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i'd like to teach myself calculus, what is the best way to do this? | there are plenty of free online courses out there. [here's one example.](_url_0_) alternatively, your local university would probably be okay with you auditing a course. search their website, most of them have info on how to go about this. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://ocw.mit.edu/resources/res-18-006-calculus-revisited-single-variable-calculus-fall-2010/"
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|
am i understanding the recent /r/physics post on silicon droplets correctly. | there was a [post recently](_url_0_) on /r/physics that explores how silicone droplets create interference patterns when bouncing on a vibrating, liquid surface. i'm unfortunately a bit too late to the party and wanted to be sure i was understanding it correctly. as i understand it the particle is being pushed around by the location of the waves on the surface, at the point that the droplet touches the liquid. the waves are themselves produced by the previous bounces of the droplet interacting in an interference pattern. so essentially there is a feedback loop between the drop and the liquid that creates the movement. is this correct? this video, linked from the comments of the op](_url_1_) shows more detail in a less dramatic way, and it demonstrates the interference pattern that is shown in quantum mechanics (but not from a double slit). am i right in thinking that the reason this is interesting is that it shows how a particle can show wave like properties, because the droplets interaction with the liquid is creating a wave that moves the particle. however this is only an analogue to what is happening at the quantum level because this system relies on an underlying medium (the liquid) to create the waves and that current quantum mechanic theories (copenhagen) do not support this? | it's a physical system that behaves sort of analogously to the [de broglie-bohm](_url_0_) interpration of quantum mechanics. in this there's the "pilot wave" (the surfaces waves on the water) that evolves deterministically, and there's the particle, whose position evolves according to the pilot wave (the particle is pushed around by the surface waves). if you start with a distribution of particles that satisfies the born rule (i.e. density proportional to square of the wavefunction), it'll continue to do so as it evolves. this allows you to do things like "see" which slit a particle passes through in the double-slit experiment. however, there is some interesting recent research that a configuration of particles starting in a non-born distribution will tend to evolve into a born distribution. as far as i understand, the test particles don't actually affect the pilot wave, so there's no feedback loop. in this case the particle appears to rapidly bounce up and down on the water surface, but isn't creating the actual waves that push it around. i don't know if the water field can emulate many body mechanics, as it's only 2 dimensional, rather than the 2n dimensions needed for n particles in two dimensions. personally i don't really see the point in de broglie-bohm. it's non-local, it doesn't simplify the many-body wavefunction, it doesn't play well with relativity, and the particles are unobservable test particles anyway. there's a free graduate lecture course [available here](_url_1_). | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Physics/comments/1fzari/silicon_droplets_act_like_waveparticles/",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nmC0ygr08tE"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Broglie%E2%80%93Bohm_theory",
"http://www.tcm.phy.cam.ac.uk/~mdt26/pilot_waves.html"
] | [
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is there any real science supporting "brain training" like lumosity or similar? | i have heard that keeping the mind challenged is beneficial for older people, or those with early dementia, but what about for the general population or younger people? is there any real science supporting "brain training" helping performance in the real world? | hey! my lab does this work i've answered the question a few times before, but should probably do a better write up so you'll get a fresh answer! the evidence is ambiguous, mostly because a lot of the studies that have found promising results also leave us with some questions about the strength of their methods. the two biggest researchers you'll hear about are [susanne jaeggi](_url_5_) who has found some quite remarkable results in brain training. the second person is [randy engle](_url_7_) who is quite skeptical of the idea. i'll get into both of their work shortly, but they both have published numerous articles that support their own arguments and conflit with the opposing view point. *on working memory:* first, a bit of background. specifically, most of the work in brain training focuses around the idea of improving working memory, so called "working memory training." now you may ask why, or first, what is working memory? working memory is the ability to hold information in mind (just like short term memory) and to manipulate that information (a process called updating). working memory requires attention to be paid to either internal or external representations of objects in order for that information to be maintained **(1)**. in his famous paper, "[the magical number seven, plus or minus two](_url_6_)" george miller argued that you could hold 7 items in working memory at any one time, plus or minus 2 depending on individual differences. now, there are different things that influence this, such as how similar words are. words in the same category will allow you remember more, but also may lead to false positives. but this is the basic idea of working memory. so why improve working memory? well, working memory is a promising target because it is strongly correlated with nearly every positive trait you can imagine, from memory to attention to intelligence quotients, to be able to improve it, and possible improve those other cognitive domains, would be huge. this brings up another issue, the question of transfer. specifically, we refer to two types of transfer, near transfer, which is the transfer of say improved working memory to mental rotation, versus far transfer, which would be something like improved working memory to reading comprehension. *on methodology:* working memory training studies like to utilize what is known as a n-back task. this task shows you an image, say an apple, and asks you if it was the same image as the image that was displayed n images ago. so if you're doing a 2-back, and had the order go banana - the method of these studies is also important, as i mentioned above, their's been some contraversy about this. specifically, a study that aims to show an intervention should have a few qualities, which you may be familiar with from things like clinical trails. firstly, they must have a control group, a group which is doing a similar activity that would induce an equal placebo effect as the intervention, while not being beneficial in its own right. secondly, a study should be randomized and double-blind. randomized means that the process which places individuals in the placebo or the intervention condition, should be random (or as close to random as we can get.) double-blind means that both the participants in the experiment and the researchers conducting the experiment are both 'blind' or unaware of who is in the experimental condition and who is in the placebo condition. *a short look of the literature:* phew, okay, now, onto actually answering your question, sorry for the detour! jaeggi's biggest paper from 2008 **(2)** found distant transfer from an n-back task to improved ability on [raven's advanced progressive matrices](_url_4_), which is a measure of visual reasoning ability and thought to be a measurement of intelligence. the study itself is little circumspect, most notable due to it's lack of an 'active' control group. the control group in this study were individuals who simply took the pre and post test assessments and did no activity in between. a follow up study in 2010 **(3)** found that, in elementary aged children, fluid intelligence was increased in those who showed the greatest gains in the training task, and this study had an active control group. randy engle's biggest paper **(4)** showed no transfer effects to any domain, they had three groups, a no-contact control group (similar to jaeggi's 2008 control group), a visual search control group, and a n-back experimental group. they used ~14 different tasks to measure transfer effects, and performed the cognitive assessments at the start of training, in the middle, and at the end. now his study wasn't double-blind, but his results, or lack there of, were staggering none the less. it's important to note, both groups argue that more research needs to be conducted, there is a lot of evidence on both sides, a recent meta-analysis **(5)** found that in general, there may be a small effect of cognitive training, but that result was not significant. lumosity has been attending conferences with their data set of 100,000 individuals. they found a few cool things, first that the more you practice the better you do, and that this effect is attenuated by your age, so older adults need more training than younger adults for similar results. this is most likely due to decreased neuroplasticity (ability for the brain to change itself) in older adults. **tl;dr** - the evidence is on both sides but it seems to be leaning towards yes, it does work. i will say lumosity is showing up at professional conferences with data in hand and it looks promising, whereas sites such as cogmed have seen a number of studies arguing against their effectiveness. **(1)** [neural evidence for a distinction between short-term memory and the focus of attention](_url_0_) **(2)** [improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory ](_url_3_) **(3)** [short- and long-term benefits of cognitive training](_url_8_) **(4)** [no evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: a randomized, placebo-controlled study](_url_1_) **(5)** [is working memory training effective? a meta-analytic review](_url_2_) | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://psych.wisc.edu/postlab/pubs/Lewis-Peacock_JOCN_2012.pdf",
"http://psychology.gatech.edu/renglelab/Redicketal2012.pdf",
"http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/dev-49-2-270.pdf",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/105/19/6829.long",
"http://assets2.bigthink.com/system/tinymce_assets/100/original/Ravens.jpg?1351208390",
"http://www.wmp.umd.edu/index.html",
"http://cogprints.org/730/1/miller.html",
"http://psychology.gatech.edu/renglelab/",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/108/25/10081.long"
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is there any proof that neti pots (those teapots for your nose) do much of anything? | yes. [here's a review article of many papers on the subject]( _url_0_). also, i can tell you that this shit does wonders in relieving sinus pressure. for me, at least. | 35 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1097/00005537-200007000-00023/full",
"http://www.nydailynews.com/life-style/health/neti-pots-brain-eating-amoeba-scare-sinus-sufferers-article-1.992895?localLinksEnabled=false"
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|
what is the purpose of embalming? why did we start doing it? | the purpose of embalming is to preserve the body until burial. embalming as practiced in the western world (e.g. not mummification) is temporary at best: it does not prevent decomposition, merely delays it. in america the practice became widespread during the civil war as a means of preserving bodies long enough to transport them home. ethyl alcohol was an early fixative. depending upon environmental conditions, noticeable decomp can begin in as little as twenty-four hours; after just a few days, you can observe blackening of the skin, sloughing, shrinkage; embalming forestalls that. (in the right conditions, complete skeletonization can happen in as little in two weeks.) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there a statistically significant difference in any variable depending on the season of the year you were born? | like a stronger immune system? a higher likelihood of having certain traits? | this is more sociological than biological, but there is something called the relative age effect where the arbitrary dates placed on age groups for youth sports leads to children born towards the earlier dates to be more successful and likely to become professional than the kids born later in the date range. for example if you have a youth hockey league with teams based on kids born in each year, starting with kids born in the year 2012 (just for example) the kids born close to january will have about a year's growth mentally and physically more than the kids born in december, and will see more playtime and get more experience in games. the effect diminishes with age, for example [this study](_url_0_) found very little evidence of the effect among canadian nhl players (contrary to the popularly cited book outliers by malcolm gladwell, which brings it up) | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4035396/"
] | [
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] |
wouldn't one be guaranteed to live again? | this may be a controversial question, but here goes. if time itself is infinite, wouldn't ones atoms rearrange itself in the exact same fashion an infinite number of times. if this is correct, wouldn't all of this have already happened an infinite number of times? this question would only apply if time was infinite. but if time loops, that would mean at some point we would have already experienced life. but when one is dead, they cease to remember, so an infinity would pass instantaneously. to me, it's like dividing infinity by 0. if i'm correct, as soon as one dies, they will be born again in some conscious form, maybe completely alien, maybe exactly the same as before. but i wouldn't get too excited if i'm correct, because one would forget everything forever once they die. are there any big flaws in my logic? this question has bugged me for the past couple of weeks, and i yet have found any problems. ps: i'm no physicist or philosophizer, i just kind of thought it would make sense. and this is completely unrelated to religion. | even assuming time *is* infinite, a controversial claim, one's body wouldn't necessarily reassemble itself. for example, 3.3333 is infinite, but you'll never find the string 752 anywhere in it. it's impossible. similarly, your body being reassembled might be impossible. so it appears possible, but not inevitable. it probably isn't even possible. if i am destroyed, and then an alien lifeform appears on some far off world, with no memory of me or evidence of my existence, it seems almost nonsensical to say that that alien is me. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://space.mit.edu/home/tegmark/multiverse.pdf"
] | [
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] |
help a guy battling ocd get rid of his fears of germs/bacteria | i feel for you spamking, my ex was mildly ocd so i understand the frustrations that go hand in hand with that. so with this in mind, i would like to cover some of the 'other information on why i shouldn't be so overly concerned about bacteria all the damn time'. **bacteria get a bad rap.** every day, new uses are being found for [good bacteria that is present](_url_2_) in the world around us, and within our bodies. and in fact, the reason that we thrive as human beings is because [we are in symbiosis with dozens of different kinds of bacteria](_url_1_). so don't always think negative when you hear the word. [probiotics are everywhere](_url_0_) **bacteria are way down the list of killers.** in the middle and high income countries, [bacteria aren't the cause of the vast majority of deaths](_url_4_). the top three are heart attack, stroke, and lung disease... in other words, vastly **self inflicted issues**. studies attribute these numbers to smoking, drinking, and not keeping in shape. **that which does not kill us often makes us stronger!** it's not just a saying. the cdc has been teling people for years: [it's ok to get sick!](_url_3_) they don't want you taking weird measures to avoid it, they don't want you to chug down antibiotics. it's simply healthier to live your life, take reasonable measures but not paranoid ones, don't demand antibiotics all of the time, and keep your stress levels down. i hope these points help you out, in addition to the others answering your other questions. edit 1: made **bold** things, bold is cool. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://nccam.nih.gov/health/probiotics/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gut_flora",
"http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v14/n12/full/nm1208-1295b.html",
"http://www.cdc.gov/Features/getsmart/",
"http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/index.html"
] | [
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|
what is sea's lather made of? | foam (lather) is the result of the stabilization of the interface between a liquid and gas. in everyday life you would recognize soaps and other surfactants as very efficient stabilizers that prefer the interface over the bulk solution. however, careful observation will show differences in bubble buoyancy and stability between pure water and various solutions (alcohol, salt, sugar and artificial flavorings ect). sea foam is likely just a result of the high ion concentration and other small molecules present in the water. in certain coastal areas it could also be helped along by industrial and municipal runoff. any analysis of the foam show mostly water along with probably slightly higher concentrations of the dissolved solids than in the bulk ocean water. source: i work in the paint industry, foam is a big deal. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
