (1945– ), electrical engineer Seeley G. Mudd (1895–1968), physician, professor, philanthropist Rob Nelson (1979– ), biologist, documentary filmmaker John W. Olmsted (1903–1986), historian Renee Rabinowitz (1934–2020), psychologist and lawyer # Robert Reid (1924–2006), engineer Paul Romer (1955– ), economist Tim Samaras (1957–2013), engineer, meteorologist Ann Linnea Sandberg (1938–2009), immunologist§ John Searle (1932– ), philosopher Paul Stewart (1925–2015), historian # Willis M. Tate (1912–1989), university president Keith Uncapher (1922–2002), computer engineer Stanley M. Wagner (1932–2013), rabbi and academic # James Q. Wilson (1931–2012), political scientist Hannah Marie Wormington (1914–1994), archaeologist Arts and entertainment Fashion Lauren Bush (1984– ), model, designer, philanthropist Mondo Guerra (1978– ), fashion designer, philanthropist Film, television, and theatre Anikka Albrite (1988– ), pornographic actress Tim Allen (1953– ), actor, comedian Michael J. Anderson (1953– ), actor Annaleigh Ashford (1985– ), actress, singer Barry Atwater (1918–1978), actor Phil Austin (1941–2015), comedian, writer Dian Bachar (1970– ), actor Roseanne Barr (1952– ), actress, comedian # Barbara Bates (1925–1969), actress, singer Madge Bellamy (1899–1990), actress § Matthew Berry (1969– ), screenwriter, producer, fantasy sports analyst Julie Bishop (1914–2001), actress Josh Blue (1978– ), comedian # Sierra Boggess (1982 – ), actress, singer Tom Bower (1938– ), actor Stan Brakhage (1933–2003), experimental filmmaker § Bobby Buntrock (1952–1974), actor Joseph Castanon (1997– ), actor Mary Jo Catlett (1938– ), actress Kristin Cavallari (1987– ), television personality, actress Adam Cayton-Holland (1980– ), comedian Don Cheadle (1964– ), actor § Marshall Colt (1948– ), actor, psychologist # Lillian Covillo (1921–2010), ballet dancer Richard C. Currier (1892–1984), film editor Ann B. Davis (1926–2014), actress # John Davis (1954– ), producer Ashly DelGrosso (1982– ), dancer Rubye De Remer (1892–1984), actress, dancer Scott Derrickson (1966– ), director, screenwriter Josephine Dillon (1884–1971), actress Madhuri Dixit (1967– ), actress # Jack Earle (1906–1952), actor, sideshow performer Chris Eigeman (1965– ), actor, director Richard Epcar (1955– ), voice actor Douglas Fairbanks (1883–1939), actor, director, producer, screenwriter David Fincher (1962– ), director, producer Kevin Fitzgerald (1951– ), veterinarian, comedian Nina Flowers (1974– ), drag queen, makeup artist, disc jockey # Emmett J. Flynn (1892–1937), director, screenwriter Rebecca Forstadt (1953– ), voice actress Gene Fowler (1890–1960), screenwriter, journalist Gene Fowler Jr. (1917–1998), film editor Gardiner Brothers (Michael-1995, Matthew-1999), professional Irish dancers Pam Grier (1949– ), actress § Naomi Grossman (1975– ), actress, screenwriter Texas Guinan (1884–1933), actress, club owner # Hanna R. Hall (1984– ), actress Maxine Elliott Hicks (1904–2000), actress Pat Hingle (1924–2009), actor Arthur Holch (1924–2010), documentary filmmaker § Olin Howland (1886–1959), actor Tommy Ivo (1936– ), actor, race car driver Bryce Johnson (1977– ), actor § Morgan Jones (1879–1951), actor Andy Juett (1977– ), comedian # Ameenah Kaplan (1974– ), actress, musician, choreographer Glenn Langan (1917–1991), actor Brandy Ledford (1969– ), actress, model Jack Lipson (1901–1947), actor Teala Loring (1922–2007), actress Justine Lupe (1989– ), actress John Carroll Lynch (1963– ), actor § Bernard McConville (1887–1961), screenwriter Merrill McCormick (1892–1953), actor Hattie McDaniel (1895–1952), actress, comedian, singer-songwriter § Robert A. McGowan (1901–1955), director, screenwriter T.J. Miller (1981– ), actor, comedian Gordon Mitchell (1923–2003), actor, bodybuilder Peg Murray (1924–2020), actress Adam Nix (1986– ), director, producer Evan Nix (1983– ), director, producer Danni Sue Nolan (1923–2002), actress Marie Osborne (1911–2010), actress Mikki Padilla (1974– ), actress, model Debra Paget (1933– ), actress Trey Parker (1969– ), actor, animator, director, screenwriter James D. Parriott (1950– ), writer, director, and producer Val Paul (1886–1962), actor, director Lawrence Pech (1959– ), dancer, choreographer Antoinette Perry (1888–1946), actress, director Joseph C. Phillips (1962– ), actor, political commentator Jeffrey Pierce (1971– ), actor Ron Pinkard (1941– ), actor Talyah Polee (1988– ), beauty queen # Wayde Preston (1929–1992), actor Dean Reed (1938–1986), actor, singer-songwriter Kristen Renton (1982– ), actress AnnaSophia Robb (1993– ), actress Keith Roberts, dancer Mark Roberts (1921–2006), actor Gloria Romero (1933– ), actress Shayna Rose (1983– ), actress, singer Karly Rothenberg (1962– ), actress Barbara Rush (1927– ), actress Walter Sande (1906–1971), actor Dia Sokol Savage (1976– ), producer Peter Scanavino (1980– ), actor Russell Scott (1921–2013), clown # Ethel Shannon (1898–1951), actress Charity Shea (1983– ), actress Marion Shilling (1910–2004), actress Bradley Snedeker (1977– ), actor Lincoln Stedman (1907–1948), actor Stephen Stohn (1948– ), television producer Ruth Stonehouse (1892–1941), actress Scott Takeda (1967– ), actor, television reporter # Lauren Taylor, American actress and singer Irene Tedrow (1907–1995), actress Ann E. Todd (1931–2020), actress Lester Vail (1899–1959), actor Marilyn Van Derbur (1937– ), beauty queen, motivational speaker Jan-Michael Vincent (1944–2019), actor Vicki Vola (1916–1985), actress Joseph Walker (1892–1985), cinematographer Nate Watt (1889–1968), director James R. Webb (1909–1974), screenwriter Frank Welker (1946– ), voice actor David White (1916–1990), actor Jeff Whiting (1972– ), choreographer, theater director Rhoda Williams (1930–2006), actress Michael Winslow (1958– ), actor, comedian § Freeman Wood (1896–1956), actor Polly Ann Young (1908–1997), actress Yvie Oddly (1993– ), drag queen, winner of the eleventh season of RuPaul's Drag Race. Willow Pill (1995– ), drag queen, winner of the fourteenth season of RuPaul's Drag Race. Gaming Patrick Chapin (1980– ), trading card game player, writer Journalism Adele Arakawa (1958– ), news anchor # Asha Blake (1961– ), news anchor # Marshall Bloom (1944–1969), editor, alternative press entrepreneur Shareen Blair Brysac (1939– ), editor, non-fiction writer, documentary producer Caroline Nichols Churchill (1833–1926), newspaper publisher, feminist # Ted Conover (1958– ), journalist, non-fiction writer § J. Campbell Cory (1867–1925), cartoonist (Rocky Mountain News and The Denver Times) Brian Crecente (1970– ), reporter, gaming journalist Doug DeMuro (1988– ), automotive columnist, reviewer, and author Terry Drinkwater (1936–1989), television reporter George F. Franklin (1852–1901), newspaper publisher # Amy Freeze (1974– ), television meteorologist # Malcom Glenn (1987– ), newspaper reporter, commentator Miriam Goldberg (1916–2017), newspaper publisher, editor Sharon Tyler Herbst (1942–2007), food journalist, culinary book author § Bill Hosokawa (1915–2007), newspaper reporter, editor # Jeremy Hubbard (1972– ), news anchor # Amber Lyon (1982– ), photojournalist Jack Murphy (1923–1980), sports columnist, editor Reynelda Muse (1946– ), news anchor # Art Rascon (1962– ), news anchor § Joy Ann Reid (1968– ), political commentator, MSNBC anchor # T.R. Reid (1943– ), reporter # Rick Reilly (1958– ), sportswriter # Jon Scott (1958– ), news anchor August Skamenca (1981– ), radio correspondent § Harry Smith (1951– ), television reporter, news anchor # Clara Sears Taylor (1876–after 1938), journalist, first woman appointed to the Washington DC rent commission Richard Two Elk (1952– ), journalist, radio host, American Indian activist # David Von Drehle (1961– ), reporter, editor Literature Poe Ballantine (1955– ), novelist, essayist Robin Blaser (1925–2009), poet, essayist Libbie Block (1910–1972), short story writer, novelist Catharine Savage Brosman (1934– ), poet, essayist, French literature scholar Marilyn Brown (1938– ), novelist, poet Neal Cassady (1926–1968), poet § Mary Chase (1906–1981), playwright J. V. Cunningham (1911–1985), poet, literary critic § Steven Dietz (1958– ), playwright John Dolan (1955– ), poet, essayist Bruce Ducker (1938– ), novelist, poet # John Dunning (1942– ), novelist # John Fante (1909–1983), novelist, screenwriter, short story writer Thomas Hornsby Ferril (1896–1988), poet, essayist Bill Finger (1914–1974), comics writer Thomas E. Gaddis (1908–1984), non-fiction writer Noah Eli Gordon (1975– ), poet # Deatt Hudson (1931-1988), educator and writer Leigh Kennedy (1951– ), novelist, short story writer Harry N. MacLean (1943– ), true crime writer, novelist L. E. Modesitt Jr. (1943– ), novelist Elizabeth Robinson (1961– ), poet L. Neil Smith (1946– ), novelist, libertarian activist Suzi Q. Smith (1979– ), poet Lenora Mattingly Weber (1895–1971), novelist, short story writer § Connie Willis (1945– ), novelist, short story writer Music Ailee (1989– ), singer, actress India Arie (1975– ), singer-songwriter Philip Bailey (1951– ), singer-songwriter Brandon Barnes (1972– ), drummer Bill Barwick, singer-songwriter, guitarist, voiceover artist # Chuck Berghofer (1937– ), bassist Tommy Bolin (1951–1976), guitarist # Antonia Brico (1902–1989), conductor, pianist # John Browning (1933–2003), pianist Wayne Carson (1943–2015), songwriter, country musician Eleanor Caulkins (1936– ), opera patron # Robert N. Cavarra (1934-2008), composer, organist, harpsichordist, pianist and musicologist Judy Collins (1939– ), singer-songwriter § John Common (1971– ), singer-songwriter, guitarist # Walt Conley (1929–2003), folk singer, musician and actor Marty Cooper (1946– ), singer-songwriter David Cornwall (1937–2006), composer Brad Corrigan (1974– ), guitarist, singer Pearl G. Curran (1875–1941), composer, librettist Deuce Mob, rap duo Fannie Charles Dillon (1881–1947), pianist, composer Larry Dunn (1953– ), keyboardist Shane Endsley, trumpeter Flobots, hip-hop band Mary Flower, guitarist, singer # Eugene Fodor (1950–2011), violinist Guy Forsyth (1968– ), singer-songwriter, guitarist The Fray, rock band Harry Lawrence Freeman (1869–1954), composer, conductor # Bill Frisell (1951– ), guitarist, composer § Frank Gagliardi (1931–2011), percussionist, composer Teri Gender Bender (1989– ), singer, guitarist Ben Goldberg (1959– ), clarinetist, composer John Grant (1968– ), singer-songwriter § Corey Harris (1969– ), guitarist, singer Keith Hoerig (1972– ), bass guitarist § Peanuts Hucko (1918–2003), clarinetist, bandleader # Cory Kendrix (1988– ), musician Little Fyodor, disc jockey, singer-songwriter # Jerry Livingston (1909–1987), songwriter, pianist The Lumineers, folk rock band Jimmie Lunceford (1902–1947), saxophonist, bandleader § Edwin McArthur (1907–1987), conductor, pianist, accompanist Ron Miles (1963– ), trumpeter, cornetist § Todd Park Mohr (1965– ), singer-songwriter, guitarist Robert Moran (1937– ), composer Stephen L. Mosko (1947–2005), composer OneRepublic, pop rock band § Nick Perito (1924–2005), composer, arranger Pretty Lights (1981– ), electronic musician, real name Derek Smith Dianne Reeves (1956– ), singer § Reese Roper (1973– ), singer-songwriter David Schmitt (1988– ), musical artist of Breathe Carolina Isaac Slade (1981– ), singer-songwriter, pianist Jill Sobule (1961– ), singer-songwriter Tag Team, hip-hop group Donnette Thayer (1958– ), singer-songwriter, guitarist § Tyler Ward (1988– ), singer-songwriter John Warne (1979– ), bassist # Kip Winger (1961– ), singer, bassist, composer Ace Young (1980– ), singer-songwriter Other visual arts George Elbert Burr (1859–1939), painter, printmaker # Richard L. Crowther (1910–2006), architect # Tomory Dodge (1974– ), painter Jess E. DuBois (1934– ), painter, sculptor, glass artist Robert Heinecken (1931–2006), photographer Vance Kirkland (1904–1981), painter § Alvin Lustig (1915–1955), graphic designer Ron McQueeney (1945– ), photographer Pat Oliphant (1935– ), cartoonist § Amal Kassir (1995– ), spoken word poet Business Philip Anschutz (1939– ), investment magnate, philanthropist # Margaret Isely (1921–1997) – American peace activist and co-founder of WCPA and Natural Grocers by Vitamin Cottage Philip Isely (1915–2012) – American peace activist, writer and co-founder of WCPA-GREN and Natural Grocers by Vitamin Cottage Norman R. Augustine (1935– ), aerospace executive Anthony R. Barringer (1925–2009), geophysicist, inventor # Sheldon Beren (1922–1996), petroleum executive # Molly Brown (1867–1932), philanthropist, Titanic'' survivor # Luther A. Cole (1812–1880), milling entrepreneur # Barbara Davis (1929– ), philanthropist # John Elitch (1852–1891), restaurateur, zookeeper # William Gray Evans (1855–1911), transportation executive # Oliver Parker Fritchle (1874–1951), chemist, energy entrepreneur # Jack J. Grynberg (1932– ), oil and gas entrepreneur # Marie Guiraud (1830–1909), rancher # Frederic C. Hamilton (1927–2016), oil and gas entrepreneur # Ruth Handler (1916–2002), toy executive, Barbie creator Samuel Hartsel (1834–1918), rancher # Bela M. Hughes (1817–1903), railroad businessman Frances Wisebart Jacobs (1843–1892), philanthropist # Kayvan Khalatbari (1983– ), marijuana entrepreneur, restaurateur # Luther Kountze (1842–1918), banker # William Larimer, Jr. (1809–1875), land developer, co-founder of Denver # Daniel M. Lewin (1970–2001), mathematician, technology entrepreneur Gary Magness (1954– ), investment executive, film producer # Tom Martino (1953– ), consumer advocate, talk radio host James Smith McDonnell (1899–1980), engineer, aviation entrepreneur Helen M. McLoraine (1918–2003), philanthropist # Larry Mizel (1942– ), real estate executive Albert Mooney (1906–1986), aircraft designer, aviation entrepreneur John Kernan Mullen (1847–1929), milling executive, philanthropist # Jack O'Neill (1923–2017), surfwear entrepreneur Milton Schayer (1876–1935), stock and bond entrepreneur Caswell Silver (1916–1988), geologist, oil and gas entrepreneur # Robert F. Smith, investor and CEO, Vista Equity Partners Manick Sorcar, animator, lighting engineer # Russell Stover (1888–1954), candymaker # Kenneth D. Tuchman (1959– ), call center entrepreneur # Madam C. J. Walker (1867–1919), beauty products entrepreneur # Bethuel M. Webster (1900–1989), lawyer and founder of Webster & Sheffield Jean Yancey (1914–2000), women's small business consultant, motivational speaker Crime Michael Julius Ford (1984–2006), murderer, spree shooter Alice Maud Hartley, killed Nevada State Senator Murray D. Foley by gunshot in 1894; lived in Denver in the early 1900s Canada Bill Jones (1840–1877), card sharp, con artist L. H. Musgrove (1832–1868), thief, alleged murderer Katherine Ann Power (1949– ), bank robber Terry Peder Rasmussen (1943–2010), serial killer Soapy Smith (1860–1898), con artist, gangster # Anna Blythe Speas (1869–1898), alleged accessory to murder # Law enforcement Duane "Dog" Chapman (1953– ), bounty hunter Leland Chapman (1976– ), bounty hunter § Lyssa Chapman (1987– ), bounty hunter David J. Cook (1840–1907), lawman, Denver city marshal # Bat Masterson (1853–1921), gunfighter, journalist, lawman # Medicine Jenette H. Bolles (1863–1930), osteopath, Board of Medical Examiners, publisher # Justina Ford (1871–1952), gynecologist, obstetrician, pediatrician # Frances McConnell-Mills (1900–1975), forensic pathologist, toxicologist # Carl Rüedi (1848–1901), pulmonologist # Military Charles Adams (1845–1895), Colorado Militia Brigadier General, Indian agent # Gerald P. Carr (1932–2020), U.S. Marine Corps Colonel, astronaut John Chivington (1821–1894), U.S. Army Colonel, leader of the Sand Creek massacre # Carol Rymer Davis (1944–2010), U.S. Army Reserve Colonel, balloonist Elmer E. Fryar (1914–1944), U.S. Army Private, Medal of Honor recipient Irving Hale (1861–1930) Brigadier general of the United States of America § Clayton P. Kerr (1900–1977), U.S. Army Major General Victor H. Krulak (1913–2008), U.S. Marine Corps Lieutenant General John Mosley (1921–2015), U.S. Air Force Lt. Colonel, one of the Tuskegee Airmen Fitzroy Newsum (1918–2013), U.S. Air Force Colonel, one of the Tuskegee Airmen # Daniel Noce (1894–1976), U.S. Army Lieutenant General Ronald A. Route (1949– ), U.S. Navy Vice Admiral Donald Schmuck (1915–2004), U.S. Marine Corps Brigadier General § August Schomburg (1908–1972), U.S. Army Lieutenant General Silas Soule (1838–1865), U.S. Army Bvt. Major, remembered for disobeying orders to take part in the Sand Creek Massacre # Jack Swigert (1931–1982), U.S. Air Force Captain, astronaut Kenneth Walker (1898–1943), U.S. Army Brigadier General, Medal of Honor recipient, Killed in action during World War Two § Keith L. Ware (1915–1968), U.S. Army Major General, Medal of Honor recipient, Killed in action during the Vietnam War J. Hunter Wickersham (1890–1918), U.S. Army 2nd Lieutenant, Medal of Honor recipient # Edward W. Wynkoop (1836–1891), U.S. Army Bvt. Lt. Colonel, Indian agent, Denver co-founder # Politics National Madeleine Albright (1937-2022), 64th U.S. Secretary of State § Abdulrahman al-Awlaki (1995–2011), son of Anwar al-Awlaki Israel Amter (1881–1954), Communist Party USA founding member, activist Jim Bates (1941– ), U.S. Representative from California Michael Bennet (1964– ), U.S. Senator from Colorado # Don Bonker (1937– ), U.S. Representative from Washington Emily Gibson Braerton (1886–1966), vice president of Daughters of the American Revolution # Charles F. Brannan (1903–1992), 14th U.S. Secretary of Agriculture Henry P. H. Bromwell (1823–1903), U.S. Representative from Illinois # Hank Brown (1940– ), U.S. Senator from Colorado Anne Gorsuch Burford (1942–2004), 4th Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency § Richard Girnt Butler (1918–2004), white supremacist, Aryan Nations founder John A. Carroll (1901–1983), U.S. Senator from Colorado Arnold A. Chacón (1956– ), U.S. Ambassador to Guatemala Jerome B. Chaffee (1825–1886), U.S. Senator from Colorado, co-founder of Denver # Oscar L. Chapman (1896–1978), 34th U.S. Secretary of the Interior # Edward P. Costigan (1874–1939), U.S. Senator from Colorado # William C. Cramer (1922–2003), U.S. Representative From Florida Diana DeGette (1957– ), U.S. Representative from Colorado § Peter H. Dominick (1915–1981), U.S. Senator from Colorado # John Eisenhower (1922–2013), 45th U.S. Ambassador to Belgium Mamie Eisenhower (1896–1979), 36th First Lady of the United States § Gladstone Ferrie (1892–1955), Canadian Member of Parliament from Saskatchewan Sherman Glenn Finesilver (1927–2006), U.S. federal judge Robert Stephen Ford (1958– ), U.S. Ambassador to Syria Frank Freyer (1878–1930), 14th Naval Governor of Guam # Stephen Gaskin (1935–2014), countercultural activist, writer Rodolfo Gonzales (1928–2005), Chicano Movement activist Neil Gorsuch (1967– ), Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States Ken Hamblin (1940– ), conservative talk radio host # Dorothy Ray Healey (1914–2006), Communist Party USA activist Nathaniel P. Hill (1832–1900), U.S. Senator from Colorado # Edwin C. Johnson (1884–1970), U.S. Senator from Colorado, 26th and 34th Governor of Colorado # Charles West Kendall (1828–1914), U.S. Representative from Nevada # John Kerry (1943– ), U.S. Secretary of State since 2013, former long-time U.S. Senator from Massachusetts (1985–2013), and 2004 Democratic nominee for President Carlotta Walls LaNier (1942– ), one of the Little Rock Nine # Homer Lea (1876–1912), geopolitical strategist, adviser to Sun Yat-sen Rodger McFarlane (1955–2009), gay rights activist # Golda Meir (1898–1978), 4th Prime Minister of Israel § George Moose (1944– ), U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations § Michael R. Murphy (1947– ), U.S. federal judge Jackson Orr (1832–1926), U.S. Representative from Iowa # Thomas M. Patterson (1839–1916), U.S. Senator from Colorado # Federico Peña (1947– ), 12th U.S. Secretary of Transportation, 8th U.S. Secretary of Energy # Dana Perino (1972– ), White House Press Secretary § Lawrence C. Phipps (1862–1958), U.S. Senator from Colorado # John Carbone Porfilio (1934– ), U.S. federal judge Condoleezza Rice (1954– ), 66th U.S. Secretary of State # Josephine Roche (1886–1976), U.S. Assistant Secretary of the Treasury # Andrew J. Rogers (1828–1900), U.S. Representative from New Jersey # Karl Rove (1950– ), Deputy White House Chief of Staff Nicholas Sarwark (1979– ), Libertarian Party politician Brad Schneider (1961– ), U.S. Representative from Illinois Patricia Schroeder (1940– ), U.S. Representative from Colorado # Alan K. Simpson (1931– ), U.S. Senator from Wyoming Horace Tabor (1830–1899), U.S. Senator from Colorado, 2nd Lieutenant Governor of Colorado # Tom Tancredo (1945– ), U.S. Representative from Colorado William L. Tierney (1876–1958), U.S. Representative from Connecticut # Aleta Arthur Trauger (1945– ), U.S. federal judge Timothy Tymkovich (1956– ), U.S. federal judge Byron White (1917–2002), U.S. Supreme Court justice # Edward O. Wolcott (1848–1905), U.S. Senator from Colorado # State Robert E. Allen (1924–2014), Colorado state legislator # Teller Ammons (1895–1972), 28th Governor of Colorado Matt Bevin (1967– ), 62nd Governor of Kentucky Kermit Brown (1942– ), Wyoming state legislator William Byers (1831–1905), Nebraska territorial legislator # Job Adams Cooper (1843–1899), 6th Governor of Colorado # Lois Court (1953– ), Colorado state legislator Mat Erpelding (1975– ), Idaho state legislator Mark Ferrandino (1977– ), Colorado state legislator # Frank Frantz (1872–1941), 7th Governor of Oklahoma Territory # Don Friedman (1930–2013), Colorado state legislator, talk radio host John Frullo (1962– ), Texas state legislator # Peter Groff (1963– ), Colorado state legislator # Lucía Guzmán (1951– ), Colorado state legislator # John Hickenlooper (1952– ), 42nd Governor of Colorado # Bela M. Hughes (1817–1903), Territorial councillor Gloria Johnson (1962– ), Tennessee state legislator Joel Judd (1951– ), Colorado state legislator Wayne Knox (1927–2019), Colorado state legislator Jeanne Labuda (1947– ), Colorado state legislator # Alma V. Lafferty (1864–1928), served two terms in Colorado House of Representatives 1908-1912 Beth McCann (1949– ), Colorado state legislator # Stephen L.R. McNichols (1914–1997), 35th Governor of Colorado Helen Milliken (1922-2012), former First Lady of Michigan Mary Mullarkey (1943–2021), Colorado Supreme Court chief justice # Sue Mullins (1936– ), Iowa state legislator Dan Pabon (1977– ), Colorado state legislator George Alexander Parks (1883–1984), 5th Governor of Alaska Territory Josh Penry (1976– ), Colorado state legislator Dianne Primavera (1950– ), Colorado state legislator Jim Riesberg (1942– ), Colorado state legislator Bill Ritter (1956– ), 41st Governor of Colorado # Andrew Romanoff (1966– ), Colorado state legislator # Chris Romer (1959– ), Colorado state legislator Brandon Shaffer (1971– ), Colorado state legislator Pat Steadman (1964– ), Colorado state legislator # Ken Summers (1953– ), Colorado state legislator William Ellery Sweet (1869–1942), 23rd Governor of Colorado # Gloria Tanner (1935– ), Colorado state legislator # Russell T. Thane (1926–2020), North Dakota state legislator Fred Van Valkenburg (1948– ), Montana state legislator Michael Webert (1979– ), Virginia state legislator Angela Williams, Colorado state legislator # Mariko Yamada (1950– ), California state legislator Local Lorraine Granado (1948–2019), environmental, peace and social justice activist and organizer who co-founded the Colorado People's Environmental and Economic Network and Neighbors for a Toxic-Free Community in Denver John E. Manders (1895–1973), 17th Mayor of Anchorage, Alaska William McGaa (1824–1867), mountain man, co-founder of Denver # Rachel Noel (1918–2008), Denver politician, civil rights activist # Wellington Webb (1941– ), 42nd Mayor of Denver # Religion Robert S. Bilheimer (1917–2006), Presbyterian theologian Nadia Bolz-Weber (1969– ), Lutheran minister, comedian Bill Carmody (1957–2016), Roman Catholic priest, anti-abortion activist George Roche Evans (1922–1985), Roman Catholic bishop Julia Greeley (ca.1833-1918), Roman Catholic Servant of God, ex-slave J. Edward Guinan, the former Paulist priest who founded the Community for Creative Non-Violence when he was Chaplain of George Washington University Richard Charles Patrick Hanifen (1931– ), Roman Catholic bishop Danan Henry (1939– ), Zen roshi Sheldon Jackson (1834–1909), Presbyterian missionary # Abraham Klausner (1915–2007), Reform rabbi § Jerry Lamb (1940– ), Episcopal bishop Harold B. Lee (1899–1973), Denver mission leader and later president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Reed Lessing (1959– ), Lutheran pastor, theologian Donald Montrose (1923–2008), Roman Catholic bishop Hubert Newell (1904–1987), Roman Catholic bishop R. Walker Nickless (1947– ), Roman Catholic bishop Alysa Stanton (1964– ), Reform rabbi § Mary Luke Tobin (1908–2006), Roman Catholic nun Sports American football Tom Ashworth (1977– ), offensive tackle Dave Baldwin (1955– ), coach David Bowens (1977– ), linebacker Chris Brewer (1962– ), running back C. J. Brewer (1982– ), wide receiver § Patrick Cain (1962–2016), center, guard Calais Campbell (1986– ), defensive end Dyshod Carter (1978– ), cornerback Ryan Clement (1975– ), quarterback Eric Coleman (1966– ), cornerback Mark Cooney (1951–2011), linebacker Adrian Cooper (1968– ), tight end Jason Craft (1976– ), cornerback Brian Daniels (1984– ), guard James Darling (1974– ), linebacker Drew Davis (1989– ), wide receiver John Denney (1978– ), long snapper Ryan Denney (1977– ), defensive end Ron Dickerson, Jr. (1971– ), running back, wide receiver, coach Ben Dreith (1925–2021), referee John Elway (1960– ), Hall of Fame quarterback, manager # Keith English (1966–2010), punter Tom Erlandson (1966– ), linebacker Bill Frank (1938–2014), offensive tackle Trent Gamble (1977– ), safety Fred Gayles (1966– ), linebacker, wide receiver Joe Germaine (1975– ), quarterback Pat Haggerty (1927–1994), referee Herman Heard (1961– ), running back Ryan Hewitt (1991– ), tight end Marcus Houston (1981– ), tailback Mike Johnson (1943–2003), cornerback Ray Johnson (1914–1990), defensive back Greg Jones (1974– ), linebacker Brandon Kaufman (1990– ), wide receiver Jimmie Kaylor (1984– ), punter Joe Klopfenstein (1983– ), tight end Steve Korte (1960– ), center, offensive guard Terry Kunz (1952– ), running back Zach Latimer (1983– ), linebacker DeWayne Lewis (1985– ), cornerback § Jody Littleton (1974– ), long snapper John Lynch (1971– ), strong safety # Peyton Manning (1976– ), quarterback # Kevin McDougal (1977– ), running back Donald McKillip (1924–2008), coach Ostell Miles (1970– ), running back Mark Mullaney (1953– ), defensive end Mike Perez (1963– ), quarterback Vince Phason (1953–2018), defensive back Tyler Polumbus (1985– ), offensive tackle Mike Price (1946– ), coach Greg Primus (1970– ), wide receiver Gary Richard (1965– ), defensive back Derrick Richardson (1986– ), safety Cory Ross (1982– ), running back, coach Chris Sanders (1972– ), wide receiver Bo Scaife (1981– ), tight end Mark Schlereth (1966– ), guard, sports commentator # Brian Schottenheimer (1973– ), coach J. K. Scott (1996– ), punter Shannon Sharpe (1968– ), tight end, sports commentator # Nate Solder (1988– ), offensive tackle Ben Steele (1978– ), tight end Freddie Joe Steinmark (1949–1971), safety Red Stephens (1930–2003), guard Andre Strode (1972– ), defensive back Kasey Studdard (1984– ), offensive guard David Tate (1964– ), safety Marvin Washington (1965– ), defensive end Allen Webb (1983– ), quarterback Jack Weil (1962– ), punter LenDale White (1984– ), running back Andre Woolfolk (1980– ), cornerback Baseball David Aardsma (1981– ), relief pitcher Darrel Akerfelds (1962–2012), pitcher, bullpen coach Bubbles Anderson (1904–1943), infielder Ty Blach (1990– ), pitcher for the San Francisco Giants Cory Blaser (1981– ), umpire Nick Capra (1958– ), outfielder Idona Crigler (1922–1994), infielder Mona Denton (1922–1995), pitcher Bruce Egloff (1965– ), pitcher Johnny Frederick (1902–1977), outfielder Kyle Freeland (1993– ), pitcher for the Colorado Rockies Ralph Glaze (1881–1968), pitcher Buddy Gremp (1919–1995), 1st baseman Roy Halladay (1977–2017), starting pitcher Ron Herbel (1938–2000), pitcher Jason Hirsh (1982– ), starting pitcher # Luke Hochevar (1983– ), pitcher Brian Holman (1965– ), pitcher Bob Howsam (1918–2008), manager, sports entrepreneur Virgil Jester (1927–2016), pitcher Pierce Johnson (1991– ), pitcher Mark Knudson (1960– ), pitcher Bruce Konopka (1919–1996), 1st baseman Dud Lee (1899–1971), shortstop Mike Madden (1958– ), pitcher Frank Martin (1878–1942), 3rd baseman Gabe Molina (1975– ), pitcher Buzz Murphy (1895–1938), outfielder George Myatt (1914–2000), 2nd baseman, coach, manager Travis Schlichting (1984– ), pitcher John Stearns (1951– ), catcher, manager, scout Joe Strain (1954– ), 2nd baseman, shortstop Mike Wegener (1946– ), pitcher Charlie Williams (1943–2005), umpire Clint Zavaras (1967– ), pitcher Basketball Tom Asbury (1945– ), coach J. B. Bickerstaff (1979– ), coach Chauncey Billups (1976– ), point guard, shooting guard Rodney Billups (1983– ), guard, coach Kevin Bromley (1959– ), coach Joe Barry Carroll (1958– ), center § Alysha Clark (1987– ), American-Israeli forward Pam DeCosta (1964– ), coach Kaniel Dickens (1978– ), small forward Rick Fisher (1948–2019), power forward Kevin Fletcher (1980– ), center, power forward Ronnie Harrell (1996- ), basketball player for Hapoel Gilboa Galil of the Israeli Basketball Premier League Shae Kelley (1991– ), forward Darrick Martin (1971– ), point guard Eric McWilliams (1950– ), power forward Paul Millsap power forward Shelly Pennefather (1966– ), forward Josh Perkins (1995– ), point guard Micheal Ray Richardson (1955– ), point guard, shooting guard, coach § Michael Ruffin (1977– ), center, power forward Eric Schraeder (1977– ), forward Ronnie Shavlik (1933–1983), forward Brendan Winters (1983– ), shooting guard Boxing Eddie Eagan (1897–1967), U.S. Olympic boxer, U.S. Olympic bobsledder John David Jackson (1963– ), middleweight boxer Stevie Johnston (1972– ), lightweight boxer Ron Lyle (1941–2011), heavyweight boxer § Louis Monaco (1968– ), heavyweight boxer Terri Moss (1966– ), strawweight boxer Cycling Richard Ball (1944– ), U.S. Olympic cyclist Gregory Daniel (1994– ), cyclist Alison Dunlap (1969– ), cyclist Greg Herbold (1962– ), cyclist Ron Kiefel (1960– ), cyclist Jonathan Vaughters (1973– ), cyclist, manager Golf Tommy Armour III (1959– ), golfer Shane Bertsch (1970– ), golfer Joan Birkland (1928–2019), state women's amateur golf champion Matt Gogel (1971– ), golfer Tommy Jacobs (1935–2022), golfer Jonathan Kaye (1970– ), golfer Bill Loeffler (1956– ), golfer Jill McGill (1972– ), golfer Leif Olson (1981– ), golfer Hollis Stacy (1954– ), golfer # Craig Stadler (1953– ), golfer # Derek Tolan (1985– ), golfer Mark Wiebe (1957– ), golfer # Ice hockey Ben Bishop (1986– ), goaltender Austin Block (1989– ), center and forward B. J. Crombeen (1985– ), right wing Parris Duffus (1970– ), goaltender Mike Eaves (1956– ), center John Grahame (1975– ), goaltender Seth Jones (1994– ), defenseman § Brendan Lemieux (1996– ), left wing Joe Noris (1951– ), center Joe Sakic (1969– ), center, manager # Drew Shore (1991– ), center Nick Shore (1992– ), center Troy Terry (1997– ), right wing Sean Zimmerman (1987– ), defenseman Martial arts JJ Aldrich (1992– ), strawweight MMA fighter Donald Cerrone (1983– ), welterweight MMA fighter Duane Ludwig (1978– ), middleweight kickboxer, lightweight MMA fighter Ryan Reser (1980– ), U.S. Olympic judo fighter Lumumba Sayers (1978– ), middleweight MMA fighter Lacey Schuckman (1988– ), strawweight MMA fighter Brandon Thatch (1985– ), welterweight MMA fighter Matt Wiman (1983– ), lightweight MMA fighter Trevor Wittman (1974– ), MMA trainer Pro wrestling Jake Carter (1986– ), pro wrestler Bison Smith (1973–2011), pro wrestler Eve Torres (1984– ), pro wrestler, actress, model § 2 Cold Scorpio (1965– ), professional wrestler Racing Keith Andrews (1920–1957), racecar driver Buzz Calkins (1971– ), IndyCar driver Tanner Foust (1973– ), racecar driver, stunt driver Tom Frantz (1943–2019), racecar driver Robb Holland (1967– ), racecar driver Mel Keneally (1903–1985), racecar driver Jacques Lazier (1971– ), racecar driver Johnny Mauro (1910–2003), racecar driver Willard Prentiss (1897–1959), racecar driver Jerry Robertson (1962– ), NASCAR driver Skiing John Jarrett (1970– ), U.S. Olympic skier Arturo Kinch (1956– ), U.S. Olympic skier # Dolores LaChapelle (1926–2007), skier, mountain climber, ecologist Jonathan Lujan (1971– ), Paralympic alpine skier Kerry Lynch (1957– ), Nordic combined skier Michelle Roark (1974– ), U.S. Olympic freestyle skier # Katy Rodolph (1930–1994), U.S. Olympic skier Keith R. 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4189740	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant%20defense%20against%20herbivory	Plant defense against herbivory	Plant defense against herbivory or host-plant resistance (HPR) is a range of adaptations evolved by plants which improve their survival and reproduction by reducing the impact of herbivores. Plants can sense being touched, and they can use several strategies to defend against damage caused by herbivores. Many plants produce secondary metabolites, known as allelochemicals, that influence the behavior, growth, or survival of herbivores. These chemical defenses can act as repellents or toxins to herbivores or reduce plant digestibility. Another defensive strategy of plants is changing their attractiveness. To prevent overconsumption by large herbivores, plants alter their appearance by changing their size or quality, reducing the rate at which they are consumed. Other defensive strategies used by plants include escaping or avoiding herbivores at any time in any placefor example, by growing in a location where plants are not easily found or accessed by herbivores or by changing seasonal growth patterns. Another approach diverts herbivores toward eating non-essential parts or enhances the ability of a plant to recover from the damage caused by herbivory. Some plants encourage the presence of natural enemies of herbivores, which in turn protect the plant. Each type of defense can be either constitutive (always present in the plant) or induced (produced in reaction to damage or stress caused by herbivores). Historically, insects have been the most significant herbivores, and the evolution of land plants is closely associated with the evolution of insects. While most plant defenses are directed against insects, other defenses have evolved that are aimed at vertebrate herbivores, such as birds and mammals. The study of plant defenses against herbivory is important, not only from an evolutionary viewpoint, but also for the direct impact that these defenses have on agriculture, including human and livestock food sources; as beneficial 'biological control agents' in biological pest control programs; and in the search for plants of medical importance. Evolution of defensive traits The earliest land plants evolved from aquatic plants around (Ma) in the Ordovician period. Many plants have adapted to an iodine-deficient terrestrial environment by removing iodine from their metabolism; in fact, iodine is essential only for animal cells. An important antiparasitic action is caused by the blockage in the transport of iodide of animal cells, inhibiting sodium-iodide symporter (NIS). Many plant pesticides are glycosides (such as cardiac digitoxin) and cyanogenic glycosides that liberate cyanide, which, by blocking cytochrome c oxidase and NIS, is poisonous only for a large part of parasites and herbivores and not for the plant cells, in which it seems useful in the seed dormancy phase. Iodide is not a pesticide but is oxidized, by vegetable peroxidase to iodine, which is a strong oxidant able to kill bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. The Cretaceous period saw the appearance of more plant defense mechanisms. The diversification of flowering plants (angiosperms) at that time is associated with the sudden burst of speciation in insects. This diversification of insects represented a major selective force in plant evolution and led to the selection of plants that had defensive adaptations. Early insect herbivores were mandibulate and bit or chewed vegetation, but the evolution of vascular plants lead to the co-evolution of other forms of herbivory, such as sap-sucking, leaf mining, gall forming and nectar-feeding. The relative abundance of different species of plants in ecological communities including forests and grasslands may be determined in part by the level of defensive compounds in the different species. Since the cost of replacing damaged leaves is higher in conditions where resources are scarce, it may also be that plants growing in areas where water and nutrients are scarce may invest more resources into anti-herbivore defenses, resulting in slower plant growth. Records of herbivores Knowledge of herbivory in geological time comes from three sources: fossilized plants, which may preserve evidence of defense (such as spines) or herbivory-related damage; the observation of plant debris in fossilised animal feces; and the structure of herbivore mouthparts. Long thought to be a Mesozoic phenomenon, evidence for herbivory is found almost as soon as fossils can show it. As previously discussed, the first land plants emerged around 450 million years ago; however, herbivory, and therefore the need for plant defenses, undoubtedly evolved among aquatic organisms in ancient lakes and oceans. Within 20 million years of the first fossils of sporangia and stems towards the close of the Silurian, around , there is evidence that plants were being consumed. Animals fed on the spores of early Devonian plants, and the Rhynie chert also provides evidence that organisms fed on plants using a "pierce and suck" technique. Many plants of this time are preserved with spine-like enations, which may have performed a defensive role before being co-opted to develop into leaves. During the ensuing 75 million years, plants evolved a range of more complex organs – from roots to seeds. There was a gap of 50 to 100 million years between each organ's evolution and its being eaten. Hole feeding and skeletonization are recorded in the early Permian, with surface fluid feeding evolving by the end of that period. Co-evolution Herbivores are dependent on plants for food and have evolved mechanisms to obtain this food despite the evolution of a diverse arsenal of plant defenses. Herbivore adaptations to plant defense have been likened to offensive traits and consist of adaptations that allow increased feeding and use of a host plant. Relationships between herbivores and their host plants often result in reciprocal evolutionary change, called co-evolution. When an herbivore eats a plant, it selects for plants that can mount a defensive response. In cases where this relationship demonstrates specificity (the evolution of each trait is due to the other) and reciprocity (both traits must evolve), the species are thought to have co-evolved. The "escape and radiation" mechanism for co-evolution presents the idea that adaptations in herbivores and their host plants have been the driving force behind speciation and have played a role in the radiation of insect species during the age of angiosperms. Some herbivores have evolved ways to hijack plant defenses to their own benefit by sequestering these chemicals and using them to protect themselves from predators. Plant defenses against herbivores are generally not complete, so plants also tend to evolve some tolerance to herbivory. Types Plant defenses can be classified as constitutive or induced. Constitutive defenses are always present, while induced defenses are produced or mobilized to the site where a plant is injured. There is wide variation in the composition and concentration of constitutive defenses; these range from mechanical defenses to digestibility reducers and toxins. Many external mechanical defenses and quantitative defenses are constitutive, as they require large amounts of resources to produce and are costly to mobilize. A variety of molecular and biochemical approaches are used to determine the mechanisms of constitutive and induced defensive responses. Induced defenses include secondary metabolites and morphological and physiological changes. An advantage of inducible, as opposed to constitutive defenses, is that they are only produced when needed, and are therefore potentially less costly, especially when herbivory is variable. Modes of induced defence include systemic acquired resistance and plant-induced systemic resistance. Chemical defenses The evolution of chemical defenses in plants is linked to the emergence of chemical substances that are not involved in the essential photosynthetic and metabolic activities. These substances, secondary metabolites, are organic compounds that are not directly involved in the normal growth, development or reproduction of organisms, and often produced as by-products during the synthesis of primary metabolic products. Examples of these byproducts include phenolics, flavonoids, and tannins. Although these secondary metabolites have been thought to play a major role in defenses against herbivores, a meta-analysis of recent relevant studies has suggested that they have either a more minimal (when compared to other non-secondary metabolites, such as primary chemistry and physiology) or more complex involvement in defense. Furthermore, plants can release volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to warn other plants in the area of stressful conditions. These toxic compounds can be used to deter the herbivore or even attract the herbivore's predator. Finally, some plants can also produce plant defensive proteins, which upon ingestion, end up poisoning the herbivore. Plants can also communicate through the air. Pheromone release and other scents can be detected by leaves and regulate plant immune response. In other words, plants produce volatile organic compounds (VOC) to warn other plants of danger and change their behavioral state to better respond to threats and survival. These warning signals produced by infected neighboring trees allow the undamaged trees to provocatively activate the necessary defense mechanisms. Within the plant itself, it transmits warning, nonvolatile signals as well as airborne signals to surrounding undamaged trees to strengthen their defense/immune system. For instance, poplar and sugar maple trees demonstrated that they received tannins from nearby damaged trees. In sagebrush, damaged plants send out airborne compounds, such as methyl jasmonate, to undamaged plants to increase proteinase inhibitor production and resistance to herbivory. Further observations illustrated that damaged plants release various VOCs and hormones to receiver plants as a form of communication for defense and regulating their immune system. The release of unique VOCs and extrafloral nectar (EFN) allow plants to protect themselves against herbivores by attracting animals from the third trophic level. For example, caterpillar-damaged plants guide parasitic wasps to prey on victims through the release of chemical signals.The sources of these compounds are most likely from glands in the leaves which are ruptured upon the chewing of an herbivore. The injury by herbivores induces the release of linolenic acid and other enzymatic reactions in an octadecanoid cascade, leading to the synthesis of jasmonic acid, a hormone which plays a central role in regulating immune responses. Jasmonic acid induces the release of VOCs and EFN which attract parasitic wasps and predatory mites to detect and feed on herbivores. These volatile organic compounds can also be released to other nearby plants to be prepared for the potential threats. Studies have shown that the volatile compounds emitted by plants are easy to be detected by third trophic level organisms as these signals are unique to herbivore damage. An experiment conducted to measure the VOCs from growing plants shows that signals are released instantaneously upon the herbivory damage and slowly dropped after the damage stopped. It was also observed that plants release the strongest signals during the time of day which animals tend to forage. Since trees are sessile, they've established unique internal defense systems. For instance, when some trees experience herbivory, they release compounds that make their vegetation less palatable. The herbivores saliva left on the leaves of the tree sends a chemical signal to the tree's cells. The tree cells respond by increasing the concentration of salicylic acid (hormone) production. Salicylic acid is a phytohormone that is one of the essential hormones for regulating plants' immune systems. This hormone then signals to increase the production of tree chemicals called tannins within its leaves. Tannins affect palatability and digestibility of vegetation while also increasing the concentration of growth hormones, encouraging new leaf growth. The increased production of tannins makes it difficult for deer to digest, which makes the leaves less appealing to eat. The research experiment done by Bettina Ohse, et al. found that a group of field-grown saplings of European beech and sycamore maple trees could sense whether it was specifically a deer eating at its leaves. The scientists realized saliva caused an increase in tannin concentration, due to their experiment of having broken leaves that contain saliva and ones that do not. The leaves that contained the deer saliva showed an increase in tannin and experienced an increase in the growth of the leaves of the tree, but the leaves without the deer saliva did not experience these changes. The increase in tannin concentration is one internal mechanism that trees use to combat mobile predators, like deer. This tannin increase is done by the trees' immune system and is a key defense strategy used by plants of all kinds. Qualitative and quantitative metabolites Secondary metabolites are often characterized as either qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative metabolites are defined as toxins that interfere with a herbivore's metabolism, often by blocking specific biochemical reactions. Qualitative chemicals are present in plants in relatively low concentrations (often less than 2% dry weight), and are not dosage dependent. They are usually small, water-soluble molecules, and therefore can be rapidly synthesized, transported and stored with relatively little energy cost to the plant. Qualitative allelochemicals are usually effective against non-adapted generalist herbivores. Quantitative chemicals are those that are present in high concentration in plants (5 – 40% dry weight) and are equally effective against all specialists and generalist herbivores. Most quantitative metabolites are digestibility reducers that make plant cell walls indigestible to animals. The effects of quantitative metabolites are dosage dependent and the higher these chemicals' proportion in the herbivore's diet, the less nutrition the herbivore can gain from ingesting plant tissues. Because they are typically large molecules, these defenses are energetically expensive to produce and maintain, and often take longer to synthesize and transport. The geranium, for example, produces the amino acid, quisqualic acid in its petals to defend itself from Japanese beetles. Within 30 minutes of ingestion the chemical paralyzes the herbivore. While the chemical usually wears off within a few hours, during this time the beetle is often consumed by its own predators. Antiherbivory compounds Plants have evolved many secondary metabolites involved in plant defense, which are collectively known as antiherbivory compounds and can be classified into three sub-groups: nitrogen compounds (including alkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides, glucosinolates and benzoxazinoids), terpenoids, and phenolics. Alkaloids are derived from various amino acids. Over 3000 known alkaloids exist, examples include nicotine, caffeine, morphine, cocaine, colchicine, ergolines, strychnine, and quinine. Alkaloids have pharmacological effects on humans and other animals. Some alkaloids can inhibit or activate enzymes, or alter carbohydrate and fat storage by inhibiting the formation phosphodiester bonds involved in their breakdown. Certain alkaloids bind to nucleic acids and can inhibit synthesis of proteins and affect DNA repair mechanisms. Alkaloids can also affect cell membrane and cytoskeletal structure causing the cells to weaken, collapse, or leak, and can affect nerve transmission. Although alkaloids act on a diversity of metabolic systems in humans and other animals, they almost uniformly invoke an aversively bitter taste. Cyanogenic glycosides are stored in inactive forms in plant vacuoles. They become toxic when herbivores eat the plant and break cell membranes allowing the glycosides to come into contact with enzymes in the cytoplasm releasing hydrogen cyanide which blocks cellular respiration. Glucosinolates are activated in much the same way as cyanogenic glucosides, and the products can cause gastroenteritis, salivation, diarrhea, and irritation of the mouth. Benzoxazinoids, such as DIMBOA, are secondary defence metabolites characteristic of certain grasses (Poaceae). Like cyanogenic glycosides, they are stored as inactive glucosides in the plant vacuole. Upon tissue disruption they get into contact with β-glucosidases from the chloroplasts, which enzymatically release the toxic aglucones. Whereas some benzoxazinoids are constitutively present, others are only synthesized following herbivore infestation, and thus, considered inducible plant defenses against herbivory. The terpenoids, sometimes referred to as isoprenoids, are organic chemicals similar to terpenes, derived from five-carbon isoprene units. There are over 10,000 known types of terpenoids. Most are multicyclic structures which differ from one another in both functional groups, and in basic carbon skeletons. Monoterpenoids, continuing 2 isoprene units, are volatile essential oils such as citronella, limonene, menthol, camphor, and pinene. Diterpenoids, 4 isoprene units, are widely distributed in latex and resins, and can be quite toxic. Diterpenes are responsible for making Rhododendron leaves poisonous. Plant steroids and sterols are also produced from terpenoid precursors, including vitamin D, glycosides (such as digitalis) and saponins (which lyse red blood cells of herbivores). Phenolics, sometimes called phenols, consist of an aromatic 6-carbon ring bonded to a hydroxy group. Some phenols have antiseptic properties, while others disrupt endocrine activity. Phenolics range from simple tannins to the more complex flavonoids that give plants much of their red, blue, yellow, and white pigments. Complex phenolics called polyphenols are capable of producing many different types of effects on humans, including antioxidant properties. Some examples of phenolics used for defense in plants are: lignin, silymarin and cannabinoids. Condensed tannins, polymers composed of 2 to 50 (or more) flavonoid molecules, inhibit herbivore digestion by binding to consumed plant proteins and making them more difficult for animals to digest, and by interfering with protein absorption and digestive enzymes. In addition, some plants use fatty acid derivatives, amino acids and even peptides as defenses. The cholinergic toxin, cicutoxin of water hemlock, is a polyyne derived from the fatty acid metabolism. Oxalyldiaminopropionic acid is a neurotoxic amino acid produced as a defensive metabolite in the grass pea (Lathyrus sativus). The synthesis of fluoroacetate in several plants is an example of the use of small molecules to disrupt the metabolism of herbivores, in this case the citric acid cycle. Mechanical defenses See the review of mechanical defenses by Lucas et al., 2000, which remains relevant and well regarded in the subject . Many plants have external structural defenses that discourage herbivory. Structural defenses can be described as morphological or physical traits that give the plant a fitness advantage by deterring herbivores from feeding. Depending on the herbivore's physical characteristics (i.e. size and defensive armor), plant structural defenses on stems and leaves can deter, injure, or kill the grazer. Some defensive compounds are produced internally but are released onto the plant's surface; for example, resins, lignins, silica, and wax cover the epidermis of terrestrial plants and alter the texture of the plant tissue. The leaves of holly plants, for instance, are very smooth and slippery making feeding difficult. Some plants produce gummosis or sap that traps insects. Spines and thorns A plant's leaves and stem may be covered with sharp prickles, spines, thorns or trichomes- hairs on the leaf often with barbs, sometimes containing irritants or poisons. Plant structural features like spines, thorns and awns reduce feeding by large ungulate herbivores (e.g. kudu, impala, and goats) by restricting the herbivores' feeding rate, or by wearing down the molars. Trichomes are frequently associated with lower rates of plant tissue digestion by insect herbivores. Raphides are sharp needles of calcium oxalate or calcium carbonate in plant tissues, making ingestion painful, damaging a herbivore's mouth and gullet and causing more efficient delivery of the plant's toxins. The structure of a plant, its branching and leaf arrangement may also be evolved to reduce herbivore impact. The shrubs of New Zealand have evolved special wide branching adaptations believed to be a response to browsing birds such as the moas. Similarly, African Acacias have long spines low in the canopy, but very short spines high in the canopy, which is comparatively safe from herbivores such as giraffes. Trees such as palms protect their fruit by multiple layers of armor, needing efficient tools to break through to the seed contents. Some plants, notably the grasses, use indigestible silica (and many plants use other relatively indigestible materials such as lignin) to defend themselves against vertebrate and invertebrate herbivores. Plants take up silicon from the soil and deposit it in their tissues in the form of solid silica phytoliths. These mechanically reduce the digestibility of plant tissue, causing rapid wear to vertebrate teeth and to insect mandibles, and are effective against herbivores above and below ground. The mechanism may offer future sustainable pest-control strategies. Thigmonastic movements Thigmonastic movements, those that occur in response to touch, are used as a defense in some plants. The leaves of the sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica, close up rapidly in response to direct touch, vibration, or even electrical and thermal stimuli. The proximate cause of this mechanical response is an abrupt change in the turgor pressure in the pulvini at the base of leaves resulting from osmotic phenomena. This is then spread via both electrical and chemical means through the plant; only a single leaflet need be disturbed. This response lowers the surface area available to herbivores, which are presented with the underside of each leaflet, and results in a wilted appearance. It may also physically dislodge small herbivores, such as insects. Carnivorous plants Carnivory in plants has evolved at least six times independently, some examples include the Venus flytrap, pitcher plant, and butterwort. Although many outside of the scientific community usually believe these plants excel in defenses, many of these plants have evolved in poor nutrient soil. In order to get sufficient nutrients in these conditions they must use an alternative method. They use insects and small birds as a way to gain the minerals they need through carnivory. Carnivorous plants do not use carnivory as self-defense, but to get the nutrients they need. Mimicry and camouflage Some plants mimic the presence of insect eggs on their leaves, dissuading insect species from laying their eggs there. Because female butterflies are less likely to lay their eggs on plants that already have butterfly eggs, some species of neotropical vines of the genus Passiflora (Passion flowers) contain physical structures resembling the yellow eggs of Heliconius butterflies on their leaves, which discourage oviposition by butterflies. Indirect defenses Another category of plant defenses are those features that indirectly protect the plant by enhancing the probability of attracting the natural enemies of herbivores. Such an arrangement is known as mutualism, in this case of the "enemy of my enemy" variety. One such feature are semiochemicals, given off by plants. Semiochemicals are a group of volatile organic compounds involved in interactions between organisms. One group of semiochemicals are allelochemicals; consisting of allomones, which play a defensive role in interspecies communication, and kairomones, which are used by members of higher trophic levels to locate food sources. When a plant is attacked it releases allelochemics containing an abnormal ratio of these s (HIPVs). Predators sense these volatiles as food cues, attracting them to the damaged plant, and to feeding herbivores. The subsequent reduction in the number of herbivores confers a fitness benefit to the plant and demonstrates the indirect defensive capabilities of semiochemicals. Induced volatiles also have drawbacks, however; some studies have suggested that these volatiles attract herbivores. Crop domestication has increased yield sometimes at the expense of HIPV production. Orre Gordon et al 2013 tests several methods of artificially restoring the plant-predator partnership, by combining companion planting and synthetic predator attractants. They describe several strategies which work and several which do not. Plants sometimes provide housing and food items for natural enemies of herbivores, known as "biotic" defense mechanisms, as a means to maintain their presence. For example, trees from the genus Macaranga have adapted their thin stem walls to create ideal housing for an ant species (genus Crematogaster), which, in turn, protects the plant from herbivores. In addition to providing housing, the plant also provides the ant with its exclusive food source; from the food bodies produced by the plant. Similarly, several Acacia tree species have developed stipular spines (direct defenses) that are swollen at the base, forming a hollow structure that provides housing for protective ants. These Acacia trees also produce nectar in extrafloral nectaries on their leaves as food for the ants. Plant use of endophytic fungi in defense is common. Most plants have endophytes, microbial organisms that live within them. While some cause disease, others protect plants from herbivores and pathogenic microbes. Endophytes can help the plant by producing toxins harmful to other organisms that would attack the plant, such as alkaloid producing fungi which are common in grasses such as tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea), which is infected by Neotyphodium coenophialum. Trees of the same species form