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217_2 | More than 60 manufacturing operations across the world use the Bayer process to make alumina from bauxite ore. Bauxite ore is mined, normally in open cast mines, and transferred to an alumina refinery for processing. The alumina is extracted using sodium hydroxide under conditions of high temperature and pressure. The insoluble part of the bauxite (the residue) is removed, giving rise to a solution of sodium aluminate, which is then seeded with an aluminium hydroxide crystal and allowed to cool which causes the remaining aluminium hydroxide to precipitate from the solution. Some of the aluminium hydroxide is used to seed the next batch, while the remainder is calcined (heated) at over 1000 °C in rotary kilns or fluid flash calciners to produce aluminium oxide (alumina). |
217_3 | The alumina content of the bauxite used is normally between 42 and 50%, but ores with a wide range of alumina contents can be used. The aluminium compound may be present as gibbsite (Al(OH)3), boehmite (γ-AlO(OH)) or diaspore (α-AlO(OH)). The residue invariably has a high concentration of iron oxide which gives the product a characteristic red colour. A small residual amount of the sodium hydroxide used in the process remains with the residue, causing the material to have a high pH/alkalinity, normally >12. Various stages in the solid/liquid separation process are introduced to recycle as much sodium hydroxide as possible from the residue back into the Bayer Process in order to make the process as efficient as possible and reduce production costs. This also lowers the final alkalinity of the residue making it easier and safer to handle and store. |
217_4 | Composition
Red mud is composed of a mixture of solid and metallic oxides. The red colour arises from iron oxides, which can comprise up to 60% of the mass. The mud is highly basic with a pH ranging from 10 to 13. In addition to iron, the other dominant components include silica, unleached residual aluminium compounds, and titanium oxide.
The main constituents of the residue after the extraction of the aluminium component are insoluble metallic oxides. The percentage of these oxides produced by a particular alumina refinery will depend on the quality and nature of the bauxite ore and the extraction conditions. The table below shows the composition ranges for common chemical constituents, but the values vary widely:
Mineralogically expressed the components present are: |
217_5 | In general, the composition of the residue reflects that of the non-aluminium components, with the exception of part of the silicon component: crystalline silica (quartz) will not react but some of the silica present, often termed, reactive silica, will react under the extraction conditions and form sodium aluminium silicate as well as other related compounds.
Environmental hazards
Discharge of red mud can be hazardous environmentally because of its alkalinity and species components.
In 1972 there was a red mud discharge off the coast of Corsica by the Italian company Montedison. The case is important in international law governing the Mediterranean sea. |
217_6 | In October 2010, approximately one million cubic meters of red mud slurry from an alumina plant near Kolontár in Hungary was accidentally released into the surrounding countryside in the Ajka alumina plant accident, killing ten people and contaminating a large area. All life in the Marcal river was said to have been "extinguished" by the red mud, and within days the mud had reached the Danube. The long-term environmental effects of the spill have been minor after a remediation effort by the Hungarian government.
Residue storage areas
Residue storage methods have changed substantially since the original plants were built. The practice in early years was to pump the slurry, at a concentration of about 20% solids, into lagoons or ponds sometimes created in former bauxite mines or depleted quarries. In other cases, impoundments were constructed with dams or levees, while for some operations valleys were dammed and the residue deposited in these holding areas. |
217_7 | It was once common practice for the red mud to be discharged into rivers, estuaries, or the sea via pipelines or barges; in other instances the residue was shipped out to sea and disposed of in deep ocean trenches many kilometres offshore. From 2016, all disposal into the sea, estuaries and rivers was stopped.
As residue storage space ran out and concern increased over wet storage, since the mid-1980s dry stacking has been increasingly adopted. In this method, residues are thickened to a high density slurry (48–55% solids or higher), and then deposited in a way that it consolidates and dries. |
217_8 | An increasingly popular treatment process is filtration whereby a filter cake (typically resulting in 23–27% moisture) is produced. This cake can be washed with either water or steam to reduce alkalinity before being transported and stored as a semi-dried material. Residue produced in this form is ideal for reuse as it has lower alkalinity, is cheaper to transport, and is easier to handle and process. Another option for ensuring safe storage is to use amphirols to dewater the material once deposited and then 'conditioned' using farming equipment such as harrows to accelerate carbonation and thereby reduce the alkalinity. Bauxite residue produced after press filtration and 'conditioning as described above are classified as non-hazardous under the EU Waste Framework Directive. |
217_9 | In 2013 Vedanta Aluminium, Ltd. commissioned a red mud powder-producing unit at its Lanjigarh refinery in Odisha, India, describing it as the first of its kind in the alumina industry, tackling major environmental hazards. |
217_10 | Use
Since the Bayer process was first adopted industrially in 1894, the value of the remaining oxides has been recognized. Attempts have been made to recover the principal components – especially the iron. Since mining began, an enormous amount of research effort has been devoted to seeking uses for the residue. Many studies are now being financed by the European Union under the Horizon Europe programme. Several studies have been conducted to develop uses of red mud. An estimated 3 to 4 million tonnes are used annually in the production of cement, road construction and as a source for iron. Potential applications include the production of low cost concrete, application to sandy soils to improve phosphorus cycling, amelioration of soil acidity, landfill capping and carbon sequestration. |
217_11 | Reviews describing the current use of bauxite residue in Portland cement clinker, supplementary cementious materials/blended cements and special calcium sulfo-aluminate cements have been extensively researched and well documented. |
217_12 | Cement manufacture, use in concrete as a supplementary cementitious material. From 500,000 to 1,500,000 tonnes.
