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228_0 | Isaac (Yitzhak) Rülf (February 10, 1831 – September 18, 1902) was a Jewish teacher, journalist and philosopher. He became widely known for his aid work and as a prominent early Zionist.
Rülf was born in Rauischholzhausen, Hesse, Germany. He received a teaching certificate in 1849, became an assistant to the county rabbi and then taught in other small communities. He received his rabbinical certificate in 1854 from the University of Marburg and his Ph.D in 1865 at the University of Rostock. That year he became the rabbi of Memel, East Prussia.
Rülf first found fame for his part in the 'Jankel Widutzky case' in which an English minister attempted to convert Widutzky, a Jewish youth, in Memel. Rülf attacked the missionary in the article Jankel Widutzky, der den Händen der Judenbekehrungs Mission entzogene Knabe (1867), sparking indignation in Germany. Widutzky was thus not converted and entered Rabbinical college.
Rabbi of Memel |
228_1 | Memel, in addition to being an important port on the Baltic, was a frontier town and a crossroads between East and West – it lay at the tip of East Prussia, on the border of Russia's Lithuanian province (the Kovner Gubernie). |
228_2 | The Jewish community in Memel was divided between Western Jews (Prussian/German) and the Eastern Jews (Polish/Russian/Lithuanian), with the different groups having their own institutions and leaders. This mirrored a continent-wide division based largely on the Easterners' fixation on traditional religious education and their perceived ignorance of worldly affairs. Rülf arrived as rabbi of the German Jews but tried to unite the communities. Beginning in the late 1860s with his relief works, Rülf gained an international reputation for his assistance to Russian Jews. Thereafter, he strove to establish himself as expert on Eastern European Jewry and as a spokesman and intercessor on their behalf. He would use the press and public opinion as leverage for this activity, making the most important change in the tactics of intercession during the 19th century. |
228_3 | To supplement his small pay as rabbi, Rülf became an editor of the Memeler Dampfboot, the city's largest liberal newspaper. From 1872 until he left the city, he was editor-in-chief. In 1862 Rülf and Rabbi Yisrael Salanter founded a chevra kadisha together in Memel. In 1879 Rülf created an Armenschule, or school for poor children and in 1886 Rülf directed the funding and building of a synagogue for the German Jews. In 1875 for example, Rülf collected funds among the German Jews to assist the Lithuanian and Russian Jews in building their Beth Midrash. In this way he won over the Eastern Jews who had first dismissed this “Doktor-Rabbiner” of the wealthier German minority. In 1871 he and two collaborators caused a Jewish hospital to be built in Memel. It drew so many patients to the city that in 1896 a new, larger building was put up. It has been restored and still stands today, in use as a hospital, at its scenic hilltop site. |
228_4 | The early 1880s saw a series of efforts to force Jews out of Memel in increasing numbers. Rülf raised a great deal of money for the exiles' travel and living expenses. Many of these people were given enough to reach the United States. In 1885, Rülf used his political contacts in Germany to prevent a final mass expulsion of Jews from Memel.
In 1898, Rülf retired from his position and moved with his family to Bonn, Germany.
International aid work
Rülf travelled east to study the cruel conditions of Jewish life in Russia and Lithuania. In response he wrote My Journey to Kovno (1869) and Three Days in Jewish Russia (1882). During this time he received reports, smuggled over the Lithuanian border, on the Russian pogroms. In Memel these were translated into German and sent to England, where they later appeared in two long articles in the London Times on January 11 and 13, 1882. Russian Jews were even able to escape to Germany through an underground directed by Rülf. |
228_5 | Rülf established and headed the “Permanent Committee for Helping Russian Jews” in the 1880s. He organized a massive relief campaign in Germany for Russian Jews, and tens of thousands came to know him as 'Rabbi Hülf' or 'Dr. Hülf', meaning 'Help'. Rülf saved around 30,000 Jews from starvation during Lithuania's 1867-1868 famine. To this end, he collected an amazing 630,000 Mark in Germany, transferring it to 230 Lithuanian settlements over a year and a half.
Zionism |
228_6 | Rülf was struck by the fact that Russian Jews saw themselves simply as Jews, in contrast with 'Western' Jews who identified with their nation of residence. In 1881, he had a conversion to this view of Jewish identity. Within months, Russian Jew Leon Pinsker published Auto-Emancipation, calling for a Jewish state in response to anti-Semitism. Rülf agreed with the basic idea but little else, compelling him to write Aruchas Bas-Ammi (1883). There he went further than Pinsker, specifying that the Jewish homeland must be in Palestine and its language must be Hebrew, and calling for immediate purchase of land and immigration to Palestine.
Three years later, Rülf's was one of the first portraits to appear in Kneset Israel, a great distinction. Correspondents over these years included Pinsker and Nathan Birnbaum, coiner of the term Zionism. Rülf's letters and other writings are preserved in the Rülf Collection at the Central Zionist Archives in Jerusalem, Israel. |
228_7 | Rülf was hurt when, in 1896, Theodor Herzl was embraced as Zionism's international leader. That was the year in which Herzl published Der Judenstaat ("The Jewish State"). However, Rülf came to Herzl's defense against the anti-Zionist “Protest Rabbis” who impeded the First Zionist Congress, leveraging his considerable reputation and writing Declaration versus Declaration in the June 25, 1897 Die Welt. In 1898, Rülf introduced Herzl at the Second Zionist Congress at Basle, Switzerland.
In Memel, Rülf had been the mentor of David Wolffsohn, who went on to succeed Herzl as the second President of the World Zionist Organization. Wolffsohn came to Memel at age 17 from his Lithuanian hometown, and Rülf taught and greatly influenced him. |
228_8 | Late in life, Rülf attempted to warn European Jews of the dangers they faced from German anti-Semitism. In Topical Study, in the May 18, 1900 Die Welt, he wrote that the end of the century would not mean the end of the murder of millions of Jews. Less than fifty years later, his own children were unable to escape the Holocaust.
Family and legacy
Isaac Rülf died in Bonn, four years after relocating there to continue his work in philosophy. His sons became personal friends of Konrad Adenauer, future first Chancellor of West Germany. The danger to Jews from Nazi power increased while Adenauer was mayor of Cologne, and Adenauer offered refuge to Rülf's son Benno at his family home in Rhöndorf. However, Adenauer was himself forced to flee and take refuge at a monastery. Benno and his wife traveled to the Netherlands but, according to a statement of his daughter Elizabeth, he was deported and killed in Auschwitz. Isaac's son Jacob committed suicide in Bonn before being deported. |
228_9 | A street in Tel Aviv, Israel, is named for Isaac Rülf.
Books
Rülf published a five-volume work of philosophy, System of a New Metaphysics, in which he described his theories of theistic monism.