slightly complicated permutation? | hi, someones comment on a thread claiming that the number of possible combinations of a deck of cards would be doubled if the back of the cards could be used - which i'm pretty sure is wrong, so i guess that is essentially my question. how does one go about calculating a permutation such as this? i would imagine it to be one of 53 possibilities is possible at the start but i'm not sure. it confuses me because there is the option of 52 cards, and the 52 backs of cards. however, when viewed each of these 'back of cards' look identical, so if there is one card at the start, then 50 'back of cards,' followed by another upturned card there are 52*51 combinations. but the main problem arises when considering that for each back of card placed we must use up a card number. i really have no idea how to tackle this question. | the problem isn't quite fully specified, so i'll answer the two questions that i think it could be. in this, a six of hearts face down is filling a position in the sequence, so they could be denoted by a 52 long sequence of the cards paired with a 52 long sequence of face up/face down binary decisions. as u/fishify says somewhere else in this thread, there's 52! ways to order the deck, and then a binary choice for each card based on whether it is face up or face down. that gives 2^52 \*52! = 3.63 \* 10^83 possible orderings. in this, all face down cards are only noted as blanks, so they could be denoted by a sequence of 52 cards where some of the cards are replaced by blanks. this is a harder problem, so consider the case where n cards are face down. there's 52! ways to order the deck, 52cn ways to pick the n cards to be face down. but now for the sequence with n particular cards all down in some particular spots, we've counted it n! times, so we need to divide by that. so that's 52!/n! \* 52cn = (52-n)! (52cn)^2 = [; (\^{52} c\_n) (\^{52} p\_{52-n}) ;] ways with n cards down. this shows we could have thought of this as permuting the 52-n cards and then choosing the n places where blanks go. then we'd sum that over all the possible n's, for [; \sigma_{n=0}\^{52} (52-n)! (\^{52} c\_n)\^2 ;] = 1.03 \* 10^73 total ways for an unknown number of indistinguishable cards facedown. --- both of these are way more than twice 52! =8 \* 10^67. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
if dirt is an insulator, how is it able to act as an electrical ground? | also, is there any limit to how much current can be drawn out of the ground before some sort of breakdown occurs? | dry dirt is a moderately good insulator, damp dirt is a somewhat less good insulator. both will carry charges away, albeit some more efficiently than others. i don't know of any practical limit to the charge you could remove from the planet. there must be one, but i imagine it would be extremely large. and where would you put it? here's a table you might find interesting (all values are ohm-meters): ashes of cinders 6-70 clay (damp) 14-30 clay (dry/compacted) 100-200 granite 2000-3000 limestone 1000-5000 loam (humus) 200-400 loam (with sand and gravel) 30-50 loam (with some stones) 100-300 loam (with stones and poor vegetation) 200-350 marshy soils 300-400 mountain rocks (with little or not soil) 5-40 mountain soil (damp peat over rock base) 1000-5000 mountain soil (over rock base) 150-300 salt pans 300-1000 sand (below water table) 6-70 sand (damp) 60-130 sand (dry) 1000-5000 sand (leached) 1000-5000 sandstone 120-7000 shales 100-160 =========================== from *_url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ergon.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/6615/Distribution-System-Earthing-Guidelines.pdf*"
] | [
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i'm writing a letter to my districts congressman concerning nasa. what should i include? | a campaign donation. (i know, no jokes allowed.) seriously though, writing a letter to a representative in goverment has more to do with politics than science. just tell them how you feel and be done with it. the office aides are just going to note your position and send a canned response. they aren't going to be swayed by a well-thought-out letter with scientific facts, so don't waste too much time on it. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can nasa be more unclear than this? can someone smarter than me please explain what this means? | wow, i don't consider myself exceptionally dumb, but this article sure messed my mind up. can somebody please explain with additional data maybe if this is a good or a bad news? _url_0_ might have helped to put data on a historical chart, wouldn't have had to explain the way you did maria-josé viñas from nasa's earth science news team!!! xd | tldr: bad news. you've got to keep in mind that the antarctic ice sheet is mostly continental glacier (unlike the north polar icecap, which is mostly sea ice). also that fresh water freezes more easily than salt water. what this says is that the melting of the antarctic ices shet is accelerating, and that this can be seen by the increase in sea ice, which shows influx of fresh melt water. for reference, the arctic sea ice has been reaching record lows, as the polar temps rise. | 7 | [] | [
"http://climate.nasa.gov/news/2350/"
] | [] | [
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what are some amazing things our muscles could theoretically allow us to do ? | i know that when triggered, our muscles can show extraordinary performances, like a mother lifting a car to save her child from under it or springing away meters when getting excited by electricity ( in a bad way though ). how much could our muscles endure ? what are some cool theoretical limits on how much they could do ? could we jump entire meters ? could we get such power that we'd punch through a wall ? can't wait to find out some potential superhero powers are muscles are keeping away from us ( for obvious reasons: the other body parts couldn't endure... right ? ) | muscle fibers can thicken. bones can become more dense under stress and repeated microfracture, at least to a point. the strength of connective tissue does not scale significantly. the biggest limiting factor for human strength is the point where the connective tissue fails, and this limit is reached frequently in modern athletics. this limit also explains we don't ordinary pick up cars unless there is a solid evolutionary reason to risk destroying your joints like having your offspring trapped under it. but what if you didn't have connective tissue or didn't care what happened to it? some martial artists train by punching a twine-padded board called a makiwara over and over again to induce microfractures in the bones to strengthen them, and incidentally completely destroy the connective tissue in their hands until they are nearly a solid lump of bone. karate grandmaster [mas oyama](_url_0_) had difficulty grasping a pencil with his right hand thanks to years of training, but he also did exhibitions where he would break river rocks like normal martial artists break boards. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mas_Oyama"
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high pressure sodium lamps and digital cameras... | i witnessed a banding phenomenon, seen here: _url_0_ is this just because of the type of shutter my iphone is using? i've heard two different explanations so far: the wavelength of the light emitted is interacting with something in my lab in a strange way.... magnetic fields interfering with the electronics... although i suspect it's something to do with rolling shutter. i also saw this on another digital camera, and the number of dark bands changes when i'm in video mode vs. picture mode. thank you for your responses! | in a high pressure sodium bulb, the arc of electricity through the lamp extinguishes at the zero voltage points of the a/c cycle. that happens twice per cycle, or 120 times a second if you're in the usa with 60hz a/c power. your camera's image sensor gets 'scanned' top to bottom at various rates, but usually at 24 or 30 frames per second. since the flickering of the sodium bulb happens 120 times a second, your camera will show darker bands when it's scanning a part of the image sensor during the voltage reversal of the sodium bulb, and bright bands at the peak voltage points of your sodium bulbs. normally the flickering is too fast for the human eye to see, but the sensor in your iphone is responsive enough to pick up the difference. i see four bands in your video, and 120 divided by 30 is 4, so i'm guessing you're recording video at 30 fps. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hc-JRS8MtDo&feature=youtu.be"
] | [] | [
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what would be a good image resource to use to introduce someone to the concept of a cell? | ^(i know that this is not your usual /r/askscience type of question, but it is a question and it is about science. i know i could have posted this to /r/explainlikeimfive—i'll probably cross post this—, but i think that you guys may have more ready access to resources.) ^(and frankly—not meaning to sound entitled or snarky; just an observation—much of scientific literature and the scientific community doesn't cater to those who want to learn but have no experience with various scientific topics and thus find "introductory level explanations" incredibly difficult to grasp.) so, my granddad was reading a leaflet that came with some herbal medicine making a claim that it renews stem cells. i was trying to explain the bullshit behind the claim, and i realized that it was futile as he doesn't understand what a stem cell was. he completely doesn't, and cannot, comprehend that our body is made of cells. he doesn't know or understand what a cell is. it's just not something that can be understood, after 70+ years of not knowing and thinking about such a thing. it's like trying to explain the event horizon, in french, to an arabian nomad. just saying that they are something small and living, and that they are building blocks of our body, millions of them, is not enough. a micrograph would mean nothing. it is impossible to fully comprehend these sorts of scales, even to someone like me. i would like explain it to him. and i would like help from you guys, please. i was thinking that i could maybe do it with images, as they are more tangible. start with an image of our skin, then another of the same skin at slightly higher magnification so that we can see the hairs, and incrementally higher and higher magnifications until we have an image of a single cell. and maybe do the same with a heart or some other organ. and maybe onion skin. just to hopefully put it all in tangible scales. then there's how to go about explaining to him the function of these cells. it really is all overwhelming when i think about it. i'd like to keep it basic and understandable, but it'll still take some time. | find a friend with a microscope. get samples from your skin, the inside of your cheek, a leaf, etc. let him see for himself that there are individual units. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do particles/ions like to reach equilibrium | lets say you had a membrane that was only permeable to chloride (cl-) ions that also contained a k+/na+ pump and k+ and na+ channels (2 separate channels). this pump pumps k+ to one side of the membrane and na+ to the other side of the membrane. let's say the channels were initially closed and the pump was allowed to pump. this results in a surplus of k+ on one side and na+ on the other, chloride ions can neutralize the charges however it pleases. now let's say you opened the channels up and stopped the pump. k+ and na+ ions would equilibrate to the other side so that their numbers were equal(ish) on each side, correct? why does this occur? isn't equilibrium essentially about charge balance? | it is a balance between charge (as you say) and entropy. the ions will choose the state which minimizes the gibbs free energy. lets say you had water on one side of the membrane, and sodium solution on the other, then you add chlorine. because of the charges, all of the chlorine would want to be on the same side as the as the sodium (this would minimize the electric potential energy, qv). however, having all of the chlorine on the same side has a very high entropy cost. by spreading out between the two sides, this minimizes the energy due to entropy (-st). the final state will be a balance between the two, where (qv-st) is minimized. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does collagen have a tertiary structure? | from my understanding, fibrous collagen's primary structure is gly-x-y, where x is often pro and y hyp. its secondary structure is a narrow left-handed helix. three strands of this polypeptide helix come together to form the right-handed helix tropocollagen, which is a quaternary structure as the strands are separate polypeptides. is this accurate? if so, is there a definite tertiary structure for the molecule? can it be distinguished from the secondary structure? | all proteins have tertiary structure. "tertiary structure" is a catch-all term for a protein's overall structure. you are probably confused because referring to a protein's "tertiary structure" is a pretty meaningless thing to talk about. i would say it has no regular *secondary structure*, while its tertiary structure is the left-handed helix of the individual strands, since that helix encompasses an individual collagen strand's entire length. my personal opinion is that it's pretty silly and not super helpful to think in these terms. you could ask some people if collagen has secondary (or tertiary or whatever) structure and they'd say no. others might say "yes, but it's not a regularly repeating structure." what they mean by that is that it's not divided into clearly defined helices or sheets or anything. all this talk about primary/secondary/tertiary/quaternary structure is at best a teaching tool to describe how proteins are assembled. dithering about finer details in these terms isn't really useful. frankly i don't remember the last time i heard the term "tertiary structure" said out loud outside of a classroom. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.proteopedia.org/wiki/index.php/Collagen_Structure_%26_Function"
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] |
how did kuiper belt objects originally condense? shouldn't it have been too cold for that to happen? | kuiper belt objects "condensed" gravitationally and then chemically reacted (creating water and whatnot) basically at the same time than every thing else in the solar system inside of the solar nebulae. gravity does not need temperature to bring objects (like dust of gas) together. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/bonding/vdw.html",
"http://lasp.colorado.edu/education/outerplanets/solsys_planets.php#jovian"
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|
a friend noticed these circular weather patterns over the us...any ideas on what causes this? | best description would be to give you the link. have a look at the perfect weather circles and let me know what might cause this. they seem to be centered over major population areas. _url_0_ | i grew up in the south. oftentimes as evening set in, and humidity rose, the radar towers would show false echoes really close, just like in your picture. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.accuweather.com/en/us/national/weather-radar-interactive"
] | [] | [