Raw material recovery of specific components present in the residue: iron, titanium, steel and REE (rare-earth elements) production. From 400,000 to 1,500,000 tonnes;
Landfill capping/roads/soil amelioration – 200,000 to 500,000 tonnes;
Use as a component in building or construction materials (bricks, tiles, ceramics etc.) – 100,000 to 300,000 tonnes;
Other (refractory, adsorbent, acid mine drainage (Virotec), catalyst etc.) – 100,000 tonnes. |
217_13 | Use in building panels, bricks, foamed insulating bricks, tiles, gravel/railway ballast, calcium and silicon fertilizer, refuse tip capping/site restoration, lanthanides (rare earths) recovery, scandium recovery, gallium recovery, yttrium recovery, treatment of acid mine drainage, adsorbent of heavy metals, dyes, phosphates, fluoride, water treatment chemical, glass ceramics, ceramics, foamed glass, pigments, oil drilling or gas extraction, filler for PVC, wood substitute, geopolymers, catalysts, plasma spray coating of aluminium and copper, manufacture of aluminium titanate-Mullite composites for high temperature resistant coatings, desulfurisation of flue gas, arsenic removal, chromium removal. |
217_14 | In 2020, the International Aluminium Institute, launched a Roadmap for maximising the use of bauxite residue in cement and concrete. |
217_15 | In 2015 a major initiative was launched in Europe with funds from the European Union to address the valorisation of red mud. Some 15 Ph.D. students were recruited as part the European Training Network (ETN) for Zero-Waste Valorisation of Bauxite Residue. The key focus will be the recovery of iron, aluminium, titanium and rare-earth elements (including scandium) while valorising the residue into building materials. |
217_16 | A European Innovation Partnership has been formed to explore options for using by-products from the aluminium industry, BRAVO (Bauxite Residue and Aluminium Valorisation Operations). This sought to bring together industry with researchers and stakeholders to explore the best available technologies to recover critical raw materials but has not proceeded. Additionally, EU funding of approximately Euro 11.5 million has been allocated to a four year programme starting in May 2018 looking at uses of bauxite residue with other wastes, RemovAL. A particular focus of this project is the installation of pilot plants to evaluate some of the interesting technologies from previous laboratory studies. As part of the H2020 project RemovAl, it is planned to erect a house in the Aspra Spitia area of Greece that will be made entirely out of materials from bauxite residue. |
217_17 | Other EU funded projects that have involved bauxite residue and waste recovery have been ENEXAL (energy-exergy of Aluminium industry) [2010-2014], EURARE (European Rare earth resources) [2013-2017] and three more recent projects are ENSUREAL (Ensuring sustainable alumina production) [2017-2021], SIDEREWIN (Sustainable Electro-wining of Iron) [2017- 2022] and SCALE (Scandium – Aluminium in Europe) [2016-2020] a Euro 7 million project to look at the recovery of scandium from bauxite residue. |
217_18 | In November 2020, The ReActiv: Industrial Residue Activation for Sustainable Cement Production research project was launched, this is being funded by the EU. One of the world's largest cement companies, Holcim, in cooperation with 20 partners across 12 European countries, launched the ambitious 4 year ReActiv project (reactivproject.eu). The ReActiv project will create a novel sustainable symbiotic value chain, linking the by-product of the alumina production industry and the cement production industry. In ReActiv modification will be made to both the alumina production and the cement production side of the chain, in order to link them through the new ReActiv technologies. The latter will modify the properties of the industrial residue, transforming it into a reactive material (with pozzolanic or hydraulic activity) suitable for new, low footprint, cement products. In this manner ReActiv proposes a win-win scenario for both industrial sectors (reducing wastes and emissions |
217_19 | respectively). |
217_20 | Fluorchemie Gmbh have developed a new flame-retardant additive from bauxite residue, the product is termed MKRS (modified re-carbonised red mud) with the trademark ALFERROCK(R) and has potential applicability in a wide range of polymers (PCT WO2014/000014). One of its particular benefits is the ability to operate over a much broader temperature range, 220 – 350 oC, that alternative zero halogen inorganic flame retardants such as aluminium hydroxide, boehmite or magnesium hydroxide. In addition to polymer systems where aluminium hydroxide or magnesium hydroxide can be used, it has also found to be effective in foamed polymers such as EPS and PUR foams at loadings up to 60 %. |
217_21 | In a suitable solid form, calcined ALFERROCK produced by from bauxite residue, has a density of approximately 3.93 g/cm3 been found to be very effective as a heat storage medium (WO2017/157664). The material can repeatedly be heated and cooled without deterioration and has a specific thermal capacity in the range of 0.6 – 0.8 kJ/(kg*K) at 20 oC and 0.9 – 1.3 kJ/(kg*K) at 726 oC; this enables the material to work effectively in energy storage device to maximise the benefits of solar polar, wind turbines and hydro-electric systems.
See also
Chemical waste
Olivier Dubuquoy
References |
217_22 | Additional references
M. B. Cooper, “Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) in Australian Industries”, EnviroRad report ERS-006 prepared for the Australian Radiation Health and Safety Advisory Council (2005).
Agrawal, K. K. Sahu, B. D. Pandey, "Solid waste management in non-ferrous industries in India", Resources, Conservation and Recycling 42 (2004), 99–120.
Jongyeong Hyuna, Shigehisa Endoha, Kaoru Masudaa, Heeyoung Shinb, Hitoshi Ohyaa, "Reduction of chlorine in bauxite residue by fine particle separation", Int. J. Miner. Process., 76, 1–2, (2005), 13–20.
Claudia Brunori, Carlo Cremisini, Paolo Massanisso, Valentina Pinto, Leonardo Torricelli, "Reuse of a treated red mud bauxite waste: studies on environmental compatibility", Journal of Hazardous Materials, 117(1), (2005), 55–63.
H. Genc¸-Fuhrman, J. C. Tjell, D. McConchie, "Increasing the arsenate adsorption capacity of neutralized red mud (Bauxsol™)", J. Colloid Interface Sci. 271 (2004) 313–320. |
217_23 | H. Genc¸-Fuhrman, J. C. Tjell, D. McConchie, O. Schuiling, "Adsorption of arsenate from water using neutralized red mud", J. Colloid Interface Sci. 264 (2003) 327–334. |
217_24 | External links and further reading
, from The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
Waste
Water pollution
Soil contamination
Minerals |
218_0 | The Comprehensive Perl Archive Network (CPAN) is a repository of over 250,000 software modules and accompanying documentation for 39,000 distributions, written in the Perl programming language by over 12,000 contributors. CPAN can denote either the archive network or the Perl program that acts as an interface to the network and as an automated software installer (somewhat like a package manager). Most software on CPAN is free and open source software.
History
CPAN was conceived in 1993 and has been active online since October 1995. It is based on the CTAN model and began as a place to unify the structure of scattered Perl archives. |
218_1 | Role
Like many programming languages, Perl has mechanisms to use external libraries of code, making one file contain common routines used by several programs. Perl calls these modules. Perl modules are typically installed in one of several directories whose paths are placed in the Perl interpreter when it is first compiled; on Unix-like operating systems, common paths include /usr/lib/perl5, /usr/local/lib/perl5, and several of their subdirectories.
Perl comes with a small set of core modules. Some of these perform bootstrapping tasks, such as ExtUtils::MakeMaker, which is used to create Makefiles for building and installing other extension modules; others, like List::Util, are merely commonly used. |
218_2 | CPAN's main purpose is to help programmers locate modules and programs not included in the Perl standard distribution. Its structure is decentralized. Authors maintain and improve their own modules. Forking, and creating competing modules for the same task or purpose, is common. There is a third-party bug tracking system that is automatically set up for any uploaded distribution, but authors may opt to use a different bug tracking system such as GitHub. Similarly, though GitHub is a popular location to store the source for distributions, it may be stored anywhere the author prefers, or may not be publicly accessible at all. Maintainers may grant permissions to others to maintain or take over their modules, and permissions may be granted by admins for those wishing to take over abandoned modules. Previous versions of updated distributions are retained on CPAN until deleted by the uploader, and a secondary mirror network called BackPAN retains distributions even if they are deleted |
218_3 | from CPAN. Also, the complete history of the CPAN and all its modules is available as the GitPAN project, allowing to easily see the complete history for all the modules and for easy maintenance of forks. CPAN is also used to distribute new versions of Perl, as well as related projects, such as Parrot and Raku. |
218_4 | Structure
Files on the CPAN are referred to as distributions. A distribution may consist of one or more modules, documentation files, or programs packaged in a common archiving format, such as a gzipped tar archive or a ZIP file. Distributions will often contain installation scripts (usually called Makefile.PL or Build.PL) and test scripts which can be run to verify the contents of the distribution are functioning properly. New distributions are uploaded to the Perl Authors Upload Server, or PAUSE (see the section Uploading distributions with PAUSE). |
218_5 | In 2003, distributions started to include metadata files, called META.yml, indicating the distribution's name, version, dependencies, and other useful information; however, not all distributions contain metadata. When metadata is not present in a distribution, the PAUSE's software will try to analyze the code in the distribution to look for the same information; this is not necessarily very reliable. In 2010, version 2 of this specification was created to be used via a new file called META.json, with the YAML format file often also included for backward compatibility.