alliances with other tree species in order to improve their survival rate. They communicate and have dependent relationships through connections below the soil called underground mycorrhiza networks, which allows them to share water/nutrients and various signals for predatory attacks while also protecting its immune system. Within a forest of trees, the ones getting attacked send communication distress signals that alerts neighboring trees to alter their behavior (defense). The tree and fungi relationship is a symbiotic relationship. Fungi, intertwined with the trees' roots, support communication between trees to locate nutrients. In return, the fungi receive some of the sugar that trees photosynthesize. Trees send out several forms of communication including chemical, hormonal, and slow pulsing electric signals. Farmers investigated the electrical signals between trees, using a voltage-based signal system, similar to an animal's nervous system, where a tree faces distress and releases a warning signal to surrounding trees. Leaf shedding and color There have been suggestions that leaf shedding may be a response that provides protection against diseases and certain kinds of pests such as leaf miners and gall forming insects. Other responses such as the change of leaf colors prior to fall have also been suggested as adaptations that may help undermine the camouflage of herbivores. Autumn leaf color has also been suggested to act as an honest warning signal of defensive commitment towards insect pests that migrate to the trees in autumn. Costs and benefits Defensive structures and chemicals are costly as they require resources that could otherwise be used by plants to maximize growth and reproduction. In some situations, plant growth slows down when most of the nutrients are being used for the generation of toxins or regeneration of plant parts. Many models have been proposed to explore how and why some plants make this investment in defenses against herbivores. Optimal defense hypothesis The optimal defense hypothesis attempts to explain how the kinds of defenses a particular plant might use reflect the threats each individual plant faces. This model considers three main factors, namely: risk of attack, value of the plant part, and the cost of defense. The first factor determining optimal defense is risk: how likely is it that a plant or certain plant parts will be attacked? This is also related to the plant apparency hypothesis, which states that a plant will invest heavily in broadly effective defenses when the plant is easily found by herbivores. Examples of apparent plants that produce generalized protections include long-living trees, shrubs, and perennial grasses. Unapparent plants, such as short-lived plants of early successional stages, on the other hand, preferentially invest in small amounts of qualitative toxins that are effective against all but the most specialized herbivores. The second factor is the value of protection: would the plant be less able to survive and reproduce after removal of part of its structure by a herbivore? Not all plant parts are of equal evolutionary value, thus valuable parts contain more defenses. A plant's stage of development at the time of feeding also affects the resulting change in fitness. Experimentally, the fitness value of a plant structure is determined by removing that part of the plant and observing the effect. In general, reproductive parts are not as easily replaced as vegetative parts, terminal leaves have greater value than basal leaves, and the loss of plant parts mid-season has a greater negative effect on fitness than removal at the beginning or end of the season. Seeds in particular tend to be very well protected. For example, the seeds of many edible fruits and nuts contain cyanogenic glycosides such as amygdalin. This results from the need to balance the effort needed to make the fruit attractive to animal dispersers while ensuring that the seeds are not destroyed by the animal. The final consideration is cost: how much will a particular defensive strategy cost a plant in energy and materials? This is particularly important, as energy spent on defense cannot be used for other functions, such as reproduction and growth. The optimal defense hypothesis predicts that plants will allocate more energy towards defense when the benefits of protection outweigh the costs, specifically in situations where there is high herbivore pressure. Carbon:nutrient balance hypothesis The carbon:nutrient balance hypothesis, also known as the environmental constraint hypothesis or Carbon Nutrient Balance Model (CNBM), states that the various types of plant defenses are responses to variations in the levels of nutrients in the environment. This hypothesis predicts the Carbon/Nitrogen ratio in plants determines which secondary metabolites will be synthesized. For example, plants growing in nitrogen-poor soils will use carbon-based defenses (mostly digestibility reducers), while those growing in low-carbon environments (such as shady conditions) are more likely to produce nitrogen-based toxins. The hypothesis further predicts that plants can change their defenses in response to changes in nutrients. For example, if plants are grown in low-nitrogen conditions, then these plants will implement a defensive strategy composed of constitutive carbon-based defenses. If nutrient levels subsequently increase, by for example the addition of fertilizers, these carbon-based defenses will decrease. Growth rate hypothesis The growth rate hypothesis, also known as the resource availability hypothesis, states that defense strategies are determined by the inherent growth rate of the plant, which is in turn determined by the resources available to the plant. A major assumption is that available resources are the limiting factor in determining the maximum growth rate of a plant species. This model predicts that the level of defense investment will increase as the potential of growth decreases. Additionally, plants in resource-poor areas, with inherently slow-growth rates, tend to have long-lived leaves and twigs, and the loss of plant appendages may result in a loss of scarce and valuable nutrients. One test of this model involved a reciprocal transplants of seedlings of 20 species of trees between clay soils (nutrient rich) and white sand (nutrient poor) to determine whether trade-offs between growth rate and defenses restrict species to one habitat. When planted in white sand and protected from herbivores, seedlings originating from clay outgrew those originating from the nutrient-poor sand, but in the presence of herbivores the seedlings originating from white sand performed better, likely due to their higher levels of constitutive carbon-based defenses. These finding suggest that defensive strategies limit the habitats of some plants. Growth-differentiation balance hypothesis The growth-differentiation balance hypothesis states that plant defenses are a result of a tradeoff between "growth-related processes" and "differentiation-related processes" in different environments. Differentiation-related processes are defined as "processes that enhance the structure or function of existing cells (i.e. maturation and specialization)." A plant will produce chemical defenses only when energy is available from photosynthesis, and plants with the highest concentrations of secondary metabolites are the ones with an intermediate level of available resources. The GDBH also accounts for tradeoffs between growth and defense over a resource availability gradient. In situations where resources (e.g. water and nutrients) limit photosynthesis, carbon supply is predicted to limit both growth and defense. As resource availability increases, the requirements needed to support photosynthesis are met, allowing for accumulation of carbohydrate in tissues. As resources are not sufficient to meet the large demands of growth, these carbon compounds can instead be partitioned into the synthesis of carbon based secondary metabolites (phenolics, tannins, etc.). In environments where the resource demands for growth are met, carbon is allocated to rapidly dividing meristems (high sink strength) at the expense of secondary metabolism. Thus rapidly growing plants are predicted to contain lower levels of secondary metabolites and vice versa. In addition, the tradeoff predicted by the GDBH may change over time, as evidenced by a recent study on Salix spp. Much support for this hypothesis is present in the literature, and some scientists consider the GDBH the most mature of the plant defense hypotheses. Synthesis tradeoffs The vast majority of plant resistances to herbivores are either unrelated to each other, or are positively correlated. However there are some negative correlations: In Pastinaca sativa'''s resistances to various biotypes of Depressaria pastinacella, because the secondary metabolites involved are negatively correlated with each other; and in the resistances of Diplacus aurantiacus. In Brassica rapa, resistance to Peronospora parasitica and growth rate are negatively correlated. Mutualism and overcompensation of plants Many plants do not have secondary metabolites, chemical processes, or mechanical defenses to help them fend off herbivores. Instead, these plants rely on overcompensation (which is regarded as a form of mutualism) when they are attacked by herbivores. Overcompensation is defined as having higher fitness when attacked by a herbivore. This a mutual relationship; the herbivore is satisfied with a meal, while the plant starts growing the missing part quickly. These plants have a higher chance of reproducing, and their fitness is increased. Importance to humans Agriculture The variation of plant susceptibility to pests was probably known even in the early stages of agriculture in humans. In historic times, the observation of such variations in susceptibility have provided solutions for major socio-economic problems. The hemipteran pest insect phylloxera was introduced from North America to France in 1860 and in 25 years it destroyed nearly a third (100,000 km2) of French vineyards. Charles Valentine Riley noted that the American species Vitis labrusca was resistant to Phylloxera. Riley, with J. E. Planchon, helped save the French wine industry by suggesting the grafting of the susceptible but high quality grapes onto Vitis labrusca root stocks. The formal study of plant resistance to herbivory was first covered extensively in 1951 by Reginald Henry Painter, who is widely regarded as the founder of this area of research, in his book Plant Resistance to Insects. While this work pioneered further research in the US, the work of Chesnokov was the basis of further research in the USSR. Fresh growth of grass is sometimes high in prussic acid content and can cause poisoning of grazing livestock. The production of cyanogenic chemicals in grasses is primarily a defense against herbivores. The human innovation of cooking may have been particularly helpful in overcoming many of the defensive chemicals of plants. Many enzyme inhibitors in cereal grains and pulses, such as trypsin inhibitors prevalent in pulse crops, are denatured by cooking, making them digestible. It has been known since the late 17th century that plants contain noxious chemicals which are avoided by insects. These chemicals have been used by man as early insecticides; in 1690 nicotine was extracted from tobacco and used as a contact insecticide. In 1773, insect infested plants were treated with nicotine fumigation by heating tobacco and blowing the smoke over the plants. The flowers of Chrysanthemum species contain pyrethrin which is a potent insecticide. In later years, the applications of plant resistance became an important area of research in agriculture and plant breeding, particularly because they can serve as a safe and low-cost alternative to the use of pesticides. The important role of secondary plant substances in plant defense was described in the late 1950s by Vincent Dethier and G.S. Fraenkel. The use of botanical pesticides is widespread and notable examples include Azadirachtin from the neem (Azadirachta indica), d-Limonene from Citrus species, Rotenone from Derris, Capsaicin from chili pepper and Pyrethrum. Natural materials found in the environment also induce plant resistance as well. Chitosan derived from chitin induce a plant's natural defense response against pathogens, diseases and insects including cyst nematodes, both are approved as biopesticides by the EPA to reduce the dependence on toxic pesticides. The selective breeding of crop plants often involves selection against the plant's intrinsic resistance strategies. This makes crop plant varieties particularly susceptible to pests unlike their wild relatives. In breeding for host-plant resistance, it is often the wild relatives that provide the source of resistance genes. These genes are incorporated using conventional approaches to plant breeding, but have also been augmented by recombinant techniques, which allow introduction of genes from completely unrelated organisms. The most famous transgenic approach is the introduction of genes from the bacterial species, Bacillus thuringiensis, into plants. The bacterium produces proteins that, when ingested, kill lepidopteran caterpillars. The gene encoding for these highly toxic proteins, when introduced into the host plant genome, confers resistance against caterpillars, when the same toxic proteins are produced within the plant. This approach is controversial, however, due to the possibility of ecological and toxicological side effects. Pharmaceutical Many currently available pharmaceuticals are derived from the secondary metabolites plants use to protect themselves from herbivores, including opium, aspirin, cocaine, and atropine. These chemicals have evolved to affect the biochemistry of insects in very specific ways. However, many of these biochemical pathways are conserved in vertebrates, including humans, and the chemicals act on human biochemistry in ways similar to that of insects. It has therefore been suggested that the study of plant-insect interactions may help in bioprospecting. There is evidence that humans began using plant alkaloids in medical preparations as early as 3000 B.C. Although the active components of most medicinal plants have been isolated only recently (beginning in the early 19th century) these substances have been used as drugs throughout the human history in potions, medicines, teas and as poisons. For example, to combat herbivory by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, Cinchona trees produce a variety of alkaloids, the most familiar of which is quinine. Quinine is extremely bitter, making the bark of the tree quite unpalatable. It is also an anti-fever agent, known as Jesuit's bark, and is especially useful in treating malaria. Throughout history mandrakes (Mandragora officinarum) have been highly sought after for their reputed aphrodisiac properties. However, the roots of the mandrake plant also contain large quantities of the alkaloid scopolamine, which, at high doses, acts as a central nervous system depressant, and makes the plant highly toxic to herbivores. Scopolamine was later found to be medicinally used for pain management prior to and during labor; in smaller doses it is used to prevent motion sickness. One of the most well-known medicinally valuable terpenes is an anticancer drug, taxol, isolated from the bark of the Pacific yew, Taxus brevifolia, in the early 1960s. Biological pest control Repellent companion planting, defensive live fencing hedges, and "obstructive-repellent" interplanting, with host-plant resistance species as beneficial 'biological control agents' is a technique in biological pest control programs for: organic gardening, wildlife gardening, sustainable gardening, and sustainable landscaping; in organic farming and sustainable agriculture; and in restoration ecology methods for habitat restoration projects. See also Anti-predator adaptation Aposematism Biopesticide Chemical ecology Canavanine Druse (botany) Laticifer Lectin List of beneficial weeds List of companion plants List of pest-repelling plants Plant disease resistance Plant tolerance to herbivory Plant communication Pollination Phytoalexin Raphide Rapid plant movement Seed predation Tritrophic interactions in plant defense References Citations Sources Hartley, Sue (2010) The 300 Million Years War: Plant Biomass v Herbivores Royal Institution Christmas Lecture''. Howe, H. F., and L. C. Westley. 1988. Ecological relationships of plants and animals. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. External links Bruce A. Kimball Evolutionary Plant Defense Strategies Life Histories and Contributions to Future Generations Plant Defense Systems & Medicinal Botany Herbivore Defenses of Senecio viscosus L. Sue Hartley Royal Institution Christmas Lectures 2009: The Animals Strike Back Herbivory Plant physiology Biological pest control Ecological restoration Habitat management equipment and methods Sustainable agriculture Antipredator adaptations Chemical ecology
4189891	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%20%26%20J%20Smith	H & J Smith	H & J Smith Holdings Ltd, branded as H & J Smith and known colloquially as H&J's or Smith's is a company which operates in the lower South Island of New Zealand. The company was founded in 1900. It primarily operates in department stores, specialty stores and franchises (some within the main department stores). The department stores are located in Invercargill, Gore and Queenstown. There were also department stores in Dunedin, Te Anau, Balclutha, Nelson, and Blenheim. History H & J Smith was established by brother and sister John Smith and Helen Hay Smith in 1900 as a drapery store in Invercargill and became a major retail company in New Zealand. The company has also maintained a presence on Dunedin's George Street for almost a 120 years. In addition, H & J Smith operated a network of stores in the Nelson and Blenheim area. The H & J Smith store in Nelson at 60/80 Bridge Street was closed in 2003. On 25 May 2020, it was reported that H & J Smith was considering closing its stores in Dunedin, Mosgiel, Balclutha, Te Anau, and Gore as well as the Armoury Store in Dunedin and Outdoor World in Queenstown as a result of the economic effects of the global COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand. The Take Note store in Gore would relocate but H & J Smith's stores in Invercargill and Queenstown would remain open. A final decision will be made in early June with the downsizing expected to affect 175 jobs. Dunedin and Clutha Mayors Aaron Hawkins and Bryan Cadogan have urged the company to reconsider their closure plans. In early June 2020, H&J Smith confirmed the closure of its Te Anau and Balclutha stores in late July while downsizing its Gore branch in late August 2020. The Outdoor World in Queenstown and Take Note Store will also be closed down. These closures will affect 60 employees. On 19 June, H&J Smith confirmed that it would be closing its Dunedin department store in January 2021 and the Armoury Store in the nearby Wall Street precinct. In May 2023, H&J Smith announced that they proposed to close all of their remaining department stores (Invercargill, Gore, Queenstown) by November citing a decline in the department store model and the cost of renovating and strengthening the Invercargill flagship. The other stores owned by the group (Mitre 10 Mega Queenstown, Mitre 10 Mega Invercargill and Laser Electrical) would not close but they would look at selling off their Gun City, Paper Plus and school uniform services. On June 26, 2023, the decision was finalised to shut down the department stores on 18 November 2023, with a loss of 220 jobs. It was announced in July 2023 that the store in Gore would be taken over by Long Beach Holdings Ltd. and rebranded to APT Collections they previously took over the store in Mosgiel. The Armoury Fashion Boutique would be taken over by Tania Roderique and the Gun City store taken over by the parent company. Department stores operated by H & J Smith H & J Smith Invercargill The Invercargill Department Store is the flagship store, with by far the most floor space (at 12,000sqm taking up the width of a city block) and largest offering. Store departments include Cosmetics and Fine Fragrance, Ladies' Fashion, Men's Fashion, Lingerie, Accessories (including jewellery and watches), Footwear, Icebreaker, Paper Plus, Waxx surf shop, uproar streetware, and Armoury Fashion Boutique on the Ground Floor. The First Floor includes Furniture, KidsWorld (including Fashion, Nursery and Toys), Soft Furnishings, Home Linens, Giftware (including Kitchenware tableware and Home Decor), Function Room, Gift Registry, Mother's Room, Main Office and toilets. H & J's also sells School Uniforms and Luggage. The store also includes a café restaurant branded as The Copper Kettle on the upper floor, and MOOCH Espresso Bar on the ground floor. The Invercargill store includes a Sky Bridge connecting the store to a paid car park building. Store history The Invercargill store was the very first H&J Smith store, the original store was located at 125 Dee Street in Invercargill and moved to 48 Tay Street in 1908 after the original premises was considered too small. In 1923 the Invercargill store was once again relocated this time H&J Smith's purchased the Price & Bulleid Building on the corner of Tay and Kelvin street, H&J Smith Invercargill remains in this location today. Since then the building has been extended several times stretching out to Kelvin street, a clock tower was added to the Tay street corner of the building in 1940, this was replaced with a digital clock in 1970 and the building facades were upgraded in 1969. A car parking building was constructed across the road from H&J Smith's on the Esk street side, in the 1970s and a sky bridge between the car park and H&J Smiths was built in the 1980s. H&J Smiths purchased the adjoining building on Esk street in 1989, at the time this was most recently used by the Invercargill Licensing Trust as a liquor store and before this was home to Watts & Greive Ltd, a Morris car dealer. This building was used for H&J Smiths Mitre 10 franchise between 1990 and 2004, H&J Smith's Appliance Centre between 2006 and 2011 and after extensive renovations were made to this building in 2014 the building is now home to Outdoor H&J Smith. During the 2000s the Invercargill store was subject to major renovations including the addition of twin escalators, where in the past there was only one escalator going in the up direction. A larger cosmetic department located in the centre of the Esk Street end of the store was added in 2003, as well as an extensive Fine Fragrance area. Dressmaking fabrics were removed from the store in 2009. In 2011, the Invercargill Paper Plus franchise, which H & J Smith had purchased in 2010, was incorporated into the main Invercargill store, replacing a Take Note franchise. Postal services were removed at this time, however in 2019 postal services were reinstated after the Invercargill Post Shop closed down. An Appliance Department existed up until 2011, the original location was on the second floor but the department moved to the building next door in 2006 after Mitre 10 moved to its current Mega Store location. The appliance department was branded as H & J's Appliance Centre and for a time was a Betta Electrical franchise. H & J's Outdoor A sporting goods store, originally known as Outdoor World in Invercargill and Element in Queenstown. The Outdoor Invercargill store is located on Esk Street Invercargill next door to the H & J Smith Invercargill department store with an entrance between the two stores. H & J's Outdoor sells a range of outdoor clothing, camping equipment, sports equipment, bikes including a bikes workshop, hunting and fishing gear and firearms. H & J's Outdoor operated the franchise for Gun City in Invercargill. Store history Outdoor World opened in the former Thomson and Beattie drapery store at 27 Tay Street Invercargill in 1972, the original store was on 2 levels. In 2014 Outdoor World relocated to its current location on Esk Street and today the original Tay Street building is now used as a motorcycle museum called "Classic Motor Cycle Mecca." In Queenstown H & J Smith opened an Outdoor store opened in the early 2000s this store was originally known as Element and later rebranded as H & J's Outdoor. In early June 2020, H & J Smith confirmed that its Outdoor World branch in Queenstown would be closing down in August, resulting in the loss of ten jobs. The Outdoor store in Queenstown closed on 29 August 2020. In August 2023 the Gun City franchise was taken over by the parent company and continues to operate in the hunting and fishing space within the H & J's Outdoor store. H & J Smith Remarkables Park (Queenstown) The Remarkable Park store is located in the Remarkable Park shopping centre in Frankton. The store is the newest and most modern, but still features the traditional cream interior colour scheme of the other stores. The store offers limited Cosmetics and Fine Fragrance, Ladies Fashion, Men's Fashion, Kids Fashion, Nursery, Lingerie, Accessories, Footwear, Luggage, Giftware, Home Linens, Bedding, and Furniture. H & J Smith Little Pips Little Pips was a Children's and Nursery store in the Remarkable Park shopping centre. Little Pips includes Nursery, Children's and Baby clothing. The Nursery offering includes car seats, prams, cots and baby toys. The clothing range includes children's clothing up to size 8 with larger sizes sold in the main department store. Little Pips was created in 2022 after the Queenstown Armoury store was integrated into the main department store, the store was closed in 2023 with the offering moved back into the main department store. Store history H & J Smith Ltd has been operating in Queenstown since 1971 when H & J Smith purchased Queenstown Drapery store WH Wheatley, located on Ballarat street in Queenstown. In 2000 a new store was built in the Remarkables Park Town Centre shopping centre which in addition to H&J Smiths included retail space for an Outdoor store (originally known as Element) and Mitre 10. The Mitre 10 store was relocated to Shotover Park in 2015 as a Mitre 10 Mega store and this retail space is now occupied by Harvey Norman. Franchises operated by H & J Smith Mitre 10 MEGA Invercargill The Mitre 10 MEGA store in Invercargill is owned by H & J Smith. H & J Smith's Mitre 10 was first opened in 1988 next to the Invercargill department store. In 2004 H & J Smith indicated their intentions to upgrade the Invercargill store to a Mitre 10 MEGA store. The new store was built in the former Woolworths Supermarket which had only been operating in the Central Business District of Invercargill for 4 years. The Burger King restaurant next to the Woolworths Supermarket had to be demolished and rebuilt in another part of the car park to accommodate the Mitre 10 Mega store. The Mitre 10 Mega store was opened in March 2005. Mitre 10 MEGA Queenstown H & J Smith also operate the Mitre 10 MEGA store in Shotover Park in Frankton. The original Mitre 10 store in Queenstown was opened in 1993 and was located on Gray street. The store moved to the Remarkable Park shopping centre in 2000. As early as 2003, H & J Smith revealed intentions to build a new Mitre 10 MEGA store in Frankton, and after several attempts to gain resource consent the MEGA store was finally opened in 2015. Laser Electrical Invercargill Originally known as H&J Smith Electrical and located on Tay Street this electrical contracting business is now a Laser Electrical franchise located on Bond Street. The company offers an appliance repair service as well as a household and business electrical service. In the past there was also a H&J Smith Electrical business in Queenstown but this has now closed down. Past stores operated by H&J Smiths Armoury Fashion Boutique Armoury is a ladies' fashion boutique store. H & J Smith operated Armoury stores in Invercargill, Dunedin and Queenstown. The Armoury brand was created as a consolidation of stores H & J Smith had recently purchased, DT Carter in Invercargill and Queenstown and French Floozie in Dunedin. The Dunedin Armoury store originally known as French Floozie was located in the Wall Street Mail and was closed in January 2021 when H & J Smith closed their Dunedin department store. The Queenstown Armoury store was located in the Remarkable Park shopping centre and was integrated into the H & J Smith Remarkable Park store in 2022. The Invercargill store is located at the Esk street corner of the department store; this store was formerly called Lifestyle. In August 2023 the Armoury store was taken over by Tania Roderique and continues to operate inside the H & J Smith Invercargill department store. Big Scotty's Big Scotty's was a furniture store operated on Clyde Street in Invercargill selling lounge, bedroom, dining and home entertainment furniture. In October 2010, it was announced that this store would be closing. H & J's Carpet World H & J's Carpet World was a carpet store on Tay Street in Invercargill selling a large range of carpets, vinyls and mats. This store was taken over by Flooring Xtra. H & J Smith Dunedin H & J Smith took over the longstanding Dunedin department store Arthur Barnett in 2015 and operated this store until January 2021. The history of the Dunedin store dates back to 1903 as Arthur Barnett's flagship store. The Dunedin Arthur Barnett store building was remodelled into Dunedin's Meridian Mall between 1995 and 1997 with Arthur Barnett the anchor tenant in the Meridian Mall. At its prime, Arthur Barnett operated 5 stores across Otago. By the time of purchase, it had declined to a store in Dunedin and an online store. The online store was reformatted into H&J's first foray into online retailing. Arthur Barnett was sold to H & J Smith in June 2015 and after a short period continuing under its original name, store was rebranded to align with H&J's other department stores. At the time of the H&J Smith takeover a section of the store was sub-leased to ToyWorld Dunedin, this arrangement had been in place since 2010 when the local franchise holder relocated from a ToyWorld store on Dunedin's Vogel street to a section of Arthur Barnett. This agreement came to an end in 2018 and the ToyWorld store closed with the section replaced with H&J Smith's toy department. Following the rebrand from Arthur Barnett to H&J Smith the cafe was rebranded as Mooch Cafe, the same as the Invercargill store. The store, within Dunedin's Meridian Mall on the main shopping street of George St, was H & J Smith's second-largest department store after its Invercargill flagship. Departments included Cosmetics, Ladieswear, Menswear, Lingerie, Accessories, Childrenswear and Toys, School Uniforms, Casual Living, Home Linens, Furniture, as well as an in-store 'espresso bar' café. The cosmetics department offered H&J's largest selection of prestige beauty brands. On 19 June 2020, H & J Smith confirmed that it would be closing down its Dunedin branch in January 2021. The Dunedin store closed on 30 January 2021. H & J Smith Balclutha H & J Smith operated a department store on Clyde Street in Balclutha between 2001 and 2020, the store was taken over from Arthur Barnett in 2001. The Balclutha store was small in comparison with H & J's other department stores, and carried a limited offering, but was large compared to surrounding retailers in Balclutha. In the past the store was on 2 floors with a furniture and home appliance offering. Prior to closure the store offered Ladies', Men's and Children's Apparel, footwear, Revlon cosmetics, Giftware (kitchen and tableware), Home Linens and kids toys. In early June 2020, H&J Smith confirmed that it would be closing its Balclutha branch in July 2020. The Balclutha stored closed on 1 August 2020. H & J Smith Gore H & J Smith opened their second store in Gore in 1905 originally in the Criterion Hotel building. H & J Smith Gore was relocated to a new building on the corner of Main street and Irk street in 1913 and remained in this building for 107 years, until September 2020 when H & J Smith in Gore was downsized to a smaller store. The upstairs portion of the store once housed the Woman's Club and a dental surgery. In 1954 Queen Elizabeth II visited Gore and dined at the Women's club located in the H & J Smith building. The front of the building was extended in size in 1925 doubling the Main street frontage and the Irk street frontage increased in 1930. In 2000 the store frontage was increased further after the neighbouring Hallensteins store closed down, an entrance way was created between the H & J Smith store and the former Hallensteins store with this area becoming the menswear department. Upgrades to the Gore store took place over the years including the addition of a lift in 1971, and the opening of the Viking Restaurant in the 1970s. In the late 90s the Viking Restaurant was replaced with a new cafe The Junction Cafe located at the front of the store. The shop main entrance was relocated to the corner of the building. In February 2019 the Gore store was consolidated to a single floor with the public toilets and Soft Furnishings the only parts remaining on the First Floor. The consolidation to a single floor saw the closure of the Junction Café in 2018. In early June 2020, H & J Smith confirmed that their Gore branch would be further downsizing with the original store closing and relocated into the former Hallensteins building next door that H & J Smiths had used as the menswear department. The New Zealand Post services were moved across the road into the Paper Plus store. Part of the H & J Smith Gore store has now been tenanted by a local retailer called Interior Warehouse. The rear of the ground floor is now tenanted by Hello Banana. Departments that were offered in the Gore store prior to downsizing included Ladieswear, Childrenswear, Mens/Boyswear, Footwear, School Uniforms, Lingerie, Giftware (including Kitchenware, tabletop and Home Decor), Accessories, Cosmetics including Elizabeth Arden, Revlon, L'Oreal and Fragrance, Toys/Nursery, Soft Furnishings and Home Linens. A New Zealand Post and KiwiBank franchise also operated inside the store. Following the relocation to a smaller store the offering was reduced to Ladies and Mens fashion clothing, Footwear, Accessories and School Uniforms. In August 2023, following the announcement of H & J Smith deciding to call time on their department store business the Gore store was taken over by Longbeach Holdings Ltd and from September 2023 will operate as APT Collections. H & J Smith Mosgiel H & J Smith Mosgiel was a small fashion boutique located on the main street of Mosgiel. This store offered Ladieswear and a dry cleaning service. The Mosgiel store was sold to Longbeach Holdings Ltd in 2021 and reopened at the end of February 2021 as APT Collections. H & J Smith Te Anau H & J Smith Te Anau was a department store located in the Te Anau town centre and operated in Te Anau for 33 years between 1987 and 2020. The history of this store dates back to 1963 when business partners Dirkje Veenstra and Christina Mooyman opened The Ace Store in Te Anau. H & J Smith purchased The Ace Store on 4 April 1987. The building at this time was extensively remodelled and included the addition of a Temperature/Clock display similar to the one in the Invercargill store. In the early days the store included H & Js Carpet World in a shed at the rear of the store, The Hide Shop (a souvenir shop) was part of the original store but integrated into the main store in 1997. The Te Anau store initially traded as a full department store including whiteware, furniture and gifts. At the time of closure the offering included the Apparel, Home Linen, Footwear departments offered in the other stores. The store was always on a single floor. In early June 2020, H&J Smith confirmed that it would be closing its Te Anau branch in July 2020. The Te Anau store closed on 1 August 2020. Gallery References External links H & J Smith Website Invercargill Companies based in Invercargill Retail companies of New Zealand Department stores of New Zealand Retail companies established in 1900 New Zealand companies established in 1900
4190331	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Auca	Operation Auca	Operation Auca was an attempt by five Evangelical Christian missionaries from the United States to bring Christianity to the Waodani or Huaorani people of the rain forest of Ecuador. The Huaorani, also known pejoratively as Aucas (a modification of , the Quechua word for 'savages'), were an isolated tribe known for their violence, against both their own people and outsiders who entered their territory. With the intention of being the first Christians to evangelize the previously uncontacted Huaorani, the missionaries began making regular flights over Huaorani settlements in September 1955, dropping gifts, which were reciprocated. After several months of exchanging gifts, on January 3, 1956, the missionaries established a camp at "Palm Beach", a sandbar along the Curaray River, a few kilometers from Huaorani settlements. Their efforts came to an end on January 8, 1956, when all five—Jim Elliot, Nate Saint, Ed McCully, Peter Fleming, and Roger Youderian—were attacked and speared by a group of Huaorani warriors. The news of their deaths was broadcast around the world, and Life magazine covered the event with a photo essay. The deaths of the men galvanized the missionary effort in the United States, sparking an outpouring of funding for evangelization efforts around the world. Their work is still frequently remembered in evangelical publications, and in 2006 was the subject of the film production End of the Spear. Several years after the death of the men, the widow of Jim Elliot, Elisabeth, and the sister of Nate Saint, Rachel, returned to Ecuador as missionaries with the Summer Institute of Linguistics (now SIL International) to live among the Huaorani. This eventually led to the conversion of many, including some of those involved in the killing. Waorani The Waorani around the time of Operation Auca were a small tribe occupying the jungle of Eastern Ecuador between the Napo and Curaray Rivers, an area of approximately 20,000 square kilometers (7,700 mi²). They numbered approximately 600 people, and were split into three groups, all mutually hostile—the Geketaidi, the Baïidi, and the Wepeidi. They lived on the gathering and cultivation of plant foods like manioc and plantains, as well as fishing and hunting with spear and blowgun. Family units consisted of a man and his wife or wives, their unmarried sons, their married daughters and sons-in-law, and their grandchildren. All of them would reside in a longhouse, which was separated by several kilometers from another longhouse in which close relatives lived. Marriage was always endogamous and typically between cousins, and arranged by the parents of the young people. Before their first peaceful contact with outsiders () in 1958, the Huaorani fiercely defended their territory. Viewing all as cannibalistic predators, they killed rubber tappers around the turn of the 20th century and Shell Oil Company employees during the 1940s, in addition to any lowland Quechua or other outsiders who encroached on their land. Furthermore, they were prone to internal violence, often engaging in vengeance killing of other Huaorani. Raids were carried out in extreme anger by groups of men who attacked their victims' longhouse by night and then fled. Attempts to build truces through gifts and exchange of spouses became more frequent as their numbers decreased and the tribes fragmented, but the cycle of violence continued. Missionaries Jim Elliot first heard of the Huaorani in 1950 from a former missionary to Ecuador, and afterwards indicated that God had called him to Ecuador to evangelize the Huaorani. He began corresponding with his friend Pete Fleming about his desire to minister in Ecuador, and in 1952 the two men set sail for Guayaquil as missionaries with the Plymouth Brethren. For six months they lived in Quito with the goal of learning Spanish. They then moved to Shandia, a Quechua mission station deep in the Ecuadorian jungle. There they worked under the supervision of a Christian Missions in Many Lands missionary, Wilfred Tidmarsh, and began exposing themselves to the culture and studying the Quechua language. Another team member was Ed McCully, a man Jim Elliot had met and befriended while both attended Wheaton College. Following graduation, he married Marilou Hobolth and enrolled in a one-year basic medical treatment program at the School of Missionary Medicine in Los Angeles. On December 10, 1952, McCully moved to Quito with his family as a Plymouth Brethren missionary, planning to soon join Elliot and Fleming in Shandia. In 1953, however, the station in Shandia was wiped out by a flood, delaying their move until September of that year. The team's pilot, Nate Saint, had served in the military during World War II, receiving flight training as a member of the Army Air Corps. After being discharged in 1946, he too studied at Wheaton College, but quit after a year and joined the Mission Aviation Fellowship in 1948. He and his wife Marj traveled to Ecuador by the end of the year, and they settled at MAF headquarters in Shell. Shortly after his arrival, Saint began transporting supplies and equipment to missionaries spread throughout the jungle. This work ultimately led to his meeting the other four missionaries, whom he joined in Operation Auca. Also on the team was Roger Youderian, a 33-year-old missionary who had been working in Ecuador since 1953. Under the mission board Gospel Missionary Union, he and his wife Barbara and daughter Beth settled in Macuma, a mission station in the southern jungle of Ecuador. There, he and his wife ministered to the Shuar people, learning their language and transcribing it. After working with them for about a year, Youderian and his family began ministering to a tribe related to the Shuar, the Achuar people. He worked with Nate Saint to provide important medical supplies; but after a period of attempting to build relationships with them, he failed to see any positive effect and, growing depressed, considered returning to the United States. However, during this time Saint approached him about joining their team to meet the Huaorani, and he assented. Initial contact The first stage of Operation Auca began in September 1955. Saint, McCully, Elliot, and fellow missionary Johnny Keenan decided to initiate contact with the Huaorani and began periodically searching for them by air. By the end of the month, they had identified several clearings in the jungle. Meanwhile, Elliot learned several phrases in the language of the Huaorani from Dayuma, a young Huaorani woman who had left her society and become friends with Rachel Saint, a missionary and the sister of Nate Saint. The missionaries hoped that by regularly giving gifts to the Huaorani and attempting to communicate with them in their language, they would be able to win them over as friends. Because of the difficulty and risk of meeting the Huaorani on the ground, the missionaries chose to drop gifts to the Huaorani by fixed-wing aircraft. Their drop technique, developed by Nate Saint, involved flying around the drop location in tight circles while lowering the gift from the plane on a rope. This kept the bundle in roughly the same position as it approached the ground. On October 6, 1955, Saint made the first drop, releasing a small kettle containing buttons and rock salt. The gift-giving continued during the following weeks, with the missionaries dropping machetes, ribbons, clothing, pots, and various trinkets. After several visits to the Auca village, which the missionaries called "Terminal City", they observed that the Huaorani seemed excited to receive their gifts. Encouraged, they began using a loudspeaker to shout simple Huaorani phrases as they circled. After several more drops, in November the Huaorani began tying gifts for the missionaries to the line after removing the gifts the missionaries gave them. The men took this as a gesture of friendliness and developed plans for meeting the Huaorani on the ground. Saint soon identified a 200-yard (200 m) sandbar along the Curaray River about 4.5 miles (7 km) from Terminal City that could serve as a runway and camp site, and dubbed it "Palm Beach". Palm Beach At this point, Pete Fleming had still not decided to participate in the operation, and Roger Youderian was still working in the jungle farther south. On December 23, the Flemings, Saints, Elliots and McCullys together made plans to land at Palm Beach and build a camp on January 3, 1956. They agreed to take weapons, but decided that they would only be used to fire into the air to scare the Huaorani if they attacked. They built a sort of tree house that could be assembled upon arrival, and collected gifts, first aid equipment, and language notes. By January 2, Youderian had arrived and Fleming had confirmed his involvement, so the five met in Arajuno to prepare to leave the following day. After minor mechanical trouble with the plane, Saint and McCully took off at 8:02 a.m. on January 3 and successfully landed on the sandy beach along the Curaray River. Saint then flew Elliot and Youderian to the camp, and then made several more flights, carrying equipment. After the last delivery, he flew over a Huaorani settlement and, using a loudspeaker, told the Huaorani to visit the missionaries' camp. He then returned to Arajuno, and the next day, he and Fleming flew out to Palm Beach. First visit On January 6, after the missionaries had spent several days of waiting and shouting basic Huaorani phrases into the jungle, the first Huaorani visitors arrived. A young man and two women emerged on the opposite river bank around 11:15 a.m., and soon joined the missionaries at their encampment. The younger of the two women had come against the wishes of her family, and the man, named Nankiwi, who was romantically interested in her, followed. The older woman (about thirty years old) acted as a self-appointed chaperone. The men gave them several gifts, including a model plane, and the visitors soon relaxed and began conversing freely, apparently not realizing that the men's language skills were weak. Nankiwi, whom the missionaries nicknamed "George", showed interest in their aircraft, so Saint took off with him aboard. They first completed a circuit around the camp, but Nankiwi appeared eager for a second trip, so they flew toward Terminal City. Upon reaching a familiar clearing, Nankiwi recognized his neighbors, and leaning out of the plane, wildly waved and shouted to them. Later that afternoon, the younger woman became restless, and though the missionaries offered their visitors sleeping quarters, Nankiwi and the young woman left the beach with little explanation. The older woman apparently had more interest in conversing with the missionaries, and remained there most of the night. After seeing Nankiwi in the plane, a small group of Huaorani decided to make the trip to Palm Beach, and left the following morning, January 7. On the way, they encountered Nankiwi and the girl, returning unescorted. The girl's brother, Nampa, was furious at this, and to defuse the situation and divert attention from himself, Nankiwi claimed that the foreigners had attacked them on the beach, and in their haste to flee, they had been separated from their chaperone. Gikita, a senior member of the group whose experience with outsiders had taught him that they could not be trusted, recommended that they kill the foreigners. The return of the older woman and her account of the friendliness of the missionaries was not enough to dissuade them, and they soon continued toward the beach. Attack On January 8 the missionaries waited, expecting a larger group of Huaorani to arrive sometime that afternoon, if only to get plane rides. Saint made several trips over Huaorani settlements, and on the following morning he noted a group of Huaorani men traveling toward Palm Beach. He excitedly relayed this information to his wife over the radio at 12:30 p.m., promising to make contact again at 5:30 p.m. The Huaorani arrived at Palm Beach around 3:00 p.m., and in order to divide the foreigners before attacking them, they sent three women to the other side of the river. One, Dawa, remained hidden in the jungle, but the other two showed themselves. Two of the missionaries waded into the water to greet them, but were attacked from behind by Nampa. Apparently attempting to scare him, Elliot, the first missionary to be speared, pulled out his pistol and began firing. One of these shots mildly injured Dawa, still hidden, and another grazed the missionary's attacker after he was grabbed from behind by one of the women. Accounts differ on the effect of that bullet. Missionaries interpreted the testimonies of Dawa and Dayuma to mean that Nampa was killed months later while hunting, but others, including missionary anthropologist James Yost, came to believe that his death was a result of the bullet wound. Rachel Saint did not accept this, holding that eyewitnesses supported her position, but researcher Laura Rival, a critic of the expedition, suggests that it is now commonly believed among Huaorani that Nampa died of the wound. The other missionary in the river, Fleming, before being speared, desperately reiterated friendly overtures and asked the Huaorani why they were killing them. Meanwhile, the other Huaorani warriors, led by Gikita, attacked the three missionaries still on the beach, spearing Saint first, then McCully as he rushed to stop them. Youderian ran to the airplane to get to the radio, but he was speared as he picked up the microphone to report the attack. The Huaorani then threw the men's bodies and their belongings in the river, and ripped the fabric from their aircraft. They then returned to their village and, anticipating retribution, burned it to the ground and fled into the jungle. Search At 4:30 p.m., Marj Saint and Pete Fleming's wife, Olive, were waiting for the call from Saint. Not receiving word at 4:30 p.m. immediately caused his wife Marj to worry, but Marj and Olive did not tell anyone about the lack of communication until that evening. To avoid interference, the entire mission had been kept a secret from all those not directly involved at the time, thus making the timing of this announcement more difficult. The next morning, January 9, Johnny Keenan flew to the camp site, and at 9:30 a.m. he reported via radio to the wives that the plane was stripped of its fabric, and that the men were not there. The Commander in Chief of the Caribbean Command, Lieutenant General William K. Harrison, was contacted, and Quito-based radio station HCJB released a news bulletin saying that five men were missing in Huaorani territory. Soon, aircraft from the United States Air Rescue Service in Panama were flying over the jungle, and a ground search party consisting of missionaries and military personnel was organized. The first two of the bodies were found on Wednesday, January 11, and on Thursday, Ed McCully's body was identified by a group of Quechuas. They took his watch as evidence of the finding but did not move his body from its location on the bank of the Curaray; it was later washed away. Two more bodies were found on January 12. The searchers hoped that one of the unidentified bodies would be McCully, thinking that perhaps one of the men had escaped. However, on January 13, all four of the bodies found were positively identified by watches and wedding rings, and McCully's body was not among them, confirming that all five were dead. In the midst of a tropical storm, they were buried in a common grave at Palm Beach on January 14 by members of the ground search party. Aftermath The deaths of the men was covered in the January 30, 1956 issue of Life magazine with a photo essay, including photographs by Cornell Capa and some taken by the five men before their deaths. A follow-up photo essay by Capa about four of the five widows who stayed in Ecuador to continue with their deceased husbands' missionary work appeared sixteen months later in the May 20, 1957 issue of the same publication. The ensuing worldwide publicity gave several missionary organizations significantly more visibility, especially in the United States and Latin America. Most notable among these was the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL), the organization for which both Elisabeth Elliot and Rachel Saint worked. Because of the martyrdom of her brother, Saint considered herself spiritually bonded to the Huaorani, believing that what she saw as his sacrifice for the Huaorani was symbolic of Christ's death for the salvation of humanity. In 1957, Saint and her Huaorani companion Dayuma toured across the United States and appeared on the television show This Is Your Life. The two also appeared in a Billy Graham crusade in New York City, contributing to Saint's increasing popularity among evangelical Christians and generating significant monetary donations for SIL. Saint and Elliot returned to Ecuador to work among the Huaorani (1958–1960), establishing a camp called Tihueno near a former Huaorani settlement. Rachel Saint and Dayuma became bonded in Huaorani eyes through their shared mourning and Rachel's adoption as a sister of Dayuma, taking the name Nemo from the latter's deceased youngest sister. Nemo means star in Huaorani, they said she was their light. The first Huaorani to settle there were primarily women and children from a Huaorani group called the Guiquetairi, but in 1968 an enemy Huaorani band known as the Baihuari joined them. Elliot had returned to the United States in the early 1960s, so Saint and Dayuma worked to alleviate the resulting conflict. They succeeded in securing cohabitation of the two groups by overseeing numerous cross-band weddings, leading to an end of inter-clan warfare but obscuring the cultural identity of each group. Saint and Dayuma, in conjunction with SIL, negotiated the creation of an official Huaorani reservation in 1969, consolidating the Huaorani and consequently opening up the area to commerce and oil exploration. By 1973, over 500 people lived in Tihueno, of which more than half had arrived in the previous six years. The settlement relied on aid from SIL, and as a Christian community, followed rules foreign to Huaorani culture like prohibitions on killing and polygamy. By the early 1970s, SIL began to question whether their impact on the Huaorani was positive, so they sent James Yost, a staff anthropologist, to assess the situation. He found extensive economic dependence and increasing cultural assimilation, and as a result, SIL ended its support of the settlement in 1976, leading to its disintegration and the dispersion of the Huaorani into the surrounding area. SIL had hoped that the Huaorani would return to the isolation in which they had lived twenty years prior, but instead they sought out contact with the outside world, forming villages of which many have been recognized by the Ecuadorian government. Legacy Evangelical Christian views Among evangelical Christians, the five men are commonly considered martyrs and missionary heroes. Books have been written about them by numerous biographers, most notably Elisabeth Elliot. Anniversaries of their deaths have been accompanied by stories in major Christian publications, and their story, as well as the subsequent acceptance of Christianity among the Huaorani, has been turned into several motion pictures. Even so, Christians have noted with concern the disintegration of traditional Huaorani culture and westernization of the tribe, beginning with Nate Saint's own journal entry in 1955 and continuing through today. However, many continue to view as positive both Operation Auca and the subsequent missionary efforts of Rachel Saint, mission organizations such as Mission Aviation Fellowship, Wycliffe Bible Translators, HCJB World Radio, Avant Ministries (formerly Gospel Missionary Union), and others. Specifically, they note the decline in violence among tribe members, numerous conversions to Christianity, and growth of the local church. Anthropologist views Some anthropologists have less favorable views of the missionary work begun by Operation Auca, viewing the intervention as the cause for the recent and widely recognized decline of Huaorani culture. Leading Huaorani researcher Laura Rival says that the work of the SIL pacified the Huaorani during the 1960s, and argues that missionary intervention caused significant changes in fundamental components of Huaorani society. Prohibitions of polygamy, violence, chanting, and dancing were directly contrary to cultural norms, and the relocation of Huaorani and subsequent intermarrying of previously hostile groups eroded cultural identity. Others are somewhat less negative—Brysk, after noting that the work of the missionaries opened the area to outside intervention and led to the deterioration of the culture, says that the SIL also informed the Huaorani of their legal rights and taught them how to protect their interests from developers. Boster goes even further, suggesting that the pacification of the Huaorani was a result of active effort by the Huaorani themselves, not the result of missionary imposition. He argues that Christianity served as a way for the Huaorani to escape the cycle of violence in their community, since it provided a motivation to abstain from killing. Media depictions There have been several screen depictions of Operation Auca. The 2004 documentary Beyond the Gates of Splendor featured interviews with some of the Huaorani and surviving family members of the missionaries. The 2006 drama film End of the Spear grossed over $12 million. Five Wives, an award-winning novel by Joan Thomas, centred on the surviving wives of the missionaries. Notes References Liefeld, Olive Fleming (1990). Unfolding Destinies: The Untold Story of Peter Fleming and the Auca Mission. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House. Further reading External links . . . . . Huaorani 1955 in Ecuador 1956 in Ecuador Evangelical Christian missions Massacres of Christians
