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is it possible to 3d print a working lion battery? | there's an article in /r/science about some korean dudes who essentially ran graphite/carbon trails through the cathode of a battery, greatly speeding up the charging times, and i was wondering if it would be possible to use a 3d printer to print out an entire battery with channels of graphite/carbon woven throughout. but really, can you even print a working battery? or do the polymers/glues used to form the print out interfere with the chemistry that makes a battery work? thanks! | i'm very skeptical of their results and there is almost certainly something we aren't being told. one of the greatest limiting factors in battery charging is the rate of ion transfer, which won't be aided by additional electric conductivity. one of the major causes of battery degradation is due to fracturing of individual electrode particles. this fracturing is induced by large ion gradients and will only be made worse through higher charging rates. i would be curious to see how their cycle performance holds up, though i suspect that it degrades rapidly. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why did mendeleev swap tellurium and iodine around? | because even though tellurium has a higher atomic mass than iodine, he was also sorting them by chemical properties. tellurium didn’t fit well with the other halogens, like chlorine and bromine, but iodine did. so he placed iodine after tellurium, confident that one of their atomic masses was just measured wrong. of course, the masses were pretty much correct, and he should’ve sorted by atomic number, but they didn’t know about protons yet. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can someone help me understand a little better what's happening in this video? (amoeba eats two paramecia) | _url_0_ it looks like the amoeba is eating and digesting two other single celled organisms. why do they react like that? is it just some sort of simple nervous system that detects they are being killed? do we know what the core reason is for a natural response to fight it like that in a single cell? | they are responding to noxious stimuli. think of it as a *very* simplistic flight response. they have receptors on their surface that detect things that are damaging them or can damage them. for example, they are possibly detecting their membranes being degraded by the amoebas actions (i don't know specifically what the factors would be in this case...not really my field). basically, what happens is that if a noxious stimulus is detected, the organism will bolt in a random direction, and then bolt in another random direction as long as the stimulus is still there. the time between direction shifts is determined by the degree of noxious stimulus present. that is, concentration of the molecule being detected, the degree of damage, etc. because these are in a confined space, and the degree of stimulus is steady (or in this case probably increasing), they will change direction more and more rapidly, which makes them look "panicked". they aren't "fighting" the amoeba, they are trying to get away from it. | 13 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pvOz4V699gk"
] | [] | [
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] |
at what altitude is a country's borders no longer valid? | i understand borders in a horizontal sense (two dimensional), but what about vertically (three dimensional)? for example.. if i were to hop on a rocket toward space, at what point would i officially leave the country? | according to [this](_url_0_) there is no internationally agreed upper boundary. suggestions range from 30km to 160km. the united states recognizes anyone who has been above 50km to be an astronaut. basically it's just wherever you consider the boundary between the atmosphere and space to be. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airspace",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airspace#Vertical_boundary"
] | [
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would it be possible to transplant skin from your back onto your belly to get a kangaroo-like pouch? | since you have your answer (yes), i am going to shut this post down. it is only going to generate nonsense answers that will be a nightmare to moderate. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
what causes that heart-broken feeling in your gut? | so, speaking as someone who just got totally rejected by a girl, i felt this "kick-in-the-balls" feeling in my stomach. what causes this feeling, biologically speaking? is there any evolutionary sense in having this reaction? | the [vagus nerve](_url_0_) can cause that 'sinking' feeling in your stomach, chest, and even throat. it has a lot to do with stress and anxiety. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vagus_nerve"
] | [
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] |
is the negative energy in the dirac sea actually negative energy or is it a neat accounting tool? | the **entire dirac sea** is a "neat accounting tool". we now have more modern ways to interpret the "negative energy" solutions to the dirac equation (they are antiparticles with positive energies). | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can you use the principals of phase cancellation with light? | i know that light both behaves as a particle and a wave in a way that personally is hard for me to visualize. with sound-waves you can use phase cancellation to generate an inverted matching wave that cancels out the noise and, i assume, results in the energy waves that collapse into some kind of thermal energy. would it be possible to use the concept of phase cancellation with a beam of light, in order to remove the wave-like properties of light? if so, what would this do to the photons if the wave-like nature of their existence was canceled out and they only had particle-like properties? thank you for your insight reddit! | yes. this is the essence of the double slit experiment. however, this is entirely a wave phenomenon. it doesn't remove the wave-like properties, it just gives a periodicity in the amplitude of the wave that has destructive minima. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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huge crack appears in africa. why? | a huge crack has appeared in africa and could be the continent beginning to split in two. source: _url_0_ this is pretty crazy that suddenly land can just rip apart like this on a large scale. i understand it happening overtime with earthquakes and i understand when it involves ice. but this just seems crazy. has anything like this happened over the past several hundred years or is this a first in thousands of years? what could be the cause other than heavy rain mixed with there being a fault? can this happen anywhere or only where there is a fault line? could a new fault line occur in a new part of the world and if so how quickly as this crack appeared almost instantly? | not so crazy. africa's great rift valley and other features like it have become well studied examples of plate tectonics in action since the theory of continental drift emerged and gained scientific support. i suspect things like this is making the rounds because africa is beginning to develop and urbanize to the point where it isn't just scientists who have to travel hundreds of miles to remote locations to see such things anymore. as countries like kenya and others in the affected area build more roads, cities, farms, etc., i suspect you'll see greater attention paid to the effect on people of the region rather than the environment or wildlife alone. | 11 | [] | [
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/world-africa-43501954/huge-crack-opens-in-kenya-s-rift-valley"
] | [
"http://azgs.arizona.edu/center-natural-hazards/earth-fissures-ground-subsidence"
] | [
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] |
how does a portuguese man o' war reproduce if it is made up of different zooids? | man o' wars (men o' war?), like all siphonophores, are colonial groups of zooids that are all genetically identical. the zooids within a colony reproduce asexually by either budding or splitting in half without separating entirely afterwards. they can also reproduce sexually through specialized gonozooids, which produce gametes. in mans o' war specifically, each colony will only produce either male or female gametes, but some siphonophores produce both within the same colony, though an individual gonozooid will only produce one kind ([source](_url_1_)). [here](_url_0_)'s a good brief overview of siphonophore biology for some more info. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(09)00675-7.pdf",
"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790318300460"
] | [
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|
in this gigapixel image of the moons north pole, i found an almost perfect line of rock. how could this happen? | link to large moon image : _url_0_ link to gallery showing what i see and where it is : _url_1_ my guess #1 (ianageologist) : tall column of rock fell over? my guess #2 : asteroid hit at just the right angle to splash a single radius of rock in a perfect line? theres nothing else like it in the vicinity, this catches the eye. | that's not a line of rocks, it's a line of impact craters, most likely from a comet or asteroid that broke apart before impact. there's no scale on those images, but based on the overlaid latitude grid, that line of craters subtends about the same distance as one degree of latitude, so it's about 30 km long. these features are called [crater chains](_url_0_). some comets and asteroids are thought to be very loosely held together, and if they pass too close to the moon they can be broken up into many smaller pieces due to tidal forces. these pieces all stay in pretty much the same orbit, but with very small variations, and those variations tend to spread them out in a line on the same orbital plane. if their trajectory leads to an impact with the surface, you have many small pieces impacting along the plane of their orbit as the moon moves beneath them, resulting in a chain of impact craters. | 22 | [] | [
"http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/gigapan/",
"http://imgur.com/a/6Bd3I#0"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crater_chain"
] | [
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] |
what is the difference between "apparent power" and "real power? | i know that volt-amperes are different yet similar to watts and i know when one is used over the other. but what is the actual difference? | take an ideal capacitor and apply an ac voltage to it. current flows through the capacitor, but no work is done (not even heat - remember it's an ideal capacitor). if you were to look at the waveforms for current and voltage, you would find that they are not in phase. this is "apparent power" - voltage and current but 0 watts. in contrast, with real power the voltage and current are in phase and there is work done (ie - heat, light, or some other form of energy output). you can have some combination of real and apparent power. va is a measure of the two combined (it's literally just volts*amps, with no regard to phase). | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how were the first supercontinents formed? | i was just reading about pangaea and the supercontinents before it. was there a particular event that caused land to rise from the water? | the land did not rise from the water, per se. the land masses had already begun to form by the time there were oceans on earth's surface. very close to earth's formation, it was a giant ball of undifferentiated molten material. as it began to cool, that material started to separate based on its density, with the heaviest stuff sinking to the planet's center and the lighter stuff bobbing to the top. the lightest stuff is what makes up the continental landmasses. those landmasses aren't static, however. earth's crust is fragmented into a bunch of tectonic plates that sit atop the outer mantle. this mantle is somewhat plasticky (think a wad of silly putty), and so it flows in a manner of speaking, dragging the tectonic plates around with it. sometimes the plates collide, scraping off bits of continental crust onto each other. when all of the continental crust just happens to be accreted together at one time, we call the landmass a "supercontinent." we have good evidence that there have been seven such supercontinents in earth's history. pangaea was the most recent, occurring about 300 million years ago. it split apart as the tectonic plates underneath it started flowing away from each other, ripping the continent asunder and creating the atlantic ocean. source: second year geology student. | 44 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do superstitions and phobias cause unfortunate events on friday the 13th? | friday the 13th has a reputation for being unlucky, but is there any evidence of self-fulfilling prophecy? i'm wondering if there is any empirical evidence showing that peoples' phobias actually cause bad things to happen. an example of this could be anxiety caused by the superstition distracting people from focusing on potentially dangerous tasks. | the only abnormal unfortunate events come from people worrying about the bad luck. the reason that friday the 13th is considered an unlucky day is because [in a dawn raid on friday, 13 october 1307, jacques de molay and sixty of his [knights] templar brothers were arrested under orders from king phillip "the fair" of france, and later executed.](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.google.ca/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=web&cd=1&sqi=2&ved=0CCkQ0gIoAjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FJacques_de_Molay%23Arrest_and_charges&ei=d6mIT7a3A-ff0QGIwOz5CQ&usg=AFQjCNHJ4GBghsaqaY72zJ5MbdLp-nJUaQ&sig2=MxhR9nOVsWyPmFHMIU5YQg"
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does a windup toy weigh more when wound? | i was looking up another question and came across a comment claiming that it does. is this true? if so why, i can't wrap my mind around why this would be. | it does yes, although not by much. this is a consequence of special relativity. in special relativity, mass is the energy that a system has in the reference frame where it is at rest (up to a multiplicative constant, to make the units work out). consequently since winding up the toy increases its potential energy, it also increases the mass of the toy by a small amount. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's the advantage of using multiple cells with a lower voltage over one higher voltage cell? | sometimes it's not an advantage, but required in order to hit the required voltages. lead acid batteries like in a car, have 6 cells in them. each cell puts out +2 volts, so you need 6 of them in series to reach 12v. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what are some good projects/experiments that have something to do with optics? | for my optics undergraduate course i am supposed to do a short 10 minute speech or demonstration about something that has to do with optics. i was hoping reddit might have some good ideas for me. here's an example in case i didn't explain the assignment well enough. last year a student illustrated how fiber optic cables worked by using a laser directed into a stream of water. similar to this video i found. _url_0_ | does it have to be a demonstration? if a presentation will do, you could talk about one of the effects of nonlinear optics. wikipedia describes this topic well: _url_1_ however a classroom demonstration probably won't be possible, because a pulsed/high-intensity laser is required. the theory is very interesting to discuss, however, and depending on what level the class is at, it may be a perfect generalization of what you've already learned. second or third harmonic generation might be the easiest to discuss. if you're looking for a practical demonstration and have some cash, consider buying one of these: _url_0_ they are a great demonstration that light carries momentum (but make sure you explain why the thing rotates the wrong way!). they might be hard to find, though. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_S1LNR-ZPaw"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_radiometer",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_optics"
