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428_2 | On its southern end, US 167 began near Colfax, Louisiana when designated as one of the original numbered U.S. Highways in 1926. However, the route was extended to Abbeville in 1949 over a number of existing state highways, more than doubling its length within Louisiana. Since that time, US 167 has experienced several alignment shifts as freeways were constructed in its two urban areas. More recently, all but approximately of the route was widened to four lanes as part of the Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development (La DOTD) TIMED program. |
428_3 | Abbeville to Lafayette
From the south, US 167 begins at an intersection with LA 14 Bus. (Port Street) in the Vermilion Parish city of Abbeville, located in southern Louisiana. The route heads north on Park Avenue, an undivided four-lane thoroughfare, and crosses mainline LA 14 (West Summers Drive). US 167 travels due north from Abbeville and becomes a divided four-lane highway on a wide right-of-way upon entering rural surroundings. The highway will repeat this pattern throughout the majority of its distance in Louisiana. Passing through Maurice, US 167 has a brief concurrency with LA 92. The highway then curves to the northeast and crosses into Lafayette Parish. |
428_4 | US 167 enters the suburban outgrowth of Lafayette and crosses the city limits just beyond a junction with LA 733 (East Broussard Road). The highway, locally known as Johnston Street, becomes a busy commercial corridor near the Acadiana Mall and intersects several major thoroughfares on the southwest side of town, including LA 3073 (Ambassador Caffery Parkway) and LA 3025 (College Road). Nearing the downtown area, US 167 passes the University of Louisiana at Lafayette, located at a junction with US 90 Bus./LA 182 (University Avenue). The route turns northwest onto the Evangeline Thruway, a one-way pair, and overlaps US 90 for about ten blocks. This short stretch represents the only non-freeway six-lane portion of US 167 in Louisiana. On the north side of town, the highway passes through a cloverleaf interchange with I-10 at exit 103, connecting with Baton Rouge to the east and Lake Charles to the west. This interchange also marks the southern terminus of I-49. |
428_5 | I-49 concurrency and rural two-lane
US 167 utilizes the alignment of I-49 for the next . The freeway initially carries six lanes of traffic but quickly narrows to four through lanes. The highway crosses from Lafayette into Carencro at exit 2, which connects to LA 98 (Gloria Switch Road). Carencro proper is served by exit 4, connecting with LA 726. North of Carencro, I-49/US 167 intersects the parallel LA 182 before crossing into St. Landry Parish.
In St. Landry Parish, the freeway cuts through the adjacent communities of Sunset and Grand Coteau, served by exit 11 to LA 93. Further north, the route skirts the eastern edge of the city of Opelousas, which is accessed by exit 18 to LA 31 (Creswell Lane) and exit 19 to US 190. US 167 departs from the alignment of I-49 at the next exit and heads west through a point known as Nuba and a junction with LA 10 and LA 182. |
428_6 | Narrowing to an undivided two-lane highway, US 167 travels northwest, overlapping LA 10 into Evangeline Parish. Here, the highway enters the city of Ville Platte and diverges onto the one-way pair of LaSalle and Main Streets through the center of town. During this stretch, US 167 intersects and briefly overlaps LA 29. After narrowing to two lanes again, US 167 turns due north at the western edge of Ville Platte and separates from LA 10. The highway passes to the east of Millers Lake and through an area known as Bayou Chicot, where it intersects LA 106. A few miles later, US 167 reaches a T-intersection with LA 13 in Turkey Creek. US 167 turns north to continue the path of LA 13 and travels several miles through a very sparsely populated area. |
428_7 | Alexandria metropolitan area
US 167 crosses into Rapides Parish just north of Clearwater and crosses under I-49 at exit 61. Soon afterward, it reaches a T-intersection with US 71 near Meeker and departs from the last stretch of two-lane pavement along its route. US 167 turns northwest and follows the alignment of US 71 alongside the Union Pacific Railroad (UP) line for the next through Lecompte, Lamourie, and Chambers. In Chambers, the highway passes the Louisiana State University at Alexandria, located about south of the Alexandria city limits. |
428_8 | Upon entering Alexandria, the principal city of central Louisiana, US 71 and US 167 engage into an interchange with I-49 at exit 80. (This interchange is also exit 63 on US 71.) US 167 takes the entrance ramp to begin another concurrency with I-49, while US 71 proceeds straight ahead onto MacArthur Drive co-signed as US 167 Bus. This time, the freeway begins with four through lanes and widens to six lanes further into town. On the edge of the business district, US 167 departs from I-49 a final time via exit 84 and transitions onto the Pineville Expressway joined with LA 28. As the highway elevates to begin the approach onto the Red River bridge, ramps connect to LA 1 and LA 28 Bus. via the grade-level one-way pair of Casson and Fulton Streets. This interchange also reconnects US 167 Bus. to the parent route, though it is not signed here. US 167 proceeds over the six-lane twin-span Purple Heart Memorial Bridge and crosses from Alexandria into the smaller adjacent city of |
428_9 | Pineville. |
428_10 | US 167 is predominantly a grade-level four-lane freeway through the Pineville area with exits that do not utilize a numbering scheme. Tight diamond interchanges connect with LA 1250 (Shamrock Street) to Downtown Pineville and LA 107 toward Marksville. LA 28 departs to the east toward Jonesville at the next exit. US 167 curves northwest on the Pineville Expressway through Kingsville and intersects US 165, the main route connecting Alexandria with Monroe. Shortly afterward, in the community of Tioga, US 167 joins US 71 again briefly until the latter splits off toward Shreveport. Just before crossing into Grant Parish, the freeway ends as US 167 intersects LA 3225 at Creola. |
428_11 | North Louisiana
US 167 enters the Kisatchie National Forest at Prospect and remains within its boundaries throughout Grant Parish and into Winn Parish. Notable junctions along this stretch include LA 8 at Bentley, LA 123 in Dry Prong, and LA 500 at Packton. About north of Packton, US 167 curves due west onto East Lafayette Street in the town of Winnfield. The route overlaps US 84 and LA 34 through the center of town, where it crosses over the Kansas City Southern Railway (KCS) line and transitions onto West Court Street. With the other highways departing to the south and west, US 167 resumes its northerly course out of Winnfield, passing through Dodson and into Jackson Parish. |
428_12 | US 167 follows the KCS Railway into the town of Jonesboro, where it travels along Old Winnsboro Road. After beginning a concurrency with LA 147, US 167 intersects LA 4 (East Main Street) in the center of town. Just north of Jonesboro, US 167 passes through the adjacent communities of Hodge and North Hodge, where LA 147 turns off to the northwest. US 167 winds its way through Quitman, Ansley, and Clay before crossing into Lincoln Parish. |
428_13 | In Lincoln Parish, US 167 proceeds north into the city of Ruston and diverges onto the one-way pair of Vienna and Trenton Streets. The route overlaps US 80 for nine blocks and also begins a longer concurrency with LA 146 at California Avenue. Heading out of the business district, US 167 passes through an interchange with I-20, connecting with Shreveport to the west and Monroe to the east. This interchange also marks the southern terminus of US 63, and the two highways will remain paired throughout the remainder of their distance in Louisiana. North of Ruston, the rural surroundings return once again. While passing through Vienna, LA 146 departs to the west. US 167 proceeds through Unionville and Dubach before crossing into Union Parish. |
428_14 | In Union Parish, the highway enters Bernice, where it follows another one-way pair (Cherry and Plum Streets). In this small town, LA 2 Alt. utilizes the alignment of US 167 to reconnect to its parent route, LA 2. In Lillie, US 167 intersects the northern terminus of LA 15 just west of Spearsville. The route then curves northwest toward Junction City, located on the Arkansas state line. US 167 follows Main Street through town and intersects LA 9 (West Fifth Street). At 3rd Street, the highway crosses the state line into Junction City, Arkansas and proceeds northward co-signed with US 63 toward El Dorado. |
428_15 | Route classification and data
US 167 has several different functional classifications over the course of its route, as determined by the Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development (La DOTD). The route is classified as an urban principal arterial through most of the cities it serves. Outside of town, the majority of the route serves as a rural minor arterial south of Alexandria and as a rural principal arterial northward. Two notable exceptions are the portions running concurrent with I-49, which are classified as urban and rural interstates, and the portion between Ville Platte and Turkey Creek, which is a rural major collector. Daily traffic volume in 2013 peaked at 53,500 vehicles in Lafayette and 56,100 in Alexandria, both along concurrencies with I-49. The lowest count reported was 1,110 vehicles north of Turkey Creek. |
428_16 | Several pieces of the southern half of US 167 are included in the state-designated system of tourist routes known as the Louisiana Scenic Byways. The portion between Abbeville and Lafayette is part of the Jean Lafitte Scenic Byway, and much of the route through Evangeline Parish is part of the Zydeco Cajun Prairie Scenic Byway.