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when we play peekaboo with babies and cover our face with our hands, do they really forget that we're there because they can't see our face anymore? | babies don't really "forget" that we're there. it's a concept called *object permanence*. it seems to a baby that mom or dad has disappeared if he can't see them, because object permanence has not been established in his brain yet and he can not comprehend that something exists if he can't see it. that's why babies are so surprised by the game of peekaboo. jean piaget did early experiments that established 8-9 months is the age at which cognitive development reaches the point where babies can understand object permanence - that things can still exist when they can't see them. *source: learned at some point over the course of earning my master's degree in psychology.* | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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askscience panel of scientists xx | **please read this entire post carefully and format your application appropriately.** this post is for new panelist recruitment! the previous one is [here](_url_0_). the panel is an informal group of redditors who are **either professional scientists or those in training to become so**. all panelists have at least a graduate-level familiarity within their declared field of expertise and answer questions from related areas of study. a panelist's expertise is summarized in a color-coded askscience flair. membership in the panel comes with access to a panelist subreddit. it is a place for panelists to interact with each other, voice concerns to the moderators, and where the moderators make announcements to the whole panel. it's a good place to network with people who share your interests! --- **you are eligible to join the panel if you:** * are studying for at least an msc. or equivalent degree in the sciences, and, * are able to communicate your knowledge of your field at a level accessible to various audiences. ------------------ **instructions for formatting your panelist application:** * choose exactly one general field from the side-bar (physics, engineering, social sciences, etc.). * state your specific field in one word or phrase (neuropathology, quantum chemistry, etc.) * succinctly describe your particular area of research in a few words (carbon nanotube dielectric properties, myelin sheath degradation in parkinsons patients, etc.) * give us a brief synopsis of your education: are you a research scientist for three decades, or a first-year ph.d. student? * provide links to comments you've made in askscience which you feel are indicative of your scholarship. applications will not be approved without several comments made in /r/askscience itself. ----------------- ideally, these comments should clearly indicate your fluency in the fundamentals of your discipline as well as your expertise. we favor comments that contain citations so we can assess its correctness without specific domain knowledge. here's an example application: username: /u/foretopsail general field: anthropology specific field: maritime archaeology particular areas of research include historical archaeology, archaeometry, and ship construction. education: ma in archaeology, researcher for several years. comments: 1, 2, 3, 4. please do not give us personally identifiable information and please follow the template. we're not going to do real-life background checks - we're just asking for reddit's best behavior. however, several moderators are tasked with monitoring panelist activity, and your credentials will be checked against the academic content of your posts on a continuing basis. you can submit your application by replying to this post. | username: /u/mafiafish general field: earth sciences specific field: biological oceanography particular areas of research include phytoplankton, primary production, biogeochemistry, remote sensing. education: dphil in earth sciences, mres in marine environmental science researcher for several years current research assistant in marine monitoring and policy. comments: [1](_url_2_), [2](_url_3_), [3](_url_0_), [4](_url_1_) | 7 | [] | [
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] |
designers and engineers of air conditioning and heating equipment, i have a question. | i suggest you redirect this question to a more specific subreddit (/r/askengineers or something similar). perhaps do a _url_0_ search (sorry, i'd give you more specific suggestions, but this isn't my area). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"metareddit.com"
] | [
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|
is a kugelblitz a direct result of energy mass equivalance? | that's part of it, but it's a bit more complicated and is fully described by general relativity. mass-energy equivalence comes into it as the time-time component of the stress-energy tensor, which is the energy density, and for massive systems is just the mass density times c^2 . | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
flattest part of a curved surface? | how is it possible to find the flattest part of a curved surface such as being able to balance an object on it such as a pen on a computer mouse? | there's many different measures of [curvature](_url_0_). i'm not sure what you mean by being able to balance an object on it. where you can balance an object has as much to do with the distance to the center of gravity as it does with the curvature. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curvature"
] | [
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air density affects your cardiovascular ability, but what about your strength? | if i am wanting to lift a weight anywhere on the globe, what location on earth would be the best? | i'd say that your first rep is made without much of an oxygen impact since it would be fueled mostly by immediate atp reserves in muscles. anyone correct me pls if i'm mistaken. on a less serious note, it would be physically easier to lift (assuming you want to lift a typical gym dumbbell, much denser than air) in places of lesser air density and thus lesser air pressure; so i would look for a mountain ranges - although it won't make much of a difference that way. and if you had asked about lifting mass instead of weight, i guess the best place for it would be somewhere around the equator - that's possibly the furthest from the earth core you can be. (i'm just being silly here since i know what u mean, sorry!). | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do you quantify the heaviness (rate) of rainfall? | i am in the process of the replacing a gutters on a large residential building. as i was figuring out what size gutters i needed, to keep them from overflowing in heavy rain, a question occurred to me: how do you quantify how heavy/light a rainfall is? is there a standardized way to quantify rainfall rate? | millimeters per hour or liters per square meters per hour. both of which are identical. if you're using the imperial system inches per hour. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it so rare/difficult to get large numbers of people who agree on a topic to agree to a course of action? | say, millions of people generally agree that some fictional company is over-charging its customers while providing inadequate service. if enough people refused to pay their bill, the company would suffer huge enough losses to potentially change their way of doing business. but what i'm wondering is why, in society, we scarcely see examples of this sort of human behavior on this scale? | essentially its a spread out version of the [prisoner's dilemma.](_url_0_) the best case scenario for any person would be if everyone else took action, but they didn't, so positive changes happen, but they don't pay the price. on the other hand, the worst case scenario would be if they protested, but nobody else did, so they take a hit, for no gain. even though the global optimal seems to be action, the individual actors are always biased towards inaction because its always better in the short term. this is also one of the major issues in politics with issues like cutting greenhouse gas emissions, or disarming nuclear weapons. nobody wants to be the only one to do the right thing and suffer for it. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner%27s_dilemma"
] | [
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can our inability to explain higher level processes in emergent systems be traced back to a fundamental break in causality between the components' and the systems' properties or do we just lack the computing power to calculate the systemic outcome? | take our brain for instance. say, we were able to record every single neuron's electrical activity and also knew how each cell was connected to surrounding neurons, would we be able to predict human thoughts given the necessary computing power? | there is no evidence to suggest that causality is lost. and there's not a strong reason to suspect that it would be. if the individual pieces are causal, their aggregate behavior is probably causal too. the only occurrences of non-causality that are know are quantum phenomena. it's still an open question how quantum effects can spill over into the macro-world. but emergent systems certainly don't require a loss of causality to be understood. but causality is different than predictability. chaotic systems are causal, but at long enough times, we lose the ability to make predictions about (some of) their behaviors. merely mapping the connections of the neurons would not even approach being enough information to understand consciousness, much less predict it's outcomes. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinism",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality"
] | [
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] |
what is the loudest thing ever recorded in history? | by recorded i don't mean specifically caught on an audio device. | i submit the [1883 eruption of krakatoa](_url_0_). it ruptured the ear drums of sailors 64 km away and was heard like cannon fire 4,800 km away. according to wikipedia "barographic recordings show that the shock wave from the final explosion reverberated around the globe seven times in total." | 116 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1883_eruption_of_Krakatoa",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_u-RZTwpECg",
"http://www-pw.physics.uiowa.edu/voyager/",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LIAZWb9_si4"
] | [
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why do we use parsecs instead of 3.26 lightyears? | i just learned this in school so i know near nothing about parsecs, so sorry if the answer is obvious. i just don't see the reason to say parsecs instead of using lightyears everywhere, you know, using one word and not multiple ones would be less confusing. or are there certain things you can only do with parsecs? | parsecs are definitely the convenient unit for astronomy. for some reason, light-years have become the standard unit used in communication with the public. light-years are an easier concept to grasp (i.e. the distance travelled by light in one year), but parsecs really are more convenient to do maths with. the parsec comes directly from how distances to stars are measured. as the earth goes around the sun, we are constantly seeing stars from different angles. this causes stars to move in little ellipses in the sky. this is called "parallax". the size of this effect tells us how far away the star is. you can see a similar effect when driving in the country. the fenceposts by the road appear to be moving really fast while the distant mountains appear to the be totally stationary. a star is one parsec away if it moves in a little circle with a radius of one arc-second (1/60th of 1/60th of one degree) over a year. if its little circle is half an arc-second, it's two parsecs away. if it's 1/10th of an arc-second, it's 10 parsecs away. so, given that astronomers like using arc-seconds to measure angles in the sky, using parsecs makes the mathematics really simple. it's a geometric unit that we can measure directly. light-years are less direct, because we can't directly time how long it takes light to reach us from a distant star - we have to calculate it from the speed of light and the distance. there's also a convenient trick that 1 km/s is extremely close to 1 parsec per million years. alpha centauri is a bit over a parsec away. so if you know your speed in km/s, you can very easily calculate how many years it would take to reach alpha centauri or whatever. so the real question is: if we actually use parsecs all the time, and they're more convenient units, why do we teach kids about light-years? it's probably because they're just a little bit easier to teach, but that's very much a social question rather than an astronomy one. | 47 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can a physicist/astrophysicist/somebody with sufficient knowledge explain this recent sciencemag article - "a massive pulsar in a compact relativistic binary" | i came across this [sciencemag article](_url_0_) via this register post [curse you, einstein! humanity still chained in relativistic prison ](_url_1_). i specially would like to understand this sentence in the sciencemag post: > neutron stars with masses above 1.8 solar masses (m☉), possess extreme gravitational fields, which may give rise to phenomena outside general relativity. what phenomenas outside of general relativity does it give rise to? thanks /r/askscience | the system they're talking about has two compact objects, a neutron star and a white dwarf, that orbit each other at extremely close distances. when we say "compact" we mean compact compared to normal stars like the sun. a white dwarf packs a mass similar to the sun's into an object the size of the earth. a neutron star can make a few times the sun's mass into something the size of brooklyn. this means that you can get much closer to a white dwarf or neutron star than you can to the sun while staying outside it, so the gravitational field near a compact object is much stronger than it is near the sun. having two of these objects orbiting each other therefore produces a region where gravity is *extremely* strong, far stronger than anywhere in the solar system. so while our best current theory of gravity, [general relativity](_url_1_), is very well tested on earth and in the solar system, there's still a lot more insight to be gained by looking at strong gravitational fields where we've done less work. does general relativity work as well in these conditions as it does in the solar system? on the one hand, we know that general relativity is *not* the final word on gravity, because it doesn't work well with quantum mechanics, and extremely strong gravitational fields are exactly the place you'd expect that tension to become really problematic. however, the current tests we've done in strong gravitational fields, such as the [hulse-taylor binary system](_url_0_), support general relativity beautifully. this study is taking the idea of the hulse-taylor binary and extending it to even more extreme conditions. so what is the hulse-taylor binary system and how is it a good test of strong gravity? hulse-taylor consists of two neutron stars orbiting each other at a very close distance, much like the system in this paper. the gravity there is so strong that the system copiously emits [gravitational radiation](_url_2_), just the way that if you take a very strongly charged object and wave it around, it will emit light. because the gravitational field in this system is so strong, the gravitational radiation carries a *lot* of energy, which comes directly from the orbit of the two neutron stars around each other. as they emit more and more gravitational radiation, the two stars circle in closer and closer to each other. hulse and taylor measured this orbital decay and found that it precisely matched the predictions from general relativtiy. over the years, scientists (by the way, it's just "physicists" and "astrophysicists" - no need for the capitalization!) have kept an eye on this system, and general relativity continues to fit all the data. it's one of the most beautiful confirmations of a very beautiful theory. so what's new about this system? one of the objects in the binary is a less massive white dwarf, rather than a neutron star, but the key is the other object. it's a neutron star which is more massive than the ones in hulse-taylor. the hulse-taylor neutron stars both have about 1.4 times the mass of the sun, but the neutron star in this system has closer to 2 times the sun's mass. when a neutron star is above about 1.8 solar masses, the gravitational field *inside* the star is different than in neutron stars with lower masses, and much more sensitive to potential deviations from general relativity. this system has a stronger gravitational binding energy than any similar system studied in the past, so it's a completely new regime for testing whether or not general relativity works as a theory of gravity. tests of gravity in new regimes come around pretty frequently, actually, and the answer is practically always that general relativity provides a great fit to the data. this work is no exception. the authors find results in excellent agreement with general relativity, and put some very tight constraints on alternative theories of gravity in which general relativity is modified by adding in a fifth fundamental force. | 15 | [] | [
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/340/6131/1233232.abstract?sid=931f1eea-5082-4ad9-8732-078102d8676d",
"http://www.theregister.co.uk/2013/04/26/binary_pulsar_says_relativity_still_on_at_collapsar/"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hulse-Taylor_binary",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_waves"
] | [
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is there any physical phenomenon, which as a function of time or distance, is not differentiable at certain points? | in all the physics classes i've taken so far simplying assumptions have led to cases where there is a kink in the graph, such as voltage as a function of distance from the center of a sphere, but is this really the case? if we are extremely accurate and precise is there really any natural phenomenon that occurs non-differentiably? edit:how i feel in this thread _url_0_ | absorption of photons by atoms. those are not even kinks, but steps. for many things in quantum mechanics you have non differentiable characteristics. there are also quite a few examples in classical physics where "kinks" happen (e.g. glass transition: speed of sound vs. temperature). but in order to measure a "real" kink, you would need arbitrarily high measuring precision which can never be obtained, so at best we can measure a kink approximated (convoluted) with the measuring function. | 11 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/fB19z.gif"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landau_quantization"
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] |