With thousands of distributions, CPAN needs to be structured to be useful. Authors often place their modules in the natural hierarchy of Perl module names (such as Apache::DBI or Lingua::EN::Inflect) according to purpose or domain, though this is not enforced. |
218_6 | CPAN module distributions usually have names in the form of CGI-Application-3.1 (where the :: used in the module's name has been replaced with a dash, and the version number has been appended to the name), but this is only a convention; many prominent distributions break the convention, especially those that contain multiple modules. Security restrictions prevent a distribution from ever being replaced with an identical filename, so virtually all distribution names do include a version number.
Components
The distribution infrastructure of CPAN consists of its worldwide network of more than 250 mirrors in more than 60 countries. Each full mirror hosts around 31 gigabytes of data.
Most mirrors update themselves hourly, daily or bidaily from the CPAN master site. Some sites are major FTP servers which mirror lots of other software, but others are simply servers owned by companies that use Perl heavily. There are at least two mirrors on every continent except Antarctica. |
218_7 | Several search engines have been written to help Perl programmers sort through the CPAN. The official includes textual search, a browsable index of modules, and extracted copies of all distributions currently on the CPAN. On 16 May 2018, the Perl Foundation announced that search.cpan.org would be shut down on 29 June 2018 (after 19 years of operation), due to its aging codebase and maintenance burden. Users will be transitioned and redirected to the third-party alternative MetaCPAN.
CPAN Testers are a group of volunteers, who will download and test distributions as they are uploaded to CPAN. This enables the authors to have their modules tested on many platforms and environments that they would otherwise not have access to, thus helping to promote portability, as well as a degree of quality. Smoke testers send reports, which are then collated and used for a variety of presentation websites, including the main reports site, statistics and dependencies. |
218_8 | Authors can upload new distributions to the CPAN through the Perl Authors Upload Server (PAUSE). To do so, they must request a PAUSE account.
Once registered, they may use a web interface at pause.perl.org, or an FTP interface to upload files to their directory and delete them. Modules in the upload will only be indexed as canonical if the module name has not been used before (granting first-come permission to the uploader), or if the uploader has permission for that name, and if the module is a higher version than any existing entry. This can be specified through PAUSE's web interface. |
218_9 | CPAN.pm, CPANPLUS, and cpanminus
There is also a Perl core module named CPAN; it is usually differentiated from the repository itself by using the name CPAN.pm. CPAN.pm is mainly an interactive shell which can be used to search for, download, and install distributions. An interactive shell called is also provided in the Perl core, and is the usual way of running CPAN.pm. After a short configuration process and mirror selection, it uses tools available on the user's computer to automatically download, unpack, compile, test, and install modules. It is also capable of updating itself. |
218_10 | An effort to replace CPAN.pm with something cleaner and more modern resulted in the CPANPLUS (or CPAN++) set of modules. CPANPLUS separates the back-end work of downloading, compiling, and installing modules from the interactive shell used to issue commands. It also supports several advanced features, such as cryptographic signature checking and test result reporting. Finally, CPANPLUS can uninstall a distribution. CPANPLUS was added to the Perl core in version 5.10.0, and removed from it in version 5.20.0. |
218_11 | A smaller, leaner modern alternative to these CPAN installers was developed called cpanminus. cpanminus was designed to have a much smaller memory footprint as often required in limited memory environments, and to be usable as a standalone script such that it can even install itself, requiring only the expected set of core Perl modules to be available. It is also available from CPAN as the module App::cpanminus, which installs the script. It does not maintain or rely on a persistent configuration, but is configured only by the environment and command-line options. cpanminus does not have an interactive shell component. It recognizes the cpanfile format for specifying prerequisites, useful in ad-hoc Perl projects that may not be designed for CPAN installation. cpanminus also has the ability to uninstall distributions. |
218_12 | Each of these modules can check a distribution's dependencies and recursively install any prerequisites, either automatically or with individual user approval. Each support FTP and HTTP and can work through firewalls and proxies.
Influence
Experienced Perl programmers often comment that half of Perl's power is in the CPAN. It has been called Perl's killer app. It is roughly equivalent to the PECL and PEAR for PHP; the PyPI (Python Package Index) repository for Python; RubyGems for Ruby; CRAN for R; npm for Node.js; LuaRocks for Lua; Maven for Java; and Hackage for Haskell. CPAN's use of arbitrated name spaces, a testing regime and a well defined documentation style makes it unique. |
218_13 | Given its importance to the Perl developer community, the CPAN both shapes and is shaped by Perl's culture. Its "self-appointed master librarian", Jarkko Hietaniemi, often takes part in the April Fools' Day jokes; on 1 April 2002 the site was temporarily named to CJAN, where the "J" stood for "Java". In 2003, the www.cpan.org domain name was redirected to Matt's Script Archive, a site infamous in the Perl community for having badly written code.
Some of the distributions on the CPAN are distributed as jokes. The Acme:: hierarchy is reserved for joke modules; for instance, Acme::Don't adds a don't function that doesn't run the code given to it (to complement the do built-in, which does). Even outside the Acme:: hierarchy, some modules are still written largely for amusement; one example is Lingua::Romana::Perligata, which can be used to write Perl programs in a subset of Latin. |
218_14 | In 2005, a group of Perl developers who also had an interest in JavaScript got together to create JSAN, the JavaScript Archive Network. The JSAN is a near-direct port of the CPAN infrastructure for use with the JavaScript language, which for most of its lifespan did not have a cohesive "community".
In 2008, after a chance meeting with CPAN admin Adam Kennedy at the Open Source Developers Conference, Linux kernel developer Rusty Russell created the CCAN, the Comprehensive C Archive Network. The CCAN is a direct port of the CPAN architecture for use with the C language.
CRAN, the Comprehensive R Archive Network, is a set of mirrors hosting the R programming language distribution(s), documentation, and contributed extensions.
References
External links |
218_15 | MetaCPAN
List of official CPAN mirrors, status of mirrors
ZCAN - "The Zen of Comprehensive Archive Networks" - a document that aims to explain how and why CPAN succeeded and how to duplicate it in similar efforts. (9 January 2003 by Jarkko Hietaniemi).
Perl
Archive networks
Package management systems |
219_0 | Solomon Creek is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, in the United States. It is approximately long and flows through Fairview Township, Hanover Township, and Wilkes-Barre. The creek is affected by acid mine drainage and has significant loads of iron, aluminum, and manganese. The creek's named tributaries are Spring Run, Sugar Notch Run, and Pine Creek. The Solomon Creek watershed is located in the Anthracite Valley section of the ridge-and-valley geographical province. Major rock formations in the watershed include the Mauch Chunk Formation, the Spechty Kopf Formation, and the Catskill Formation. |
219_1 | Solomon Creek was first settled by Native Americans around 8000 to 6000 B.C.E. A settler arrived at the confluence of the creek with the Susquehanna River by 1774. In the 1800s, more people began arriving in the watershed to exploit its natural resources. Anthracite mining was especially prevalent in the watershed in the 19th and 20th centuries, to the point that numerous streams were altered or destroyed and the Laurel Run mine fire started.
Solomon Creek was devoid of fish in the 1970s. However, since then several fish species, including brook trout, have inhabited the creek and its tributaries. A number of varieties of aquatic insects are also present.
Course |
219_2 | Solomon Creek starts on western Penobscot Mountain in northern Fairview Township and flows west down the mountain for a short distance before turning northwards, paralleling Pennsylvania Route 309 and briefly Pennsylvania Route 437. The creek then enters Hanover Township. It picks up Pine Creek and cuts a gap through Wilkes-Barre Mountain and then through Ashley. Upon leaving Ashley, it heads into Wilkes-Barre, picking up Sugar Notch Run and Spring Run. The creek soon turns west into Hanover Township again, having flowed by this point. It enters the Susquehanna River at Hanover Green.