4190413	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girls%20Under%20Glass	Girls Under Glass	Girls Under Glass (GUG) is a musical group from Hamburg, Germany, founded in 1986 by Thomas Lücke, Hauke Harms, and Volker "Zaphor" Zacharias. Described as "an indispensable part of the German wave and gothic scene", GUG began as a gothic rock band, but quickly crossed genre boundaries, incorporating metal and electronic music of various kinds. They have generally been classified as a darkwave act, but have ranged across the goth–industrial "dark music" spectrum, including into industro-metal, and their work has integrated elements of pop, techno, and trip hop. Grenzwellen-News wrote of the band: "Even after 20 years, it is almost impossible to define and pin-down Girls Under Glass stylistically." A review in 2001 concluded that "even in its most experimental phases, the band has never lost its identity". Axel Ermes joined in 1989, and Lücke left the next year, but rejoined in 2016; Harms retired in 2017. The band's lyrical material is sometimes in German, sometimes English, or a mixture of both on some tracks. Trauma, a Zaphor and Harms side project, is primarily trance with new age influences, and Traum-B (Harms and Ermes) produced Goa trance and psy-trance. GUG formed as a replacement for an earlier gothic–wave band, Calling Dead Red Roses, which formed in 1985, produced one album, then splintered. 1980s Hauke Harms, Thomas Lücke, Torsten Hammann, and Roland Weers formed the gothic-wave band Calling Dead Red Roses in Hamburg in 1985, released the album 1985 (on LP and CD) on Dark Star Records, then split up before the year was out. The album was reissued on the same label in 1991. Girls Under Glass was founded in Hamburg the spring of 1986 by Thomas Lücke (vocals), Hauke Harms (electronics and keyboards), and Volker Zacharias Zaphor (guitar). They gave their first live performance, in the Hamburg discothèque Kir, in May of the same year, and self-produced a demo tape, The Question - The Answer - Pop, which included early, raw versions of songs they would re-record later, including "Humus" and "Armies Walking". The following year, Girls Under Glass released a track "Tomorrow Evening" (recorded in March 1987 in a live session at the White Noise Studio in Hamburg) on the compilation album Gore Night Show; this was their first vinyl release. Around this time, they also began recording their first proper album, Humus, which was produced by Christian Mevs of the band Slime, and featured a bassist credited as Dr. Fluch. Since no label was willing to produce the album, the band decided to finance it themselves. Humus was completed in 1987, and released in a limited edition of 500 on the label Supersonic Records in March 1988. It sold out, and within two months had been reissued twice (it has since been reissued by Überschall, Dark Star, and Membran). There followed concerts with The Neon Judgement, Attrition, and Fields of the Nephilim. GUG opened for Red Lorry Yellow Lorry in September 1988 at the Independent Festival in Bremen's Schlachthof. The band put out a second self-produced cassette, Girls Under Glass, that year, a collection of demos recorded at Gas-Rec Studio in February 1988 (including a cover of "Body Electric" by Sisters of Mercy) plus two live tracks; content-wise, it is their rarest release (their original demo tape was re-released as a remastered CD). By 1989, they were becoming well known in the German gothic-wave scene. GUG released a 12-inch single, "Ten Million Dollars", in January 1989 the Überschall label, but it did not meet with commercial success. Live appearances during this period included two guest musicians: Marcel Zürcher (drummer of the post-punk band Abwärts, as well as Schwansee, and Shanghaid Guts), and Olaf von Ridder AKA Olaf O. (bass, 1988–1989). Flowers, their second full album, was recorded the same year. Regular members of the band at this time were Lücke (vocals), Zaphor (guitars), and Harms (keyboards). Axel Ermes (bass) joined the band and was integrated into the full-time line-up, after working for some time with Zaphor on another project, the German cult band Cancer Barrack (formed by Torsten Hammann with Ermes and others after the demise of Calling Dead Red Roses). Zaphor began to devote more of his time to GUG, though remained in CB as a vocalist for a while. 1990s Flowers was released on January 15, 1990, originally on the Hamburg label Collision Records (later on Dark Star and Membran); like the previous releases, it was conventional gothic rock in the style of The Sisters of Mercy and Fields of the Nephilim. Another 12-inch, "Random" (remixed by KMFDM), was released in support of the album. Zaphor left Cancer Barrack to concentrated on a third GUG album, Positive, beginning a renewed relationship with Dark Star Records (Calling Dead Red Roses's old label) that was to last through GUG's 1995 releases. But vocalist Thomas Lücke left the band, and Zaphor also had to take over the singer's part. Positive was produced by Rodney Orpheus of The Cassandra Complex, beginning a long-term friendship with Zaphor and Ermes, described as "play[ing] a consistent role" in CC starting in 1990, joining that band's live lineup, and worked with Orpheus for many years, until at least 2012. Positive, released in 1991 (along with a 7-inch single, "Never Go", actually released in late 1990), marked the first stylistic turning point for the band, who increasingly used electronics and worked in some harder industrial rock components. The album was described by Glansost Wave-Magazin as a "hybrid between Revolting Cocks, Cassandra Complex, and The Sisters of Mercy" Project Pitchfork played their first gigs as the opening act on the tour for this album. A guitarist, Mark Wheeler, appears to have been working with the band in live shows around this era. The fourth LP, Darius (1992), is a multi-layered darkwave album with metal influences, but also some tracks that are almost entirely electronic; it is their most stylistically diverse album. Darius featured a new guitarist, Raj Sen Gupta, and two guest musicians: Markus Giltjes as drummer (formerly of Pink Turns Blue, and then in Project Pitchfork); and Peter Heppner from Wolfsheim, who performed guest vocals on the tracks "Gray in Gray" and "Reach for the Stars" (the latter was also released in an alternative version on the compilation 040 - Hamburg Strikes Back!, and a remix of "Gray in Gray" was used on 1993 on the label sampler Electrocity Vol. 3). Despite the band turning toward a notably more electronic sound, Darius was their first studio work with a real drummer instead of a drum machine. Trauma, a new age-inflected trance music side project of Zaphor and Harms formed in 1993, recorded Fractal 1 immediately after GUG's Darius, and released it that year on the Machinery Records label (and Futurist in the US). Trauma expressed their "passion for cold electronic music of the 70s ... combined with very new, contemporary elements", and has been compared to a cross between Tangerine Dream and Clock DVA. The impetus for splitting off a side project was Harms' shift of interest to "very spherical, cinematic music" lacking typical song structures, combined with a feeling that the band might just go all-electronic if they did not "clarify and process our electronic influences and roots even more", shunting too ethereal or experimental work into another outlet. On Christus, in 1993, the GUG returned to the harder sound of Positive, again with Giltjes as drummer and Gupta as guitarist. For the following tour, Gupta was replaced by Robert Wilcocks, of Cobalt 60, Deine Lakaien, and Sleeping Dogs Wake who accompanied the band on tour for the next three years. Gupta may have actually left the Christus tour; accounts are conflicting. Multiple producers, including Peter Spilles of Project Pitchfork, helped the Trauma side-project complete its second album, Construct, and an EP, Silent Mission, both in 1994 and again on the Machinery label (distributed by CBM in the US). Spilles contributed musically as well, on the track "Le Chant de Baleine". A Girls Under Glass EP, Down in the Park (the lead tracking being a cover of that Gary Numan new wave classic) was released in 1994 also. The release shows the band experimenting with various pop and electronica influences. The EP and the 1995 release of Exitus, a 2-CD "Best of" anthology with a pointed title, signaled the end (at least for a while) of the band's gothic and darkwave approach. Crystals & Stones (1995), its "Die Zeit" single (1995), then Firewalker (1997) were all characterized by an increasing admixture of pop, techno, industrial metal, and even trip hop elements. By Crystals & Stones, GUG had condensed to a trio again (Zaphor, Harms, and Ermes – which would remain the most stable lineup, the "nucleus" of GUG), recording in the band's own new studio. Die Krupps did a remix of the track "Die Zeit", which became a club hit in Germany and was band's first CD-format single. For the tour in support of Crystals & Stones, the group employed Robert Wilcocks again, and picked up drummer Tippi Agogo (a musician from Vancouver who had worked with The Legendary Pink Dots and Skinny Puppy). GUG played its first shows in France and Spain in 1996 with their new sound. The band's hardest-rock record, Firewalker, was recorded in 1997, and was clearly inspired by the industrial metal and electro-industrial music scene, including such bands such as Gravity Kills, KMFDM, Nine Inch Nails, and Stabbing Westward. It was described as their "toughest, most aggressive and uncompromising album to date". Former KMFDM drummer Rudi Naomi joined the live lineup for the tour, with Deathline International (an American–German electro-industrial act often active in San Francisco) as the opening band. Zaphor's and Harm's Trauma project produced its third and final album, Phase III, in 1998 on the Synthetic Symphony label. Harms and Ermes formed an alternative side project the same year, Traum-B, which produced a single, self-titled Goa trance and psy-trance album, on the B.E.A.C.H. Muskiverlag label. GUG's Equilibrium (also 1998) was recorded in a calmer style, a short-term return to their more gothic-wave and electro-industrial roots. As the album's name suggests, there was a re-balancing reason for the shift back, similar to that which had led to the side-project: a concern that their new-found enthusiasm for a particular style would drown out everything else, and end the diversity of their output, by having "opened a certain flow a little too far". In 2006, Zaphor reminisced: "we had more or less consciously gone into a dead end. However, this deadlock also showed us what we definitely do not want and where our true strengths lie. Girls Under Glass would have become a metal band if we'd followed the path of Firewalker and gone further.... And that's not really us." Hauke Harms, in the same much later interview, also indicated he hadn't been happy with the over-produced quality of Firewalker and the work that led up to it, as if the songs were being suppressed, despite it being their most successful album to date: Equilibrium was issued by Hall of Sermon records, and re-released in the United States by Van Richter Records in 2006, with three bonus tracks (two unlisted on the liner, and the third a Trauma cover of Kraftwerk's "Radioaktivitat"). The latter label the next year released the anthology Nightmares as both a CD and a digital download, a collection of singles, remixes, B-sides, and covers – many out-of-print and some not previously released, including a dance-oriented cover of the main theme of the 1978 John Carpenter horror film Halloween. The stylistic veering in this era is thought to have suppressed the band's popularity, while having little effect on GUG's critical reception. Grenzwellen-News wrote in 2006 that Girls Under Glass was "a band which from the beginning was highly praised by critics, and not least by colleagues, but whose image and basic orientation often remained too diffuse and difficult to grasp due to the constant sharp turns." 2000s Minddiver was recorded, in 2001, as the first album on the band's own label, Aragon Records. It includes a cover of Madonna's "Frozen". This was released with five other tracks (including a "Wings" remix by Bruno Kramm of Das Ich, featuring vocals by Sandra Bammer of the band Sister My Sister) as a CD single by Aragon Records, and by Van Richter in the US. One review of Minddiver called it "quintessence and departure at the same time", and was impressed with its emotional depth, noting the "return to the power of the driving, compressed, melancholy wave song ... that carried personality, warmth, love, anger, and pain". The "Frozen" single was re-released by Van Richter in an expanded version, including some Trauma bonus tracks and the Firewalker track "The Bitter End" (about 30 minutes of music total), to expose American audiences to more of the band's back-catalogue. GUG made their first appearance in London, UK, co-headlining the 2001 Gotham Festival with Clan of Xymox and The Fair Sex. A 16-track live album, ...In Light & Darkness, was recorded on their 2002 European tour for Minddiver, and released that year, along with a new single "Erinnerung", all on their Aragon label. The band took a bit over a year off, then wrote new material recorded it in 2004, with producer J. P. Genkel in his Impuls Studio in Hamburg. A collaborative single, with Peter Spilles of Project Pitchfork, "Ohne Dich", appeared in that year on the Dependent Records sub-label Cellar Door (its first release), while the album developed from these session, Zyklus, was released in February 2005 by Metropolis Records, the largest "dark music"-focused label in North America, as well as by Cellar Door in Germany, and Irond in Russia. Zyklus has been described as "a testament to GUG's open mindedness. Rock music was forged with electronic programming and a mixture of English and German lyrics to run through a spectrum of metal to electro to pop without losing sight of any type of fluency. Solid songwriting, intense atmospheres, and outstanding vocals". A performance and documentary film about the band, Focus: 20 Years, was produced in 2005 and released on DVD in 2006. The new live performances were filmed at the 2005 Wave-Gotik-Treffen (WGT) in Leipzig, one of the world's largest dark music and arts festivals, with around 20,000 annual attendees. A chance meeting backstage between GUG and filmmaker/photographer Jeffrey Delannoy through their common friend Carsten Clatte (frontman of La Casa del Cid and guitarist for Wolfsheim and Goethes Erben) led to the film idea. Delannoy, having seen the band a few times over the years, was enthusiastic about producing the work in such an atmosphere as WGT. The DVD is mostly live performances of material from the album Zyklus, (with Peter Spilles as a guest for a performance of "Ohne Dich"). GUG also provided archival material for production (after putting out a request to fans for footage they shot), and the release includes a retrospective of their work, interviews with band members, reactions from other artists like Spilles, Ronan Harris (VNV Nation), Rodney Orpheus (The Cassandra Complex), and departed co-founder Thomas Lücke, plus backstage footage, and other bonus materials, running to a total of over three hours. The new live footage is their entire WGT show, in 5.1 surround sound. In a Grenzwellen-News interview the same year, Zaphor was philosophical about the band's lack of great commercial success, but consistent fan-base and critical reception: Throughout the rest of the 2000s and into the 2010s, Girls Under Glass made sporadic live appearances at various festivals, often as a different trio of Zaphor, Ermes, and Baumgardt. MusicMight reports that a female vocalist named Jenny Kähler was also working with the band, probably some time in this era. 2010s until recent years Both Zacharis and Ermes were working as of 2012 with Rodney Orpheus and Andy Booth on a post-Cassandra Complex project. Together they released a new Cassandra Complex album "Plague" in May 2022. In 2016, 30 years after the band was founded, Girls Under Glass included all members of its original line-up for the first time in more than two decades. This appears to have begun spontaneously at a live show on 7 May 2016 in the Markthalle in Hamburg, when original co-founder Tom Lücke, in the audience, was invited onto the stage – 26 years after the singer left the band – to sing a Humus through Flowers-era block of songs. This re-formed crew released a vinyl-only remaster of their original demo, for old-time fans, and performed additional, planned shows in 2016 and 2017, including at WGT 2016 and at NCN Festival 2017, with the line-up consisting of Volker Zaphor Zacharias, Ermes, Harms, and Lücke, plus the band's longtime companion Lars Baumgardt on electric guitar. At the end of 2017, co-founding member Hauke Harms left the band with two farewell concerts, in Bremen and Berlin. GUG played the Amphi Festival on 29 July 2018, after releasing an online-only single on 13 July, "Endless Nights" (produced by Benjamin Lawrenz and Chris Harms of Lords of the Lost) – their first brand-new material since Zyklus and "Touch Me" in 2005. A complete and remastered collection of Trauma tracks was also released in 2018 as a downloadable album, Digital Anthology, on the Van Richter label. German music news site MonkeyPress described the work as "punchy, dark rock that let's your feet rock right away". After playing a few festivals show with the original singer Tom Luecke, focussing on the early (80s) period the band is now back on the floor with brandnew material! The new album "Backdraft" will by released by Dependend Records by end of 2022 as Vinyl and 2CD Artbook. Other work Volker "Zaphor" Zacharias (under a variety of names, including V.Z., V. Zaphor, Zacharias, and others) has also been involved with The Cassandra Complex (since 1990), Still Silent (with Mindy Kumbaleks of Goethes Erben), Rec (with Peter Spilles of Project Pitchfork and York Eysel of Love Like Blood), Seasurfer, and a parody band, Hilfsorganisation Eigener Label Promotion (H.E.L.P.). Axel Ermes has also recorded with The Cassandra Complex, Nefkom (with Markus Reinhard of Wolfsheim), Neustart (with Christoph from the band Stalin), Rec, and Bhambhamhara. Short-term member and later return-collaborator Lars Baumgardt has long worked with De/Vision both as a tour guitarist and a studio session musician, though is not a formal band member. Although both Ermes and Zaphor were early members of Cancer Barrack, their involvement ended before that band's first album was recorded in 1991. Discography 1986 – The Question – The Answer – Pop (demo, cassette) 1988 – Humus (LP, CD) 1989 – "Ten Million Dollars" (12″ single) 1990 – Flowers (LP, CD) 1990 – "Random" (12" single) 1991 – Positive (LP, CD) 1991 – "Never Go" (7″ single) 1991 – Live at Soundgarden (live; LP, CD) 1992 – Darius (LP, CD) 1993 – Christus (LP, CD) 1994 – Down in the Park (EP; CD) 1995 – Exitus: 1986–1995 (anthology; 2-CD) 1995 – "Die Zeit" (CD single) 1995 – Crystals & Stones (CD) 1997 – Firewalker (CD) 1999 – Nightmares (anthology; CD) 1999 – Equilibrium (CD) 2001 – Minddiver (CD) 2001 – "Frozen" (promo CD single) 2002 – "Erinnerung" (CD single) 2003 – ...In Light & Darkness (live; 2-CD) 2004 – "Ohne Dich" (feat. Peter Spilles) (CD single) 2005 – Zyklus (CD) 2005 – "Touch Me" (CD single) 2006 – Focus: 20 Years (live and documentary DVD) 2006 – Traumatized (joint GUG/Trauma remastered anthology; digital album) 2014 – Frozen (joint GUG/Trauma anthology; digital EP) 2016 – The Question – The Answer – Pop (remastered re-release; LP) 2018 – "Endless Nights" (digital single) Trauma releases 1993 – Fractal I (CD) 1994 – Construct (CD) 1994 – Silent Mission (EP, CD) 1998 – Phase III (LP, CD) 2006 – Girls Under Glass, Traumatized (joint GUG/Trauma remastered anthology; digital album) 2014 – Girls Under Glass, Frozen (joint GUG/Trauma anthology; digital EP) 2018 – Digital Anthology (remastered anthology; digital album) Traum-B releases 1999 – Traum-B (CD) Calling Dead Red Roses release 1985 – 1985 (LP, CD) References External links Official GUG Facebook page Official page at Metropolis Records German rock music groups German dark wave musical groups German gothic rock groups Musical groups from Hamburg Musical groups established in 1986 1986 establishments in West Germany Metropolis Records artists Dependent Records artists
4190455	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege%20of%20Delhi	Siege of Delhi	The siege of Delhi was one of the decisive conflicts of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The rebellion against the authority of the East India Company was widespread through much of Northern India, but essentially it was sparked by the mass uprising by the sepoys of the Bengal Army, which the company had itself raised in its Bengal Presidency (which actually covered a vast area from Assam to Peshawar). Seeking a symbol around which to rally, the first sepoys to rebel sought to reinstate the power of the Mughal Empire, which had ruled much of the Indian subcontinent in the previous centuries. Lacking overall direction, many who subsequently rebelled also flocked to Delhi. This made the siege decisive for two reasons. Firstly, large numbers of rebels were committed to the defence of a single fixed point, perhaps to the detriment of their prospects elsewhere, and their defeat at Delhi was thus a very major military setback. Secondly, the British recapture of Delhi and the refusal of the aged Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II to continue the struggle deprived the rebellion of much of its national character. Although the rebels still held large areas, there was little co-ordination between them, and the British were able to overcome them separately. Outbreak of the rebellion After several years of increasing tension among the sepoys (Indian soldiers) of the British East India Company's Bengal Army, the sepoys at Meerut, northeast of Delhi, openly rebelled against their British officers. The flashpoint was the introduction of the Pattern 1853 Enfield rifle. The cartridges for this were widely believed to be greased with a mixture of cow and pig fat, and to bite them open when loading the rifle (as required by the drill books) would defile both Hindu and Muslim soldiers. Eighty-five men of the 3rd Bengal Cavalry stationed at Meerut refused to accept their cartridges. They were hastily court martialled, and on 9 May 1857 they were sentenced to long periods of imprisonment and were paraded in irons before the British and Bengal regiments in the garrison. On the evening of the following day, soldiers of the Bengal regiments (3rd Light Cavalry, 11th and 20th Infantry) rebelled, releasing the imprisoned troopers and killing their British officers and many British civilians in their cantonment. The senior Company officers at Meerut were taken by surprise. Although they had ample warning of disaffection among the Bengal Army after earlier outbreaks of unrest at Berhampur, Barrackpur and Ambala, they had assumed that at Meerut, where the proportion of European to Indian troops was higher than anywhere else in India, the Bengal units would not risk open revolt. They were fortunate that they did not suffer disaster. The Bengal regiments broke into rebellion on Sunday, when European troops customarily attended evening church parade without arms. Due to the increasingly hot summer weather, the church services on 10 May took place half an hour later than on previous weeks, and when the outbreak occurred, the British troops had not yet left their barracks and could quickly be mustered and armed. Other than defending their own barracks and armouries, the Company's commanders at Meerut took little action, not even notifying nearby garrisons or stations. (The telegraph had been cut, but dispatch riders could easily have reached Delhi before the sepoys, had they been sent immediately.) When they had rallied the British troops in the cantonment and prepared to disperse the sepoys on 11 May, they found that Meerut was quiet and the sepoys had marched off to Delhi. Capture of Delhi by the rebels Delhi was the capital of the Mughal Empire, which had been reduced to insignificance over the preceding century. The emperor, Bahadur Shah II, who was 82, had been informed by the East India Company that the title would die with him. At the time, Delhi was not a major centre of Company administration, although Company officials controlled the city's finances and courts. They and their families lived in the "Civil Lines" to the north of the city. There were no units of the British Army or "European" units of the East India Company forces at Delhi. Three Bengal Native Infantry regiments (the 38th, 54th and 74th) were stationed in barracks north-west of the city. They provided guards, working parties and other details to a "Main Guard" building just inside the walls near the Kashmiri Gate on the northern circuit of walls, the arsenal in the city and other buildings. By coincidence, when the regiments paraded early in the morning of 11 May, their officers read out to them the General Order announcing the execution of sepoy Mangal Pandey, who had attempted to start a rebellion near Barrackpur earlier in the year, and the disbandment of his regiment, the 34th Bengal Native Infantry. This produced much muttering in the ranks. Later in the morning, the rebels from Meerut arrived quite unexpectedly, crossing the bridge of boats over the Jumna River. The leading sowars (troopers) of the 3rd Light Cavalry halted under the windows of the Palace and called on the Emperor to lead them. Bahadur Shah called for them to go to another palace outside the city, where their case would be heard later. Company officials then tried to close all the city gates, but were too late to prevent the sowars gaining entry through the Rajghat Gate to the south. Once inside, the sowars were quickly joined by mobs which began attacking Company officials and looting bazaars. Some Company officers and civilians tried to take refuge in the Main Guard, but the sepoys there joined the revolt, and they were slaughtered. Other officers arrived from the barracks, accompanied by two field guns and several companies of sepoys who had not yet joined the rebellion, and recaptured the Main Guard, sending the bodies of the dead officers to the cantonments in a cart. In the city meanwhile nine British officers from the Ordnance Corps, led by George Willoughby were conducting the Defence of the Magazine, which contained artillery, stocks of firearms and ammunition. They found that their troops and labourers were deserting, using ladders provided from the palace to climb over the walls. The officers opened fire on their own troops and the mobs to prevent the arsenal falling intact into the rebels' hands. After five hours, they had run out of ammunition and blew up their magazine, killing many rioters and onlookers, and badly damaging nearby buildings. Only three of them escaped and received the Victoria Cross: John Buckley, George Forrest and William Raynor. Shortly after this, the troops at the Main Guard were ordered to withdraw. The sepoys there, who had hitherto remained aloof from the revolt, turned on their officers, a few of whom escaped after the sepoys left to join the looting. About half the European civilians in Delhi and in the cantonments and Civil Lines were able to flee, first to the Flagstaff Tower on the ridge to the north-west of Delhi where telegraph operators were trying to warn other British stations of the uprising. After it became clear that no help could arrive from Meerut or elsewhere, and the cart carrying the bodies of the officers killed at the Main Guard in the morning arrived at the tower by mistake, most of the Europeans fled to Karnal, several miles west. Some were helped by villagers on the way, others fell prey to plunderers. Mughal restoration On 12 May, Bahadur Shah held his first formal audience in several years. It was attended by several excited sepoys who treated him familiarly or even disrespectfully. Although Bahadur Shah was dismayed by the looting and disorder, he gave his public support to the rebellion. On 16 May, sepoys and palace servants killed 52 British who had been held prisoner within the palace or who had been discovered hiding in the city. The killings took place under a peepul tree in front of the palace, despite Bahadur Shah's protests. The avowed aim of the killers was to implicate Bahadur Shah in the killings, making it impossible for him to seek any compromise with the Company. The administration of the city and its new occupying army was chaotic, although it continued to function haphazardly. The Emperor nominated his eldest surviving son, Mirza Mughal, to be commander-in-chief of his forces, but Mirza Mughal had little military experience and was treated with little respect by the sepoys. Nor did the sepoys agree on any overall commander, with each regiment refusing to accept orders from any but their own officers. Although Mirza Mughal made efforts to put the civil administration in order, his writ extended no further than the city. Outside, Gujjar herders began levying their own tolls on traffic, and it became increasingly difficult to feed the city. News of the rebellion at Meerut and the capture of Delhi spread rapidly throughout India. Rumours and envoys from the rebels spread the tidings fast and precipitated widespread rebellions and uprisings, but the Company learned of the events at Delhi even more quickly, thanks to the telegraph. Where the commanders of stations were energetic and distrustful of their sepoys, they were able to forestall some of the most dangerous revolts. Company moves Although there were several Company units available in the cool "hill stations" in the foothills of the Himalayas, it took time before any action could be taken to recapture Delhi. This was partly due to lack of transport and supplies. After the end of the Second Anglo-Sikh War, the Bengal Army's transport units had been disbanded as an economy measure, and transport had to be improvised from scratch. Also, many of the senior British officers were widely regarded as dotards, far too senile to act decisively or sensibly. Nevertheless, a Company force under General George Anson, the commander-in-chief in India, was able to move from Ambala to Karnal starting on 17 May. On 7 June, they were joined at Alipur by a force from Meerut, which had fought several skirmishes en route. The Meerut force was led by Brigadier Archdale Wilson, who had conspicuously failed to prevent the rebel sepoys' move to Delhi on 11 May. Anson died of cholera at Karnal on 27 May. Under his successor, Major General Henry Barnard, the combined force advanced on Delhi. On 8 June, they found the mutineers had entrenched themselves outside the city. They drove the large but disorganised rebel force from the field at the Battle of Badli-ki-Serai west of Delhi, and captured Delhi ridge north of the city and the Bengal infantry barracks to the west of it. As a gesture of defiance and contempt, they set fire to the barracks. This was a senseless act, as it condemned the besiegers (and all their sick and wounded and noncombatants) to live in tents through the hot weather and monsoon rain seasons. The ridge was of hard rock, about high, and ran from a point only east of the Kabul Gate on the city walls to the Yamuna River north of the city. Fortunately for the besiegers, a canal ran from the Yamuna west of their encampments, protecting the rear of their camp and also providing drinking water. The besiegers occupied various fortified posts along the top of the ridge. The nearest to the city and the most exposed was known as "Hindu Rao's house", defended by the 60th Rifles and Gurkhas of the 8th (Sirmoor) Local Battalion. South of it was a maze of villages and walled gardens, called the Subzi Mundi, in which the rebel forces could gather before launching attacks on the British right. The siege: June through July It was quickly apparent that Delhi was too well-fortified and strongly held to fall to a coup de main. Barnard ordered a dawn assault on 13 June, but the orders were confused and failed to reach most of his subordinates in time. The attack had to be called off, amidst much recrimination. After this, it was accepted that the odds were too great for any assault to be successful until the besiegers were reinforced. Large contingents of rebellious sepoys and volunteers continued to arrive in Delhi. The majority of no less than ten regiments of cavalry and fifteen of infantry of the Bengal Army rebelled and made their way to Delhi during June and July, along with large numbers of irregulars, mainly Muslim mujahaddin. As each new contingent arrived, the rebels made attacks on Hindu Rao's house and other outposts on several successive days. A major attack was mounted from three directions on 19 June, and nearly forced the exhausted besiegers to retreat, but the rebels did not know how close they came to success. Another major attack was made on 23 June, the centenary of the Battle of Plassey. (It was believed that the presence of East India Company in India would end one hundred years after this famous battle). Although all these attacks were beaten off, the besiegers were ground down through exhaustion and disease. Conditions on the ridge and in the encampment were extremely unhealthy and unpleasant. General Barnard died of cholera on 5 July. His successor, Reed, was also stricken with cholera and forced to hand over command to Archdale Wilson, who was promoted to major general. Although Wilson made efforts to clear the unburied corpses and other refuse from the ridge and encampment and reorganise the outposts and reliefs, he himself was scarcely capable of exercising command, and in every letter he wrote, he complained of his exhaustion and prostration. Brigadier Neville Chamberlain, a much younger officer who might have provided better leadership, was severely wounded repelling a sortie on 14 July. Meanwhile, in Delhi, there had been some loss of morale due to the failures of Mirza Moghul and Bahadur Shah's equally unmilitary grandson, Mirza Abu Bakr. A large party of reinforcements arrived from Bareilly under Bakht Khan, a veteran artillery officer of the Company's army. (In the British Indian artillery, North Indian Muslims were generaIIy preferred and had been the majority of the establishment.) Pleased with the loot they brought with them, Bahadur Shah made Bakht Khan the new commander-in-chief. Bakht Khan was able to replenish the city's finances and inspire the rebel soldiers to renewed efforts. Bahadur Shah however, was growing discouraged, and turned away offers of assistance from other rebel leaders. The siege: August to September In one vital area of India, the Punjab, which had been annexed by the East India Company only eight years before, the Bengal Native units were quickly disarmed to prevent them rebelling or were defeated when they did rebel. Most of the available Company units were stationed there, along with units of the Punjab Irregular Force, which were formed from Sikhs and Pakhtuns who had little in common with the high caste Hindus of the Bengal Native Infantry. As the situation in the Punjab stabilised, units could be dispatched to reinforce the besiegers at Delhi. Also, the rulers of the states of Patiala, Jhind and Nabha were induced to support the East India Company, sending contingents of their armies to secure the lines of communication between the besiegers and the Punjab. The first reinforcements to arrive at Delhi, the Corps of Guides, made an epic forced march of several hundred miles through the hottest season of the year, which also coincided with the month of Ramadan, during which their Muslim soldiers could neither eat nor drink during the day. They nevertheless went into action almost immediately when they arrived at the ridge. The major force dispatched from the Punjab to Delhi were a "Flying Column" of 4,200 men under Brigadier John Nicholson and a siege train. Nicholson himself arrived on 14 August. The rebels had heard of the imminent arrival of the siege train and sent a force out of the city to intercept it. On 25 August, Nicholson led a force against their position at the Battle of Najafgarh. Although the monsoon had broken and the roads and fields were flooded, Nicholson drove his force to make a rapid march and gained an easy victory, raising European morale and lowering that of the rebels. The siege train arrived at the beginning of September, comprising six 24-pounders, eight 18-pounder long guns, six 8 inch howitzers and four 10 inch mortars, with almost 600 ammunition carts. On 8 September a further four guns arrived. With the guns already present, the besiegers had a total of 15 24-pounder guns, 20 18-pounder guns and 25 mortars and howitzers. The capture of Delhi The bombardment By early September, the British had assembled a force of some 9,000, which consisted of 3,000 regular troops and 6,000 Sikhs, Punjabis, and Ghurkas. Wilson's chief Engineer Officer, Richard Baird Smith, had drawn up a plan to breach the city walls and make an assault. Wilson was unwilling to risk any attack, but was urged by Nicholson to agree to Baird Smith's plan. There were moves among the British officers, in which Nicholson was prominent, to replace Wilson as commander if he failed to agree to make the attack. As a preliminary step, on 6 September the Company forces constructed "Reid's Battery", or the "Sammy House Battery", of two 24-pounder and four 9-pounder guns, near the southern end of the ridge, to silence the guns on the Mori Bastion. Under cover of Reid's Battery, on 7 September the first siege battery proper was established, from the Mori Bastion. Opening fire on 8 September, four of its guns engaged the artillery on the Kashmir Bastion, while six guns and a heavy mortar silenced the rebels' guns on the Mori Bastion after a long duel. The direction of this attack also deceived the rebels into believing that the storming attempt would be made from the east, rather than the north. A second battery, consisting of nine 24-pounder guns, two 18-pounder guns and seven 8-inch howitzers, was set up near a flamboyantly designed house known as "Ludlow Castle" in the Civil Lines, and opened fire against the Kashmir Bastion on 10 September. A third battery of six 18-pounder guns and 12 Coehorn mortars was set up near the old Custom House less than from the city walls, and opened fire against the Water Bastion near the Yamuna next day. A fourth battery of ten heavy mortars was set up in cover near the Khudsia Bagh, opening fire on 11 September. Because the element of surprise had been lost and these batteries were being enfiladed from across the river, the Indian sappers and pioneers who carried out much of the work of constructing the second and third batteries and moving the guns into position suffered over 300 casualties, but the batteries quickly made breaches in the bastions and walls. Fifty guns continued to fire day and night, and the walls began to crumble away. The opening of this phase of the siege seems to have coincided with the exhaustion of the ammunition the rebels had captured from the magazine, as the rebel fire became suddenly much less effective. By this time also, the rebels had become depressed through lack of supplies and money and by defeatist rumours which were spread by agents and spies organised by William Hodson. Preparation for the assault The attack was scheduled for 3 a.m. on 14 September. The storming columns moved into position during the night of 13 September. The future Field Marshal Lord Roberts, then a junior staff officer, recorded their composition: 1st Column – Brigadier General Nicholson 75th Foot – 300 1st Bengal Fusiliers – 250 2nd Punjab Infantry (Greene's Rifles) – 450 Total – 1000 2nd Column – Brigadier Jones 8th Foot – 250 2nd Bengal Fusiliers – 250 4th Sikhs – 350 Total – 850 3rd Column – Colonel Campbell 52nd Foot – 200 Kumaon Battalion (Gurkhas) – 250 1st Punjab Infantry (Coke's Rifles) – 500 Total – 950 4th Column – Major Reid Sirmur Battalion (Gurkhas) Guides Infantry Collected picquets Total – 850 Plus Kashmir contingent in reserve – 1000 5th Column – Brigadier Longfield 61st Foot – 250 4th Punjab Infantry (Wilde's Rifles) – 450 Baluch Battalion (one "wing" only) – 300 Total – 1000 Detachments of the 60th Rifles, totalling 200, preceded all the columns, as skirmishers. Engineers and sappers were attached to lead each column. There was also a cavalry brigade in reserve under James Hope Grant, which probably consisted of: 6th Carbineers (one "wing" only) 9th Lancers Guides Cavalry 1st Punjab Cavalry (one squadron) 2nd Punjab Cavalry (one squadron) 5th Punjab Cavalry (one squadron) Hodson's Horse (irregular levies) The assault The first three columns, under Nicholson's overall command, gathered in and behind a building known as the Khudsia Bagh, a former summer residence of the Mughal Kings, about a quarter of a mile from the north walls. The fourth column was intended to attack only when the Kabul Gate on the west of the city walls was opened from behind by the other columns. The fifth column and the cavalry were in reserve. The attack was supposed to be launched at dawn, but the defenders had repaired some of the breaches overnight with sandbags, and further bombardment was required. Eventually, Nicholson gave the signal and the attackers charged. The first column stormed through the breach in the Kashmir Bastion and the second through that in the Water Bastion by the Jumna River, but this was not without difficulty, as most of the scaling ladders were broken before they could be emplaced. The third column attacked the Kashmiri Gate on the north wall. Two sapper officers, Lieutenants Home and Salkeld (both of whom subsequently won the Victoria Cross), led a suicidal mission, a small party of British and Indian sappers which placed four gunpowder charges and sandbags against the gate under fire from just away. Several of them were wounded or killed trying to light the fuse. The explosion demolished part of the gate, a bugler with the party signalled success and the third column charged in. Meanwhile, the fourth column encountered a rebel force in the suburb of Kishangunj outside the Kabul Gate before the other columns attacked, and was thrown into disorder. Major Reid, its commander, was seriously injured, and the column retired. The rebels followed up, capturing four guns from the Kashmiri troops, and threatened to attack the British camp, which had been emptied of its guards to form the assault force. The artillery batteries at Hindu Rao's House (directed by Chamberlain from a doolie) stopped them until Hope Grant's cavalry and horse artillery could move up to replace Reid's column. The cavalry remained in position under fire from guns on the Kabul Gate and suffered heavy casualties, until relieved by infantry. In spite of this reverse, Nicholson was keen to press on into the city. He led a detachment down a narrow lane to try to capture the Burn Bastion, on the walls north of the Kabul Gate. Rebel soldiers held most of the flat rooftops and walled compounds, and guns mounted on the bastion fired grapeshot down the lanes between the houses. After two rushes were stopped with heavy casualties, Nicholson led a third charge and was mortally wounded. Temporarily repulsed, the British now withdrew to the Church of Saint James, just inside the walls of the Kashmir Bastion. They had suffered 1,170 casualties in the attack. Archdale Wilson moved to the Church, and faced with the setback, he wished to order a withdrawal. When he heard of Wilson's indecision, the dying Nicholson threatened to shoot him. Eventually, Baird Smith, Chamberlain and other officers persuaded Wilson to hold on to the British gains. The capture of the city The British and Company forces were disordered. Many British officers had been killed or wounded, and their units were now in confusion. The British foothold included many of the liquor stores and over the next two days, many British soldiers became drunk and incapacitated on looted spirits. However, the rebel sepoy regiments had become discouraged by their defeats and lack of food, while the irregular mujahhadin defended their fortified compounds with great determination, but could not be organised to make a coordinated counter-attack. Wilson eventually ordered all liquor to be destroyed, and discipline was restored. Slowly, the attackers began to clear the rebels from the city. They captured the magazine on 16 September. Another Victoria Cross was earned here, by Lieutenant Thackerey for extinguishing a fire in the magazine whilst under musket fire. Bahadur Shah and his entourage abandoned the palace on 18 September, and a British force captured the great mosque, the Jama Masjid, and the abandoned palace the next day. They also captured the Selimgarh Fort, attached to the palace and dominating the bridge of boats over the River Yamuna. Most rebels who had not already left the city now did so before the Company forces captured all the gates and trapped them. The city was finally declared to be captured on 21 September. John Nicholson died the next day. Aftermath The cost to the British, Company, and loyal Indian armies in besieging Delhi from the start of the siege to the capture of the city was 1,254 killed, and 4,493 wounded, of which 992 were killed, 2,795 were wounded and 30 missing in action during the last six days of brutal fighting in the city during the final assault. Of that total of 3,817 casualties during the capture of the city, 1,677 were loyalist Indian soldiers. It is almost impossible to say how many rebels and their supporters were killed during the siege, but the number was far greater. Unofficial sources place the rebel casualties at over 5,000. It is also impossible to estimate how many civilians died during the fighting in Delhi, which included those killed by the rebels, the British, or in the cross-fire. After the siege, many civilians were subsequently expelled from the city to makeshift camps in the nearby countryside, as there was no way of feeding them until order was restored to the entire area. The British, Sikh and Pakhtun soldiers were all fairly callous with regard to life. For four days, after the fall of the city, there was extensive looting, although many British soldiers were more interested in drink than material possessions. Prize agents later moved into the city behind the troops, and organised the search for concealed treasure on a more systematic basis. The British, eager to avenge the killing of several hundred of their countryfolk in Delhi, Cawnpore, and elsewhere in India, were in no mood to take prisoners. Several hundred rebel prisoners as well as suspected rebels and sympathisers were subsequently hanged without trial or much legal process. In many cases, the officers of the "Queen's" Army were inclined to be lenient, but East India Company officials such as Theophilus Metcalfe were vengeful. Bahadur Shah and three of his sons had taken refuge at Humayun's Tomb, south of Delhi. Although he was urged to accompany Bakht Khan and rally more troops, the aged Emperor was persuaded that the British were seeking vengeance only against the sepoys they regarded as mutineers, and he would be spared. On 20 September, a party under William Hodson took him into custody on promise of clemency and brought him back to the city. The next day, Hodson also took prisoner two of Bahadur Shah's sons and a grandson, but with no guarantee of any sort. On the pretext that a mob was about to release them, Hodson executed the three princes at Khooni Darwaza (Bloody Gate). Their heads were later presented to Bahadur Shah, who was subsequently put on trial by the British Military Commission. He was exiled to Rangoon in British-controlled Burma in 1858, after being convicted on several charges. By recapturing the Indian capital city, the British and Company forces dealt the Indian Army mutineers a major military and psychological blow, while releasing troops to assist in the relief of Lucknow, thus contributing to another British victory. A total of 29 Victoria Crosses were awarded to recipients for bravery in the Siege of Delhi. A Delhi clasp was authorised for the Indian Mutiny Medal. Footnotes References External links Memoirs of an Indian translator for the East India Company Battles of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 Sieges involving the United Kingdom 1857 in India Military history of Delhi 19th century in Delhi 1857 in the Mughal Empire Sieges involving Nepal
4190672	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk%20Penney	Kirk Penney	Kirk Samuel Penney (born 23 November 1980) is a New Zealand professional basketball player. He played four years of college basketball for the Wisconsin Badgers between 1999 and 2003, where he was twice named first-team all-conference and an all-American. He became the second New Zealander in the NBA when he appeared briefly for the Miami Heat in 2003 and the Los Angeles Clippers in 2005, and went on to play professionally in Spain, the NBA Development League, Israel, Lithuania, Germany and Turkey. He also played six seasons for the New Zealand Breakers of the Australian National Basketball League (NBL). He was named the NBL MVP in 2009 and won an NBL championship with the Breakers in 2011. Penney represented New Zealand at the Sydney and Athens Olympics and averaged 16.9 points at the World Championships at Indianapolis in 2002 and 24.7 points at the World Championships at Turkey in 2010. Early life Born in the Auckland suburb of Milford, Penney attended Westlake Boys High School and played junior basketball for the North Harbour Basketball Association, joining their New Zealand NBL team, the North Harbour Kings, in 1998 as a 17-year-old. He earned NZNBL Rookie of the Year honours that year and helped the Kings reach the grand final. He also played for the Kings in 1999 and 2000. College career As a freshman playing for the Wisconsin Badgers during the 1999–2000 season, Penney had a minimal role under coach Dick Bennett, but still helped his team reach the NCAA Final Four while averaging 3.7 points and 1.4 rebounds in 34 games. As a sophomore in 2000–01, he averaged 11.2 points per game and was the second-leading scorer on the team. As a junior in 2001–02 playing for coach Bo Ryan, Penney was the team's leading scorer. He averaged 15.1 points and 4.9 rebounds per game while shooting 45.4 percent from the field and teamed with point guard Devin Harris to guide the Badgers to a share of the Big Ten title. Penney subsequently earned first-team All-Big Ten honours in 2001–02. As a senior in 2002–03, Penney was again the team's leading scorer. He averaged 16.2 points and was second on the team with 6.0 rebounds per game, as Wisconsin won the Big Ten regular-season title outright. For his senior-year efforts, Penney earned first-team All-Big Ten honours again and was named an honorable mention All-American. His 217 career three-point field goals made ranks third in program history. Professional career NBA and Europe (2003–2007) Penney was not drafted in the star-studded 2003 NBA draft but joined the Minnesota Timberwolves in July that year for the Orlando Pro Summer League where he led the league in three-point shooting. On 1 September 2003, he signed with the Timberwolves, but did not make the team's final roster as he was waived on 23 October prior to the start of the 2003–04 NBA season. On 3 November, he signed with the Miami Heat and made his NBA debut that same day, scoring three points in 14 minutes of action against the Dallas Mavericks. Penney became the second New Zealander (after Sean Marks) to play in the NBA. The following day, he made his second appearance for the Heat, but record no stats in just four minutes of action against the San Antonio Spurs. On 7 November, he was waived by the Heat after the team signed Tyrone Hill instead. Following his release from the Heat, Penney moved to Spain and signed with Gran Canaria for the rest of the 2003–04 season. In 24 Liga ACB games for Canaria, he averaged 10.6 points and 2.1 rebounds per game. In July 2004, Penney joined the Minnesota Timberwolves for the Minnesota Summer League in Minneapolis, and the Chicago Bulls for the Rocky Mountain Revenue in Salt Lake City. On 4 November 2004, he was selected with the sixth overall pick in the 2004 NBA Development League Draft by the Asheville Altitude. He had an impressive start to the 2004–05 season and earned himself an NBA call-up. On 26 December 2004, he signed with the Los Angeles Clippers. He appeared in four games for the Clippers and scored just two points. He was waived by the Clippers on 3 January 2005 and returned to the Asheville Altitude to play out the season and help the team win the 2005 NBA D-League championship. On 5 August 2005, Penney signed a two-year deal with Maccabi Tel Aviv of the Israeli Basketball Premier League. He was used sparingly as a shooter off the bench and helped Maccabi qualify for the Euroleague Final Four, eventually losing to CSKA Moscow in the final. Maccabi did, however, win the 2006 Premier League championship. In 19 Euroleague games for Maccabi in 2005–06, Penney averaged 3.3 points per game. In October 2006, Penney signed with Žalgiris Kaunas as an injury replacement for Marcelinho Machado. After Žalgiris won the Lithuanian Basketball League Cup, Penney parted ways with Žalgiris. On 16 February 2007, he signed with ALBA Berlin of Germany for the rest of the 2006–07 season. New Zealand Breakers (2007–2010) In June 2007, Penney signed with the New Zealand Breakers of the Australian National Basketball League. Penney's addition to the previously unsuccessful Breakers proved to be the tonic for the Breakers success, with the team qualifying for their first ever finals series, before eventually finishing in sixth position overall in 2007–08. Individually, Penney was the league's third leading scorer, averaging 24.2 points, 4.8 rebounds, 2.6 assists and 1.3 steals over 31 games, was a starter for the World All-Stars team, and was named to the All-NBL first team. In the 2008–09 season, Penney led the league in scoring and was the first Kiwi player ever to be named in the All-NBL first team for consecutive seasons. He took home the Andrew Gaze MVP trophy for leading the Breakers to their best season ever, averaging 24.2 points, 4.4 rebounds and 2.8 assists over 28 games, making Penney the first Kiwi to be honoured with the award. On 21 January 2010, Penney scored a career-high 49 points in a 103–89 win over the Adelaide 36ers in Auckland. During the 2009–10 season, he was once again named to the All-NBL first team. Skyforce and Spurs (2010) Following the conclusion of the 2009–10 NBL season, Penney returned to the United States, and on 24 March 2010, he was acquired by the Sioux Falls Skyforce of the NBA Development League. In just his second game for the Skyforce, he scored a game-high 31 points on 12-of-17 shooting from the field, adding four rebounds, three assists and a steal in 43 minutes of game time in a 113–104 win over the Springfield Armor. In the Skyforce's final game of the regular season, he scored 40 points in a win over the Bakersfield Jam. The Skyforce made it to the first round of the playoffs where they lost to the Tulsa 66ers 2–1 in the best-of-three series. In seven total games for the Skyforce, he averaged 22.7 points, 4.4 rebounds, 2.1 assists and 1.4 steals per game. On 28 September 2010, Penney signed with the San Antonio Spurs. However, he was later waived by the Spurs on 11 October after appearing in one preseason game and scoring 9 points. First NBL Championship (2010–11) On 26 October 2010, Penney returned to the New Zealand Breakers for the 2010–11 NBL season. For the first three games of the season, Leon Henry filled in for Penney, but upon his return, Henry was swiftly moved out of the 10-man roster. In 2010–11, Penney led the Breakers to their first NBL championship as they defeated the Cairns Taipans in the grand final series, 2–1. He was again named to the All-NBL first team after averaging 20.0 points, 4.0 rebounds and 2.3 assists per game. Return to Europe (2011–2015) On 29 July 2011, Penney signed with Baloncesto Fuenlabrada of Spain for the 2011–12 season. During the 2011–12 ACB season, Penney was the fifth leading points scorer with 14.4 points per game. In July 2012, Penney signed with TED Ankara Kolejliler of Turkey for the 2012–13 season. During the 2012–13 TBL season, Penney was the league's third leading points scorer with 18.3 points per game, hitting over 46% of his three-point shots. In August 2013, Penney signed with Trabzonspor for the 2013–14 season. In mid-2014, Penney returned to the University of Wisconsin to finish off his degree. On 26 January 2015, he signed with Baloncesto Sevilla of the Spanish Liga ACB. In 16 games for Sevilla, he averaged 11.3 points, 3.3 rebounds and 1.8 assists per game. Illawarra Hawks (2015–2016) On 27 July 2015, Penney signed with the Illawarra Hawks for the 2015–16 NBL season. In just the third game of the season on 14 October, he scored a season-high 36 points in a 96–75 win over his former team, the New Zealand Breakers. He didn't miss a game for the Hawks over the team's first 22 contests before a hamstring injury suffered on 17 January 2016 against the Breakers forced him to miss four straight games. He returned to action on 6 February, scoring 28 points in a 104–97 overtime win over the Townsville Crocodiles. He helped the Hawks finish the regular season in third place with a 17–11 win–loss record, booking themselves a semi-final clash with the second-seeded Perth Wildcats. After losing Game 1 in Perth, the Hawks took Game 2 at home to save the series, but went on to lose the deciding Game 3 in Perth, bowing out of the playoffs with a 2–1 defeat. In 27 games for the Hawks in 2015–16, Penney averaged 20.4 points, 3.0 rebounds and 3.1 assists per game. Return to the Breakers (2016–2018) On 12 April 2016, Penney signed a three-year deal with the New Zealand Breakers. On 7 October 2016, he played in his first game for the Breakers since 2011, scoring nine points in a 76–71 season-opening win over Melbourne United. On 29 October 2016, he scored 27 points in a 119–93 win over the Adelaide 36ers. On 6 November 2016, he scored 30 points in an 86–70 win over the Brisbane Bullets. He appeared in all 28 games for the Breakers in 2016–17, averaging 17.3 points, 3.4 rebounds and 2.4 assists per game. The Breakers started the 2017–18 season with a 9–1 record, before dropping to 9–3 with two Round 8 defeats. In the second defeat of Round 8, Penney was held scoreless for the first time in his 174-game NBL career. On 15 December 2017, against the Adelaide 36ers in Auckland, Penney played his 150th game for the Breakers. The Breakers finished the regular season in fourth place with a 15–13 record. On 22 February 2018, with finals only a week away, Penney announced his decision to retire at the end of the 2017–18 season. His final game came in the Breakers season-ending loss to Melbourne United in Game 2 of their semi-finals series; in the 88–86 overtime loss, Penney had 17 points off the bench. In 22 games in 2017–18, he averaged 10.1 points, 2.7 rebounds and 1.0 assists per game. Auckland Tuatara (2022) In August 2022, Penney came out of retirement to play for the Auckland Tuatara of the New Zealand NBL in their final regular season game of the 2022 season. Career statistics NBA \|- \| align="left" \| \| align="left" \| Miami \| 2 \|\| 0 \|\| 9.0 \|\| .167 \|\| .333 \|\| .000 \|\| .5 \|\| .5 \|\| .5 \|\| .0 \|\| 1.5 \|- \| align="left" \| \| align="left" \| L.A. Clippers \| 4 \|\| 0 \|\| 3.0 \|\| .333 \|\| .000 \|\| .000 \|\| .4 \|\| .3 \|\| .0 \|\| .0 \|\| .5 \|- \| align="left" \| Career \| align="left" \| \| 6 \|\| 0 \|\| 5.0 \|\| .222 \|\| .250 \|\| .000 \|\| .3 \|\| .3 \|\| .2\|\| .0 \|\| .8 Euroleague \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 2005–06 \| style="text-align:left;"\| Maccabi Tel Aviv \| 19 \|\| 0 \|\| 7.3 \|\| .588 \|\| .478 \|\| .714 \|\| .8 \|\| .1 \|\| .2 \|\| .0 \|\| 3.3 \|\| 2.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 2006–07 \| style="text-align:left;"\| Žalgiris \| 13 \|\| 2 \|\| 18.5 \|\| .514 \|\| .452 \|\| .500 \|\| 2.0 \|\| .8 \|\| .2 \|\| .0 \|\| 7.4 \|\| 5.2 National team career Penney debuted for the New Zealand national basketball team in 1999 at the age of 18, going on to represent the Tall Blacks at two Olympic Games (in 2000 and 2004) and four world championships (2002, 2006, 2010 and 2014). Penney was part of the Tall Blacks' memorable 2002 World Championships campaign as they surprisingly finished fourth. Penney averaged 16.9 points per game and hit 45.5% of his three-point shots. Penney led New Zealand to victory in the 2009 FIBA Oceania Championship, beating Australia 177–162 on aggregate, after the two-match tie was drawn 1–1. Penney was influential in both games, with 23 points and 4 assists in Game 1, and a 24 points, 7 rebounds and 10 assists in Game 2, thus winning the Al Ramsay Shield. In the 2010 World Championships in Turkey, Penney was the second leading scorer with 24.7 points per game. New Zealand also went through to the elimination rounds with a 3–2 record. Penney participated for New Zealand at the 2014 FIBA Basketball World Cup in Spain and averaged 10.8 points and 4.5 rebounds in six games. In May 2016, Penney retired from international basketball after a career spanning 15 years (1999–2014). In May 2022, Penney was inducted into the Basketball New Zealand Hall of Fame. Personal life Penney is the brother of Rodd Penney, who is also a professional sportsman, and has played Rugby Union in New Zealand, England and Italy. Penney and his wife, Audra, have a daughter named Olivia. During the 2019–20 U.S. college season, Penney served as director of player development and coaching staff consultant at the University of Virginia. Awards and achievements Individual achievements 1998 New Zealand NBL Rookie of the Year 1999 New Zealand NBL Outstanding Kiwi Guard 2001–02 First Team All-Big Ten 2002–03 First Team All-Big Ten 2002–03 Honorable Mention All-American 2006–07 Baltic Basketball League All-Star 2007–08 All-NBL First Team 2008–09 All-NBL First Team 2008–09 Australian NBL MVP 2009–10 All-NBL First Team 2010–11 All-NBL First Team 2011 Stanković Cup MVP 2012–13 TBL All-Star 2012–13 TBL Three-Point Shootout champion 2013–14 TBL All-Star 2013–14 TBL Three-Point Shootout champion 2015–16 All-NBL Second Team Team achievements 2001–02 Big Ten Champions (Wisconsin) 2002–03 Big Ten Champions (Wisconsin) 2004–05 NBA Development League Champions (Asheville Altitude) 2005–06 Israeli Basketball Premier League Champions (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 2005–06 Israeli Basketball State Cup Champions (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 2006–07 Lithuanian Basketball League Cup Champions (Žalgiris Kaunas) 2010–11 Australian NBL Champions (New Zealand Breakers) New Zealand national team 2000 William Jones Cup Champions 2000 Olympic Games, 11th place 2001 Goodwill Games 2002 FIBA World Championship, 4th place 2004 Olympic Games 2006 FIBA World Championship, 16th place 2007 Stanković Cup 2008 FIBA Olympic Qualifying Tournament 2009 FIBA Oceania Championship, 1st place (Gold) 2010 FIBA World Championship, 12th place 2011 Stanković Cup, 1st place (Gold) 2014 FIBA World Championship References External links Illawarra Hawks player profile NBA D-League profile Wisconsin bio Euroleague.net profile Spanish ACB profile FIBA.com profile TBLStat.net profile Basketball New Zealand profile "The mysterious case of Kirk Penney's 'possible' NBL fairytale comeback with Tuatara" at stuff.co.nz 1980 births Living people 2002 FIBA World Championship players 2006 FIBA World Championship players 2010 FIBA World Championship players 2014 FIBA Basketball World Cup players Alba Berlin players Asheville Altitude players Baloncesto Fuenlabrada players Basketball players at the 2000 Summer Olympics Basketball players at the 2004 Summer Olympics Basketball players from Auckland BC Žalgiris players CB Gran Canaria players Competitors at the 2001 Goodwill Games Illawarra Hawks players Israeli Basketball Premier League players Liga ACB players Los Angeles Clippers players Maccabi Tel Aviv B.C. players Miami Heat players National Basketball Association players from New Zealand New Zealand Breakers players New Zealand expatriate basketball people in Australia New Zealand expatriate basketball people in Germany New Zealand expatriate basketball people in Israel New Zealand expatriate basketball people in Lithuania New Zealand expatriate basketball people in Spain New Zealand expatriate basketball people in Turkey New Zealand expatriate basketball people in the United States New Zealand men's basketball players Olympic basketball players for New Zealand People educated at Westlake Boys High School Real Betis Baloncesto players Shooting guards Sioux Falls Skyforce players Small forwards TED Ankara Kolejliler players Trabzonspor B.K. players Undrafted National Basketball Association players Wisconsin Badgers men's basketball players