when you put pressure on one side of your eye, you see a dot on the opposite side of that eye. why? | whenever i put pressure on one side of an eye, i see a dot on the opposite side of the eye. i honestly have no idea why this is, teach me r/askscience. | it's because you are putting pressure on the retina itself. the optic apparatus in the eye causes a [real image](_url_0_) to be projected onto the retina, just like a camera. this means that the retina is upside-down and reversed. the retina extends to cover about 180 degrees of your eyeball, so if you press the side of your eye you will be applying pressure to the retina itself. when you put pressure on the retina, you temporarily disrupt its function, and you see the dot. ophthalmologists take advantage of this during some specialized eye exams. something called a scleral depressor is used, which can push part of the retina into view. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_image"
] | [
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some u.s. politicians want to "teach the controversy" in schools. is there any peer-reviewed documentation of discoveries that defy our present-day view on evolution? | there is no controversy over if evolution has occurred or not. the controversies in evolutionary biology are questions along the lines of which evolutionary forces are responsible for the past and extant diversity of life. for example: does regulation or change in coding sequence play a larger role in speciation and adaptation. is it possible for group selection to work in nature (did this for e.o. wilson fans). there have been no peer-reviewed papers that defy evolution. the "teach the controversy" is an attempt to use very specific questions that we have yet to answer or will never be able to answer to call into question the validity of evolution. for example they would point out that we don't know the exact structure of every intermediate stage of the evolution of the tetrapod eye. we know this is not an issue because we know how the eye could have evolved and know many things about the evolution of the tetrapod eye. so the 'teach the controversy' is a thinly-veiled attempt to discredit evolution and then present creationism as the superior theory. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does hyperparathyroidism and hypercalcemia cause hypomagnesemia? | how does hyperparathyroidism and hypercalcemia cause hypomagnesemia? i know it's pretty far-fetched, but i've tried google but to no avail. yes, i've read my books, but i couldn't wrap my head around the concept. answers are really appreciated. thank you! | magnesium is primarily reabsorbed by the thick ascending loop of henle along with calcium that occurs along the paracellular route. it is known that hypercalcemia or hypermagnesiemia alone inhibit further reuptake in the kidney. also, there is some calcium inhibition of magnesium transport as well. does this help? | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can you "perfectly" sync two clocks? what is the smallest (acceptable) margin of error you can reasonably sync to? | after the last week or so with the ftl neutrino discussion (which has admittedly been a ways beyond my grasp of physics) i have been thinking to myself: what is the closest you can sync two clocks to being? how do you go about doing this? how could you possibly test this? what kind of clocks can keep this kind of precision? does gravitation / solar cycles / barometric pressure interfere with such precision clocks? this has interested me more than the discussion about the ftl neutrino to be honest, so any answers about this would be awesome. thanks asksci! | assuming that you synchronized two perfect clocks, and then carried one to another location, they wouldn't stay synchronized because of relativistic effects. take it via car up a mountain and you have it in a different inertial frame, because the top of the mountain spins with the earth faster than the bottom. the length of drift between the two may be so minor that it would take very fine measurements to detect. the [hafele–keating experiment](_url_0_) demonstrated this, using two airplanes and three clocks. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/Hafele%E2%80%93Keating_experiment",
"http://www.amazon.com/Concepts-Simultaneity-Antiquity-Einstein-Beyond/dp/0801884225",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_clock"
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why do we have a philtrum? is it of any biological importance? | i don't have an answer, but a related question. lots of mammals have them, and they're always closely associated with the nose. is it possible that our noses started as either one nostril that split, or two nostrils that were further apart and moved closer together? either would create something like a philtrum. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does drinking gin and tonic have a strong antimalarial effect? | [deleted] | the small amount of quinine in tonic water does not have an antimalarial effect. the fda regulates the quinine content to a maximum of 83 mg per liter, however the daily dose as an antimalarial drug is 2100 mg for a 70 kg adult. furthermore, many strains of malaria are now resistant to quinine. | 35 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does owning a gun for self defense mathematically increase or decrease your life expectancy on average? | you can't really track "lives saved." without making a change, to track the statistic before and after. also, defensive uses of a gun can't be 100% correlated with a life saved, you don't know how a situation would have progressed had you not presented a firearm against your aggressor. also, sadface that you uk folk are so disempowered as human beings that you fear the tools that keep you safe and free. (this last sentence was in response to a comment since removed) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.justfacts.com/guncontrol.asp"
] | [
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|
would it be possible to see from the burj khalifa to the kingdom tower? | so next week, saudi arabia begins construction on the kingdom tower with a proposed height of 1km. obviously this will surpass the current record holder, burj khalifa (827m) in dubai, uae. the buildings (when complete) will be on either side of the arabian penensula, ~1800km apart. with only desert in between, would it be possible to see the top of one from the top of the other? if not, how high must the saudis build the kingdom tower to achieve this? on a related note, what methods does reddit forsee being used to pump concrete on thos job? | no. using the distance to horizon formula from [this page](_url_0_), the distance to the horizon (og) without accounting for refraction is og ≈ sqrt ( 2 r h ) where r is radius of earth (~6378 km) and h is height of building. so the distance to horizon from the top of the burj khalifa (.872 km) building is 105 km while distance to horizon from the top of a 1 km tall tower is 113 km. thus in the absence of atmospheric refraction or intervening mountains, the buildings would have to be within about 218 km to see the top of one from the other. adding in atmospheric refraction effects (mirages) would increase distance to about 235 km, not even close to the actual 1800 km separation. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://mintaka.sdsu.edu/GF/explain/atmos_refr/horizon.html"
] | [
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what is field effect mobility and saturation mobility? | hey guys. i am currently researching tfts(thin film transistors) and i need help finding out what field effect mobility and saturation mobility are. thanks! | electron mobility relates the average velocity of electrons in a material to the local electrical field. the standard assumption is that this velocity will be parallel to the electrical field, and be directly proportional to the field (this is the [drude model](_url_0_)). the constant of proportionality is called the "mobility." assuming the electron mobility is constant, and given information about the dimensions and dopant levels of the various parts of a mosfet the expected current can be calculated. see the equations [here](_url_3_). however, you could also run these equations backwards. if i know the voltages, the threshold, the geometry, and capacitance of a transistor i can calculate the mobility. the number you get from this calculation is called the "field effect mobility" because it was calculated based on the behavior of a field effect transistor. if the calculation is done in the saturated region of the transistor's behavior, it is called the "saturated mobility." the mobility is distinguished like this because it isn't really constant. the dependence of average electron speed on local electrical field is often non-linear. some well-known examples of highly non-linear electron behavior includes [velocity saturation](_url_1_) (where the electrons no longer increase velocity with increasing field strength) and [ballistic transport](_url_2_) (where the distance of travel for the electrons is less than the typical scattering length, so it constantly accelerates across the channel). edit: note that everything written here applies just as well to holes. they just travel in the other direction. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drude_model",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_velocity",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_conduction",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFET#Modes_of_operation"
] | [
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i have a couple wifi questions | 2 questions in particular: 1. how do different networks share bandwidth and prevent themselves from interfering with eachother? if the rf is centered around 5 ghz, how do networks not interfere with each other if they must all operate at this frequency? 2. how do multiple users use one network? if a network is at a certain frequency, wouldn't only one person be able to use that frequency? | ideally, they use different channels within their frequency band. the 2.4ghz band, for example, has about fourteen channels (eleven of which are permitted by regulations in the united states). in practice, the signals bleed out into several adjacent channels, but there's still room for about three non-overlapping frequency clusters within the band. the 5ghz band works the same way, but is somewhat larger and has more channels available. the different stations on the network literally take turns communicating with the ap. additionally, some of the newer 802.11 variants use several frequencies at once; in these, several clients can communicate with the ap simultaneously by using different frequencies. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the 'use by' date accurate, or is it just an estimate? | also, how long after the 'best before' date can one consume an item? i noticed that a bottle of cider has a best before date. what would it turn into eventually if left? | it's an estimate based on guidelines. the actual date that food is good until willd epend ont eh storage conditions and the food itself, as well as what constitutes good. for example, a hard cheese like cheddar might develop a mould on its outer edges after some time. however, if you trim that off, you have perfectly good cheese inside. on the other hand if you store milk in a warm place you may well find that it goes off before the given date. also, bare in mind that 'use by' and 'best before' are two different dating systems. finally, cider is unlikely to change significantly if properly bottled for years. the date given is more of a legal requirement than meaningful piece of information. if air was able to get to it there's a reasonable chance it would turn to vinegar, or simply get bacterial growth in it that would put you right off drinking it. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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since "0g" is only felt in leo because they fall around the earth, how different would it feel being at "0g" 1,500,000 ly from any significant body of mass? | let's say, halfway between here and andromeda. | this is actually an aspect of the [equivalence principle](_url_0_). being in free fall or being in an inertial reference frame are indistinguishable. in the language of general relativity, acceleration due to gravity is not considered proper acceleration, but inertial motion--following "straight lines," or in this case geodesics. | 25 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_principle"
] | [
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] |
how do experiments with high power requirements arrange their supply of electricity? | it's well known that experiments such as particle accelerators, fusion tocamacs and lasers require extremely high amounts of energy to run; some for a fraction of a second, some for significantly longer. do these experiments have their own power stations, as it were? or do they draw electricity from the national grid of the country their in? if so, how does the grid deal with the momentary spike in demand? do the experiments have to schedule their demand in advance? | [cern's web site](_url_0_) has a pretty good page describing their power usage. cern uses 1.3 terawatt hours of electricity annually. that’s enough power to fuel 300,000 homes for a year in the united kingdom. they're connected to 2 substations, one on the swiss side ,and one on the french side. they're mainly using the french substation, and keep the swiss one for backup. they also schedule their tests so they use less power during winter months to avoid overloading the grid. | 38 | [] | [] | [
"https://home.cern/about/engineering/powering-cern",
"https://lasers.llnl.gov/about/how-nif-works/beamline/power-conditioning",
"https://www.iter.org/newsline/219/1145",
"https://www.iter.org/mach/PowerSupply",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program"
] | [
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i have a question about inducing a current in a loop... | so if you rotate a conducting loop around a magnet, you will induce a current in that loop, correct? well, since the earth itself is a magnet, could you use a giant conducting loop spinning around the earth in orbit to produce limitless power? please ignore the complications involved in constructing a conducting loop large enough to fit around the earth. | a bit of mathematics and approximations from a physics student here... the emf, or potential, induced in a loop of area a in earth's magnetic field is given as the time derivative of magnetic flux, so v = d/dt(flux) (sign convention not important here). if the loop rotates about the same axis as the earth with angular speed w, the magnetic flux through a single turn loop is basin(wt). substituting the flux expression, we get the potential induced to be v = wbacos(wt). the expression for power is given as v^2 / r = ((w*ba)^2 /r)*cos^2 (wt). the time average power, given that the average value of cos^2 (wt) over one period is 1/2, is then: power generated by rotating loop = 0.5(wba)^2 /r the resistance of our wire is given as r = rho*l/a, where a is the x-sectional area of the wire, l is the length of the wire, and rho is a constant known as resistivity. thus our final expression is: power generated = 0.5a(wba)^2 / (rho*l). let's assume the area of our coil is exactly that of a great circle of earth's diameter, i.e. we wrap the coil around the earth so that it travels the greatest distance possible between two points on its surface. then, a = pi.r^2 ~ 10^14 m^2. the length is approximately the circumference of the earth, or 40,000 km = 4.10^7 m. take the average magnetic field of the earth to be 50 microtesla, or 5.10^-5 t (this is the weakest approximation, as b varies with time, but for simplicity's sake i'm not going to include it at the moment). finally, assuming the wire is 1m diameter and copper so that rho ~ 10^-8 and assume we can rotate our coil, say, once per day (w = 2*pi/t ~ 10^-7 s^-1). plugging in all of these numbers, we get: **p ~ 300 kw ~ 10^5 - 10^6 w**. compare this value of power to the amount of power generated by solar panels worldwide, which is of the order 10^11 w. this is a million times more than our rotating ring which produces power on the order of 10^5 w. of course, it doesn't mean it's not a high value, but given the practicalities we'd be better off not trying it out. the alternative is to dramatically increase the rotation rate (to around 1000 rotations/day, or ~45 rotations/h) and the thickness of the wire, and possibly change it to a different material (keeping the length as short as possible, as power is inversely proportional to the length). additionally, earth's magnetic field is time and space varying, so estimating its sensible value would be a bit trickier and could end up accounting for a lot more power. nice question :) and hopefully other people can help fine tune the assumptions i've made. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i found this neat trick i can do with a hard drive magnet and a fork. can someone please explain the physics behind it to me? | i do not know how to explain how to do this is words so [here is a video of me doing it](_url_0_). i do not know what any of the materials are made out of. the magnet is from a hard drive that was made around 2005. the fork is from walmart. and the thing i am attaching it to is my desk. | when shielded the magnetic field lines are forced away from the metal plate, in this case downward. when you put the fork on it you force the field lines in a different way. you're forcing them out and up. it should be a noticeably weaker attachment than if you just flipped the magnet and attached it all by itself | 16 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=20ycd6PGFr8"
] | [] | [