Arkansas |
428_17 | Highway 167 enters Arkansas at Junction City, a twin city with Junction City, Louisiana. Entering the state, Highway 167 is paired with U.S. Highway 63. The highways runs northeast through rural Union County to a junction with Highway 7 near the historic Joel Smith House. The three highways begin a concurrency intersect U.S. Highway 82 shortly after entering El Dorado. North of this junction is a grade-separated intersection with U.S. Highway 82B and U.S. Highway 167B, leading into downtown El Dorado and the El Dorado Commercial Historic District. The next intersection is with Main Street and is also grade-separated. Highway 63 breaks from the aforementioned concurrency to the east toward Warren. Following an interchange with Champagnolle Road, Highway 167 ends its overlap with Highway 7 by exiting the freeway and heading north toward Calion. This intersection also serves as the northern terminus for Highway 167B, with Highway 7 continuing north toward Smackover. |
428_18 | Highway 167 runs north through sparsely populated parts of southern Calhoun County prior to entering Hampton, the county seat. The highway intersects U.S. Highway 278 (Main Street) and passes by the historic Calhoun County Courthouse and the Hampton Waterworks, both listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In the northern part of the county, Highway 167 meets another of its three business routes in the state, which runs into downtown Thornton. Highway 167 continues northeast to a junction with U.S. Highway 79, and the two routes begin a concurrency toward Fordyce. |
428_19 | History |
428_20 | Original southern terminus and extensions |
428_21 | US 167 was designated in November 1926 as one of the original routes of the numbered U.S. Highway system. At that time, it was a much shorter route with a southern terminus at US 71 between Aloha and Colfax, northwest of Alexandria. The entire route within Louisiana followed an auto trail organized in 1919 known as the Pershing Way. Like the more well-known and established Jefferson Highway, the Pershing Way was promoted as an international highway stretching from New Orleans to Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. However, the two followed entirely different routes through Louisiana that intersected in Alexandria. While the Jefferson Highway traveled diagonally across the state, the Pershing Way made an "L" by heading west from New Orleans to Lafayette via the Old Spanish Trail (another auto trail and the predecessor of US 90) before turning north and cutting through the center of the state. When Louisiana implemented a numbering system for its state highways in 1921, the Pershing Way |
428_22 | was designated as State Route 5. Once the state began signposting its U.S. Highways in 1928, they remained co-signed with their respective state designations until a renumbering of the system in 1955 eliminated such concurrencies. |
428_23 | Since its creation in 1926, the southern terminus of US 167 has been moved twice. In 1932, the highway was shifted south of Winnfield to follow State Route 99, an early addition to the state highway system that had recently been paved. This change took the highway through Dry Prong to a different junction with US 71 near Creola, slightly extending the route and allowing a more direct connection with Alexandria. The original alignment was a gravel route that followed what is now LA 471 through Verda to Atlanta and LA 34 from Atlanta to Winnfield. |
428_24 | US 167 assumed its full length in Louisiana in 1949, when the designation was extended over existing highways southward to Abbeville. State Route 43 carried the highway from Abbeville to Lafayette with the old Pershing Way (Route 5) taking it from there as far as Nuba, a point between Opelousas and Washington. The remainder of the distance to Alexandria was primarily composed of State Route 22 to Ville Platte, State Route 23 to Bayou Chicot, State Route 218 to Turkey Creek, State Route 26 to Meeker, and the concurrent US 71/State Route 1 into the city. |
428_25 | Early routings and special routes in Alexandria and Lafayette
In Alexandria, US 167 initially followed a path similar to its current business route and that of US 165. I-49 and the Pineville Expressway did not yet exist, and the primary through-town route followed MacArthur Drive, Lee Street, Bolton Avenue, and Murray Street into the downtown area. The highway crossed the Red River via the Murray Street Bridge, now demolished and replaced with the parallel Jackson Street Bridge. It continued through Pineville on Main Street, Military Highway, and Jefferson Highway to the modern junction of US 71 and US 165. The route then followed US 71 to Tioga and LA 3225 to Creola. |
428_26 | Shortly after its extension through Alexandria, a bypass route for US 167 was designated that followed MacArthur Drive (then known as the Alexandria Bypass) around the city and across the O.K. Allen Bridge upriver. Portions of this route were part of the existing US 71 Byp. and a new US 165 Byp. By 1953, mainline US 167 was routed over the O.K. Allen Bridge via Bolton Avenue, and the bypass was truncated to the intersection of Bolton Avenue and MacArthur Drive, which was a traffic circle at that time. This routing remained in effect until the early 1960s when US 167 was moved out of Downtown Alexandria altogether and absorbed the bypass route, which was then deleted. |
428_27 | In Lafayette, the route's other urbanized area, US 167 followed Johnston Street into town as it does today. However, it originally turned north onto University Avenue (then known as College Avenue) across US 90 and followed the present route of LA 182 through Carencro, Sunset, and Opelousas. The portion along University Avenue between Johnston and Cameron Streets in Lafayette was concurrent with US 90, as the Evangeline Thruway did not yet exist. Over the years, US 90 was shifted back-and-forth from its original routing through the courthouse square (with University Avenue signed as a bypass route) to the University Avenue alignment (with the courthouse alignment signed as a business route). During one short period in the mid-1950s when the former configuration was in effect, mainline US 167 was also routed through the courthouse square with a bypass route designated along University Avenue. The courthouse square route was as follows: Johnston Street, Jefferson Street, Main |
428_28 | Street, St. John Street, and Cameron Street to University Avenue. |
428_29 | Major intersections
Bannered and suffixed routes
Alexandria business route
U.S. Highway 167 Business (US 167 Bus.) runs in a north–south direction through the Rapides Parish city of Alexandria. It follows the former path of US 167 through town before it was shifted onto the newly completed I-49 in 1994. |
428_30 | From the south, US 167 Bus. begins at an interchange with I-49 (exit 80) and US 71 (exit 63) at the southern end of Alexandria. Mainline US 167 travels concurrently with I-49 to the north of the interchange and US 71 to the south. The business route heads northwest on MacArthur Drive, a divided four-lane highway with frontage roads, co-signed with US 71. It then turns northward onto Lee Street and becomes an undivided four-lane highway. After serving as a corridor for small commercial establishments for nearly , US 167 Bus. cuts through a residential neighborhood via the one-way pair of Mason and Overton Streets. A dozen blocks later, the route reaches an intersection with Bringhurst Street. Here, US 167 Bus. proceeds straight ahead co-signed with LA 1 and LA 28 Bus. |
428_31 | The travel lanes converge as the highway immediately heads through an underpass of the Union Pacific Railroad (UP) line and crosses under both the elevated I-49 and Pineville Expressway (US 167/LA 28). For the next four blocks, US 167 Bus. diverges again onto the one-way pair of Casson and Fulton Streets near the southeast corner of the downtown area, effectively serving as frontage roads of the Pineville Expressway. Ramps connect to southbound I-49/US 167 and to the Pineville Expressway (northbound US 167 and eastbound LA 28) as the latter increases in elevation to cross the Red River via the twin-span Purple Heart Memorial Bridge into Pineville. |
428_32 | US 167 Bus. is classified as an urban principal arterial by the Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development (La DOTD). The average daily traffic volume in 2013 ranged from 7,300 to 24,400 vehicles with the highest counts recorded near the I-49 and US 167 interchanges at either end of the route. The posted speed limit is along MacArthur Drive, reduced to otherwise.