4190772	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical%20Care%20and%20Sickness%20Benefits%20Convention%2C%201969	Medical Care and Sickness Benefits Convention, 1969	Medical Care and Sickness Benefits Convention, 1969 is an International Labour Organization Convention. It was established in 1969 revised Convention C24 Sickness Insurance (Industry) Convention, 1927 and Convention C25 Sickness Insurance (Agriculture) Convention, 1927. Content General provisions Article 1 There are several terms and words used in this convention with specific meaning. The term legislation means any social security rules, laws and regulations. Prescribed means determined by national legislation. The phrase industrial undertaking implies all activities in the branches of mining and quarrying, manufacturing, construction, electricity, gas and water, and transport, storage and communication. Residence means any ordinary residence in the territory of the member and a resident is a person living in the territory of the member. The term dependent means a state which is assumed to exist in prescribed cases. The term wife is defined as a wife dependent on her husband and the term child covers children under the age of 15 or who left school. Exceptions are people with chronic illness or infirmity disabling them for any gainful activity, apprentices and students. Standard beneficiary is defined as a married man and wife with two children. The term qualifying period means a period of contribution, employment, residence or any combination thereof. Sickness implies any morbid condition. Article 2 For Articles 1, 11, 14, 20, and 26, a member may request temporary exceptions if medical facilities and economy are inadequate. In doing so, any exception must be justified by the member and limited in time. Each member agrees, after declaring exceptions, to expand the scope of persons protected, to expand the scope of medical care, and to extend the duration of sickness benefits. Article 3 Each member can, by an additional declaration to the ratification, exempt workers in the agricultural sector from the application of this Convention under certain conditions. Any member which has made an additional declaration shall submit to the International Labor Organization (ILO) a report on the application and progress of this convention with respect to workers in the agricultural sector. Any member which has made an additional declaration shall increase the number of protected workers in the agricultural sector as rapidly as circumstances permit. Article 4 Any member can, by an additional declaration to the ratification, exclude from this convention seafarers, sea fishermen, and public service employees. If an additional declaration has been filed, the member may not include the excluded persons in calculating the figures in Articles 5, 10, 11, 19 and 20. Any Member which has made an additional declaration may at a later date notify the Director-General of the ILO that it accepts the obligations under this convention in respect of the excluded groups of persons. Article 5 Any member can exclude from the convention casual employees, members of the employer's family who work for and reside with the employer, and other classes of employees, so long as such exclusion does not affect more than 10 percent of the employees. Article 6 For the purposes of this convention, a member can take into account the protection afforded by insurance under official supervision which covers a substantial proportion of male skilled workers or which is in conjunction with the protection arising from this convention. Article 7 Cases covered for protection by this convention or insurance include need for medical treatment for curative or preventive purposes and incapacity for work due to illness. Medical care Article 8 Each member provides care to the protected persons for the cure or prevention of the covered cases referred to in Article 7. Article 9 Medical care under Article 8 shall be provided with the intention of restoring or improving the health of the protected persons and their ability to work. Article 10 Under Article 7, all workers and their wives and children, as well as apprentices, are protected. Article 11 If an additional declaration has been made, the group of persons included in Article 7 shall comprise at least 25 percent of all employees together with their wives and children. In addition, groups of employees in industrial establishments constituting at least 50 percent of all employees, together with their wives and children, shall be protected. Article 12 The protected persons under Article 7 also include persons entitled to social security on account of invalidity, old age, death of the person liable for maintenance or unemployment. Article 13 Under Article 8, medical care includes primary care, specialist care in hospitals, pharmaceutical care, hospitalization, dental care, and medical rehabilitation. Article 14 In the case of an additional statement, medical care under Article 8 must include primary care, specialist care, pharmaceutical care, and hospitalization. Article 15 If medical care under Article 8 depends on protected persons fulfilling a waiting period, the conditions shall be fulfilled in such a way that they do not deprive the right to benefits. Article 16 Medical care referred to in Article 8 shall be ensured during the entire quota. If a beneficiary ceases to be a protected person, the entitlement to medical care may be limited to a prescribed period, which shall not be less than 26 weeks, as long as sickness benefits are not longer. The period of medical care for illnesses requiring longer treatment shall be extended notwithstanding the prescribed period. Article 17 If a member is required to contribute to the cost of medical care referred to in Article 8, the rules for such contribution must be calculated in such a way as to avoid hardship and not to impair the effectiveness of medical and social protection. Sickness benefit Article 18 Each member of this convention shall be obliged to provide sickness benefits to the persons protected under article 7. Article 19 Persons protected under Article 7 include all employees and apprentices, groups constituting at least 75 percent of the total economically active population and all residents who meet the conditions for Article 24. Article 20 In the case of an additional declaration under Article 2, protected persons under Article 7 include groups of employees constituting at least 25 percent of all employees or at least 50 percent of all employees in industrial establishments. Article 21 Sickness benefits under Article 18 must be recurring payments calculated to meet the requirements of Article 22 or Article 23 and, in the case of sickness, the conditions of Article 24. Article 22 In the case of recurrent sickness payments, the benefit rate must be set so that the beneficiary reaches at least 60 percent of the total amount of previous earnings and the amount of family allowances due to a protected person with the same family responsibilities as the standard benefit recipient. The previous basic earnings of the beneficiary are calculated from the classes to which they previously belonged. A maximum limit can be prescribed for the benefit rate if it does not exceed the wage of a male worker. The previous earnings of the beneficiary, wages of the male skilled worker, benefit and family allowance, if any, are calculated on the same time frame. For the other beneficiaries, the benefit must be in proportion to the benefit for standard beneficiaries. Male skilled worker means a locksmith or lathe operator in the manufacture of machinery, a person who is considered a typical skilled worker, a person whose annual earnings are equal to or greater than 75 percent of all protected persons, or a person whose earnings are greater than 125 percent of the average earnings. A typical skilled worker is a person who belongs to the largest major group in the industry and to the department with the largest number of male workers within the establishment. If the benefit rate differs by area, the male skilled worker can be determined for each area in accordance with Articles 6 and 7. The wage of the male skilled worker is fixed by collective agreement, domestic legislation or customary law for normal working hours. If the rate varies from region to region, the middle rate is set in accordance with Article 8. Article 23 In the case of recurrent sickness payments, the benefit rate must be calculated so that the recipient under Article 7 receives at least 60 percent of the total amount of remuneration and the amount of family allowances. In this case, the pay and family allowance is calculated for the same period of time. For other beneficiaries, the benefit must be in reasonable proportion to the standard benefits. An ordinary adult male worker shall be deemed to be a person typically engaged in unskilled work in the manufacture of machinery or a person engaged in the field in which most of the male labor force, protected under Article 7, is engaged. For this purpose, the International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities adopted by the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations at its Seventh Session on 27 August 1948 is used. If the benefit rate varies by region, the ordinary adult male worker can be determined for each region. The wage of an ordinary adult worker must be determined on the basis of the collective agreement, national legislation or customary law. In the case of different rates in different areas, the middle rate is used. Article 24 In the case of recurring payment, the benefit rate is determined according to a prescribed scale by the competent public authority. Such rate can be reduced only to the extent that the other resources of the beneficiary's family exceed the determined amounts. The total amount of the benefit and other resources after reduction shall ensure the family's subsistence in health and morals and must not be less than the benefit calculated in Article 23. This is satisfied if the total amount of benefits exceeds by at least 30 percent the amount that would result from Article 23 and Article 19. Article 25 If a protected person is required to fulfill a waiting period under Article 18, the period must be designed in such a way that the protected person does not lose entitlement to benefits. Article 26 In the event of sickness, the benefits provided under Article 18 shall be fulfilled for the entire duration of the sickness and, in the event of incapacity for work, is limited to at least 52 weeks. If an additional declaration under Article 2 becomes effective, the entitlement to benefits under Article 18 can be limited to at least 26 weeks. If the right to remuneration is lawfully suspended during the first period of incapacity for work, it must not exceed three days. Article 27 In the event of the death of a person entitled to sickness benefits under Article 18, a death grant shall be paid to the survivors or bearers of the funeral expenses. A member may derogate from the provision if he has assumed obligations on disability, old-age and survivors' benefits, if he is entitled to at least 80 percent of the work allowance in case of sickness under his legislation, and if he is covered by voluntary insurance providing funeral benefits. Common provisions Article 28 A benefit to a protected person can be suspended if the affected person is not in the member's territory; if the person is compensated by a third party entity to the same extent; if the person has committed fraud; if the event was caused by the affected person committing a crime; if the insured event was caused by the affected person's willful misconduct; if the person concerned fails to claim the medical benefits or fails to comply with the requirements without any reason; if the sickness benefits under Article 18 are covered by public funds; and if the person concerned receives cash benefits from another social security higher than the standard benefit in case of sickness under Article 18. In such cases and within the limits, a part of the benefit due will be paid to the persons entitled to maintenance. Article 29 Every applicant has the right to file a complaint if the quality or quantity of the service is objected to. If, in the application of this convention, medical care is the responsibility of a state agency, the right of appeal can be reviewed by the competent agency. Article 30 Each member assumes responsibility for the provision of the guaranteed benefits and shall take all necessary measures for this purpose. Each Member assumes responsibility for the administration of the application of this convention. Article 31 If the administration has been delegated to an agency, representatives of the protected persons, and in some circumstances representatives of employers and representatives of the public, can participate in the administration. Article 32 Each member must assure in its territory to alien and national workers alike the benefits presented. Article 33 A member can, upon the fulfilment of several conditions and after consultation with representative organizations of employers and workers, derogate temporarily from certain provisions of this convention, provided that such derogation does not affect fundamental guarantees of this convention. Any Member which has made a derogation must indicate in the reports referred to in Article 22 for the ILO the state of its practice and legislation and the progress made towards the application of the provisions of the convention. Article 34 This convention does not apply to insured events which occurred before the entry into force of the convention and to insured events whose benefits relate to periods prior to the entry into force. Final provisions Article 35 This convention revises the Sickness Insurance (Industry) Convention, 1927, and the Sickness Insurance (Agriculture) Convention, 1927. Article 36 In accordance with Article 75 of the Social Security (Minimum Standards) Convention, 1952, Articles 18 to 27 and other parts of this convention shall cease to apply from the time this convention becomes binding on a member and no additional declaration under Article 3 is in effect. If no declaration under Article 3 is in force, the assumption of obligations under the Social Security (Minimum Standards) Convention, 1952 shall apply to the fulfillment of Article 2 from the said convention. Article 37 If the conference accepts a subsequent convention dealing with parts of this convention, the provisions of that convention shall apply to each member, which has ratified it, from the date on which the said convention enters into force. Article 38 Ratifications of this convention are submitted to the Director General by the ILO. Article 39 Once a member has been registered by the Director-General, this convention is binding. The convention enters into force 12 months after the registration of the first two members. Thereafter, it enters into force 12 months after the registration of each member. Article 40 After a member is ratified, it can give notice of denunciation ten years after the date of entry into force of this convention. The denunciation takes effect one year after the date of registration. Any ratified member which does not exercise the right of denunciation is bound by this convention for a further period of ten years. Article 41 The Director-General of the ILO notifies all members of the ILO of all ratifications and denunciations communicated to him. When notifying the members, the Director-General indicates the date of entry into force of the convention. Article 42 The Director-General of the ILO transmits to the Secretary-General of the UN the complete particulars of all ratifications and denunciations for registration under Article 102 of the Charter of the UN. Article 43 The Governing Body of the ILO submits periodically to the General Conference a report on the implementation and advisability of the convention. Article 44 When the conference adopts a new convention revising in part or in whole the current convention, ratification of the new convention shall entail denunciation of the old convention. Once the new convention enters into force, the old convention is no longer available to members. This convention remains in this form for all members who have ratified it but have not ratified the new convention. Article 45 The English and French versions of this convention are equally authoritative. Ratifications As of 2022, the convention has been ratified by 16 states. References External links Ratifications. Employee benefits International Labour Organization conventions Treaties concluded in 1969 Treaties entered into force in 1972 Treaties of Bolivia Treaties of Costa Rica Treaties of Czechoslovakia Treaties of the Czech Republic Treaties of Denmark Treaties of Finland Treaties of Ecuador Treaties of West Germany Treaties of the Libyan Arab Republic Treaties of Luxembourg Treaties of the Netherlands Treaties of Norway Treaties of Slovakia Treaties of Sweden Treaties of Uruguay Treaties of Venezuela Occupational safety and health treaties 1969 in labor relations
4190780	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Bicycle%20League	National Bicycle League	The National Bicycle League (NBL) was a United States–based Bicycle Motocross (BMX) sports sanctioning body originally based in Deerfield Beach, Florida, but after several moves it was based in Hilliard, Ohio. It was created by George Edward Esser in 1974 as first the bicycle auxiliary of the National Motorcycle League (NML) then set up as an independent non-profit organization unlike the earlier National Bicycle Association (NBA) and the later American Bicycle Association (ABA). George Esser played a major part in establishing Bicycle Motocross racing in Florida and shortly after the East Coast of the United States as Ernie Alexander did in California and the West Coast. The organization that sanctions bicycle motocross races in the United States/Canada is now known as USA BMX. History George Esser, unlike the creators of the earlier NBA and later ABA, set up a non-profit organization with a very inclusive government including a Competition Congress meetings in which opinions of how the body was being administered would be heard. It is perhaps this input and exercise of corporate democracy kept it in touch with the grassroots and from suffering periodical lost of member track operators and internal rebellions, like what happened to the ABA and NBA, in the NBA's case, fatally. Mr. Esser did not start the NBL for its own sake, but for the sake of his sons Bryan and Greg Esser who were competing in local races at the time before their father knew what BMX was. The elder Esser, being a motorcycle motocross race promoter like Ernie Alexander was on the United States's west coast before him, was dissatisfied with how the sanctionless independent tracks were run and created a bicycle motocross division of his thirty-three-year-old National Motorcycle League (NML). The NML's Bicycle Division's first race at Miami Hollywood Speedway Park on January 26, 1974. One of George Esser's sons, the aforementioned Greg Esser, won the 14 & over class (there was no proficiency classes as we know them now, just age divisions). Greg Esser would later become the first official NBL pro Number One racer in 1979. In February 1976 Mr. Esser broke the NBL off from the NML to become its own entity. Starting in Florida in these early days its track affiliations were overwhelmingly concentrated east of the Mississippi River with only a few west of that boundary. However, after the 1981 racing season it commenced joint operations with the troubled National Bicycle Association (NBA) that was shrinking both terms of ridership and track operations. From that point on, the NBA handled race promotions, sponsor relations and marketing of NBL races but ceased sanctioning races in its own right. In return, the NBL absorbed the remaining NBA membership and tracks, particularly those west of the Mississippi, making it a truly nation spanning sanctioning body like the rival ABA. It is associated now with Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) through USA Cycling which it joined in 1997. USA Cycling is the sanctioning body that represents virtually all aspects of Cycling in the United States. It is in turn associated with the UCI which is the sanctioning body that governs international Cycling. The UCI, in turn, is the governing body that deals with the International Olympic Committee (IOC) that holds the Olympic Games. The UCI did have previous affiliations with the NBL through the now defunct NBL sister international organization the International Bicycle Motocross Federation (IBMXF) which the UCI absorbed in 1993 through its amateur Cycling governing body FIAC. In both cases, NBL members were able to participate in the UCI BMX World Championship that the UCI inherited from the IBMXF. However, it was the NBL joining USA Cycling that was the key to BMX being accepted by the IOC as part of the Olympic Summer Games. It was not necessary for the NBL to join USA Cycling for BMX to be part of the Olympic Games, but since it was in the United States that BMX started and most of the best racers are American, it was critical for the USA to have a representative body involved. The NBL was chosen by USA Cycling in part because of its history of being involved with BMX at the international level and it is being a non-profit organization, unlike the ABA. BMX had trouble becoming an Olympic sport in the past, particularly before the 1990s was in part because of the then in place rules against professionals in the Games. However, the professionals (especially the Americans), were the best in the sport and to leave them out of the competition would not be showcasing the best. Much more importantly, this was the realization in other sports which has led to the elimination of the bar against professionals in the Olympic Games in all sports in the 1990s. BMX is now part of the Olympic Summer Games and the first Olympiad for BMX was the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China. Throughout its history, the NBL had a fierce independent streak. In 2002, its members foiled an attempt by USA Cycling Chief Executive Officer Gerard Bisceglia to sell the NBL its arch-rival, the ABA. This episode elevated "the Sanction Wars" in BMX Racing to a new level, and the bitter rivalry raged on for nearly a decade, until the NBL faltered, following a series of managerial and strategic blunders which played out from 2009-2011. The New NBL and Final Stand In August 2010, Managing Director Gary Aragon enacted a laundry list of radical changes to the NBL's programming, membership format and relationship with tracks—in an effort to jumpstart participation and "out-innovate" the ABA. The centerpiece of this was the "All You Can Race" membership. Modeled after a traditional health club membership (where you pay a monthly fee, and enjoy unlimited access to any facility in the system), the All You Can Race membership removed traditional per-race entry fees, in favor of a three-tiered, all-inclusive annual membership fee. For $99, $245 or $395, a member could race an unlimited number of local, regional or national races, respectively. With no per-race entry fees being paid by participants, the NBL announced it would pay tracks a fixed rate of ~US$6 per entry (20" and/or cruiser). Furthermore, tracks would no longer need to pay the NBL any fees at all—but would rely on the central office for nearly 100% of their revenue. Critics quickly hit the message boards with their assertions that the All You Can Race program was mathematically impossible to sustain, and would likely spell the end of the organization before the first season was out (after all, it only required 16.5 local races to put the NBL in the red on a single membership). The 2010 changes also included a spaghetti bowl of changes to the NBL's class structure (effectively doubling the number of classes), points table, proficiency move-up methodology and professional/elite race series. Many members and track operators found it difficult or impossible to follow the new ruleset, which led to uncertainty and inconsistency in how programs were being run and administered. Part of the "New NBL" program was the so-called "Nations Tour," a four-race elite series, run on a Supercross-style track. The tour would feature "Big Show" production values, and prize purses of nearly US$50,000 per stop (approximately 10x the amount awarded at traditional nationals). The first event was to be run March 4–5, 2011 in Primm Nevada, outside Las Vegas, with stops in Pittsburgh, Louisville and a finale in Sarasota, FL. Again, critics went to work on the granular details of the series, such as the weather in Primm, Nevada, in March, the lack of sufficient medical facilities to serve the frequent-and-predictable injuries that occur at an SX event, how the finale would manage to run time trials and the actual race in one day (which is inconsistent with the SX format), and the nagging question of where the NBL, who was self-admittedly cash-strapped throughout 2010, would come up with the funding to produce the series. On December 16, 2010, the NBL took things further, with an announcement that they had acquired the exclusive marketing and production rights to the UCI BMX Supercross World Cup series. Considered a coup, even by critics, the World Cup series is a five-stop annual tour and is the gateway to the Olympic Games, via the nation and rider points earned by athlete finishes. The NBL would form a new company, Global SX Events (GSX), of which it would own 51% interest. The remaining 49% would be owned equally by Johan Lindstrom and Tom Ritzenthaler, both of whom worked as staffers for the UCI leading into the rights acquisition. Speculation was that the NBL had to pay UCI a considerable fee (some say as large as US$500,000) for these rights, and the whole affair, from August to December was starting to look (even to NBL loyalists) like an extreme risk, a critical misstep and a textbook example of "biting off more than one can chew" all at once. Pundits opined that it would either revolutionize BMX Racing, or bring the NBL down in a flaming wreck—nothing in-between. The NBL began accepting membership conversions to the new "All You Can Race" system at the 2010 Grands, and had collected a sizable pool of cash in prepayment of these memberships, by the end of the year. Almost immediately, cracks in the system were evident, when basic member services such as membership cards being mailed out to new members, started to slip. It was clear that the NBL office had neither the manpower nor the information systems to adequately administer the changes. Observers could also see an organization who had been trained to do business one way, now forced to "write with their left hand," and do things that were outside their zone of comfort (like sending timely checks to tracks each month instead of the other way around). Management struggled to keep a positive face on things, and the first races run under the "All You Can Race" format showed impressive rider counts. But the true test for the system would prove to be once the track payments started coming due. As big as the fanfare was for the NationsTour, January came and went without a whisper about the race, a marquee sponsor, or who would attend. On February 11, the NBL/GSX announced it has canceled the Primm, NV event in March, citing "unexpected hold ups." To many observers, this was the first sign of serious trouble for the "New NBL." Perhaps the above operational issues, such as membership cards being late, could be chalked up to staff getting accustomed to a new system—but a key event being canceled, with only two-weeks notice (after receiving little-to-no promotion prior to cancelation, which cast doubt on whether it was ever intended to run at all), made the BMX industry very nervous and increasingly skeptical of the NBL's long-term prospects. The 2011 rulebook was released on March 3, Five months after the 2011 season started. By mid-March, complaints were starting to show up on message boards that the NBL office in Ohio was practically impossible to raise by phone; and that payments to tracks under the "All You Can Race" program were late, inaccurate or nonexistent. The massively-complex points system enacted as part of the "New NBL" required constant babysitting on the part of parents and team managers; and "The Nation" magazine (published by an outside independent publisher) was visibly starting to sputter (with downgrades to paper quality and thready frequency early in 2011). The granular details of exactly how the NBL's final weeks and days unfolded are not yet publicly known. However it came to be, on the afternoon of May 11, 2011 rumors began leaking that the NBL would layoff its staff and cease operations within two weeks. The following morning, NBL CEO Gary Aragon was interviewed on industry website BMXNews.com and said, famously "The NBL is not going out of business…we are here to stay and will be for a long time." Five days later, on May 17, Aragon appeared in a joint webinar with ABA CEO BA Anderson, and COO John David, to announce the agreement-in-principle and letter of intent (which had been hurriedly approved by the NBL board the previous evening) for the ABA to acquire the assets of the NBL for an undisclosed sum (later estimated at about US$250,000 based on court documents). The combined organization would be renamed USA BMX, and both the ABA and NBL brands would live on as "sub-leagues" (as with the National and American Leagues in Major League baseball, a proposal that was later abandoned). The ABA assumed responsibility for the NBL's ~5,000 members, granting them a complimentary membership to ABA/USA BMX for the balance of 2011, but returning to the pay-as-you-race format of paying race day entry fees. The ABA also brought the NBL tracks into the fold, propping up insurance coverage, and returning the mode of operation to pre "New NBL" methodology. Though tracks were owed a large sum of money by the NBL (for "All You Can Race" payouts), they could now get back to traditional forms of revenue. After a month of due diligence and negotiations, the final merger documents were signed on June 18, 2011, marking an end to the NBL's 37-year operation, and officially ending the "Sanction War" that had existed, in some form or another in North American BMX racing for as long as the NBL had existed. On August 10, 2011, the NBL Board of Directors was officially dissolved, as a petition was filed in Franklin County (OH) Court to appoint a receiver to administer the disposal of the NBL's remaining assets (chiefly the cash paid by the ABA to acquire the operating assets, and the NBL's 51% stake in GSX). The receiver would be responsible for disbursing cash held by the estate to persons or entities filing claims with the receiver. These claimants include suppliers, tracks, pro riders owed purse money, teams owed prize money and other creditors. On October 12, 2011, the receiver filed a motion with the court to sell the NBL's 51% share of GSX to a Gahanna, OH-based private equity group for US$5,000 in cash. On November 17, 2011, the receiver filed an update stating that all assets had been converted to cash and that the receiver was prepared to settle the dozens of claims that had been filed. The claims totaled US$673,613.22, and the receiver held $257,907.62 in cash following the asset sales. This meant that each claimant would get 38 cents on the dollar. Vital statistics In an interview conducted by former BMX racer Greg Hill at the online BMX discussion website bmxactiononline.com Bob Tedesco revealed his intention of stepping down as Managing Director of the National Bicycle League at the end of 2008 after 33 years involvement with BMX and the NBL, beginning as a track operator and then Northern Regional Commissioner in 1977, his first national post with the NBL. He was the longest-serving head of the NBL (1983–2008). Operations Proficiency and division class levels and advancement method Note: The following classifications are for the 2007 racing season: Jurisdictions While the ABA and the USBA was divided up into districts that could be of an entire state or multiple districts within a state; and the NBA was made up of super districts that could be one state or several states, the NBL was divided up into regions about three states each, however, unlike the rival NBA, ABA and USBA that rewarded district number to their racers within the region culminating in a Regional #1 plate at seasons' end there seemed to have been no regional number one plate for the NBL jurisdictions. They seemed to have been strictly administrative. Thus (in 1982 for example [to be updated as more current information is acquired]): NBL Rule book NBL National series classifications and age divisions for 2007. PDF file. Need Adobe Acrobat to read National Bicycle League Rule Book (2006). PDF file. Link to download the free Adobe Acrobat reader. NBL National number ones by year Note: Dates reflect the year the racers won their plates, not the year they actually raced their No.1 plates. In other words, Anthony Sewell won his No.1 plate in 1980 entitling him to race with #1 on his plate for the 1981 season. Stu Thomsen then won the No.1 plate in 1981 and raced with #1 on his plate during the 1982 racing season. Elite ("A") Pro Nat.#1 1978 Sal Zeuner 1979 Greg Esser 1980 Anthony Sewell 1981 Stu Thomsen 1982 Stu Thomsen 1983 Eric Rupe 1984 Eric Rupe 1985 Greg Hill 1986 Pete Loncarevich 1987 Pete Loncarevich 1988 Greg Hill 1989 Gary Ellis 1990 Terry Tenette 1991 Terry Tenette 1992 Terry Tenette 1993 Eric Carter 1994 Gary Ellis 1995 John Purse 1996 John Purse 1997 Christophe Lévêque 1998 Christophe Lévêque 1999 Danny Nelson 2000 Thomas Allier 2001 Jamie Staff 2002 Kyle Bennett 2003 Randy Stumpfhauser 2004 Kyle Bennett 2005 Mike Day 2006 Donny Robinson 2007 Kyle Bennett 2008 Randy Stumpfhauser 2009 Maris Strombergs 2010 Maris Strombergs 2011 Matt Kelty Pro Nat.#1 (Elite) Cruiser 1978 CDNE* 1979 CDNE 1980 CDNE 1981 Brent Patterson 1982 Brent Patterson 1983 Brent Patterson 1984 Toby Henderson 1985 Greg Hill 1986 Greg Hill 1987 Eric Rupe 1988 Eric Rupe 1989 Ron Walker 1990 Kenny May 1991 Barry McManus 1992 Barry McManus 1993 1994 Justin Green 1995 1996 1997 Kiyomi Waller 1998 Randy Stumpfhauser 1999 Dale Holmes 2000 Kevin Tomko 2001 Randy Stumpfhauser 2002 Randy Stumpfhauser 2003 Randy Stumpfhauser 2004 Randy Stumpfhauser 2005 Donny Robinson 2006 TD**** 2007 TD 2008 TD 2009 TD 2010 ---- 2011 ---- * "B" Pro/Super-EX Nat.#1 1978 CDNE 1979 CDNE 1980 CDNE 1981 James Gandy (ca. exp) 1982 James Gandy (ca. exp) 1983 James Gandy (ca. exp) 1984 James Gandy (ca./world) 1985 TDNE 1986 TDNE 1987 TDNE 1988 TDNE 1989 TDNE 1990 Benard Gant 1991 Barry McManus 1992 Brian Foster 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Jeff Dein 1998 Steven Spahr 1999 Todd Lyons 2000 2001 2002 Jonathan Suarez 2003 Derek Betcher 2004 Augusto Castro 2005 Derek Betcher 2006 TD** 2007 TD 2008 Kris Fox 2009 Josh Meyers 2010 CJ Mc Guire 2011 ---- "A" Pro Cruiser Nat.#1 1978 CDNE 1979 CDNE 1980 CDNE 1981 CDNE 1982 CDNE 1983 CDNE 1984 CDNE 1985 CDNE 1986 CDNE 1987 CDNE 1988 CDNE 1989 CDNE 1990 CDNE 1991 CDNE 1992 CDNE 1993 CDNE 1994 CDNE 1995 CDNE 1996 CDNE 1997 CDNE 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Eric Rupe 2003 Jason Carnes 2004 2005 2006 2007 TD 2008 TD 2009 TD 2010 ---- 2011 ---- Pro Nat. #1 Masters 1978 CDNE 1979 CDNE 1980 CDNE 1981 CDNE 1982 CDNE 1983 CDNE 1984 CDNE 1985 CDNE 1986 CDNE 1987 CDNE 1988 CDNE 1989 CDNE 1990 CDNE 1991 CDNE 1992 CDNE 1993 CDNE 1994 CDNE 1995 CDNE 1996 CDNE 1997 1998 1999 2000 Eric Rupe 2001 2002 2003 2004 Eric Rupe 2005 Dave Bittner 2006 Kiyomi Waller 2007 Jason Carnes 2008 Kenth Fallen 2009 Dale Holmes 2010 Joey Albright 2011 ---- Amateur & Elite Pro Nat.#1 Women 1978 CDNE 1979 CDNE 1980 CDNE 1981 Kathy Schachel(Am)† 1982 Kathy Schachel(Am) 1983 Kathy Schachel(Am) 1984 Debbie Kalsow(Am) 1985 Kathy Schachel(Pro) 1986 Kathy Schachel(Pro) 1987 Gaby Bayhi(Pro) 1988 Stacey Lupfer(Am) 1989 Jennifer Wardle(Am) 1990 Christy Homa(Am) 1991 Melanie Cline(Am) 1992 Marie McGilvary(Am) 1993 Michelle Cairns(Am) 1994 Marie McGilvary(Am) 1995 Marie McGilvary(Am) 1996 Marie McGilvary(Am) 1997 Michelle Cairns 1998 Michelle Cairns 1999 Marie McGilvar 2000 Natarsha Williams 2001 Natarsha Williams 2002 Jill Kintner 2003 Kim Hayashi 2004 Kim Hayashi 2005 Kim Hayashi 2006 Kim Hayashi 2007 Kim Hayashi 2008 Stephanie Barragan 2009 Dominique Daniels 2010 Dominique Daniels 2011 Alaina Henderson Am Nat.#1 Girls Cruiser 1978 CDNE 1979 CDNE 1980 CDNE 1981 CDNE 1982 CDNE 1983 CDNE 1984 CDNE 1985 CDNE 1986 CDNE 1987 CDNE 1988 CDNE 1989 CDNE 1990 CDNE 1991 Michelle Cairns 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 TD** 2009 TD 2010 ---- 2011 ---- 1984 World Championship at Griffith Park Ca., Team Open Air Schwinn #1 of Camarillo Ca. 'Class Did Not ExistUntil the 1980 season the #1 plate holder was considered #1 overall amateur or professional. The NBL did have a pro class in 1977, 1978 & 1979 but the title of National Number One Professional was not created until the 1980 season when the pros and the 16 Experts were separated and the pros earning separate points (in the form of purse money won) from the amateurs. Prior to 1980 the pros, due to the comparatively small number of them, competed with the 16 Experts and were able to earn amateur titles.'Title Did Not Exist The class did exist under the title of "B" pro (which was created at the beginning of the 1981 season), but it was not until 1990 when the name was changed to "Superclass" and it became a pro/am division were the racers of that class given an opportunity to win a separate year-end overall National #1 plate title separate from the pure Pro and the pure amateur classes. Amateurs competed for prizes and Pros could compete for a limited amount purses. Also beginning in the 1990 season "Pro Cruiser" was renamed "Super Cruiser" and "A" Pro "All Pro". In 1996 Super Cruiser was renamed "Pro Cruiser" once again and "All" Pro reverted to "Pro Class" This was to harmonize NBL nomenclature with UCI/IBMXF labels. Because of this, the NBL would change the name of its pro Classes many times during the 1990s, They even began calling their senior pro class "AA" and the junior pros "A" just like the ABA beginning in the year 2000. The senior male pro class is now officially known as Elite Men and the junior men were "A" pro. The single level pro females are called Elite Women. Beginning with the 2006 season the NBL ceased offering an independent year-end title for both the "A" pro class and the Pro Cruisers. In the case of Pro Cruiser it was an end of a long era with the Pro Cruiser No.1 title going back to 1981 when Brent Patterson first won the class. **'Title Discontinued†'(AM)=Amateur. From 1981 to 1984 the girl's National No.1 title was amateur. Between 1985 and 1987 a Women's pro class was established but that division was discontinued between 1988 and 1996 due to lack of participants on a consistent basis. Thus the National No.1 women titles were again amateur. From 1997 to the present the title designation is professional once again. Special Race Series Invitational President's Cup. This is a championship race that was inaugurated in December 1985 in which NBL racers who qualified for their state championships were invited to race this special event held just before the NBL Christmas National. It has been traditionally run during the last week of the year in December in Columbus, Ohio. Unlike the American Bicycle Association (ABA)'s Redline Cup (formerly known as the Gold Cup) which was a championship series for individual glory of the local non sponsored racer, the NBL's President's Cup is geared that the racers from each state is encouraged to represent their state in the form of teams. The state with the greatest representation in the main events win and that state would get the bulk of prize money put up by the national governing body of the NBL. It would be doled out to the winning states NBL governing commission. For instance, if Ohio happens to have the largest numbers of members in the mains, 12 racers as opposed to Alabama's nine or New York's 10, then Ohio would win and its state NBL's commission would get the prize money. In addition to the competition between the states, there are team competitions between bicycle shops and factories in their own divisions. Also unlike the ABA's Gold Cup no professionals are allowed to compete, only amateurs in the Expert, Girls, and Cruiser classes participating. See also American Bicycle Association National Bicycle Association National Pedal Sport Association United Bicycle Racers Association United States Bicycle Motocross Association Notes External links USA BMX http://www.bmxnews.com/pdf/nbl_creditor_spreadsheet.pdf - National Bicycle League list of deb-tees. Cycle racing organizations
4190830	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhyiddin%20Yassin	Muhyiddin Yassin	Tan Sri Dato' Haji Mahiaddin bin Md. Yasin (born 15 May 1947), commonly known as Muhyiddin bin Mohd. Yassin (; ), is a Malaysian politician who served as the eighth Prime Minister of Malaysia from 2020 to 2021. Appointed as prime minister amid a political crisis, Muhyiddin served for 17 months and resigned after losing parliamentary support. Muhyiddin grew up in the state of Johor and joined the state public service after graduating from University of Malaya (UM). He assumed management positions at various state-owned companies. In 1978, he was elected as the Member of Parliament for Pagoh. During this term, he was appointed parliamentary secretary to the minister of foreign affairs, deputy minister of federal territories and later deputy minister of trade and industry. As the Johor UMNO chief, he was the state's Menteri Besar from 1986 to 1995. He returned to federal politics in 1995. He was appointed to the Cabinet as Minister of Youth and Sports. He was appointed Minister of Domestic Trade and Consumer Affairs after the 1999 general election and became a vice president of UMNO in 2000. Under the premiership of Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, Muhyiddin served as Minister of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry from 2004 to 2008, and then as Minister of International Trade and Industry from 2008 to 2009. In 2008, he contested and won the UMNO deputy presidency and was appointed Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Education by Prime Minister Najib Razak in 2009. As Minister of Education, Muhyiddin ended the use of English as the medium of instruction for science and mathematics in public schools. He also attracted controversy after describing himself as "Malay first" when challenged by the Opposition to pronounce himself as "Malaysian first". Muhyiddin was a vocal critic of his government and party over the 1MDB scandal; as a result, he was dropped from his position during Najib's mid-term cabinet reshuffle in July 2015, marking the first incumbent UMNO deputy president to be left out of the president's cabinet. In June 2016, he was expelled from UMNO. He participated in founding the political party Malaysian United Indigenous Party (BERSATU) under Mahathir in 2016. He returned to the cabinet after his coalition of parties Pakatan Harapan won the 2018 Malaysian general election. In February 2020, BERSATU withdrew from Pakatan Harapan, culminating in a political crisis as the coalition lost its majority in the Dewan Rakyat. Following Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad's subsequent resignation, Muhyiddin successfully formed a new coalition Perikatan Nasional by receiving support from enough MPs to form a majority government and was appointed Prime Minister on 1 March. Much of his premiership was overseeing Malaysia's response to the COVID-19 pandemic, which became a major crisis shortly after he took office. This included enacting several iterations of the Movement Control Order (MCO), a vaccination programme and declaring a 2021 state of emergency, where parliament and elections were suspended. Although his government's initial response was praised by the WHO and had high local approval ratings, the worsening of the COVID-19 crisis in 2021 attracted criticism and destabilised the coalition. On 16 August 2021, he resigned after attempts to regain support from MPs were unsuccessful. He remained caretaker Prime Minister until his replacement Ismail Sabri Yaakob was selected on 21 August 2021. Muhyiddin unsuccessfully ran as the prime ministerial candidate for Perikatan Nasional in the 2022 general election. In March 2023, Muhyiddin was arrested by the Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission as part of a corruption investigation on several counts of money laundering and abuse of power, making him the second former prime minister after Najib Razak to be prosecuted. Early life and education Muhyiddin was born as Mahiaddin bin Md. Yasin in Muar, Johor, Malaysia. His father, Haji Muhammad Yassin bin Muhammad, was a Malay of Bugis descent. Muhammad Yassin was an Islamic theologian and cleric based in Bandar Maharani, Muar, Johor, while his mother, Hajjah Khadijah binti Kassim, was a Malay of Javanese descent. Muhyiddin received his primary education at Sekolah Kebangsaan Maharani, Muar, Johor, and Sekolah Kebangsaan Ismail, Muar, Johor. He received his secondary education at the Muar High School, Johor. Subsequently, he attended the University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. He received Bachelor of Arts (BA) in Economics and Malay studies in 1971. Early career After completing his studies, Muhyiddin joined the Johor state public service as the assistant secretary of training and scholarship. In 1974, he was appointed the assistant district officer (ADO) of Muar. He left the civil service to join the corporate sector in the Johor State Economic Development Corporation (PKENJ), managing its subsidiary companies like Sergam Berhad as managing director (1974–1977), Equity Mal (Johore) Sdn Bhd as Director (1974–1978), Sri Saujana Berhad as managing director (1974–1978) and SGS Ates (M) Sdn Bhd as Human Resources Manager (1974). Early political career (1971–1995) Early year Muhyiddin's involvement in politics began when he joined UMNO as an ordinary member at the Muar Dalam division in 1971. He was elected as UMNO youth chief of the Pagoh division and the secretary in 1976. Later he became Youth Chief of Johor state UMNO Youth until 1987. Muhyiddin occupied the seats of Exco in the national Malaysia UMNO Youth. In 1984, Muhyiddin was elected the UMNO division chief of Pagoh, replacing Othman Saat. Muhyiddin rose the ranks and file of Johor UMNO quickly. From being a state executive council member, he rose to become Johor UMNO's head and later became Menteri Besar of Johor. Muhyiddin contested and was elected Member of Parliament for the Pagoh constituency in the 1978 general election and kept the seat until 1982. Muhyiddin was appointed Parliamentary Secretary in the Ministry for Foreign Affairs; subsequently, he was promoted to Deputy Minister in the Ministry of Federal Territories and later the Ministry of Trade and Industry. In 1984, Muhyiddin contested a UMNO Supreme Council seat but lost. Muhyiddin was later appointed the UMNO Johor state liaison chairman and next appointed a Supreme Council member. In November 1990, he was a candidate for the UMNO vice-presidency but lost again. He attempted again in the November 1993 UMNO party election, successfully this time. Rise to prominence (1995–2009) Muhyiddin returned to contest the Pagoh parliamentary seat in the 1995 General Election. He served several different federal government cabinet posts as Minister of Youth and Sports (1995–1999), Minister of Domestic Trade and Consumer Affairs (1999–2004), Minister of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry (2004–2008) and Minister of International Trade and Industry (2008–2009). He was appointed Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Education by Prime Minister Najib Razak in 2009. He lost the 1996 election when defending the vice-president post. Eventually, in the election in 2000, he again won the post of vice-president of UMNO, remaining in that post until the October 2008 party election, when Muhyiddin successfully sought the higher post of deputy president, which was left vacant as the incumbent, Najib Razak (who was acting party president after the retirement of Abdullah Ahmad Badawi), became UMNO president. 