Meine Reise nach Kowno (1869)
My Journey to Kovno
Der Einheitsgedanke als Fundamentalbegriff (1880)
Drei Tage in Jüdisch-Russland (1882)
Three Days in Jewish Russia
Aruchas Bas-Ammi (1883)
Wissenschaft des Weltgedankens and Wissenschaft der Gedankenwelt, System einer Neuen Metaphysik (2 vols., 1888)
(the first volumes of System of a New Metaphysics)
Wissenschaft der Krafteinheit (1893)
Das Erbrecht als Erbübel (1893)
Legacy Law as a Basic Evil
Wissenschaft der Geisteseinheit (1898)
Wissenschaft der Gotteseinheit (1903)
(final volume of philosophy, published posthumously)
External links
Pictures of Rülf published during his lifetime
Meine Reise nach Kowno (1869)
Das Erbrecht als Erbübel (1893)
References
Bibliography |
228_10 | 1831 births
1902 deaths
People from Marburg-Biedenkopf
19th-century German rabbis
German Zionists
Jewish philosophers
People from East Prussia
People from Klaipėda |
229_0 | The Oregon Graduate Center was a unique, private, postgraduate-only research university in Washington County, Oregon, on the west side of Portland, from 1963 to 2001. The center was renamed the Oregon Graduate Institute in 1989. The Institute merged with the Oregon Health Sciences University in 2001, and became the OGI School of Science and Engineering within the (renamed) Oregon Health & Science University. The School was discontinued in 2008 and its campus in 2014. Demolition of the campus buildings began February 2017. |
229_1 | Oregon Graduate Center |
229_2 | The Oregon Graduate Center for Study and Research (OGC) was incorporated on 2 April 1963 as a university at the behest of Gov. Mark O. Hatfield, Tektronix co-founder Howard Vollum and the City Club of Portland, with the help of $2M grant from the Tektronix Foundation. Retired physician Samuel L. Diack of the Oregon Medical Research Foundation was named the first chairman of OGC's board of trustees, and Vollum was a board member. Diack is also noted as a founder of the Oregon Museum of Science and Industry. Physicist Donald L. Benedict of the Stanford Research Institute (SRI) was hired as the first president of OGC in 1966. The original campus, a former Martin Marietta building, was located at 9430 SW Barnes Road near the intersection of Oregon Route 217 and U.S. Route 26 in an unincorporated area just north of Beaverton next to Tek's Sunset facility. Hatfield was unsuccessful in his attempt to get $1.5M in seed funding for OGC from the state legislature. Financial support was an |
229_3 | ongoing problem for OGC, as demonstrated by the brief terms of several of its presidents. Funding in the late 1960s was received from Pacific Northwest Bell Telephone Company, and sought from the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare and the National Institutes of Health. Other early backers and board members included Douglas Strain of Electro Scientific Industries (ESI), John Gray of Omark Industries Inc. and Ira Keller of Western Kraft Corporation. |
229_4 | A report by a committee of the Portland City Club asked, "Why does Portland lag so far behind in the great surge of science-based industry?" in 1963. At the time, metropolitan Portland had about 800,000 residents and its employment mainstays were timber and agriculture. The committee's answer to its question was, "Portland is the largest metropolitan area in the West without a full university." Portland State College (PSC), Reed College, Lewis & Clark College, the University of Portland and other halls of academe in northwestern Oregon were primarily undergraduate schools. PSC was also under pressure to become a university and a research institution, which it did in 1969 when it was renamed Portland State University (PSU). The Portland interests were competing with the University of Oregon (U of O) in Eugene and Oregon State University (OSU) in Corvallis for research funding. |
229_5 | Tektronix ("Tek"), the largest private employer in Oregon from the 1960s through the 1980s, was quoted, "...the creation of a graduate center 'an absolute necessity' for its operations because 'we find it extremely difficult to attract competent people to our plant, and we find those who have acquired with us a degree of scientific competence often leave us for the specific reason that they do not find here further help or stimulation to their scientific development. Tektronix stated that it would have to establish research and development facilities elsewhere near universities if a graduate training and research center was not founded in Portland." Tek encouraged employees to pursue advanced degrees and sometimes provided financial support. Tek started an in-house continuing education program in the late 1950s that rivaled the local community colleges in size. |
229_6 | Benedict's vision for OGC was based on the European model of research for a civilian-based economy, rather than a wartime economy as was common in the United States. Benedict liked the Oxford University tutorial system in the United Kingdom and the Technische Hochschule network in West Germany. Benedict had been in charge of SRI's European operations before he was hired by OGC. |
229_7 | The first six faculty—all chemists—and staff were hired in 1966, and the first students were admitted in 1969. Carl Miller, a structural engineer, was the first staff member hired, and laser expert J. Richard Kerr was the second. OGC moved to a newly developed 74-acre site at 20000 NW Walker Road on the Hillsboro-Beaverton boundary in August 1969, which was intended to be its permanent campus, adjacent to the Oregon National Primate Research Center. The new site had been the Donovan family's wheat farm. Both campuses used Portland mailing addresses, although neither is in Portland proper. The initial programs were in chemistry, physics and mathematics, without any departmental divisions. OGC had no undergraduates, dormitories, sororities, fraternities, student-athletes, mascots, Latin motto, homecoming parade or social science departments, ever. The first research project was a study of the propagation of laser beams through the atmosphere by Kerr. |
229_8 | The first master's degree was awarded to Terry D. Lee in organic chemistry in 1971, and the first doctor of philosophy to Paul M. Perry in applied physics in 1973. All programs were accredited by the Northwest Association of Schools and Colleges. In 1979, OGC had 23 faculty and 33 students. By 1988, OGC had 48 faculty members, all untenured, and 150 students. The purpose of OGC was to provide training, research and graduate credentials pertinent to Silicon Forest and other local industries, without the bureaucracy and politics of a conventional university, somewhat similar to Rockefeller University. |
229_9 | Original board of directors
The original board of trustees of OGC was Harry Alpert (U of O), Henry Cabell, Vernon Cheldelin (OSU), Arno H. Denecke, S.L. Diack (chairman), physicist Walter P. Dyke (Linfield College, Field Emission Corp.), Gerald W. Frank (Governor's Advisory Committee), educator James T. Marr, Harold M. Phillips, Donald E. Pickering (OHSU), G. Herbert Smith (Willamette University), Willard B. Spalding (dean of PSC), Richard H. Sullivan (president of Reed College), metallurgist R.H. "Rudy" Thielemann (Martin Marietta Metals Co.), C. H. Vollum and Harry White. |
229_10 | Presidential eras
Donald L. Benedict was originally hired as a consultant to Gov. Hatfield's committee. Benedict favored theoretical or pure research, as opposed to the applied research favored by most of the industrialists and philanthropists on the committee. His major accomplishment was acquiring the new campus on Walker Road from Tektronix Foundation, where the first new building was dedicated on 15 August 1969. Cost overruns resulted in his dismissal by the trustees just 12 days after the dedication. |