Major intersections
El Dorado business route
US Highway 167 Business (US 167B and Hwy. 167B) is a business route of US Highway 167 in Union County, Arkansas.
Thornton business route
US Highway 167 Business (US 167B and Hwy. 167B) is a business route of US Highway 167 in Calhoun County, Arkansas. The route was created following the completion of a bypass around Thornton when Highway 167 was rerouted onto the new alignment.
Sheridan business route |
428_33 | US Highway 167 Business (US 167B and Hwy. 167B) is a business route of US Highway 167 in Grant County, Arkansas. It was created by the Arkansas State Highway Commission on September 11, 2013 following the designation of the new Highway 167 Sheridan bypass as mainline Highway 167, leaving the former alignment in the state highway system as a business route.
See also
Pineville Expressway
References
External links
Endpoints of US 167
Maps / GIS Data Homepage, Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development |
428_34 | 167
Transportation in Calhoun County, Arkansas
Transportation in Cleveland County, Arkansas
Transportation in Dallas County, Arkansas
Transportation in Grant County, Arkansas
Transportation in Independence County, Arkansas
Transportation in Jackson County, Arkansas
Transportation in Lonoke County, Arkansas
Transportation in Pulaski County, Arkansas
Transportation in Saline County, Arkansas
Transportation in Sharp County, Arkansas
Transportation in Union County, Arkansas
Transportation in White County, Arkansas
Transportation in Claiborne Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in Evangeline Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in Grant Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in Jackson Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in Lafayette Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in Lincoln Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in Rapides Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in St. Landry Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in Union Parish, Louisiana
Transportation in Vermilion Parish, Louisiana |
428_35 | Transportation in Winn Parish, Louisiana
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429_0 | Bhagalpur is a city on the southern banks of the river Ganges in the Indian state of Bihar. It is the 3rd largest city of Bihar and also the headquarters of Bhagalpur district and Bhagalpur division. Known as the Silk City, it is a major educational, commercial, and political center, and listed for development under the Smart City program, a joint venture between Government and industry. The Gangetic plains surrounding the city are very fertile and the main crops include rice, wheat, maize, barley, and oilseeds. The river is home to the Gangetic dolphin, the National Aquatic Animal of India, and the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary is established near the town. Manasa Puja and Kali Puja are the two most important festivals in and around the city.
History
The region where Bhagalpur is currently located was known in the Mahabharata times as the kingdom of Anga. The capital of Anga was Champa Nagari and it's king was Karna, the elder brother of the Pandavas.
Demography |
429_1 | As of the 2011 India census, the Bhagalpur Urban Agglomeration has a population of 410,210, of which 218,284 were males and 191,926 were females. It is the 3rd largest city in Bihar in terms of urban population. the total population in the age group of 0 to 6 years is 55,898. The total number of literates are 286,125, with 160,720 males and 125,405 females. The effective literacy rate of 7+ population is 80.76%, of which while the male literacy rate is 84.95% with women at 75.95%.
Climate
Flora and fauna
Greater adjutant (Garuda) |
429_2 | Greater adjutant (Leptoptilos dubius), a member of the stork family, associated with the mythical bird Garuda, has a Rescue and Rehabilitation Area located in Bhagalpur, the second largest of its kind. Loss of nesting habitat and feeding sites through drainage, pollution and disturbance, together with hunting and egg collection, caused a massive dip in the population of the species. Garuda birds were first spotted nesting and breeding on a silk cotton tree near a village in the Ganga-Diara area in Bhagalpur in 2007. In May 2006, 42 birds were seen by the Mandar Nature Club team for the first time. Prior to this, the species had never been seen in Bihar during its breeding period. Four years after these endangered birds of the stork family started nesting and breeding in Bhagalpur district, their number eventually increased, from 78 to over 500, making Bhagalpur one of only three places to host Garudas; the others being Cambodia and Assam. |
429_3 | The greater adjutant is classified as endangered on the IUCN Red List 2004 of threatened species and listed under Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. This huge stork has a naked pink head, a very thick yellow bill and a low-hanging neck pouch. The neck ruff is white. The bird looks like a vulture. Other than the pale grey edge on each wing, the rest of the greater adjutant's body is dark grey. Younglings have a narrower bill, thicker down on the head and neck, and entirely dark wings. A Garuda bird measures 145–150 cm (about three feet) in length and four to five feet in height.
Local attractions |
429_4 | Manasa Devi Temple, Champanagar
Maa Manasa is the prominent deity of Bhagalpur and the Anga Region of India. Manasa Bishari Puja is the major festival of the region along with Kali Puja. The Manasa Devi Temple is located towards the west in the city, which is considered as the place where Goddess Manasa was worshipped for the first time in the world by the merchant, Chandradhar Saudagar, on the request of his daughter-in-law, Behula. The city blooms like a large scented flower every year from 16–19 August, paying homage to Behula and worshipping the local guardian, Manasa. The Manjusha Chitrakatha is full flegedly based on the story of Behula and Manasa. |
429_5 | Budhanath Temple
Spread over three acres Budhanath temple is located on the banks of the Uttarvahini Ganga (flowing from south to north) River. Being one of the oldest temples in the region, it witnesses influx of devotees throughout the year. It is about twenty minutes from the main town. Reference of Baba Budhanath can be found in Shiva Purana as Baba Bal Vridheshwarnath. Also, this name has been stated in the first segment of the eighth segments of Shiva Purana. The lingam of this place of worship is self-incarnated nevertheless as to when it came into being is still unknown. Idol of Ma Bhavani can be seen beside the Shivalinga or Lingam.
Shri Champapur Digamber Jain Temple |
429_6 | Champapur is an ancient and historic Teerth Kshetra of Jainism. Champapur is the place where all the five Kalyanaks i.e., Garbha, Janam, Tapa, KevalGyan and Moksha Kalyanak of Bhagwan Vasupujya, the 12th Jain Teerthankar, have taken place.
The Champapur was the capital of ‘Anga Janpada'. The Anga Janpada was one of the 52 Janapada established by Adi Teerthankar Bhagwan Rishabh Deo. Champapur also existed as Mahajanapada among the six Mahajanapadas during the time of Bhagwan Mahavira Swami.