Tributaries
Sugar Notch Run, Pine Creek and Spring Run are two tributaries of Solomon Creek. Sugar Notch Run is long, Pine Creek is long, and Spring Run is long. Spring Run is an intermittent stream. There are two other ephemeral tributaries that are not officially named, but are known locally as Sulfur Run and the Lee Park tributary. |
219_3 | Historically, Solomon Creek had at least seven tributaries, including one named Buttonwood Creek. However, several tributaries largely disappeared by the late 1890s due to mining in the watershed.
Hydrology
Solomon Creek has an orange color as it flows past Wilkes-Barre, due to acid mine drainage.
The tributaries Sugar Notch Run and Spring Run lose most of their discharge (75% in the case of Spring Run) when passing over subterranean mine pools. The discharge of the creek is 3.39 cubic feet per second. Between 1938 and 1989, the highest recorded discharge of the creek was 2450 cubic feet per second. This occurred on August 18, 1955. The discharge was not higher than 1610 cubic feet per second on any other year during that time period. |
219_4 | The daily load of aluminum in Solomon Creek ranges from at a site below Pine Creek to at the Buttonwood Tunnel. The average load is per day. The lowest load of iron is per day at the site below Pine Creek and Solomon Creek at Sugar Notch Run and the highest is per day at the Buttonwood Tunnel. The average is per day. The Solomon Creek boreholes and the Nottingham-Buttonwood Airshaft are the second-largest and third-largest sources of iron discharge in the Coal Region, contributing 9.07% and 7.85% of the iron load in the region, respectively. The daily load of manganese ranges between above Pine Creek and at the Buttonwood Tunnel and the average daily load is . The load of acidity in the creek ranges from 0 at site SR to per day at the Buttonwood Tunnel. The average load of acidity per day is . The alkalinity load ranges from on Sugar Notch Run to at the Buttonwood Tunnel. The average daily load of alkalinity is . |
219_5 | At a large number of sites within the Solomon Creek watershed in 2011, the water temperature ranged from at site SC12 to at sites above, below, and on Sugar Notch Run. At these same sites, the pH ranged from 4.5 at a site on Sugar Notch Run to 7.5 two sites on an unnamed tributary, one site below Sugar Notch Run, and a site on another unnamed tributary. The iron concentration ranged from 0 at over 20 sites to 36 milligrams per liter at an acid mine drainage discharge in the watershed. The concentration of dissolved oxygen ranged from 0 at eight sites to 13 milligrams per liter at SU01, and on Pine Creek northeast of Pennsylvania Route 309 and below Unnamed Tributary 4.
There are six locations in the Solomon Creek watershed where mine drainage is discharged. Ten miles (sixteen kilometers) of the streams on the creek's watershed are rendered devoid of life by mine drainage. |
219_6 | According to Robert Hughes, the Eastern Pennsylvania Coalition for Abandoned Mine Reclamation's executive director, the water level of Solomon Creek has risen since the middle of the 19th century. There are large amounts of sediment along the creek. Sediment piles are over on the creek at Division Street and or in the Brookside area. Sewage is discharged into the creek at several locations. It has been discharged into the creek since at least 1909. Additionally, there are debris dams in various areas on the creek. |
219_7 | Geology
Solomon Creek is located at the edge of the ridge and valley geographic province, in the Anthracite Valley section. There is a ridge in the creek's watershed called the Wilkes-Barre Mountain. On the ridge, the Mauch Chunk Formation exists, with red shale, sandstone, and siltstone. Other significant rock formations in the watershed include the Pocono Formation with olive and gray rocks and the Spechty Kopf formation. Under the Spechty Kopf formation lie rocks of the Catskill Formation. The watershed is located in the Wyoming Coal Basin, the southwestern sub-basin of the Northern Anthracite Coal Field. The creek's headwaters have glacial deposition from the Wisconsonian glacial period. At the headwaters of the tributary Spring Creek, there is a rock formation of light gray conglomerate called Prospect Rock. It is above sea level and southeast of Wilkes-Barre's Public Square. |
219_8 | An unconformity lies between the Catskill Formation and the Spechty Kopf Formation. The sandstone in the latter formation are mostly cross-bedded, although some areas have planar bedding. The Llewellyn Formation, containing conglomerate and sandstone is found in the Spring Run and Sugar Notch Run sub-watersheds.
The upper part of Solomon Creek is located in the Pocono Plateau. The lowest elevation in the watershed is on the western side of the creek's floodplain. The highest elevation is on Haystack Mountain. The elevation of the creek's mouth is above sea level. The creek's source is just under above sea level. |
219_9 | There are 14 coal seams in the Solomon Creek watershed. The deepest seam is the Bottom Red Ash. Other seams included the Middle Red Ash, the Top Red Ash, the Checker Bed, the Pittston Bed, the Ross Bed, the Skidmore Bed, the Kidney Bed, the Snake Island Bed, the Hillman Bed, and the Abbott Bed. There are also three numbered beds called the #2, #3, and #4 beds. Historically, parts of the seams were within of the surface, but they were completely mined. Areas along the banks of the creek are covered in coal ash, coal silt, sand, and gravel. There are gravel bars and point bars in the lower reaches of the creek. The lower reaches of Solomon Creek have a 0.2% grade.
In the Solomon Gap, there are piles coal ash that is pink and orange due to oxidation. These piles rise as high as to . Similarly-colored coal is found in sediment and gravel bars in the creek. |
219_10 | Soils
Soils in the Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 207, in the Solomon Creek watershed, include the Arnot Rock outcrop complex. On hills with a grade higher than 25%, the steep variety of this soil appears. It is a dark brown silt loam with a bedrock depth of . It has fast runoff and 3% to 40% of the surface is covered with boulders. The regular variety of this soil, which occurs on slopes with a grade of 8% to 25%, is the same, but has a bedrock depth of and slower runoff.
Watershed
The area of Solomon Creek's watershed is 18.2 square miles. |
219_11 | The watershed area is 60% forested land and 26% developed land. Nearly 7% of the land is considered disturbed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This includes abandoned coal mines and quarries. In specific, 6748 acres are forest, 1839 acres are considered "low-intensity development" by the Environmental Protection Agency, 1174 acres are considered "high-intensity development" by the Environmental Protection Agency 509 acres are devoted to hay or pastureland, and 492 acres are considered "transition" by the Environmental Protection Agency. Crops are grown on 336 acres, quarries occupy 215 acres, wetland makes up 77 acres, coal mines make up 64 acres, and grass occupies 22 acres. There are a total of stream miles in the watershed. Deciduous forest occupies much of the southern part of the watershed. Most of the agricultural land is located on a floodplain at the mouth of the creek. |
219_12 | There are nine municipalities in the Solomon Creek watershed. Most of the watershed is in Ashley, Laurel Run, Wilkes-Barre Township, and Hanover Township. Smaller parts of the watershed are in Wilkes-Barre, Bear Creek Township, Fairview Township, Rice Township, and Sugar Notch.
In the 2000 United States Census, there were 928 households in the Solomon Creek area and an average household size of 4.6 people. This indicates a population of 4269 for the Solomon Creek watershed. There is a higher-than-average concentration of people over 65 years of age in the watershed. Major roads in the watershed include Interstate 81 and Pennsylvania Route 309.