229_11 | E. Robert de Luccia, a Pacific Power & Light Co. executive and board member became interim president in 1969, following Benedict's dismissal. De Luccia had been a trustee from 1968 to 1972. OGC had to borrow money to meet the payroll and pay contractors for new buildings. Mergers with Lewis & Clark College and PSU and a takeover by Tek were proposed, and most OGC employees were looking for other jobs. De Luccia left OGC for a job in the Nixon administration in Southeast Asia in June 1971, and the original OGC facility on Barnes Road was sold for $350k that year. De Luccia was named a Life Trustee of OGI in 1990 for his longtime support. |
229_12 | Arthur F. Scott (1898-1982), a provost of OGC and former chemistry professor and president (1942 to 1945) at Reed College, was appointed acting president in 1971–1972. Negotiations with PSU failed to produce a merger, a request for $1.5M in operating funds from the state legislature was denied, and OGC was on the brink of extinction during this time. The chemistry building at Reed is named for Scott. |
229_13 | Western Kraft Corp. founder Ira C. Keller (1899-1978) was appointed president in 1972. His business approach kept OGC afloat, and brought full accreditation in 1973. Applied physics professor Lynwood W. Swanson and partners incorporated FEI Company in 1973, although Swanson remained on the faculty at OGC until 1987. The National Institutes of Health, National Science Foundation and Weyerhauser Co. all made generous grants to OGC during Keller's tenure. Keller retired as president in 1977 and became chairman of the board of trustees upon Diack's retirement. The Keller Fountain Park in downtown Portland was named in honor of Ira Keller for his philanthropy and civic involvement, and Keller Auditorium for his son Richard B. Keller. Western Kraft began as a joint venture between the Willamette Valley Lumber Co. and Santiam Lumber Co. in 1954, and merged with Willamette Industries Inc. in 1973. The younger Keller was a trustee of OGC from 1984 to 1987. |
229_14 | J. Richard "Dick" Kerr, a professor of electrical engineering at PSC and OGC and later the executive vice-president of OGC, was promoted to president in 1977. Kerr, a laser expert, was hired by OGC as a researcher in 1966. He resigned in 1979 amid more financial crises and controversy with the faculty over cutbacks. The Jack Murdock Research Laboratory, housing the physics and electrical engineering programs and funded by a $2M grant by the M.J. Murdock Charitable Trust, opened in 1978 as the third building on the OGC campus. After OGC, Kerr was an executive at Flight Dynamics Inc. and FLIR Systems Inc., and founded Max-Viz Inc. in Portland. |
229_15 | Electrical engineer F. Paul Carlson was hired by OGC as the vice-president for development in 1977 in the midst of a financial crisis, and became acting president in 1979. OGC purchased 100 acres of land adjacent to its 77-acre campus in 1980, and Carlson was elected president of the center. The additional land became the Science Park in 1982, a site for start-up companies intended as an endowment for OGC. Planar Systems, a Tek spin-off, began developing flat-panel displays there in 1984. Ground was broken for the Samuel L. Diack Memorial Library in 1979, and the building was completed in 1980, named in honor of the first chairman. Jacqueline Jackson, coordinator of a gifted education program in Portland Public Schools (Oregon), started the Saturday Academy, a science program for high school students at OGC and other area campuses, in May 1983. Vollum was awarded OGC's first honorary doctor of science degree in 1984. Carlson retired as academic president of OGC, and became |
229_16 | president of the Oregon Graduate School Corporation and chairman of the OGC board of trustees in 1985. The OGC Corp. was formed to be the developer and landlord for Science Park after the withdrawal of Rembold Corp. The Science Park was intended to provide, in the form of an estimated $4M annual rent from tenants, the endowment that OGC sorely needed for its survival. Planar Systems was the first tenant, in August 1983. A campus quarterly magazine, Visions, was begun in the spring of 1985, with historian Norman R. Eder as its managing editor and Georgiana Johnsrud as editor. The circulation of Visions reached a peak of ~15,000. Prolific author Lawrence E. Murr was a professor of MS&E and the vice-president for academic affairs during Carlson's term. Carlson returned briefly in 1986 as acting president of OGC upon Kahne's departure, then resigned as chairman of the board and took a job with Honeywell. |
229_17 | Stephen J. Kahne (1937- ), an electrical engineer and dean of engineering at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI), served as president of OGC in 1985–1986. Before RPI, he was a professor at the University of Minnesota and Case Western Reserve University, directed a division of the National Science Foundation, and was president of the IEEE Control Systems Society in 1981. Vollum, upon his death in 1986, bequeathed $14.8M to OGC, which became OGC's first endowment. Kahne worked for the MITRE Corp. and Embry Riddle Aeronautical University after leaving OGC. Lawyer Monford Orloff served as chairman of the board of OGC circa 1986. |
229_18 | James J. Huntzicker was hired by OGC as a professor of atmospheric chemistry in 1974. He served as acting president from 1986 to 1988. The Oregon Institute for Advanced Computing opened in 1988 on the OGC campus, intended to be the SEMATECH of parallel computing. Huntzicker stayed on as a professor at OGC, and joined OHSU in 2001 when OGI merged with OHSU. He became Head of the Department of Management in Science & Technology in 2004, which became the Division of Management in the OHSU School of Medicine. As head of the Division of Management he co-led the development of the OHSU-PSU MBA in Healthcare Management in the School of Medicine. He is a former chairman of the board of directors for Saturday Academy. |
229_19 | Dwight A. Sangrey, a professor of civil engineering at Cornell University and Carnegie Mellon University and dean of engineering at RPI, was hired by OGC as president in 1988, "with a mandate to increase significantly the size of OGC's faculty and student body." OGC was renamed OGI in 1989. Sangrey was awarded the State-of-the-Art Civil Engineering Award by ASCE in 1990 for a paper on the reliability of offshore foundations such as oil rigs. FEI Company moved into Science Park circa 1990, but relocated to its present headquarters in Hillsboro in 1992. The 65,000-ft2 Cooley Science Center, the first new laboratory building on campus since 1983, was completed in 1993. Sangrey left in 1994, and was hired as an administrator by Pacific University in 2009. |
229_20 | Paul E. Bragdon, a lawyer and president of Reed College 1971–1988, was succeeded Sangrey in 1994, and took on the task of rescuing OGI from a $2M deficit. Bragdon had been a member of the OGI board of trustees. He retired in 1998, but served as an interim president of Lewis & Clark College in 2004–2005. He was awarded an honorary D.Sc. by OHSU in 2004. OGI reported 448 employees in 1994. A master's degree in management in Science and Technology, in conjunction with Willamette University's Atkinson Graduate School of Management, was launched in late 1994 in a ceremony attended by U.S. Senator Mark Hatfield.