The three Chaturmas of Bhagwan Mahavira Swami during his Dikshakal, religious propagation centre of Anga-Banga-Magadh-Vaishali, test of modesty of Sati Subhadra and Anantmati, Aahardan to Bhagwan Mahaveer Swami by Sati Chandan Bala have taken place in Champapur. Champapur is also related to great stories of 'origin of Harivansha, Shripal-Mainasundari, Shri Dharma Ghosh Muni, King Karna of Mahabharata, King Mudrak and great architect Vishvakarman’. |
429_7 | The main temple of Champapur Siddha Kshetra is quite ancient (about 2500 years). This temple being symbolic of 'Panch Kalyanaka' is adorned with 5 altars, magnificent spire and 2 columns of fame. It is said that there were 4 'Columns of Fame (Keerti Stambha)’ which existed in four corners of the campus of the temple. Later on the 2 out of 4 were destroyed in the earthquake of year 1934 & repair (Jirnoddhar) of other 2 columns was done in 1938. The 'Columns of Fame' are about 2200 years ancient. |
429_8 | Khanqah-e-Shahbazia
Founded in 1577 AD, the Khanqah-e-Shahbazia is one of the most revered shrines of Bhagalpur. It houses the grave of Maulana Shahbaz, a saint whose 13th-generation descendants still run the place. Maulana Shahbaz Rahmatullah is considered one of the 40 Sufi saints sent to spread the message of Allah. The Sajjadah Nasheen (direct descendant of the saint) is supposed to spend his life within the confines of the Khanqah and take care of its management, lead prayers and offer spiritual services. It is said that they are exempted from appearing in a court of law. |
429_9 | The Mosque was built by Aurangzeb and was frequently visited by him. Every Thursday, visitors assemble at the place to be blessed. Most of the visitors are said to be from the eastern parts of India and Bangladesh. There is a belief that the water in a pond here has medicinal qualities that can cure illness and snake bites. Archeological Survey of India has discovered some ancient manuscripts from the basement of Khanqah e Shahbazia.
The Khanqah is also famous for its library, which has a vast collection of Arabic and Persian theological texts, including a copy of the Qur’an transcribed by Murshid Quli Khan, the Nawab of Murshidabad, Bengal.
Vikramshila Setu |
429_10 | Vikramshila Setu is 5th longest bridge over water in India. The 4.7 km long two lane bridge serves as a link between NH 33 and NH 31 running on the opposite sides of the Ganges. This bridge has reduced considerably the road travel between Bhagalpur and places across the Ganges, like Darjeeling, Siliguri, Assam etc. Before the opening of this bridge steamer was being used for transportation across the Ganga river.
Colleges
Bhagalpur College of Engineering
Bihar Agricultural University
Delhi Public School, Bhagalpur
Indian Institute of Information Technology, Bhagalpur
Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College and Hospital
Mahadeo Singh Law College
Marwari College, Bhagalpur
Mount Assisi School
Mount Carmel School
Tilka Manjhi Bhagalpur University
T.N.B. College, Bhagalpur |
429_11 | Media
Print media include the Hindi Dainik Jagran, Dainik Bhaskar, Aaj, Hindustan (under Hindustan Times) and Prabhat Khabar; the Urdu The Inquilab and Taasir, while English Times of India, The Telegraph and Hindustan Times are also available.
Broadcast media include All India Radio (Frequency 1458 kHz, 1206 kHz) 90.4 FM Radio Active (Bhagalpur), and AIR FM Rainbow India 100.1.M, sadhna plus news channel
Telecommunications services include BSNL, Airtel, Vodafone Idea, Reliance Jio.
Jio-fi Broadband Services, BSNL and Sify are providing broadband services in this region. |
429_12 | Notable people
Ajit Pal Mangat–Indian film director.
Alexander Dow – Died at Bhagalpur was an orientalist, writer, playwright and army officer in the East India Company
Anand Mohan Sahay – General Secretary in INA with Netaji. Ambassador in seven different countries.
Ashis Nandy – Indian political psychologist, a social theorist, and a contemporary cultural and political critic.
Ashok Kumar – Hindi Indian movie actor.
Ashwini Kumar Choubey – BJP politician. Ex health minister of Bihar.
B. J. Choubey – Professor in the Tilka Manjhi Bhagalpur University
Balai Chand Mukhopadhyay – Pen name Banaphool, Bengali writer.
Bhagwat Jha Azad – Former Chief minister of Bihar
Chunchun Prasad Yadav - Three consecutive times MP from Bhagalpur
Dibyendu Palit – Bengali writer
Gurmeet Choudhary – Indian television actor, model and dancer. |
429_13 | Kadambini Ganguly – Daughter of Braja Kishore Bose, headmaster of Bhagalpur School, was India's one of the first women graduates and Doctor was born in Bhagalpur.
Lutfur Rahman, Urdu poet
Nandalal Bose – Artist
Neha Sharma – Hindi & South-Indian movie actress.
Nishikant Dubey
Pritish Nandy – Poet, painter, journalist, politician, television personality, animal activist and film producer.
Rabindra Kumar Rana
Raj Kamal Jha Chief Editor, The Indian Express; author and novelist
Ramjee Singh – Book edited - Gandhi's centenary number, T.N.B . college, Bhagalpur University, 1970
Raveesh Kumar - Indian ambassador to Finland, former spokesperson of Ministry of External Affairs in Government of India.
Sanjay Jha – Former CEO of Global Foundries.
Saratchandra Chattopadhyay – Famous Bengali novelist. The novel Srikanth is based on Bhagalpur.
Suchitra Bhattacharya – Acclaimed Indian novelist was born in Bhagalpur on 10 January 1950.
Syed Shahnawaz Hussain – BJP leader |
429_14 | Tapan Sinha – Film director
Tilka Manjhi First Santhal freedom fighter.
Ajit Sharma - Member of Bihar Legislative Assembly from Bhagalpur constituency. |
429_15 | Adjacent boundaries of Bhagalpur
See also
1980 Bhagalpur blindings
1989 Bhagalpur violence
Aranyak
Bhagalpur sari
References
External links
Official Bhagalpur District website
Cities and towns in Bhagalpur district
Municipal corporations in Bihar |
430_0 | Chandwa, is a community development block in Latehar district, in Indian state of Jharkhand. It is located around 75 km from Ranchi, the state capital. As well as its natural environment, it is known for its bauxite and coal mines. It is mineral rich like most of Jharkhand State. It lies at the junction for the NH39 and NH99 roads, and is also an important railway junction.
Geography
Chandwa is located at . It has an average elevation of .
Chandwa Community Block had a population of 81,479 and is the third largest Community Block in Latehar District after Balumath and Latehar respectively. Males constitute 51% of the population and females 49%. Chandwa has an average literacy rate of 41.06%, much lower than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 54.91%, and female literacy is 26.58%.
There are a total of 86 villages and 17 panchayats in this Chandwa community block. |
430_1 | Education
1) New Degree College is in under construction
2) New polytechnic college is in under construction
3) Govt. Middle School, Chandwa Situated on NH75 1400 Students 20 Teachers
Hindi is the main language for communication in Chandwa even though a majority of people would speak a dialect coherent with Hindi and a mix of Nagpuriya and Plamau languages. There are 2 government-run middle schools and 3 high schools. One of the high schools is exclusively for Girls and the other two are co educational in nature. SS High school is the oldest of all while Christ Raja High School is regarded prestigious in Palamau Commissionary.
