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725_6 | Henry's machine-generated effects went on to be exhibited at various venues during the 1960s, the most major being Cybernetic Serendipity (1968) held at the Institute of Contemporary Arts (I.C.A) in London. This represented one of the most significant art and technology exhibitions of the decade (Goodman 1987). In this exhibition Drawing Machine 2 itself was included as an interactive exhibit. "Cybernetic Serendipity" then went on to tour the United States, where exhibition venues included the Corcoran Gallery in Washington and San Francisco's Palace of Fine Arts (O'Hanrahan 2005). |
725_7 | This second machine returned from its tour of the United States in 1972 in a complete state of disrepair (O'Hanrahan 2005). Such technical failures were not unusual in electric and motor-driven exhibition items (Rosenburg 1972). More recently, frequent mechanical and/or electronic computer breakdowns contributed to the decision to close Artworks, (The Lowry, Salford Quays, Manchester, U.K) in March 2003 after only three years in operation as a permanent, technology-based, interactive exhibition (O'Hanrahan 2005).
Inspiration: the bombsight computer
The main component of each Henry drawing machine was the bombsight computer. These mechanical analogue computers represented some of the most important technological advancements of World War II. However, by the 1960s they already represented "old" technology when compared to the more modern digital computers then available (O'Hanrahan 2005). |
725_8 | The mechanical analogue bombsight computer was employed in World War II bomber aircraft to determine the exact moment bombs were to be released to hit their target. The bombardier entered information on air and wind speed, wind direction, altitude, angle of drift and bomb weight into the computer which then calculated the bomb release point, using a complex arrangement of gyros, motors, gears linked to a separate telescope (Jacobs 1996). |
725_9 | It was in 1952 that Henry purchased his very first Sperry bombsight computer, in mint condition, from an army surplus warehouse in Shude Hill, Manchester. This purchase was inspired by Henry's lifelong passion for all things mechanical, which had been further fuelled by seven years serving as a technical clerk with the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers during World War II (O'Hanrahan 2005). Henry so marvelled at the mechanical inner workings of this bombsight computer in motion, that nine years later he decided to capture its "peerless parabolas" (as Henry termed its inner workings), on paper. He then modified the bombsight to create the first drawing machine of 1961. This first machine was "cannibalised" (Henry) to create a second one in the autumn of 1962. A third machine was constructed in 1967 (O'Hanrahan 2005). These machines created complex, abstract, asymmetrical, curvilinear images, which were either left untouched as completed drawings or embellished by the artist's |
725_10 | hand in response to the suggestive machine-generated effects. None of Henry's machines now remains in operational order (O'Hanrahan 2005). |
725_11 | The drawing machines
Each Henry drawing machine was based around an analogue bombsight computer in combination with other components which Henry happened to have acquired for his home-based workshop in Whalley Range, Manchester (O'Hanrahan 2005). Each machine took up to six weeks to construct and each drawing from between two hours to two days to complete. The drawing machines relied upon an external electric power source to operate either one or two servo motors which powered the synchronisation of suspended drawing implement(s) acting upon either a stationary or moving drawing table (O'Hanrahan 2005). With the first drawing machine Henry employed biros as the mark-making implement; however with the machines that followed he preferred to use Indian ink in technical tube pens, since these effects, in contrast to biro ink, do not risk fading upon prolonged exposure to sunlight (O'Hanrahan 2005). |
725_12 | How the drawing machines operated
Henry's drawing machines were quite unlike the conventional computers of the 1960s since they could not be pre-programmed nor store information (O'Hanrahan 2005). His machines relied instead, as did those of artist Jean Tinguely, upon a "mechanics of chance" (Pontus Hulten in Peiry 1997, p. 237). That is to say, they relied upon the chance relationship in the arrangement of each machine's mechanical components, the slightest alteration to which, (for example, a loosened screw), could dramatically impinge on the final result. In the words of Henry, he let each machine "do its own thing" in accordance with its sui generis mechanical features, with often surprising and unpredictable results. The imprecise way Henry's machines were both constructed and operated ensured that their effects could not be mass-produced and would be infinitely varied (O'Hanrahan 2005). |
725_13 | Such imprecise tools as Henry's machines, have been judged by some to enhance artistic creativity as opposed to modern computer imaging software which leaves no scope for artistic intuition (Smith 1997). Nor could Henry's machines have been accused of preventing the artist from exercising aesthetic choice. They were truly interactive, like modern computer graphic manipulation software. With a Henry drawing machine, the artist had general overall control and was free to exercise personal and artistic intuition at any given moment of his choosing during the drawing production process (O'Hanrahan, 2005). |
725_14 | Both these elements of chance and interaction were in contrast to most other computer artists or graphic designers of the period, for whom the first stage in producing a digital computer graphic was to conceive the end product. The next stage was one where, "mathematical formulae or geometric pattern manipulations (were) found to represent the desired lines. These were then programmed into a computer language, punched onto cards, and read into the computer" (Sumner 1968 p. 11).