Paul Clayton, a professor of materials science and engineering and the campus provost, served briefly as an interim president in 1998 after Bragdon's departure. Clayton's research included tribology and wear, in addition to his administrative duties. |
229_21 | The last president, Edward W. Thompson came to OGI in 1998 from HRL Laboratories, where he led a team of 40 researchers developing technology for defense contracting, telecommunications and space. Thompson became the dean of the OGI School of Science and Engineering and a vice-president of OHSU after the merger in 2001. |
229_22 | Oregon Graduate Institute |
229_23 | The name of OGC was changed on 1 November 1989 to the Oregon Graduate Institute of Science & Technology (OGI), on Dwight Sangrey's watch. Sangrey foresaw an education-business complex for OGI similar to Research Triangle Park in North Carolina. By 1995, OGI had grown to 153 full-time and adjunct faculty members and 1100 students in full-time, part-time and continuing education enrollment, in six departments. Edward H. Cooley (1922-2000), founder and retired chairman of Precision Castparts Corporation, was the chairman of the board of trustees. The board also included executives from ESCO Corporation, Planar Systems Inc., Tektronix, Intel Corp. and ESI Inc. The board adopted a mission statement: "Oregon Graduate Institute of Science & Technology, the only private graduate school of science and engineering in the Pacific Northwest, educates leaders and creates knowledge through research." The annual budget was $14M, consisting of 9% from tuition, 8% from annual giving, 8% from |
229_24 | endowments, 68% from government and industrial research grants, and 6% from other sources. |
229_25 | The original faculty members, most of whom were recruited by Benedict, were honored at the 1990 commencement. They were: Harlan U. Anderson, Robert L. Autrey, Douglas F. Barofsky, Edward J. Baum, Warren E. Budden-baum, G. Doyle Daves Jr., Roger Eiss, the late Richard A. Elliott, Stephen Fisk, George A. Gray, James K. Hurst, J. Richard Kerr, George G. Lendaris, Thomas M. Loehr, Hans Oesterreicher, George P. O'Leary, David K. Roe, Erwin Rudy and Gerald J. Throop. The graduating class of 34 students consisted of 24 master's degrees and ten doctorates. |
229_26 | OGI's most popular degree in 2001 was management in science and technology. At the doctorate level, the most popular degree was in computer science and engineering. The least popular degrees were in biochemistry/ molecular biology and MS&E. Non-degree programs offered by OGI included Saturday Academy, an Applied Mathematics Certificate, the Solid State Devices Consortium, and short courses under the Center for Professional Development umbrella. OGC was a partner in the Oregon Center for Advanced Technology Education, created by Gov. Victor Atiyeh in 1985 in conjunction with PSU, OSU and U of O. OGI quickly became very competitive with other Oregon universities in research and graduate degrees in STEM fields. In 1995, OGI conferred 77 master's degrees and 26 doctorates, compared to 218 and 26 for the U of O, OSU and PSU combined. |
229_27 | Merger with OHSU |
229_28 | OGI considered mergers with OSU and PSU in the late 1990s, but the 90-mile distance of OSU in Corvallis and the large-public-university nature of both OSU and PSU were deterrents. The OGI board squelched a proposed merger with OSU in 2000. OGI merged with the Oregon Health Sciences University (OHSU) in July 2001, with OGI becoming the OGI School of Science and Engineering, one of four Schools within OHSU. OGI president Ed Thompson became the dean of the school. The enlarged OHSU was slightly renamed the Oregon Health & Science University. Although OHSU is the state medical school, it had become a public corporation in 1995; this was closer to OGI's business model than either OSU or PSU. The MS&E department moved to downtown Portland and became part of PSU's mechanical engineering department in 2001. Fragments of other departments also moved to PSU. The OHSU-OGI merger was funded in part by a $4M grant from the M.J. Murdock Charitable Trust, an organization started by Vollum's |
229_29 | partner at Tektronix, Jack Murdock. The award was earmarked to help launch a new biomedical engineering program at OGI SS&E. |
229_30 | Presidents
Donald L. Benedict, physicist, 1966-1969
E. Robert de Luccia, 1969-1971
Arthur F. Scott, chemist, 1971-1972
Ira C. Keller, engineer, 1972-1977
J. Richard Kerr, electrical engineer, 1977-1979
F. Paul Carlson, electrical engineer, 1979-1985
Stephen J. Kahne, electrical engineer, 1985-1986
James J. Huntzicker, chemist, 1986-1988
Dwight A. Sangrey, civil engineer, 1988-1994
Paul E. Bragdon, lawyer, 1994-1998
Paul Clayton, metallurgical engineer, 1998
Edward W. Thompson, 1998-2001 |
229_31 | Legacy of OGI
OHSU sold the 40-acre OGI School of Science and Engineering campus at 20000 NW Walker Road in Hillsboro in 2007 for $44.4M, but also signed a 7-year lease for the property. The campus had 15 buildings totaling 286,000 ft2. The OGI School of Science and Engineering was renamed the Department of Science & Engineering within the School of Medicine at OHSU in 2008. OHSU vacated the OGI property in 2014, and it was sold again in 2015 for $15.1M. The OGI degree programs in biochemistry, molecular biology, computer science and engineering, electrical engineering, and environmental science and engineering were moved to OHSU's Marquam Hill complex. The rest went to PSU or were discontinued. Science Park was renamed AmberGlen Business Center. The Samuel L. Diack Memorial Library closed in June 2013.
Companies that have roots at OGI include Cascade Microtech Inc. in 1983, Integra Telecom Inc. in 1984, and electron-ion microscope maker FEI Company. |
229_32 | First M.Sc. graduate Terry Lee earned a Ph.D. in chemistry at the U of O in 1977, and returned to OGC as a post-doctoral fellow in mass spectrometry. He was hired by the Beckmann Research Institute in California in 1982, and was working for the City of Hope National Medical Center in protein research in 1988. First Ph.D. graduate Paul Perry became a computer services manager at Western Geophysical Exploration Production in Texas. |
229_33 | Scholarly books by OGC/OGI faculty and alumni
D.G. Atteridge, Advanced Nanoscale Coatings with Plasma Spray, PN, 2000.
A.P. Black, S. Ducasse, O. Nierstrasz, D. Pollet, Squeak By Example, Square Bracket Associates, 2009, .
J.A. Cooper & Dorothy Malek, eds., Proceedings of the 1981 International Conference on Residential Solid Fuels: Environmental Impacts and Solutions, Oregon Graduate Center, 1982.
J.M. Cregg, ed., Pichia Protocols (Methods in Molecular Biology), Second Edition, Humana Press, 2007, .
J.R. Kerr, DIY Advanced Model Railroad Signaling Electronics: Sensors, Interactivity, Track Control, CreateSpace, 2015, .
M.A.K. Khalil, ed., Atmospheric Methane: Its Role in the Global Environment, Springer, 2000, .
L.E. Murr, Interfacial Phenomena in Metals and Alloys, Addison-Wesley, 1975, .
L.E. Murr, What Every Engineer Should Know about Material and Component Failure, Failure Analysis and Litigation, Marcel Dekker, 1986, . |
229_34 | L.E. Murr, Electron and Ion Microscopy and Microanalysis: Principles and Applications, Second Edition, CRC Press, 1991, .
L.E. Murr, Handbook of Materials Structures, Properties, Processing and Performance, 2015 Edition, Springer, 2014, .
J.H. Orloff, L.W. Swanson & M.W. Utlaut, High Resolution Focused Ion Beams: FIB and its Applications: The Physics of Liquid Metal Ion Sources and Ion Optics and Their Application to Focused Ion Beam Technology, 2003 Edition, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2003, .
J.H. Orloff, ed., Handbook of Charged Particle Optics, Second Edition, CRC Press, 2009, .
J.F. Pankow, Aquatic Chemistry Concepts, Second Edition, CRC Press, 2016, . |
229_35 | References
External links
Facebook page for OGI alumni with campus photos and a 1980s video featuring an aging Howard Vollum
Paul Bragdon at Reed College
Ed Cooley at Reed College
Jim Huntzicker at OHSU
OHSU Digital Commons, a repository for all the theses and dissertations from OGC/OGI
Saturday Academy
Arthur Scott at Reed College
List of United States patents granted to OGC/OGI faculty and students
Oregon Graduate Institute people
Universities and colleges accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities
Engineering universities and colleges in Oregon
Portland State University
Oregon Health & Science University
Tektronix
1963 establishments in Oregon
Schools in Hillsboro, Oregon
Educational institutions established in 1963 |
230_0 | Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head is the eighth studio album by American hip hop recording artist T.I. It was released on December 18, 2012, by Grand Hustle Records and Atlantic Records. The production was provided by some of T.I.'s longtime collaborators; including DJ Toomp, Jazze Pha, Pharrell Williams and Lil' C. These high-profile record producers such as T-Minus, Cardiak, No I.D., Rico Love, Planet VI, Tommy Brown and Chuck Diesel, also contributed to the album. The album features guest appearances from P!nk, Lil Wayne, André 3000, R. Kelly, Akon, Meek Mill, CeeLo Green, ASAP Rocky, Trae tha Truth, Victoria Monet and Grand Hustle's own D.O.P.E. |
230_1 | The album's first single, "Go Get It" (released on July 17, 2012), becoming a moderate hit, peaking at number 77 on the US Billboard Hot 100. The second single, "Ball" featuring Lil Wayne, was released on October 16, 2012. The single peaked at number 50 on the US Billboard Hot 100, logging 20 weeks on the chart. In April 2013, the single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The album debuted at number 2 on the US Billboard 200, selling 179,000 copies in its first week of release; also debuting at number one on both the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and the Top Rap Albums charts, respectively.