Even though there are not many English medium schools in Chandwa, in the last 10 years, the local educated youth have come forward and set up a few English medium primary schools. Some of the youths have also started a few coaching centers to impart private coaching to the needy students. |
430_2 | Opening of Abhijeet DAV public school about 15 Kilometers from Chandwa town has been a boost for the Chandwa. This has been possible with the effort of Abhijeet Group Power plant. This will be a huge boost to the students and the parents of Chandwa who would otherwise need to send their kids to the Jharkhand state capital Ranchi for getting basic education in English medium.
Abhijeet Group is setting up a Coal Based Thermal Power Plant with total installed capacity of 1740 MW. Several companies signed MoU with the state government but none could start the work in the district prior to Abhijeet Group.
After the development of the power plant and the society other companies started coming to the district with slow pace. Nowadays, the transmigration of the place like Chandwa is legitimate with the socio economic development that has improved multi-times than that it was in 2006. |
430_3 | As the first company in the district of Latehar (highly naxal dominated area) setting up the power plant Abhijeet Group already played a significant role in society, and it also bears a responsibility to help bring about the society of the future.
Economy
The main economy is agriculture and the local business activities that people of chandwa are engaged into.
Recently there have been many positive news about a handful of companies like Essar Power, Abhijeet Group etc. planning to set up power plant projects in the vicinity of Chandwa.
Power plant project by Abhijeet group has already attained a substantial development and 270 MW of it is on the verge of commissioning. The project situated in "Chakla", about 10 km away from chandwa on Chandwa-Chatra National Highway #99.
Abhijit Group is scheduled to start power generation by 1st quarter 2013. |
430_4 | Essar Power has also started work on 3x600 MW Mega Thermal Power Project (Essar Projects India Limited) situated at 2 km toward east. Near Damodar, Angarah and Essar TPP will be commissioned for two units in 2014.
Few more companies like Adhunik Metaliks, Jindal Power also looking for places to set up their plant and they are considering Chandwa as most suitable place.
The local business has got a boost in the recent times with the coming of Abhijeet Group and Essar Group in the local area. In the main town, the rental prices of homes and office spaces have been soaring and the local people have adopted this as a good money earning business plan. |
430_5 | Places of interest
Local places of interest include:
Maa Nagar Bhagwati Temple: This is a temple situated in the "Nagar" village at the foot of the mountains about 8 km away from the center of Chandwa town in Chandwa-Chatara main road. A Marriage Hall has also been built up there as this temple hosts many marriages during the marriage season every year. Religious people from Chandwa town visit the temple on a regular basis. It comes under the Tori Pargana which was ruled by the Raja's of Tori Estate.
Kranti Fall: This waterfall is located in the Amjharia Ghati and once it used to be a picnic spot but now it is now largely abandoned.
Hindalco Park: About 5 km from Chandwa town on the Chandwa-Ranchi Road. This park has been developed and maintained by Hindalco industries and serves as a picnic spot for the people of Chandwa town especially on the arrival of new year (1 January). |
430_6 | Lah Bagan: There is one a Lah Park, a government organization park, which produce as much Lah. These are used to make an Outer structure of aeroplane.
Church: A Catholic church situated near Block Headquarter Chandwa and another Menonnite church situated in Kusum Toli Chandwa.
27 No. Pool: One of the highest railway bridge over Mogaldaha river. A picnic spot near Chandwa block. People from different places come and visit this place. |
430_7 | Transport
Road
Chandwa is well connected to the nearby major towns of Jharkhand Chatra, Daltonganj, Lohardaga, Gumla and the state capital Ranchi by road. The national highway NH-75(Now NH 39) connecting State capital Ranchi to the Palamau headquarter Daltonganj via Chandwa town is undergoing the widening currently and it would be a major relief for the local people for commuting to Ranchi and Daltonganj. The common mode of transport usually is privately run buses and other vehicles. Another national highway NH-99(Now NH-22) is connecting to Dobhi (NH-2) and Chandwa via Chatra |
430_8 | Rail
Chandwa has a railway station which is known as TORI Junction. Trains to National Capital Delhi go through this station and due to lack of railway infrastructure in the other nearby towns, TORI serves as a common railway station for many people. Train services to Dhanbad, New Delhi, Patna, Ranchi, Varanasi, Rourkela, Jammu, Jaipur, Bhopal, Jabalpur, Tatanagar, Howrah, Lohardaga are available on a daily basis from Tori Junction station.
Tori Station is Railway Junction as the new rail route from Lohardaga connected here. A railway line is also proposed to connect Chatra and Hazaribagh from Tori later in the future.
Air
The nearest airport for Chandwa is Birsa Munda Airport at the state capital Ranchi (75 km) by road and by trains via Lohardaga it is about 111 km. |
430_9 | Healthcare
There is one Government hospital near the Chandwa Daltonganj Mod (road turn). Some doctors run their own private clinics in the town. The nearest hospitals are:
Tumbagadha in Palamau
Sadar Hospital in Lohardaga
Mandar Hospital
Primary Hospital Chandwa
Sports
Cricket is the primary sport in Chandwa. The ground of Raja Cricket Club, Kamta, is the main playing ground for the local children and boys, SS High School is another playing ground for cricket and football also. Tennis ball cricket is the primary version of cricket that is played there, and local tournaments day/night are held annually.
Apart from cricket, other sports popular in Chandwa include hockey, football, and badminton. |
430_10 | Entertainment
There is no cinema in Chandwa town. The nearest cinemas are Manmati Chitra Mandir in district headquarters Latehar and Alka and Menka Cinema Halls in Lohardaga. Local residents rely on television and a few privately run Video centers in the town. There are also a lot of eateries and pubs. It also has a gym with swimming pool, sauna and spa.
There are three restaurants in the town - Matrichaya, Muskaan and Food Safari.
References
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20070927182506/http://envfor.nic.in/divisions/cltech/Damodar/1.1.htm
http://in.news.yahoo.com/070820/32/6jopc.html
https://web.archive.org/web/20090425150722/http://latehar.nic.in/overview.htm
https://web.archive.org/web/20110216214830/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Chandwa-town-doesn-t-sleep-at-6-anymore/Article1-601053.aspx
Latehar district
Community development blocks in Jharkhand
Community development blocks in Latehar district
Cities and towns in Latehar district |
431_0 | A silicone or polysiloxane is a polymer made up of siloxane (−R2Si−O−SiR2−, where R = organic group). They are typically colorless oils or rubber-like substances. Silicones are used in sealants, adhesives, lubricants, medicine, cooking utensils, thermal insulation, and electrical insulation. Some common forms include silicone oil, silicone grease, silicone rubber, silicone resin, and silicone caulk.