] | [
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] |
say, i have two hollow oranges. one is normal shaped one is crumpled up, which has a stronger gravitational pull? | my boyfriend says they're the same. i say it's the crumpled one because of density. how do i explain why? | gravitational strength depends on the mass of the object. both oranges have the same mass. also a crumpled orange will have peaks and troughs and so will even out to a normal shape. so the density will be the same. therefore the gravitational strength will be the same. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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care to tell us what's your best experiment? | i'm sure you have your own share of good, bad, hilarious or crazy experiment back in the day. i'm just curious, and while you're at it, tell us what is your advice on someone attempting to replicate/doing similar experiment. the 'experiment' can be practical field tests, paper researchs, or industrial (if it's possible). thanks! | the best experiments are the accidental ones. i was growing up mesenchymal stem cells on a few different substrates to check for apoptosis. i set up an experiment to run on a friday, but then realized i had tickets to see reel big fish that day. they put on one hell of a live show, go see them. anyway, being a responsible researcher, i left my experiments in the incubator all weekend without feeding them. i went to go throw them out on monday, and figured i'd take a look at them to see what tragedy had befallen. they were all lining up and forming spikes off to the sides. i stained them for some blood vessel markers, and they lit up like the sun, for one of the prettiest microscope pictures i've gotten. [here's one of the images](_url_0_), before i messed with levels or anything cute like that. the green is blood vessel markers, the blue is the nucleus. turns out i'd accidentally created blood vessels. so, when in doubt, neglect your experiments. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/WRfE6"
] | [
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why don't cuts cause embolisms? | surface tension and blood pressure. even if your blood were at atmospheric pressure (heart not beating, etc.), it would still be hard for gaseous air to get into tiny capillaries full of liquid. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do you determine the maximum pressure a reaction will halt at? | what effect does pressure have on a non-gaseous reaction? say you have reactant a which is a liquid and reactant b which is a solid (like sodium and water), is there an environment, say a super pressure vessel, in which the sodium will no longer react? is there a way to plot those kinetics (reaction rate vs pressure) and/or calculate the maximum pressure? | well, as the previous poster suggested , this is obviously a bigger deal for gas phase reactions. in liquids and solids, the effects of pressure aren't so large (because the energy changes should scale with v*deltap, and the molecular volume or density of solids is much much lower than gases). however, it doesn't mean that there is no effect, particularly at high pressures, appreciable chemical potential changes (which is actually the driving force for reaction, not simply concentration as the previous poster suggested). you can see here _url_0_ that ice has many stable phases at different pressures, each which may have a different reaction rate (with whatever you may be reacting with). tldr, solids do have some dependence on pressure but it is pretty weak. temperature is a much more important factor | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phase_diagram_of_water.svg"
] | [
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] |
are "redundant systems" (like having two kidneys) actually evolutionarily useful? | a followup question to _url_0_. how often is it - that an organism actually loses function of one kidney in its reproductive lifespan without dying? before the era of medicine, a disabled kidney would most likely undergo necrosis, which would result in the death of an organism. furthermore, the type of injury that would disable a kidney is also the type of injury that would harm a lot of other bodily systems, and would probably severely reduce the fitness of the organism (interestingly enough - there is less redundancy in primate brains than in the brains of most other mammals - which means that primates are far more disabled by brain injuries) | you can have an illness that selectively damages one kidney such that you would be in end-stage renal failure if you didn't have a spare one. also the kidney is pretty clean, you would be surprised what the body can wall off. there are cases where even a burst appendix can be contained. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/fk1rc/is_the_second_human_kidney_a_redundant_system/"
] | [] | [
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could anyone explain the meselson-stahl experiment? | i’m an a-level student, studying biology, and i’m finding it difficult to understand the supposed ‘most beautiful experiment’, could someone take me through the process? | is there a particular part of the experiment that you don't understand? khan academy have a really great step by step explanation of the experiment [here](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/dna-as-the-genetic-material/dna-replication/a/mode-of-dna-replication-meselson-stahl-experiment"
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what is the science behind the maps that show where lighting struck. | i work as a wildland firefighter and every morning we receive a map of where lighting struck in the last 24 hours. these points also tell us whether the strike was positive or negative. just curious the science of these very useful maps. | you use a [lightning detector](_url_0_) of course! the electrical discharge produces radio signals, which you can pick up with an antenna and estimate direction and distance to the strike. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.boltek.com/faq.html"
] | [
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a quick question about s-waves | last night i was watching bbc's horizon, talking about the center of the earth. one scientist was saying how s-waves can only travel through solid rock, hence were fundamental in proving the inner core of the earth is solid. what i don't understand is if s-waves can only travel through solid rock, how do they pass through the inner core having passed through the liquid outter core on the way? | they don't pass through the liquid core. it's called the [s-wave shadow zone](_url_0_). only the p-waves go through the liquid outercore, but only with significant refraction. it's the p-waves that allow us to understand the solid inner-core. | 17 | [] | [] | [
"http://hays.outcrop.org/images/earthquakes/lutge8e/FG15_26.JPG"
] | [
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how does an atom interferometer work?? | i understand how an atomic clock works. what i really don't understand is why atom interferometers require two arms. couldn't you just use a single arm? as atom interferometers work like an atomic clock, which produces a stable fringe with a single beam, i don't see the need for a second beam path. and what even is being interfered exactly? | one arm with the other. that's the reason you need two arms. it is similar to a double-slit experiment which needs two slits as well. a single slit does give an interference pattern, but that is often not clear enough. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are fluids (and/or fluid dynamics) so hard to model? | i've seen more water renders on youtube than i care to admit (does that count? whi knows) and every one has some sort of passage in the description saying how long it took to render. and then nvidia came out with this presentation earlier this year that showed some "groundbreaking" new water render, and i just don't understand what all the hype/fuss was about. | [the equations that describe them](_url_0_) are known, but " theoretical understanding of the solutions to these equations is incomplete. in particular, solutions of the navier–stokes equations often include turbulence, which remains one of the greatest unsolved problems in physics, despite its immense importance in science and engineering. even much more basic properties of the solutions to navier–stokes have never been proven. for the three-dimensional system of equations, and given some initial conditions, mathematicians have not yet proved that smooth solutions always exist, or that if they do exist they have bounded kinetic energy. this is called the navier–stokes existence and smoothness problem. since understanding the navier–stokes equations is considered to be the first step to understanding the elusive phenomenon of turbulence, the clay mathematics institute in may 2000 made this problem one of its seven millennium prize problems in mathematics." | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navier%E2%80%93Stokes_existence_and_smoothness"
] | [
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how is it possible for a country that, relatively, is quite small like japan, become a world superpower? where do they get natural resources to create and sell goods? | to build on the answers others have given, it's important to note that while japan is geographically small (although larger than california, which is a substantial chunk of the us economic output and population), it is the 10th largest country in the world by population. beyond this, neither physical size nor population seem to be absolutely correlated with being a world power. although brazil, mexico, india, china, and russia all have both large population and large land mass, none of these countries exert truly global power in the way the economies (or armies) of the us, the eu, or even japan do. beyond this, no country has ever come close to the global reach of economy and military that the united states has enjoyed since the end of wwii, nuclear weapons notwithstanding. japan, like russia, europe, and the us, has a rich history of science, mathematics, and engineering. japan has never suffered the same type of "brain drain" that russia has suffered since the collapse of the soviet union. this engineering talent base is, in part, why japan can import raw materials and export a desirable good, like a toyota camry, microchips, or mitsubishi (heavy industries, i believe?) generators that serve as diesel backups at my university (connecticut). in the clash of civilizations, samuel p. huntington discusses some obstacles to "westernization" or simply industrialization, in that the first generation of industrializing nations will go overseas to obtain information from developed powers, then return and eventually instruct a second generation of locals, often by translating from english (or another "western" language) into the local tongue (and often poorly). huntington then goes on to discuss the social implications of this, but that isn't relevant to this conversation. japan (and russia) completed this transition long ago. japan, for example, was obviously able to create weaponry on par with those of the west during wwii, although, as you point out, its lack of local resources was a hindrance that drove it to expansion and into conflict with the united states. since wwii, japan's economy has shifted towards heavy industries and electronics. its large population gave it the ability to both staff a military and maintain industry at the same time. there's no real way to exert military dominance over a large portion of land without having the manpower to support it. japan is able to import raw goods and convert them to a more valuable form, and it has the manpower, infrastructure, and "institutional knowledge" required to do so. thus, it controls a valuable resource (conversion of natural resources into goods) that is competitive on a global market. this is on contrast to russia, which is geographically much larger, controlling many more natural resources, and with a population of slightly larger size. russia began industrialization not much before japan, and has had an even larger impact (i would argue) on all fields of math and science, but its poor economic and social policies during the late soviet era led to economic collapse, social unrest, and the flight of talent out of the country. certainly, something similar could happen in japan, which has been experiencing two decades of lackluster economic performance. the point being that physical size and population aren't absolutely correlated to world power, only particular instances of world power. that i'm aware, no modern world power (not superpower) is dependent solely on its population or natural resources for its status. that is, nobody is holding the world hostage (absolutely, at least) by one single resource or resource class, or by some massive army, or by some massive consumer base. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there a material whose young's modulus changes depending on if it is being stretched or contracted? | i am doing my master's in biophysics working with bacteria pili. the specific problem i'm looking at is characterizing the persistence length of pili, although i'm starting to think that there is not one defined persistence length as perhaps it changes as the pili changes length, or maybe it changes depending if the pili is in extension or retraction. i thought this question might give me some leads to analogous physical systems, but now i am just curious about this specific question. | viscoelastic materials will have a "young's modulus" that changes depending on the many factors, including whether you are stretching it or contracting it. also, there is a strange class of materials called auxetics that get larger when they are stretched and smaller when they are contracted. these have negative poisson ratio. _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxetics"
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] |