Upon its release, Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head received "generally favorable reviews" from most music critics, where most music critics saw it as an improvement from his previous album No Mercy (2010). As of September 28, 2013, the album has sold 502,000 copies in the United States. |
230_2 | Background
In August 2011, after being released from prison, T.I. began making up for lost time by appearing on remixes for everyone from Jay-Z and Kanye West ("Niggas in Paris") to Kesha ("Sleazy"); as well as recording 86 tracks for Trouble Man. In an interview with Rolling Stone, T.I. previously stated he was debating between two titles for the album, Kill the King and Trouble Man. T.I. later revealed to Billboard the title of the album to be the latter. The title was partly inspired by Marvin Gaye’s 1972 song of the same name. |
230_3 | When T.I. was asked about titling his album the same name as that of a Marvin Gaye song he said: "I felt like at that moment in time, Marvin Gaye's life embodied what the word 'Trouble Man' and what the song meant in all senses of the word. And today... I feel like the past six, seven years of my life, and the adversity...in my life that I have endured and overcame, that is synonymous and it embodies what the word 'Trouble Man' means today. Marvin Gaye did it for them back then, and I'm doing it for us right now," added T.I.. "Nothing but love and respect, and nothing but salutations and respect to Marvin Gaye and his whole family." |
230_4 | When T.I. spoke on the feel of the album he stated: "It has a more balanced blend of that vintage 'U Don't Know Me,' 'Top Back,' Trap Muzik sound with some of the more mainstream radio records that you heard from Paper Trail. It's more of a cohesive blend." In an interview with Rap-Up, T.I. revealed his thoughts on the album and claimed: "I think it’s a lot more urban than Paper Trail, and less apologetic than No Mercy. I think it’s more diversified than T.I. vs. T.I.P. though. It’s got a lotta heart, it’s got a lotta edge. It’s a creative album. It’s probably harder than most of the shit that’s coming out right now. |
230_5 | On October 23, 2012, T.I. held an NYC listening session, during which he described the inspiration for the album: "I've learned that one thing about my life that is certain is trouble...Be that as it may, I shall embrace that fact and not evade it. We all have faults. Before I let you stand on your high horse and point a finger back down at me, I'm going to give you a big, stiff 'Fuck you.'" On Power 105's The Breakfast Club, T.I. hinted that Trouble Man could be his last album, explaining that he wanted to quit rapping, believing that it is not how it once was: |
230_6 | In December 2012, during his interview with Rap-Up, T.I. stated he recorded over 120 songs and had to narrow it down to 16 that would make Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head. T.I. claimed that he's going to take unused material from Heavy is the Head and arrange it into a new album titled Trouble Man: He Who Wears the Crown: "Well, I had so much music man. I recorded like 120-something songs for this project, and I imagined that, you know, if just giving the amount of music that we had left over that we weren't able to put on this project, that we’d do a sequel. So, you know, the sequel to this album will be He Who Wears the Crown. That’s the primary reason for the subtitle. That's the purpose of the sequel, so we’ll have a platform to display and release these songs." |
230_7 | Recording and production |
230_8 | On October 19, 2012, in an interview, West Coast rapper Kendrick Lamar revealed that he recorded a song with T.I. for the album. The song reportedly also features B.o.B and samples Gotye's hit single "Somebody That I Used to Know". The song's mass appeal attracted T.I. to the sample: "The record's just jamming. When I heard the twist they put on it, man, it was kind of a no-brainer." T.I. also chose the record for its crossover ability, which he has always been successful with in the past: "It sounds like hip-hop with an international twist to it, and I'm known for taking those types of records and bridging that gap between what we do and what they do," he explained, dropping in a couple of examples. "From M.I.A.'s 'Paper Planes' to 'Swagga Like Us,' we took [Crystal Waters'] 'Gypsy Woman' for 'Why You Wanna.'" Over the drum-heavy sample, Lamar and Bobby Ray join T.I. in sharing some nostalgic stories, which he says reminds him of some of a few renowned MCs and their classic projects: |
230_9 | "[We're] taking turns on our story about a female that we knew years, years, years ago before we were who we are today. It kinda puts me in the mind of the 'Da Art Of Storytellin' [and The Art of Storytelling] from Outkast and Slick Rick. It puts me in the mind of that." The song, which failed to make the album's final track listing probably due to sample clearances, is titled "Memories Back Then". On December 17, 2012, T.I. stopped by Sway Calloway's Sway In The Morning radio show to promote the album, while there he premiered "Memories Back Then". |
230_10 | In December 2012, in an interview with Rap-Up, T.I. shared details about his collaboration with singer-songwriter Pink on the T-Minus-produced "Guns and Roses," which he describes as a "bittersweet romantic story." "We found that we had a few things in common," says T.I. of the pop-rocker. "We clicked. She real people, she from the streets. I’m a real cat, I’m from the streets. We found ourselves in rooms where we were like, ‘You know what? These people fake as hell in here. Let’s get out of here.’" In a listening session at NYC's Germano Studios, where T.I. played ten songs from the album for industry tastemakers and label executives, he stated he had big hopes for the song. |
230_11 | T.I. was also able to work with fellow Atlanta rapper, Outkast's André 3000 for the first time after years of trying to collaborate: "We've been trying to put this particular collaboration together since the King album. Every album since King I've called Andre and been like 'Hey, I'm working on an album, let's get together.' And he'd say 'Okay, let's see what we got that makes sense.' And we've met a handful of times. This is the first time that it ... came together. I'm extremely proud, honored, and privileged." And while T.I. admits that André 3000 out shined on "Sorry," he's not mad: "He did get down on me on my record, I can’t front," laughs Tip. "But to me I’m honored and it’s a pleasure that he would even choose my record to do that on." The song was co-produced by former Grand Hustle intern Sir Clef alongside Jazze Pha, the latter of whom has helmed tracks for T.I. such as "Chooz You" and "Let's Get Away". |
230_12 | T.I. also worked with his former Grand Hustle signee, Philadelphia-based rapper Meek Mill on the album. Before Rick Ross signed him to Maybach Music Group and he cut off his braids, T.I. took the Philadelphia rapper under his wing and showed him the ropes: "He was around to observe a lot and he took it and he used it to his advantage, which is extremely commendable." They ended up recording "G Season". "‘G Season’ is basically just two cats who are cut from a different cloth, separating themselves from the suckers," T.I. told Rap-Up TV. This collaboration would come together after they met each other at the club. T.I. said in an interview that Jay-Z was originally supposed to be featured on "G Season". |
230_13 | On "Can You Learn," which was originally going to be the title-track, T.I. and R. Kelly talk to the ladies from a different perspective: "This record sounds to me like what you would expect to hear if Tupac collaborated with Nate Dogg," said T.I. of the DJ Montay-produced track, which was inspired by his own leading lady, Tameka "Tiny" Cottle. "I really feel the connection between the music and the listener, especially if the listener is a lady or a gentleman who has had a lady who stuck by him through all of the ups and downs, the peaks and valleys that life has to offer. She’s proven herself to be a rider." |
230_14 | The production on the album was also handled by T.I.'s longtime friend and frequent collaborator DJ Toomp. Toomp produced two tracks, "Trap Back Jumpin" and the aggressive "Who Want Some," which T.I. affectionately referred to as the "What You Know" of this project. High-profile record producer No I.D. also worked with T.I. on the album, producing their first collaboration, "Wildside" featuring Harlem rapper ASAP Rocky. |
230_15 | Release and promotion