Chemistry |
431_1 | More precisely called polymerized siloxanes or polysiloxanes, silicones consist of an inorganic silicon–oxygen backbone chain (⋯−Si−O−Si−O−Si−O−⋯) with two organic groups attached to each silicon center. Commonly, the organic groups are methyl. The materials can be cyclic or polymeric. By varying the −Si−O− chain lengths, side groups, and crosslinking, silicones can be synthesized with a wide variety of properties and compositions. They can vary in consistency from liquid to gel to rubber to hard plastic. The most common siloxane is linear polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), a silicone oil. The second-largest group of silicone materials is based on silicone resins, which are formed by branched and cage-like oligosiloxanes. |
431_2 | Terminology and history
F. S. Kipping coined the word silicone in 1901 to describe the formula of polydiphenylsiloxane, Ph2SiO (Ph denoting phenyl, C6H5), by analogy with the formula of the ketone benzophenone, Ph2CO (his term was originally silicoketone). Kipping was well aware that polydiphenylsiloxane is polymeric whereas benzophenone is monomeric and noted the contrasting properties of Ph2SiO and Ph2CO. The discovery of the structural differences between Kipping's molecules and the ketones means that silicone is no longer the correct term (though it remains in common usage) and that the term siloxane is preferred according to the nomenclature of modern chemistry. |
431_3 | Silicone is often confused with silicon, but they are distinct substances. Silicon is a chemical element, a hard dark-grey semiconducting metalloid, which in its crystalline form is used to make integrated circuits ("electronic chips") and solar cells. Silicones are compounds that contain silicon, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and perhaps other kinds of atoms as well, and have many very different physical and chemical properties.
Compounds containing silicon–oxygen double bonds, now called silanones, but which could deserve the name "silicone", have long been identified as intermediates in gas-phase processes such as chemical vapor deposition in microelectronics production, and in the formation of ceramics by combustion. However, they have a strong tendency to polymerize into siloxanes. The first stable silanone was obtained in 2014 by A. Filippou and others. |
431_4 | Synthesis
Most common are materials based on polydimethylsiloxane, which is derived by hydrolysis of dimethyldichlorosilane. This dichloride reacts with water as follows:
n Si(CH3)2Cl2 + n H2O → [Si(CH3)2O]n + 2n HCl
The polymerization typically produces linear chains capped with Si−Cl or Si−OH (silanol) groups. Under different conditions, the polymer is a cyclic, not a chain.
For consumer applications such as caulks silyl acetates are used instead of silyl chlorides. The hydrolysis of the acetates produces the less dangerous acetic acid (the acid found in vinegar) as the reaction product of a much slower curing process. This chemistry is used in many consumer applications, such as silicone caulk and adhesives.
n Si(CH3)2(CH3COO)2 + n H2O → [Si(CH3)2O]n + 2n CH3COOH |
431_5 | Branches or crosslinks in the polymer chain can be introduced by using organosilicone precursors with fewer alkyl groups, such as methyl trichlorosilane and methyltrimethoxysilane. Ideally, each molecule of such a compound becomes a branch point. This process can be used to produce hard silicone resins. Similarly, precursors with three methyl groups can be used to limit molecular weight, since each such molecule has only one reactive site and so forms the end of a siloxane chain. |
431_6 | Combustion
When silicone is burned in air or oxygen, it forms solid silica (silicon dioxide, SiO2) as a white powder, char, and various gases. The readily dispersed powder is sometimes called silica fume. The pyrolysis of certain polysiloxanes under an inert atmosphere is a valuable pathway towards the production of amorphous silicon oxycarbide ceramics, also known as polymer derived ceramics. Polysiloxanes terminated with functional ligands such as vinyl, mercapto or acrylate groups have been cross linked to yield preceramic polymers, which can be photopolymerised for the additive manufacturing of polymer derived ceramics by stereolithography techniques.
Properties
Silicones exhibit many useful characteristics, including: |
431_7 | Low thermal conductivity
Low chemical reactivity
Low toxicity
Thermal stability (constancy of properties over a wide temperature range of )
The ability to repel water and form watertight seals.
Does not stick to many substrates, but adheres very well to others, e.g. glass
Does not support microbiological growth
Resistance to oxygen, ozone, and ultraviolet (UV) light. This property has led to the widespread use of silicones in the construction industry (e.g. coatings, fire protection, glazing seals) and the automotive industry (external gaskets, external trim).
Electrical insulation properties. Because silicone can be formulated to be electrically insulative or conductive, it is suitable for a wide range of electrical applications. |
431_8 | High gas permeability: at room temperature (25 °C), the permeability of silicone rubber for such gases as oxygen is approximately 400 times that of butyl rubber, making silicone useful for medical applications in which increased aeration is desired. Conversely, silicone rubbers cannot be used where gas-tight seals are necessary such as seals for high-pressure gasses or high vacuum. |
431_9 | Silicone can be developed into rubber sheeting, where it has other properties, such as being FDA compliant. This extends the uses of silicone sheeting to industries that demand hygiene, for example, food and beverage, and pharmaceuticals.
Applications
Silicones are used in many products. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry lists the following major categories of application: Electrical (e.g. insulation), electronics (e.g., coatings), household (e.g., sealants and cooking utensils), automobile (e.g. gaskets), airplane (e.g., seals), office machines (e.g. keyboard pads), medicine and dentistry (e.g. tooth impression molds), textiles and paper (e.g. coatings). For these applications, an estimated 400,000 tonnes of silicones were produced in 1991. Specific examples, both large and small are presented below.
Automotive |
431_10 | In the automotive field, silicone grease is typically used as a lubricant for brake components since it is stable at high temperatures, is not water-soluble, and is far less likely than other lubricants to foul. DOT 5 brake fluids are based on liquid silicones.
Automotive spark plug wires are insulated by multiple layers of silicone to prevent sparks from jumping to adjacent wires, causing misfires. Silicone tubing is sometimes used in automotive intake systems (especially for engines with forced induction).
Sheet silicone is used to manufacture gaskets used in automotive engines, transmissions, and other applications.
Automotive body manufacturing plants and paint shops avoid silicones, as trace contamination may cause "fish eyes", which are small, circular craters which mar a smooth finish. |
431_11 | Additionally, silicone compounds such as silicone rubber are used as coatings and sealants for airbags; the high strength of silicone rubber makes it an optimal adhesive and sealant for high impact airbags. Silicones in combination with thermoplastics provide improvements in scratch and mar resistance and lowered coefficient of friction.
Aerospace
Silicone is a widely used material in the aerospace industry due to its sealing properties, stability across an extreme temperature range, durability, sound dampening and anti-vibration qualities, and naturally flame retardant properties. Maintaining extreme functionality is paramount for passenger safety in the aerospace industry, so each component on an aircraft requires high-performance materials. |
431_12 | Specially developed aerospace grades of silicone are stable from , these grades can be used in the construction of gaskets for windows and cabin doors. During operation, aircraft go through large temperature fluctuations in a relatively short period of time; from freezing temperatures when flying at full altitude to the ambient temperatures when on the ground in hot countries. Silicone rubber can be molded with tight tolerances ensuring gaskets form airtight seals both on the ground and in the air, where atmospheric pressure decreases. |
431_13 | Silicone rubber's resistance to heat corrosion enables it to be used for gaskets in aircraft engines where it will outlast other types of rubber, both improving aircraft safety and reducing maintenance costs. The silicone acts to seal instrument panels and other electrical systems in the cockpit, protecting printed circuit boards from the risks of extreme altitude such as moisture and extremely low temperature. Silicone can be used as a sheath to protect wires and electrical components from any dust or ice that may creep into a plane's inner workings. |
431_14 | As the nature of air travel results in much noise and vibration, powerful engines, landings, and high speeds all need to be considered to ensure passenger comfort and safe operation of the aircraft. As silicone rubber has exceptional noise reduction and anti-vibration properties, it can be formed into small components and fitted into small gaps ensuring all equipment can be protected from unwanted vibration such as overhead lockers, vent ducts, hatches, entertainment system seals, and LED lighting systems.