how is a cpu desigend? | i am not really sure, how to word this question - i began to wonder about the way computers are built, how unimaginable complex a cpu is - my question is: how do the engineers come up with the design? i assume that a cpu is generally "planned" and designed with the help of another cpu - but is it possible that a slower cpu can design a faster, more efficient one? or is it all just down to adding more and more transistors? | i have been designing micro processors for the last 25 years. the only processor that i have worked on that you may of heard about is the pentium ii. i also worked on dec alpha processors and several other processors that i am sure you never heard of. a processors is built by a team of people who each have a specific job. i will try to break them down. 1) marketing / sales - to me, this is one of the most important parts of the team. they should, along with technical people, be defining the product based on what customers will want to buy. of course, this is not always the case. 2) system architect - this person thinks about the processor at a very high level. they draw boxes on their white board and determine how these boxes will talk together. for example, this processor will need memory, a floating point unit, built in hdmi, etc... they put all of these boxes together and determine how they will talk together. this is a real over simplification, these are some of the smartest people on your team usually. they model parts of the chip in software and run actual programs on it after designing it. 2) verification - this team is in charge of ensuring that what all other teams make meets the specifications. 3) logic / circuit designers - this team filling in all of the boxes from the architect. they design the actual circuits by drawing schematics with transistors on them or writing logical code that can be used to automatically design a part of the chip. 4) layout designer - this team draws that actual transistors. now days it is usually a library of cells that are used as building blocks for the logic designers. however, there are still a few cases where transistors are drawn by hand. memories, analog, rf, are all mostly drawn by hand. 5) cad group - i put this team at the bottom of my list but they are the glue that holds everything together. they control a lot of the methodologies for building these complex chips. this is just the design side of things. there is literally an army of people and teams that are in charge of fabricating a chip. i really hate to give these guys just a few lines. what they do is magic. when you think about a slower computer designing a faster computer this is not really what is happening. we use the current computers to model the next generation computers. cutting edge processors are designing in 14nm and below at the moment. this is obscenely small. there are so many electrical effects cause by the physical device that there is no way a person could calculate it. we use current generation processors to do these calculations. also, there are so many physical placements of transistors that it would take an army a lifetime to draw one processor. current generation processors are doing a lot of the physical placement and connection of transistors while keeping all of these calculations in mind. the way computers get faster is two fold. first, the transistors themselves get faster with every generation. a transistor getting faster means that it can turn on and off faster. second, people much smarter than myself are always coming up with ways to do more work in a given amount of time ( clock cycles ). | 42 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intel_8080_arch.svg",
"http://www.mit.edu/~ebakke/anitra/",
"http://research.swtch.com/6502",
"http://archive.archaeology.org/1107/features/mos_technology_6502_computer_chip_cpu.html"
] | [
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] |
a question on genetics. | ok first off i just need to say that my knowledge of genetics is extremely limited because i am 16 years old and only know what is taught in schools, although i do plan on looking into genetics over the summer. now i don't know if this is the right place to ask this but here goes: in the new spider-man film the main story revolves around cross-species genetics to give the antagonist regenerative cells seen in animals like lizards. in the film it goes horribly wrong but what i want to know is, is what was attempted in the film possible? will humans ever be able to share dna with other animals safely? p.s. if this is in the wrong subreddit please feel free to say so. | [searched](_url_4_) relevant [discussion](_url_0_) original question by [linksawake](_url_3_) relevant comment courtesy [mattc286](_url_1_) > tissue regeneration is a hot field right now in molecular genetics. some of my friends are grad students in a lab which works on the genetic controls of tissue regeneration in zebrafish. these fish are able to regrow cardiac and fin tissue upon partial amputation (unlike, obviously, humans). however, zebrafish share many developmental transcriptional and signaling programs in common with humans (and all vertebrates), and the hope is that dissecting the molecular and genetic mechanisms in zebrafish will allow insights into adapting regenerative medicine for the treatment of human disease. this guy works on it: [ken poss](_url_2_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/tpnqg/spiderman_got_me_thinking_is_a_lot_of_research/",
"http://www.reddit.com/user/mattc286",
"http://www.cellbio.duke.edu/faculty/research/poss.html",
"http://www.reddit.com/user/Linksawake",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=spiderman&restrict_sr=on&sort=relevance"
] | [
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i'm confused by the fact that we are made of 'star stuff'... | i understand the forging of atoms in stars, they explode, generate new planets/stars/materials. but, technically, if you have a baby, it's made by biology from atoms that are being formed through biology. what i'm getting at is the atoms in us right now aren't directly from stars...i guess i'm missing how the star stuff is transformed into forming 'us'. energy i'm assuming, but if someone could explain, i'd appreciate it. | biology doesn't form new atoms. when you eat food and breathe air, you are taking in atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. if the body is growing, these atoms are used to form new cells, or make existing cells larger. in the case of a pregnant woman, these atoms can become incorporated by the embryo/fetus to grow. so, apart from rare nuclear transitions, it's a zero-sum game. the elements that make up the earth are what we incorporate into our bodies to grow, and these elements were formed in supernova explosions. | 31 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if the nucleus is the "control center" of the cell, and bacterial cells lack nuclei, then how are their "decisions" made? | i'm a middle school science teacher, and in class we are learning about prokaryotic versus eukaryotic cells. one of my students asked me this question today. although we understand that bacterial cells still contain dna, we're very curious about how specifically the structure of the nucleus aids the cell in terms of control and making decisions, and how the absence of the nucleus affects the functioning of the prokaryotic cell. please help me (and my students) out on this! thank you! | the purpose of the nucleus is to separate the genome-related functions of the big eukaryotic cell into a smaller chamber for increased efficiency. this function is unnecessary for the prokaryotes, because their much smaller size means that all materials within the cell are relatively close together. of course, prokaryotic cells do have dna and dna functions. biologists describe the centre of the cell as its "nucleoid", because it's pretty much where the dna is found. but note that the nucleoid is essentially an imaginary "structure." | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why do things that are farther away take a longer time to pass by? | for example: while riding in a car, why do the things closer to you, like telephone poles, go by faster. as opposed to a far off building or tree? | in short they don't they only appear to because of the fact that things that are far away are smaller and [parallax](_url_0_). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax"
] | [
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] |
what is the name of the process of water being actively forced from gel such as in the water found sitting on yoghurt? | i've stumbled upon it several times before and its driving me crazy trying to remember. i can't even think of a useful google search phrase! | in emulsions such as yogurt or paint the separation of the 'oil phase' and the 'water phase' is called creaming. when you mix them they'll redisperse. in additional to this you can get *cracking* occurring, which is similar but you cannot redisperse. you see this with milk that has gone off. [source](_url_0_) | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://pharmlabs.unc.edu/labs/emulsions/intro.htm"
] | [
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] |
people who are working on toxoplasmosis... any thoughts on the recent [admittedly flawed] study correlating people who are somewhat nocturnal with a suite of behaviors such as risk-taking, impulsivity, etc? [link in comments] | here's a link to the [cbs summation](_url_0_) of the study, recently [posted to til.](_url_1_) since the behaviors listed for the nocturnal people seem to map nicely on those statistically associated with toxo-positive individuals, i'm wondering: **has anyone correlated nocturnality with being toxo-positive?** could this be another one of that precocious parasite's little tricks, heretofore un-noticed? or is this tiny, deeply flawed study of a bunch of college kids pretty much irrelevant? thanks. | i'm a little confused: what are the behaviors that lead to contracting toxoplasmosis? over 20% of americans have it and possibly half the world. i doubt risk-taking and impulsivity affect your chances too dramatically on getting toxo. most people get toxoplasma from uncooked/undercooked meats or from cats. maybe i'm misunderstanding what you are saying? | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.cbsnews.com/news/night-owls-and-early-birds-have-different-personality-traits/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/todayilearned/comments/3rzdeh/til_that_according_to_researchers_night_owls/"
] | [] | [
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i found an orange expanse along the quebec/newfoundland border using google maps. what's going on here? | [google maps](_url_1_) [bing has it too](_url_0_) | zoom in on the southern tip of the large orange part and i think your mystery can be solved. the low resolution photographs used in the unzoomed picture make the areas with dead trees (fire, beetle kill) appear orange when really they are just areas where the ground is visible. | 12 | [] | [
"http://www.bing.com/maps/?v=2&cp=51.854855~-58.498559&lvl=11&dir=0&sty=b&form=LMLTCC",
"https://maps.google.com/?ll=51.79078,-58.455505&spn=0.404751,1.056747&t=h&z=11"
] | [] | [
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how much time will it take for the cmbr to cool to radiowave frequencies? won't this have an effect on free electron spins? | if free electron spin is affected by radiowaves, then won't they be affected by what is at some point a cosmic radiowave background radiation? | there isn't really that sharp of a line microwaves and radio waves - the em spectrum is a continuum. cmb peaks at 160 ghz, rf generally speaking extends from 300 ghz down to a few khz. in this sense, the cmb is already 'radio waves.' but maybe if you want to call anything above 3 ghz a microwave, then you'll have to cool the universe by another factor of 50ish. let's make a really rough estimate for how long this takes, assuming a constant expansion rate. it took 13 billion years for the universe to expand to its current size, so it will take another 13 billion to double in size, thus cutting the cmb temperature and (frequency) in half. as an approximate rule of the of thumb, this means that every time you double the age you cut the frequency in half. since 2^5.5 ~ 50, then we will need to wait about 5.5 times the current age of the universe for the cmb to shift down by a factor of 50. that's an ~70 billion year wait. don't hold your breath. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's the difference between freezing and congealing? | when coconut oil solidifies i'm assuming it's just freezing, but when gelatin solidifies is it a non-crystallin structure? how does coagulation fit into this? | freezing is what is known as a first order phase transition. once a material hits its freezing point there is an additional energy requirement to get the material from being in its liquid state at the melting temperature into its solid state at that exact same melting temperature and vice versa. congealing does not meet this classification as a first order phase transition. it is not a change in state, it is simply a change in properties of the current state of the matter (viscosity or thickness). there is not a distinct energy difference at a single temperature where this process happens rather it is happening across a temperature range. we understand these processes well for single component systems and even two component systems and some three component systems, but once the number of components is substantially high and not consistent it becomes to difficult understand the complete process perfectly. coconut oil is a very complicated example as [it is made up of numerous different fatty acids](_url_0_). some of these undergo a melting point transition as their melting point is high (lauric acid 43.8 deg c) whereas others will still be above their melting point (caprylic acid 16.7 deg c). however, once we have mixtures of things, materials don't perform alone as their parts but rather as a combination of these properties. i cannot assert exactly what is happening with coconut oil but it could be a third property transition which is gelling. gelling is when networks are formed between molecules. coconut oil is likely a thermoreversible physical gel, like gelatin, and so below a certain 'gel' temperature physical crosslinks are formed between the molecules that arrest the motion. this is not crystalline as there is no long range order in the molecules rather they are 'kind of tangled up.' | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coconut_oil#Composition_and_comparison"
] | [
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this earth sciences final about middle earth was posted on reddit a while ago. what book/books/other resources should i read to be able to answer and understand it. | [here](_url_0_) is the test. i have some background in physics, but none in geology. so, any suggestions? also, if anyone wants to answer some of the questions, that would be pretty cool too! | here are some partial answers. 1. a- the mountains in the north west, near the coast, indicate orogeny from ocean-continent convergence b- all the other mountains might be due to continent-continent convergence. 2. eriador is moving east, and gondor north east. this is to push up the necessary mountains. 3. not sure 4. not sure - i guess it will close up? or expand from back-arc spreading? 5. off the coast of eriador - or near any of the uplifting mountain ranges. 6. under the near-coast eriador mountains, due to the subduction zone there. 7. no idea 8. no idea | 2 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/tgxdR"