There are five designated sub-watersheds of the Solomon Creek watershed. They are the upper and lower Solomon Creek watershed, the Pine Creek watershed, the Spring Run watershed, and the Sugar Notch Run watershed. Neighboring watersheds include those of Little Wapwallopen Creek and Big Wapwallopen Creek.
History |
219_13 | Native Americans settled in the Solomon Creek watershed by approximately 8000 B.C. to 6000 B.C. Ebenezer Hibbard was an early European settler on the creek, living there by 1772. The creek is named after a person with the surname of Solomon, who settled at the mouth of the creek in 1774. In the early 1800s, Europeans first realized the natural resources of the watershed. In the early 1800s, there was a tavern called Inman's Tavern and several cabins in the Solomon Gap. In the mid-1800s, the population of the watershed increased significantly due to coal mining and timbering opportunities. The first road in Fairview Township, the Wilkes-Barre and Hazleton Turnpike, started at Solomon Creek.
There are waterfalls called Solomon's Falls on Solomon Creek. They were called a "beautiful cascade" by Philadelphia's Portfolio in 1809, although a 1909 book stated that the waterfalls were no longer "picturesque" or "delightful". The falls were between and . |
219_14 | In 1809, Richard and Israel Inman constructed a gristmill at the foot of Solomon's Falls. It was converted to a house in 1833 and destroyed in 1850. A gristmill on the creek in Hanover Township had been built by 1812 and was run by George Mesinger. It was destroyed in 1840. In 1845, William Petty constructed the gristmill called Petty Mill in Hanover Township. This mill burned down in 1887. The Wyoming Division Canal, which was constructed in the 1830s, started at Solomon Creek. Construction of the Ashley Planes in the Solomon Creek gap began in 1837. They were used until 1848. An iron-producing forge operated on the creek in Ashley until 1839. There was also a sawmill on it until 1839. A powder mill operated on Solomon Creek, but was replaced with a brewery by 1885. A slaughterhouse discharged its waste into the creek in the early 20th century. The creek was used as the water supply for the Huber Breaker from the 1930s to the 1970s. The Wilkes-Barre and Hazleton Railway passed over |
219_15 | Solomon Creek. |
219_16 | Mining has been done in the Solomon Creek watershed in the past, causing considerable environmental damage. The mining began in the beginning of the 1800s and continued until the 1970s. However, there was one strip mining permit in the watershed in the late 1990s. Starting in 1967, the mine pools under the creek stopped having water pumped out of them. This led to them flooding and damaging buildings in the watershed in 1972 during Hurricane Agnes. To remedy the problem of the flooding, the Buttonwood Tunnel and three boreholes known as the South Wilkes-Barre Boreholes were created. The water quality of the creek was assessed in 1970 as part of Operation Scarlift. A 1977 study by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission observed brook trout inhabiting the watershed, although the stream was listed as impaired on account of the mining. A plan called the Solomon Creek Cold Water Conservation Plan was initiated in the summer of 2011 and continued into 2012. |
219_17 | A mine fire known as the Laurel Run mine fire started burning in the watershed of Solomon Creek since 1915, when a miner accidentally left a carbide lamp hanging from a timber support in the Red Ash Coal Mine. The lamp caused the support to catch fire. The fire may continue into the 22nd century. The fire was contained in 1973, but was not extinguished. Had the fire not been contained, it would have eventually spread under the entirety of the Wyoming Valley. The fire burns between and underground at a temperature of approximately .
The creek flooded in September 1850. It was the most severe flood of the creek up to that time. In January 1996, 400 buildings along Solomon Creek flooded by it due to melting snow. This was one of numerous floods on that area of the creek. |
219_18 | Alternate names
Solomon Creek has also been called Chester Creek and Solomon Creek by locals. It was called Moses Creek on maps of Pennsylvania created by William Scull in the 1770s. This last name may be named after an Indian, although it is not known for sure.
Biology |
219_19 | In 1975, a study found no fish species on the creek. However, brook trout have been observed at seven locations on Solomon Creek. Brook trout are especially common on the tributary Sugar Notch Run. Trout reproduce everywhere in the tributary Pine Creek and reproduce in the main stem as far downstream as southern Wilkes-Barre. Above of the South Wilkes-Barre borehole, a number of other fish species have been observed. These include eastern blacknose dace, bluegill, creek chub, fallfish, minnows, northern hog sucker, and white sucker. However, there are no species of fish downstream of the borehole. Out of 46 sites on the creek, 30 had sufficient macroinvertebrate concentrations to support trout. 2.6 stream miles in the watershed are home to brook trout fisheries. This area is in Hanover Township, Laurel Run, and Bear Creek Township. |
219_20 | The most common aquatic insects at the headwaters of unimpaired streams in the watershed of Solomon Creek are alderflies, caddis flies, dragonflies, mayflies, and stoneflies. Three sites in the watershed are considered "suboptimal" according to the WVSOS system. 20 sites are considered "marginal" and the remainder are "poor".
Recreation
The Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 207 are located in the southeastern part of the Solomon Creek Watershed. They take up 6.7% of the watershed. Parts of Pinchot State Forest are also in the watershed; the forest occupies 12.6% of it. Two of the trails in the 139-acre Sugar Notch Trail System are located in the sub-watershed of Sugar Notch Run. The creek is stocked with trout in some places. There are ATV trails in the watershed.
See also
Warrior Creek, next tributary of the Susquehanna River going downriver
Coal Creek (Susquehanna River), next tributary of the Susquehanna River going upriver
List of rivers of Pennsylvania
Notes
References |
219_21 | External links
Modern-day images of the Solomon Creek falls
Rivers of Luzerne County, Pennsylvania
Tributaries of the Susquehanna River
Rivers of Pennsylvania |
220_0 | Hood By Air is a high fashion brand based in New York City first launched in 2006 and active to the present day, with the exception of a hiatus between early 2017 – 2019. The brand was co-founded by designers, Shayne Oliver and Raul Lopez. The designer is Shayne Oliver, a former student at Fashion Institute of Technology and New York University who described his design aesthetic as "ghetto gothic" and banjee. Oliver was named among The 25 Greatest Black Fashion Designers by Complex. Oliver brought in the conceptual artist and filmmaker Leilah Weinraub as CEO and cofounder in 2012. Weinraub was openly skeptical of the brand's celebrity endorsements. The company was notable for refusing outside investment. In the past, Hood By Air, also known by the acronym HBA, has identified as a "luxury streetwear brand," a term coined by Oliver and now “synonymous with HBA's subversive use of logos, high-end production values and an ingenious online presence”. |
220_1 | Hood By Air is notable for its collectively-driven creative output, collaborating with a large network of artists, performers, and other figures from the New York creative industries, as well as global brands. The brand has been the recipient of numerous fashion accolades and awards, including the LVMH Special Prize (2014) and CFDA Swarovski Award for Menswear (2015).
History
Founded in 2006 by Brooklyn-based designers Shayne Oliver and Raul Lopez, Hood By Air has gone from a t-shirt oriented streetwear project to a cult brand at the forefront of New York's fashion new guard. In 2006, Oliver was running a brand and blog under the name Elite Urban Brigade. Editorial collaborators on the blog included Akeem Smith and Mykki Blanco. Under Elite Urban Brigade, Oliver began printing one-off t-shirt designs, which he would sell at the New York streetwear store, aNYthing. |
220_2 | During this period, Oliver met fellow designer Raul Lopez at an after school programme run by the Hetrick-Martin Institute in partnership with the Harvey Milk High School, which Oliver attended. Oliver introduced Lopez to his early blueprint for a brand which could expand on his Elite Urban Brigade ideas. After developing the concept further, Oliver and Lopez began printing t-shirts, eventually releasing the designs under the name Hood By Air.