In preparation for the album's release, T.I. released a promotional mixtape, titled Fuck da City Up, on January 1, 2012. During a sit-down with XXL, T.I. revealed a few collaborations for the album, including a song with André 3000 and announced R. Kelly to be featured on the title track. After initially announcing that the album would be released on September 4, 2012, T.I. announced on August 3, that it would be pushed back to a later date in 2012. He also stated that the reason for the delay was because he was still deciding between 86 different songs for the final album. On October 23, 2012, T.I. previewed twelve tracks from the album at its listening party in New York City, and also revealed their titles. The tracks previewed feature artists such as Kendrick Lamar, Cee Lo Green, André 3000, B.o.B, R. Kelly and ASAP Rocky. |
230_16 | Singles
The album's intended first single, titled "Love This Life" (which was produced by production team 1500 or Nothin'), was released on April 3, 2012. The song is thematically reminiscent of T.I.'s 2008 hit single "Whatever You Like". Markman compared T.I.'s delivery to that on "Whatever You Like", calling it "much darker." Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush called it "a great rap ballad that could make the toughest neighborhood thug want to buy candy and flowers for his girlfriend." The song peaked at number 81 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 39 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs charts. The album's intended second single, titled "Like That" (which was produced by Grand Hustle in-house producers Lil' C and Mars of 1500 or Nothin'), was released on May 22, 2012. Both of these songs failed to make the standard track list. |
230_17 | On June 23, 2012, T.I.'s track, titled "Go Get It" was previously leaked and T.I. later released the track as the first official single from the album, releasing it on iTunes Store on July 17, 2012. The song was produced by Canadian hip hop and R&B producer T-Minus, who T.I. has previously collaborated with on the song "Poppin Bottles" featuring Drake, from his previous album No Mercy (2010). Before the video's release, the rapper uploaded a teaser video, followed by a behind-the-scenes video. The music video, directed by Alex Nazari, was released on August 16, 2012, via his YouTube account. |
230_18 | On June 21, 2012, it was announced by record producer Rico Love that the album's second single will be for the track, titled "Ball". The song features guest vocals from fellow American rapper Lil Wayne, with the production handled from Rico Love and Earl & E. On June 29, 2012, T.I. unveiled the single's original artwork, which was later changed on October 8, 2012, along with the announcement of the single's release date. T.I. previewed the song in the second season of his reality television series T.I. and Tiny: The Family Hustle on episode 5. The episode premiered on September 25, 2012, featuring the preview of it at a listening session in Chicago. On September 28, 2012, behind the scenes footage of the music video was released, after the photos of the video shoot were released. The video was shot at Hollygrove in New Orleans, featuring cameo appearances from Rico Love, Trae tha Truth, Mack Maine, Birdman and T.I.'s sons. The single was released on October 15, 2012, and was available |
230_19 | to purchase at iTunes Store on October 16, 2012. The music video was released on October 22, 2012. The single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in April 2013. |
230_20 | The album's third single was announced by T.I. on November 9, 2012, when he unveiled the single's artwork via his Twitter account. The song, titled "Trap Back Jumpin'", previously leaked on September 14, 2012, before he performed it at the BET Hip Hop Awards. The single was available for digital download on November 13, 2012, as the album's third single. |
230_21 | On November 19, 2012, T.I. announced the next two singles for the album would be "Sorry". The song features a guest verse from fellow American rapper André 3000, with the production handled from frequent collaborator Jazze Pha, followed by "Hello" featuring vocals from Cee Lo Green and production from Pharrell Williams. "Sorry" was released as a single via iTunes on November 27, 2012. "Sorry" subsequently debuted at #36 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. On January 2, 2013, Andre 3000's Outkast cohort, Big Boi, took to his Twitter account to reveal he would be adding a verse to "Sorry", the song in which 3000 apologizes to him for past mistakes. |
230_22 | On December 20, 2012, in an interview with Power 105's The Breakfast Club, T.I. spoke on which song will be the next single off Trouble Man. He said he was deciding between the Cee Lo Green featured "Hello" or "Can You Learn" with R. Kelly. He also stated the tracks "Guns and Roses" with American singer-songwriter Pink and "Hallelujah" would have music videos released in the near future, with the former set to be released as a single. "Hello" featuring Cee-Lo Green was released to iTunes on December 11, 2012, as the fifth official single. According to T.I., the Cee Lo Green-featured song was selected due to its heavy radio play. In March he also revealed he would soon be filming the music video for "Hello". On March 19, 2013, T.I. performed "Hello" on Jimmy Kimmel Live!. |
230_23 | Promotional singles
"We Don't Get Down Like Y'all", which features guest vocals from Grand Hustle recording artist B.o.B, was released to iTunes as a promotional single on August 9, 2011, while T.I. was still incarcerated. The album's second promotional single, released on October 4, 2011, from T.I. was "I'm Flexin'", which features its guest vocals and production from Mississippi-based rapper-producer Big K.R.I.T. It was the first song to be released from T.I. after his 11-month prison sentence, and reached number 66 on the US Billboard Hot 100. The third promotional single to not make the album, "Here Ye, Hear Ye" featuring The Neptunes' Pharrell Williams under the alias Sk8brd, was released to iTunes on October 20, 2011. These three songs all failed to appear on the final track listing. |
230_24 | Other songs
Upon the release of Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head, three songs from the album charted on various charts. "G Season" featuring Meek Mill debuted at number 22 on the US Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles. While the song "Wildside" featuring ASAP Rocky debuted at number 5 on the Billboard Bubbling Under R&B/Hip-Hop Singles. As it announced to be one of the possible future single "Guns and Roses" featuring P!nk debuted at number 8 on the Billboard Bubbling Under R&B/Hip-Hop Singles. In Australia, the song debuted at number 24 and peaked at number 15 on the Australian ARIA singles chart, due to strong digital downloads. The song has been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 70,000 copies.
Critical reception |
230_25 | Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head received generally positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 64, based on 16 reviews, which indicates "generally favorable reviews". Despite criticizing T.I.'s "half-hearted stabs at Hot 100 success", Patrick Bowman of Idolator commended Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head for showing "flashes of brilliance amidst brief instances of lingering stagnation", as well as noting the album to mark an important stage in T.I.'s career. William E. Ketchum III of HipHopDX observed T.I.'s "vitriolic, multisyllabic snarl [to be] still intact" and that he "sounds[...] as comfortable spitting the trap rap that earned him his reputation" on his earlier albums, although he felt that in some instances, T.I. "takes hit-making formulaic approaches to songs that he would have uniquely bodied during his peak points". Andy Kellman of AllMusic rated the |
230_26 | album 3 out of 5, saying "This is a step forward from the MC's previous effort, but it's been six years since the he has made an album that must be heard." XXL named it one of the top five hip hop albums of 2012. |
230_27 | Commercial performance
The album debuted at number 2 on the Billboard 200, with first-week sales of 179,000 copies in the United States. As of August 27, 2013, it has sold 501,000 copies. On September 2, 2013 XXL reported that Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head had sold over 500,000 copies. The album was certified gold by the RIAA on November 7, 2013.
Track listing
Notes
(*) Co-producer
(**) Additional production
"Hallelujah" features additional vocals performed by Netta Brielle
Sample credits
"The Introduction" contains a sample of "Trouble Man" performed by Marvin Gaye.