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square summable? | i'm reading about hilbert spaces, and i keep running into the phrase "square summable". i believe this term means that an infinite set can be regarded as a finite set by squaring all of its terms. only that doesn't make much sense to me, how can something infinite be deemed finite? | a square summable sequence is an infinite sequence (a\_1, a\_2, a\_3, ...) such that the infinite sum a\_1^2 + a\_2^2 + a\_3^2 + ... converges. consider the sequence 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, ... the sum 1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + ... doesn't exist (it diverges to infinity). but the sum 1^2 + (1/2)^2 + (1/3)^2 + (1/4)^2 + ... = 1 + 1/4 + 1/9 + 1/16 + ... does converge, to pi^(2)/6. so that sequence is said to be square summable. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how much of me is human? could i survive being 100% human? | according to [this review](_url_2_) the mass of bacteria in your gut (which constitutes the vast majority of microbes that live in/on you) is measured to be about 1.5kg, which i guess is going to be somewhere between 1-4% of your body weight depending on how big you and your intestine are. i'm not sure what the variation is between people though. i don't know if anyone's looked at this in humans, but sterile mice (no bacteria) are relatively healthy. [they have subtle differences in their metabolism](_url_1_) compared to normal mice, and [they tend to need to eat more to maintain normal weight](_url_0_) but seem to develop and reproduce normally. also according to that first review, changes in human gut bacteria are associated with a variety of health problems. the national institute of health even has its own initiative called the human microbiome project dedicated to figuring out how the gut microbiome affects our health. | 30 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1075996405000685",
"http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.3109/10408448509041324",
"http://www.springerlink.com/content/7882k18k2085457l/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/y3mav/why_are_there_no_green_mammals/c5sdvw6"
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|
does phlegm serve a purpose or is it just body waste? | when people say "phlegm" they usually mean the crap they cough up. the technical term is "expectorate". it's a byproduct of your inflammatory response. think of it as a bouncer dragging some asshole off stage at a concert. mucus is secreted by certain cells that line your respiratory tract (mostly in glands; little pockets off to the side). mucus is made up (primarily) of water and mucins. there are several types of mucin, but they are all large proteins that are heavily glycosylated (they have long chains of sugars hanging off them). the cells in your airways also have little fingerlike projections on them, called cilia. these wave back and forth in such a way that they move the mucus up the respiratory tract and out. this is a continuous, but regulated process. it is always going on, but it can be sped up. when you get crap (bacteria, dust, pollen, viruses that have been clumped together by antibody, etc) in your lungs, it gets trapped in the mucus there. think of mucins as kind of a sticky thread; the crap will get stuck on that thread. as it gets moved up the airway by the cilia, it kind of gets tangled up in the mucins; it keeps going up, picking up more mucin to make sure it's inactive.....same idea as an oyster with a pearl. the mucins will condense around the crap and form a tightening ball...and that's the wad of phlegm you hack up. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_epithelium"
] | [
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|
what are the negative feedbacks as the earth warms? | the earth has gone through numerous warming and cooling periods during its history. i have been told of the various positive feedbacks for global warming (i.e. the earth warms causing the polar ice to melt and less ice/more water means less sunlight reflected back into space and more absorbed by the oceans, the potential rain forest destruction and the loss of a carbon sink, the release of trapped carbon from the oceans as they warm, etc.) yet previous warming periods have not lead to runaway warming. i imagine there are always supervolcanoes or asteroid impacts that kick up enough ash and dust to block the sun long enough to cool the earth, but are there systemic negative feedbacks that prevent the earth from getting too hot? | this is a great question. a true negative feedback on co2-induced global warming must consume the co2 and bury it in sediment. production of biomass from trees or blooms in the surface ocean are short term processes and have relatively rapid turnover (10s to 1000s of years). carbon burial is a long-term geological process that occurs over 1000s to 100,000s of years. (i co2 is doubled it takes a long time to return to a pre-perturbation baseline). so lets take the current anthropogenic co2 scenario and play it out in a geologic context. we are adding carbon to the atmosphere. that carbon interacts with rocks on the surface of the earth and dissolves them ( < a href=_url_0_ weathering < /a when you add co2 to the atmosphere, the temperature increases and that increases the rate of weathering. this is a result of temperature effects on the rate of the reactions as well as a result of an increase in the rate of hydrological cycling. higher temperatures roughly equal more rain in the rainy parts of the world (not so simple as i am making it). there are additional constraints on the weathering of rocks, like the availability of weatherable material, but that is more detail than is needed here. now there is a second piece to this that takes out more co2. when you weather rocks you also release the phosphorus that is present in the rocks. ultimately the p ends up in the ocean from rivers. phosphorus is generally considered to be the primary limiting nutrient for marine productivity. the extra p enhances marine productivity and a very small fraction of that productivity is ultimately buried in sediments and taken out of the modern carbon cycle. over time carbon is removed from the atmosphere. the p-cycle feedback can also create some interesting overshoots where co2 drops below pre-perturbation values. in short: co2 is removed from the atmosphere and is ultimately buried in sediments as calcium carbonate or organic matter. this process is one that occurs over 100,000s of years. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weathering>Link",
"http://www.ipcc.ch/"
] | [
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is there a limit to how many people can view an object? | i don't know if this question makes sense, but it's been bothering me. i know that the light reflected off an object, which we then see, is not infinite, so i wanted to know if there was a limit to how many people could see the object before all of the reflected rays were used. | well yes, at the maximum limit (which would increase with r ) the photons would be blocked. the same way you turn a light on in a room with no windows, and close the door. no one outside can observe the light as its being blocked by the wall. then imagine that the walls/floor/ceiling are people, and the atoms that make it up are individual observers. as for reflection, yes *some* light would be reflected, but a lot of it is being absorbed. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are newborns just 'blank slates'? in other words, can you train a newborn to grow up to be anything you want (a doctor, hitman, mathematician)? | although it's true one can force people into professions, and although it's true that there are a very small number of people who apparently can train anyone (supposedly), it's still not true that newborns are just 'blank slates'. see stephen pinker's book, "the blank slate: the modern denial of human nature", on that topic. _url_1_ since you've heard the phrase 'blank slate' (latin 'tabula rasa') you may be aware that it's a rather old famous theory about the brain/the mind/childhood, apparently starting with aristotle, and continued by famous philosophers like locke and rousseau and a *lot* of 20th century behaviorist psychologists. to a first approximation, it is definitely a wrong old theory -- although it's better than the ancient competing theory that minds/souls are always reincarnations. the short version is that all humans share a large number of genetic traits affecting the brain and therefore the mind, and to a lesser extent, individuals are also *partially* shaped by their genetics and its interplay with the environment, as thoroughly demonstrated by modern cognitive science. there are of course, many things that are not fixed by genetics even considering its interplay with the environment, so one could argue that there are some "blank slate" elements to the mind, but it is not highly predictable which traits those are. they seem to vary from individual to individual. wikipedia is pretty terse, but it's a start i guess: _url_0_ | 34 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabula_rasa#Psychology_and_neurobiology",
"http://www.amazon.com/Blank-Slate-Modern-Denial-Nature/dp/0142003344/"
] | [
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|
at what point does something cease being graffiti and start being a petroglyph? | [deleted] | a petroglyph is defined as imagery incised in stone. pictographs are painted imagery on stone. markings made by european or euroamericans during the historic period fall into either category. what is defined as "historic" generally applies to things [50 years old or older.](_url_0_) i don't know where you were in sedona or who your guide was. i can imagine that if your guide was a native american they might be offended and disgusted by european and euroamerican markings laid over the works of their ancestors. archaeologists are interested in preserving our cultural heritage. we interpret modern impacts to prehistoric cultural sites as damage and vandalism, because they are destructive to existing cultural heritage. i have been at petroglyph and pictograph sites with historic (1800s) through modern (yesterday) writing/painting/inscriptions. i interpret all of this as vandalism, some of it is just historic vandalism. one particular case, that i was a part of, involved modern gang territory marking graffiti all over the face of a rock that had extensive (although faint) pictographs and petroglyphs all over the surface. i became involved in the project as a result of two different aspects of that case. the police wanted to take the graffiti down as quickly as possible, because that's the best way to prevent the rock being re-graffitied. the native americans wanted the graffiti taken down (without affecting the underlying rock art) quickly because it was vandalism to one of their sacred sites. equivalent to someone taking spray paint to the altar inside a church, except that the native americans in this case viewed the rock as a living being and the graffiti as a cancer. when historic and modern markings on rocks do not occur on top of or at pictograph and petroglyph sites, the reaction can be different. historic pictographs and petroglyphs are something we also want to preserve as part of our cultural heritage. modern impacts are not something we want to preserve because we view these markings as vandalism of the environment. there are many cases in the modern period were people carve or paint their names onto rocks in a national park. the preservation of our natural environment is also important, and if your guide was a park ranger i can imagine they would be disgusted by negative impacts to the natural environment. the problem becomes a cumulative one, where one person carves their name into a rock others will follow. soon the rock will look like a bathroom stall instead of nature. many americans are extremely interested in preserving the natural environment for a multitude of reasons, including for future public recreation. john muir (famous naturalist and hiker) said, "everybody needs beauty as well as bread, places to play in and pray in, where nature may heal and give strength to body and soul alike." | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nps.gov/nr/national_register_fundamentals.htm"
] | [
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why does resolution of the horizon problem require postulating causal contact? | due to the recent b-modes discovery in the cmb, i was reading about the motivations for postulating cosmic inflation, and the main one seems to be the horizon problem: _url_0_ > when one looks out into the night sky, distances also correspond to time into the past. a galaxy measured at ten billion light years in distance appears to us as it was ten billion years ago, because the light has taken that long to travel to the viewer. if one were to look at a galaxy ten billion light years away in one direction, say "west", and another in the opposite direction, "east", the total distance between them is twenty billion light years. this means that the light from the first has not yet reached the second, because the 13.8 billion years that the universe has existed simply is not a long enough time to allow it to occur. in a more general sense, there are portions of the universe that are visible to us, but invisible to each other, outside each other's respective particle horizons. > in standard physical theories, no information can travel faster than the speed of light. in this context, "information" means "any sort of physical interaction". for instance, heat will naturally flow from a hotter area to a cooler one, and in physics terms this is one example of information exchange. given the example above, the two galaxies in question cannot have shared any sort of information; they are not in "causal contact". one would expect, then, that their physical properties would be different, and more generally, that the universe as a whole would have varying properties in different areas. i dont understand why is this a problem. more specifically, i dont understand why we assume that the large scale homogenity requires casual contact to be produced. a more parsimonous explanation for me seems to be that they were simply created by the same process - and the process (primordial matter creation) that created the primordial matter would result in approx. the same configuration of matter wherever it happens. in other words, the casually disconnected regions of the universe are not the same on large scales because they were in casual contact in the past, but because they are simply the result of the same thing. similarly how we dont assume that the two disconnected galaxies were once casually connected because they both contain stars, or both contain hydrogen, i dont see why we should assume that they were casually connected just because they both have the same temperature. or another analogy - we dont assume that air in my flat and your flat must have been in thermal contact just because it has cca the same temperature now. instead, the similar origin (both flats being build by a human) is what causes the similarity. similarity does not necessarily imply casual connection, just similar mode of creation or initial conditions. | sure, you might expect them to be similar in some ways. but why would two regions of the universe billions of light years apart be the same temperature to within less than 1 part in a thousand? that *is* causal connection, though. there is no real reason why the initial conditions of two locations should be identical unless they've been in contact. identical initial conditions are themselves the result of causal contact. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizon_problem"