2009 UMNO General Assembly and party election Muhyiddin attacked Abdullah Ahmad Badawi's original transition plan as "too long", and some people say that at one point, Muhyiddin was about to ask and force Abdullah to quit, though he never did so directly. During the 2008 general election, Muhyiddin managed to keep his seat and remained as an UMNO leader. Shocked by the election results, he called for reforms. During the 2009 UMNO General Assembly and party election, Muhyiddin was a candidate for the deputy president post, which was vacated by the incoming prime minister Najib Tun Razak. He was challenged by Mohd Ali Rustam, Malacca chief minister, and Muhammad Muhammad Taib, Rural and Regional Development Minister. Muhyiddin, seen as a supporter of Mahathir Mohamad, was seen to be the front-runner for the race, garnering many nominations by the UMNO divisions. Nevertheless, the competition was tough, as Taib and Rustam gained more ground, especially from the Badawi camp. Political analysts tipped the race to be very tight. However, the UMNO supreme council decided to disqualify Ali Rustam's candidacy after his assistants were caught involved with corruption after an investigation. The election resulted in Muhyiddin's election to the post with 1,575 votes to Muhammad Taib's 916. Deputy premiership (2009–2015) Muhyiddin was appointed deputy prime minister on 9 April 2009, when Najib took over from Abdullah Ahmad Badawi and unveiled his first Cabinet. Continuing as Minister for Education, he announced the decision to return to the teaching of mathematics and science in Malay in all government primary and secondary schools. Muhyiddin waded into controversy in March 2010 by stating he was "Malay first" rather than "Malaysian first". He also said that there is nothing wrong with other races doing the same; for example, the Chinese could claim themselves to be "Chinese first, Malaysian second" and same for the Indians. On 13 July 2010, he said that anyone was free to form an association, including Chinese or Indian versions of the Malay rights group Perkasa. Prime Minister Najib came to Muhyiddin's defence, denying that his statement was inconsistent with the "1Malaysia" concept promoted by the government. Sacked from the cabinet During Najib's mid-term Cabinet reshuffle on 28 July 2015, he was dropped from his position as Deputy Prime Minister. The dismissal came after Muhyiddin had made public and critical remarks about Najib's handling of the 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal. Najib stated that Muhyiddin's dismissal, and the contemporaneous dismissals of other Ministers who had been critical of his leadership, was to create a more "unified team". Muhyiddin remained UMNO deputy president, but after keeping up criticism of UMNO, he was eventually sacked by the party's supreme council in June 2016. Muhyiddin remained unrepentant, maintaining that he had never betrayed the party and pledging to continue speaking out. Post deputy premiership (2015–2018) Establishment of BERSATU party In August 2016, Muhyiddin registered a new political party, called Parti Pribumi Bersatu Malaysia (PPBM or Bersatu for short) together with former prime minister Mahathir Mohamad. Muhyiddin became the party's president while Mahathir and his son Mukhriz Mahathir became the chairman and deputy president. The new party is focused on Bumiputera – Malays and Orang Asli – in the sense that full membership is only open to Bumiputera. Other races can join the party but cannot vote or contest in party elections. Minister of Home Affairs (2018-2020) He was appointed as Malaysian Minister of Home Affairs by Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad when Pakatan Harapan won the 14th General Election. On 22 May 2018, Muhyiddin announced The Home Ministry will review seven laws relating to national security that were no longer suitable in today’s landscape. He said these laws were the Printing Presses and Publications Act 1984, Sedition Act 1948, Peaceful Assembly Act 2012, Prevention of Crime Act 1959 (Poca), Security Offences (Special Measures) Act 2012 (Sosma), Prevention of Terrorism Act 2015 (Pota), and mandatory death sentence. On September 16th to September 21st, 2019, Muhyiddin visited the United States to boost security ties. Prime Minister (2020–2021) On 29 February 2020, a week after the country was thrown into a political crisis, Muhyiddin was appointed Prime Minister by the King of Malaysia, following the abrupt resignation of Mahathir Mohamad five days before. He is the first person appointed to the position while holding both a parliamentary and state seat at the same time. COVID-19 pandemic and movement control order During his administration, COVID-19 spread throughout the nation. In response, Muhyiddin implemented the Movement Control Order (MCO) on 16 March 2020 to prevent the disease from infecting more Malaysians. The MCO started nationwide from 18 March and was extended conditionally to 9 June 2020. In response to the economic impact of COVID-19, he introduced an economic stimulus package worth RM 250 billion on 27 March to soften the economic strain during the MCO. On 1 May, in conjunction with Labour Day, Muhyiddin announced a Conditional Movement Control Order (CMCO). Certain economic sectors were allowed to operate gradually as long as SOP are followed. Travel restrictions are partially lifted to allow stranded students staying on their campuses and people who are stuck in other states to return to their respective home. Sports, recreational, and large gatherings are still prohibited under the CMCO. On 10 May, it was announced that the CMCO will last for another four weeks until 9 June. More sectors will be allowed to operate and fewer restrictions are to be applied. Shopping malls, dine-in and non-contact sports are allowed as long as social distancing is observed. The CMCO was converted into Recovery Movement Control Order (RMCO) and ran from 10 June until 31 August. Under the RMCO, more restrictions will be relaxed to allow the public to carry out their daily activities while complying with standard operating procedures. Almost all social, religious, business, and educational activities are allowed to resume. Hair salons, morning and night markets, and sports-related businesses like gymnasiums will open on a staggered basis, as well as religious congregation such as prayers as long as strict SOPs are followed. Reflexology centres, nightclubs, theme parks, karaoke centres, and gatherings such as kenduri (feasts) are still barred during the RMCO. The government's COVID-19 response had a 93% approval rating in September 2020, with 69% approval for Muhyiddin himself. Until early September 2020, Malaysia had a low number of COVID-19 cases. Infections rose following the 2020 Sabah state election in September, leading to a surge in Sabah which spread to the Klang Valley area. However, unlike the initial promise to reinstate the Movement Control Order (MCO) if the case returns to 3 digits, the government only imposed the Conditional Movement Control Order (CMCO) under the name of "economy". The government did not impose the MCO until January 2021. Nevertheless, the "MCO 2.0", was criticised for being not as strict as the "MCO 1.0" from March to May 2020. The government's mismanagement of the second and third waves provoked widespread anger among Malaysians, such as hashtags like "#KerajaanGagal" (means Failed Government) and/or "#MuhyiddinOut" which trended online. During the third wave in the mid 2021, a "Black Flag Campaign (Bendera Hitam)" became a trend, urging Muhyiddin to immediately resign. On July 31, 2021, hundreds of protesters gathered in Kuala Lumpur calling for Muhyiddin's resignation over his government's response to the pandemic. Foreign relations Myanmar After a bilateral meeting, Muhyiddin and Indonesian President Joko Widodo called for a special meeting of ASEAN on Myanmar after the 2021 coup d'état. After the April 2021 meeting, where representatives from the deposed National League for Democracy did not attend, Muhyiddin announced that Malaysia's three proposals to Min Aung Hlaing were not rejected, including calls to end violence against civilians during the 2021 Burmese protests, release of political detainees, and allow the Chair of ASEAN access to Myanmar. Proclamation of emergency On 19 October 2020, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong Sultan Abdullah of Pahang rejected Muhyiddin's request for him to issue a proclamation of emergency in response to a spike in COVID-19 cases throughout the country. However, on 21 January 2021, a new request to issue a proclamation of emergency was granted by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, and is expected to last until 1 August. Parliament and all elections were suspended while the proclamation was in effect. Loss of majority support and resignation On 8 July 2021, UMNO withdrew support for Muhyiddin and called for his resignation in July 2021 over the handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. As well as a failure to prevent a record rise in COVID-19 infections and deaths, UMNO President Ahmad Zahid Hamidi cited the management of the severe economic impact, lack of political stability and extension of the Movement Control Order in his call for Muhyiddin to make way for a new interim premier. On 4 August 2021, Putrajaya, Muhyiddin Yassin submitted a motion of confidence to the Yang di Pertuan Agong of Malaysia stating that he had received numerous declarations which provided that he still had the majority support within the lower house of parliament Dewan Rakyat. Therefore, the action of resignation under the Federal Constitution of Malaysia under section 43(4) is neither valid nor legal. He stated that the motion of no confidence would take place in September if the parliament had doubts about his ruling. However, this statement has been rejected by opposition leader Anwar Ibrahim who claims that 112 or more MPs have rejected Perikatan Nasional. Therefore, Anwar Ibrahim's statement concludes that Muyhiddin's claims are not valid and potentially fraudulent. Following Anwar Ibrahim's statement, on 6 August 2021, Muhyiddin stated during a press conference in Pagoh, Johor that he is still confident that he still holds majority support within the Parliament. On 15 August 2021, Mohd Redzuan Md Yusof, the Minister of the Prime Minister's Department (Special Functions), stated that Muhyiddin would resign on the next day. Muhyiddin and his cabinet submitted their resignation to the king on Monday, 16 August 2021. Post-premiership (2021–present) Chairman of the National Recovery Council On 4 September 2021, Chief Secretary to the Government Mohd Zuki Ali announced that Muhyiddin had been appointed as Chairman of the National Recovery Council (NRC), a Cabinet minister-level position and highest position in the important council in charge of the recovery efforts of the COVID-19 pandemic based on confidence of the government in the ability of Muhyiddin in spearheading the COVID-19 pandemic recovery strategies.On 21 December 2022, Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim dissolved NRC due to its redundancy and overlapping of duties, tasks and functions with other government agencies. 15th Malaysian general election Perikatan Nasional announced Muhyiddin Yassin as its candidate for prime minister ahead of the 15th Malaysian general election, which was held on 19 November 2022. In the election, Perikatan Nasional won 73 seats out of 222 seats, below the 112 seats needed for a majority. After the election, Muhyiddin claimed to have a sufficient majority to be appointed as the prime minister, citing support from Perikatan Nasional, Barisan Nasional, Gabungan Parti Sarawak, and Gabungan Rakyat Sabah. On 22 November, the royal palace stated that after the Yang di-Pertuan Agong reviewed the nominations for prime minister, he found that "no member of parliament has the majority support to be appointed prime minister", so he summoned both Muhyiddin and Anwar Ibrahim, the prime minister candidate from the rival coalition Pakatan Harapan, to see him. After the meeting, Muhyiddin said that the Yang di-Pertuan Agong proposed a unity government between Pakatan Harapan and Perikatan Nasional, but he rejected it as Perikatan Nasional "will not cooperate" with Pakatan Harapan. Anwar Ibrahim was later appointed and sworn in as Malaysia's 10th Prime Minister on 24 November 2022, with the consent of Yang di-Pertuan Agong, Al-Sultan Abdullah, after a consultation with the Conference of Rulers of Malaysia. However, Muhyiddin continued to insist that he had the support of a majority of 115 MPs to form the next government and called on Anwar to prove his majority. Controversies and issues Alleged misuse of RMAF helicopter Muhyiddin, as the Deputy Prime Minister, has used a RMAF Nuri helicopter to attend and open UMNO's divisional assembly in the interior of Sabah, which has nothing to do with his official duties. His actions have been strongly criticized by the federal opposition led by Lim Kit Siang as it was a misuse of his powers as Deputy Prime Minister. Lim even questioned whether the Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission (MACC) would investigate Muhyiddin, as MACC has been conducting various investigations into assemblymen in states controlled by Lim's Pakatan Rakyat. Racial views On 31 March 2010, Muhyiddin attracted contr declaring himself as a "Malay first" rather than a "Malaysian first" when responding to Democratic Action Party (DAP) leader Lim Kit Siang's challenge in the parliament for him to state whether he is a Malay or a Malaysian first. However, Muhyiddin retorted although he is Malay first, that doesn't mean he being Malay is not Malaysian. The Prime Minister Najib Razak defended Muhyiddin's "Malay first, Malaysian second" assertion and controversial statement even though it contradicts the 1Malaysia concept which talks of "a nation where, it is hoped, every Malaysian perceives himself or herself as Malaysian first, and by race, religion, geographical region or socio-economic background second". Muhyiddin attracted criticism again on 12 April 2010 by calling the members of a new inter-faith committee 'small fry', causing strong reaction from the public and uproar from the Malaysian Consultative Council of Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Sikhism and Taoism (MCCBCHST) to back off from joining the committee for the time being. Muhyiddin was quick to deny he ever say that and stated he was misquoted. Muhyiddin later doubled down and uttered 'Yes, I am Malay first and no apologies'. Legal name dispute On 2 April 2021, the Shah Alam court has reversed a preventive detention order signed by him during his time as the Minister of Home Affairs because he signed the order using his unofficial name, Muhyiddin bin Mohd. Yassin instead of his legal name/birth name, Mahiaddin bin Md. Yasin. Involvement in the Sheraton Move Following political infighting within Pakatan Harapan, BERSATU President Muhyiddin Yassin, PAS President Abdul Hadi Awang, PKR Deputy President Azmin Ali, and UMNO leaders Abdul Hadi Awang and Ismail Sabri Yaakob formed the Perikatan Nasional government which led to a loss of parliamentary majority for the ruling Pakatan Harapan coalition, ultimately resulting in Mahathir Mohamad's resignation as Prime Minister. This moment is widely regarded as the start of the Malaysian political crisis. Following its formation, the Perikatan Nasional government was the target of scathing criticism, with many calling its existence "democratically illegitimate" or more colloquially, a "backdoor government". "Christianisation" claim During a campaign speech on 17 November 2022, Muhyiddin accused Pakatan Harapan of working with Jews and Christians to "Christianise the country". He backed his claim by saying "I saw a video where a group of Jews were talking about Malaysia and were praying for the country to fall into the hands of the opposition, which has been sponsoring these groups of Jews and Christians. For me this is dangerous. Is a Christianisation process going to happen?". His remarks was condemned as religiously insensitive by the Council of Churches of Malaysia. Muhyiddin defended himself and claimed that he was taken out of context by saying that his speech was 55 minutes long, and that the remark was only 1 minute and 35 seconds long. He also claimed he was merely commenting on a supposed video clip that allegedly showed "foreign religious groups" praying for Pakatan Harapan to win. Such a thing made Bersatu Sabah members leave the party and declare the dissolution of Bersatu Sabah organization because of sensitive religious issues made by the president of the party. Sabah is a multi-racial state just like Sarawak and Hajiji Noor (Chairman of Bersatu Sabah) strongly rejected and protested the statement of the president of Bersatu, Muhyiddin Yassin. Accordingly, Hajiji Noor and members of Bersatu Sabah announced to leave Muhyiddin's party and migrate to existing local parties. They confirmed to migrate to Parti Gagasan Rakyat Sabah, one of the component parties in GRS and one of the multi-racial parties in Sabah. 2023 corruption charges On 9 March 2023, Muhyiddin was detained by the Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission after being questioned over a Covid-19 economic recovery package launched by his government. Muhyiddin denied the allegations. He was accused of sourcing $51m in bribes from companies who hoped to benefit from the emergency government spending program, and charged with gratification and money laundering. He allegedly abused his position for gratification from three entities and an individual for his ally, Bersatu. He pleaded not guilty on the charges. Judge Azura then fixed bail at RM2mil in two sureties and ordered Muhyiddin to surrender his passport. The case is being viewed by many Malaysians as a result of intense political rivalry which emerged after the defeat of Malaysia's incumbent political party, UMNO, in the 2018 Malaysian general election. On 15 August 2023, the High Court has discharged and acquitted Muhyiddin of four charges involving abuse of power to obtain a RM232.5mil gratification for Bersatu. Justice Muhammad Jamil Hussin said all four charges were defective, baseless and vague. Muhyiddin claimed he knew the aforementioned charges were politically motivated from the very beginning and insisted he has not committed any wrongdoings under the law. Personal life Family He married Noorainee Abdul Rahman in 1972 and has 4 children; 2 sons and 2 daughters, namely Fakhri Yassin Mahiaddin, Nabilah Mahiaddin, and Farhan Yassin Mahiaddin respectively. All of his children are heavily involved in business and corporate, entertainment or writing industries. His son, Fakhri Yassin, was a corporate figure in Malaysia and assumed the position of Executive Chairman. The second child, Nabilah was involved in book writing while Najwa and Farhan Yassin shared the same interest in the entertainment industry. Sport He is an avid golf lover. Health issues In the aftermath of 2018 general election (GE14), Muhyiddin was diagnosed with an early-stage tumour in the pancreas. He had spent one month in Mount Elizabeth Hospital, Singapore from July to August 2018, during which he underwent a surgery to extract the tumour. The operation was successful and he returned to Malaysia in stable condition. He was scheduled for a series of follow-up chemotherapy treatment after Hari Raya Haji, for up to six months. He told reporters at the Parliament, "for cancer cases such as this, it is normal to go through follow-up treatment including chemotherapy for 12 rounds over the duration of six months." Based on medical advice, Muhyiddin took a one-month medical leave to recover post-surgery. Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad took charge of the Ministry of Home Affairs during Muhyiddin's absence. On 22 May 2020, Muhyiddin entered into a 14-day quarantine after an officer who attended the post-Cabinet meeting at the Prime Minister's Office on 21 May tested positive for COVID-19. On 4 June 2020, he completed the 14-day quarantine period and was tested negative for COVID-19. Therefore, he was allowed to return to the workplace to discharge his official duties as Prime Minister. On 9 February 2022, he confirmed that he had tested positive for COVID-19, was experiencing mild symptoms and would be undergoing quarantine. Election results Honours Honours of Malaysia : Commander of the Order of Loyalty to the Crown of Malaysia (PSM) – Tan Sri (1988) : Second Class of the Sultan Ibrahim Medal (PIS II) (1974) Second Class of the Star of Sultan Ismail (BSI II) (1979) Companion of the Order of the Crown of Johor (SMJ) (1980) Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Crown of Johor (SPMJ) – Dato' (1991) : Grand Commander of the Order of Loyalty to Sultan Abdul Halim Mu'adzam Shah (SHMS) – Dato' Seri Diraja (2014) : Knight Grand Commander of the Exalted Order of Malacca (DUNM) – Datuk Seri Utama (2019) : Ordinary Class of the Perak Family Order of Sultan Azlan Shah (SPSA) – Dato' Seri Diraja (2010) : Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Crown of Perlis (SPMP) – Dato' Seri (2007) : Principal Grand Knight of the Order of Loyalty to Negeri Sembilan (SUNS) – Dato' Seri Utama (2010) : Grand Commander of the Order of Kinabalu (SPDK) – Datuk Seri Panglima (2010) : Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of Sarawak (PNBS) – Dato Sri (2008) Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of Hornbill Sarawak (DP) – Datuk Patinggi (2010) Honorary degrees : 2012 International Honorary Doctorate from United States Sports Academy (2013) : Honorary Doctor of Letters (Litt.D.) degree from Beijing Foreign Studies University (2014) Honorary plaque : Honorary Plaque of the City of Sarajevo (2016) See also Pagoh (federal constituency) List of international prime ministerial trips made by Muhyiddin Yassin Notes References External links Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia Official Website Johor Menteri Besar Office\|Menteri Besar Biography\|Tan Sri Muhyiddin Yassin My KMU Johor\|Tan Sri Muhyiddin Yassin Johorean Student Society\|Persatuan Mahasiswa Anak Johor (PERMAJ)\|National University of Malaysia\|Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)\|Biografi Mantan Menteri Besar Johor 1947 births Living people People from Muar Malaysian people of Bugis descent Malaysian people of Javanese descent Malaysian people of Malay descent Malaysian Muslims Malaysian political party founders Leaders of political parties in Malaysia Malaysian United Indigenous Party politicians Former United Malays National Organisation politicians Independent politicians in Malaysia Members of the Dewan Rakyat Members of the Johor State Legislative Assembly Chief Ministers of Johor Prime Ministers of Malaysia Deputy Prime Ministers of Malaysia Government ministers of Malaysia Agriculture ministers of Malaysia Education ministers of Malaysia Home ministers of Malaysia Industry ministers of Malaysia Trade ministers of Malaysia Johor state executive councillors People charged with corruption Prisoners and detainees of Malaysia University of Malaya alumni Commanders of the Order of Loyalty to the Crown of Malaysia Knights Commander of the Most Exalted Order of the Star of Sarawak Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of Hornbill Sarawak Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Crown of Johor Grand Commanders of the Order of Kinabalu 20th-century Malaysian politicians 21st-century Malaysian politicians
4190866	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corps%20of%20Royal%20Canadian%20Electrical%20and%20Mechanical%20Engineers	Corps of Royal Canadian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers	The Corps of Royal Canadian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (RCEME) () is a personnel branch of the Canadian Armed Forces (CF) that provides army engineering maintenance support. All members of the corps wear army uniform. From the 1980s to 2013 it was called the Electrical and Mechanical Engineering Branch. History The Royal Canadian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers came into being officially on 15 May 1944, with the fusion of various elements from the Royal Canadian Engineers, Royal Canadian Army Service Corps and Royal Canadian Ordnance Corps, following the model of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (REME). With the increase of mechanized equipment during World War II, the need to have one corps dedicated to service and maintenance thereof was becoming increasingly apparent. Trucks had become the de facto means of transportation and logistic support, armoured vehicles had replaced cavalry, weapons were becoming more complicated, as well as the advent of radios and radar, it was apparent that the previous model of having a different corps for each job was inadequate for a modern, mechanized army. The majority of RCEME technicians were, and still are, vehicle mechanics, but the original RCEME structure incorporated 25 different trades and sub-trades, employing specialists for each particular job in order to train and deploy them in time to meet the war's demand. While it was somewhat bulky, it was nonetheless a centralized structure for maintaining the Army's everyday equipment which was more efficient than the previous system of having each corps perform its own equipment maintenance, and also allowed for a greater degree of specialization within trades. RCEME formation and early years The RCEME Corps badge consisted of a laurel wreath, three shields, the Tudor Crown surmounting, and the letters R.C.E.M.E. on a scroll underneath. Emblazoned on the shields were: on the first, three lightning bolts, which represented the telecommunications trades, three cannons, which represented armament, and a large gear, representing the vehicle mechanics. On the second shield, above the three cannons are three cannonballs, which are larger than the cannons. This came from the Royal Canadian Ordnance Corps, which in turn inherited it from its British counterpart, the Royal Army Ordnance Corps. There has been a misconception that its significance goes back to the Crimean War when ammunition shipped to the front was too big to fit in the cannons, and was intended to remind the members of that Corps of how imperative doing their job well was (though it was not really their fault; it was the manufacturer's mistake) however this is untrue. In the first place the Board of Ordnance, adopted the Arms (from which the Ordnance Shield derives) as early as the mid 17th Century, a good hundred years before the Crimean War started. At which time the shield was used by the artillery as well. The Arms were approved by the King in 1806, and the grant of Arms by the College Arms particularly states that they be the same as those previously in use. Secondly, in good heraldic design, not only to show the charges, which in this case are the guns and shot, symbolically and sometimes exaggerated, but that these charges should fill the shield in which they are placed without losing the balance of the design as a whole. The placing of the cannonballs in the chief and the guns in the lower two-thirds of the shield illustrate this aspect of recognized heraldic design. There was some debate as to what the regimental march should be, and several tunes, including "Heigh Ho, Heigh Ho!" from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs were proposed, but the final tune chosen was a medley of "Lillibullero" and "Auprès de ma blonde", just as REME had chosen. However, there were some things that RCEME chose differently from their British counterparts. The regimental slow march of REME was not chosen for RCEME, but rather, the tune chosen was "The Flower of Scotland", and St. Jean de Brébeuf was named the patron saint. Each division had a central workshop, where major repairs would be conducted, and within the division, RCEME units would be embedded to effectuate certain repairs (1st Line) on the spot. This included light aid detachments, which could deploy quickly to recover or repair equipment on the line, or in transit to the front. The RCEME triage system was divided into three groups: 1st Line, which would be embedded in the operational units, would carry out routine maintenance and minor repairs; 2nd Line, which was located in field workshops back from the front, carried out major overhauls and full component replacements; 3rd Line would be responsible for reconditioning and rebuilding equipment. Though the location of each and various tasks have changed, the structure is still in place today, with 1st Line maintenance platoons / troops embedded in combat units, while 2nd Line is located 20 minutes to 2 hours away, but still in theatre, and the only 3rd Line workshop in service is 202 Workshop in Montreal. In 1949, the RCEME Corps adopted a new badge, nearly identical to the British one which had been struck in 1947. It consisted of a white horse (a mustang, as opposed to the Arabian horse of the British badge) superimposed over a lightning bolt, with a chain fixed around its neck running down its back, standing on a globe, to which the other end of the chain is attached, which pictured the Western Hemisphere (whereas the British badge pictured Europe, Africa, Australia, Antarctica and Asia). Behind the horse's head was a scroll with the letters R.C. on one side of the head, and E.M.E. on the other, surmounted by the Tudor Crown. The only modification ever made to this badge was in 1952 when Elizabeth II ascended to the throne, and the Tudor Crown was replaced with St. Edward's Crown. During the 1950s, the RCEME Corps was reorganized to accommodate the postwar structure of the Army, and many trades were combined, due to the need to have specialists quickly fielded for the war no longer existing. Young craftsmen (as privates in the corps are called) trained in their trade at the RCEME school, titled the Royal Canadian School of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, located in Kingston, Ontario, then deployed to the various squadrons and troops of RCEME to perform their trades. In the mid-1960s, Canadian Army planners were again looking to streamline the structure of the Army, and beginning in 1965, various models were proposed for combining the elements of maintenance, supply and transport for each brigade into one unit. The result was the formation in 1968 of service battalions, each consisting of maintenance, supply and transport companies, while craftsmen who had previously belonged to RCEME squadrons and only attached to the combat unit, were incorporated directly into the unit, and administered through the unit's chain of command rather than the RCEME squadrons and troops, which ceased to exist. RCEME ceased to have its own autonomous chain of command; they worked for a service battalion with Supply and Transport, or a service company or squadron within a combat unit. RCEME to LORE 1968 also saw the unification of the Canadian Forces, which saw the RCEME Corps disbanded, and replaced with the Canadian Forces Land Ordnance Engineering Branch. Several RCEME trades were shed off and went over to the Air Force, such as machinist and metals technician, the Radio and Radar Techs and the RCEME flag, which consisted of three horizontal stripes of dark blue on top, yellow in the middle, and red on the bottom, received a fourth stripe: light blue, to represent the Air Force personnel now working the LORE workshops. In spite of the RCEME Corps being disbanded, Canada's craftsmen continued to wear the old cap badge until 1973 when a new one was introduced. The new badge was an oval in shape, had a wreath of 10 maple leaves, which represented Canada's ten provinces, and on a blue field, which represented the Air Force, were a lightning bolt, superimposed on two crossed cannons, superimposed on a Wankel-type piston (the symbol the Society of Automotive Engineers) and surmounted by St. Edward's Crown. The 1970s also saw more trades added to the LORE Branch, and existing trades condensed. For example, all the trades pertaining to repair of vehicles were grouped together into the vehicle technician's trade, all weapon-related trades were combined into the weapons technician trade, and all electrical trades were grouped together into the electro-mechanical technician. All the material-support trades were transferred to the air force. In the 1980s, it was confirmed that the organization of materials support was inadequate for the army's needs; some trades were performed by vehicle technicians, such as auto-body, others by air force trades, such as machinists, and welding was divided between the air force's metals technician and the army's vehicle technician trades. In 1985, these were all combined into the materials technician's trade, belonging to the LORE Branch. It was also around this time that the LORE title was decided to be inaccurate in its description of the craftsmen's trades. After several proposals (including odd ones such as CREME), the title Land Electrical and Mechanical Engineers was finally settled upon for a new title. The badge did not change. RCEME today The concession to adopt the EME letters spurred an interest in reviving tradition, and bringing the horse badge back, which was spearheaded by Brigadier-General Jim Hanson, Chief Warrant Officer John Sloan and Chief Warrant Officer Ron Roy, and led into the early 1990s. The new badge would have to be modelled on the old horse, but at the same time, reflect the changes in the army and in the trades that had occurred since. The new badge had several proposals. It would definitely include the letters EME and GEM () in place of the former RCEME title. The original proposal had the title GEM on one side of the horse's head, and EME on the other, so that it conformed to the pattern of other Commonwealth services (REME (UK), RAEME (Australia), RNZEME (New Zealand)), but it was decided that "GEMEME" would not be used, and it was thus reversed to EME GEM to conform with CF rules on signs. (On documents and other items that include both French and English, the English goes on the left and the French on the right.) There are other subtle differences between the old horse badge and the new one, such as the collar of fleur-de-lis being replaced with four maple leaves, and the horse's nose being shortened to accommodate three letters in front of it instead of two. The RCEME are charged with the maintenance of all electrical and mechanical equipment in use in the Canadian army today. The branch is broken down into four trades: Vehicle technicians: whose task is to repair and maintain anything that operates with an internal combustion engine, including heaters, chainsaws and outboard motors, as well as staff cars, Jeeps, trucks and armoured vehicles. Weapons technicians: are responsible for maintenance of all weapons employed throughout the army, from bayonets to advanced air defence artillery systems, as well as Coleman Company stoves and lanterns, and locks, safes and high security containers. Electronic-Optronic technicians: the previously named fire control systems technicians were originally a collection of two dozen other trades, but were condensed into three, then into one. They maintain and repair optical systems, electronic targeting systems, laser and infrared ranging and targeting systems, air defence anti-tank systems, night vision equipment, etc. Materials technicians: have a very diverse job that stretches from being a welder, to repairing tents, to auto-body and carpentry. This is the most recent arrival to the RCEME trade group, added in 1985, and formed from a number of various army and air force trades. RCEME restored On April 19, 2013, the Minister of National Defence announced the restoration of the name of Corps of Royal Canadian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. Training Royal Canadian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers School Royal Canadian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers School (RCEME School) () in Borden, Ontario conducts training for Electrical and Mechanical Engineering officers, vehicle, weapons, electronic-optronic (formerly fire control systems) and material technicians. RCEME School conducts individual and specialized training for the Regular and Reserve forces. The school offers 54 different technical courses for approximately 900 students. The RCEME School was once known as the Royal Canadian School of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, and has been alternately located in Kingston, Ontario, Canadian Forces Base Borden, Ontario, and the Saint-Jean Garrison, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec. In the early years of RCEME, the school alternated between Kingston and Borden, holding both English and French courses, until the General J.F. Allard Megaplex was built in Saint-Jean. This not only served as the recruit school for French-speaking recruits, but also became the home of the (Canadian Forces Technical School), where French-speaking craftsmen () studied in their trades before being posted to their respective units. This changed when the ETFC was merged with RCEME School in the early 1990s, in order to make room for the English-speaking recruits in Saint-Jean when CFLRS Cornwalis was closed. The school is located at Canadian Forces Base Borden, and has five companies: Headquarters Company, Regimental Company, Artisan Company, Weapons Company, and Vehicle Company. Regimental Company Upon completing Recruit Training and Soldier Qualification, then being posted to Canadian Forces Base Borden, future craftsmen take a two-week-long course called Common EME Training or CET, which introduces them to the history of their trades, the march past, the badge, unit structure and RCEME traditions, such as Sadie, a statue taken from a garden in Italy during World War II, that accompanied the RCEME craftsmen through the rest of the war, and was finally placed in a glass case in the main hallway of Regimental Company, where she stays, except for occasional excursions for special events. It is at Regimental Company that the trainees are first given the title "craftsman". RCEME officers begin their Phase III training or occupational course at Regimental Company, where they too are introduced to the history and traditions of the RCEME, as well as undergoing a two-week-long field exercise to apply the technical and tactical skills that they learned in the classroom. Their Phase IV portion is held at both Vehicle Company and Artisan Company in order to familiarize future maintenance officers with various types of workshop and the jobs that are performed in each by the technicians who will be under their command. Artisan Company Once they have successfully completed CET, the trainees move to Artisan Company for a month-long course called Common EME Technical Training which focuses on certain technical skills that are universal throughout their four various trades. Once this course is completed, the vehicle technicians, materials technicians, weapons technicians and electronic-optronic technicians stay at Artisan Company to complete their Qualification Level 3 (QL3) or basic trade-qualification courses. Vehicle Company Since two-thirds of the RCEME craftsmen are vehicle technicians, a separate company had to be formed to train such a large number of technicians. Once finished CET and CETT, vehicle technician candidates are sent to Vehicle Company for the QL3 phase of their training, which lasts 30 weeks. Upon completion of QL3 training, as with the other three trades, the craftsmen are then posted to various units across Canada to complete about 18 months of apprenticeship before going back to Canadian Forces Base Borden to complete their QL5, or senior technician's courses. Units of employment Most craftsmen will end up working in a service battalion, of which the Canadian Army has three that operate in a Regular Force capacity: 1 Service Battalion, based in Edmonton, Alberta, which supplies services for 1 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group or 1 CMBG; while 2 Service Battalion serves 2 CMBG, based at CFB Petawawa, Ontario; and 5 Service Battalion provides these services for the 5 CMBG based at CFB Valcartier just north of Quebec City. Trainees are rotated through various units during their apprenticeship in order to gain experience in different types of equipment and environments. Though most will be posted to a service battalion, many will work in the various maintenance platoons and troops that are integrated with combat-arms units, providing integral support to those units in whichever theatre of operations they may be deployed. RCEME officers will also be typically posted upon completion of their phase training, to a service battalion to familiarize themselves with the challenges and requirements of leading soldiers while simultaneously making administrative and technical decisions relative to a workshop's every day functions. This is where they will combine their university training with their military training, and make decisions, under the guidance of more senior officers and experienced non-commissioned members, to provide a workshop that meets both the technical and tactical needs of the units for whom they provide services. Once they reach the rank of captain, they may then be posted to a combat unit's maintenance platoon / troop, within a combat unit which they will fully command. The majority of RCEME technicians are craftsmen and corporals, while master corporals, sergeants and warrant officers act as supervisors, and captains, who make up the bulk of RCEME officers, command maintenance platoons / troops in a unit's service company. Bibliography RCEME History and Early Years: CET course material, CFSEME Regimental Coy, CFTSG Borden, CFB Borden, Ontario. Instructor: Beresford, Sergeant T., C.D.; The Canadian Soldier: D-Day to VE Day by Bouchery, Jean Editions Histoire et Collections Paris, 2003; EME Journal, Issue 1 - 2005, Department of National Defence Publication, 202 WD Montreal, 2005. Images Canadian Government copyright. RCEME to LORE: CET course material, CFSEME Regimental Coy, CFTSG Borden, CFB Borden, Ontario. Instructor: Beresford, Sergeant T., C.D.; Image Canadian Government Copyright. Colonel Johnston and RCEME Today CET course material, CFSEME Regimental Coy, CFTSG Borden, CFB Borden, Ontario. Instructor: Beresford, Sergeant T., C.D.; Giffin, Cfn. KDW, 5e Bataillon des Services du Canada, CFB Valcartier, Quebec; Department of National Defence Recruiting Cell, NDHQ Ottawa; The EME Journal, Issue 2, 2004, EME Branch Adjutant's Office, CFB Borden, Ontario, 2004; Image of Colonel Murray C. Johnston receiving the Meritous Service Decoration at Rideau Hall released by the Office of Her Excellency, the Rt. Hon. Adrienne Clarkson, Governor General of Canada. Photo by Master Corporal Paz Quillé, Canadian Forces Imaging Service. Images of RCEME badge and CFSEME badge Canadian Government Copyright Image of 5e BNS du C unit slide from Giffin, Cfn. KDW, 5e BNS du C., CFB Valcartier, Quebec. Public Domain Image of RCEME Maintenance Platoon Deployment Structure Giffin, Cfn. KDW, 5e BNS du C., CFB Valcartier, Quebec. Public Domain References External links RCEME army internet site The Corps of RCEME Canadian Forces Recruiting Canadian Forces and Department of National Defence Royal Canadian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (RCEME) Assn. RCEME - The Governor General of Canada Heraldry Recognition RCEME School - The Governor General of Canada Heraldry Recognition Canadian Armed Forces personnel branches Corps of the Canadian Army Military units and formations established in 1944 Army logistics units and formations of Canada Military maintenance Army units and formations of Canada in World War II
4190878	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects%20of%20violence%20in%20mass%20media	Effects of violence in mass media	The studies of violence in radio analyzes the degree of correlation between themes of violence in media sources (particularly violence in video games, television and films) with real-world aggression and violence over time. Many social scientists support the correlation, however, some scholars argue that media research has methodological problems and that findings are exaggerated. Other scholars have suggested that the correlation exists, but can be unconventional to the current public belief. Complaints about the possible detrimental effects of mass media appear throughout history; Plato was concerned about the effects of plays on youth. Various media/genres, including dime novels, comic books, jazz, rock and roll, role playing/computer games, television, films, internet (by computer or cell phone) and many others have attracted speculation that consumers of such media may become more aggressive, rebellious or immoral. This has led some scholars to conclude that statements made by some researchers merely fit into a cycle of media-based moral panics. The advent of television prompted research into the effects of this new medium in the 1960s. Much of this research has been guided by social learning theory, developed by Albert Bandura. Social learning theory suggests that one way in which human beings learn is by the process of modeling. Another popular theory is George Gerbner's cultivation theory, which suggests that viewers cultivate a lot of violence seen on television and apply it to the real world. Other theories include social cognitive theory, the catalyst model, and moral panic theory. Media effects theories Social learning theory Social learning theory originated with Bandura's which suggests that children may learn aggression from viewing others. Modeling of behavior was observed in Bandura's Bobo Doll experiments. Bandura presented children with an Aggressive Model: The model played with 'harmless' tinker toys for a minute or so but then progressed onto the Bobo doll, the model lay the Bobo doll down and was violent towards it; punched its nose, hit it with a mallet, tossed it in the air, and kicked it. In addition, verbal comments were made in relation. They then put the children in a room with a Bobo doll to see if he/she would imitate the behavior previously seen on the video. The findings of this experiment suggest that children tended to model the behavior they witnessed in the video. This has been often taken to imply that children may imitate aggressive behaviors witnessed in media. However, Bandura's experiments have been criticized on several grounds. First, it is difficult to generalize the aggression toward a bo-bo doll (which is intended to be hit) to person-on-person violence. Secondly, it may be possible that the children were motivated simply to please the experimenter rather than to be aggressive. In other words, the children may have viewed the videos as instructions, rather than incentives to feel more aggressive. Third, in a later study Bandura included a condition in which the adult model was punished for hitting the bo-bo doll by himself being physically punished. Specifically the adult was pushed down in the video by the experimenter and hit with a newspaper while being berated. This actual person-on-person violence actually decreased aggressive acts in the children, probably due to vicarious reinforcement. Nonetheless these last results indicate that even young children don't automatically imitate aggression, but rather consider the context of aggression. Children with aggression have difficulty communicating compassionately. Overtime, "teen gamers" can become unaware of their surroundings and lack social interaction in real life. According to the article by Hygen Beate in 2019 mention the video game violence can impact an individual's essential social skills such as their emotions, behavior towards others, listening and understanding ability, responding or communicating, knowing verbal and non-verbal cues, sharing their thoughts, and cooperating with others. According to the survey in medical journal JAMA Network Open written by Chang published May 31, 2019, kids who repeatedly played violent video games learned to think viciously that could eventually influence their behavior and cause them to become aggressive in nature. Given that some scholars estimate that children's viewing of violence in media is quite common, concerns about media often follow social learning theoretical approaches. Social cognitive theory Social cognitive theories build upon social learning theory, but suggest that aggression may be activated by learning and priming aggressive scripts. Desensitization and arousal/excitation are also included in latter social cognitive theories. The concept of desensitization has particularly gotten much interest from the scholarly community and general public. It is theorized that with repeated exposure to media violence, a psychological saturation or emotional adjustment takes place such that initial levels of anxiety and disgust diminish or weaken. For example, in a study conducted in 2016, a sample of college students were assigned at random to play either a violent or non-violent video game for 20 minutes. They were then asked to watch a 10-minute video of real life violence. According to the American Psychological Association's report titled technical report on the review of the violent video game literature written by Caldwell in February 2020, the revision to the 2015 resolution, playing video games, is often popularly associated with adolescence. "Children younger than age eight who play video games spend a daily average of 69 minutes on handheld console games, 57 minutes on computer games, and 45 minutes on mobile games, including tablets." The students who had played the violent video games were observed to be significantly less affected by a simulated aggressive act than those who didn't play the violent video games. However, the degree to which the simulation was "believable" to the participants, or to which the participants may have responded to "demand characteristics" is unclear (see criticisms below). Nonetheless, social cognitive theory was arguably the most dominant paradigm of media violence effects for many years, although it has come under recent criticism. Recent scholarship has suggested that social cognitive theories of aggression are outdated and should be retired. Some scholars also argue that the continuous viewing of violent acts makes teenagers more susceptible to becoming violent themselves. Children of young age are good observers; they learn by mimicking and adapting the behavior. Playing violent video games created a fear in everyone's heart of violence in real life, which was only valid for adolescents with underlying psychological problems. According to the journal article written by McGloin in 2015, media violence can trigger aggressive behavioral change in the highly characterized aggressive individual. An individual can face severe consequences with media violence, which can increase "bullying behavior." Catalyst model One alternative theory is the catalyst model which has been proposed to explain the etiology of violence. The catalyst model is a new theory and has not been tested extensively. According to the catalyst model, violence arises from a combination of genetic and early social influences (family and peers in particular). According to this model, media violence is explicitly considered a weak causal influence. Specific violent acts are catalyzed by stressful environment circumstances, with less stress required to catalyze violence in individuals with greater violence predisposition. Some early work has supported this view Research from 2013 with inmates has, likewise, provided support for the catalyst model. Specifically, as suggested by the catalyst model, perpetrators of crimes sometimes included stylistic elements or behaviors in their crimes they had seen in media, but the motivation to commit crimes itself was unrelated to media viewing. Moral panic theory A final theory relevant to this area is the moral panic. Elucidated largely by David Gauntlett, this theory postulates that concerns about new media are historical and cyclical. In this view, a society forms a predetermined negative belief about a new medium—typically not used by the elder and more powerful members of the society. Research studies and positions taken by scholars and politicians tend to confirm the pre-existing belief, rather than dispassionately observe and evaluate the issue. Eventually the panic dies out after several years or decades, but ultimately resurfaces when yet another new medium is introduced. Cultivation Theory This theory was created by George Gerbner as an alternative way to look at the correlation of violence as seen on television and the individual. Gerbner describes the violence seen on television that most of the population was viewing as "happy violence". He called it such because he noticed that most of the violence seen on television was always followed by a happy ending. Gerbner gave this importance as he believed that the world does not contain 'happy violence' as sometimes there is violence for no reason. However, because the violence seen on television is so captivating for viewers. Gerbner believes that the population will think that violence, whether fictional in movies and shows or non-fictional from the news, will directly effect them. Gerbner named this theory the "Magic Bullet Theory". This theory described the violence seen on television as a "magic bullet" that reaches beyond the screen right into every individual viewer. After this occurs, cultivation theory begins when the individual begins to develop a perception of real world violence around them. Over time, consumers of media will cultivate the violence seen on television and will consider this to be how the real world actually is. This leads to assumptions of local and national crime rates increasing when they are actually decreasing. Additionally, this will lead to negative assumptions about certain groups as they are mainly shown to be violent on television. The main example being illegal immigrants coming from Mexico into the United States. Frequent news watcher will view cases of violent crimes conducted by illegal immigrants. This leads them to believe that all illegal immigrants act this way, thus leading to their disapproval of them. Gerbner calls this the "Mean World Syndrome" which is the product of all the previous theories, stating that a viewer will eventually believe that they live in a world full of deviance and aberrancy. Plato Plato was a Greek philosopher that contributed many early thoughts on the effects that media had on individuals. In one of his works, he mentions the dangers of inappropriate poetry perverting its audience. He insisted that their perceptions of poetry would later translate to their perceptions of life, fitting in perfectly to George Gerbner's theory of cultivation, which takes from this idea that we assume that what we see in media will then apply to the real world. Two-Step Flow Theory Paul Lazarsfeld created this theory in 1944. Two-Step Flow Theory opposes the notion that the effect of mass media is a direct one. Instead, what this theory suggests is that the information and ideas coming from the mass media goes to people named the opinion leaders. Opinion leaders gather the information they hear and make sense of it the way they want to and then develop a narrative that they would like to push. The opinion leaders would then share their views and ideas with the general public, who then take on the role of Opinion followers. Mass media can give information to many different opinion leaders that will disseminate information in their own unique way, and will then gain a following of opinion followers that will believe their specific outlook on the information. This can lead to many different groups that believe similar or vastly different things that all began at the same source. A popular example of this is news outlets that have political biases. A conservative news source will disseminate information that is typically more accepted and followed by a conservative viewership, and the same goes for more liberal news outlets that have a much more liberal following. Criticisms Although organizations such as the American Academy of Pediatrics and the American Psychological Association have suggested that thousands (3500 according to the AAP) of studies have been conducted confirming this link, others have argued that this information is incorrect. Rather, only about two hundred studies have been conducted in peer-reviewed scientific journals on television, film, music and video game violence effects. Critics argue that about half find some link between media and subsequent aggression (but not violent crime), whereas the other half do not find a link between consuming violent media and subsequent aggression of any kind. Criticisms of the media violence link focus on a number of methodological and theoretical problems including (but not limited to) the following: Failure to adequately control experimental conditions when assessing aggressive outcomes between violent and non-violent games. Traditionally, researchers have selected one violent game and one non-violent game, yet shown little consideration of the potentially different responses to these games as a result of differences in other game characteristics (e.g., level of action, frustration, enjoyment). Failure to acknowledge the role of social contexts in which media violence is experienced. Within theoretical models explaining the influence of violent video game exposure on aggressive attitudes and behaviour, no acknowledgement is made towards understanding the influence of social gaming experiences and contexts on these outcomes. That is, differential outcomes of gaming arise as a result of different social contexts (online versus offline gaming) and social dynamics involved in social gaming experiences. Existing theoretical models assume that the outcomes of gaming are equivalent, regardless of these different contexts. This is a key limitation of current theory within media violence research Failure to employ standardized, reliable and valid measures of aggression and media violence exposure. Although measurement of psychological variables is always tricky at best, it is generally accepted that measurement techniques should be standardized, reliable and valid, as demonstrated empirically. However, some scholars argue that the measurement tools involved are often unstandardized, sloppily employed and fail to report reliability coefficients. Examples include the "Competitive Reaction Time Test" in which participants believe that they are punishing an opponent for losing in a reaction time test by subjecting the opponent to noise blasts or electric shocks. There is no standardized way of employing this task, raising the possibility that authors may manipulate the results to support their conclusions. This task may produce dozens of different possible ways to measure "aggression", all from a single participant's data. Without a standardized way of employing and measuring aggression using this task, there is no way of knowing whether the results reported are a valid measure of aggression, or were selected from among the possible alternatives simply because they produced positive findings where other alternatives did not. Ferguson and Kilburn, in a paper in Journal of Pediatrics, have found that poorly standardized and validated measures of aggression tend to produce higher effects than well validated aggression measures. Failure to report negative findings. Some scholars contend that many of the articles that purport positive findings regarding a link between media violence and subsequent aggression, on a closer read, actually have negative or inconclusive results. One example is the experimental portion of Anderson & Dill which measures aggression four separate ways (using an unstandardized, unreliable and unvalidated measure of aggression, the Competitive Reaction Time Test mentioned above) and finds significance for only one of those measures. Had a statistical adjustment known as a Bonferroni correction been properly employed, that fourth finding also would have been insignificant. This issue of selective reporting differs from the "file drawer" effect in which journals fail to publish articles with negative findings. Rather, this is due to authors finding a "mixed bag" of results and discussing only the supportive findings and ignoring the negative findings within a single manuscript. The problem of non-reporting of non-significant findings (the so-called "file cabinet effect") is a problem throughout all areas of science but may be a particular issue for publicized areas such as media violence. Failure to account for "third" variables. Some scholars contend that media violence studies regularly fail to account for other variables such as genetics, personality and exposure to family violence that may explain both why some people become violent and why those same people may choose to expose themselves to violent media. Several recent studies have found that, when factors such as mental health, family environment and personality are controlled, no predictive relationship between either video games or television violence and youth violence remain. Failure to adequately define "aggression." Experimental measures of aggression have been questioned by critics. The main concern of critics has been the issue of the external validity of experimental measures of aggression. The validity of the concept of aggression itself, however, is rarely questioned. Highly detailed taxonomies of different forms of aggression do exist. Whether researchers agree on the particular terminology used to indicate the particular sub-types of aggression (i.e. relational versus social aggression), concepts of aggression are always operationally defined in peer-reviewed journals. However, many of these operational definitions of aggression are specifically criticized. Many experimental measures of aggression are rather questionable. Other studies fail to differentiate between "aggression" aimed at causing harm to another person, and "aggressive play" in which two individuals (usually children) may pretend to engage in aggressive behavior, but do so consensually for the purpose of mutual enjoyment. Small "effects" sizes. In the research world, the meaning of "statistical significance" can be ambiguous. A measure of effect size can aid in the interpretation of statistical significance. In a meta-analysis of 217 studies by Paik and Comstock, effect sizes for experiments were r = .37 and r = .19 for surveys, which are small to moderate effects. Most of these studies however did not actually measure aggression against another person. Paik and Comstock note that when aggression toward another person, and particularly actual violent crime is considered, the relationship between media violence and these outcomes is near zero. Effects can vary according to their size (for example the effects of eating bananas on your mood could very well be "statistically significant" but would be tiny, almost imperceptible, whereas the effect of a death in the immediate family would also be "statistically significant" but obviously much larger). Media violence studies usually produce very small, transient effects that do not translate into large effects in the real world. Media violence researchers often defend this by stating that many medical studies also produce small effects (although as Block and Crain note, these researchers may have miscalculated the effect sizes from medical research). Media violence rates are not correlated with violent crime rates. One limitation of theories linking media violence to societal violence is that media violence (which appears to have been consistently and unfailingly on the rise since the 1950s) should be correlated with violent crime (which has been cycling up and down throughout human history). By discussing only the data from the 1950s through the 1990s, media violence researchers create the illusion that there is a correlation, when in fact there is not. Large spikes in violent crime in the United States occurred without associated media violence spikes during the 1880s (when records were first kept) and 1930s. The homicide rate in the United States has never been higher than during the 1930s. Similarly, this theory fails to explain why violent crime rates (including among juveniles) dramatically fell in the mid 1990s and have stayed low, during a time when media violence has continued to increase, and saw the addition of violent video games. Lastly media violence researchers can not explain why many countries with media violence rates similar to or greater than the U.S. (such as Norway, Canada, Japan, etc.) have much lower violent crime rates. Huesmann & Eron's own cross-national study (which is often cited in support of media violence effects) failed to find a link between television violence and aggressive behavior in most of the countries included in the analysis (including America, and even in studies on American boys). Media violence on TV is a reflection of the level of violence that occurs in the real world. Many TV programmers argue that their shows just mirror the violence that goes on in the real world. Zev Braun, of CBS, in 1990 argued in a debate on the Violence Bill that, "We live in a violent society. Art imitates modes of life, not the other way around: it would be better for Congress to clean that society than to clean that reflection of society." Culture and Media Violence. The majority of this research derives from American communication and psychological research. Concerns about the 'effect' of media violence is far less prominent in public and academic discourse in Europe and other parts of the developed world. To a large degree, this is because European and Australian scholars, in particular, recognise that the relationship between media and culture is a great deal more complex than is often conceded by psychological and communications research in North America. There is a recognition that culture is critical to our understanding of these complexities, and that there are no clear causal relations between culture, media, politics and human violence. They simply work in complicated ways through and upon one another through social interactions and history. A small study published in Royal Society Open Science on 13 March 2019 found that "both fans and non-fans of violent music exhibited a general negativity bias for violent imagery over neutral imagery regardless of the music genres." Response to criticisms Social science uses randomized experiments to control for possible differences between media conditions, although these must be done with care. In a typical study, children or young adults are randomly assigned to different media conditions and then are observed when given an opportunity to be aggressive. Researchers who argue for causal effects have defended their work that is based on well-established methodological and statistical theory and on empirical data. Regarding the inconclusive nature of some findings, media researchers who argue for causal effects often contend that it is the critics who are misinterpreting or selectively reporting studies. It may be that both sides of the debate are highlighting separate findings that are most favorable to their own "cause". Regarding "third" variables, media violence researchers who argue for causal effects acknowledge that other variables may play a role in aggression and that aggression is due to a confluence of variables. These variables are known as "third variables" and if found, would probably be mediator variables (which differ from moderator variables). A mediator variable could 'explain away' media violence effects, whereas a moderator variable cannot. For instance, some scholars contend that trait aggressiveness has been demonstrated to moderate media violence effects, Another issue is the way in which experimental studies deal with potential confounding variables. Researchers use random assignment to attempt to neutralize the effects of what commonly are cited as third variables (i.e. gender, trait aggressiveness, preference for violent media). Because experimental designs employ random assignment to conditions, the effect of such attributive variables on experimental results is assumed to be random (not systematic). However, the same can not be said for correlational studies, and failure to control for such variables in correlational studies limits the interpretation of such studies. Often, something as simple as gender proves capable of "mediating" media violence effects. Regarding aggression, the problem may have less to do with the definition of aggression, but rather how aggression is measured in studies, and how aggression and violent crime are used interchangeably in the public eye. Much of the debate on this issue seems to revolve around ambiguity regarding what is considered a "small" effect. Media violence researchers who argue for causal effects contend that effect sizes noted in media violence effects are similar to those found in some medical research which is considered important by the medical community, although medical research may suffer from some of the same interpretational flaws as social science. This argument has been challenged as based on flawed statistics, however. Block & Crain recently found that social scientists had been miscalculating some medical effect sizes. The interpretation of effect size in both medical and social science remains in its early stages. More recently, media violence researchers who argue for causal effects have acknowledged that societal media consumption and violent crime rates are not well associated, but claim that this is likely due to other variables that are poorly understood. However, this effect remains poorly explained by current media violence theories, and media violence researchers may need to be more careful not to retreat to an unfalsifiable theory – one that cannot be disproven. Researchers who argue for causal effects argue that the discrepancy of violent acts seen on TV compared to that in the real world are huge. One study looked at the frequency of crimes occurring in the real world compared with the frequency of crimes occurring in the following reality-based TV programs: America's Most Wanted, Cops, Top Cops, FBI, The Untold Story and American Detective. The types of crimes were divided into two categories, violent crimes and non-violent crimes. 