"Ball" contains a sample of "Drag Rap" performed by The Showboys.
"G Season" contains a sample of "Shiftless, Shady, Jealous Kind of People" performed by The O'Jays.
"Can You Learn" contains a sample of "I Choose You" performed by Willie Hutch.
"Wonderful Life" contains a sample of "Your Song" performed by Elton John.
"Hallelujah" contains a sample of "Hallelujah" performed by Leonard Cohen. |
230_28 | Personnel
Credits for Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head adapted from AllMusic. |
230_29 | Kory Aaron – assistant
Akon – featured artist
André 3000 – featured artist
ASAP Rocky – featured artist
Diego Avendaño – assistant
Stacy Barthe – primary artist
Jamezz Bonn – additional production
Leslie Brathwaite – mixing
Netta Brielle – hook
Tommy Brown – producer
Nathan Burgess – assistant
Greg Gigendad Burke – art direction, design
Cardiak – producer
Elliot Carter – engineer, vocal engineer
Chinky P – producer
Clef – producer
Andrew Coleman – arranger, digital editing, engineer
Alex Dilliplane – mixing assistant
DJ Montay – drum programming, engineer, producer
DJ Toomp – keyboards, producer, vocal engineer
Lamar Edwards – producer
The Futuristiks – producer
Chris Gehringer – mastering
Jason Geter – executive producer, management
Casey Giannola – assistant
Eric Goudy II – keyboards, programming
Cee Lo Green – featured artist
Dionnee Harper – marketing
Trehy Harris – assistant
Jevon Hill – producer
Earl Hood – keyboards, programming
Matt Huber – assistant
Jaycen Joshua – mixing |
230_30 | Jazze Pha – producer
Po Johns – producer
Matt Jones – photography
K Tracks – producer
Keke – production coordination
R. Kelly – featured artist
Brian Kidd – producer
Mike Larson – arranger, digital editing
Lil' C – producer
Lil Wayne – featured artist
Rico Love – producer, background vocals
Fabian Marasciullo – mixing
Robert Marks – mixing
Tristan McClain – engineer
Thurston McCrea – engineer
PJ McGinnis – assistant
Meek Mill – featured artist
Mr. Jonz – additional production
No I.D. – producer
Ken Oriole – engineer
Pharrell – producer
P!nk – featured artist
José Quintero – assistant
Gee Roberson – executive producer
Rock City – producer
Sanchez – producer
Travis Sayles – producer
Miguel Scott – assistant
Ray Seay – mixing
Nikhil Seetharam – producer
Bill Sienkiewicz – illustrations
Elliot Stroud – engineer
T.I. – primary artist
T.I.P. – executive producer
T-Minus – engineer, producer
Carolyn Tracey – package production
John X. Volaitis – assistant
Miles Walker – mixing |
230_31 | Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
Release history
See also
List of number-one R&B albums of 2013 (U.S.)
List of number-one rap albums of 2013 (U.S.)
References
2012 albums
Albums produced by DJ Toomp
Albums produced by Jazze Pha
Albums produced by No I.D.
Albums produced by Pharrell Williams
Albums produced by Rico Love
Albums produced by T-Minus (record producer)
T.I. albums
Atlantic Records albums
Grand Hustle Records albums
Albums produced by Lil' C (record producer)
Albums produced by Mars (record producer)
Albums produced by 1500 or Nothin'
Albums produced by Cardiak |
231_0 | Chiquita Brands International Sàrl (), formerly known as Chiquita Brands International Inc., is an American producer and distributor of bananas and other produce. The company operates under a number of subsidiary brand names, including the flagship Chiquita brand and Fresh Express salads. Chiquita is the leading distributor of bananas in the United States.
Chiquita is the successor to the United Fruit Company. It was formerly controlled by American businessman Carl H. Lindner, Jr., whose majority ownership of the company ended when Chiquita Brands International exited a prepackaged Chapter 11 bankruptcy on 19 March 2002. In 2003, the company acquired the German produce distribution company, Atlanta AG. Fresh Express salads was purchased from Performance Food Group in 2005. Chiquita's former headquarters were located in Charlotte, North Carolina. |
231_1 | On 10 March 2014, Chiquita Brands International Inc. and Fyffes plc announced that the Boards of Directors of both companies unanimously approved a definitive agreement under which Chiquita will combine with Fyffes, in a stock-for-stock transaction that is expected to result in Chiquita shareholders owning approximately 50.7% of ChiquitaFyffes and Fyffes shareholders owning approximately 49.3% of the proposed ChiquitaFyffes, on a fully diluted basis. The agreement would have created the largest banana producer in the world and would have been domiciled in Ireland. An intervening offer by Brazilian companies Cutrale and Safra Group of $611 million in August 2014 was rejected by Chiquita, with the company saying it would continue with its merger with Fyffes. On 24 October, Chiquita announced that the shareholders at a Company Special Meeting had rejected the merger with Fyffes. Instead the Cutrale-Safra acquisition offer was then accepted by the shareholders.
History |
231_2 | Chiquita Brands International's history began in 1870 when ship's captain Lorenzo Dow Baker purchased 160 bunches of bananas in Jamaica and resold them in Jersey City eleven days later. In 1873 Central American railroad developer Minor C. Keith began to experiment with banana production in Costa Rica. Later, he planted bananas alongside a Costa Rican railroad track to provide revenue for the railroad. In 1878, Baker partnered with Andrew Preston to form the Boston Fruit Company.
United Fruit Company was founded in 1899 when the Boston Fruit Company and various fruit exporting concerns controlled by Keith merged. In 1903, United Fruit Company was listed on the New York Stock Exchange and became the first company to use refrigeration during open sea transport. |
231_3 | In 1928, workers went on strike in protest against poor pay and working conditions in the company plantations Ciénaga (Colombia). The company lobbied U.S. government forces to assist with repressing the outbreak; however, the Colombian government opted to quell the strike on its own, sending military forces into the town of Ciénaga, where the strikers had gathered, on 6 December. The repression resulted in the deaths of scores of plantation workers and their families. This episode is known in the history of Colombia as the Masacre de las Bananeras (Banana massacre). Gabriel García Márquez alludes to the event in his novel One Hundred Years of Solitude by describing a military suppression that resulted in the death of 3,000 plantation workers in the fictional town of Macondo. While García Márquez has stated that the deaths in his novel are potential overestimations, the actual number of deaths has never been confirmed. Estimates gathered from oral histories to primary sources vary |
231_4 | widely, from 47 to upwards of 1,000 casualties. |
231_5 | By 1930, the company's fleet had grown to 95 ships.
In 1944, the company premiered the "Chiquita Banana" advertising jingle, which extolled the virtues of the fruit as well as when to eat them and how to store them. The song, which had an infectious calypso beat, began with the words "I'm Chiquita Banana, and I've come to say." The brand name Chiquita was registered as a trademark in 1947. |
231_6 | By 1955, United Fruit Company was processing 2.7 billion pounds (1.2 billion kilograms) of fruit a year. In 1966, the company expanded into Europe. Eli Black came in 1968 and was made chairman, president, and CEO. In 1970, the company merged with AMK Corporation and changed its name to United Brands Company. Black took a controlling interest by outbidding two other conglomerates, Zapata Corporation and Textron. After the suicide of Black in 1975, the company was acquired by Seymour Milstein and Paul Milstein. In 1980, Chiquita was an official sponsor of the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York.