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frequency response. what is it?!? theoretical and practical view but mostly practical. what can i learn after reading a frequency response plot? | aa) what is the purpose of it? bb) why do we need it? cc) how does it help me practically, when looking at a frequency response of an electronic equipment or a survey? dd) why are there so many peaks and troughs in virtually every band? ee) how come fm radio works at same frequency in every country. why dont i hear , accidently, german broadcast on my fm radio in us of a? | it helps you pick up frequency dependent noise and feedback, all components have resonant phenomena leading to aberrant behaviour at certain frequencies. the reason you can't pick up fm from germany in the states is signal dissipation, the power of the signal drops by an r^2 term so the futher away from the transmitter you are the weaker the signal, there is of course also the curvature of the earth. radio amateurs can some times get around the curvature of the earth if there is cloud cover as clouds will reflect radiowaves of certain wavelengths. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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someone explain to me why it's unrealistic for me to shoot something to the moon. | i want to know why more people don't shoot stuff to the moon just to say that they own something on the moon. like attach a small rocket with a flag or something to a weather balloon (in order to give it a head start so the rocket doesn't have to be huge), launch the rocket, and then you can say you own something on the moon. my friends say this is impossible without spending millions. why? | not my area, so consider this lay speculation. delta-v, or the change in velocity required to move around the solar system, is very high. to get from earth to low earth orbit, you have to accelerate 8600 m/s. this is not a simple change in alititude, you have to get moving as well to maintain orbit. if you take a balloon and put it up to 100km (if that's even possible) and release something from it, you still need to accelerate that thing 8600m/s to get into orbit. otherwise, it will do exactly what an object at 100m would do; fall right back to the surface. it's easier to accelerate up there beacuse there's a lot less drag, but you still have to get that velocity from somewhere. so, step 1: 8600m/s and you're in orbit. to get to lunar orbit from low earth orbit, you need to change your velocity again by 4100 m/s. then you need to come down from lunar orbit to the surface by changing your velocity by another 2200m/s. grand total of 8600 + 4100 + 2200 m/s or 14,900 m/s. can you accelerate something to roughly 15 km/s? that's 53,640 kph, or 33,525 mph. that's a comma, not a decimal. and then, of course, you have to channel that energy *just* right...but i hear you could do it with a smartphone. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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have any studies been done on the mental impact of removal of the intestines? | specifically the large, though i'd be interested in learning about the mental effects of having bits of the small removed too. this isn't about depression caused by having major life-changing surgery, i'm specifically curious about the impact the lack of a gut biome has on your mood. the gut is often called a 'second brain' and i've heard it said that it majorly affects your mood and state of mind. how does your state of mind fare without a gut? | not my field, but let me offer one possible point of clarification: i think the proposed path by which the gut biome influences the brain is the (extensive) innervation through the [enteric nervous system](_url_0_). presumably, the gut biome changes the chemical environment of the gut, which is then detected by the nerves: \ i only mention this to point out that concentrating on the gut biome might be missing the forest for the trees. when bowel is resected, you're essentially amputating a large body part. one can imagine all sorts of weird neurological effects, and the bacterial influence seems intuitively unlikely to be the dominant player. looking forward to hearing from an expert. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system"
] | [
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] |
is a quarter truly 50/50 chance? | [deleted] | [this website](_url_1_) discusses in-depth the research done in [this paper](_url_0_), which boils down to the following (quoted from the website): 1. if the coin is tossed and caught, it has about a 51% chance of landing on the same face it was launched. (if it starts out as heads, there's a 51% chance it will end as heads). 2. if the coin is spun, rather than tossed, it can have a much-larger-than-50% chance of ending with the heavier side down. spun coins can exhibit "huge bias" (some spun coins will fall tails-up 80% of the time). 3. if the coin is tossed and allowed to clatter to the floor, this probably adds randomness. 4. if the coin is tossed and allowed to clatter to the floor where it spins, as will sometimes happen, the above spinning bias probably comes into play. 5. a coin will land on its edge around 1 in 6000 throws, creating a flipistic singularity. 6. the same initial coin-flipping conditions produce the same coin flip result. that is, there's a certain amount of determinism to the coin flip. 7. a more robust coin toss (more revolutions) decreases the bias. | 101 | [] | [] | [
"http://statweb.stanford.edu/~susan/papers/headswithJ.pdf",
"http://econ.ucsb.edu/~doug/240a/Coin%20Flip.htm"
] | [
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is it possible to visualize electric current more accurately than the typical hydrology analogy? | i understand that electric current is the flow of electrons from an area of negative charge to an area of positive charge, and i understand the analogies to flowing water we use when we talk about circuits, but what is *really* happening inside that wire when i attach it to a voltage source? is there a more accurate way of visualizing how the current actually propogates or is this something beyond our current understanding? | a couple pedantic things. first, current is in general the net flow of any electrical charge. for example, in some semiconductors current is carried by positive "holes" rather than electrons. or you could create an ionic fluid where positive ions flow in the direction of an applied electric field but that brings all sorts of complications beyond the traditional notion of current. second, it is better to say that electrons flow from an area of lower electric potential to higher electric potential (or in other words they flow in the opposite direction of the electric field; this is flipped for positive charges). what is "really" happening at the microscopic level is a little unwieldly to treat fully in a quantitative sense but you can get a decent qualitative understanding. let's talk about everything in terms of conduction electrons being the mobile charge carriers, ie. we are considering a traditional conductor. the instant you attach a battery to a circuit an electric field propagates through the circuit at the speed of light due to the local potential gradient (voltage difference) introduced by the battery. electrons proceed to locally distribute themselves along the outside of the wire so that the net electric field everywhere points exactly along the length of the wire rather than towards the edges. this happens automatically by an effective feedback mechanism. if initially there is some net field towards the edges, charges will build up on the edge and this build up will eventually cause the net field to be along the wire. once this transient state reaches equilibrium--which takes **very** small fractions of a second--current has a steady value. here i have ignored the fact that electrons in a circuit will *always* have a random velocity which is more often *not* in the direction of the net electron flow. what the battery does is increase the likelihood that this velocity vector is in the direction of the electron current (opposite direction of "conventional current). this initial transient state and eventual equilibrium surface distribution is treated in detail in an undergraduate text by chabad and cherwood, an excerpt of which you can find [here](_url_0_) (see diagram on p766). however i in general do not recommend this text. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://books.google.com/books?id=8oyNPd5QbYgC&pg=PA761&lpg=PA761&dq=surface+charge+circuit&source=bl&ots=60cKWib_cn&sig=Fg2kUN-niRmqFlMCSLvlbzRLQAw&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UX3UUrCRCPbNsQSVwYHYDw&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA"
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what is azimuthal seismic and azimuthal avo, and how is it different from regular seismic and avo? | (note, i've dealt with a few seismic datasets and i lecture some undergrad geophysics, but i'm not a petroleum / seismics specialist, so more/better information may well come along. this is my understanding). azimuthal just implies that the data has direction. imagine it this way; if we have a seismic survey line, we can get some information off the reflection data, and that's great. however, because it's a single survey, there may be parts of the deep structure which were not well illuminated by the seismic source, or which provided a poor reflection. if we pass another survey over in another direction, the illumination and reflection may be better able to record the structure. this second survey may not record some of the previously 'good' datapoints so well though. we can only combine and process these data into a more complete and lovely dataset if we know the direction each of them were recorded in - i.e. they are azimuthal seismic data sets. the same applies for azimuthal avo (amplitude versus offset) - normal avo lets you get some information about physical changes in material, while multi-directional (azimuthal) avo will grant you direction information on structures such as fracture patterns. good intro paper on limitations and usage of azimuthal avo here: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/67865/MINSLEY.pdf?sequence=1"
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|
are the y shaped cross sections of the cn tower and the burj khalifa related and for similar purposes? (engineering) | a big concern with very tall buildings is not so much strength, but stiffness. if you ever built a single brick tower out of legos when you were a kid (or perhaps as an adult) or tried to see how far you could extend a tape measure up in the air, it doesn't collapse because the bottom layer is crushed under the weight, it collapses because it gets so wobbly it can't stay upright. it's the same idea with skyscrapers--if you stand at the top of any tall building long enough, you can feel it sway with the wind (the top of burj khalifa sways up to six feet in each direction on windy days). in engineering, the tendency of tall columns (you can think of a skyscraper as a very tall column) to collapse on themselves like this is called "buckling." there's an equation that determines how much weight a column can support before it buckles: f = pi^(2)ei/(kl)^2 where *f* is how much weight it can support, *e* is how stiff the material is, *i* is a value based on the cross-sectional shape, *k* is a factor that depends on the type of column, and *l* is the length of the column. notice how the actual strength of the material doesn't factor in at all! so to maximize the weight it can support, we want *e* and *i* to be as large as possible, and *k* and *l* to be as small as possible. well, *l* is the height of the building and we can't make that smaller, and *k* depends on the type of column, so we can't really change that either. therefore, we have to try and maximize *e* and *i*. *e* (called "modulus of elasticity" or "young's modulus") is dependent on the material we use and tells us how stiff the material is. steel and concrete both have a very high modulus of elasticity, meaning they are very stiff, and they are pretty cheap, so those are good choices. the last factor is *i* (called "area moment of inertia" or "second moment area" if you're interested) and depends on the cross-sectional shape of the column. the math for *i* can get complicated, but the short story is that a triangle has the highest *i* of any shape, and it kind of makes sense why. going back to our tape measure example, if you extend out the tape measure and wanted to bend it, you would push from the front or back of the metal, not from the side, right? in fact, it's almost impossible to make it bend at all pushing from the side. again, the math that explains why it's harder to bend it from side to side is a bit complicated, but the basic idea is that it's much harder to bend something along an edge than it is along a flat face. and if you look at triangular column, any way you try to bend it, you end up bending along one edge, which is what makes it so stiff. edit: thanks for the gold! | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does any career other than seismologist use the richter scale? | [deleted] | actually, most seismologists use the [moment magnitude scale](_url_0_). richter is mostly used at the request of journalists (which i'd designate as the principal users of the richter scale, by now), who are familiar with it and request it to be able to compare with previous events. official communications from seismological observatories are increasingly done with the moment magnitude scale. but there is always the odd journo who'll follow up with "what's that in richter?". as to other professions which use earthquake-related scales, i'd say civil engineers, urban planners, emergency planners and possibly architects which all have to take into account seismicity into their building code and methods (at least the ones in develloped countries in seismically active areas), so they use these scales as well... edit: oh, big mistake: i forgot intelligence analysts! seismographs have been widely used to monitor nuclear testing for ages, and the analysis of results from these observations by the intelligence community also invoques the tools of the seismological trade to carry out their assessment of failure/success and yield, which includes the various seismic scales. i suppose there might also be a couple of other trades i left out. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment_magnitude_scale"
] | [
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is there a way to express this infinite sum of discrete impulse functions as a step function? | i'm aware that you can write an infinite sum of impulse functions as a step function, i.e. u(t) = integral from 0 to inf of delta(t-t) dt and u[n] = sum from k=0 to inf of delta[n-k]. but what about an expression such as sum from k=0 to inf of delta(n-10k), how is that expressed in terms of a step function? the continuous case is integral from 0 to inf of delta(t-10t) dt = u(t)/10 and that makes sense because you're only taking 1/10th of the terms in the summation so you have 10x less area. however, the discrete case isn't quite that... instead of being a step function of height 1/10 with samples at every integer, it's supposed to be a step function of height 1 with samples at every 10th integer. my question is, is there a way to express this as a step function? | u[n]*u[ floor(re( exp(i pi n/ 5) ) ) - 1]. if you are determined to write it with a unit step, there will still have to be a oscillating function somewhere. this is because the output is periodic, and the unit step is not. you could also represent it as the difference of step functions, like sum k = 0 to infinity ( u[n - 10k] - u[n-10k -1] ) not particularly relevant, but whatever, [the fourier transform of an impulse train is still an impulse train](_url_0_). edited- changed something obviously correct and boring (the impulse train is still an impulse train) to something correct and exciting! fixed it so 0 was not undefined. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ece.uvic.ca/~fayez/courses/elec310/proofs/ch4_pulse_train.pdf"
] | [
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how did people not contract consumption from their spouses in the 1800s? | *i did try and google science this myself before posting* i'm reading the terror by dan simmons right now, and one of the characters marries a woman in maybe 1815 in england. she already has "the consumption" (which i almost always interpret as tb) when they're married, and they produce a child in the two years before she dies. this book is somewhat historically accurate, and i've read lots of other accounts/stories of people with loved ones/spouses who are dying of the disease (also lots of movies, moulin rouge springs to mind). the people seem to interact with the sick normally (no masks or quarantine) up until their death, but they don't contract the disease. from what i know, tb is airborne and contagious, and the above is not how we'd respond to "consumption" today. 1. is this even true/possible, or were the sick just definitely spreading contagion everywhere? are some people immune? 2. is consumption always tb? 3. how did the spouses not contract the disease (despite having children, so we know they were sharing fluids and proximity)? ninja edit: i forgot to ask about vaccination. i highly doubt it, but were there immunizations available for tb/consumption back in 1820? i'd assume not, given that it was still vaguely understood as an umbrella tb type infection, and referred to only as consumption. | _url_0_ tb is rather hard to catch. tb often includes an 'inactive' stage where the carrier shows no symptoms, and is not contagious. this may last for years. a healthy immune system is capable of dealing with tuberculosis bacteria without producing life threatening symptoms. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/tuberculosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20351250"