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influence of temperature on band gap? | today we had some liquid nitrogen available and did the usual shenanigans :) i then remembered reading that the band gap of semiconducters increases when they are cooled down. i wondered if one could see that effect with the naked eye when one deep freezes a led. it worked! we played around with some different colored led's and all of them emitted light of shorter wavelength when cooled down. (if you want to try this make sure to use colored led's with a clear housing) i know as i described ealier that the bandgap increases, but i was hoping someone here could give me some more insight into how/why that happens. i assume with the lower temperature the atoms tend to vibrate less, and then the mean distance between them is bigger? does the valence band stay at the same energy level? thanks for your help! (sorry i typos, me no english native) | there are two major contributions to the temperature dependence of the band gap: 1) lattice dilation and 2) electron-phonon interaction. 1) the first contribution is the easier one to understand and more often than not, it is dominant. essentially what happens when you increase the temperature is you increase the occupation number of various phonon modes, or put more simply, you force atoms to jiggle around more. this jiggling in turn causes the crystal to expand, making all the atoms further apart from each other on average. this dilation in turn, affects the ways atoms interact with each other, generally weakening their interaction. now consider why the band gap exists at all. the best analogy is to look at a hydrogen molecule, essentially when you mix two degenerate orbitals, you create two new orbitals, one with a lower energy and one with a higher energy [like this](_url_0_). what happens in crystalline solids is much more complicated, but the process is analogous just now you have so many atoms that instead of having well-separated orbitals, you now create energy "bands." however, what is important is that the energy splitting induced will largely be stronger the more the the atoms interact, which in turn depends on their separation. thus pushing atoms apart will usually make them interact less, which by and large causes the band gap to shrink. 2) electron -phonon interaction is a more complicated phenomenon to understand, but the basic idea is that separating the energy of a semiconductor into independent electronic levels and vibrational states (or so called phonon modes, i.e. collective vibrations) is not really correct. in fact the electronic and vibrational states are coupled. when you include this coupling, you can "renormalize" the energy levels, i.e. get a correction for the band gap. now as you vary the temperature, this total interaction between electrons and phonons can increase simply because more phonon modes are populated. in addition, the interactions of each phonon mode with electronic levels could itself change as a function of temperature. this makes predicted the influence of this factor a bit harder to pin down, and in fact the sign of the influence on the band gap can vary from system to system. in any case, by and large you are right, in most materials, the band gap tends to decrease with increasing temperature, mostly due to the dilation of the lattice. however there are materials, such as pbs which due to various quirks show the opposite behavior, at least for certain temperature ranges. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"http://img.sparknotes.com/figures/3/336c39c635a42c469abba5e3581ce9a3/fig1_27.gif"
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] |
what's the origin of cmb fluctuations? | i have read somewhere that cmb (cosmic microwave background radiation) fluctuations in temperature are linked to mass distribution fluctuations in the early universe (at ~350000 years after big bang, which is of course when the cosmic radiation was emitted), and that is used to explain the formation of large structures (galaxies, clusters of galaxies..). why is that so? | this is an active area of research, but i believe they are thought to originate from the period of inflation a fraction of a second after the big bang. inflation also explains why if you look in two completely opposite directions, the cmb appears pretty much the same (those fluctuations are actually relatively tiny and are on the order of one part in a few hundred thousand i believe) even though those two places will not have had sufficient time to communicate with one another. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the risks of modern volcanism in the american southwest? | although we are made aware of the volcanism present in the pacific northwest, and the yellowstone supervolcano, little attention seems to be paid to volcanoes further south (california, nevada, arizona,new mexico, utah and colorado). as far as i know, volcanic activity is still relatively recent in these areas, but the (non-geoscientist) public pays little attention to it. what are the chances of volcanic activity returning to the area? what kinds of eruptions characterize volcanoes of the american southwest, and what kind of scenario would we be looking at is an eruption were to occur? | it's all pretty minor stuff. you don't have any major hotspots like the yellowstone caldera, and you also don't have a subduction zone south of san francisco, so you don't really have active volcanic arc volcanoes like ranier and helens farther south. major volcanic activity really has no real chance of returning for a very long time either. the pacific and north american plates are going to remain a transform boundary for the foreseeable future, and you don't have any major restructuring of the north american plate that could cause moderate volcanism farther inland (such as you had with the formation of the basin and range province). the sorts of volcanism you do find in the american southwest are more along the lines of minor lava flows, cinder cones, and hydrothermal activity such as hotsprings. all pose quite small hazards. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can we make the probability of our office march madness drawing as equal as possible for all participants? | we are doing a drawing in my office to reward sales this month with a march madness theme. for each eligible incentive earned you are awarded a single drawing (of one of the final 64 teams in the ncaa men's basketball tourney). at this point we are looking at about 100 eligible draws between around 20 different associates (the most one associate has individually at this point is 18, the least being 1). there are different angles being presented on how to approach the drawing to make it have even odds for everyone eligible for a draw, but with no one agreeing. the goal is to have rewards going out to the associate/associates (if structured that way) drawing the eventual winning team. we humbly submit for your feedback on how to set this up as fairly as possible. | you just want each drawing to randomly pick one of the 64 march madness teams? number each team, 1 through 64, however you want. open up excel. in the first column, write the name of the person to whom the drawing will be assigned. in the second column, for each drawing in the list, put "=randbetween(1,64)". in the third column, use the number in the second column to look up which team that number corresponds to. note: the values in the randbetween cells might change every time you reload the file. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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furan vs thf: bp and mp question. | sorry for the acronyms! so i was looking through wade's organic chemistry (ethers section) and saw these figures: melting point: * thf: -108 ºc * furan: -86 ºc boiling point: * thf: 65 ºc * furan: 32 ºc can anybody explain why thf has the higher boiling point but the lower melting point? i thought that maybe in its solid form furan might be organised to maximise dispersion forces, which would explain the higher mp but not the lower mp. any thoughts? | i am a chemist. it makes sense that furan has a higher melting point than thf because furan is aromatic and can pi stack. at higher temperatures it seems that polarity of the c-o bonds become more important. note that thf is shaped like an envelope with the o above the plane of the 4 carbons. additionally the carbons in thf have sp3 hybridization and are more electropositive than the sp2 carbons in furan. this leads to a more polar c-o bond in thf. that's about all i can do for you. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a question on kmt and ke | i had a test today for ap chemistry, and one of the problems were 4 statements, pick the true ones. there was a container with 1 mole of o2 and 1 mole of h2. i thought that the statement "the frequency of collision is equal" was true, since it would have to be for the pressure to be the same. my teacher thought so too. the answer key disagreed, and she told me after school that she read why and would talk about it tomorrow. so, the question is, why would the collision frequency be lower if the pressures are equal? | o2 molecules are a different size to h2 molecules. also different masses (relevant for the kinetic energy distribution within the container). edit: number of collisions with the container should be roughly equal for both gasses. oxygen-oxygen collisions will be more frequent than hydrogen-hydrogen collisions. the partial pressure of the hydrogen will be significantly lower than the partial pressure of the oxygen. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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besides the skin, what are the organs of the integumentary system? | it can't be hair and nails right? i mean they are nonliving. what about sebaceous and subcutaneous glands? can these glands be considered organs?... ..help. | hair and nails are considered "annexes" of the tegumentary apparatus. my trusty quiroz's anatomy textbook says that the tegumentary apparatus is comprised of skin and annexes (ex: hair, nails, mechano-receptors [ruffini, pacini, merkel, krause, meisner]) but the book does not indicate other full organs. however, many organs do participate in the functioning of the tegumenary apparatus despite not being directly a part of it (ex: the hipofisis gland's internal regulation greatly interacts with the tegumentary apparatus, etc.). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can you layer sun protection products and is their sp factor cumulative? | you can layer but you will only get the higher protection. 15 + 15 does not equal spf 30. they’re tested at a rate of coverage that equals about 1/4 teaspoon for the average male face too. it’s a good idea to measure it for a while to be sure you are getting enough. it doesn’t last all day, so reapply about every 2 hours or after profuse sweating or swimming or rubbing. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
i work with other people's blood, how dangerous is it for me to be around an unvaccinated child? | [removed] | **not very dangerous, but any risk from [fomites](_url_0_) (ie. a contaminated surface) could be mitigated by removal of contaminated clothing before coming into contact with anyone else.** typically the most dangerous bloodborne pathogens you might come into contact with we don't have vaccines for anyway (excluding hepatitis b) and aren't very easily transmitted from person-to-person. hiv, hep c, hep b, etc... could be transmitted by blood splatter, but even if you were to be exposed, transmission to another person does not occur via the respiratory route for these diseases. saliva cannot transmit hiv, and while hepatitis c rna can be detected in the saliva of infected patients, [epidemiological data suggests the infectivity is low or nonexistent](_url_1_). there are no known cases of hep c being transmitted by kissing. **hep c and hep b can both survive on contaminated surfaces (by blood, usually) for long periods of time. at least 16 hours for c, at least 7 days for hep b.** these two could be ones to worry about, but if you remove any potentially contaminated clothing before coming into contact with others, that would obviate the risk of transmission. some diseases like measles or rubella are present in the blood during infection, but typically only remain infectious for a matter of hours outside of the body. even if a person had one of these diseases however, you would likely be at a higher risk from respiratory transmission than from aerosolized blood. assuming you're vaccinated, it's unlikely you would develop the disease however. [here is a chart](_url_2_) showing the efficacy and duration of vaccinations against some common diseases. measles, mumps, and rubella all have i guess the point is that blood splatter thankfully poses very little danger to your cousin's child or to you, assuming you use the proper personal protective equipment for the job. respiratory transmission to yourself and then to others is possible, but if you're vaccinated, there is rather low risk. ideally, if your clients are sick, they won't be out getting a tattoo, but luckily for you the overall vaccination rate of people of that age group is pretty high ( > 90%) and herd immunity should be in effect. the us (assuming you live in the us) was declared to be free of endemic transmission of measles in 2000, so if there is an outbreak in your area, you're pretty likely to hear about it in the news. same goes for other childhood diseases that are typically not seen thanks to vaccination. all in all, you're probably more likely to transmit a cold than any of those other diseases! | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fomite",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15984954",
"http://www.immune.org.nz/duration-protection-efficacy-and-effectiveness"
] | [
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mechanics: mathematically, what is the thought process behind moment of inertia and why is it used in mechanics of materials? | i think that a lot of engineers just power through their mechanics of materials class, but this seems to be a concept that underlies everything we do. i can rattle off a few equations off the top of my head, but what is really happening kind of perplexes me. it's just this number we get that helps us to describe how stuff bends or breaks. for example, for a rectangle its bh^3 /12. i'm going to assume that its a relationship between the base and height of a rectangle, thats fairly obvious because they are the only variables. what integration had to be made to get there though? the wikipedia article doesn't give something i'm really happy with. | the "moment of inertia" is like mass, but for rotation: it describes how difficult it is to create angular acceleration by applying torque. in this case the result depends on the axis of rotation and direction of the push, not only on intrinsic features of the object as mass does. simplest case: if you have a heavy point mass fixed to an axis with a massless bar of length l and try to push it with a force f perpendicular to the axis (since the components toward and along the axis won't do anything) , you produce a torque of l\*f. we have f=ma, and a=l\*alpha, where alpha is the angular acceleration. therefore your torque produced is ml^(2)alpha. if torque is like force, and angular acceleration is like acceleration, then ml^(2) must be the rotational analogue of mass. it gets its own name: "moment of inertia". to compute the motion of inertia of some other body you don't need to really do any more physics, just keep applying the same logic: chop the object up into a bunch of tiny cubes that can be treated as point masses, and add them all up to produce the total moment of inertia for the body (around that particular axis for that particular orientation of the body). that's the integral: int(ρ(x,y,z)*r^(2) dxdydz), where r is the distance from that point in the body to the axis. to get the full inertia tensor you just drop the assumptions about picking a particular axis, perpendicular forces, etc. and use vector algebra to handle the general case instead. a force applied in one direction doesn't necessarily produce an angular acceleration in that same direction (i.e. they're not merely proportional like f=ma), so in general you need an entire matrix to correctly relate the two. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/mi.html"