Whilst attending Harvey Milk High School, Oliver was accepted onto an art programme at New York University (NYU). During this time he developed a strong link between his fashion concepts and music, which would underpin the Hood By Air brand and Oliver's creative career to date. During this time Oliver was a dancer and choreographer for the band Hercules and Love Affair and would create costumes that he would wear as a dancer. Subsequently, Oliver designed merchandise for the band. |
220_3 | After leaving NYU, Oliver attended the Fashion Institute of Technology (FIT), but left after one semester. In 2006 Oliver showed an early Hood By Air look at the artist Dash Snow’s gallery in Chelsea, New York. Soon after, with an expanding fan base and an enthusiastic reception from fashion buyers, Hood By Air found its first stockists in OAK NYC and Seven New York. Opening Ceremony was also an early stockist of the brand. In 2008, Hood By Air held its first presentation at artist Terence Koh’s A.S.S. gallery in Chinatown, New York. Designer Telfar Clemens, who attended the show recalls, “it was kind of a peep show, and sort of like a block-party-slash-art-opening type of thing". The presentation was an early example of what was to become a hallmark for the brand; a spectacle-driven approach that merges conventional runway shows with personality-driven performances and presentations. |
220_4 | In 2009 Hood By Air held its first official fashion presentation at OAK NYC, launching the Hood By Air Classics line. This subcategory of the brand encompassed Hood By Air's graphic-based designs on t-shirts and basics, complimenting the brand's now increasing focus on ready-to-wear. The presentation featured a performance by Kid Cudi. Soon after this presentation, Lopez left the brand. Oliver continued to build Hood By Air together with a core group of creative collaborators in New York. From 2009, whilst working on Hood By Air Oliver was involved with GHE20G0TH1K, a club night launched by Jazmin Soto, aka Venus X, in New York City. The party, which moved around venues in Williamsburg and the Lower East Side, brought together NYC's diverse creative communities and is widely celebrated as an influential party in the nightlife of the city. “We created a glamorous, fashion-friendly, art-friendly, freak fest,” said Soto. “Everyone was welcome and everyone felt cool there. Everyone |
220_5 | liked it.” The culture and community around GHE20G0TH1K has been a paramount influence on Oliver's designs and the Hood By Air brand. Venus X is credited by Oliver as a major contributor to the growth of culture around the brand. Oliver also met Venezuelen musician Alejandra Ghersi, aka Arca at GHE20G0TH1K, forming a relationship that led to the pair working together on a continued basis. |
220_6 | After a short hiatus, Oliver launched what he describes as the second iteration of the brand. Bringing filmmaker, Leilah Weinraub, on board as CEO the pair formulated business plans that led to a revised focus on fashion presentations. HBA's global brand ambassador, Ian Isiah, and Kevin Amato, the brand's casting director, remained collaborators. New additions to the team included Paul Cupo signing on as design director, and Akeem Smith join as head stylist. Zachary Ching, at the time creative director at VFILES, would also join the brand as its commercial director. Oliver credits each of these figures as co-founders of the Hood By Air brand. |
220_7 | In May 2012, Hood By Air was included in Norwegian artist Bjarne Melgaard’s group show ‘Ideal Pole’ at Ramiken Crucible gallery, New York. Hood By Air created a ‘pop-up shop’ as part of the show, printing t-shirts with graphics that read ‘Bareback By Air / Classics’. The t-shirts appeared in an installation titled ‘Deferred Action’, by the artists Jo Barage and Clinton Ellies. |
220_8 | A second season of HBA Classics followed, supported by launch events at the New York fashion retailer, VFILES. In June 2012, VFILES held an opening party for its shop at Mercer Street in New York City's SoHo. The event doubled as a relaunch event for Hood By Air, with Oliver and Venus X DJ’ing, and A$AP Rocky performing. The moment has been referenced by Complex as solidifying both HBA and VFILES as “relevant movements in fashion”. VFILES would become known for stocking an assortment of emerging brands at the crest of a creative new wave in streetwear, including Virgil Abloh's Pyrex, Been Trill, and Fear of God, alongside Hood By Air. In the months following the relaunch moment, Hood By Air and Been Trill released a collaborative t-shirt that would be popularised through extensive exposure by A$AP Rocky, leading to a new frenzy around the brand. At the time, the hype around the product meant that Hood By Air was perceived as aligned with a streetwear fraternity, a notion which Oliver |
220_9 | was dismissive of. According to the designer, the t-shirt was initially designed simply to be given to friends at a casual brunch, but became a “fucking phenomenon” according to Oliver. |
220_10 | Shortly afterwards, in September 2013, Hood By Air presented its first runway show, held at New York's Milk Studios. Presenting the brand's FW13 collection, Oliver cemented HBA's reputation for genre-blending and cross-cultural reference with a collection that paired bold graphics with progressive cut-and-sew pieces, and runway appearances from A$AP Rocky and performance artist, boychild [link], amongst the models cast for the show. As Hood By Air continued to show its collections in a runway setting, the brand signed with fashion publicists, PR Consulting. Soon after, Hood By Air presented its first collection in Paris. The RTW Spring 2015 collection presented was billed as part two of what HBA had already unveiled at New York Fashion Week, with an emphasis on womenswear. The show invite – a lace-trimmed thong – signalled as much. “This is a ‘femme’ take on the energy we produced in New York,” Oliver said of the show. “It's flashier, with details that are louder, to show off a |
220_11 | little bit.” |
220_12 | In October 2014 MoMA PopRally presented Id, a party performance and multimedia installation by Hood By Air, held at the Museum of Modern Art. The event was billed as “a performance masquerading as a party... Id is an interactive, semi-virtual experience that includes a theatre, a live stream, and a "humannequin" installation” and featured performances by boychild and Mykki Blanco. Hood By Air was awarded the inaugural LVMH Special Jury Prize in 2014. |
220_13 | In 2014, Hood By Air joined the New Guards Group. Under a new business structure led by the conglomerate, which handled HBA's production, distribution, and sales, the brand focused on expansion, shifting its production emphasis to product rather than cultural spectacle. By this stage Oliver had moved the brand's headquarters to Italy and Hood By Air began to work to a more intense fashion schedule, including pre-collections in Paris and expanding designs to include leathers, furs and tailoring. In 2015 Hood By Air was selected for inclusion at the prestigious bi-annual menswear trade show, Pitti Uomo 87. Against expectations that the brand would simply transplant New York culture to a Florentine setting, the brand chose to overtake a Tuscan villa, with tailoring a key emphasis of the collection. Speaking with Vogue during a backstage interview, Oliver explained the show was “our first attempt to really push luxury in a full collection”. |
220_14 | This would be a benchmark moment for this era of Hood By Air, and signified the arrival of a new period of growth for the brand. The same year, Shayne Oliver received the 2015 Council of Fashion Designers of America (CFDA) Swarovski Award for Menswear. Amidst the business growth under New Guards Group, however, Oliver felt a sense of creative regression as a consequence of focusing heavily on product, taking away from investing his energy into the cultural landscape that had always defined Hood By Air. After three seasons with New Guards Group, showing two to three collections per season, Hood By Air left the group and returned to New York in 2016. |
220_15 | Back on home ground, Oliver set about recapturing the energy of the brand before its move to Italy. Re-orienting towards conceptual presentations meant he had the freedom once again to design clothes and accessories specifically for runway moments, without such commercial pressure to sell through as the brand experienced during the New Guards Group era. Hood By Air's Fall 2016 Ready-To-Wear collection, titled ‘Pilgrimage’, was completed and shown in New York during NYFW. Reflecting on the collection, Vogue suggested that Oliver's time in Italy had added to the brand's technical expertise: “the new clothes reflect the strides he's made: There's a confidence that runs through, from the mind-boggling technical complexities of the outwear to the cheeky slogan bodysuits to the streetwise buckets hats”, adding that Oliver has an “ instinct for what's next” In May 2016, Hood By Air held a brand presentation at the Delano Hotel during Art Basel Miami Beach. During the show, which was |
220_16 | presented in partnership with MoMA PS1, Instagram-cast models wore clothing from the designer's collaboration with photographer Pieter Hugo, featuring Hugo's portraits of LGBT Jamaicans. W Magazine labelled the presentation “Art Basel 2016's most transgressive show”. |
220_17 | Having re-engaged the spirit of the brand upon returning to New York City, Oliver and his team began to experience a new challenge; continuing the scale of the post-New Guards Group operation as a small, core team — most of whom were not fashion insiders or business people but artists, musicians, image-makers, and other figures from the New York creative industries with close ties to the brand and its cultural workings. While e-commerce continued to run efficiently during this period, the retail business had outsized its operators. The brand had reached new heights of popularity, spurred on by support from celebrities such as Rihanna who wore Hood By Air during a televised performance at the 2016 MTV Video Music Awards In 2016, the brand released a capsule collection in collaboration with the pornographic video platform, Pornhub the SS17 'Wench' collection. |
220_18 | However, with external company interests calling for Oliver's design expertise, on April 6, 2017, Hood By Air announced that Oliver would be putting the brand on hold to take a new role at Helmut Lang. Hood By Air entered a three-year period of hiatus.