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does medicine work better if you've never taken it? | basically, problem is this: there are 2 test groups of people of similar age, from the same region, and somewhat similar lifestyles, group a has always been using medicine their entire life, lets say for some chronic disease, and group b has never used any medicine ever. if both groups get infected with common cold, and both groups are in equal stages of the disease, and then both groups take the same cold medicine, will the group that has never used any other medicine experience stronger effect than the group that has been using other medicine for long periods of time? i'd guess developed immunity from usage of other medicine in group a will lessen the effect of the cold medicine, but is it really the case? | this is a tricky question, because it depends on a lot of factors. certainly being on a medicine can have an impact on how another medicine affects you. depending on the two medicines you are taking the affect of the second medicine could have no effect, or the effect could be amplified or diminished, or it could do something else entirely. this would depend on what bodily systems these two drugs impact and the way the patient in question reacts to each drug on an individual level, among other things. for example, some drugs that are used to lower the cholesterol of people at risk for heart disease [can cause decreased liver function](_url_0_), which would make drugs that get filtered out of your bloodstream by the liver stay in your body longer. for certain substances, this could cause a prolonged effect of the second medication, or negative side effects. you can see if two drugs interact using [this website](_url_2_). furthermore, if, as you suggest, we compare the reaction of a group who is taking a medication for a chronic disease to a group of healthy, unmedicated individuals, how can we tell if differences in drug reaction are caused by group a's chronic disease, the interaction of the two drugs, or the long-term effects medication a has had on group a? it certainly is possible for drugs to have long-lasting effects on your body. for example, antidepressants [change brain structure over time.](_url_1_) however, whether these changes have an affect on the way other drugs impact an individual appears to be largely unstudied, which i assume is because it's very rare for someone taking medication for a chronic illness to suddenly stop, so sample groups would be very difficult to find for this type of study. tldr; it really depends. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/high-blood-cholesterol/in-depth/statin-side-effects/art-20046013",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4790407/",
"https://www.drugs.com/drug_interactions.php"
] | [
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geologists of reddit: what is this rock i found? | neither a fingernail nor a penny seems to scratch the rock. the penny leaves a streak of metallic shine on it, but since the side of the penny is also damaged, i am concluding that the penny, not the rock, was scratched, and the penny just left some residue on the rock. | that could be a few things. realgar, or cinnabar. looking from the fracture and what i can see though, the likely hood it is chert is very low. in my opinion, it is realgar. @ freezer: bifs are dominantly from 3.7 - the bif's around my area sometimes contain gold and are closely related to the komatiites around the area. check out timmins' geology for bif's. i am a local geologist working in that gold camp. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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geologist of reddit can you tell me what these rocks are? | little but of a back story. found these in my house when i moved in 12 years ago and have always interested me since. id like to know if these rocks are uncommon or common finds thanks! _url_0_ | the one on the top ~~left~~ **edit** right (damn it) is a bunch of quartz crystals. compare the shape with amythyst (quartz with purple coloration) - identical. may be worth a few dollars just because people like crystals. the one on the top left looks like a sandstone or limestone brecchia (broken up rocks) concreted with perhaps calcite, by the larger white crystals. it has an interesting infilling of a different material (the grey with white flecks) with a much finer grain. to test, put a little acid on it - if it's calcite/limestone it will fizz. if it is as i describe, it's not valuable. the bottom one could be a lot of things, but the green colour on the worn, top surface forming a crust is suggestive of a large amount of copper ions. the dark colour of the main body could imply either a mudstone/clay or perhaps a basalt (especially with the iron-rich red weathered bits). you'd need to look using a hand-lens to be sure. one outside possibility: if the green stuff on the top looks like little crystals (the pale green fuzzy bit in the middle of the picture), it might be olivine, implying the rock contains material from very deep down in a mid-ocean ridge. valuation? almost certainly not valuable. sorry :) | 7 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/v6AhP"
] | [] | [
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] |
so i'm watching the discovery special on mermaids, is there any truth to this at all? | the noaa has addressed this issue as a result of that special: [no evidence of aquatic humans has ever been found.](_url_0_) | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/mermaids.html"
] | [
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|
how does the minnesota multiphasic personality inventory detect malingering? | i learned about the mmpi and did background reading on it. apparently it has "validity scales", which can be used to detect if the patient is lying, exaggerating, etc. i've tried further searches on the topic to no avail. my boyfriend studies clinical psychology and even he doesn't know... i'm very curious as to how it does this. am i just misunderstanding what it's talking about? is it a close-guarded secret? | there is a dissertation out there by thomas burke that addresses this issue. _url_0_ on a more general note, the term "validity scales" has no meaning, and although the dissertation uses this terminology, the term should probably be reconsidered. when the term "validity scale" is used, it is referring to specific "mini-tests" within the mmpi designed to measure lying, cheating, tampering or other deviant behavior. i would assume validity scales comes form a scale that calls into question the validity of the other scales. needless to say, there are 7 different validity scales on the mmpi: 1) the cannot say scale: the number of unanswered questions 2) l scale: a lie scale designed to measure social desireability 3) the f scale: designed to detect deviant and atypical response patterns 4) k-scale: which is similar to the l scale 5) fb scale: similar to the l scale, just shorter 6 + 7) the variable response inconsistency and the true response inconsistency: these two are designed to measure faking and bad responses. this is where i get fuzzy: the dissertation hypothesizes that these measures can detect malingering. a study by steffand and morgan (2008) showed mixed results for these scales. detecting malingering, or any faking behavior using a self-report measure is always difficult. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1026&context=theses"
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how is energy conserved in this example (changing frame of reference)? | if i have a 1kg rocket in space, and it accelerates with a force of 1 n for 1 s, it ends up with a momentum of 1 kgm/s and kinetic energy of 0.5 j. now if it does the same thing again, it accelerates for 1 second again, and from the original frame of reference it has kinetic energy of 2 j or twice as much. but from the frame of reference of the rocket, it only increased its energy by another 0.5 j, for 1 j total. how does this work? how does frame of reference change the energy required to move? (without getting into special relativity) | in order to discuss energy conservation, one needs to take into account all of the participants in the interaction. in your example, you have not included the rocket fuel or the exhaust gases, both of which undergo energy changes as well. in different reference frames, the various participants will emit/absorb different amounts of energy, but the energy accounts will balance. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberth_effect",
"http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/51220/kinetic-energy-with-respect-to-different-reference-frames"
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why is it the rectus abdominis is made up of 6/8 pack (with tendons between them?) instead of one whole ab muscle? | those tendinous intersections do not actually go through the entire muscle and are rather superficial to the muscle (they go through half of the thickness). without those intersections, forward flexion of the trunk (making the angle between the lower body anf the trunk smaller) would just be one undifferentiated movement. by diving the muscle into upper and lower parts, depending on how much you want to bend over (or flex your trunk) the corresponding parts can be targeted individually. lets say you just want to bend over a little bit -- > only the upper part of the rectus ambdominis contracts. lets say you want to pick up the soap -- > especially the lower and middle part of your muscle contracts. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can acoustic and optical phonon branch intersect? | i studied that in the case of a diatomic chain in 1d, when the two atoms have the same mass, the optical and acoustic phonon branch intersect at some point. now i was wondering if this is true also in the case of a 3d material, like diamond (that can be seen as a fcc lattice with 2 carbon atoms per cell). i've done a dft simulation, but the resulting dispersion relation seems to negate this possibility. did i made some mistake in the simulation or exists a gap between the two branches? | the la and lo phonons for graphene definitely intersect. so its for sure possible. when you are doing your dft simulation are you using quantum espresso (phonon)? if so the output doesn't automatically label the modes it only ranks them by frequency. i got messed up when i did it because of that. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how do scientists get to know how complex biological systems like the krebs cycle work on a molecular level? | how did they do it (back then?) or how do they do it now? by using experiments and logical reasoning. you can't put a cell under a microscope and watch its metabolic functions. instead you have to extrapolate out based on the inputs/outputs of the cell. in fact, the citric acid cycle was first postulated from experiments carried out on suspensions of minced muscle tissue. subsequently its details were worked out by study of the highly purified enzymes by use of isotopically labeled metabolites, such as pyruvate or acetate, in which the isotopes 13c or 14c are used to mark a given carbon atom in the molecule. many stringent experiments with the isotope tracer technique have confirmed that the citric acid cycle. _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.bioinfo.org.cn/book/biochemistry/chapt15/sim3.htm"
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|
perception of life | do animals perceive time differently based on their life spans? for example we have the concept of dog years, so in theory from a dog's perspective would time pass faster? | my field is learning and memory but i will give it a shot. [according to this paper, yes.](_url_1_) they used a flashing light to see at which flashing speed (frequency) could animals perceive the flashing. when the flashing is very quick, it will just appear to be a solid light. from the paper: "we show that high metabolism and small body size are associated with high cff" the whole concept of dog years comes from the idea that [smaller animals with faster metabolisms have shorter life spans](_url_3_). dogs perceived the flashing light at 80hz, while humans were at 60hz. interestingly, casts were slower than humans, at 55hz. and rats even slower! 39hz. but the over all trend holds up when using temperature-corrected mass-specific resting metabolic rate. i'm not sure how much i like this experiment's methods and the author's claims, but it is what it is. [nerve conduction times are different across species](_url_5_). this is on the order of 10's of milliseconds though. and when looking across averages, there is not too much of a difference across species. but i would say in real time, perception discrepancies across animals depends more on an individual species survival requirements. however, i would argue there is a second perception of time which we use our memories to create. studies have shown dogs do have long term memories, [1](_url_6_). which if you ever teach a dog a trick, you know they remember it over time. that is a procedural, motor memory though. there are different types of memories which use different brain regions and process. so do dogs remember events across time? this is refered to as episodic memories. can they do mental time travel while sitting in their dog bed and go back and remember when you picked them up as a puppy and that time at the dog park? do old dogs sit on the lawn and reflect on their long lives? a lot of people say no, they can't. [this review article is even titled "are animals stuck in time?"](_url_0_). [this view is being challenged though](_url_4_) and from [many different sides](_url_2_) from my own work, i agree with the view that animals can perform mental time travel. but, since they perceive the world quicker, are there memories of the past more compact and thus their lives feel shorter relative to ours? or is the temporal of memory organization independent of perception speed and all mammals, if they can hold onto episodic memories, feel their lives to have taken place at the same pace? i don't think we know these answers yet. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12002698",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347213003060",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12894243",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aging_in_dogs",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376635706000106",
"http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Axonal_conduction_delays",
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10071-013-0656-5"
] | [
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] |
it's a bit crude, but... why does taking a dump feel so damn good? | try a better title for /r/askscience such as but not limited to: "why is my brain's reward center excited when i excrete?" or "why does it feel good when i excrete?" | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how good are we at transporting electricity ? | how is is done ? is it expensive, how high is the power loss ? can we expect significant improvements in the near future ? | i'll let someone else weigh in on the ["how is it done"](_url_2_), but to answer your main question: we are *ridiculously* good at transporting electricity. so good that there is almost no room for major gains in efficiency in the future. the electricity system breaks down into three parts: generation (creating the electricity), transmission (moving it over long distances to your town or city), and distribution (bringing it down your street to your house). in the us, about [**5%**](_url_1_) of electric power generated is lost during transmission and distribution: the other 95% makes it to its destination. most of that 5% loss is in the distribution step, because the wires near your home are less efficient than the long-distance transmission lines. high-tension lines can carry power many hundreds or thousands of miles with almost zero loss. as for the cost of delivery, it's [very cheap](_url_0_). transmission costs account for just about 10% of the average electricity bill. a bit less than a third of the bill goes to distribution -- installing and maintaining power to every house in a city, repairing storm damage, etc. takes a lot of work. but the majority of your electricity payment goes to generating the electricity at the power plant. don't take people too seriously when they say the us power grid is old, obsolete, and inefficient. there's only room for about 5% improvement in efficiency at best. there are other reasons to improve it (access to remote wind power sites, for example), but as far as efficiency goes, our current system is almost perfect. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=electricity_factors_affecting_prices",
"https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=105&t=3",
"https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=electricity_delivery"
] | [
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] |