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how does an expansion valve or metering device work in a refrigeration cycle? | i've checked numerous sources, but i still can't wrap my head around this part of the refrigeration cycle. according to the second law of thermo, temperature flows from a high temperature to a low temperature. therefore, in order for the evaporation process to work, the refrigerant must be at a lower temperature than the space it is cooling, so that it will absorb heat from that space. so how does an expansion valve or metering device get the refrigerant to that lower temperature? i understand how earlier in the cycle the compressor raises the refrigerant to a higher temperature than ambient, since work is being put into the system, but how does the temperature drop below ambient on its own? from what i've read, the metering device causes a pressure and temperature drop. but wouldn't the temperature drop just be to the ambient temperature, and not below it? it is counter-intuitive to me that the temperature could ever drop below ambient. | the boiling point of a common refrigerant (r22) is -41 degrees f at atmospheric pressure. the higher the pressure the higher the boiling point. at 50 psi (a common pressure for the low side of the cycle) the boiling point is 26 degrees f. so it is simply the nature of refrigerant that it is relatively cold at low pressure. the metering device just acts as a restriction beyond which is a low pressure area. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible for anything to operate in an "energy-neutral" manner? | a couple days ago i saw this article on /r/technology: _url_0_ in the article it essentially says that the water purification system generates enough methane gas to power itself. this sounds like a sort of perpetual motion machine for water purification. as i understand it a 100% energy transfer is never possible so if the treatment plant were able to create methane gas, it would never be enough to power itself. am i wrong in this instance? is this article misleading? am i missing something? | how is this a perpetual motion machine? this technology uses bacteria to break down organic impurities in the water. the energy comes from the input. think of it this way - if i am drilling for oil, i am getting way more than enough oil to power my machines; that's the only way i can make a profit, right? is that a perpetual motion machine? | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.physorg.com/news/2011-07-purification-energy.html"
] | [] | [
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is it possible for animals to suffer from gigantism? if so what animals (other than humans) suffer from it? | there is a phenomenon known as island gigantism, which is where island populations regularly growing larger than those on mainlands. not quite what you're talking about i don't think, but it's worth mentioning. i'm not aware of any animals that suffer from a condition known as gigantism, but there's a breed of cattle (belgian blue, if you're interested) that has a genetic defect where their myostatin genes don't function properly and produce significantly more muscle than normal, the result is the animal with a very noticeable increase in muscle. | 210 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liger",
"http://www.leopardgecko.com/giant-genetics"
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|
how do cells ask for more blood flow? | if a cell or region of cells suddenly has an increased metabolic demand (for instance, if there's damage or increased stress to a certain area of the body), how do the cells stimulate more blood flow to the area? | local blood vessels (capillaries) dilate in response to cellular wastes such as lactic acid, co2, adenosine (cleaving atp into adp yields adenine, which stimulates local vasodilation). the local vessels in that area automatically dilate to bring in more nutrients and get rid of waste. tissue injury causes disruption of the endothelial cells of the local blood vessels causing the release of tissue factors that stimulate the inflammatory response; mainly histamine, which is a vasodilator as well as recruiter of inflammatory cells that further potentiate the response. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens when something dries off? | water evaporates at 100°c, yet if i spill some on my counter it eventually goes away. what's going on? | water *boils* at 100^o c. you can roughly think of that as meaning that all the molecules have enough energy that a little energy more will make them leave (latent heat of vaporization). but water at room temperature, say, some of the molecules have enough energy to leave the liquid, most don't. so a molecule steals some energy and leaves, and the drop cools down. but because it's on your counter, in the air, whatever, it doesn't cool *enough* and gets a little more heat from the counter or air or whatever to maintain temperature equilibrium. so another molecule leaves, stealing a little more energy than the average molecule of the system has. and that energy is replaced by the environment. eventually, all the water evaporates because the environment slowly provides enough energy to allow it to evaporate. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a triglyceride surge in the blood of marathon runners after they have exhausted their supplies of glycogen? | or if that premise is completely wrong, is there evidence that marathon runners consume fat after exhausting their glycogen stores? | elite marathoners aren't a great example because they are unlikely to exhaust glycogen in that amount of time. so let's call it a 50 mile running race or longer. the majority of fat that you would use for immediate fuel in a case like that is actually stored between muscle fibers, so it goes straight into the cells, it is unlikely that much of it would end up in circulation. once you've depleted that a meaningful amount then yes, your plasma triglyceride levels change. _url_0_ assuming you didn't quit 5 hours ago and have been consuming enough carbs to keep the fat fire burning. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ajcn.org/content/72/2/558S.full"
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do we know anything specific enough to see the string from gene to algorithm of attraction for the complex organism? | for example, what specific things can proteins (or other mechanisms) do to effect what we judge as attractive? if i was to go about making such a specific attraction of red bellies for an organism i was creating say, how would i manipulate with genes, my organism to prefer a certain color for a belly. i tried looking at the wiki but it just tells me what we are attracted to, but not how genetics can change what we are biologically attracted to. | there's about a 50% chance someone with the same genes (an identical twin) as a homosexual will nevertheless be heterosexual. i'd consider that a pretty significant difference in what they consider sexually attractive. so how do you justify the premise of the question here - that it would be possible to determine someone's preferences from their genes alone in the first place? | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_Histocompatibility_Complex_and_Sexual_Selection",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1764843/"
] | [
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] |
how bad is hookah for you? | it is worse than smoking cigarettes or cigars because you are inhaling significantly more smoke. think about it this way, when someone goes and has a cigarette, how long does it take for them to smoke it? about 5 minutes on average. but when you are smoking hookah, you are doing it for a much greater period of time, some do it for hours non stop. also, consider how hookah is smoked compared to how one smokes a cigarette or cigar. with hookah, one inhales deeply, some even do it to lungs capacity. this method of inhalation coupled with the longer time span makes hookah smoking much more hazardous to ones health. it is estimated that in an average one hour session, a hookah smoker inhales up to 200 times the amount of smoke that a cigarette smoker does. also along with the cancers associated with cigarette smoking, hookah smokers are at risk for cancers that are caused by the charcoals used during smoking. these charcoals produce carbon monoxide, a known carcinogen. also, the incidences of oral cancer are higher for hookah smokers than for cigar or cigarette smokers due to the juices of the shisha tobacco, and the prolonged smoking time. here are some sources to check out [center for disease control-hookahs](_url_1_) [harvard health publications](_url_0_) [the mayo clinic](_url_2_) [hookah smoking and cancer (pdf)](_url_3_) | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.health.harvard.edu/press_releases/dangers-of-hookah-smoking",
"http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/tobacco_industry/hookahs/",
"http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hookah/AN01265",
"http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1477-7517-5-19.pdf"
] | [
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] |
|
does anyone ever actually request vectors/constructs from authors of papers? | the microbiology lab i worked in got constructs from other researchers without problem whenever we tried. i would gladly offer up any of mine too! i don't think it's unrealistic to expect a lab to sent off constructs they've used in published work; it's not out-dated. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
hey askscience, do any of you all know if studying with music has been scientifically proven to work? and if so, how? if not, why? | i always study with music, but my girlfriend condemned me for it today and accounted my bad exam grade to it. i am wondering if there is any research out there concerning study habits and the correlation between retention and music. more importantly, i am wondering if any of you all have done research in this field. thanks! | now, i don't know of any study specifically concerning music. what has been quite well researched is how context influences learning: recall is better, if the context matches the encoding context. however, "context" in this case means a multitude of things such as noise levels, moods and a billion other things. i don't like linking wikipedia obviously, but check this out: _url_0_ the article is quite well written (and matches my cognitive psychology material) and has a (metric obviously) butt-load of references to studies. i personally think it is still going to take decade of research until we understand our memory (especially the long-term stuff) well enough to make statements like "studying with music is proven to be better than studying without" with any certainty. i would say cautiously guess however: in most cases, it won't increase your ability to recall the stuff you studied (since you can't create the context "music" during the exam), but i would speculate that it also won't diminish it. can't find any studies towards a detrimental effect of different contexts right now... | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context-dependent_memory#Tips_for_studying"
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why is surface area good for a brain? | i've heard that brains are wrinkled to increase surface area. but why would more surface area be beneficial to a brain compared to more volume to pack in more neurons? | the outermost wrinkly part of the brain is the cerebral cortex. it covers the much smaller (in humans) cerebrum and has a variety of functions. thickness, especially in the outermost neocortical layers of the cerebral cortex, is important for general intelligence. in creatures that are very small or primitive a thick cerebral cortex is unnecessary because their brains have less work to do and the cerebral cortex fits snugly around the cerebrum. in mammals with higher demands, this layer must be larger and this results in a wrinkly appearance. why not just make the layers thicker? evolution does odd things; somehow this was easier. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i had a plastic jug of bleach bulge so that the bottom became round. what causes that? | text | bleach is a relativly unstable salt in water. when it decomposes, it forms oxygen. this decomposition is faster if the temperature is higher. so if you store a bottle of bleach at high temp. it will form gas which will bend the bottom due to pressure build up. my guess is also that the bottom was designed to give in to pressure so that the container remains intact. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how long could you live on life support machines? | i'm wondering how long could you could live if you were perfectly healthy, then put on life support and even as your organs failed you were put on more supports to function for them. is this possible? if it is/were possible how long could you function cognitively? could you live for "forever" or longer than the average lifespan? | no we can't. we can replace the heart, the lungs and the kidneys more or less sufficiently for quite some time, but these systems are not perfect, and sooner or later you'd die anyway. moreover it is not possible to replace liver function from the outside, at least not fully. so when the liver fails and you don't get a transplant, you're toast. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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was mawrth vallis on mars really made in one day? | so i am currently reading *the martian* and came across a passage that i found interesting. without mentioning any spoilers, the main character at one point mentions that the mawrth vallis on mars was created in one day. i find this to be an incredible claim. i've done a bit of basic research (googling) and haven't found anything. is this true? if so, what sort of geological occurrence could possibly create such a large feature in such a short period of time? or did i simply interpret that passage incorrectly? | mawrth vallis and other similar features on mars are termed [outflow channels](_url_2_) and are thought to have been formed by gigantic floods back when mars still had significant surface water. these floods occur when a natural dam or barrier - often a glacier - blocks a river and later collapses suddenly. what's more, there are examples of these features on earth too! the best known is probably the [channeled scablands](_url_1_) in the pacific northwest. here, the floods resulted from the breaking of an ice dam near present-day missoula, montana. all that being said, a day is probably a bit of an exaggeration. at least on earth, it is likely that these features were [flooded repeatedly](_url_0_), around every 50 years, with each large flood altering the landscape (i wasn't able to find an estimate for the duration of each flooding event). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missoula_Floods#Flood_events",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channeled_Scablands",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outflow_channels"
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please, /r/askscience, this is an actual question, i am actually curious: why would shrimp behave this way? | the person who answered the question in /r/pics was a long time aquarist who had kept these kinds of shrimp before and answered the question completely. the filter is under the gravel and it pushes water up. they stand around it and wait for little food particles. why wouldn't you "buy" that? are you looking for some specific answer? here's a link to the answer: _url_0_ what more do you actually need? | 86 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/pics/comments/1avxxw/the_crayfish_council_has_spoken_their_armies_have/c91b28l"