Hiatus
Hood By Air remained on official hiatus between 2017 and 2020. During this time Shayne Oliver worked with several established fashion houses, as well as on personal creative projects. |
220_19 | Helmut Lang
Prior to Hood By Air's final pre-hiatus show, Shayne Oliver was approached by Helmut Lang’s editor-in-residence, Isabella Burley, to take up a position at that brand as designer-in-residence. Only one month after Oliver had nullified his design responsibilities at Hood By Air he introduced his first offering under Helmut Lang, presenting the brand's Spring 2018 Ready-To-Wear collection in September 2017 at New York Fashion Week. That same month, Helmut Lang also released the Helmut Lang Seen by Shayne Oliver Autumn Tour Merch collection, inspired by band tour merchandise. |
220_20 | Diesel
Having completed his residency at Helmut Lang, Oliver worked with Italian denim giant, Diesel, unveiling a capsule collection as part of the Diesel Red Tag Project in March 2018. The capsule, which saw Oliver subvert Americana staples with his intricate reworking of denim apparel, provided the designer with an opportunity to become familiar with new design processes, whilst further establishing his appeal as a solo designer.
Colmar
In 2018 Oliver began to collaborate with heritage activewear label, Colmar. Applying his vision to the Colmar A.G.E (Advanced Garment Exploration) FW18 line, Oliver progressively reworked the brand's mountain attire, adding a sense of outsized surreality to conventional outdoors wear. Oliver described the collaboration as “juggling the iconic products of Colmar with my sense of performance and a unisex approach to wearing fashion”. |
220_21 | 2020 Return
In July 2020, Oliver announced the official return of Hood By Air. In an accompanying statement, the designer stated, “gentrification leaves no physical spaces for new, influential ideas to exist or reside. So Hood By Air will be a place for these ideas to have a home.”
In March 2021, the brand fully relaunched with an advertising campaign helmed by supermodel Naomi Campbell. |
220_22 | The brand relaunched with a new structure consisting of four distinct components: ‘Hood By Air' maintains its position as the brand's elevated fashion offering; ‘HBA’ exists as direct-to-consumer product released under a streetwear-aligned ‘drop’ schedule; ‘Museum’ refers to archival pieces from the original Hood By Air brand, reinterpreted by guest designers-in-residence; and Anonymous Club is a creative studio driven by a collective of talent, with the purpose of engineering Hood By Air's wider brand narrative through ongoing collaborations and activations. The brand's 2020 relaunch announcement was accompanied by the release of a limited edition t-shirt and cash card designed in collaboration with person-to-person mobile payment company Cash App. Proceeds from the t-shirt sales were donated to several charities, including Black Trans Femmes in the Arts, Emergency Release Fund, and Gays & Lesbians Living In A Transgender Society. |
220_23 | In March 2021, the brand further signalled its new visual era with an advertising campaign helmed by supermodel Naomi Campbell. The campaign announced a new ‘Prologue’ phase for the brand. In April 2021, as part of the ‘Prologue’ phase, Hood By Air released a new series of products under the capsule title ‘Veteran’. The product was released in five ‘drops’ emulating the streetwear spirit that Hood By Air has been connected with in the past. Intended as a segue between the brand's past and future, the ‘Prologue’ phase retrospectively pays tribute to a list of ‘characters’, each of which represents a different era of the Hood by Air brand.
As of 2021, Hood By Air is run by a board of directors including Shayne Oliver and Edison Chen, who has taken over the role of CEO. The brand remains an independent entity.
Designs And Shows |
220_24 | Hood By Air has received widespread praise and positive reception for its progressive design values and uncompromising aesthetics. The brand has been noted for its diverse subcultural touch points, taking influence and inspiration from the art world, queer culture, hip hop, club culture, and subversion of corporate branding through design. |
220_25 | In a 2015 article, Oliver's designs were described by i-D Magazine as “[questioning] gender, race and power, cutting through the noise of the fashion world with razor sharp precision”. In a short biographical entry on the brand, the LVMH Prize describes Hood By Air as “re-imagining Americana uniforms” by “combining the fluidity of youth culture with the refinement of luxury fashion”. Referencing Hood By Air's logo-heavy aesthetic, The Cut explains “they were more about signifying membership in a tribe than they were about advancing any design agenda.” The article continues: “aggressively inclusive, HBA wasn't gay or straight. It wasn't skate or hip-hop or art or fashion—it was, rather, all these things at once.” Designer and Creative Director, Matthew Williams, has described Hood By Air's relevance across cultural touch points: "Shayne's brand really is a bridge between fashion and urban street culture and music”. Oliver himself expanded on his multifaceted references during an |
220_26 | interview with Vogue; "I started making clothes because I wanted stuff to wear that could move between these worlds... This art world of downtown, in Manhattan, and this other world that I went home to—there are things that connect them.” In the same article, fashion journalist, Maya Singer, posits that in its early years Hood By Air communicated a sense of authority though "exaggerated sizing, big logos, and in-your-face graphics”, making a connection between these qualities of HBA and the “quintessential attributes of urban streetwear”. Hood By Air worked prominently with designers Michael Magnum, Oscar Sanchez, and Virgil Abloh on graphics, particularly during its early years. Many of Hood By Air's graphics are inspired by film, queer, and delinquent culture. Despite its early focus on logos and graphics, the brand has since become known for its progressive, technically complex and often androgynous ready-to-wear collections. |
220_27 | Hood By Air is known for the performative nature of its fashion presentations, using the runway as a multifaceted performance space that brings together diverse elements from the brand's cultural mood board. In the past, notable runway appearances have been made by rapper, A$AP Rocky, performance artist, boychild, and German artist, Wolfgang Tillmans, whilst the music for several Hood By Air shows has been composed by Venezuelan musician Arca, who has also DJ’d at the shows.