87% of crimes occurring in the real world are non-violent crimes, whereas only 13% of crimes occurring on TV are considered non-violent crimes. However, this discrepancy between media and real-life crimes may arguably dispute rather than support media effects theories. Some previous research linked boxing matches to homicides although other researchers consider such linkages to be reminiscent of ecological fallacies. Much more research is required to actually establish any causal effects. Media violence and youth violence On average, children in the United States spend six hours a day connected to media. However, several scholars have pointed out that as media content has increased in violence in the past few decades, violent crimes among youth have declined rapidly. Because the violence being portrayed in media especially TV is usually punished, it does not have an effect on producing violent behavior. While it may seem to be evident that reducing exposure to media violence will reduce aggression, it is less clear what sorts of interventions will produce a reduction in exposure. Analysis from this study show that violent media consumption as well as various forms of nonempathetic parental behaviour led to slightly more violent delinquency and to considerably more violence-approving normative beliefs. As children advance into teen years, evidence for violent acts in relation to violent media becomes less consistent. Although most scholars caution that this decline cannot be attributed to a causal effect, they conclude that this observation argues against causal harmful effects for media violence. A recent long-term outcome study of youth found no long-term relationship between playing violent video games or watching violent television and youth violence or bullying. The song "Weißes Fleisch" (German for "White Flesh") by the German band Rammstein, could have inspired Eric Harris, a perpetrator of the Columbine High School Massacre, to have committed such a massacre. It is not clear though, if it inspired Eric Harris to perpetrate said massacre, or if his violent tendencies led to him becoming a fan of the band. Relationship between media violence and minor aggressive behaviors Given that little evidence links media violence to serious physical aggression, bullying or youth violence, at present most of the debate appears to focus on whether media violence may influence more minor forms of aggressiveness. An article done in 1987 reviewing a history of court cases dealing with violent acts of youths showed that the courts were hesitant to hold media at fault for the violent acts. At present, no consensus has been reached on this issue. For example, in 1974 the US Surgeon General testified to congress that "the overwhelming consensus and the unanimous Scientific Advisory Committee's report indicates that televised violence, indeed, does have an adverse effect on certain members of our society." However, by 2001, the US Surgeon General's office, The Department of Health and Human Services had largely reversed itself, relegating media violence to only a minor role and noting many serious limitations in the research. Studies have also disagreed regarding whether media violence contributes to desensitization Media violence and cultural studies Much of the research on media and violence derives from the United States, particularly the related research fields of psychology and media/communication studies. Research in Europe and Australia on the relationship between media and violence is far broader and is much more clearly embedded in politics, culture and social relationships. Jeff Lewis' book Media Culture and Human Violence challenges the conventional approaches to media violence research. Lewis argues that violence is largely generated through the interaction of social processes and modes of thinking which are constantly refreshed through the media, politics and other cultural discourses. Violence is continually presented as 'authorized' or 'legitimate' within government, legal and narrative media texts. Accordingly, Lewis disputes with the proposition that violence is 'natural' or that violence is caused by media of any sort. Rather, media interacts with culturally generated and inherited modes of thinking or 'consciousness' to create the conditions in which violence can occur. These forms of 'violence thinking' are embedded in historically rooted processes of hierarchical social organization. These hierarchical organizational systems shape our knowledge and beliefs, creating a ferment in which violence is normalized and authorized by governments and other powerful institutions. The link between violence and the media is therefore very complex, but exists within the normative framework of modern culture. See also Aestheticization of violence Dart Center for Journalism and Trauma For the children (politics) Graphic violence Mass shooting contagion Moral panic Motion picture rating system Video game controversy Footnotes References Nehamas, Alexander. “PLATO AND THE MASS MEDIA.” The Monist, vol. 71, no. 2, 1988, pp. 214–34. Carratalá, Adolfo. “Two-Step Flow Theory.” The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Mass Media and Society, 2020, pp. 1804–06. External links Cheryl Olson's web-site Free Expression Policy Project Website of Brad Bushman Essential Facts about video games and court rulings, Entertainment Software Association brochure on court cases critical of media violence research Website of Christopher J. Ferguson Website of Craig Anderson Youth Violence: A Report of the Surgeon General Entertainment Software Industry's info on video game effects Psychology experiments Mass media issues Influence of mass media Criminology
4190945	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephanie%20Scully	Stephanie Scully	Stephanie "Steph" Scully (also Hoyland) is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Carla Bonner. She made her first screen appearance during the episode that was broadcast on 20 October 1999. Following Bonner's decision to quit the show after eleven years, Steph departed on 24 November 2010. In November 2012, it was announced that Bonner would be reprising the role for a two-month guest stint and Steph returned on 15 April 2013. Bonner reprised the role permanently in July 2015 and made her on-screen return on 2 October 2015. On 17 May 2018, it was confirmed that Bonner would be departing the show imminently and Steph made her final appearance on 7 June 2018. Bonner made a cameo in the show's final episode broadcast on 28 July 2022. Steph is the eldest daughter of Joe (Shane Connor) and Lyn Scully (Janet Andrewartha). Steph's storylines have included marrying Max Hoyland (Stephen Lovatt), becoming a stepmother to his children Boyd (Kyal Marsh) and Summer (Marisa Siketa), battling breast cancer, pregnancy, being the victim of a stabbing and infidelity. Upon her return, Steph revealed that she had suffered a breakdown in prison and became determined to win back her former boyfriend, Lucas Fitzgerald (Scott Major). After kidnapping Lucas's son, Steph was sectioned. Following her release, she returned to Erinsborough to rebuild her life and reconnect with her son. Steph has proven popular with critics and viewers, who named her their favourite Neighbours character in 2010. Creation and casting The Scully family were created and introduced to Neighbours following the departure of Martin family. Stephanie was introduced along with her parents Lyn (Janet Andrewartha) and Joe (Shane Connor) and her younger sisters Felicity (Holly Valance) and Michelle (Kate Keltie). Reporters for eBroadcast said Stephanie was twenty years old and preferred leathers and motorbikes to the hobbies of her peers. In September 1999, Jason Herbison of Inside Soap reported that Emma Roche had joined the cast of Neighbours as Stephanie. However, Roche unexpectedly quit the role after three weeks. When Carla Bonner dropped by to see her agent, she was on the phone to the Neighbours casting director, Jan Russ. Russ asked to see Bonner straightaway for an audition for the part of Stephanie. Bonner had little acting experience, having appeared in television bit parts, but she went over to Russ' office and was given a script for a cold read. She was asked to go to the studio the next day, where she auditioned again. She then received a call to say she had got the part. Bonner had to learn nineteen scenes by the next day and develop the character of Stephanie quickly. Four days after her audition with Russ, she began filming. Bonner had to shoot three weeks worth of scenes in one week. Development Characterisation Steph is the only original member of the Scully family to have remained on the street. Steph is a tomboy with a passion for mechanics and motorbikes. Holy Soap said Steph is "one of the most dependable characters on the street." TV Week describe Steph as being "more into Grand Prix racing than girly stuff, but that hasn't stopped her from having her fair share of weddings and more than her fair share of romantic dramas". They also add that she has proven to be a loyal friend, a great mother to Charlie and a great stepmother. Relationships Steph's later relationships with Max Hoyland (Stephen Lovatt) and Toadfish Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney) were main focal points in her storylining. Steph is strong, but the breakdown of her marriage nearly destroyed her. Of Max's departure and the effect it has on Steph, Bonner stated during an interview with television magazine What's on TV: "Torn. She still loves him but she's also angry with him. I think she wants to move on because she knows she has to prepare herself for the fact he might never come home." Steph's best friend Toadie gives her a shoulder to cry on, they later start a relationship. Bonner further discusses their relationship in the same interview adding: "Steph and Toadie have been friends for years, but it’s never extended beyond friendship. Until now [...] I think it's inevitable when you start spending so much time with someone that after a while they just fit into your life. Toadie’s been a fantastic support to Steph, there every step of the way." Describing the developments in Steph and Toadie's relationship during 2008, Dan Bennet speaking for Network Ten states: "Steph has already agreed to a long engagement with Toadie, but she's not ready to marry. This relationship will reach a massive fork in the road early in the new year. Toadie will force Steph to decide what she wants from this relationship." Breast cancer One of the biggest storylines for Steph saw her being diagnosed with breast cancer. Bonner wanted to play the scenes with honesty and said that "it was important that Steph went through the whole thing". Bonner prepared for the storyline by researching the condition. She said "It wasn't something I was going to take lightly it was something very serious. It was important to raise awareness and important not to offend anybody". Bonner also turned to a family friend who had survived breast cancer and asked her questions about the condition. However, with other aspects of the condition, like hair loss, Bonner had to find her "own truth". The storyline was exhausting for Bonner, but it gave her a chance to show a different side to her character and it became a "rewarding personal challenge". On Steph's reaction to the cancer, Bonner said "It's just a huge learning curve and it's a huge life experience". Bonner called the reaction to the storyline and the amount of publicity the condition gained "amazing". She revealed that she had received letters from members of the public complimenting her performance. She said "People seem to be so appreciative of the awareness that I seem to have raised". Bonner's doctor back home in Australia also told her that she would be amazed at the amount of awareness the storyline would raise. Executive producer Ric Pellizzeri revealed that a female viewer had sent in a letter of thanks for the cancer storyline, after she copied a breast examination that Steph had done and found a cancerous lump. Viewers watched Steph going through treatment for the cancer and it eventually went into remission. The cancer becomes active when Steph is pregnant and she almost died after deciding to give birth before resuming treatment. Departure In June 2010, it was announced that Bonner was to leave Neighbours after 11 years on the show. On her departure, Neighbours executive producer, Susan Bower, said "I'm very sad that Carla is leaving us and she knows the door is always open for Steph to return to Ramsay Street". Bonner began filming her last scenes in September and she said that she was feeling "very emotional" about leaving. Bonner said Steph's exit storyline was not what viewers would have imagined. She said "It's so out of the character, however the storyline is so strong and supports the outcome". Bonner added that Bower has made it possible for her to return in the future. Return (2013) On 4 November 2012, it was confirmed that Bonner would be returning to Neighbours. She began filming her scenes from January 2013 and would be on-screen for two months. Bonner stated that she was "elated" to revisit the role of Steph and explained "We always knew when I left they would revisit her. When they contacted me and said it was time, there was no question of if I wanted to do it – of course I did!" Bonner said that she had received many emails and tweets from fans asking for Steph to come back to Neighbours, so she was happy to be able to please them. Steph returned during the episode broadcast on 15 April 2013. Bonner revealed that due to having a rough time in prison and losing custody of her son Charlie (Alexander McGuire), Steph is "a bit damaged". She returns to Erinsborough to settle a score with someone and Bonner said "There's a bit of anger that has brewed while she's in prison and she's definitely had a bit of time to think things over." TV Week's Erin Miller proclaimed that there would be plenty of scenes between Steph and her former partner, Lucas Fitzgerald (Scott Major), with Bonner commenting that Steph might be looking for comfort and familiarity with him. In April, further details of Steph's return were released. Bonner told TV Week's Jackie Brygel that Steph wants rehabilitation and to get her life in order. Steph's reappearance is met with "some bewilderment" from Toadie, while Lucas is happy to see her again. Steph has become hopeful that Lucas has waited for her, but she soon learns that Lucas is in a relationship with Vanessa Villante (Alin Sumarwata). When Steph announces that she is going to run Harold's Store, where Vanessa works, she tries to reassure her that she no longer has any interest in Lucas. However, Steph is "visibly shaken" when she learns that Lucas and Vanessa have a child. Bonner explained "Steph is floored by the baby news – it was the last thing she expected. She realises now that Lucas is a totally different person from whom he once was (before she began her prison sentence) and she is rocked to her core." Sergeant Matt Turner (Josef Brown) becomes curious about the reasons for Steph's return and he questions her about failing a previous parole application. Bonner told Brygel that Steph is not willing to reveal any details about her time in prison, although the audience knows something has happened in there. Weeks later, Steph kidnapped Lucas's infant son Patrick (Basquait Voevodin-Knack). Major said that the situation was "scary" for Lucas and he had finally realised "just how unhinged" Steph had become. Vanessa also blamed Lucas for bringing Steph into their lives, as she had seen that Steph was unstable before he did. Finding Steph and Patrick initially proved difficult as Steph turned off her phone, but she got in contact with Lucas again to tell him that she was at a place that was special to them both. Major said, "Lucas works out that Steph is referring to the last night they spent together before she went to jail – in the men's shed." Lucas and the police raced to the shed, where they found Steph with Patrick. Reintroduction On 19 July 2015, Neighbours teased Bonner's return on their Twitter page. The Herald Sun confirmed her return later that day and reported that Bonner had begun filming the previous week. Bonner admitted that she felt like she was "coming home" and added "It's an institution for fans and it's a reliable place. The producers had discussed potential storylines, which reignited my passion for Steph, and I was ready to bring back the character. It just felt right." Steph would return to Erinsborough under "a cloud of suspicion" following her arrest for kidnapping Patrick Villante in 2013. Series producer Jason Herbison explained, "her return to Ramsay Street will be explosive and her presence will divide the residents." Steph made her on-screen return on 2 October 2015. Bonner explained that Steph had been sectioned following her arrest in 2013 and had spent the past two years in a mental institution. Her return to Erinsborough came as part of her day-release programme and Steph hoped to be discharged from the hospital eventually. Bonner told TV Choice's Clyde McGarrigle, "Doctors have advised her to return to a place where she has a support network/ Despite all the trouble she caused, Steph believes she needs to return to Erinsborough so she can rebuild her life." Steph found employment at the garage again and she bonded with the manager Tyler Brennan (Travis Burns), who was unaware of her past. When other Erinsborough residents learned of her return, they were not so welcoming. Bonner commented that Steph knew she had "a lot of making up to do." In September, it was announced that Steph would also be in a same-sex relationship upon her return. Steph has been dating a woman named Belinda Bell (Nikki Shiels), who later follows her to Erinsborough. Their relationship will be tested when Belinda does not agree with the ways in which Steph tries to make amends with her neighbours. Of the storyline, Bonner said "The way that it has been written, it's very sensitive and certainly not smutty. I'm very happy with how it plays out. If it contributes to normalising same-sex relationships in some way, that's great." It later emerged that Belinda was Steph's psychiatric nurse, who helped her through her time at the hospital. Bonner said the women fell in love and it would become clear that they had a "beautiful, deep connection". Relationship with Mark Brennan In March 2016, Steph was paired with Mark Brennan (Scott McGregor). The relationship starts when Mark asks Steph to help him with his motorbike repairs. She enjoys his company and Bonner pointed out that he was different from most of the men Steph had been around before. She explained, "I think for the first time in ages she finds a man that she feels comfortable with." Steph kisses Mark, but he is reluctant to take things further, which leaves her feeling embarrassed and she orders him to leave. When Charlie comes to visit Steph, Mark spends the day with them and gives Charlie a ride in his police car. Steph is "touched" by his kindness and when she goes to thank him, they end up kissing again and have sex. However, Mark is unsure where he stands, while Steph is worried that her previous relationship with Belinda will be an issue. Their romance is also tested by Mark's former fiancée Paige Smith (Olympia Valance), who tells Mark that Steph is just using him to gain custody of Charlie. Mark confronts Steph, and they initially agree to remain friends, but soon realise that they want to be a couple. When Paige once again tells Mark that Steph is using him, Steph confronts Paige and they get into a physical fight. The following day, Paige comes to apologise to Steph and soon realises Mark has stayed the night. Steph and Mark's relationship is put under strain when they try to have a child via surrogacy. Steph finds herself attracted to Victoria Lamb (Claudia Greenstone) and an Inside Soap columnist noted their chemistry was "sizzling". When Steph sees Victoria has been stood up on a date, she offers her support. The women spend the evening talking and laughing together, which leads to Victoria kissing Steph. Steph feels guilty about cheating on Mark and immediately admits what happened. She also tells him she has doubts about the surrogacy. Departure (2018) In March 2018, Bonner replied to a fan's query about Steph's lack of storylines by saying they were being "weaned" off her character, leading to speculation that she was leaving the show. On 17 May, Sophie Dainty of Digital Spy confirmed that Bonner had exited Neighbours, and her last scenes aired on 7 June. The actress thanked fans for their support. On-screen, Steph decides to leave Erinsborough for a fresh start in Sydney, where she can be closer to her son. Bonner reprised the role for a cameo appearance in the show's final episode, which was broadcast on 28 July 2022. Storylines Steph arrives in Ramsay Street with her family. The move helps her get over her failed relationship with Larry "Woody" Woodhouse (Andrew Curry), who is in jail for armed robbery. Steph immediately attracts the attentions of Toadfish Rebecchi and Lance Wilkinson (Andrew Bibby), but she falls for Drew Kirk (Dan Paris). Steph becomes good friends with Drew's girlfriend, Libby Kennedy (Kym Valentine). Steph and Libby are knocked off Steph's bike by Brendan Bell (Blair Venn). Steph comes away with torn ligaments, but Libby is left in a critical condition, which causes Steph to become depressed. Libby and Drew break up, but Steph is upset when Drew admits he still loves Libby. Steph then briefly dates Daniel Fitzgerald (Brett Tucker). Steph agrees to run away with Woody after he is released from prison. While she is getting drinks for them, Woody suddenly takes off in the car and crashes. Steph is prevented from pulling Woody out of the resulting fire. Steph begins dating Woody's friend, Mitch Foster (Hugh Sexton). However, Woody returns, having been in hiding, and Steph tells them both to leave. Mitch later robs her workplace and Steph is investigated by the police for the crime. Steph begins a relationship with Marc Lambert (David Karakai) and they become engaged. During the wedding, Marc looks at Felicity and Steph realises that he loves her sister. Steph refuses to forgive Felicity and goes to stay with Libby and Drew. Steph befriends Summer Hoyland (Marisa Siketa) and her father, Max. Steph and Max agree to be friends and she starts dating Alex Argenzio (Marco Pio Venturini). However, Steph realises that she loves Max and they begin a relationship. After finding a lump in her breast, Steph is told that she has cancer. Steph struggles to cope with the news and ends her relationship with Max. They later reunite and Steph proposes to Max, who accepts. The couple get married in a park. Steph helps her brother, Jack (Jay Bunyan), through his drug problem. Steph sits with her grandfather, Charlie (Cliff Ellen), until he dies. Steph adjusts his pillow, just as Lyn and her brother, Michael (David Paterson), walk in. Michael accuses Steph of murder and she is arrested. Steph is found guilty and given a suspended sentence. Max and Steph decide to adopt and they meet Kayla Thomas (Virginia Ryan), who decides to give them her unborn child. Kayla later decides to keep her baby. Steph discovers that she is pregnant. She starts having dreams about Drew and realises that her cancer has returned. Steph refuses treatment for her child's health. Steph gives birth to a son, who she and Max name Charlie (Aaron Aulsebrook-Walker; Jacob Brito). Steph then undergoes treatment for cancer and after radiotherapy, she is given the all clear. Max accidentally kills Cameron Robinson (Adam Hunter) and his behaviour changes. He admits himself to a psychiatric ward and later leaves town. Steph kisses Toadie and after he is shot, she confesses to Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne) that she loves him. Max returns and Steph decides to give their marriage another chance, but they realise that things can not go back to how they were and Max leaves. Toadie and Steph begin a relationship and Steph takes over Max's bar, renaming it Charlie's. Steph also wins a place on the local council. Toadie proposes, but Steph turns him down. She later changes her mind. During the wedding, Steph stumbles over her vows and Toadie calls the whole thing off. Steph then asks Libby and Ty Harper (Dean Geyer) to move in with her. Steph begins dating Jay Duncan (Charlie Clausen). During a picnic in a national park, a bush fire is started. Toadie becomes suspicious of Jay and he discovers that Jay had previously saved a few young mothers from fires. Jay takes Steph and Charlie to a cabin in the country and Steph discovers that Jay was responsible for the fires. She manages to sneak Charlie out of the house and Toadie rescues Steph. Jay is later arrested. Steph decides that she wants to spend more time with her son and she sells Charlie's to Elle Robinson (Pippa Black), who installs Rebecca Napier (Jane Hall) as manager. Steph later returns to working at the garage with Lucas Fitzgerald. Steph dates Greg Michaels (Nick Farnell), after meeting him online, but they break up when Steph discovers he is married and he becomes jealous of her friendships with other men. Lyn returns to Ramsay Street and persuades Steph to buy Number 26. Steph develops feelings for Lucas. After seeing Libby kiss Lucas, Steph goes to Charlie's and runs into Dan. Dan kisses Steph and they have sex, which leaves them both feeling guilty. Lucas is involved in an accident and Steph supports him and encourages him to attend rehab. Lucas tells her that he loves her, but Steph rejects him. After Lucas professes his love for her again, Steph tells him she loves him too. Steph suddenly leaves Ramsay Street and she tells Toadie that she is pregnant with Dan's child. Toadie agrees to help Steph and they tell their friends and family that they are back together. Steph's pregnancy is later revealed. Steph finds a lump in her breast and fears that her cancer has returned. She goes to the hospital for a biopsy. When Lyn tries to take control, Toadie suggests to Steph that they get married. Steph notices how upset Toadie is after he learns that his former girlfriend, Sonya (Eve Morey), is leaving. Steph tells Sonya to stay and reveals the truth about the wedding and the baby. Steph discovers that Dan has been involved in an accident and tells him about the baby. Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis) records the conversation and plays it at Charlie's, just as Libby walks in. Libby is devastated and tells Steph to stay away from her. During an argument, Steph collapses from high blood pressure. She decides to stay with her father for a while and she gives birth to a baby boy. Steph hands the baby over to Dan, who names him Adam. Steph runs into Woody and they catch up. Lyn worries that Steph is suffering from post-natal depression and tries to stage an intervention. Libby goes to find her and they talk, but Steph becomes angry and leaves on her motorbike. She hits Ringo Brown (Sam Clark) and he dies. Steph is charged with driving in a dangerous manner, driving under the influence of alcohol and culpable driving. Charlie goes missing during Halloween and he is found by Samantha Fitzgerald (Simone Buchanan). Sam reveals that she is the prosecutor for Steph's case. Toadie becomes her lawyer and she asks him to keep her out of jail and to arrange joint custody of Adam. The jury find Steph guilty. Lucas asks Steph to run away with him, but she turns him down. She is sentenced to six years in prison, with a minimum non-parole period of two years. Steph is later moved to a low security prison in Bendigo. Upon her release two and a half years later, Steph returns to Erinsborough to take over as manager of Harold's Store. Steph reconnects with Lucas and meets his partner, Vanessa. Steph reveals that Charlie is with Max in Fiji, after he won full custody. Steph meets with Sergeant Matt Turner to discuss her parole and psychiatrist appointments. He asks her why she was initially turned down for parole and Steph tells him that she was not ready. It later emerges that she suffered a breakdown and is on medication. When she learns that Lucas has cancer, Steph supports him and encourages Lucas to keep the news from Vanessa. Steph tells Toadie that she will never forgive him for botching her defence causing her to lose everything she had. Steph moves in with Karl and Susan. She tries to win Lucas back by causing tension within his relationship. Steph learns that Vanessa was once married and Lucas does not know, so she sends him a message pretending to be Vanessa's ex-husband. Lucas calls off his wedding to Vanessa. Steph stops taking her medication and suffers a psychotic break. She kidnaps Lucas and Vanessa's son, Patrick, believing that he is Adam. Lucas manages to talk Steph into handing Patrick back and she is arrested. After receiving treatment, Steph feels guilty about what she has done. She apologises to Lucas, Vanessa and Toadie, before she is formally charged and taken away. Steph returns to Erinsborough to apply for a job at the garage, initially unaware that Lucas has repurchased it. She is interviewed by Tyler Brennan (Travis Burns), who offers her the job after a trial. Steph helps Amy Williams (Zoe Cramond) carry some timber and they bond over lunch. Karl stops by the garage and upon seeing Steph, he tells Tyler that she used to work there. Steph reveals that she is on day release from a psychiatric hospital and that a change in medication means she is unlikely to suffer another psychotic break. She visits Toadie, who is now in a wheelchair, and they agree to support each other. Lucas returns to confront Steph. He agrees to give her a three-month trial at the garage, and asks that she does not contact him or Vanessa directly. Steph tells Toadie that she needs to prove to Max that she is better, so she can see Charlie again. Steph befriends Amy's young son Jimmy (Darcy Tadich) and when he goes missing, she finds him at the school. When she goes to call Amy, Steph is arrested for kidnap, until Jimmy admits that she tried to help him. Steph runs into Belinda Bell, who expresses her worry about Steph being back in Erinsborough. When Steph gets a pass from the hospital to attend a sleep-out protest at Erinsborough High, Belinda talks to Toadie about her worries and he tells Steph not to stay. She later sees the school on fire and helps Sonya to pull Toadie out of the building. When a Fitzgerald Motors jerry can is found at the scene, Steph becomes a suspect and is questioned by Mark Brennan, but a mobile phone call gives her an alibi. Toadie sees Steph and Belinda kissing and Steph reveals that Belinda was her nurse and that they were in a relationship. Steph catches Belinda going through her bag to find her medication and they argue. Steph opens up to Amy about her condition and how she used to hear "Greensleeves" before an episode. She begins to hear the music at the garage and later receives a phone call from a child, who she believes is Charlie. Vanessa agrees to meet with Steph, but her behaviour following the phone call worries Vanessa. She and Lucas end Steph's trial at the garage. Toadie finds a speaker at the garage and realises that somebody is trying to make Steph think she is having an episode. After taking her medication, Steph starts to suffer hallucinations and believes she is having a relapse. Paul offers to drive her to her doctor in Bendigo. During the drive, Steph receives a text telling her that Paul has switched her medication. Before she can confront him, they crash after Paul swerves to avoid another car. Steph finds the drugs in his pocket and refuses to help him until he explains his actions. Paul tells her that he has been trying to trigger a relapse so she will leave Erinsborough, as he is worried she will harm Jimmy. Steph tapes his confession and admits that she already called an ambulance. At the hospital, Steph tells Paul that she will keep his secret if he gives her a job at The Waterhole. Sonya also invites Steph to move in with her and Toadie. Steph tells Belinda that they will never get back together, as she knows Belinda gave Paul details about her condition. Belinda leaves town as she finds it hard to be around Steph. Max's wife, Philippa (Wendy Bos) tells Steph that she is planning to adopt Charlie. Lyn visits to offer her support. After learning she has some shares worth $70,000, Steph goes into business with Paul and they purchase a local motel. Lyn brings Charlie to Erinsborough, but Toadie warns Steph that she could jeopardise her chance of custody if she has any contact with him. Charlie learns where Steph is and comes to see her. She explains to him that she has been very ill and did not want him to see her that way. She also gives him some letters she wrote to him, but never posted. Charlie later returns on his own and they spend the day together, until Philippa arrives to take him home, having tracked his phone. Philippa tries to get Steph to sign the consent forms for the adoption, but Steph rips them up. On the first day of mediation, Steph runs out of medication and heatstroke causes a relapse. Charlie tells Steph that he does not want to see her again. Steph spends the day with Mark and some of her old biker friends. She and Mark later kiss, but agree that they should remain friends. At a second mediation hearing, Phillippa calls Lucas as a witness, but Lucas is sympathetic to Steph, and Phillippa agrees to allow Steph shared custody. Paul is blamed following an explosion at Lassiter's, but Steph believes he is innocent and agrees to help him clear his name, causing problems in her relationship with Mark, who believes Paul is guilty. Steph tells Mark that she cannot have another child due to her mental health. When Charlie returns to Fiji, Steph decides not to contest custody. She and Mark are saddened by Charlie's absence, and Sonya offers to be their surrogate, but they reject her offer. Steph arranges to meet Adam (Archie Campbell), her son with Dan, and Lucas brings him to Erinsborough. Steph is hospitalised after she crashes her motorbike. She and Mark accept Sonya's offer to be their surrogate. Steph, Mark, Toadie and Sonya meet with Victoria Lamb (Claudia Greenstone), a consultant, to discuss their feelings about the surrogacy. Victoria later informs Steph and Mark that Steph has low ovarian reserves. She urges them to think about whether they want to continue, and Steph breaks up with Mark. They later make up and agree to try one round of IVF, but Victoria informs them that they were not able to collect any viable eggs, ending their chance of conceiving a child together. Sonya then offers to be an egg donor and Steph agrees. The fertilisation goes ahead, but when Victoria and Paul warn Steph that Sonya might become attached to the baby, she asks Mark and Sonya to end the process. Steph also asks Sonya to take the morning-after pill, but she refuses. Mark proposes to Steph and she accepts. Sonya announces she is pregnant. Mark starts to spend more time around Sonya, which makes Steph feel left out. She forms a close relationship with Victoria, who develops feelings for Steph and later kisses her. Steph ends her relationship with Mark when she kisses Victoria. Steph's motorbike is damaged and she initially suspects Victoria's daughter Josie Lamb (Madison Daniel), who warns her to stay away from her mother. Steph soon learns that Victoria's former partner Ellen Crabb (Louise Crawford) was responsible. She and Victoria end their relationship. Steph works with Jack Callahan (Andrew James Morley) on an application for the Most Liveable Suburb competition. After a night out, they kiss. They initially agree to a casual relationship. While looking after his son Gabriel Smith (Kian Bafekrpour), Steph has a flashback to the time she kidnapped Patrick and she thinks she hears Gabe call her "mama". David Tanaka (Takaya Honda) suggests that she might be fatigued or her medication needs adjusting, but she later learns she is drinking too much caffeine. Paige asks Steph to stay away from Gabe, but changes her mind after they bond while stuck in a lift together. Steph takes Adam out for the afternoon, but has to rescue him when he wanders off and is almost hit by a car. Steph decides to buy Paul and Leo Tanaka's (Tim Kano) share of the motel to open a cancer wellness centre with Amy. Steph and Amy struggle to attract donors for the centre, but Amy suddenly announces that an anonymous donor has given them the money they need to finish the motel's conversion. Steph soon learns the donor is Lyn, and tells Amy that she is no longer part of the wellness centre, as Steph cannot trust her. The wellness centre is renamed the Flame Tree Retreat and with Lyn's help, the launch is a success. Steph leaves Amy in charge when she decides to spend Christmas with Lyn, who admits to feeling lonely without her children around. Upon her return, Steph tells Jack that she loves him. The couple win a glamping competition in a raffle, along with Paige and Mark, who are staying at the same site. Steph overhears Paige and Jack talking about their one-night stand and she breaks up with Jack. She refuses to accept his apology and later vandalises his room at the Backpackers'. Steph admits to trashing the room and her travel visa to Fiji is revoked, meaning she cannot see Charlie. Steph spends time with Ben helping to do up Drew's old car, and she later takes him to Oakey to visit Drew's family. Steph starts to feel that her life is too empty, so she decides to move to Sydney to be closer to Adam. She agrees to let Gary manage the retreat in her absence. During a visit from Charlie, Steph learns that Philippa is having an affair and asked Charlie to keep it from Max. Steph suggests that Philippa returns to Fiji to sort out her marriage, while Charlie stays in Erinsborough with her. Steph falls out with Toadie when a drafted legal letter about joint custody is sent to Max. Philippa returns to collect Charlie, but Sonya intervenes and Philippa agrees to let Charlie stay with Steph while she sorts out her marriage. Steph is disappointed that Toadie is not around to say goodbye. However, he soon turns up with Adam and explains that he flew up to Sydney to collect him, so Steph, Charlie and Adam can drive back together. Steph thanks Toadie and Sonya for all their help and they say goodbye, before she drives herself and her boys out of Erinsborough. Four years later, Steph sends Toadie a video message congratulating him at his wedding to Melanie Pearson (Lucinda Cowden). Other appearances To coincide with the character's return to Neighbours in April 2013, the serial released six webisodes that feature Steph talking to a psychiatrist (Trudy Hellier) before her release from jail. Steph talks about a variety of issues and explains that there is someone in Erinsborough that she is going back for. The webisodes also provide an insight into Steph's actions upon her return. The webisodes were directed by Bonner's co-star Scott Major. He told a writer for Channel 5's Neighbours website that being part of Steph's exit storyline did not influence his approach to directing the webisodes. Major stated that he shot the webisodes differently from Neighbours, to show what it is like in Steph's head. He explained "I wanted viewers to be a little uncomfortable, make them feel they were intruding on these private conversations." Reception In June 2002, Steph came first in a poll run by Newsround to find viewers' favourite Neighbours character. She received 34.85% of the vote. At the 2008 Inside Soap Awards, Bonner earned a nomination for Best Actress and the storyline that saw Steph getting jilted at the altar by Toadie was nominated for Best Storyline. The following year, Bonner was nominated for "Sexiest Female". The episode in which Steph and Toadie fabricate a reconciliation to cover story up Steph's infidelity won the Australian Director's Guild Award in 2010. That same year saw Steph voted viewers favourite Neighbours character in a survey carried out by website Yahoo!. Yahoo!'s TV editor, Paul Johnston said: "Steph has beaten some classic soap favourites to take the lead spot as the nation's favourite Neighbours character". Johnston also added "By witnessing her develop from the tomboy with a passion for motorbikes to a loving mother she has been a regular in people's living rooms for over a decade". A reporter for the Herald Sun placed Steph's discovery of her fiancé and sister's affair at number four on their list of Neighbours Top Ten moments. They said "Steph and Marc had a quick engagement, but in the meantime Marc fell in love with Flick. Flick tried but couldn't hide the fact that she also loved her sister's betrothed. Steph and Marc made it all the way to the altar, but after she said "I do", he replied: "I can't, I'm in love with your sister." Priceless". Robin Oliver writing for The Sydney Morning Herald said he was compelled to watch Steph and Max's wedding, because it was twenty minutes of "good fun". In a feature by Virgin Media dedicated to television "yummy mummies", Steph was placed fifth on the list. Virgin Media said "After several ups and downs and a battle with illness, Neighbours''' glam mummy Steph (played by Carla Bonner), gave birth to baby Charlie in 2006". Ruth Deller of television website Lowculture was negative towards the character, saying "She used to be awesome, way back when the Scully family arrived, but the departure of her whole family, her not-that-convincing relationships with Max and Toadie and her lack of useful storylines have meant she’s felt like a spare part on the street for ages". In July 2010, Deller placed Steph at number five on her list of worst characters of the last seven months. She said "Steph's decline over the past few years has been pretty heartbreaking for those of us who remember the sassy, pretty, smart young woman that she was when the Scully family first arrived on Ramsay Street. Since then, she's had a tedious love life, been miraculously cured of cancer (which in true Neighbours-style could definitely return if she had a baby and could then definitely return again if she had an abortion), been ruined by marriage to the insufferable Max Hoyland (who we still haven't forgiven for murdering CamRob), had an unbelievable romance with best mate Toadie and an even more unbelievable friendship with Libby (when clearly the characters hate each other, and it's more of a 'frenemy' thing)". In April 2013, a Newcastle Herald reporter commented "As independent Steph Scully, Bonner was a fan favourite, leaving a gaping hole when she was bundled off to jail." They continued that Toadie should watch out because Steph has "a bone to pick with him about how he represented her in court." Ben Pobjie of The Sydney Morning Herald praised the character, saying she was the Scully sister "who most won our hearts". Pobjie enjoyed her 2015 return scenes, commenting So Steph is back, and she is back in the classic style in which we demand all our soap opera favourites return to the fold: a close-up shot of unidentified boots dismounting a motorbike. The scene truly is a classic of the genre, and actress Carla Bonner proves herself a formidable performer from the knees down. Not that there's anything wrong with her from the knees up, of course: indeed, when that familiar face is revealed, all Neighbours fans will be overwhelmed with the ineffable Stephness of it all." A Sunday Mail contributor later observed "Steph's return to Erinsborough hasn't been a happy one." Melinda Houston, writing for The Sydney Morning Herald, called Steph "one of the suburbs' more interesting villains" due to her history as a "drunkard, murderer, kidnapper and psychotic". However, Houston pointed out that those events were not really Steph's fault and added "there's no question she's about to liven things up." A TVNZ included Steph in their list of the top 30 Neighbours' characters, and stated "Steph made her mark as a tomboy with a zest for life. Heartache and loss saw her lose her fun-loving attitude, but she managed to regain it." Steph was placed at number eighteen on the Huffpost's "35 greatest Neighbours characters of all time" feature. Journalist Adam Beresford described her as "a big fan favourite", "the coolest biker chick to ever rev up Ramsay Street" and assessed that she had a "torrid time" during her storylines. Owing to her mental health issues and fluid sexuality, Beresford believed that Steph was one of "the most intriguingly complex characters the show has ever had". References External links Stephanie Scully at the Official AU Neighbours'' website Neighbours characters Fictional bartenders Fictional mechanics Television characters introduced in 1999 Fictional politicians Fictional kidnappers Fictional bisexual women Fictional couriers Female villains Female characters in television Fictional characters with cancer Fictional LGBT characters in television Fictional female murderers Fictional prisoners and detainees LGBT villains Scully family