In 1984, Cincinnati investor Carl Lindner, Jr. became the controlling investor in United Brands. |
231_7 | In 1990, the company renamed itself Chiquita Brands International, as it undertook major investments in Costa Rica. However, the company began to see a decline in Honduran operations during the first half of 1990. As a result, Chiquita initiated the "Banana Wars" with rival company Fyffes over the limited banana supply. Chiquita began illegally seizing and destroying Fyffes' shipments, as well as bribing judges to validate detention orders on Fyffes' ships. This culminated in the destruction of ten million dollars worth of produce. Fyffes manager Ernst Otto Stalinski alleged that Chiquita used a falsified arrest warrant in a kidnapping attempt, and he filed suit several times. |
231_8 | In 1993, the company was hit by European tariffs on the import of Latin American bananas. In 1994, some Chiquita farms were certified by the Rainforest Alliance's Better Banana Project as being environmentally friendly. In 1995, the company sold the John Morrell meat business that was part of the original AMK Corporation. In 1998, the world's largest banana processing facility debuted in Costa Rica. In 2001, the EU dismantled their banana import policy that favored European companies. This ended any ongoing banana disputes.
Restructuring
In November 2001, Chiquita filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in order to restructure the company. It emerged from the bankruptcy on 19 March 2002, ending Cincinnati businessman Carl H. Lindner, Jr.'s control of the company. Also in 2002, Chiquita joined the Ethical Trading Initiative and was named as a top "green stock" by The Progressive Investor. |
231_9 | In 2003, Chiquita acquired the German produce distribution company, Atlanta AG. It also sold its processed foods division to Seneca Foods that year. In 2004, 100% of Chiquita farms were certified compliant with the SA8000 labor standard and the company earned the "Corporate Citizen of the Americas Award" from a Honduran charity. Fresh Express salads was purchased from Performance Food Group in 2005. |
231_10 | Acquisition |
231_11 | In March 2014, Chiquita Brands International and Fyffes announced that their boards of directors had unanimously approved a merger agreement. In the stock-for-stock transaction, former Chiquita shareholders will own approximately 50.7% of the new company, ChiquitaFyffes, while Fyffes shareholders will own 49.3% of the new company. The all-stock purchase was valued at US$526 million. The agreement would have created the largest banana company in the world with projected annual revenues of US$4.6 billion and have been domiciled in Ireland but be listed on the New York Stock Exchange. Chiquita's CEO Ed Lonergan would have served as Chairman and Fyffes Executive Chairman David McCann would have become the CEO of the proposed entity. Lonergan called this a "milestone transaction" and that "the combined company will also be able to provide customers with a more diverse product mix and choice;" while McCann added that both companies will benefit from their "joint expertise, complementary |
231_12 | assets and geographic coverage to develop a business". According to Chiquita, the deal will "provide substantial operational efficiencies and cost savings". The combined company will have tax savings from being domiciled in Ireland, similar to the 2013 acquisition by US drug-maker Perrigo of Irish company Élan. The deal is a corporate inversion, as the takeover company (Chiquita, United States), is relocating its domicile to that of purchased company (Fyffes, Ireland). |
231_13 | A$611 million takeover offer by Cutrale of Brazil and Safra group in August 2014 was rejected outright by Chiquita, with the company refusing to meet with the bidders to discuss the offer. Chiquita said it was pressing on with its merger with Fyffes. However, shortly after Chiquita shareholders rejected the Fyffes merger the Cutrale-Safra offer of $14.50 per share was accepted. Yet the North Carolina Economic Development board asserted that if the headquarters was moved away, the company would be due to return N.C. and local incentive money. Former Charlotte City Council member John Lassiter, who heads the board, said the new owners would inherit Chiquita's responsibilities under a 2011 deal that brought the company to the city. The agreement stipulates that it received more than $23 million in incentives from Charlotte and Mecklenburg County for moving its headquarters and hundreds of high-paying jobs from Cincinnati and if it moved again within 10 years it must repay the "clawback" |
231_14 | provision. Lassiter said of the matter: "It’s not a question of opinion. It’s 'What does the agreement say?’ I would expect both the city (of Charlotte) to impress its position (on the new owners) and for the (new ownership) to follow expectations under its provisions of the agreement." |
231_15 | Operations
Chiquita Brands International operates in 70 countries and employs approximately 20,000 people as of 2018. The company sells a variety of fresh produce, including bananas, ready-made salads, and health foods. The company's Fresh Express brand has approximately $1 billion of annual sales and a 40% market share in the United States. |
231_16 | On 29 November 2011, the North Carolina Economic Investment Committee approved $22 million in incentives for Chiquita to move its headquarters to Charlotte, North Carolina. The same day, Chiquita officially announced their move to the city, with the new headquarters residing in the NASCAR Plaza tower. Research and development was also moved to the Charlotte area. In addition to the incentives, the company cited the growing airport as a reason for the move. According to the company's 2012 annual report, the company was aiming to "transform [itself] into a high-volume, low-cost operator" and to "minimize investments outside of [its] core product offerings".
By 2019, the company's main offices left the United States and relocated to Switzerland. |
231_17 | Logo
The company mascot "Miss Chiquita", now Chiquita Banana, was created in 1944 by Dik Browne, who is best known for drawing the popular comic strips Hi and Lois and Hägar the Horrible. Miss Chiquita started as an animated banana with a woman's dress and legs. Vocalist Patti Clayton was the original 1944 voice of Miss Chiquita, followed by Elsa Miranda, June Valli and Monica Lewis. Advertisements featured the trademark banana character wearing a fruit hat. The banana with a fruit hat was changed into a woman in 1987. A new Miss Chiquita design was unveiled in 1998. Peel-off stickers with the logo started being placed on bananas in 1963. They are still placed by hand today to avoid bruising the fruit. |
231_18 | A commercial in 1947 with a theme song in English ended with the lyrics "si, si" emphasizing for consumers the origin of the bananas as Latin America. Another commercial featured a man of Latin descent with exaggerated stereotypical features. As times changed throughout the 1960s, so did the iconography and publications of Chiquita and their produce, of bananas.
Criticism
Monopolistic practices
In 1976, the European Commission held that United Brands had been abusing a dominant market position, contrary to Article 86 of the EEC Treaty; in particular, by imposing unfair conditions on its customers, by refusing to supply certain customers, and by charging dissimilar prices for equivalent transactions. In 1978, the commission's decision was upheld by the European Court of Justice. |
231_19 | Cincinnati Enquirer charges
On 3 May 1998, The Cincinnati Enquirer published an eighteen-page section, "Chiquita Secrets Revealed" by investigative reporters Michael Gallagher and Cameron McWhirter. The section accused the company of mistreating workers on its Central American plantations, polluting the environment, allowing cocaine to be brought to Borneo on its ships, bribing foreign officials, evading foreign nations' laws on land ownership, forcibly preventing its workers from unionizing, and a host of other misdeeds. Chiquita denied all the allegations, and sued after it was revealed that Gallagher had repeatedly hacked into Chiquita's voicemail system. A special prosecutor was appointed to investigate, because the elected prosecutor at the time had ties to Carl Lindner, Jr. |
231_20 | Gallagher had claimed to have obtained over 2,000 voicemails from a Chiquita executive, but in truth he had obtained them by hacking into Chiquita's voicemail system as often as 35 times a day. He had continued hacking into the system despite being explicitly directed not to do so by editors and lawyers. According to McWhirter, he also refused to give straight answers about his source to editors and outside lawyers–facts that aroused the suspicions of McWhirter and other reporters. |
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