Building construction
The strength and reliability of silicone rubber are widely acknowledged in the construction industry. One-part silicone sealants and caulks are in common use to seal gaps, joints and crevices in buildings. One-part silicones cure by absorbing atmospheric moisture, which simplifies installation. In plumbing, silicone grease is typically applied to O-rings in brass taps and valves, preventing lime from sticking to the metal. |
431_15 | Structural silicone has also been used in curtain wall building façades since 1974 when the Art Institute of Chicago became the first building to receive exterior glass fixed only with the material. Silicone membranes have been used to cover and restore industrial roofs, thanks to its extreme UV resistance, and ability to keep their waterproof performance for decades.
Coatings
Silicone films can be applied to such silica-based substrates as glass to form a covalently bonded hydrophobic coating. Such coatings were developed for use on aircraft windshields to repel water and to preserve visibility, without requiring mechanical windshield wipers which are impractical at supersonic speeds. Similar treatments were eventually adapted to the automotive market in products marketed by Rain-X and others.
Many fabrics can be coated or impregnated with silicone to form a strong, waterproof composite such as silnylon. |
431_16 | A silicone polymer can be suspended in water by using stabilizing surfactants. This allows water-based formulations to be used to deliver many ingredients that would otherwise require a stronger solvent, or be too viscous to use effectively. For example a waterborne formulation using a silane's reactivity and penetration ability into a mineral-based surface can be combined with water-beading properties from a siloxane to produce a more-useful surface protection product.
Cookware
As a low-taint, non-toxic material, silicone can be used where contact with food is required. Silicone is becoming an important product in the cookware industry, particularly bakeware and kitchen utensils.
Silicone is used as an insulator in heat-resistant potholders and similar items; however, it is more conductive of heat than similar less dense fiber-based products. Silicone oven mitts are able to withstand temperatures up to , making it possible to reach into boiling water. |
431_17 | Other products include molds for chocolate, ice, cookies, muffins, and various other foods; non-stick bakeware and reusable mats used on baking sheets; steamers, egg boilers or poachers; cookware lids, pot holders, trivets, and kitchen mats.
Defoaming
Silicones are used as active compounds in defoamers due to their low water solubility and good spreading properties.
Dry cleaning
Liquid silicone can be used as a dry cleaning solvent, providing an alternative to the traditional chlorine-containing perchloroethylene (perc) solvent. The use of silicones in dry cleaning reduces the environmental effect of a typically high-polluting industry.
Electronics |
431_18 | Electronic components are sometimes encased in silicone to increase stability against mechanical and electrical shock, radiation and vibration, a process called "potting". Silicones are used where durability and high performance are demanded of components under extreme environmental conditions, such as in space (satellite technology). They are selected over polyurethane or epoxy encapsulation when a wide operating temperature range is required (−65 to 315 °C). Silicones also have the advantage of little exothermic heat rise during cure, low toxicity, good electrical properties, and high purity.
Silicones are often a component of thermal pastes used to improve heat transfer from power-dissipating electronic components to heat sinks. |
431_19 | The use of silicones in electronics is not without problems, however. Silicones are relatively expensive and can be attacked by certain solvents. Silicone easily migrates as either a liquid or vapor onto other components. Silicone contamination of electrical switch contacts can lead to failures by causing an increase in contact resistance, often late in the life of the contact, well after any testing is completed. Use of silicone-based spray products in electronic devices during maintenance or repairs can cause later failures.
Firestops |
431_20 | Silicone foam has been used in North American buildings in an attempt to firestop openings within the fire-resistance-rated wall and floor assemblies to prevent the spread of flames and smoke from one room to another. When properly installed, silicone-foam firestops can be fabricated for building code compliance. Advantages include flexibility and high dielectric strength. Disadvantages include combustibility (hard to extinguish) and significant smoke development.
Silicone-foam firestops have been the subject of controversy and press attention due to smoke development from pyrolysis of combustible components within the foam, hydrogen gas escape, shrinkage, and cracking. These problems have led to reportable events among licensees (operators of nuclear power plants) of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC).
Silicone firestops are also used in aircraft.
Lubricants |
431_21 | Silicone greases are used for many purposes, such as bicycle chains, airsoft gun parts, and a wide range of other mechanisms. Typically, a dry-set lubricant is delivered with a solvent carrier to penetrate the mechanism. The solvent then evaporates, leaving a clear film that lubricates but does not attract dirt and grit as much as an oil-based or other traditional "wet" lubricant.
Silicone personal lubricants are also available for use in medical procedures or sexual activity.
Medicine and cosmetic surgery
Silicone is used in microfluidics, seals, gaskets, shrouds, and other applications requiring high biocompatibility. Additionally, the gel form is used in bandages and dressings, breast implants, testicle implants, pectoral implants, contact lenses, and a variety of other medical uses. |
431_22 | Scar treatment sheets are often made of medical grade silicone due to its durability and biocompatibility. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is often used for this purpose, since its specific crosslinking results in a flexible and soft silicone with high durability and tack. It has also been used as the hydrophobic block of amphiphilic synthetic block copolymers used to form the vesicle membrane of polymersomes.
Illicit cosmetic silicone injections may induce chronic and definitive silicone blood diffusion with dermatologic complications. |
431_23 | Ophthamology uses many products such as silicone oil used to replace the vitreous humor following vitrectomy, silicone intraocular lenses following cataract extraction, silicone tubes to keep a nasolacrimal passage open following dacryocystorhinostomy, canalicular stents for canalicular stenosis, punctual plugs for punctual occlusion in dry eyes, silicone rubber and bands as an external tamponade in tractional retinal detachment, and anteriorly-located break in rhegmatogenous retinal detachment.
Moldmaking
Two-part silicone systems are used as rubber molds to cast resins, foams, rubber, and low-temperature alloys. A silicone mold generally requires little or no mold-release or surface preparation, as most materials do not adhere to silicone. For experimental uses, ordinary one-part silicone can be used to make molds or to mold into shapes. If needed, common vegetable cooking oils or petroleum jelly can be used on mating surfaces as a mold-release agent. |
431_24 | Silicone cooking molds used as bakeware do not require coating with cooking oil; in addition, the flexibility of the rubber allows the baked food to be easily removed from the mold after cooking.
Personal care |
431_25 | Silicones are ingredients widely used in skincare, color cosmetic and hair care applications. Some silicones, notably the amine functionalized amodimethicones, are excellent hair conditioners, providing improved compatibility, feel, and softness, and lessening frizz. The phenyl dimethicones, in another silicone family, are used in reflection-enhancing and color-correcting hair products, where they increase shine and glossiness (and possibly impart subtle color changes). Phenyltrimethicones, unlike the conditioning amodimethicones, have refractive indices (typically 1.46) close to that of a human hair (1.54). However, if included in the same formulation, amodimethicone and phenyltrimethicone interact and dilute each other, making it difficult to achieve both high shine and excellent conditioning in the same product.
Silicone rubber is commonly used in baby bottle nipples (teats) for its cleanliness, aesthetic appearance, and low extractable content. |
431_26 | Silicones are used in shaving products and personal lubricants.
Toys and hobbies
Silly Putty and similar materials are composed of silicones dimethyl siloxane, polydimethylsiloxane, and decamethyl cyclopentasiloxane, with other ingredients. This substance is noted for its unusual characteristics, e.g., that it bounces, but breaks when given a sharp blow; it will also flow like a liquid and form a puddle given enough time.