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|
are there any differences between muscles that have atrophied and regrown and muscles that have never atrophied? | [deleted] | generally, muscle that has atrophied and regrown (which not all kinds of muscles can do) will be indistinguishable from original tissue. the details of this process are a little more complex, as pathologists define growth and cell death in several different ways. the quick and dirty breakdown is this: tissues grow in two ways. cells can get bigger (hypertrophy) or cells can multiply so that there are more cells in the tissue (hyperplasia). tissues also shrink in a few different ways. the cells can undergo cell suicide (apoptosis), where they basically digest themselves (think like pac-man does, leaving nothing behind), or they can die because of overwhelming stress (necrosis), that's kind of like a person getting hit by a semi. it's ugly. you can also shrink the size of the cells by degrading proteins, without killing the cell. atrophy, strictly speaking, is a combination of atrophy and the shrinkage of cells. if you're talking about not using a muscle, like what we see in astronauts, then yes, the regrown muscle will be indistinguishable (with the tacit acknowledgement prolonged exposure to microgravity might change muscle metabolism in ways we haven't discovered yet, we just don't know). if you're talking about losing blood flow to a muscle, then that is actually necrosis, and the muscle that regrows could look the same, or different depending on the type of muscle we're talking about. for example, in a "heart attack" the muscle does not grow back, and you can see that clearly if you look at the heart muscle. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are some units measured with negative powers? | examples: kilojoules per meter squared per year---kj m^-2 yr^-1 biomass is measured in grams per meter per year g m^-2 yr^-1 why are the exponents negative? wouldn't those signify the reciprocal of a year or 1/meter^2? am i thinking to strictly mathematical in a scientific field or is my math incorrect? | i don't quite follow your question. writing kjm^(-2)yr^(-1) is the same as writing kj/m^(2)yr- perhaps the former is sometime preferred because it only takes a single line, but they are identical statements. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what concepts/terms describe how isolated groups form and sustain beliefs? | for example, one of the mechanisms that make cults pernicious is that members are cut off from others who might challenge their beliefs (and outside information more generally). i know there is some work on this phenomenon, but i thought i'd ask the experts before i go trudging around google scholar. i am interested in academic work rather than pop-sci stuff or anecdotal stories. thanks! | that sort of group dynamics aren't really my subfield, but [group polarization](_url_1_) might be be good place to start looking. it doesn't apply specifically to isolated groups, but it helps explain how groups gravitate towards extremity. you're probably already familiar with the term, but if not the literature on [groupthink](_url_0_) will probably inform any answer to your question. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupthink",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_polarization"
] | [
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how consistent is the earths' path every year? | like is it always returning to the same exact spot? (relative to the solar system) | earth's orbit is (at present) elliptical, a little bit off-circular. and like u/flostyyy said it shifts a little bit forward each year, tracing out a spirograph-like path around the sun. this is called apsidal precession, and [it takes about 112,000 years for our orbit to precess fully around the sun](_url_1_) (relative to the "fixed" stars). however, our orbit also changes shape over long periods of time. because of the rhythm of the orbits of jupiter and venus (the two planets with the biggest gravitational influence on our own orbit, owing to their sizes and proximities) our orbit is constantly being squeezed and squashed, going from a near-perfect circle in some years, to an elongated ellipse in others. this circle-ellipse-circle cycle has been repeating since at least the triassic (and probably longer, but that's as long as we have evidence for) with a single cycle completing [every 405,000 years](_url_0_). so between our orbit rotating around the sun every 112,000 years, and our orbit returning to roughly the same shape twice every 405,000 years, it's probably a very rare event that the earth is in the *exact* same spot as it was in a previous recent orbit (again, relative to the fixed stars). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2018/05/01/1800891115",
"https://academic.oup.com/gji/article/11/3/323/663422"
] | [
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eating dry ice. a few questions. | so, there are several questions that i'd like to ask about this. one, how much dry ice will you need to consume to kill you if ingested? two, what happens if you don't swallow said dry ice? and finally, what happens when you fully ingest it? | it kills you by burning (freezing and killing cells) your throat. there is no specific mass for this as it depends on the temperature of the dry ice. it will burn (freeze and kill cells) your mouth. refer to question 1. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2007/09000/Frostbite_of_the_Esophagus.15.aspx"
] | [
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what are the prevailing theories in physics today? (as of any and all recent discoveries with the lhc) | just to elaborate on what i mean, here are a few theories i have heard about: superstring theory, supersymmetry, m theory, standard model, quantum mechanics, general relativity etc. i know that list reeks of ignorance, but i would like to also understand the relation between some of those theories and whether some are synonymous, inclusive, mutually exclusive. any info would be helpful! | physics at small scales is described by the standard model, which is a combination of several quantum field theories. at the largest scales, it's described by a version general relativity called the roberston-walker model, where the universe is flat and expanding. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are heaters and ac units measured in units of energy (btu) and not units of power (w)? | measuring a heater in energy makes more intuitive sense in my mind, as you are measuring how much heat energy you are dumping into the room every second. however, heaters and ac units are measured in units of energy. | my phone says there are other comments, i don't see them though. i don't know why on earth you would measure anything in btu. in continental europe we measure energy in joule or (k)wh and power in watts. my heater conveniently states everything in watt. stating a unit of energy only makes sense if you state the time, probably hours. in that case you could also just state the power as power = energy/unit of time. if you are measuring your energy bill in btu, then it probably makes sense to state the power usage of your ac in btu/hr. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how many degrees would it take to create a noticeable difference to an ecosystem? | i can't find any information on it, but would it take a single degree? or would it take a large amount? also, i am referring to if the entire ecosystem heated simultaneously. | entirely dependent on which ecosystem. some very fragile ecosystems may be significantly changed by a one degree increase (e.g. some shallow marine, cave, or periglacial type systems). others may be resilient up to 5 or perhaps even 10 degrees (e.g. dune desert) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/news/models-hone-picture-of-climate-impacts-1.10020"
] | [
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[biology] how do the cells of a zygote "know" how to make a person? | you've basically asked one of the most fundamental questions of biology - and one of the questions that we (scientists) are all trying to work out. there are several differnt things going on. the first is that each cell contains dna - which provides blue prints for how to make machinery for every single type of cell in the body. that's the core "knowledge" that each cell has - carrying one copy from each parent. (there's some awesomely neat stuff going on to figure out which parent's copy of which "instruction" (gene) gets used, but that's another topic. the dna itself is annotated in several ways, which turns the "instructions" (genes) on and off, through something called epigenetics. some of these are actual chemical modifications (eg, methylation) of the dna bases themselves, which can be used to signal that an instruction set should be ignored, or sometimes that it must be used. another "epigenetic" mark is that the dna wraps itself around structural spools (histones) to keep it organized - because dna is a freaking long molecule and you don't want it getting tangled. these spools can also be marked, signalling to the machinery that some instructions should be used more than others, or sometimes turned on or off... or even regulating how they're used (alternate splicing). it's a rather complex science, and we're only just getting to the bottom of it. however, i mentioned "the machinery" of the cell - which is rather a broad topic. cells tend to follow their instructions to turn on and off things called "transcription factors", which really function to recruit the mechanisms that copy and translate the dna. these transcription factors are neat because they can read both the methylation marks as well as the histone marks... and furthermore, read the dna itself. not that they do much with the reading, but they look for specific sequences and, when they find them, insist that some instruction sets turn on and off according to the pattern that they require. ok, so all that is really a high level glossing over what's going on, which involves thousands, if not millions of molecules pouring over the dna, copying, translating, interpreting and creating more molecules that in turn copy, translate and interpret the dna themselves. what you end up with is an incredible dance of all of these factors doing things in ridiculously complex dances. each transcription factor can be turned on and off in adjacent tissues, and sometimes they cooperate to have synergistic effects. given that there are thousands of transcription factors working in the human body, and we only know what a handful are doing at a time (mostly because we've studied them in other animals), the actual instructions of how to make a person are generally beyond our current understanding.... but you can see them in other organisms. c. elegans, a worm, for instance, only has about 761 cells (iirc), and you can trace the fate of each one from the zygote to the worm stage - and it works exactly the same way each time. (see this figure for instance: _url_0_ ) anyhow, i'm happy to answer what questions i can - i study epigenetics and am just getting into early human development. they are fascinating fields. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wormbook.org/chapters/www_organformation/organopharynxfig3.jpg"
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|
in any given animal cell, are there multiple endoplasmic reticula or is there only one reticulum? | i know the endoplasmic reticulum is subdivided into the rough and the smooth, but since they are connected and have no clear boundary between them, i consider that one endoplasmic reticulum. will there be two or more separate endoplasmic reticulum apparent in the same animal cell, sprouting from the same nucleus at different locations? | i think for functional purposes, you can consider there being 1 er which is continuous with the nuclear membrane. what can vary among differentiated cells is the level of activity of the er and the amounts of the smooth and rough er. ie. over time, liver cells will up-regulate and proliferate their smooth er amount in response to increased alcohol consumption because smooth er is involved in ethanol metabolism and the liver’s metabolism need to keep up with the increased alcohol consumption. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are volts lost due to internal resistance? | can someone explain why volts are lost due to internal resistance when current is drawn from a cell? from my understanding as resistance increases so does voltage so if anything should the tpd not increase? | voltage drop across a resistor increases *if* current is held constant. v = ri. this only works if you have a current source, that is something that provides a fixed current. and as we crank up the load resistance to get a larger voltage drop, the current source has to increase its voltage to match or exceed this. you can never have more volts in voltage drop than you have in supply voltage. a battery is a voltage source, not a current source. the cells' chemistry dictates a fixed voltage. v = ri is better viewed as i = v/r, where v is fixed as the battery voltage. r here is the load resistance and battery internals resistance in combination. this tells you how much current will be flowing. once you get the current from here, you can go back to v = ri and find out how much voltage drop there is internally and how much at the load. any voltage drop internally is volts lost. if you have a 12v battery and 3v if internal voltage drop (for a given load), the battery terminals are at 9v and theredore the load only had a voltage drop of 9v. the internal voltage drop comes out of the total voltage, it doesn't add to it as the chemistry is a voltage source and can't put out any more volts. the voltage drop across all resistances in the circuit, internal resistance in the electrolyte included, has to equal the battery chemical potential. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are digital watches still so thick? | electronics have come a long way in 30 years, yet our digital watches still largely resemble the casios of the '80s. there are [exceptions](_url_0_), but generally most digital watches still perform just 3-5 functions and are still ~1 cm thick. if an apple watch can do everything it does in its form factor, shouldn't a watch that just tells time on a 1-color screen be way thinner? why has the electronics revolution - which has shrunk computers to pocket-sized - completely skipped digital watches? | we do have thin watches, and some are [quite cheap](_url_0_). however, watches are essentially jewelry which happens to also tell time. form need not only follow function, and so we have watches which are thick partially due to style considerations, rather than purely practical purposes. | 18 | [] | [
"https://www.megatechnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/pebble-time-round-profile.jpg"
] | [
"https://www.amazon.com/Affute-Luxury-Watches-Analog-Display/dp/B0154FQ8A6/ref=br_lf_m_3esuouaqzc8z6nu_ttl?_encoding=UTF8&s=watches"
] | [
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a question about phases and pressure | imagine we have a hypothetical container, like a balloon, but infinitely strong and resizable and also completely sealed and filled with one litre of water (10cm^3). if we then reduced the size of the container, would the water ever become solid (ice)? what size would the container have to be for this to happen and how would it happen (all at once, middle out, edges in or something else?) similarly, could we make it a gas by increasing the size of the container? what size would it need to be to make it into a gas? | just look at a [phase diagram for water.] (_url_0_) at high pressure and low temperature, you will get ice. this will nucleate randomly if the container is perfectly insulated, not at the outsides or in the center. by increasing the volume, and decreasing the pressure, you will get gas at pretty much all temperatures. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://serc.carleton.edu/images/research_education/equilibria/h2o_phase_diagram_-_color.v2.jpg"