4190992	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson%E2%80%93Hemings%20controversy	Jefferson–Hemings controversy	The Jefferson–Hemings controversy is a historical debate over whether there was a sexual relationship between the widowed U.S. President Thomas Jefferson and his slave and sister-in-law, Sally Hemings, and whether he fathered some or all of her six recorded children. For more than 150 years, most historians denied rumors that he had a slave concubine, Sally Hemings. Based on his grandson's report, they said that one of his nephews had been the father of Hemings's children. In the 21st century, most historians agree that Jefferson is the father of one or more of Sally's children. In the 1850s, Jefferson's eldest grandson, Thomas Jefferson Randolph, told historian Henry Randall that the late Peter Carr, a married nephew of Jefferson's (the son of his sister), had fathered Hemings' children; Randolph asked Randall to refrain from addressing the issue in his biography. Randall passed on this information to James Parton, another historian. Parton published the Carr story, and major historians of Jefferson generally denied Jefferson's paternity for nearly 150 years. In 1953, new documentation related to this issue was published and studied by historians. In the 1970s, biographer Fawn M. Brodie suggested Jefferson had been the father of Hemings' children. In 1997, the controversy was reopened when Annette Gordon-Reed published an analysis of the historiography on this issue, deconstructing previous versions and detailing oversights and bias. That year Ken Burns released his documentary on Jefferson as a PBS series, highlighting the debate and conflicting viewpoints. A changed consensus emerged after a Y chromosome DNA analysis was done in 1998, which showed a match between a descendant of the Jefferson male line, a descendant of Field Jefferson, and a descendant of Eston Hemings, Sally's youngest son. It showed no match between the Carr line and the Hemings descendant. In the majority view, the DNA evidence is consistent with Jefferson being the father of Eston Hemings, plus the historical evidence favors Jefferson's paternity for all of Hemings' children. In June 2018, the Thomas Jefferson Foundation, with introduction of the new exhibit on Sally Hemings, asserted the relationship is "settled historical matter". Background Jefferson became a widower at age 39 in 1782. He never remarried and died in 1826. Sally Hemings, a "quadroon" ( white), was his much younger slave and a likely half-sister of his wife. In 1787, when Hemings was 14, she accompanied his daughter Maria to France, where Jefferson was serving as the American ambassador to France. Hemings and Jefferson are believed to have started a sexual relationship at sometime before 1789 when she returned with him to Monticello. Most historians now believe that this relationship lasted nearly four decades, until Jefferson's death, and that he fathered six children by Hemings. Four of Hemings' children survived to adulthood. In the antebellum period, hers would have been called a shadow family. Sally Hemings was also the child of a shadow family. Historians believe her father to have been John Wayles, Jefferson's father-in-law, who as a widower had a 12-year liaison with his mulatto slave Betty Hemings and fathered six children with her. These children had three-quarters European, one-quarter African ancestry, and were half-siblings to Jefferson's wife Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson. Sally Hemings was the youngest child of this shadow family. Jefferson former slave Issac Jefferson described Sally as "mighty near white ... very handsome, long straight hair down her back." Of the four Hemings children who survived to adulthood—William Beverley, Harriet, Madison, and Eston Hemings—all but Madison Hemings eventually identified as white and lived as adults in white communities. Under the Virginia law of partus sequitur ventrem, because Sally Hemings was a slave, her children were also born enslaved. But the children were seven-eighths European, one-eighth African by ancestry. If free, they would have been considered legally white in Virginia of the time. Controversy Early claims In 1802, the journalist James T. Callender, after being refused an appointment to a postmaster position by Jefferson and issuing veiled threats of "consequences," reported that Jefferson had fathered several children with a slave concubine named Sally. Others privately or publicly made the claim. Elijah Fletcher, the headmaster of the New Glasgow Academy (Amherst County, Virginia) visited Jefferson in 1811 and wrote in his diary: Jefferson made no public comment on the matter, although most historians interpret his cover letter from 1805 to Secretary of the Navy Robert Smith as a denial alluding to a fuller reply, which has been lost. The Jefferson-Wayles descendants and most historians denied for nearly 200 years that he was the father of Hemings' children. Since the mid-20th century, there have been challenges to that denial, as historians have reexamined some of the evidence and thought to interpret it differently. Disagreements have arisen since the late 20th century over how to interpret historical evidence related to the issue. According to an 1868 letter by Jefferson's biographer Henry S. Randall to the historian James Parton, Jefferson's grandson, Thomas Jefferson Randolph, said that Jefferson's surviving daughter Martha stated on her deathbed that Jefferson had been away from Monticello for 15 months before one of Hemings' children was born, so could not be the father. But historian Dumas Malone later documented that Jefferson had been at Monticello nine months before the birth of each of Hemings' children. Randolph also said: Randolph told Randall that the late Peter Carr, Jefferson's nephew by his sister and a married man at the time, had fathered Hemings' children, as an explanation for the "startling" close resemblance that every visitor to Monticello could see. According to legal professor Annette Gordon-Reed, by this act, he was violating a strong social taboo against naming a white man as the father of slave children, to explain the strong physical resemblance seen by visitors. She suggested he would only have done so for the more compelling reason of protecting his grandfather. Because of the social taboos about this topic, Randolph requested, and Randall agreed, to omit any mention of Hemings and her children in Randall's three-volume biography, Life of Thomas Jefferson (1858). But Randall passed on the Randolph oral history in a letter to the historian James Parton. He also suggested that he had personally seen records supporting it – but no such record has been found. Randall's 1868 letter relating Randolph's family account of the Peter Carr paternity was a "pillar" of later historians' assertions that Carr was the father of Hemings' children, and Jefferson was not. Ohio reports and Madison Hemings In November 1845, Ohio newspapers reported that one of Jefferson's sons by Sally Hemings living in a central Ohio county was not allowed to vote or testify in court due to Ohio laws regarding his race. The story was subsequently reported by William Lloyd Garrison's newspaper, The Liberator. On July 7, 1870, Chillicothe, Ohio census taker William Weaver made a note in his official census book beside the entry for "Hemmings, Madison": "This man is the son of Thomas Jefferson." In 1873, the issue received renewed, widespread attention after the publication of an interview with Madison Hemings, who asserted that Jefferson was his father. He was interviewed about his life as a slave at Monticello, and his account was published in an Ohio newspaper. Then age 68, Hemings claimed Jefferson as his and his siblings' father. He said that when Jefferson and Sally Hemings were still in Paris, she became pregnant with his child. Slaves could petition for their freedom in France, and Hemings initially showed reluctance when Jefferson asked her to return with him to Virginia. Based on Jefferson's promise to free her children when they came of age, she returned with him to the United States from France. Israel Jefferson, also a former slave of Monticello, confirmed the account of Jefferson's paternity of Hemings' children in his own interview published that year by the same Ohio newspaper. Critics attacked the newspaper account as politically motivated and the former slaves as mistaken, or worse. In 1874, James Parton published his biography of Jefferson, in which he attributed the content of Madison Hemings' memoir to the political motives of a journalist who interviewed him. He and other critics essentially discounted Madison's memoir, while attributing to him a range of negative motives for telling his story. In his work, Parton repeated the Jefferson family's oral history about a Carr paternity and the claim that Jefferson was absent during the conception period of one of Hemings' children. Modern historians Succeeding 20th-century historians, such as Merrill Peterson and Douglass Adair, relied on Parton's book as it related to the controversy. In turn, Dumas Malone adopted their position. In the 1970s, as part of his six-volume biography of Jefferson, Malone was the first to publish a letter by Ellen Randolph Coolidge, Randolph's sister that added to the Carr paternity story. But she claimed that the late Samuel Carr, brother to Peter and also a nephew of Jefferson's through his sister, had fathered Hemings' children. Like Peter, Samuel was married when Hemings' children were born. Neither of the Randolphs named Jefferson's nephews as putative fathers of Hemings' children until after the men had died. The above 20th-century historians and other major biographers of the late 20th century, such as Joseph Ellis and Andrew Burstein, "defended" Jefferson based on the Jefferson/Randolph family testimony: saying that he was absent at the conception of one Hemings child, and the family identified Peter or Samuel Carr as the father(s) of Hemings' children. Also, the historians concluded from their interpretations of Jefferson's personality and views that he would not have had such a relationship. They noted he had expressed antipathy to blacks and miscegenation in his writings, and he was thought to have a "high" moral character. The manuscripts for Thomas Jefferson's Farm Books were rediscovered and published for the first time in 1953, edited by Edwin M. Betts. They provided extensive data about slaves and slave births, including all of Sally Hemings' children, and have been used extensively by researchers. Black oral history preserved the account of the Jefferson-Hemings relationship and the place of African Americans at the center of United States history. Black historians began to publish material related to the mixed-race Hemings descendants. Lerone Bennett, in his article, "Thomas Jefferson's Negro Grandchildren," published in Ebony in November 1954, examined the current lives of individuals claiming descent from this union. In 1961, historian Pearl M. Graham published an article in the Journal of Negro History on Jefferson and Hemings. It was based on material from the Farm Books, as well as a detailed timeline of Jefferson's activities developed by historian Dumas Malone in his extensive biography. This was published in several volumes beginning in the 1940s. Graham noted that Hemings conceived her children only when Jefferson was in residence at Monticello, during a time when he traveled frequently and was away for lengthy periods. Graham also provided biographical information on Sally's children; she supported accounts that Hemings and Jefferson had several children together. In 1972, Fawn M. Brodie published "The Great Jefferson Taboo" in American Heritage magazine. She addressed the rumors of Jefferson's relationship with Sally Hemings, his quadroon slave, conducted extensive research, and concluded that they had a long relationship. Anticipating "inevitable controversy", the magazine broke with its usual practice and published Brodie's extensive footnotes for her article. Evidence In 1953, Thomas Jefferson's Farm Book was published in an edited version, after having been rediscovered. Its records of slave births, deaths, purchases, and sales, and other information has provided researchers with considerable data about the lives of slaves at Monticello, including the births of all of Sally Hemings' known children. Dumas Malone documented Jefferson's activities and residencies through the years. His documentation in his multi-volume biography (published 1948–1981) provided the details that Pearl Graham analyzed to show Jefferson was at Monticello for the conception of each of Hemings' children. She never conceived when he was not there. Martha Randolph, Jefferson's daughter with Martha Wayles Jefferson, had made a deathbed claim that Jefferson was away for a 15-month period during which one of the Hemings children was conceived. Gordon-Reed shows this claim is not supported by Malone's documentation; Jefferson was at Monticello at the time of conception of each child. In 1968 the historian Winthrop Jordan said that Jefferson was at Monticello "nine months prior to each birth" of Hemings' children, during a 13-year period when he was often away for months at a time. He acknowledged that the relationship was possible. Fawn Brodie also used this information in her biography of Jefferson, which contributed to her conclusion that he had fathered Hemings' children. The source for the birth dates of the children is Jefferson's Farm Book. In 2000, a statistical analysis of the conception data and Jefferson's residencies concluded it was 99 percent likely that he was the father of her children, and that there was only a 1 percent chance that he was not the father of all her children. This analysis, commonly referred to as a Monte Carlo simulation, was done by Fraser D. Neiman, head of archaeology at Monticello. In 2001, the Scholars Commission Report of the Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society criticized the study, as they said Neiman had not accounted for the possibility of multiple fathers. The Hemings children were named for people in the Randolph-Jefferson family or who were important to Jefferson, rather than for people in the Hemings family. When mixed-race children were sired by the master, they were frequently named after people from his family. Jefferson gave the Hemings family special treatment: the three boys while young had very light household duties. At working age, they were each apprenticed to the master carpenter of the estate, the most skilled artisan, who was also their uncle. This would provide them with skills to make a good living as free adults. According to Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson's treatment of Sally Hemings' children is a good indication that he could have fathered the children. Harriet Hemings did not begin working as a weaver until she was fourteen years old. Many of Jefferson's slaves would have started at ten. Another example is that unlike other slaves, Madison Hemings stated that until they were put to work, they would run errands with Sally. This was very uncommon. Most importantly, Gordon-Reed notes that Jefferson freed all the Hemings children. Theirs was the only slave family to all go free from Monticello; they were the only slaves freed in their youth and as they came of age, and Harriet Hemings was the only female slave he ever freed. He allowed Beverley (male) and Harriet to "escape" in 1822 at ages 23 and 21, although Jefferson was already struggling financially and would be $100,000 (US$ in dollars) in debt at his death. He gave his overseer money to give to Harriet for her journey. Jefferson avoided publicity this way, but the gentry at the time noted the Hemingses' absences. Monticello's overseer Edmund Bacon (1785–1866) noted in his memoir (published after Jefferson's death) that people were talking about Harriet's departure. In the memoir, Bacon stated that in all the years he had worked there, he never saw Jefferson and Sally Hemings together in any capacity that would suggest a sexual liaison, and on several occasions witnessed another man leaving Sally's room early in the morning. In an interview Bacon maintains: In his 1826 will, Jefferson freed the younger brothers Madison and Eston Hemings, who were approaching the age of 21. To enable them to stay in Virginia, Jefferson's will petitioned the legislature for permission for them to stay in the state with their families. (Such legislative approval was required by laws related to manumission and free blacks.) Jefferson also freed three older males from the extended Elizabeth Hemings family; they had each served him for decades. His will also requested that they be allowed to stay in the state. Jefferson's daughter Martha Randolph gave Sally Hemings "her time" after Jefferson's death, an informal freedom, and the former slave lived with her two younger sons, Madison and Eston, in nearby Charlottesville for nearly a decade before her death. 1998 DNA study According to an initial report on the findings of a 1998 DNA study which tested the Y-chromosome of direct male-line descendants of Eston Hemings, and other related tests, there is a high probability that Thomas Jefferson was the biological father of Eston Hemings, with a nearly perfect match between the DNA of Jefferson's paternal uncle and the descendants of Eston Hemings. These initial claims were later relativised by the lead researcher in the case, acknowledging that the DNA was compatible with the paternity of some of Jefferson's relatives and that it was inconsistent with paternity by one of the Carr brothers. In his reply to questions on the study, the authors of the DNA study made clear: In the Monticello Commission's report on the paternity question, Dr. David Page, one of the committee's scientific case reviewers, recommended that additional research needed to be done into "the local population structure around Monticello two hundred years ago, as respects the Y chromosome," before entirely ruling out the possibility of the paternity of any of the other 7 potential paternity candidates. Historical consensus With the Eston Hemings descendant found consistent with the Jefferson male line, and inconsistent with the Carr male line, formerly skeptical biographers, such as Joseph Ellis and Andrew Burstein, publicly said they had changed their opinions and concluded that Jefferson had fathered Hemings' children. As Burstein said in 2005,[T]he white Jefferson descendants who established the family denial in the mid-nineteenth century cast responsibility for paternity on two Jefferson nephews (children of Jefferson's sister) whose DNA was not a match. So, as far as can be reconstructed, there are no Jeffersons other than the president who had the degree of physical access to Sally Hemings that he did.In 2000, the Thomas Jefferson Foundation, which operates Monticello, issued a report of its own investigation, which concluded by accepting Jefferson's paternity. Dr. Daniel P. Jordan, president of the foundation, committed at the time to incorporate "the conclusions of the report into Monticello's training, interpretation, and publications." This included new articles and monographs on the Hemings descendants reflecting the new evidence, as well as books on the interracial communities of Monticello and Charlottesville. New exhibits at Monticello show Jefferson as the father of the Sally Hemings children. In 2010, the Monticello website noted the new consensus that has emerged on Jefferson's paternity of Hemings' children in the decade since those major studies. In its January 2000 issue, the William and Mary Quarterly published Forum: Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings Redux, a total of seven articles noting the changed consensus and the developing new views on Jefferson. One article had the results of an analysis by Fraser D. Neiman, who studied the statistical significance of the relationship between Jefferson's documented residencies at Monticello and Hemings' conceptions. He concluded that there was a 99 percent chance that Jefferson was the father of Hemings' children. In May 2000, PBS Frontline produced, Jefferson's Blood, a program about the issues related to the DNA test and historical controversy. It stated in its overview: More than 20 years after CBS executives were pressured by Jefferson historians to drop plans for a mini-series on Jefferson and Hemings, the network airs Sally Hemings: An American Scandal. Though many quarreled with the portrayal of Hemings as unrealistically modern and heroic, no major historian challenged the series' premise that Hemings and Jefferson had a 38-year relationship that produced children. In the fall of 2001, the National Genealogical Society published a special issue of its quarterly devoted to the Jefferson–Hemings controversy. In several articles, its specialists concluded that, as the genealogist Helen M. Leary wrote, the "chain of evidence": historical, genealogical, and DNA, supported the conclusion that Thomas Jefferson was the father of all of Hemings' children. Dissenting views The Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society (TJHS) was formed with the purpose to dissent the shifting opinion of the newly forming consensus on the controversy, commissioned a report on the matter and asked a group of scholars to look at the evidence and make a public report detailing their conclusions. The TJHS Scholars Commission included Lance Banning, Walter E. Williams, Robert F. Turner, and Paul Rahe, among others. On May 26, 2000, John H. Works, the President of TJHS sent a letter to the Chairman of The Scholars Commission, Professor Robert Turner explaining to him that "you have our assurance that the work of The Scholars Commission will be completely independent of efforts to influence your methodology or conclusions by The Heritage Society or its members." The members of this commission included a diverse group of senior scholars, most having either chaired professorships or served as departmental chairs at prominent universities. Several had written highly respected books about Jefferson. They worked independently of the TJHS, were not compensated for their work, and spent nearly a year examining the arguments and evidence regarding paternity. The group published its report in 2001. In it they unanimously agree that the allegations were "by no means proven", and also state that they find it "regrettable that public confusion about the 1998 DNA testing and other evidence has misled people." The scholars on the Commission concluded that there was insufficient evidence to determine that Jefferson was the father of Hemings' children. The report states that it is a matter about which reasonable people can disagree but by a margin of 12 to 1 their final views "ranged from 'serious skepticism' about the charge to a conviction that it is 'almost certainly false'." Their report suggested that his younger brother Randolph Jefferson, or one of his sons, was the father, and that Hemings may have had multiple partners. They emphasized that more than 20 Jefferson males lived in Virginia, eight within 20 miles of Monticello. Their report summary goes on to state "The most important results from the DNA testing may well have been the determination that Thomas Woodson, long thought by many to be the Tom referred to by James Callender in 1802 as having been conceived by Sally Hemings in Paris, and having a strong physical resemblance to the President could not have been the son of Thomas Jefferson. Subsequent DNA testing of descendants of a third Woodson son confirmed the earlier results. Most of us believe this goes far towards undermining any remaining credibility of the original Callender allegations." Paul Rahe published a minority view, saying he thought Jefferson's paternity of Eston Hemings was more likely than not. The founder and Director Emeritus of the Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society Herbert Barger, a family historian, had assisted Eugene Foster by finding descendants of the Jefferson male line, Woodsons and Carrs for testing for the DNA study. Foster later said that Barger was "fantastic" and "of immense help to me". The Monticello Jefferson-Hemings Report found that from its "research it was determined that, other than Thomas Jefferson, twenty-five adult male descendants of his father Peter (1707-1757) and his uncle Field (1702-1765) lived in Virginia during the 1794-1807 period of Sally Hemings's pregnancies." Of this number, in examining Randolph Jefferson as a candidate, it found that he made four recorded visits to Monticello (in September 1802, September 1805, May 1808, and sometime in 1814), though none coincided with possible dates of Sally Hemings' conceptions. In August 1807, a probable conception time for Eston Hemings, Thomas Jefferson wrote to his brother about visiting, but there is no evidence that the younger man arrived. Similarly, no documentation of a Randolph visit appears at the probable conception time for Madison Hemings. John H. Works, Jr., a Jefferson-Wayles descendant and a past president of the Monticello Association, a Jefferson lineage society, wrote that DNA tests indicated that any one of eight Jeffersons could have been the father of Eston. The team had concluded that Jefferson's paternity was the simplest explanation and consistent with historic evidence, but the DNA study could not identify Thomas Jefferson exclusively of other Jefferson males because no sample of his DNA was available. In the fall of 2001, articles in the National Genealogical Society Quarterly criticized the TJHS Scholars Commission Report for poor scholarship and failure to follow accepted historical practices of analysis, or to give sufficient weight to the body of evidence. In the same year, historian Alexander Boulton wrote that Randolph Jefferson had never been seriously proposed as a candidate by historians before the 1998 DNA study. He noted "previous testimony had agreed" that Hemings had only one father for her children, and criticized the idea that she had multiple partners for her children. Jeanette Daniels, Marietta Glauser, Diana Harvey and Carol Hubbell Ouellette conducted research and in 2003 concluded that Randolph Jefferson had been an infrequent visitor to Monticello. Monticello Association In 1999, Lucian Truscott IV, a Wayles-Jefferson descendant and member of the Monticello Association, the Jefferson lineage society, invited Hemings' descendants to that year's annual meeting. The Association decided to commission its own report to determine whether it would admit Hemings' descendants to the lineage society (termed the MAC report or Membership Advisory Committee Report). The report was to determine whether the Hemings descendants could satisfy the society's requirements for documentation of lineage. The 2002 report to the Monticello Association concluded the evidence was insufficient to establish Jefferson's paternity. The majority of members voted against admitting the Hemings descendants as members of the group. Truscott noted in American Heritage magazine that the Association had not had such strict documentation standards before the DNA study results were published in 1998. He checked the previous membership rules and found the following: ARTICLE III — Membership . . . Any lineal descendant of Thomas Jefferson who applies for membership, and annually pays dues as stated in the By-Laws of this Association, shall be a Regular Member of the Association. . . ." Only those 33 of the 93 words in that section of the article address membership criteria; the rest of the paragraph was largely concerned with the payment of dues. Monticello Community In 2010, Shay Banks-Young and Julia Jefferson Westerinen (descended from Sally Hemings' sons Madison and Eston, respectively; they identify as African American and white), and David Works (brother of John H. Works, Jr., and descended from Martha Wayles), were honored with the international "Search for Common Ground" award for "their work to bridge the divide within their family and heal the legacy of slavery." The three have spoken about race and their extended family in numerous appearances across the country. After organizing a reunion at Monticello in 2003 of both sides of the Jefferson family, they organized "The Monticello Community", for descendants of all who lived and worked there during Jefferson's lifetime. In July 2007, the three-day Monticello Community Gathering brought together descendants of many people who had worked at the plantation, with educational sessions, tours of Monticello and Charlottesville, and other activities. Shay Banks-Young, a descendant of Madison Hemings, had grown up with a family tradition of descent from Jefferson. David Works had originally resisted the new DNA evidence, but after he read the commissioned reports, he became convinced of Jefferson's paternity. Julia Jefferson Westerinen is descended from Eston Hemings. After Hemings moved his family to Madison, Wisconsin in 1852, they took the surname Jefferson and entered the white community. His descendants married and identified as white from then on. In the 1940s, Julia's father and his brothers changed the family oral tradition and told their children they were descended from an uncle of Jefferson, as they were trying to protect them from potential racial discrimination related to their descent from Sally Hemings. In the 1970s, a cousin read Fawn McKay Brodie's biography of Jefferson and recognized Eston Hemings' name from family stories. She contacted Brodie and learned the truth about their descent. Their family was later contacted to recruit a male descendant for the 1998 DNA testing. Julia's brother, John Weeks Jefferson, was the Eston Hemings descendant whose DNA matched that of the Jefferson male line. Changing scholarship In his last book before the DNA test results were published, Andrew Burstein wrote that Jefferson could not have been the father of Hemings' children. Since then he published Jefferson's Secrets: Death and Desire at Monticello (2005), in which he concluded that Jefferson did have a long-term sexual relationship with Sally Hemings. Burstein said in an interview about his 2005 book, On Jefferson's isolated mountaintop, sex took place as part of a hierarchy that everyone involved understood. Jefferson, and those of his class, did not share our current understanding of sexual morality. Sally Hemings was his servant, and had little power. She was dependent economically, though this does not mean her feelings were irrelevant. But it does mean that he had extraordinary power, and she very little, and so, as his concubine, she had probably replicated her mother's relationship with Jefferson's father-in-law; for she was, in fact, Jefferson's late wife's half-sister, and I have described the Hemings family as a parallel, subordinate family to the all-white Jeffersons. In 2005 Christopher Hitchens published a new biography of Jefferson, whom he had always admired and praised. While continuing that praise, he assessed the president and his views. In an interview on NPR about the book, Hitchens discussed Jefferson's pessimistic views of the possibility of the co-existence of whites and blacks in the United States. He said, Then there's the odd, of course, fact that he had a very long love affair with a woman who he owned, who he inherited from his father-in-law, who was his wife's half-sister, and produced several children by her, whose descendants have mainly been brought up on the white side of the color line. So in a strange way, his own patrimony disproves his own belief that there couldn't be coexistence between black and white Americans. In her Pulitzer Prize-winning The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family (2008), Annette Gordon-Reed recounts the history and biography of four generations of the enslaved Hemings family, focusing on their African and Virginian origins and interrelationships with the Jefferson-Wayles families, until the death in 1826 of Thomas Jefferson. She discusses Jefferson's complex relationships as the family's master, Sally Hemings' partner, and the father of her children. Gordon-Reed is frequently asked about the emotional relationship between Jefferson and Hemings when giving talks. She writes, "In all the venues I have visited, from Houston to Stockholm, one question always arises: Did they love each other?" The question brings up many thorny issues in the context of a master-slave relationship. "Rape and the threat of it blighted the lives of countless enslaved women," she notes. "At the same time, some black women and white men did form bonds quite different in character than from those resulting from sexual coercion." In 2012, the Thomas Jefferson Foundation (which operates Monticello as a house museum and archive) and the Smithsonian Institution collaborated on a major exhibit held at the National Museum of American History, Slavery at Jefferson's Monticello: The Paradox of Liberty (January–October 2012). Described as a "groundbreaking exhibit", it was the first on the National Mall to address Jefferson as slaveholder and the family lives of slaves at Monticello. Members and descendants of six families, including the Hemings, were documented and the strength of the enslaved families was shown. The exhibit also noted that "evidence strongly support[s] the conclusion that Jefferson was the father of Sally Hemings' children." More than one million visitors saw the exhibit. Following the Washington run, the exhibit toured the US, being held at museums in Atlanta, St. Louis and other venues. Both the United States National Park Service and the University of Virginia's Miller Center of Public Affairs note in their online biographies that Jefferson's paternity of Hemings' children has been widely accepted. Representation in media In 1979, Barbara Chase-Riboud published a novel on Hemings that gave her a voice, portraying her as both an independent woman and Jefferson's concubine. Jefferson historians succeeded in suppressing a planned CBS television film based on this novel. In 1995, the film Jefferson in Paris was released, which portrayed a Jefferson-Hemings liaison. CBS aired the television film Sally Hemings: An American Scandal (1999), also portraying this relationship; it was not challenged by any major historian. While historians have discussed the issue, numerous artists, writers and poets have grappled with the meaning of Jefferson's paternity in American history, as in these selections from a list of resources listed in a Lehigh University student project of "History on Trial": The Jefferson-Hemings Controversy: Bolcom, William, composer. From the Diary of Sally Hemings. Perf: Alyson Cambridge, Lydia Brown. Audio CD. White Pine Music, 2010. Setting of text by Sandra Seaton (18 pieces) Hartz, Jill. Siting Jefferson: Contemporary Artists Interpret Thomas Jefferson's Legacy. Charlottesville: U of Virginia P, 2003. The record of a University of Virginia Art Museum exhibit, Hindsight/Fore-sight: Art for the New Millennium (2000), in which performance works, such as Todd Murphy's "Monument to Sally Hemings" (on the cover), were site-specific. A chapter is devoted to "Thomas Jefferson: Race and National Identity." Hindsight/Fore-Site: Art for the New Millennium (2000), University of Virginia Art Museum, some images from installations Mion, Tina. Half Sisters (2002 painting). Of Martha Jefferson and Sally Hemings, Mion wrote: "I feel that the real story is being overlooked. Most people don't know that Sally was Martha's half-sister and that, by written accounts, she looked like Martha. Sally moved into the White House after Martha's death. How strange it must have been for Jefferson to be constantly reminded of his dead wife." Monteith, Sharon. "Sally Hemings in Visual Culture: A Radical Act of the Imagination?" Slavery and Abolition 29.2 (2008): 233–46. Explores the representation of the Jefferson-Hemings relationship in visual culture. Park, Gloria Toyun. "Thomas Jefferson." (1998), Fiber Scene. In a public art installation at Columbia University, Park placed wigs she had made on historical public statues sited on the campus. She said, "Thomas Jefferson wore a slave bonnet and a wig, alluding to his alleged relationship with his slave mistress of forty years, Sally Hemings." Saar, Lezley. Harriet Hemings: Slave Daughter of Thomas Jefferson (1999), All-Art.org Salter, Mary Jo. "The Hand of Jefferson," in A Phone Call to the Future: New and Selected Poems, New York: Knopf, 2008. pp. 124–38. Excerpt: "His time is over. / He'll take the answer to his grave / whether he fathered children with his slave, / Sally Hemings; what words he'll offer / to cover himself are buried in a drawer, / meant for his tombstone." Seaton, Sandra. "From the Diary of Sally Hemings", Michigan Quarterly Review 40.4 (2001). (See William Bolcom above, who set several of these texts to music.) Taylor, Tess. "A Letter to Jefferson from Monticello", Common-Place, Vol. 13 No. 4, Poetry. See also poet's note: Research Notes. Taylor is a descendant from the Jefferson-Wayles marriage. "Virginia is for Lovers" , The Hook, 19 April 2007. Article reports on the Committee for Jeffersonian Traditions, a "new secret society" at the University of Virginia, running a "Tommy Heart Sally" campaign "to knock school founder Thomas Jefferson off his pedestal and bolster the recognition of his African American slave and mistress, Sally Hemings." See also Clotel or The President's Daughter an 1853 novel by William Wells Brown Bibliography of Thomas Jefferson List of haplogroups of historic people Randolph Jefferson § Suggested paternity of Sally Hemings' children Children of the plantation African heritage of presidents of the United States List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States List of federal political sex scandals in the United States Notes References Further reading External links "The History of a Secret: A chronology of how the Jefferson-Hemings story was long dismissed by historians as legend, lie or worse", Jefferson's Blood, PBS Frontline, May 2000 "Web resources on the Hemings Controversy", Monticello Website (Thomas Jefferson landmark) The Jefferson-Hemings Controversy (16 episodes, 2009–2012), History on Trial project, Lehigh University Herbert Barger, Thomas Jefferson – Sally Hemings: the truth about a founding father/ "The DNA Study", n.d., Thomas Jefferson – Sally Hemings blog, articles cited on first page, 2002–2003 "Famous DNA", at the International Society of Genetic Genealogy Jefferson in Paris (1995) – a James Ivory film dramatizing some episodes of the Jefferson-Hemings story; produced before results of DNA study. Sally Hemings, An American Scandal (2001) – a TV mini-series written by Tina Andrews dramatizing the Jefferson-Hemings story. Released on DVD as Sally Hemings: An American Love Story (2011) Did John Adams Out Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings?, article on Smithsonianmag.com Hemings controversy 1790s in the United States 1800s in the United States 1873 in the United States 1874 in the United States 18th-century controversies in the United States 19th-century controversies in the United States Genetic genealogy Historical controversies Interracial relationships Multiracial affairs in the United States Presidents of the United States and slavery Sally Hemings
4191587	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Opera	Operation Opera	Operation Opera (), also known as Operation Babylon, was a surprise airstrike conducted by the Israeli Air Force on 7 June 1981, which destroyed an unfinished Iraqi nuclear reactor located southeast of Baghdad, Iraq. The Israeli operation came after Iran's partially successful Operation Scorch Sword had caused minor damage to the same nuclear facility a year prior, with the damage having been subsequently repaired by French technicians. Operation Opera, and related Israeli government statements following it, established the Begin Doctrine, which explicitly stated the strike was not an anomaly, but instead "a precedent for every future government in Israel". Israel's counter-proliferation preventive strike added another dimension to its existing policy of deliberate ambiguity, as it related to the nuclear weapons capability of other states in the region. In 1976, Iraq purchased an Osiris-class nuclear reactor from France. While Iraq and France maintained that the reactor, named Osirak by the French, was intended for peaceful scientific research, the Israelis viewed the reactor with suspicion, believing it was designed to produce nuclear weapons that could escalate the ongoing Arab–Israeli conflict. On 7 June 1981, a flight of Israeli Air Force F-16A fighter aircraft, with an escort of F-15As, bombed the Osirak reactor deep inside Iraq. Israel called the operation an act of self-defense, saying that the reactor had "less than a month to go" before "it might have become critical." The airstrike reportedly killed ten Iraqi soldiers and one French civilian. The attack took place about three weeks before the 1981 Israeli legislative elections for the Knesset. At the time of its occurrence, the attack was met with sharp international criticism, including in the United States, and Israel was rebuked by the United Nations Security Council and General Assembly in two separate resolutions. Media reactions were also negative: "Israel's sneak attack ... was an act of inexcusable and short-sighted aggression", wrote The New York Times, while the Los Angeles Times called it "state-sponsored terrorism". The destruction of Iraq's Osirak reactor has been cited as an example of a preventive strike in contemporary scholarship on international law. The efficacy of the attack is debated by historians, who acknowledge that it brought Iraq back from the brink of nuclear capability but drove its weapons program underground and cemented Iraqi President Saddam Hussein's future ambitions for acquiring nuclear weapons. Iraq's nuclear program Iraq had established a nuclear program sometime in the 1960s, and in the mid-1970s looked to expand it through the acquisition of a nuclear reactor. After failing to convince the French Government to sell them a gas cooled graphite moderated plutonium-producing reactor and reprocessing plant, and likewise failing to convince the Italian government to sell them a Cirene reactor, the Iraqi government convinced the French government to sell them an Osiris-class research reactor. The purchase also included a smaller accompanying Isis-type reactor, the sale of 72 kilograms of 93% enriched uranium and the training of personnel. The total cost has been given as $300 million (equivalent to $1.62 billion in ). In November 1975, the countries signed a nuclear cooperation agreement and in 1976, the sale of the reactor was finalized. Construction for the 40-megawatt light-water nuclear reactor began in 1979 at the Al Tuwaitha Nuclear Center near Baghdad. The main reactor was dubbed Osirak (Osiraq) by the French, blending the name of Iraq with that of the reactor class. Iraq named the main reactor Tammuz 1 (Arabic: تموز) and the smaller Tammuz 2. Tammuz was the Babylonian month when the Ba'ath party had come to power in 1968. On 6 April 1979, Israeli agents sabotaged the Osirak reactor awaiting shipment to Iraq at La Seyne-sur-Mer in France. On 14 June 1980, Mossad agents assassinated Yahya El Mashad, an Egyptian nuclear scientist who headed the Iraqi nuclear program, in a hotel in Paris. In July 1980, Iraq received from France a shipment of approximately 12.5 kilograms of highly enriched uranium fuel to be used in the reactor. The shipment was the first of a planned six deliveries totalling 72 kilograms. It was reportedly stipulated in the purchase agreement that no more than two HEU fuel loadings, 24 kilograms, could be in Iraq at any time. Iraq and France claimed that the Iraqi reactor was intended for peaceful scientific research. Agreements between France and Iraq excluded military use. The American private intelligence agency STRATFOR wrote in 2007 that the uranium-fueled reactor "was believed to be on the verge of producing plutonium for a weapons program". In a 2003 speech, Richard Wilson, a professor of physics at Harvard University who visually inspected the partially damaged reactor in December 1982, said that "to collect enough plutonium [for a nuclear weapon] using Osirak would've taken decades, not years". In 2005, Wilson further commented in The Atlantic: "The Osirak reactor that was bombed by Israel in June 1981 was explicitly designed by the French engineer Yves Girard to be unsuitable for making bombs. That was obvious to me on my 1982 visit". Elsewhere Wilson has stated that contrary to claims that the bombing of the Iraqi Osirak reactor delayed Iraq's nuclear bomb program, the Iraqi nuclear program before 1981 was peaceful, and the Osirak reactor was not only unsuited to making bombs but was under intensive safeguards. In an interview in 2012, Wilson again emphasised: "The Iraqis couldn't have been developing a nuclear weapon at Osirak. I challenge any scientist in the world to show me how they could have done so." Iraq was a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, placing its reactors under International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards. In October 1981, the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists published excerpts from the testimony of Roger Richter, a former IAEA inspector who described the weaknesses of the agency's nuclear safeguards to the United States Senate Foreign Relations Committee. Richter testified that only part of Iraq's nuclear installation was under safeguard and that the most sensitive facilities were not even subject to safeguards. IAEA's Director-General Sigvard Eklund issued a rebuttal saying that Richter had never inspected Osirak and had never been assigned to inspect facilities in the Middle East. Eklund claimed that the safeguards procedures were effective and that they were supplemented by precautionary measures taken by the nuclear suppliers. Anthony Fainberg, a physicist at the Brookhaven National Laboratory, disputed Richter's claim that a fuel processing program for the manufacturing of nuclear weapons could have been conducted secretly. Fainberg wrote that there was barely enough fuel on the site to make one bomb, and that the presence of hundreds of foreign technicians would have made it impossible for the Iraqis to take the necessary steps without being discovered. Strategy and diplomacy In Israel, discussions on which strategy to adopt in response to the Iraqi reactor development were taking place as early as Yitzhak Rabin's first term in office (1974–1977). Reportedly, planning and training for the operation began during this time. After Menachem Begin became Prime Minister in 1977 the preparations intensified; Begin authorized the building of a full-scale model of the Iraqi reactor which Israeli pilots could practice bombing. Three Israeli pilots died in accidents while training for the mission. Israel's Foreign Minister Moshe Dayan initiated diplomatic negotiations with France, the United States and Italy (Israel maintained that some Italian firms acted as suppliers and sub-contractors) over the matter but failed to obtain assurances that the reactor program would be halted. In addition Israel was not able to convince the French governments of Valéry Giscard d'Estaing and François Mitterrand to cease aiding the Iraqi nuclear program. Saddam Hussein consistently maintained that Osirak was intended for peaceful purposes. Begin considered the diplomatic options fruitless, and worried that prolonging the decision to attack would lead to a fatal inability to act in response to the perceived threat. According to Karl P. Mueller, in the spring of 1979, Begin had reached the conclusion that an anticipatory attack was necessary. Anthony Cordesman writes that the Israeli intelligence agency Mossad conducted a series of clandestine operations to halt construction or destroy the reactor. In April 1979, Mossad agents in France allegedly planted a bomb that destroyed the reactor's first set of core structures while they were awaiting shipment to Iraq. In June 1980, Mossad agents are said to have assassinated Yehia El-Mashad, an Egyptian atomic scientist working on the Iraqi nuclear program. Shortly afterward, two other Iraqi engineers working on the program, Salman Rashid and Abdul Rasul, fell ill and died on trips to Switzerland and France respectively, with Mossad suspected of having poisoned them. It has also been claimed that the Mossad bombed several of the French and Italian companies it suspected of working on the project, and sent threatening letters to top officials and technicians, causing several French technicians to resign. Following the bombing in April 1979, France inserted a clause in its agreement with Iraq saying that French personnel would have to supervise the Osirak reactor on-site for a period of ten years. The alleged assassinations caused widespread panic among Iraqi nuclear scientists. Saddam Hussein, worried over the effect on the morale of the project's scientists, awarded cash bonuses and luxury cars to all senior scientists. Meshad's widow was awarded $300,000 and promised that she and her children would receive a lifelong pension. Iraqi scientists were given financial bonuses for international travel, which they had become increasingly fearful of, and received instructions on how to avoid potential Mossad assassinations. Iranian attack In an air attack codenamed Operation Scorch Sword, Iran attacked and damaged the site on 30 September 1980, with two F-4 Phantoms, shortly after the outbreak of the Iran–Iraq War. At the onset of the war, Yehoshua Saguy, director of the Israeli Military Intelligence Directorate, publicly urged the Iranians to bomb the reactor. The attack was the first on a nuclear reactor and only the third on a nuclear facility in history. It was also the first instance of a preventive attack on a nuclear reactor which aimed to forestall the development of a nuclear weapon. Due to last minute Iranian concerns that the reactor had been already fueled and could release radioactive fallout if hit, they did not attack the actual reactor dome, but the control room, research/centrifuge facilities, and the adjacent buildings. The targets were struck and the buildings were damaged, along with the plant cooling mechanisms. Two other F-4s simultaneously hit Baghdad's main power plant, knocking the city's electricity out for nearly two days. The Iraqis denied any major damage. The French and Italian technicians promptly left Iraq, and nearly withdrew from the project, but some later returned in February 1981 and began to repair the damage. Trita Parsi, in the book Treacherous Alliance: The Secret Dealings of Israel, Iran, and the United States, writes that a senior Israeli official met with a representative of the Ayatollah Khomeini in France one month prior to the Israeli attack. The source of the assertion is Ari Ben-Menashe, a former Israeli government employee. At the alleged meeting, the Iranians explained details of their 1980 attack on the site, and agreed to let Israeli planes land at an Iranian airfield in Tabriz in the case of an emergency. While the new Iranian government was officially hostile to Israel, due to both nations having a common enemy (Iraq), and Iranian fears that the Iraqis would create an atomic bomb to use on them, they clandestinely worked with Israel to forestall such a development. Operational planning The distance between Israeli military bases and the reactor site was significant—over . The Israeli planes would have to violate Jordanian and/or Saudi airspace in a covert flight over foreign territory, making mid-air refueling unfeasible. The Israelis eventually concluded that a squadron of heavily fueled and heavily armed F-16As, with a group of F-15As to provide air cover and fighter support, could perform a surgical strike to eliminate the reactor site without having to refuel. The decision to go through with the operation was hotly contested within Begin's government. Ariel Sharon, a member of the Security Cabinet, later said that he was among those who advocated bombing the reactor. Dayan, Defense Minister (until late 1980) Ezer Weizman and Deputy Prime Minister Yigael Yadin were among those opposed. According to Mueller, "the principal difference between the hawks and doves on this issue lay in their estimation of the likely international political costs of an air strike". Shai Feldman specifies that "[those opposed] feared that the operation would derail the fragile Israeli-Egyptian peace process, fuel Arab anxieties about Israel's profile in the region, and damage Israel-French relations". Begin and his supporters, including Sharon, were far less pessimistic than their opponents about the political fallout. Yehoshua Saguy argued for continued efforts in trying to find a non-military solution as it would take the Iraqis five to ten years to produce the material necessary for a nuclear weapon. In the end, Begin chose to order the attack based on a worst-case estimate where a weapon could be created in one to two years time. According to Ronen Bergman, Mossad director Yitzhak Hofi told Begin in October 1980 that the Mossad's campaign of assassinations and sabotage could not stop the Iraqi nuclear program and that the only way to put an end to it was an airstrike. Prime Minister Begin defended the timing of the bombing stating that a later attack, after the reactor had become operational, could cause lethal radioactive contamination doses to reach all the way to Baghdad. An analysis by Warren Donnelly of the United States Congressional Research Service concluded that "it would be most unlikely for an attack with conventional bombs upon the reactor when operating to have caused lethal exposures to radioactivity in Baghdad, although some people at the reactor site might receive some exposure". This was similarly the conclusion of Herbert Goldstein of Columbia University using IAEA release factors, the lethal contamination would be confined to a close proximity to the reactor and small amounts of radiation would be detectable in Baghdad under the assumption that winds were blowing in that direction. In October 1980, Mossad reported to Begin that the Osirak reactor would be fueled and operational by June 1981. This assessment was significantly aided by reconnaissance photos supplied by the United States, specifically using the KH-11 KENNEN satellite. French technicians installing the reactor later said it was scheduled to become operational only by the end of 1981. Nonetheless, in October 1980, the Israeli cabinet (with Dayan absent) finally voted 10–6 in favor of launching the attack. Preliminary Israeli/Iranian actions After the approval for Operation Opera, the Israelis began to plan their mission against Osirak. The basic procedure for the airstrike had been formulated as early as 1979. However, the Israelis needed photographic intelligence about the layout of the plant. That task allegedly fell to the Iranians. Rather than carrying out a follow-up air raid after their September attack, on 30 November 1980, an Iranian F-4 Phantom reconnaissance jet took pictures of the Osirak reactor. The photographs were allegedly placed in a top-secret metal container, and certain elements of the Iranian military delivered them to the Israelis. With these photographs, the Israelis began to plan out Operation Opera. A team of Israeli pilots using A-4 Skyhawk aircraft began practicing over the Mediterranean Sea for the raid. The Israelis shortly afterwards received their first agreed delivery of F-16 Fighting Falcon aircraft (the first batch was originally earmarked for Iran, but because of the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the Israeli Air Force received theirs ahead of schedule). The new F-16s would be used for the raid. Israeli F-4 Phantoms also ran reconnaissance missions over areas of southern and western Iraq. While the Iraqi Air Force was busy fighting the Iranians, on one occasion, an Iraqi MiG-21 chased an Israeli F-4; the Iraqi jet ran out of fuel and the pilot was forced to eject. However, in their missions, the Israelis discovered a blind area on Iraqi radar, on the border with Saudi Arabia. While the Iraqis were aware of the blind area, they did not remedy the problem because they did not expect a war with Saudi Arabia. The Iraqi Air Force was a potential threat to the Israelis (as the MiG-21 interception showed) and it somewhat deterred Israel from attacking yet. However, Israel had an advantage in that Iraq was preoccupied fighting Iran. On 4 April 1981, the Iranian Air Force launched a major attack on Iraq's H-3 airbase in the western part of the country (near Jordan and Israel). Eight Iranian F-4 Phantoms carried out the long range bombing mission and struck the airbase. Iran claimed that 48 Iraqi aircraft were destroyed, although US intelligence concluded that 27 aircraft were destroyed and 11 others damaged (some beyond repair). Among the aircraft hit were two Tu-22 Blinder and three Tu-16 Badger strategic bombers (which could have been used to retaliate against Israel in the event of an attack). The attack was a severe blow to Iraqi airpower, and largely gave Iran air superiority over Iraq. Israeli reconnaissance planes had been monitoring Iraq during the attack, and observed that the Iraqi Air Force had been severely degraded and their retaliatory capacity had been weakened. Attack Yehuda Zvi Blum, in a speech to the United Nations Security Council following the attack, claimed that the operation was launched on a Sunday afternoon under the assumption that workers present on the site, including foreign experts employed at the reactor, would have left. Notwithstanding this precaution, there were hundreds of French workers and other nationals at the plant at the time of the raid. The attack squadron consisted of eight F-16As, each with two unguided Mark-84 delay-action bombs. A flight of six F-15As was assigned to the operation to provide fighter support. The F-16 pilots were Ze'ev Raz, Amos Yadlin, Dobbi Yaffe, Hagai Katz, Amir Nachumi, Iftach Spector, Relik Shafir, and Ilan Ramon. Raz led the attack and was later decorated by the Chief of Staff for his leadership. Ramon, who was the youngest pilot to participate in the operation, later became the first Israeli astronaut and died in the Columbia space shuttle disaster. The operation started on 7 June 1981, at 15:55 local time (12:55 GMT). The Israeli planes left Etzion Airbase, flying unchallenged in Jordanian and Saudi airspace. To avoid detection, the Israeli pilots conversed in Saudi-accented Arabic while in Jordanian airspace and told Jordanian air controllers that they were a Saudi patrol that had gone off course. While flying over Saudi Arabia, they pretended to be Jordanians, using Jordanian radio signals and formations. The Israeli planes were so heavily loaded that the external fuel tanks that had been mounted on the planes were exhausted in-flight. The tanks were jettisoned over the Saudi desert. King Hussein of Jordan, vacationing in the Gulf of Aqaba, witnessed the planes overfly his yacht, and noticed their Israeli markings. Taking into account the location, heading, and armament of the jets, Hussein quickly deduced the Iraqi reactor to be the most probable target. Hussein immediately contacted his government and ordered a warning to be sent to the Iraqis. However, due to a communication failure the message was never received and the Israeli planes entered Iraqi airspace undetected. Upon reaching Iraqi airspace, the squadron split up, with two of the F-15s forming close escort to the F-16 squadron, and the remaining F-15s dispersing into Iraqi airspace as a diversion and ready back-up. The attack squadron descended to over the Iraqi desert, attempting to fly under the radar of the Iraqi defences. At 18:35 local time (14:35 GMT), from the Osirak reactor complex, the F-16 formation climbed to and went into a 35-degree dive at , aimed at the reactor complex. At , the F-16s began releasing the Mark 84 bombs in pairs, at 5-second intervals. At least eight of the sixteen released bombs struck the containment dome of the reactor. It was later revealed that half an hour before the Israeli planes arrived, a group of Iraqi soldiers manning anti-aircraft defenses had left their posts for an afternoon meal, turning off their radars. The Israeli planes were still intercepted by Iraqi defenses but managed to evade the remaining anti-aircraft fire. The squadron climbed to high altitude and started their return to Israel. The attack lasted less than two minutes. International political reactions International response at the United Nations took two paths. The United Nations Security Council issued a unanimous and almost immediate response on 19 June 1981, following eight meetings and statements from Iraq and the International Atomic Energy Agency. Security Council Resolution 487 strongly condemned the attack as a "clear violation of the Charter of the United Nations and the norms of international conduct" and called on Israel to refrain from such attacks in the future; the Council recognised the right of Iraq to "establish programmes of technological and nuclear development" and called for Israel to join Iraq within the "IAEA safeguards regime" of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The council also stated its consideration that Iraq was "entitled to appropriate redress for the destruction it has suffered." The United States voted for the resolution and suspended the delivery of four F-16 aircraft to Israel, but blocked punitive action by the UN. The suspension on the delivery of the aircraft was lifted two months later. The UN General Assembly followed the Security Council with Resolution No. 36/27 on 13 November 1981, expressing deep alarm and condemning Israel over the "premeditated and unprecedented act of aggression," and demanding that Israel pay prompt and adequate compensation for the damage and loss of life it had caused. The resolution also solemnly warned Israel to refrain from taking such measures in the future. Debate prior to passage of the UN resolution reflected member states' differing positions on issues such as nuclear proliferation in the region and the appropriateness and justifiability of Israel's actions. The Iraqi representative stated that "the motives behind the Israeli attack were to cover up Israel's possession of nuclear weapons and, more importantly, the determination not to allow the Arab nation to acquire scientific or technical knowledge." Syria requested condemnation not only of Israel for terrorism against Arab peoples, but also of the United States, "which continue[s] to provide Israel with instruments of destruction as part of its strategic alliance." The representative of France stated that the sole purpose of the reactor was scientific research. Agreements between France and Iraq excluded military use. The United Kingdom said it did not believe Iraq had the capacity to manufacture fissionable materials for nuclear weapons. The IAEA Director-General confirmed that inspections of the nuclear research reactors near Baghdad revealed no non-compliance with the safeguards agreement. The IAEA's Board of Governors convened on 9–12 June and condemned Israel's action. The Board further asked that the prospect of suspending Israel's privileges and rights of membership be considered at the next General Conference held by the organization. On 26 September 1981, the IAEA Conference condemned the attack and voted to suspend all technical assistance to Israel. A draft resolution was introduced to expel Israel from the IAEA, but the proposition was defeated. The United States argued that the attack was not a violation of the IAEA Statute and that punitive action against Israel would do great harm to the IAEA and the non-proliferation regime. The attack was strongly criticized around the world, including in the United States. Privately, President Reagan wrote in his journal on the day of the attack, "I swear I believe Armageddon is near," adding of Begin's decision, "He should have told us & the French, we could have done something to remove the threat." Jonathan Steele, writing in The Guardian, described the reaction: The world was outraged by Israel's raid on 7 June 1981. "Armed attack in such circumstances cannot be justified. It represents a grave breach of international law," Margaret Thatcher thundered. Jeane Kirkpatrick, the U.S. ambassador to the UN and as stern a lecturer as Britain's then prime minister, described it as "shocking" and compared it to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. American newspapers were as fulsome. "Israel's sneak attack ... was an act of inexcusable and short-sighted aggression," said the New York Times. The Los Angeles Times called it "state-sponsored terrorism". Aftermath Ten Iraqi soldiers and one French civilian were killed in the attack. The civilian killed was engineer Damien Chaussepied, variously described as 24 or 25 years old, who was an employee of Air Liquide and the French governmental agency CEA. In 1981, Israel agreed to pay restitution to Chaussepied's family. Iraq said it would rebuild the facility and France agreed, in principle, to aid in the reconstruction. Because of a mix of factors, including the Iran–Iraq War, international pressure and Iraqi payment problems, negotiations broke down in 1984 and France withdrew from the project. The Osirak facility remained in its damaged state until the 1991 Persian Gulf War, when it was completely destroyed by subsequent coalition air strikes by the United States Air Force, one of them being the Package Q Strike. During the war, 100 out of 120 members of the Knesset signed a letter of appreciation to Menachem Begin, thanking him for ordering the attack on Osirak. In July 1991, Begin, in a rare interview granted to Israel Army Radio, claimed that the Gulf War, and especially the Iraqi Scud missile attacks on Israel during that war, vindicated his decision to bomb the reactor. In response to their failures to prevent the Osirak attack (and the earlier H-3 attack), Saddam Hussein ordered the execution of Colonel Fakhri Hussein Jaber, the head of Iraq's Western Air Defense Zone, and all officers under his command above the rank of major. In addition, 23 other Iraqi pilots and officers were imprisoned. The attack took place approximately three weeks before the Israeli legislative election of 1981. Opposition leader Shimon Peres criticized the operation as a political ploy, which did not go over well with the electorate. Dan Perry writes that "the Osirak bombing—and Peres's poor political judgement in criticizing it—were crucial in turning the tide of what initially had seemed to be a hopeless election campaign for Likud". Begin responded to Peres's accusation at a Likud rally: "Jews, you have known me for forty years, since I lived in the Hassidoff neighborhood of Petah Tikva to fight for the Jewish people (a reference to Begin's