which contains more information (as a medium): light and visuals, or sound? | i don't mean which one our brain gets more information out of, i mean, whether sound or light inherently carry more information. | there is no such thing as inherent information content. how much information you can send depends on the signal to noise ratio you can get and the available bandwidth (as in hertz). signal to noise ratio then depends on how well you can insulate your communication from everything else, your transmitting power, how the signal is weakened by distance, the distance between your sending and receiving station and your sending an receiving equipment and possibly a host of other things. see [channel capacity](_url_0_). | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_capacity",
"http://www.sonardyne.com/products/subsea-wireless-communications.html"
] | [
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if china went totally green today, how long would it take to see results within the country's polution? | hard to answer, but if i was to give a technically correct response, it would be today. their coal consumption is off the charts so to speak, so if this stopped immediately we'd see an immediate albeit slight decrease. over the next week soot from cars and factories would settle and they're would be no more pollution aside from neighbours' smog drifting in | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
my wife needs you guys to explain evolution. | trying to find a couple helpful videos. [misconceptions about evolution.](_url_1_) [the starting video and playlist of the hereditary and evolution section of crash course](_url_0_). [james may talks about evolution. bbc documentary.](_url_2_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CBezq1fFUEA&feature=BFa&list=EC3EED4C1D684D3ADF",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vss1VKN2rf8",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7vFg-FQ3Rp8"
] | [
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|
is there a sun/shade index that can convert a temperature plus a sun angle into a "feels like" temperature, somewhat analogous to a windchill factor? if not, is it possible to make one up/do the calculations yourself? | they have the humidex which is the equivalent of the windchill factor for hot humid air but the difference in perceived temperature between shade and direct sun comes down to the immensely complicated radiation heat transfer equation. though the air temperature will be the same or very nearly the same in the shade or the sun, what you feel will be very different and very subjective and there is no practical way to measure and quantify that. shade will always feel cooler than sun however, as you are blocking the radiation heat transfer and reducing the amount of energy going into your body which you then have to deal with. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
ketchup as a non-newtonian fluid ? | how has it been proven that ketcup is a non-newtonian fluid, and how does it rank against other fluids? wherever i look about this they mention the ketchup effect, however that is an analogy and that in itself is not proof (analogy's can be missleading in that way). i was reasoning that if ketchup is a non-newtonian fluid shouldent the bottle be drained of ketchup once it getts going, and not stopp as it actually does whit only a small amount coming out off the bottle compared to whats in the bottle. but then that assumes that the ketchup is uniform with no internal defects like airbubbles and such, it also assumes that there are no degrees of non-newtonian fluids, that all non-newtonian fluids are perfect fluids. so to repeat my question, how has it been scientific proven that ketchup is a non-newtonian fluid, and is there a list where fluids are ranked from newtonian fluids to non-newtonian fluids and where does ketchup rank in such a list. maybe ketchup is a non-newtonian fluid but behaves closer to water then for example a polymerbased fluid. thank you | according to **koocheki, arash, et al. "the rheological properties of ketchup as a function of different hydrocolloids and temperature." international journal of food science & technology 44.3 (2009): 596-602.** showed that all ketchups under examination were non-newtonian fluids, since the values for flow behaviour indices, n, were below 1, which was indicative of the pseudoplastic (shear thinning) nature of tomato ketchups (singh gujral et al., 2002; sahin & ozdemir, 2004; bayoda et al., 2008). [pdf](_url_0_) | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Seyed_Razavi3/publication/227521860_The_rheological_properties_of_ketchup_as_a_function_of_different_hydrocolloids_and_temperature/links/02e7e5378ff7a504a5000000.pdf",
"http://www.msubbu.in/ln/fm/Unit-I/Rheology.gif"
] | [
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why doesn't corollary discharge prevent us from hitting that nerve in our own knees that make us kick? | the short answer is that there's a difference between the mechanisms of motor reflexes and, say, tickling. for motor reflexes, also known as stretch reflexes or deep tendon reflexes, (leg kicking being the most well-known), you're dealing with a sensory organ called the muscle spindle. the muscle spindle's role is to sit nice and cozy inside the belly of a muscle, and relay information about that muscle's current length and how fast it's contracting to the spinal cord. the spinal cord will then make adjustments to muscles that have the opposite action of that muscle. this is why when you do any action, you mostly just have to focus on the muscles you're using, and these other motor pathways relax the muscles that would stop you from using them. when you hit the tendon, say, the one under the kneecap, you're basically making the muscle spindle think that the muscle has suddenly stretched, and it sends signals to the spinal cord to say "kill the hamstrings, long live the quadriceps femoris!" and then bam, you kick. this all happens very quickly and is mostly dealt with by the spinal cord, and the muscle spindles are pretty much doing their own thing, so there's really not a chance for our fancy conscious brains to get involved. unlike tickling. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
would it be possible to manipulate gravitation the way we do electricity? | we primary manipulate electricity in two ways: (1) by converting the potential energy in chemical bonds into charged separated charged ions, as in batteries, and (2) by converting kinetic energy to electric current using magnets and "electromotive force", as in generators. there is no gravitational analog of chemical bonds on a human scale, and it's questionable whether there could be one in principle considering the fact that gravity is never repulsive (i'm inclined to think it's impossible, but i've never thought about it before). it is, however, possible in principle to use kinetic energy to create gravitational attraction. this essentially follows from the equivalence between mass and energy: low mass objects with a great deal of kinetic energy will bend spacetime to an appreciable degree and can therefore yield large gravitational forces. but since m = e/c^2, and c is large in human units, the amount of energy required to match the force between appreciable masses would be astronomical. more formally than e = m c^2, it is possible to linearize einstein's equations of general relativity, for the regime when the masses and energies are not relativistically extreme (i.e. not near a black hole singularity), and this results in [gravitoelectromagnetism](_url_0_), which is mathematically isomorphic to maxwell's theory of classical electromagnetism, aside from the caveat that "negative masses" do not exist as negative charges do. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitoelectromagnetism"
] | [
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] |
|
during the battle of hampton roads, holes in the [physics] css virginia's smokestack caused it to lose power. why? | the battle was the first battle between the ironclads during the us civil war. at some point during the battle, accounts note that the css virginia's smokestack became full of holes, which caused her to slow to a crawl. why is this? _url_0_ maybe this is engineering...i'm not real sure. | the hot air rising in the stacks was the primary force of draw for air into the fireboxes on steam engines. the taller the stack, to a point, the greater the volume of air drawn into the firebox, the more heat can be maintained, the more heat the greater the steam production. | 8 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Hampton_Roads"
] | [] | [
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can high and low pressure systems become small enough that multiple systems hit an area in a single day? | i would say no. here's why. there are two important processes in play in high and low pressure systems, geostrophic wind balance, and friction at the surface, amung many other things. geostrophic wind balance essentially tells us how fast the wind will be moving given a distribution of pressure. the closer the isobars (lines of constant pressure) are from each other, the faster the wind will become. the further the isobars are from each other, the slower the wind will become. friction at the surface will cause the winds to converge toward a low pressure center, and diverge from a high pressure center. now high and low pressure systems are very large ( with a higher wind speed caused by the tighter isobars, there will be more wind moving toward the center, which will add mass to the low pressure system, and decrease the central low pressure, weakening the system. the winds the low creates actually acts to destroy itself. this is why low pressure centers need to be so large, so the winds converging toward to center don't start to fill the low with mass as quickly. answering this as an atmospheric science undergrad so i'm sure i missed something. but hopefully this makes sense! | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
strokes and toast | so why do people generally smell toast when having a stroke? is it specifically this smell that most people have or is it just the fact that the brain damage alters people's sense of smell? | they don't, at least it isn't a guaranteed event or sign of a stroke. the correlation between the smell of toast and a stroke was popularized by a famous neuroscientist at mcgill's neuroscience research institute but there was no conclusive findings. a stroke involves change in perception, awareness and generally mobility. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does limestone crack, shear and break into such straight lines naturally? (image and more in description.) | i was hiking with my family around lake cyprus in bruce peninsula national park, ontario (canada) and, especially lakeside, we would see countless examples of weathered limestone. i found a couple of examples from the area in google images... 1. _url_0_ (leftmost image.) 2. _url_1_ (just a pretty picture but does shoe examples of what i'm trying to describe. the most obvious ones were horizontally through the rock and it was a feature found almost everywhere. there were even places where the rock had begun to break apart in brick-like shapes. we thought that maybe it had formed and then split in that way because of different sedimentary layers but none of us are knowledgeable enough in in this field so we could only speculate. (from what we understand, most of this area of ontario used to be sea-bed which is why the area is covered in so much limestone and features large flat terrain. this is why we thought that maybe the rock had split in horizontal straight lines because of different "seasons" of sedimentary layers?) we also saw splits in the rock moving vertically (and away from the lake) in, again, very straight lines. these would also sometimes have come apart over time and left a split large enough to walk through with very flat and smooth walls. again, what causes such straight lines and flat surfaces appear naturally in the limestone? thanks guys...hope tthis isn't too much to read. | going from my rudimentary knowledge of rocks i believe its something to do with limestone being a sedimentary stone, at least i think thats the reason for the second photo. limestone is made up of layers, and so the layers and bonded together as strong as the rest of the stone, so when it gives way to pressure and general wear, it breaks in layers, as its the weakest point, kind of like however strong a chain is, its will break at its weakest link, so the stone breaks in the weakest place first. although, i may be completely wrong, this is just guessing and sort of a high school knowledge, please correct me if i'm wrong. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jensenl/visuals/album/2007/tobermory/bruce6.jpg",
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would this design for a lava boat work? | there are quite a few problems with the concept of a lava boat. i'm no engineer, so i won't comment on the design, but even a perfectly crafted "lava boat" would be wholly ineffective. lava is much more viscous than water. a lava boat wouldn't float in it so much as it would sit on top. further, the lava transferring heat to the tungsten would cool the lava down so that it started to become a solid. assuming the design itself was functional, the moment you set it in a "pool" of lava, the lava would harden and the boat would be stuck. edit: lava is more viscous than water. | 28 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
when n.a.s.a provides a grant for an experiment, who pays for the researchers meals, rents, salary? | is that cost included in the grant? i've been looking into "gravity probe b" which started out as 3 year, 1 million dollar grant project but ended being the longest experiment in the history of n.a.s.a costing more then 750 million dollars. did the whole team have a salary during all of this? | i can't speak directly to nasa grants, but i can tell you how things conventionally work with grants from us agencies. grants can cover equipment and salaries (but with some limitations, to be indicated below). routine meals and rent and living expenses are not covered. when traveling for the project, your travel expenses (including lodging and meals) can be covered (basically, the same types of expenses that could be deducted as business expenses on a tax return filed with the irs). salaries: if there are positions created for the research project, those are indicated in the grant proposal and, if the grant is approved, those salaries are covered, with people being paid only for the fraction of time they work on a project. faculty, however, get their salaries from their home universities/colleges. some grants allow a salary supplement to faculty for the summer months whenthey are not teaching (e.g., nsf research grants allow a faculty member to seek summer salary equal to 2/9 of their academic year salary). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much do proper scientific studies cost? more specific question inside. | for instance, if i wanted to study a well known safe substance like caffeine to see if it helps people with the common cold recover faster, what would be the ballpark costs if i wanted to commission such a study? but, if anyone wants to chime in for other types of studies, i would love to learn about the costs associated with them also. is it thousands? ten thousand? more? i know there is certainly a lot of specifics that would determine exactly what something would cost. i read highlights about studies, but don't have the slightest clue what one might even cost. edit: thanks everyone. you gave me what i was looking for: a broad introduction to some of the concepts affecting the cost of a study. | i'm not sure if this is the right place to ask this question. you could also try /r/askacademia or /r/asksciencediscussion. the cost can vary a lot depending on what subjects you are using, what space you require, how long the study is going to last, and what materials and equipment you are using. for example, if i'm just running a behavioral study (in psychology), this is relatively cheap. if i'm using fmri, this costs many hundreds of dollars for each hour to use the machine. so a single study costs thousands of dollars. one important thing to keep in mind when you read that researchers get million-dollar grants is that a lot of gets paid out before any of it used for the actual experiment. for example, your institution typically takes anywhere from 50-60% for "facilities" fees (the fact that you are using their space and electricity, blah blah). some of the funds are then used to pay research staff (non-academic personal like a lab manager, programmer, or technician), some of the funds pay for postdocs, and some might be used to pay for graduate students (to buy them out of teaching). whatever is left over is used for materials, equipment, and paying subjects, and that might not be a lot... if you are doing a big clinical study, you might need to hire additional staff. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.taloussanomat.fi/palvelut/2010/05/19/katso-paljonko-hoitosi-oikeasti-maksaa/20107035/12"