The brand focused on gender-neutral designs, a mode described by Oliver as "powerwear". Its influences include 1990s-era New York City culture as well as brands like; Diesel, Tommy Hilfiger, Polo Sport and DKNY.
Oliver's creative collaborations included an installation with artists Ava Nirui and Alex Lee. For this, Nirui and Lee commissioned outfits by Hood By Air and designer Eckhaus Latta to be worn by Barbie dolls with a variety of realistic body-types. |
220_28 | The brand also collaborated with musicians A$AP Rocky, Kanye West, and Rihanna, and won awards from LVMH and the Council of Fashion Designers of America. It was chosen for a guest spot at menswear trade show Pitti Uomo in 2015. Its runway pieces have been sold at high-end boutiques like Opening Ceremony, Colette in Paris and Harvey Nichols in London.
Fashion Shows And Collections
● Spring 2014 Menswear (New York Fashion Week)
● Fall 2014 Menswear (New York Fashion Week)
● Fall 2014 Ready-to-Wear (New York Fashion Week)
● Spring 2015 Ready-to-Wear (Part 1: New York Fashion Week, Part 2: Paris Fashion Week, Part 3: MoMA, New York)
● Fall 2015 Ready-to-Wear (New York Fashion Week)
● Fall 2015 Menswear (New York Fashion Week)
● Pitti Uomo 87 Presentation (Florence, Italy)
● Spring 2016 Menswear (Paris Fashion Week)
● Spring 2016 Ready-to-Wear (New York Fashion Week)
● Fall 2016 Ready-to-Wear (New York Fashion Week) |
220_29 | ● Spring 2017 Menswear (Paris Fashion Week)
● Spring 2017 Ready-to-Wear (New York Fashion Week)
Brand Collaborations
● Barneys
● Been Trill
● Bjarne Melgaard
● Cash App
● Colette
● Corgi
● Dolly Cohen
● Dover Street Market
● Fox (Empire)
● Frye
● Gentle Monster
● Hustler
● Kangol
● LUMA Foundation
● Pieter Hugo
● Pornhub
● Selfridges
● Starter
● Swarovski
● Virgil Alboh
● Woolmark
Awards
2014 LVMH Special Jury Prize
2015 CFDA Swarovski Award for Menswear
See also
Rick Owens
Raf Simons
Supreme
Proenza Schouler
References
Luxury brands
Retail companies established in 2006 |
221_0 | Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand Limited —when there was no chance of confusion casually referred to as Union, Union Company, Union Steam Ship Company (USS Co), or Union Line— was once the biggest shipping line in the southern hemisphere and New Zealand's largest private-sector employer. It was incorporated by James Mills in Dunedin in 1875 with the backing of a Scottish shipbuilder, Peter Denny. Bought by shipping giant P & O around the time of the First World War it was sold in 1972 to an Australasian consortium and closed at the end of the twentieth century.
History |
221_1 | James Mills
James Mills had worked for Johnny Jones and his Harbour Steam Company. After Jones’ death in 1869 Mills tried twice to float a Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand Limited without attracting enough interest from local investors but in 1875 he found backing from Scottish shipbuilder Peter Denny in return for Union Steam Ship orders for Denny's Dumbarton shipyard. The Denny-built Hawea and Taupo, both then large by local standards, arrived in mid 1875 and entered service. Union Steam Ship took over the Harbour Steam Company's vessels on 1 July 1875.
Local competition
Union Steam Ship became a major shipping line dubbed "The Southern Octopus" with a near-monopoly on trans-Tasman shipping. It steadily mopped up trans-Tasman and coastal shipping businesses including Anchor, Canterbury Steam, Richardson & Co and Holm. |
221_2 | Trans-Tasman |
221_3 | From 1889 there was three-way competition between Union Steam Ship, Huddart Parker and Tasmanian Steam Navigation Company (TSNCo) on the Tasmanian routes (Melbourne – Launceston, Hobart – Melbourne and Hobart – Sydney). TSNCo did not have other routes to absorb their Tasmanian losses and was bought out by USSCo in 1891. The rivalry between USSCo and Huddart Parker lasted to 1895 despite an earlier agreement in 1893. There was undercutting of fares and there were steamers shadowing each other from port to port. USSCo's Rotomahana and Mararoa would sail alongside the Miowra and Warrimoo, with other ships like the Te Anau and Manapouri sailing before and after and bracketing the Huddart Parker ships. The 1895 agreement between the two lines pooled the Auckland-Sydney profits and losses; the Melbourne-Launceston profits were divided 4/7 to USSCo and 3/7 to Huddart Parker. The Sydney-Hobart passenger trade was excluded but the cargo and stock trade was divided 2/3 to USSCo and 1/3 to |
221_4 | Huddart Parker. Mark Twain criticised travel conditions on a Union Company ship in 1897 in his travel book Following the Equator. |
221_5 | Mills was knighted in 1907 and raised to K.C.M.G. in 1909. He was a UK resident after 1907 and died in London in 1936. By 1914 Union Steam Ship had 75 ships. It was the biggest shipping line in the southern hemisphere and New Zealand's largest private-sector employer. |
221_6 | P & O
In 1917 P & O shareholders were asked to confirm their directors' prior purchase of Union Steam Ship with the information that USSCo had a valuable coasting trade within New Zealand, connections with India and Australia and a line of steamers running between Australia, New Zealand and Canada. The Union Steam Ship fleet was described as 74 high class steamers with a tonnage of 237,860 and of an average age of 12 years. In November 1920, rumours surfaced that the head office of the company would shift from Dunedin to Wellington. At the end of 1920, it became known that the board of directors would remain in Dunedin, but that all headquarters staff would transfer to Wellington. The move happened in late 1921, with all head office functions in Wellington after the New Year holidays. About 70 staff transferred to Wellington, ending 46 years of Dunedin as the company's head quarters. |
221_7 | Norrie Falla
With the Dunedin staff came Norrie Falla as general traffic manager. He had joined as a boy in Westport in 1898 and finished his accountancy exams in 1906. In 1910 he was put in charge of the cargoes and movements of Union's 65-strong fleet. Falla volunteered immediately for service in the 1914—1918 first world war. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1916 and returned to his former post in 1919. He succeeded David Aiken as general manager in March 1934 and was appointed chairman in January 1936 on the death of founder Sir James Mills.
Falla ordered two new passenger ships and began a steady renewal of cargo ships commissioning 11 ships between 1935 and 1939.
Falla also took Union Company into airlines. First in 1934 into East Coast Airways and then Cook Strait Airways in 1935. |
221_8 | Australian National Airways ANA
Union in conjunction with Holyman's Airways and Huddart Parker set up an airline across Bass Strait which began business in September 1934. In 1935 they added Adelaide Steamship as a partner in the venture which was renamed Australian National Airways the following year.
Union took up a 20 per cent interest on the formation of Australian National Airways in 1936.
Union Airways NAC
In 1935 Union Airways of New Zealand was formed by Union Steam Ship and it built an air service through New Zealand. Union Airways was nationalised by the government in 1947 and renamed National Airways Corporation. Union Travel remained a substantial operation as travel agents and tour operators.
Tasman Empire Airways TEAL Air New Zealand
Union was instrumental in establishing this business in particular by buying the first three flying boats which began operations in April 1940. TEAL became Air New Zealand. |
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