Machine-generated effects |
725_15 | In 2001 Henry's machine-generated work was discussed in terms of the use made, since earliest times, of a range of tools for producing similar abstract, visual effects (O'Hanrahan 2001). Once Henry himself had beheld the visual effects produced by his first machine, he then strove to find possible precursors such as the organic forms described in natural form mathematics. (D'Arcy-Thompson 1917; Cook 1914). Henry also compared his machine-generated effects to those produced using earlier scientific and mathematical instruments such as: Suardi's Geometric Pen of 1750 (Adams 1813), Pendulum Harmonographs (Goold et al., 1909) and the Geometric Lathe as used in ornamental and bank-note engraving (Holtzapffel 1973 [1894]). |
725_16 | His inclusion in 1968 in "Cybernetic Serendipity" enabled him to further contrast his machine-generated effects with similar though less complex and varied ones produced using a variety of tools. These included effects displayed on a visual display screen using a cathode-ray oscilloscope (Ben F. Laposky in Cybernetic Serendipity 1968) and those produced using a mechanical plotter linked to either a digital (Lloyd Sumner in Cybernetic Serendipity 1968) or analogue computer (Maughan S. Mason in Cybernetic Serendipity 1968). However Henry's drawing machines, in contrast to other precision mark-making instruments like the lathe and mechanical plotter, relied heavily upon the element of chance both in their construction and function (O'Hanrahan 2005). This random characteristic ensured the unrepeatable quality of his machine-generated effects. |
725_17 | Fractal mathematics
Henry's introduction in 2001 to the aesthetic application of fractal mathematics (Briggs 1994[1992]) provided Henry with the necessary terms of reference for describing the chance-based operational aspects of his machines. Fractal mathematics could also help describe the aesthetic appreciation of his machine-generated effects or "mechanical fractals" (Henry 2002) as he came to term them (O'Hanrahan 2005).
Fractal systems are produced by a dynamic, non-linear system of interdependent and interacting elements; in Henry's case, this is represented by the mechanisms and motions of the drawing machine itself (O'Hanrahan 2005). In a fractal system, as in each Henry drawing machine, very small changes or adjustments to initial influences can have far-reaching effects. |
725_18 | Fractal images appeal to our intuitive aesthetic appreciation of order and chaos combined. Each Henry machine-produced drawing bears all the hallmarks of a fractal image since they embody regularity and repetition coupled with abrupt changes and discontinuities (Briggs 1994[1992]). In other words, they exhibit self-similarity (similar details on different scales) and simultaneous order and chaos. These images also resemble fractal "strange attractors", since groups of curves present in the machine-generated effects tend to form clusters creating suggestive patterns (Briggs 1994[1992]).
Fractal patterns, similar to Henry's machine-generated effects, have been found to exist when plotting volcanic tremors, weather systems, the ECG of heart beats and the electroencephalographic data of brain activity (Briggs 1994[1992]). |
725_19 | Henry found in fractals a means of both classifying his artistic activity and describing the aesthetic appreciation of his visual effects. Among the many artists who have previously employed what are now recognised as fractal images, are: "Vincent van Gogh's dense swirls of energy around objects; the recursive geometries of Maritus Escher; the drip-paint, tangled abstractions of Jackson Pollock" (Briggs 1994[1992] p. 166).