] | [
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how could i make ferrofluid that doesn't leave a dark 'trail' wherever i drag it across? essentially a 'clear' i guess. | i want to make ferrofluid and i have looked up tutorials online but they all involve the use of a dark, staining liquid, often ink or something of the sort and this causes a trail wherever the fluid is dragged. basically i need it to be clear in a way so when i put it in a plastic, clear ball, the fluid won't be dark so it won't stain the plastic and i will be able to see into it easily. if this is possible or anybody knows a way, thanks! :d | i'm not a trained physicist, but from my limited understanding, ferrofluids are fluids that have tiny particles of magnetic material suspended in them. unless there is a transparent substance that is magnetic and easily suspended in a transparent fluid that has the specific characteristics that keep a ferrofluid homogenous, i'd say it's impossible. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would the weight of the tether affect the total angular momentum in a system? | if you had a ball on a rope, would the rope add a significant amount of angular momentum to the system? | yes, it has a effect that depends on the rope's mass. in a rotating system a rope with mass m and length l will have a moment of inertia of ml^2 /3 along the axis of rotation at one of its ends. multiplied by the angular velocity along this axis, this gives a contribution to the total angular momentum of the system. but if the mass of the rope is small then the contribution can be neglected. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
efimov physics: could someone explain the significance? | i stumble on an article about the [efimov effect] (_url_0_). there were only a couple of posts on reddit about it and most of the comments were deleted. i'm a lay person (ie. don't have a degree in physics) and was hoping someone might be able to explain why pairing three bosons is such a breakthrough. i've searched everywhere for an answer, but couldn't find anything that explained the potential applicability of this or how this alters the classical view of physics. is it just that it suggest things work differently at the quantum level than we think? thanks! | it's not "such a breakthrough" exactly, as there aren't really all that many applications ... so much as it's a purely-quantum, non-classical effect that isn't predicted by classical theory yet exists nonetheless due to quantum effects. so really it's just confirming a prediction we made. the [wiki article](_url_1_) describes it as similar to [borromean rings](_url_0_). borromean rings are an arrangement of three rings where none of the three rings is locked with the other two (so, none of the rings pass through each other to form a chain-like link), however even though none of the rings are locked to the others, the way the three rings are arranged topologically results in them all being bound to each other. if you removed any one of the rings, the other two would not be bound -- so it's a bound state of three rings that is explicitly *not* made up of bound states of smaller numbers of rings. anyway the efimov state is similar to borromean rings in that it is a bound state of three particles, where none of the three particles is bound to either of the other two, individually. so the state is stable when it otherwise wouldn't be from the purely classical prediction. what's remarkable though is that efimov's prediction is that there should be an infinite number of excited efimov states which are stable, at increasingly large distances and energies. so the ground efimov state has some characteristic distance at which the three particles are bound together -- at smaller distances, the three particles are not bound and they repel each other. they repel each other at larger distances too ... so they are only stable at just the right distance. *except* ... this also works at multiples of 22.7 times this distance (with 22.7 times the energy). so if your three particles are groupwise-bound at a distance of 1 unit and an energy of 1 unit, they will also be bound at a distance of 22.7 units and an energy of 22.7 units. and they will also bound at a distance of 22.7^(2) = 515.29 units, and so on for 22.7^(3) all the way up. this despite the fact that the three particles will repel each other and break up at any other size/energy combination. hope that helps. | 2 | [] | [
"https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/cocktail-party-physics/three-8217-s-company-two-8217-s-a-crowd-meet-the-efimov-effect/"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borromean_rings",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efimov_state"
] | [
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wats up with violet's frequency? | the other day i was learning about scpectroscopy in my chemistry class. when we came up to the topic of the light spectrum we went over the whole roygbiv color frequency order. my friend pointed out how red and yellow combine to make orange and orange has a frequency between both red and yellow, and it seemed to be the same with all other simple colors that combined. then i noticed that red and blue combine to form violet, but violet has a higher frequency than both colors. why is it have different properties? | it helps to think of red and blue giving purple, not violet. it can be a bit of a semantics game. i work with leds for plant growth studies. violet (monochromatic 400nm to about 430nm) often gives a different photomorphogenesis response than purple (about 440nm-480nm combined with about 630-690nm). _url_0_ _url_1_ edit:clarity | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purple",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violet_%28color%29"
] | [
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physics question concerning the definition of a meter | if the speed of light is a constant, then why is a meter defined as the length of the path travelled by light in a *vacuum* in 1⁄299,792,458 of a second? is it because of general relativity? | because of special relativity, the speed of light is measured to be constant (in vacuum) everywhere to all observers. so it seems good to define a measurement of length off a concept anyone in the universe would be able to understand. this removes the human element and allows our measurements to simply be combinations of physical constants and not cultural artifacts. however you're really asking why 1/299792458 of a second is used. first, it's because this value gives everyone roughly the same meter length that was defined and based off human culture. so we can all use the same length, but remove the human element from it. okay, your next question is "how is the second defined then?" the second is defined as: "the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom." why these fairly specific numbers? the reasoning is because the caesium atom will always bounce up an down this number of times to give us roughly the same second we're all used to. in both cases, the meter and second were actually fundamentally changed. however to keep things simple we made sure the physical constants we used still gave us almost exactly the same numbers we used before and remove the human element from the measurement. there is a system of measurement called "natural units" which define everything only in terms of combinations of physical constants. however some, but not all of these units are either too small or too big to be practical and relatable to people. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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bio/physics question : why is valence in the denominator of the nernst equation? | hi guys! i'm a neuroscience phd student who had a minor in physics and for some reaosn i can't physically intuit why valence is in the denominator of the nernst equation, which to refresh your memories is roughly v = [(rt)/(zf) ]* ln [co]/[cin] i've gone through the derivations, which make mathematical sense as to why z is on the bottom. however, i can't understand why divalent ionic species would result in a smaller potential than monovalent species. is it because of charge charge interactions between the divalent species such as ca 2+ that would cause greater repulsion on either sides they occupy? i know that v goes by 1/r, but how is it that this would result in an exact difference by a magnitude of 2 eludes me. thanks guys! | that's not valence in the denominator, it's the number of electrons transferred in the electrochemical process. voltage is j/c, which means a reaction that releases 1000 kj spread amongst 10 electrons has a higher voltage than the same 1000 kj spread amongst 20 electrons. that's all there is to it. ion size, charge, and other specifics can be included in the equation, but they are minor correction factors that could give non-ideal behavior as predicted by the nernst equation. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are t cells educated when your thyroid gland is destroyed and/or removed? | i'm thinking of similar situations such as hypothyroidism caused by the autoimmune hasimoto's disease where your immune system literally attacks your thyroid into oblivion. edit: ~~thyroid~~ **thymus** | you're confusing your thyroid and your thymus. t cells get educated in the thymus, which is near your lungs, (between them, actually). your thyroid (in your neck) primarily controls your body's hormone levels. two different organs. :) edit: because reddit keeps asking me to refrain from layman comments, - phd in immunology here. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can anyone tell me why this was happening to my oj bottle? (video) | _url_0_ was eating breakfast and had just poured oj and sat down to eat then heard a strange noise coming from the counter, went over and saw this happening, grabbed my phone and took a video of it. can anyone explain why this was happening? | judging by the condensation on your bottle, i'm guessing it was recently taken out of the fridge? if so, then the cold contents inside the bottle will be warming up to room temperature. warming any gas up causes its pressure to increase. the gas molecules inside the bottle will be pushing harder against the cap which apparently does not allow gas to escape until it is open to a certain extent, so the result is that it gets lifted up until it can release some gas. since the bottle is still not room temperature, the gas continues to expand as soon as the cap shuts again, starting the cycle over. | 8 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YOLzoXo4KDw"
] | [] | [
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given any two shades of a color, will there always exist a third shade which lies in between these two shades? | to rephrase my question in different ways: is there a 1 is to 1 mapping between the set of real numbers and the set of wavelengths of visible light? or is there a known minimum difference 'x' in wavelength between any two shades a and b as long as a != b? are visible colors continuous or discrete? | as a mathematical aside: bijection with an uncountable set (like the reals) is not necessary for there to always be a third value between any two given values. all that is needed for that is a densely ordered set. for example, the rational numbers will do. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE_1931_color_space"
] | [
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] |
is translational energy quantized like rotation and vibration, or is it a continuum? | in physical chemistry, i was taught that molecules have discrete rotational, vibrational, and electronic states, each of which have distinct selection rules. are translational states quantized as well, or does translational energy behave in a classical manner at the molecular level? | yes, these translational levels are quantised - they are what you get out of the particle in a box exercises that you may have done when introduced to qm. they are extremely closely spaced, such that translational energy often "looks" classical because so many different translational energy levels are populated even at low temperatures. if you've met the idea of a partition function, you will notice that the [translational partition function](_url_0_) has h^3 on the bottom of a fraction, so it's pretty much always going to be a vast number, indicating that many energy states are available. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translational_partition_function"
] | [
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how did scientists come across/discover how different objects or items deteriorate? | like how did they find out that it takes some fruit a couple of months or how styrofoam lasts forever? did they make a simulation of time through radiation or did they literally just look after the objects for that time span for generations? | very often, this is determined experimentally with [accelerated aging](_url_0_). there are some problems with this type of testing though, since you can sometimes force reactions to occur that wouldn't happen in normal aging conditions. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerated_aging"
] | [
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what is exactly one second? and can the duration of a second change? | i have been thinking a lot but how do you define one second? and can the duration on one second be changed or it is already changing? or is constant | initially the second was 1/86400 of a mean solar day, but this isn't accurate enough, so the second was re-defined to be the duration at which the frequency of microwave radiation from a specific transition in caesium is *exactly* 9,192,631,770 hz. with this definition you can set up some fancy optics and trap some caesium atoms and be able to reconstruct the second. | 57 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could you see through, or hold a sheet of graphene? | a single sheet of graphene, one atom thick i was wondering if it would be transparent, opaque or translusent and if it would be possible to even pick it up. | it basically makes looks the substrate look slightly darker. i can't find a good picture but here's a screen coated in graphene: [link](_url_0_). a suspended sheet with no substrate would just look seethrough. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://mgitecetech.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/13.jpg"
] | [
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question abou tuniverse size | if 13.7 billion light years is the size of the visible universe from our point on earth, does that mean that the earth is at the center of our visible universe. second if the universe is expanding doesn't that mean that once the light from stars that are 13.7 billion light years reach us they are actually no longer there and are in fact farther than 13.7 billion light years? | the visible universe has a radius of ~46 billion light years due to the expansion of space. everyone is at the center of their visible universe. yes. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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Subsets and Splits