incognito days in the Irgun). Would I send Jewish boys to risk death—or captivity worse than death, because those barbarians would have tortured our boys horribly—for elections?" On 30 June, Likud was reelected over Peres's Alignment party, winning by just one seat in the Knesset. The US government had been caught completely off-guard by the attack. A former senior official in US intelligence told Israeli journalist Ronen Bergman that the failure to detect preparations for the attack was perceived as a grave intelligence failure within the US intelligence community, and that it led to a special team within US intelligence being set up to investigate the failure to detect preparations for an operation of this magnitude within the Israeli Air Force, military intelligence, the Mossad, and political system. In 2009, the Prime Minister of Iraq Nouri al-Maliki demanded that Israel compensate Iraq for the destruction of the reactor. An Iraqi official asserted that Iraq's right to redress is supported by Resolution 487 adopted by the United Nations Security Council in response to the attack. In early 2010, The Siasat Daily, citing an unnamed Iraqi parliament member, reported that Iraqi officials had received word from the UN Secretariat that the Iraqi government was entitled to seek compensation from Israel for damage caused by the attack. Assessment Israel claims that the attack impeded Iraq's nuclear ambitions by at least ten years. In an interview in 2005, Bill Clinton expressed support for the attack: "everybody talks about what the Israelis did at Osiraq, in 1981, which, I think, in retrospect, was a really good thing. You know, it kept Saddam from developing nuclear power." Louis René Beres wrote in 1995 that "[h]ad it not been for the brilliant raid at Osiraq, Saddam's forces might have been equipped with atomic warheads in 1991." In 2010, squad leader Ze'ev Raz said of the operation: "There was no doubt in the mind of the decision makers that we couldn't take a chance. We knew that the Iraqis could do exactly what we did in Dimona." As early as the autumn of 1981, Kenneth Waltz discussed the fallout from the strike: Charles R. H. Tripp, in an interview for the 25th anniversary of the attack, described the bombing of Osirak as a variation of Israeli military doctrine beginning with the premiership of David Ben-Gurion, "advocating devastating pre-emptive strikes on Arab enemies." Tripp asserted, "the Osirak attack is an illegal way to behave—Resolution 487 established that—but it is an understandable way to behave if you are the Israeli military-security establishment." Following the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003, American forces captured a number of documents detailing conversations that Saddam Hussein had with his inner sanctum. In a 1982 conversation Hussein stated that, "Once Iraq walks out victorious [over Iran], there will not be any Israel." Of Israel's anti-Iraqi endeavors, Saddam noted, "Technically, they [the Israelis] are right in all of their attempts to harm Iraq." Tom Moriarty, a military intelligence analyst for the United States Air Force, wrote in 2004 that Israel had "gambled that the strike would be within Iraq's threshold of tolerance." Moriarty argues that Iraq, already in the midst of a war with Iran, would not start a war with Israel at the same time and that its "threshold of tolerance was higher than normal." Joseph Cirincione, then director of non-proliferation at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, wrote in 2006: By contrast, Iraqi researchers have stated that the Iraqi nuclear program simply went underground, diversified, and expanded. Khidir Hamza, an Iraqi nuclear scientist, made the following statement in an interview on CNN's Crossfire in 2003: Similarly, the Iraqi nuclear scientist Imad Khadduri wrote in 2003 that the bombing of Osirak convinced the Iraqi leadership to initiate a full-fledged nuclear weapons program. United States Secretary of Defense William Perry stated in 1997 that Iraq refocused its nuclear weapons effort on producing highly enriched uranium after the raid. Its interest in acquiring plutonium as fissile material for weapons continued, but at a lower priority. In the Duelfer Report, released by the Iraq Survey Group in 2004, it is stated that the Iraqi nuclear program "expanded considerably" with the purchase of the French reactor in 1976, and that "Israel's bombing of Iraq's Osirak nuclear reactor spurred Saddam to build up Iraq's military to confront Israel in the early 1980s." Bob Woodward, in the book State of Denial, writes: Richard K. Betts wrote that "there is no evidence that Israel's destruction of Osirak delayed Iraq's nuclear weapons program. The attack may actually have accelerated it." Dan Reiter has repeatedly said that the attack was a dangerous failure: the bombed reactor had nothing to do with weapons research, while "the attack may have actually increased Saddam's commitment to acquiring weapons." In 2011, and basing herself on new Iraqi sources, Malfrid Braut-Hegghammer said that the attack: "...triggered a covert nuclear weapons program that did not previously exist ... a decade later Iraq stood on the threshold of a nuclear weapons capability. This case suggests that preventive attacks can increase the long-term proliferation risk posed by the targeted state." Elsewhere, she wrote: Following Desert Storm, Dick Cheney, then the United States Secretary of Defense, thanked the Israeli mission commander for the "outstanding job he did on the Iraqi nuclear program in 1981". While many scholars debate the value of the bombing, Iraq did not possess nuclear weapons at the outbreak of the Gulf War, and, according to Cheney, the bombing made Desert Storm easier. The second use of the Begin Doctrine was Operation Orchard in 2007, an Israeli airstrike on a purported Syrian nuclear target. Like in Operation Opera, the same types of aircraft were involved, although their roles were reversed with the F-15Is carrying bombs while the F-16Is provided escort. See also France–Iraq relations French support for Iraq during the Iran–Iraq war Iraq–Israel relations Nuclear weapons and Israel Operation Orchard – an Israeli airstrike on a purported Syrian nuclear target Operation Wooden Leg – the Israeli Air Force's raid on Tunisia Stuxnet References Bibliography Amos Perlmutter, Michael I. Handel, Uri Bar-Joseph, Two Minutes Over Baghdad, Geoff Simons, Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam, Gary D. Solis, The Law of Armed Conflict: International Humanitarian Law in War, United Nations Staff, Yearbook of the United Nations 1981, The 1982 World Book Year Book, Anthony Cordesman, Iraq and the War of Sanctions: Conventional Threats and Weapons of Mass Destruction, Bennett Ramberg, Nuclear Power Plants as Weapons for the Enemy: An Unrecognized Military Peril, Sasha Polakow-Suransky, The Unspoken Alliance: Israel's Secret Relationship with Apartheid South Africa, Trita Parsi, Treacherous Alliance: The Secret Dealings of Israel, Iran, and the United States, Israel Stockman-Shomron, Israel, the Middle East and the Great Powers, Henry Shue, David Rhodin, Preemption: Military Action and Moral Justification, Elaine Sciolino, The Outlaw State: Saddam Hussein's Quest for Power and the War in the Gulf, Shirley V. Scott, Anthony Billingsley, Christopher Michaelsen, International Law and the Use of Force: A Documentary and Reference Guide, Dan Perry, Israel and the Quest for Permanence, Shlomo Aloni, Israeli F-15 Eagle Units in Combat, Fred Holroyd, Thinking about nuclear weapons: analyses and prescriptions, Richard C. Ragaini, International Seminar on Nuclear War and Planetary Emergencies: 29th session, David Styan, France and Iraq: Oil, Arms and French Policy Making in the Middle East, Leonard Spector, Proliferation Today, Dan McKinnon, Bullseye Iraq, Patrick Seale, Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East, Allan D. Abbey, Journey of Hope: The Story of Ilan Ramon, Israel's First Astronaut, Trevor Dupuy, Paul Martell, Flawed Victory: Arab-Israeli Conflict and the 1982 War in Lebanon, Ofira Seliktar, Divided We Stand: American Jews, Israel, and the Peace Process, Peter A. Clausen, Nonproliferation and the National Interest: America's Response to the Spread of Nuclear Weapons, David Krieger, The challenge of abolishing nuclear weapons, Seymour Hersh, The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy, Jackson Nyamuya Maogoto, Battling Terrorism: Legal Perspectives on the Use of Force and the War on Terror, H. H. A. Cooper, Terrorism and espionage in the Middle East: deception, displacement and denial, Barry Leonard, Technology Transfer to the Middle East, Sharad S. Chauhan, War on Iraq, Bob Woodward, State of Denial: Bush at War, Part III, Imad Khadduri, Iraq's Nuclear Mirage, Memoirs and Delusions, Karl P. Mueller, Striking First: Preemptive and Preventive Attack in U.S. National Security Policy, Shai Feldman, Nuclear Weapons and Arms Control in the Middle East, Further reading Rodger Claire, Raid on the Sun: Inside Israel's Secret Campaign that Denied Saddam the Bomb, Steven E. Lobell (2020) "Why Israel launched a preventive military strike on Iraq’s nuclear weapons program (1981): The fungibility of power resources". Journal of Strategic Studies Timothy L. H. McCormack, Self-Defense in International Law: The Israeli Raid on the Iraqi Nuclear Reactor, Dan McKinnon (1987), Bullseye One Reactor, Dan McKinnon (1987), Bullseye Iraq External links Attack on Iraq’s Nuke Plant, American Heritage Osiraq / Tammuz I, Federation of American Scientists Israel's Air Strike Against The Osiraq Reactor: A Retrospective, Temple International and Comparative Law Journal Osirak: Over the reactor, BBC News, 5 June 2006 (interview with pilots involved) Factfile: How Osirak was bombed, BBC News Operation Opera: the destruction of the Iraqi nuclear Reactor () – Exhibition in the IDF & Defense establishment archives Operation Opera: An Ambiguous Success, Journal of Strategic Studies The Israeli aggression against the peaceful nuclear installations in Iraq : statement made by Dr. Sa'adoun Hammadi, Minister for Foreign Affairs of Iraq, before the Security Council, 12 June 1981 1981 in international relations 1981 in aviation 1981 in Iraq 1981 in Israel Conflicts in 1981 Attacks on buildings and structures in 1981 Airstrikes conducted by Israel Airstrikes in Iraq Arab–Israeli conflict Battles involving Israel Cross-border operations into Iraq Mossad operations History of Diyala Governorate Iraq–Israel relations France–Iraq relations France–Israel relations
4191676	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Persian%20War%20%281804%E2%80%931813%29	Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)	The Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813 was one of the many wars between the Persian Empire and Imperial Russia, and began like many of their wars as a territorial dispute. The new Persian king, Fath Ali Shah Qajar, wanted to consolidate the northernmost reaches of his kingdom—modern-day Georgia—which had been annexed by Tsar Paul I several years after the Russo-Persian War of 1796. Like his Persian counterpart, the Tsar Alexander I was also new to the throne and equally determined to control the disputed territories. The war ended in 1813 with the Treaty of Gulistan which ceded the previously disputed territory of Georgia to Imperial Russia, and also the Iranian territories of Dagestan, most of what is nowadays Azerbaijan, and minor parts of Armenia. Origins The origins of the first full scale Russo-Persian War can be traced back to the decision of Tsar Paul to annex Georgia (December 1800) after Erekle II, who had been appointed as ruler of Kartli several years earlier by his ruler Nader Shah, made a plea to Christian Russia in the Treaty of Georgievsk of 1783 to be incorporated into the empire. After Paul's assassination (11 March 1801), the activist policy was continued by his son, Tsar Alexander, aimed at establishing Russian control over the khanates of the eastern Caucasus. In 1803, the newly appointed viceroy of the Caucasus, Paul Tsitsianov, attacked Ganja and captured its citadel on 15 January 1804. Ganja's governor, Javad Khan Qajar, was killed, and a large number of the inhabitants slaughtered. The Qajar ruler, Fath Ali Shah, saw the Russian threat to Armenia, Karabagh, and Azerbaijan not only as a source of instability on his northwestern frontier but as a direct challenge to Qajar authority. Unequal forces The Russians were unable to commit a large portion of their troops to the Caucasus region, because Alexander's attention was continually distracted by simultaneous wars with France, the Ottoman Empire, Sweden and Great Britain. Therefore, the Russians were forced to rely on superior technology, training, and strategy in the face of an overwhelming disparity in numbers. Some estimates put the Persian numerical advantage at five to one. Shah Fath Ali's heir, Abbas Mirza, tried to modernize the Persian army, seeking help from French experts through the Franco-Persian alliance, and then from British experts, in order to address the tactical disparity between the forces. Outbreak of war The war began when Russian commanders Ivan Gudovich and Paul Tsitsianov attacked the Persian settlement of Echmiadzin, the holiest town in Armenia. Gudovich, unsuccessful in the siege of Echmiadzin due to a lack of troops, withdrew to Yerevan, where his siege again failed. Despite these ineffective forays, the Russians held the advantage for the majority of the war, due to superior troops and strategy. Russia's inability, however, to dedicate anything more than 10,000 troops to the campaign allowed the Persians to mount a fairly respectable resistance effort. The Persian troops were of a low grade, mostly irregular cavalry. Holy war and Persian defeat The Persians scaled up their efforts late in the war, declaring jihad, or holy war, on Imperial Russia in 1810. Russia's superior technology and tactics ensured a series of strategic victories. Despite the Persian alliance with Napoleon, who was the ally of Persia's Abbas Mirza, France could provide little concrete direct help. Even when the French were in occupation of Moscow, Russian forces in the south were not recalled but continued their offensive against Persia, culminating in Pyotr Kotlyarevsky's victories at Aslanduz and Lankaran, after the setback in the Battle of Sultanabad, in 1812 and 1813 respectively. Upon the Persian surrender, the terms of the Treaty of Gulistan ceded the vast majority of the previously disputed territories to Imperial Russia. This led to the region's once-powerful khans being decimated and forced to pay homage to Russia. War During this period Russia was mainly dealing with the local khanates which were subject to Persia. Following the bloody capture of Ganja the khans could usually be bullied without too much fighting. The main Persian army intervened twice, once successfully and once unsuccessfully. Significant events include the 1804 capture of Ganja and failure to take Yerevan; the 1805 push east, almost to the Caspian; and the 1806 death of Tsitsianov, capture of the Caspian coast, and start of the Russo-Turkish War. In late 1803 Pavel Tsitsianov demanded the submission of the Ganja Khanate southeast of Georgia, over which Georgia had some nominal claims. He was now no longer unifying Georgia or liberating Christians but moving against territory that was traditionally seen as Muslim and Persian. On 3 January 1804 Ganja was taken with significant slaughter. Abbas Mirza's army arrived too late and retired south. In June, Tsitsianov and 3,000 men marched south toward Echmiadzin in the Yerevan Khanate. They were driven back by Abbas Mirza and 18,000 Persians (?). The Russians then moved east and besieged Yerevan (July–September). The local khan held the citadel, the Russians held the town, and the Persians held the surrounding countryside. Weakened by disease and fighting on half-rations, the Russians withdrew to Georgia, losing more men along the way. In early 1805 the Shoragel sultanate was taken by the Russians. This was a small area at the junction of Georgia, the Yerevan Khanate, and Turkey and included the militarily important town of Gyumri. On 14 May, the Karabakh Khanate submitted to the Russians, and on 21 May the Shaki Khanate did the same. In response to the loss of Karabakh, Abbas Mirza occupied the Askeran Fortress at the mouth of a valley leading from the plain southwest to Shusha, the capital of Karabakh. The Russians responded by sending Koryagin to take Shahbulag Castle. Abbas Mirza marched north and besieged the place. On hearing of the approach of another army under Fath Ali, Koryagin slipped out at night and headed for Shusha. He was caught at the Askeran gorge but not defeated. More Russian troops relieved the blockade of Koryagin and Shusha. Seeing that the main Russian force had pushed far to the southeast, Abbas Mirza made a wide swing north and besieged Ganja. On 27 July, 600 Russian infantry routed his camp at Shamkir. In September, a naval attack on Baku failed. In November, Tsitsianov marched east toward Baku, en route to accepting the submission of the Shirvan Khanate (27 December). On 8 February 1806, he was murdered while accepting the surrender of Baku. Russian honor was restored by Glazenap, who marched from north of the mountains and took Derbent, Quba, and Baku (technically Baku surrendered to Bulgakov). Ivan Gudovich replaced Tsitsianov as viceroy. In December, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia. Troops were moved west to deal with the Turks, a truce was made and Nibolshin was left to guard the frontier. Fighting resumed in 1808 when Russia took Echmiadzrin. Abbas Mirza was defeated south of Lake Shirvan; as a result, Nakhichevan, or some part of it, was occupied. In September 1808, Gudovich attacked Yerevan. The assault failed, withdrawal became necessary and 1,000 men, mostly sick and wounded, froze to death on the retreat. Escape was only possible because Nibolshin and Lissanevich defeated a "vast horde" of Persians. Gudovich resigned and was replaced by Alexander Tormasov. In 1809, Fath Ali was driven back from Gyumri and Abbas Mirza from Ganja. In 1810 Abbas Mirza tried to invade Karabakh but was defeated at Meghri on the Aras River. In early 1812, Persia invaded Karabagh. They occupied Shahbulag Castle, which the Russians later recaptured. They attacked a Russian battalion at "Sultan-Buda" using European-style infantry and a few British officers. After a day of fighting the Russians surrendered. Russia responded to this unusual defeat by moving Pyotr Kotlyarevsky, the hero of Akhalkalaki, from the Turkish to the Persian front. In the summer of 1812, just as Napoleon was preparing to invade Russia, the Russians made peace with the Ottoman Empire and Russian troops in Caucasia turned to Persia. On 19 October, Kotlyarevsky ignored the cautious Ritishchev's orders, crossed the Aras river and routed the Persians at the Battle of Aslanduz. He then crossed the snow-covered Mughan Plain and, after a five-day siege, stormed the newly-built fort of Lankaran. The Russians lost 1000 men, two-thirds of their force. Of the 4000-man Persian garrison, every survivor was bayonetted. Kotlyarevsky was found wounded among a heap of corpses. He was carried half-dead to Tiflis (now Tbilisi) and survived for 39 more years, unfit for further service. A victory at "Karabezouk" completed the discomfiture of the Persians (3 April 1813). News of Napoleon's defeat reached Persia in the spring of 1813. Peace negotiations were already underway and an armistice was made in October. In the Treaty of Gulistan, Persia recognized Russian possession of all the khanates it held and gave up all pretensions to Dagestan and Georgia. The border in the northern part of Talysh was left for later decision. Persia kept Meghri in southwest Karabakh, which the Russians had abandoned as unhealthy and inaccessible from the rest of Karabakh. Thirteen years later, in another Russo-Persian War fought from 1826 to 1828, Persia tried to regain its territory. It was defeated and lost the khanates of Yerevan and Nakhichevan, roughly corresponding to modern Armenia. Anglo-French diplomacy in Persia Although this Russo-Persian War was in many respects a continuation of a struggle for supremacy in Transcaucasia dating back to the time of Peter the Great and Nader Shah, it differed from earlier conflicts between Persia and Russia in that its course came to be affected as much by the diplomatic maneuvering of European powers during the Napoleonic era as by developments on the battlefield. Following the Russian occupation of the various khanates, Fath Ali Shah, strapped for cash and anxious to find an ally, had made a request for British support as early as December 1804. In 1805, however, Russia and Britain allied in the Third Coalition against France, which meant that Britain was not in a position to cultivate its Persian connection at Russian expense and felt it necessary to evade repeated requests from the shah for assistance. As the British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, Charles Arbuthnot, put it in August 1806, To please the Emperor [of Russia], we have thrown away all our influence in Persia This opened the door for France to use Persia to threaten both Russian and British interests. Hoping to forge a tripartite alliance of France, the Ottoman Empire, and Persia, Napoleon sent various envoys to Persia, notably Pierre Amédée Jaubert and Claude Matthieu, Count Gardane, whose diplomatic efforts culminated in the Treaty of Finckenstein, signed on 4 May 1807, under which France recognized Persian claims to Georgia and promised assistance in training and equipping the Persian army. Only two months later, however, Napoleon and Alexander I agreed to an armistice and signed the Treaty of Tilsit (7 July 1807), which effectively rendered the French commitments to Persia untenable, although the French mission did continue to provide some military assistance and tried to mediate a settlement with Russia. The French efforts failed, prompting Gudovich to resume the Siege of Erevan in 1808. The rise of French influence in Persia, viewed as the prelude to an attack on India, had greatly alarmed the British, and the Franco-Russian rapprochement at Tilsit conveniently provided an opportunity for a now isolated Britain to resume its efforts in Persia, as reflected in the subsequent missions of John Malcolm (1807–8) and Harford Jones (1809). According to the preliminary treaty of Tehran arranged by Jones (15 March 1809), Britain agreed to train and equip 16,000 Persian infantry and pay a subsidy of £100,000 should Persia be invaded by a European power, or to mediate if that power should be at peace with Great Britain. Although Russia had been making peace overtures, and Jones had hoped the preliminary agreement would encourage a settlement, these developments strengthened Fath Ali Shah 's determination to continue the war. Anglo-Persian relations warmed even further with the visit of Abu’l-Hasan Khan to London in 1809 and his return to Persia with Gore Ouseley as ambassador and minister plenipotentiary in 1810. Under Ouseley's auspices, the preliminary treaty was converted into the Definitive Treaty of Friendship and Alliance in 1812, which confirmed the earlier promises of military assistance and increased the amount of the subsidy for that purpose to £150,000 . Then, in the third and final twist to this story, Napoleon invaded Russia in June 1812, making Russia and Britain allies once again. Britain, like France after Tilsit, was thus obliged to steer a course between antagonizing Russia and violating its commitments to Persia, with its best option being to broker a settlement of the conflict between the two. The Russians had been periodically interested in finding a negotiated settlement since the setbacks of 1805–6 and as recently as 1810, when Alexander Tormasov, who had replaced Gudovich as commander after his unsuccessful siege of Erevan, and Mirza Bozorg Qaem-magham had sought to arrange an armistice . Yet the Russians were unwilling to make serious concessions in order to end the war, and the Persians were also less than eager to settle since from their point of view the war was not going all that badly. Ouseley, however, realized the awkwardness of having Britain's resources deployed against its Russian ally and that the situation for Persia was likely to worsen once Russia was freed from the struggle with Napoleon. He was thus receptive to Russian requests to act as an intermediary and sought ways to pressure the Qajars into accepting a settlement. He proposed revisions to the Definitive Treaty, scaled back British military involvement (leaving two officers, Charles Christie and Lindesay Bethune, and some drill sergeants with the Persian army), and threatened to withhold payment of the subsidy promised to the Qajars . In February 1812, N. R. Ritischev assumed command of the Russian forces and opened peace negotiations with the Persians. Ouseley and his representative at the talks, James Morier, acted as intermediaries and made various proposals to Rtischev, but they were not accepted . In August, Abbas Mirza resumed hostilities and captured Lankaran. After news arrived that Napoleon had occupied Moscow, the negotiations were suspended (Ramażān 1227/September 1812). Then, on 24 Shawwal 1227/31 October 1812, while Ritischev was away in Tbilisi, the general Peter Kotliarevski launched a surprise night attack on the Persian encampment at Aslanduz, which resulted in the complete rout of the army of Abbas Mirza and the death of one of the British supporting officers (Christie). As it also became increasingly apparent that Napoleon's offensive in Russia had failed disastrously, the Russians were emboldened to pursue a more aggressive campaign in the Caucasus. In early 1813, the Persian fortress at Lankarān fell and its garrison was annihilated, enabling the Russians to occupy most of Talesh again . Although Fath Ali Shah and Abbas Mirza wanted to fight on after these setbacks, they eventually had to yield to Ouseley, who assured the Shah that either the Russians would make territorial concessions or the British would continue the subsidy they had promised. 1813: Treaty of Gulistan Russia fought on two frontiers: against the Ottomans between 1806 and 1812; and against the Persians from 1804 to 1813. Both frontiers were concluded via treaties: the Treaty of Bucharest in 1812 with the Ottoman Empire; and the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813 that lasted until 1826 when Russian troops, acting outside of the control of Tsar Nicholas I, occupied Mirak. Under the Gulistan treaty, Russia was acknowledged as the power in control of the South Caucasus; western and eastern Georgia and the Muslim khanates until Baku and Quba were placed under Russian administration. Assessment and aftermath Although Russia was recognized as a dominant power over the Caucasus, the success of the Treaty of Gulistan was overshadowed by the threat of the Ottomans. The Treaty of Bucharest was in favor of the Ottoman Empire which had claimed the territories that Russia conquered during the war: Poti and Anapa, which were Black Sea port cities, as well as Akhalkalaki. Still, the conditions of sovereignty were comparatively stable in these years. In the complex political map of the South Caucasus, Russia had the means to control the region through defensive lines. According to William Bayne Fisher (et al.): See also Russo-Persian War (1826-1828) Khanates of the Caucasus Notes References Muriel Aiken, Russia and Iran, 1780–1828, 1980 Sources N. Dubrovin. История войны и владычества русских на Кавказе, volumes 4–6. SPb, 1886–88. Further reading Conflicts in 1804 Conflicts in 1805 Conflicts in 1806 Conflicts in 1807 Conflicts in 1808 Conflicts in 1809 Conflicts in 1810 Conflicts in 1811 Conflicts in 1812 Conflicts in 1813 1804 in the Russian Empire 1813 in the Russian Empire 1804 in Iran 1813 in Iran 19th century in Azerbaijan 19th century in Georgia (country) 19th-century military history of the Russian Empire History of Dagestan History of the Caspian Sea Invasions by Russia Invasions of Iran Khanates of the South Caucasus Khanates of the North Caucasus Military history of Azerbaijan Military history of Georgia (country) Military history of Iran Russo-Persian Wars Napoleonic Wars Wars involving Qajar Iran
4191732	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arwa%20al-Sulayhi	Arwa al-Sulayhi	Arwa al-Sulayhi, full name Arwā bint Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Jaʿfar ibn Mūsā aṣ-Ṣulayḥī (, c. 1048–1138, died 22nd Shaban, 532 AH or May 5, 1138 was a long-reigning ruler of Yemen, firstly as the co-ruler of her first two husbands and then as sole ruler, from 1067 until her death in 1138. She was the last of the rulers of the Sulayhid Dynasty and was also the first woman to be accorded the prestigious title of Hujjah in the Isma'ili branch of Shia Islam, signifying her as the closest living image of God's will in her lifetime, in the Ismaili doctrine. She is popularly referred to as As-Sayyidah Al-Ḥurrah (), Al-Malikah Al-Ḥurrah ( or Al-Ḥurratul-Malikah (), and Malikat Sabaʾ Aṣ-Ṣaghīrah (). As female sovereign, Arwa has an almost unique position in history: though there were more female monarchs in the international Muslim world, Arwa and Asma bint Shihab were the only female monarchs in the Muslim Arab world to have had the khutbah, the ultimate recognition of Muslim monarchial status, proclaimed in their name in the mosques. She founded several mosques, the most prominent of which is Queen Arwa Mosque. Arwa was the first queen regnant in the Muslim world. Through her title of hujjah, she is the only Muslim woman to ever wield both political and religious authority in her own right. Her political career can basically be divided into four parts. The first spans the period from her marriage to al-Mukarram Ahmad in 1065 until the death of her mother-in-law Asma in 1074. During this period, there is no evidence that she held any political power. The second begins after Asma's death, and Ahmad began to delegate all power to Arwa at that point until his 1086 death. Third, after his death, Arwa wielded power as queen mother to her son Abd al-Mustansir, and she was also ordered by al-Mustansir to marry Saba' al-Sulayhi (although never consummated) for legitimacy and then was nominally consort even if she held the real power. Finally, after Saba's death in 1097 or 1098, Arwa reigned as sole queen in her own right, with no male nominally in charge. Name The name Arwa () literally means "female ibex". It is also a traditional Muslim name for girls connoting gracefulness, beauty, softness, and liveliness. There is some controversy over whether this was actually her real name - S.M. Stern and Sultan Naji, for example, argue that Arwa's real name was Sayyidah, not Arwa. Stern suggested a possible confusion with a different Sulayhid princess named Arwa, and Naji wrote that she is "wrongly called Arwa". However, Abbas Hamdani says that early Isma'ili sources do in fact call her Arwa, such as Idris Imad al-Din and one version of 'Umara al-Yamani's Tarikh. The name "as-Sayyidah al-Hurrah", or "the noble lady", is used in these texts as an honorific title "qualifying the name Arwa". Hamdani says Arwa was probably known interchangeably by both names during her own lifetime. Samer Traboulsi argues that the names "Sayyidah" and "Sayyidah Hurrah" are "titles used out of respect" and that Arwa was her actual name. Sources There are three main sources for Arwa's life. The first is the Ta'rikh al-Yaman, or "History of Yemen", by the 12th-century Umara al-Yamani. Umara was a Fatimid sympathizer, despite being a Sunni, who settled in Egypt in 1164. His book covered the Sulayhid dynasty and influenced later chroniclers like Taj al-Din al-Yamani, Ali al-Khazraji, and Yahya ibn al-Husayn. The second is the 'Uyun al-Akhbar wa Funun al-Athar, by Idris Imad al-Din, the 19th Tayyibi Isma'ili da'i mutlaq who lived during the 15th century. Volume 7 of this work was dedicated to the religious doctrinal history of the Sulayhids. His work is important because, as a da'i, he had insider access to sources that would have been off-limits for others. Finally, there is the sijillat between the Sulayhids and the Fatimids, which are important as a primary source. The Sijillat al-Mustansiriyya, which comprises 66 sijills that were sent from the Fatimid chancery to the Sulayhids, is the main source for this; it found its way to Gujarat in India. In general, Isma'ili sources have historically been very limited because they have been off-limits to everyone except followers of the da'wah. They are found in Isma'ili libraries throughout Yemen, western India, Iran, and Central Asia but only available to approved adherents. They have also been made available through the Institute of Ismaili Studies in London. This has contributed to some of the obscurity surrounding Arwa and her life. Another contributing factor is that Egyptian (such as Ibn Muyassar, al-Maqrizi, and Ibn Taghribirdi) and Iraqi (such as Ibn al-Athir) historians generally paid little attention to Yemen during the Fatimid era. Life and reign Arwa was born in 1047 or 1048 CE (440 AH) to Ahmad ibn al-Qasim al-Sulayhi and al-Raddah al-Sulayhi. The Sulayhid ruler Ali al-Sulayhi was her paternal uncle. Her father (Ahmad) died while she was young (the exact date is never stated) and her mother remarried 'Amir ibn Sulayman al-Zawahi, a member of an allied tribe who would later become one of Arwa's major political rivals. After her father's death, Arwa was raised in the royal palace under Ali and Asma. The royal couple supposedly realized her intelligence early on and provided her with the best education available. (According to Umara, the Sulayhids in general took pride in providing good education for their women.) In 1065/6 (458 AH), around the age of 18, Arwa was married to her paternal cousin, the wali al-ahd (crown prince) al-Mukarram Ahmad. This marriage was arranged by Ali shortly after his older son and original heir al-A'azz died. As her mahr, or bride wealth, Ali gave Arwa the net yearly revenue from the city of Aden, which amounted to 100,000 dinars. This was paid by the Ma'nid emirs of Aden, but they later suspended its payment when Ali died, only to be resumed when al-Mukarram Ahmad restored Sulayhid authority there. Arwa had four children with al-Mukarram Ahmad: Fatimah (d. 1140), who married Ali b. Saba'; Umm Hamdan (d. 1122), who married her cousin Ali al-Zawahi; and two sons Muhammad and Ali who both died in childhood around 1087. As queen consort In 1067, Ali al-Sulayhi was killed by the Najahid ruler of Zabid, Sa'id. Queen Asma was taken prisoner in Zabid along with several other women. Al-Mukarram Ahmad succeeded Ali as both king and da'i, bringing Arwa to the new rank of queen consort. Local rulers across Yemen were rising up in defiance of Sulayhid authority, hoping to take advantage of the power vacuum after Ali's death. Ahmad spent the next few years campaigning to try and reassert his authority, which he eventually succeeded at doing. According to Shahla Haeri and Taef El-Azhari, there is no evidence that Arwa was ever in a position of political or religious authority during this period. According to Samer Traboulsi, however, al-Mukarram's absence during his continuous campaigning would have given Arwa a chance to play a political role. The role of Asma bint Shihab at this point is disputed, as is her influence on Arwa. According to Fatema Mernissi, Asma had in effect been co-ruler of Yemen alongside her husband Ali during his life, and then was the power behind the throne during al-Mukarram's nominal reign. Taef El-Azhari, however, says that this assertion is not supported by contemporary sources - while they do portray Asma as a highly esteemed individual, there is only one instance of her actually setting policy: in 1063, when she got her brother As'ad appointed as deputy over the Tihama region. As a result, El-Azhari says, Asma was probably not a major influence on Arwa's political career. On the other hand, Delia Cortese and Simonetta Calderini suggest that Umara's account of Asma convincing her son to wage war on another tribe indicates that she did wield political influence during his reign. They also point to Ibn Khaldun, who "candidly" wrote that Asma was the one who was really in charge during her son's early reign. Meanwhile, Shahla Haeri says that Asma was "in charge of political affairs and governance, controlling sensitive strategic information and managing all state and financial matters" until her death, and that Arwa "might have learned from Asma simply by observing her or assisting her in her various official duties, given the close relationship between the two women and the ease with which Arwa replaced her mother-in-law after her death". 1074–1084: regency for al-Mukarram Ahmad Asma died in 1074/5 (467 CE), and Ahmad became bedridden due to paralysis soon after. Based on Umara's account, Ahmad's paralysis (or paraplegia) may have been caused by wounds sustained in battle at Zabid against the Najahids at the start of his reign. While Ahmad remained the de jure ruler of Yemen, Arwa became the de facto sovereign as he delegated all power to her. According to Husain Hamdani (1931), Ahmad delegated responsibility to Arwa because he "honored the counsel of his wife and had great faith in her shrewdness and intelligence". The 12th-century account by Umara al-Yamani, however, attributes this decision to Ahmad having "given himself up to the pleasures of music and wine" and wanting to pass off the responsibility of governing to his wife. In Umara's version, Arwa was reluctant to accept this authority, saying "a woman who is [still] desirable in bed is not suitable for running a state". Cortese and Calderini say that "while this statement is presented as an expression of her personal reservations, one suspects that it was indeed constructed by the panegyrist Umara as a device to praise her modesty by showing her reluctance to be thrown into the spotlight." Umara may have also been uncomfortable with this gender role reversal and needing to find a culturally acceptable rationalization for it. In practice, whether Umara's description of her reluctance is true or not, Arwa seems to have had "few, if any, qualms about her gender or the extent of her political authority". Not long after becoming regent, she made two important decisions. The first was moving the capital from Sanaa to Dhu Jibla, further south. Ostensibly this was for medical reasons on Ahmad's behalf. Most likely, however, the decision to relocate was made because the Sulayhids wanted a better capital than Sanaa, "where Sulayhid authority was being eroded". Arwa marched in person at the head of an army to Dhu Jibla, where she enlarged the city and supervised personally the construction of the new Dar al-'Izz palace. She would reside here for most of the year, while al-Mukarram would reside in the nearby citadel of al-Ta'kar. The second decision she made was the bold move to have the khutbah proclaimed in her name, after those of the caliph and her husband. This is the first time the khutbah was ever said in a woman's name. In contrast to her mother-in-law, Queen Asma, Arwa did not appear unveiled when she attended councils as Asma had famously done. The reason for this was reported because she was much younger than her mother-in-law, it would have potentially been more scandalous in her case to follow that example. However, although she was veiled, she still attended state councils in person and thus mixed with men, and refused to conduct the meetings hidden by a screen. In 1075 she made a move against the Najahid leader Sa'id al-Ahwal, leading to "the mother of all battles", as Umara described it. The Najahids were devastated, and Arwa had Sa'id's head displayed directly under her room's window at the palace at Dhu Jibla. This was both to avenge Ali's death and to "show her strength and determination domestically, in addition to eliminating the Najahids in her western territories". Arwa's extensive correspondence with the Fatimid chancery is first attested during this period, in the form of three sijills addressed to her between 1078 and 1080. The first (#44) is dated to August 1078, the second (#20) is from April 1080, and the third (#21) is undated but probably was also sent in 1080. Another, sijill #51, was sent to her from the Fatimid queen mother Rasad in 1078. These sijills do not call Arwa "queen", but they do give her extensive titles such as "deputy of the commander of the faithful". The first and third don't even mention Ahmad, the nominal ruler, indicating that the Fatimids at this point recognized Arwa as the de facto sovereign over Yemen. Important members of Arwa's administration during the 1070s included the qadi 'Imran al-Yami and Abu al-Futuh ibn As'ad. Her mother's husband 'Amir al-Zawahi and her own husband's cousin Saba' ibn Ahmad al-Sulayhi, who both went on to play an important role in the 1080s, are not mentioned in historical chronicles during the 1070s. They likely were already important during this period but the chronicles simply do not mention them yet. 1084–1097/8: regency for Abd al-Mustansir and marriage to Saba' ibn Ahmad Al-Mukarram Ahmad died at al-Ta'kar in October 1084. He left a will stating that his cousin Saba' should succeed him. Arwa concealed the news of her husband's death and wrote to the Fatimids to request the appointment of her 10-year-old son Abd al-Mustansir Ali as the official new Sulayhid ruler. The reply came in a sijill dated to July 1085 and described Arwa as "the one on whom the caliph would depend to guard the da'wah, and to loyally serve Fatimid affairs". This was an especially precarious transitional period, and some tribal leaders used the chance to challenge Arwa's authority. Aden and other areas again seceded from Sulayhid rule. This period witnessed the most intensive correspondence between the Fatimids and Sulayhids, with as many as 11 sijills sent concerning the succession of Abd al-Mustansir. At about this time, the Fatimid caliph issued an unprecedented decree that raised Arwa to the rank of hujjah - the highest rank in the Isma'ili hierarchy after the caliph himself. This decree, unfortunately, only survives in a quotation from Idris Imad al-Din. It said Arwa had been given this rank because she had received the "wisdom and science of the imam" by some of the da'wah's most esteemed members (probably referring to Lamak ibn Malik). As a result, she was now to be considered a model religious figure whose example should be followed by the Isma'ili community. Whether Arwa was hujjah in religious matters or solely a political figurehead is debated. Husain Hamdani writes that Arwa was given full authority over both spiritual and political matters, while Delia Cortese and Simonetta Calderini say that al-Mustansir's decision must have been based on solid theological ground. On the other hand, Samer Traboulsi argues that her role as hujjah was essentially symbolic and she had no role in actually running the da'wah in Yemen - that was done by Lamak ibn Malik. There is no evidence that women were actually ever allowed to hold any positions within the da'wah outside of her unique case. Her appointment was political, rather than religious, and was motivated by the Fatimids wanting to promote stability in the region by authorizing Arwa (who was already an experienced political figure). Abbas Hamdani similarly says that Arwa's "institutional authority was also more concentrated on 'the temporal side'", and Farhad Daftary says that "the term hujjah was also used in a more limited sense". Whatever the exact nature of her hujjah-ship was, Arwa now ruled Yemen as regent for her son Abd al-Mustansir, with Lamak in charge of administering the da'wah. She also empowered Saba', who held the title amir al-ajall, to oversee the security of the Sulayhid state. She also put him in charge of her sons' education. Saba' was unsuccessful in his new task as a military leader and his army was defeated in 1086 by a Najahid-Zaydi coalition. Not long after this defeat, Arwa's stepfather, 'Amir ibn Sulayman al-Zawahi, rose in revolt against Saba'. The sources are silent about the causes for this conflict but it was probably over control of the Sulayhid state - as a woman, Arwa was seen as unfit to rule. Arwa sent a letter to al-Mustansir explaining the precarious situation in Yemen. Her letter has not survived, but the sijill al-Mustansir sent in reply has. In it - the only one of his 66 sijills to be directed to the general public - he admonished the people to obey Arwa's authority, because he had only given her authority once he was sure of her wisdom and piety, and to disobey her was to disobey the imam himself. Soon afterwards, the civil war ended and Saba' and 'Amir were reconciled. Around 1090, Abd al-Mustansir died suddenly. According to Samer Traboulsi, Arwa's younger son Muhammad had already died a short while earlier, leaving Arwa as the sole ruler. According to Taef El-Azhari, on the other hand, Muhammad inherited his brother's nominal throne. In any case, Saba' started to demand his right to be king at this point and proposed marriage to Arwa. According to some chronicles, Saba's proposal led to a military standoff with Arwa as she refused his proposal. El-Azhari considers this "highly improbable" but describes how it reflects her power. The supposed confrontation happened when Saba' quickly headed to Dhu Jibla with his army, only to be refused entry to the palace when he arrived. He waited outside for a while but eventually realized that Arwa was not going to let him marry her, so he ended up returning to his own fortress in embarrassment. Whether this story is true or not, Saba's marriage proposal ended up getting official Fatimid support. Al-Mustansir gave this proposal his blessing and sent an ustadh (a high court official) to inform Arwa of his orders that she marry Saba'. Arwa had no choice but to obey the imam's command and agreed. The marriage contract was concluded, but it's doubtful that it was ever consummated. This event indicates a shift in Fatimid attitudes towards Arwa. After the deaths of her sons, they were no longer willing to back her - perhaps they thought a woman should not be in power for that long - and they planned for her to be married to a man, Saba', who would then hold actual power. His marriage to Arwa would help give his rule legitimacy among the local sultans and tribal shaykhs. Al-Mustansir died in 1094 without a clear successor, leading to a conflict over the Fatimid succession between his sons al-Musta'li and Nizar. The mother of al-Musta'li sent Arwa an epistle in 1096 (sijill #35), seeking support for her son's rule. Al-Musta'li himself followed suit soon after. Realizing the strength of al-Musta'li's political position, Arwa pragmatically chose to support him. Notably, the Fatimids never sent any sijills to Saba', even though he was nominally king at this point, indicating that Arwa still held de facto power in Yemen. 1097/8–1138: independent rule Saba' died in 1098 (491 AH) and 'Amir died a year later, in 1099 (492 AH). Arwa was thus freed of her two main political rivals, and she was now the uncontested monarch of Yemen in her own right, without any need for marriage or sons. Arwa was publicly named al-malika, or "queen" - the first time this had ever happened in the Islamic world. This time, the Fatimids appear to have accepted Arwa as sovereign. Chroniclers like 'Umara al-Yamani or Idris Imad al-Din never mention any later Fatimid decrees expressing that they were upset with Arwa remaining in power this way, or that they objected to her policies. According to Taef El-Azhari, the reason for their acquiescence this time is because they were already preoccupied with the Nizari-Musta'li schism and, after 1097, with the First Crusade. However, with the deaths of Saba' and 'Amir - as well as Lamak, who had died at about the same time - Arwa was left without some of her most important advisors. She appointed the loyal amir al-Mufaddal ibn Abi'l-Barakat al-Himyari to succeed Saba' as army commander and to guard the royal treasures at al-Ta'kar. Al-Mufaddal was antagonistic towards Saba's family and may have been responsible for alienating the rulers of Aden and Sanaa, who now broke away from Sulayhid rule. Al-Mufaddal led various campaigns throughout Yemen in order to restore Arwa's authority. He was most successful in bringing the Zuray'ids of Aden into submission, who agreed to pay an annual tribute of 50,000 dinars (half of what they had paid previously). Sanaa, on the other hand, broke away for good under the Hamdanids, supported by the family of Qadi 'Imran al-Yami. In 1109, the ruler of the Tihama, Fatik, died. His successor, al-Mansur, was just an infant, and the region was plunged into civil war. Some local commanders went to al-Mufaddal and offered to pay a quarter of the Tihama's annual revenues to Arwa as tribute in return for military support. In 1110, while al-Mufaddal was away campaigning in the Tihama, there was a coup at al-Ta'kar against the deputy governor he had appointed there. Led by a group of Sunni jurists and backed by the Khawlan tribe, the coup succeeded in taking control of the citadel. Al-Mufaddal went to try and retake al-Ta'kar, but he died on the way. When Arwa heard of this, she marched in person at the head of an army - a rare occurrence - to al-Ta'kar, where she negotiated with the coup leaders and successfully brought al-Ta'kar back under her control. After al-Mufaddal's death, Sulayhid control over Yemen weakened. Aden broke away again, and at one point even al-Ta'kar was lost again for a while. Arwa appointed al-Mufaddal's cousin, As'ad ibn Abi'l-Futuh, to succeed him as deputy, but he does not seem to have been very effective. In 1119, Arwa, now 65 years old, wrote to the Fatimids requesting assistance. The Fatimid vizier al-Afdal Shahanshah responded by sending Ibn al-Muwaffaq ibn Najib al-Dawla, who Arwa appointed commander of the army. The goal of al-Muwaffaq's mission is debated. According to Samer Traboulsi, he was sent to bring Arwa closer under Fatimid control. According to Husain Hamdani, on the other hand, he had been sent solely to assist her. Al-Muwaffaq was able to restore Sulayhid authority over several key castles, but he was unable to retake any major cities like Aden, Sanaa, or Zabid. In 1123, the new Fatimid vizier al-Ma'mun sent 400 Armenian archers and 700 knights to reinforce him. However, the tribal leaders loyal to Arwa were expressing "some discomfort at his presence". Meanwhile, al-Muwaffaq's victories had apparently inflated his ego, and he tried to stage a coup against Arwa and replace her as leader - he thought she was "old and feeble-minded and needed to step down". Arwa quickly led a counterattack and besieged his soldiers; meanwhile, she ordered "large sums of Egyptian money to be distributed" to the tribal leaders who were on bad terms with al-Muwaffaq. She apparently spread rumors that the money had come from al-Muwaffaq himself. Al-Muwaffaq's own mercenaries were upset and abandoned him, and he was forced to submit to Arwa. He was arrested and kept prisoner in Dhu Jibla for an unknown length of time. The caliph al-Amir ended up recalling al-Muwaffaq. Arwa sent al-Muwaffaq back to Egypt by boat - in a wooden cage. On the same boat, she sent her trusted secretary al-Azdi as an envoy to apologize to the caliph for arresting al-Muwaffaq, along with precious gifts. They never made it to Egypt, as the ship sank on the way. Arwa was accused of paying the ship's captain to scupper it, but according to Taef El-Azhari this is unlikely because al-Azdi was also on the ship. Religious policy Arwa was given the highest rank in the Yemeni dawah, that of Hujjat, by Imām Al-Mustansir Billah in 1084. This was the first time that a woman had ever been given such a status in the whole history of Islam. Under her rule, Shi'ite da'is were sent to western India. Owing to her patronage of missions, an Ismāʿīlī community was established in Gujarat in the second half of the 11th century, which still survives there today as Dawoodi Bohra, Sulaymani and Alavi. In the 1094 schism, Arwa supported Al-Musta'li to be the rightful successor to Al-Mustansir Billah. Due to the high opinion in which Arwa was held in Yemen and western India, these two areas followed her in regarding Imām al-Musta'li as the new Fatimid Caliph. Through her support of Imām at-Tāyyīb she became head of a new grouping that became known as the Taiyabi Ismaili. Her enemies in Yemen in turn gave their backing to Al-Hafiz but they were unable to remove Sayyadah Arwa from power. The Taiyabi Ismaili believe that Imām al-Āmir bi'Aḥkāmill-Lāh sent a letter to Arwa commissioning her to appoint a vicegerent for his infant son, Imām Taiyyab. In accordance with this wish, she appointed Zoeb bin Moosa as Da'i al-Mutlaq, the vicegerent of the secluded at-Tāyyīb Abū l-Qāsim. The line of succession continues down to today through the various Taiyabi Duat. Hafizi Ismāʿīlīsm, the following of al-Hafiz, intimately tied to the Fatimid regime in Cairo, disappeared soon after the collapse of the Caliphate in 1171 and the Ayyubid invasion of southern Arabia in 1173. But the Taiyabi dawah, initiated by Arwa, survived in Yemen with its headquarters remaining in Haraz. Due to the close ties between Sulayhid Yemen and Gujarat, the Taiyibi cause was also upheld in western India and Yemen, which gradually became home to the largest population of Taiyabis, known there as Sulaymani, Dawoodi Bohra and Alavi Bohra. The fact that Arwa had been chosen as hujjah necessitated theological explanations for why the infallible imam would choose a woman for this position. One source is the Ghāyat al-Mawālīd by al-Sultan al-Khattab, a high-ranking da'i who played an important political and military role in the last years of Arwa's rule. Al-Khattab presented an original argument - albeit one grounded in existing Isma'ili theological principles - to justify Arwa in this role. According to him, a person's actual sex is not determined by the bodily "envelope" they physically have. Rather, their sex can only be discerned through their actions. It was possible, then, for there to be people who occupied the higher, or "male", level despite having the physical form of a woman; such as Fatimah or Khadijah. Therefore, he wrote that it was unfair to consider those with a female body envelope as spiritually inferior. A dhakar is spiritually perfect and has reached the highest levels of spiritual knowledge, while an unthā is on a lower level and can still progress with help of a dhakar. Once reaching the highest level of religious knowledge, he would immediately become a dhakar even if having the bodily envelope of a women. Arwa, he argued, had done just that since al-Mustansir's appointment of her as hujjah was because she had reached such a level of wisdom, so there was no contradiction between her sex and her rank. Al-Khattab said that a person must be judged on their knowledge and not based on physical appearance. Al-Khattab was basically claiming that Arwa was male in essence. Building works and economic policy In Sana'a, Arwa had the grand mosque expanded, and the road from the city to Samarra improved. In Jibla, she had a new Palace of Queen Arwa and the eponymous mosque constructed. She is also known to have built numerous schools throughout her realm. Arwa improved the economy, taking an interest in supporting agriculture. Death and legacy Arwa died in 1138 at the age of 90. She was buried in the mosque that she had had built at Dhu Jibla. Her tomb has since become a place of pilgrimage for Muslims of various communities, both local and foreign, although they are not always aware of her Isma'ili background. The Queen Arwa University in Sana'a is named after her. With Arwa's death, the Sulayhid dynasty effectively came to an end. She gave all her wealth to the Tayyibi da'wah when she died, and although some members of the Sulayhids held on to scattered fortresses in the decades after her death, they were relatively insignificant. During her own lifetime, Arwa's political role may have inspired another Yemeni woman, Alam al-Malika, to assume power as queen. Alam had been the concubine of the Najahid ruler Mansur until his assassination in 1125; she then ruled as regent for her infant son Fatik. Later queens in Yemen may have also been influenced by Arwa's legacy to take an active role in political affairs, such as the Ayyubid queen mother Umm al-Nasir in 1215, and later the Rasulid princess al-Dar al-Shamsi (d. 1295), who defended the Rasulid capital of Zabid after her father al-Mansur Umar died and was later made queen of Zabid by her brother al-Muzaffar Yusuf I. Fatema Mernissi has lamented that Arwa, along with her mother-in-law Asma, has remained obscure both in the Muslim world and to Western scholars. Samer Traboulsi notes that, as an Isma'ili woman from Yemen, Arwa was a "triply marginalized" figure who was neglected by Muslim historians; and that if not for Ali's sack of Mecca, the medieval Islamic world would not have even heard of the Sulayhids. Personality Historical sources "are unanimous in their praise" of Arwa's intelligence, charisma, and political acumen. Idris Imad al-Din, for example, described her as "a woman of great piety, integrity, and excellence, perfect intelligence and erudition, surpassing men even". Umara describes her as "well-read and, in addition to the gift of writing, [she] possessed a retentive memory stored with the chronology of past time." He also described her knowledge of the Qur'an, her memory of poetry and history, and her skill in glossing and interpreting texts. In modern times, Farhad Daftary has characterized Arwa as having had an independent personality. Historical sources also describe her physical appearance, although Shahla Haeri wonders whether that many people would have seen her in person. Umara described her as "of fair complexion tinged with red; tall, well-proportioned, but inclined to stoutness, perfect in beauty of features, with a clear-sounding voice". According to Haeri, these accounts would have relied heavily on oral tradition; El-Azhari says these "are based on her later status, thus praising her personality and wide knowledge, but without providing further detail." In Bohra history See also Mustali Sulaymanis Taiyabi Notes References Sayyida Hurra. "The Ismāʿīlī Sulayhid Queen of Yemen by Farhad Daftary"; contained in the book Women in the Medieval Islamic World, edited by Gavin R. G. Hambly Monarchs of Yemen Arab queens Sulayhid dynasty 1040s births 1138 deaths Yemeni Ismailis Musta'li Isma'ilism 11th-century women rulers 11th-century regents Female regents Dawoodi Bohras 12th-century women rulers 11th century in Yemen 12th century in Yemen 11th-century Arab people 12th-century Arab people 11th-century Ismailis 12th-century Ismailis 11th-century Yemeni people 12th-century Yemeni people Queens regnant in Asia

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