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is it possible to make a n object visually move with only heat? | i know that heat is basically the vibration of molecules. what i'm curious about is if, given enough heat, you can make a solid object start vibrating from the molecular movement. is it possible? | heat is random vibration of molecules. this results in just about 0 net momentum. therefore it's impossible to just vibrate an object using only these random vibrations. however, heat causes materials to expand, especially gases. this is how most explosions work. thus every time you see a thermal explosion push objects, you ate seeing heat moving an object. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can my brain know that it's being fooled, yet still continue being fooled? | i apologise for the badly worded question, so i'll give an example. the reason i may throw up when dizzy is to empty my stomach because my brain thinks i am being poisoned. how can my brain still make my body throw up when i - the brain - know i have not taken poison and am just dizzy? if i still haven't made myself clear, i'll try to explain some other way :) thank you in advance. | well, in this instance your stomach is largely autonomous. the brain is responsible for decision making and processing new information, but it has little control over processes like the beating of your heart, gastrointestinal digestion or the movement of the sphincters along your gastrointestinal system. thus, disconnects can occur where the physical response is a result of autonomy, not conscious efforts on part of your brain to contradict what you see. the brain is also compartmentalised - sometimes information processed by one part confuses another - the two regions can only share certain information and thus, the problem cannot be resolved and you have to compensate somehow. take the hollow face illusion, it is an example of competing means of processing the types of visual stimuli from the occipital lobe and is known as the [two streams hypothesis](_url_0_) and the two ways in which we process information results in us being tricked into thinking what we see is a concave face is viewed as a convex face due to one stream taking priority over another with processing. thus, you can have one region aware that something is not right, but the other convinced it is. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-streams_hypothesis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance"
] | [
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inspired by a (very) recent post: what's the best way to maintain a cool temperature in my dorm? | one door and one window, on opposite walls. window faces west, i think. door opens into middle of hallway. any suggestions appreciated, it gets hot as hell in here. | create a draft. your fridge puts out a fuck ton of heat, though. put it near the side of the room where the air is escaping. a west facing wall isn't all that bad. put up a reflective screen in the evening. you can get one of the ones made for car windshields at walmart. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do eye drops work? | there are multiple types of eye drops. first, there are ophthalmic formulations of various medications, including antibiotics, antivirals, and corticosteroids. these are used for specific problems and require a prescription in the us. as acj21 mentioned, many eye drops designed to reduce 'red eye' contain vasoconstrictors which shrink the blood vessels in the white part of your eye, making your eyes appear more white. there are artificial tears which are used to deal with symptomatic dry-eye. the idea is that some people have aqueous tear deficiency (they don't make enough or lose too much of their natural tears) and so you replace them. if you have really bad dry-eye problems, you can actually get serum tears made. this means a doctor draws a bunch of blood from you and spins out all the red blood cells in a centrifuge. the remaining serum is given back to you and used as eye drops. there is one fda-approved medication for dry eye, called [restasis](_url_0_). it contains a small amount of immune suppressant medication. the medication is slightly controversial, as some eye docs doubt the efficacy. our actual understanding of dry eye is quite poor. we think that dry eyes have tears with an abnormally high osmolarity (too concentrated). this causes damage to the corneal epithelium (the outer layer of the clear part of your eye) which causes irritation and blurred vision. note: i do research in dry eye. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restasis#Formulations"
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|
suppose two people with different copy number variations(cnvs) mate . . . | say guy has 5 copies of a gene (homologous) and girl has 7 copies (homo.) what will child have? i ask this in the context of autism, which seems to be related to cnvs in at least some cases. | if we're talking about the same gene, then think about it this way: it depends how many copies are on each chromosome. if the guy has 4 copies on one homolog and 1 copy on the other homolog, the child can either inherit either the chromosome that has 1 copy or the chromosome that has 4 copies. same with the mother- it depends how those 7 copies of the gene are distributed between the two maternal copies of that chromosome. the child could, in the end, have any number of copies of that gene from 2 (1 from each parent) to 10 (4 from dad and 6 from mom). it's possible that recombination could occur during egg or sperm development, too, increasing or decreasing the number of copies that the child inherits. this happens quite often, especially when the amplified sequences are flanked by repetitive sequences. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is there a pattern between lychrel number? | the title says it all. just a curious undergrad edit: title should say numbers not number.. edit 2: i should say 'suspected lychrel numbers' | well, considering that no (base-10) lychrel numbers have even been proven to exist, it's hard to say. did you read the [wikipedia article about lychrel numbers](_url_0_)? there are a number of references and external links at the bottom of that article for more information. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lychrel_number"
] | [
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] |
is there a material distinction between splitting and cutting? | in terms of what happens to a physical substrate, is there a difference between splitting and cutting? when some things are cut (for example wood) we are basically abrading away a tiny plane of material, leaving two separate pieces. when other things are split (such as diamond crystals, or glass) are they losing material along their fault line, or is all material conserved? | the material will be conserved (in a theoretical model). the method of splitting will determine the micro characteristics of the fracture surface. tensile stress leading to fracture will cause necking in ductile materials. the fracture surface will have a cup and cone pattern or varying ridges where the micro structure was stronger than other places. brittle fracture (ceramics, glass, certain metals at lower temperatures etc) will not have any plastic deformation, and will leave a much flatter fracture surface. cutting methods will vary, but would leave behind a pattern from the tool/cutting motion. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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according to quantum tunneling, if i push my hand into a solid wall does it have a chance of passing through? | basically, if i smash my hand against the wall, does the quantum tunnelling theory say that my hand has a small chance to tunnel through the wall? bonus question, is there theoretically a way to control quantum tunnelling so we could one day pass through solid barriers? | in principle, yes. in practice, not in 10^100 years. (ok, maybe that's hyperbole, i haven't done the math, but you get the point.) a particle's wavelength, which is a measure of the uncertainty in its position, is related to its mass. the uncertainty in an electron's position, that is, the distance over which it can tunnel, is on the order of tens of angstroms (i.e., a couple of nm). for a proton, it's more like a 1 angstrom (i.e., 0.1 nm). for a carbon nucleus (6 protons + 6 neutrons), the uncertainty in its position is negligible, even on the atomic scale. so, the uncertainty in the position of any macroscopic object, and therefore its ability to move by quantum tunnelling, is negligibly small. this explanation is a gross simplification, but you get the general idea. the wiki articles on quantum tunnelling and/or de broglie wavelengths are much more rigorous. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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o volt? | when a voltage detector gives a reading of 0v what does that actually mean? surely it's only 0 compared to something with no potential difference? on another level the earth is considered as neutral, but what if an alien arrived and said that compared to their world it held a charge of, let's say, 200v? surely it's all relative? | voltage doesn't have a natural zero, so all voltages are relative. voltage *differences* are absolute, however. so if a voltage detector reads 0 v it means that both probes have the same potential—that the difference is zero. everyone ought do agree on the potential difference between two points, but they might not agree on the absolute potentials, which are defined only up to a constant. often this constant will be defined as the potential of ground, which means that in those cases you are implicitly measuring the potential difference between ground and some point, even if not explicitly stated. | 27 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why is it that portable chargers above a certain mah cannot be brought on the plane? | i was on a plane lately and they took away my 50000 mah power bank :( | because it is a fire hazard. 50000 mah for a 5v charger is about a million joules (250 watt-hours), i.e. if there was a short circuit such that the power bank dissipated its energy over the course of a minute (say), it would be putting out 15000 watts (the equivalent of 10 electric stovetop heating elements). a fire on an aircraft is one of a pilot's biggest fears because there is no escape from the toxic smoke and no way to land a plane from cruise altitude in less than 15 minutes or so even if the pilot's try to land as quickly as possible. this is why you always hear about not messing with the bathroom smoke detectors. here are some notable examples of fatal commercial aircraft fires since 1980 or so: [saudia flight 163](_url_6_), [british airtours flight 28m](_url_2_), [nigeria airways flight 2120](_url_7_), [air canada flight 797](_url_4_), [aeroflot flight 2306](_url_1_), [south african airways flight 295](_url_10_), [valujet flight 592](_url_9_), [propair flight 420](_url_5_), [swissair flight 111](_url_0_), [china northern airlines flight 6136](_url_3_). note that ironically [some newer aircraft use lithium ion power banks that have caught fire and lead to the temporary grounding of all 787 aircraft](_url_8_). | 17 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swissair_Flight_111",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeroflot_Flight_2306",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Airtours_Flight_28M",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Northern_Airlines_Flight_6136",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Canada_Flight_797",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propair_Flight_420",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudia_Flight_163",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria_Airways_Flight_2120",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_787_Dreamliner_battery_problems",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ValuJet_Flight_592",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_Airways_Flight_295"
] | [
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are there any metal coordination complexes used in medicine. | the examples i know are gadolinium (dota) from mri, and cisplatin, the anti cancer drug. i'm looking for other examples that aren't related with the vague mechanisms of action. thanks. | what do you mean by "...aren't related with the vague mechanisms of action"? also, this sounds suspiciously like you want us to do your research for you. so, as a hint, there are many other platinum and gold cancer treatments that are coordination complexes. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://voh.chem.ucla.edu/vohtar/fall00/C172/pdf/metalinmed.pdf"
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acidosis and oxygen injections | i ran across this [gizmodo article](_url_0_) which claims that an injection of an oxygen laden solution (sounds like an emulsion) could oxygenate blood without the need for breathing for 15-30 minutes during a life threatening situation. many people are speculating on the possibilities of using this for diving purposes to eliminate the potential of the bends. if you recieved sufficient oxygen for 30 minutes, but didn't ever exhale, wouldn't you suffer from some form of acidosis? is there any way around this? how dangerous would acidosis be if this was used recreationally (away from a medical facility)? | i actually just answered a [very similar question](_url_0_) to this one last night. essentially, you would get respiratory acidosis very quickly. keep in mind that the technique is being used in a hospital on a sedentary/sedated patient so the oxygen needs for that individual are extremely low. the technique in the article would be extremely ineffective for providing sufficient oxidation of the blood to perform an activity like swimming. that being said, say this technique *could* provide enough oxygen to the body. the way the body works, co2 is moved to the lungs where it diffuses out. however, you need to exhale for the passive diffusion of co2 to be effective at all. this means that you need to exhale. but then for the lung to reinflate so that you can exhale again, you need to inhale. essentially, just this technique by itself would be absolutely ineffectual for diving. there is a way around the acidosis and that is via a extracorporeal co2 removal machine. it works by taking blood out of your body, removing co2, and putting the blood back in. however, again, this is something that's used in a hospital for sedentary patients, so it would not be able to remove sufficient co2 during any activity. the resulting acidosis (last part of your question) would be extremely dangerous. in this it would be called acute respiratory acidosis. your body is only able to buffer (i.e. control the acidity of your blood) your blood very slightly and only after several minutes. the resulting acidity, especially after 30 minutes, would cause shock, and respiratory along with other organ failure. | 6 | [] | [
"http://gizmodo.com/5921868/scientists-invent-particles-that-will-let-you-live-without-breathing?utm_campaign=socialflow_gizmodo_facebook&utm_source=gizmodo_facebook&utm_medium=socialflow"
] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/vpt44/to_what_extent_can_we_oxygenate_blood_artificially/",
"http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/4/140/140ra88"
] | [
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what does life actually do? and, can we find this process elsewhere? | could it be said that life just converts some compounds into other compounds? chemosynthesis: co2 + o2 + 4h2s → ch2o + 4s + 3h2o where else do we see this? rust and combustion come to mind and they're not thought to be alive. or is life storing sun and inorganic energy into chemical energy? or, could it be said that life just chugs along making dna molecules? what is the simplest way to look at what life actually *does*? | the biggest definitions of life mostly involve self replication and reacting to the environment. given that the definition of life is so fuzzy/arbitrary, anything that does the same thing as life by definition is life. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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so a post-apocalyptic question… | life above earth(ground) is no longer viable but i’ve found a cave to hide in. unfortunately i’m 200 feet underground in an old mine can i use mirrors to bring the sun in and grow a garden? | [mythbusters did something similar](_url_0_), and the major problem they ran in to is that the sun actually moves across the sky very rapidly, meaning they constantly had to adjust their mirrors in order to maintain lighting. now, if you had a computer controlled mirror on an actuator that could track the sun, you could lessen that problem. you could potentially use a track of mirrors that were all oriented properly, but you'd need to adjust seasonally. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mXzuWxGNN0A"
] | [
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so i'm writing this sci-fi story for my media production class. it's basically about space travel and time dilation. can you guys help me out? | you broke the laws of physics when you said the ship traveled faster than light. if his ship was able to travel at light speed, his trip would have been instantaneous from his point of view but would have taken ten years for someone on earth. not only that, if the main character were able to see what happened during his trip at light speed, the distance in front of him would have shortened so that his starting point met his destination point. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
would it be possible to kick-start a brain when they are in a vegetative state? i would expect it to be a bit similar to the use of defibrillators. | maybe... but it isn't at all like defibrillation. using magnetic pulses, there are some who hypothesize that we can "stimulate" neural functioning/regeneration. still needs a lot of research. _url_1_ _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1935861X08003355",
"http://www.coma.ulg.ac.be/papers/vs/Lapitskaya_TMS_2010.pdf"
] | [
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Subsets and Splits