Silicone "rubber bands" are a long-lasting popular replacement refill for real rubber bands in the 2013 fad "rubber band loom" toys at two to four times the price (in 2014). Silicone bands also come in bracelet sizes that can be custom embossed with a name or message. Large silicone bands are also sold as utility tie-downs. |
431_27 | Formerol is a silicone rubber (marketed as Sugru) used as an arts-and-crafts material, as its plasticity allows it to be molded by hand like modeling clay. It hardens at room temperature and it is adhesive to various substances including glass and aluminum.
Oogoo is a inexpensive silicone clay, which can be used as a substitute for Sugru.
In making aquariums, manufacturers now commonly use 100% silicone sealant to join glass plates. Glass joints made with silicone sealant can withstand great pressure, making obsolete the original aquarium construction method of angle-iron and putty. This same silicone is used to make hinges in aquarium lids or for minor repairs. However, not all commercial silicones are safe for aquarium manufacture, nor is silicone used for the manufacture of acrylic aquariums as silicones do not have long-term adhesion to plastics. |
431_28 | Production and marketing
The global demand for silicones approached US$12.5 billion in 2008, approximately 4% up from the previous year. It continues similar growth in the following years to reach $13.5 billion by 2010. The annual growth is expected to be boosted by broader applications, introduction of novel products and increasing awareness of using more environmentally friendly materials. |
431_29 | The leading global manufacturers of silicone base materials belong to three regional organizations: the European Silicone Center (CES) in Brussels, Belgium; the Environment Health and Safety Council (SEHSC) in Herndon, Virginia, US; and the Silicone Industry Association of Japan (SIAJ) in Tokyo, Japan. Dow Corning Silicones, Evonik Industries, Momentive Performance Materials, Milliken and Company (SiVance Specialty Silicones), Shin-Etsu Silicones, Wacker Chemie, Bluestar Silicones, JNC Corporation, Wacker Asahikasei Silicone, and Dow Corning Toray represent the collective membership of these organizations. A fourth organization, the Global Silicone Council (GSC) acts as an umbrella structure over the regional organizations. All four are non-profit, having no commercial role; their primary missions are to promote the safety of silicones from a health, safety, and environmental perspective. As the European chemical industry is preparing to implement the Registration, Evaluation, and |
431_30 | Authorisation of Chemicals (REACH) legislation, CES is leading the formation of a consortium of silicones, silanes, and siloxanes producers and importers to facilitate data and cost-sharing. |
431_31 | Safety and environmental considerations
Silicone compounds are pervasive in the environment. Particular silicone compounds, cyclic siloxanes D4 and D5, are air and water pollutants and have negative health effects on test animals. They are used in various personal care products. The European Chemicals Agency found that "D4 is a persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic (PBT) substance and D5 is a very persistent, very bioaccumulative (vPvB) substance". Other silicones biodegrade readily, a process that is accelerated by a variety of catalysts, including clays. Cyclic silicones have been shown to involve the occurrence of silanols during biodegradation in mammals. The resulting silanediols and silanetriols are capable of inhibiting hydrolytic enzymes such as thermolysin, acetycholinesterase, however, the doses required for inhibition are by orders of magnitude higher than the ones resulting from the accumulated exposure to consumer products containing cyclomethicone. |
431_32 | At around in an oxygen-containing atmosphere, PDMS releases traces of formaldehyde (but lesser amounts than other common materials such as polyethylene.) At this temperature, silicones were found to have lower formaldehyde generation than mineral oil and plastics (less than 3 to 48 µg CH2O/(g·hr) for a high consistency silicone rubber, versus around 400 µg CH2O/(g·hr) for plastics and mineral oil). By , copious amounts of formaldehyde have been found to be produced by all silicones (1,200 to 4,600 µg CH2O/(g·hr)).
See also
Injection molding of liquid silicone rubber
References
External links
Science of Silicone Polymers (Silicone Science On-line, Centre Européen des Silicones: CES)
Is Silicone Eco-friendly? (The Uptide)
Cosmetics chemicals
Thermosetting plastics
Adhesives
Impression material |
432_0 | The Abbey Pax Mariae (), more commonly referred to as Vadstena Abbey, situated on Lake Vättern in the Diocese of Linköping, Sweden, was the motherhouse of the Bridgettine Order. The abbey started on one of the farms donated to it by the king, but the town of Vadstena grew up around it. It was active from 1346 until 1595.
History
Foundation and duration
The abbey was founded in 1346 by Saint Bridget with the assistance of King Magnus IV of Sweden and his Queen Blanche, who made a will donating ten farms, including that of Vadstena in Dal Hundred, Östergötland, to the abbey founded by Bridget. |
432_1 | The daughter of Saint Bridget, Saint Catherine, on arriving there in 1374 with the relics of her mother, found only a few novices under a Religious Superior. They chose Catherine as their abbess. She died in 1381, and it was not until 1384 that the abbey was blessed by the Bishop of Linköping. The first recognized abbess was Ingegerd Knutsdotter, granddaughter of Saint Bridget. The canonization of Saint Bridget in 1391 and the translation of her remains to the Abbey Church in 1394 added greatly to the fame and riches of her community.
In 1400 Duke Eric of Pomerania was invested at Vadstena by his great-aunt, Queen Margaret, as King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. The grave of his wife, Queen Philippa, and that of Catherine, Queen Consort of King Carl II of Sweden, are located here. |
432_2 | Bridgetine literature consisted mostly of translations into Swedish of portions of the Bible or of the legends of the saints. Such writings as are extant have been published for the most part by the Svenska fornskriftsällskapet (Old Swedish Texts Society) of Stockholm. The manuscripts are held in the Royal Library, Stockholm (including two in Swedish in Birgitta's handwriting), and at the University Libraries of Uppsala (which also has contemplative manuscripts in English connected with the English mission), and Lund.
Of these authors, the best known belonging to Vadstena are perhaps Margareta Clausdotter (abbess 1473, died 1486), author of a work on the family of St. Bridget (printed in "Scriptores Rerum Svecicarum", III, I, 207-16), and Nicolaus Ragvaldi, monk and General Confessor of the abbey (1476–1514), who composed several works. |
432_3 | The abbey was a double monastery, with both a male section of 25 monks and a female section of 60 nuns. The monks were organised under the General Confessor and the nuns under a prioress, while the abbey as a whole was organised under an abbess, who was elected by both the monks and the nuns. |
432_4 | The abbey was greatly favored by the royal house and nobility and became the spiritual center of the country as well as the greatest landowner in Sweden. The abbey was known to manage a hospital and retirement home, which is recorded from 1401. Early on, Vadstena Abbey supported Beghards and Beguines, the latter often aristocratic women, who had a poor reputation among Church authorities. In 1412, the abbey was ordered to expel them, but this was not done until 1506. In 1436, the bailiff Jösse Eriksson sought asylum in the abbey, but was forced out and arrested all the same. In 1419, the abbey was subjected to an investigation wherein the abbess, as well as the nuns, were accused of having accepted personal gifts and having entertained male guests at unacceptable hours. |
432_5 | Vadstena Abbey also had international fame as the motherhouse of all the monasteries of the Bridgettine Order, such as Reval, Nådendal, Bergen and Danzig. It kept in contact with other monasteries, performed inspections of them and sent both nuns and monks to them when they were lacking in members. In 1406, for example, an English delegation headed by Henry FitzHugh, 3rd Baron FitzHugh arrived asking for members in order to establish a Bridgettine monastery in England, and in 1415 four nuns, three female novices, one monk and one priest left the abbey under great celebrations for the foundation of what became the famed Syon Abbey.
Post-reformation and dissolution |
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