Art and technology |
725_20 | Some would argue that scientific and technological advances have always influenced art in terms of its inspiration, tools and visual effects. In the words of Douglas Davis: "Art can no more reject either technology or science than it can the world itself" (Davis 1973, introduction). In his writings Henry himself often expressed his lifelong enthusiasm for fruitful collaborations between art and technology (Henry: 1962, 1964, 1969, 1972). Indeed his first expression of such collaboration in 1962, preceded by five years the establishment of EAT (Experiments in Art and Technology, USA) in 1967. |
725_21 | During the First Machine Age, prior to World War II, enthusiasm for technological advances was expressed by the Machine Aesthetic which heralded the Modern Movement (Banham 1960). Affiliated art movements of this time which shared aspects of the Machine Aesthetic included: Purism in France, Futurism in Italy (both of which celebrated the glories of modern machines and the excitement of speed), Suprematism, Productivism in Russia, Constructivism, Precisionism in North America and kinetic sculpture (Meecham and Sheldon 2000). |
725_22 | By the 1960s, in the Second Machine Age, technology provided not only the inspiration for art production but above all its tools (Popper 1993), as reflected by the Art and Technology movement in the United States. Adherents to this movement employed only the very latest available computer equipment. In this early phase of computer art, programmers became artists and artists became programmers to experiment with the computer's creative possibilities (Darley, 1990). Since Henry worked in comparative artistic and scientific isolation, he did not have access to the latest technological innovations, in contrast to those working, for example, at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (O'Hanrahan 2005). |
725_23 | By the 1970s, the earlier enthusiasm for technology witnessed in the 60s gave way to the post-modern loss of faith in technology as its destructive effects, both in war and on the environment, became more apparent (Lucie-Smith 1980). Goodman (1987) suggests that it is since 1978 that a second generation of computer artists may be recognised; a generation which no longer needs to be electronically knowledgeable or adept because the "software does it for them" (Goodman 1987, p. 47). This is in contrast to Henry who had to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills to manipulate and modify the components of the bombsight computers in order to construct and operate the drawing machines (O'Hanrahan 2005). |
725_24 | During the 1980s, the application in computers of the microchip (developed by 1972) increased the affordability of a home computer and led to the development of interactive computer graphics programmes like Sketchpad and various Paintbox systems (Darley 1991). During this period, computer art gave way almost completely to computer graphics as the computer's imaging capabilities became exploited both industrially and commercially and moved into entertainment related spheres, e.g.: Pixar, Lucas Films. (Goodman 1987) The computer once again became, for some, an undisputed artistic tool in its own right (Goodman 1987). |
725_25 | This renewed enthusiasm in the computer's artistic possibilities has been further reflected by the emergence towards the end of the twentieth century of various forms of cyber, virtual, or digital art, examples of which include algorithmic art and fractal art. By the twenty-first century, digitally produced and/or manipulated images came to be exhibited in galleries as veritable works of art in their own right (O'Hanrahan 2005). |
725_26 | Legacy
Henry's drawing machines of the 1960s represent a remarkable innovation in the field of art and technology for a variety of reasons. Firstly, the bombsight analogue computer provided not only the inspiration but also the main tool for producing highly original visual effects (O'Hanrahan 2005). Secondly, his machines' reliance on a mechanics of chance, as opposed to pre-determined computer programmes, ensured the unrepeatable and unique quality of his infinitely varied machine-generated effects or "Machine Pollocks" as Henry called them. (O'Hanrahan 2005). Thirdly, the spontaneous, interactive potential of his drawing machines' modus operandi pre-empted by some twenty years this particular aspect of later computer graphic manipulation software (O'Hanrahan 2005). As a result, The drawing machines and their visual effects represent pioneering precursors to the Digital Art produced by today's computer software. |
725_27 | Finally, Henry was never artistically inspired by the graphic potential of the modern digital computer (O'Hanrahan 2005). He much preferred the direct interaction afforded by the clearly visible interconnecting mechanical components of the earlier analogue computer and as a consequence of his drawing machines also. This was in stark contrast to the invisible and indirect workings of the later digital computer: "the mechanical analogue computer, was a work of art in itself, involving a most beautiful arrangement of gears, belts, cams differentials and so on- it still retained in its working a visual attractiveness which has now vanished in the modern electronic counterpart; … I enjoyed seeing the machine work…". (Henry, 1972) |
725_28 | In view of these considerations, Henry's 1960's electro-mechanical drawing machines may be said to not only reflect the early experimental phase of Computer Art and computer graphics but to also provide an important artistic and technological link between two distinct ages of the twentieth century: the earlier Mechanical/Industrial Age and the later Electronic/Digital Age (O'Hanrahan 2005).
See also
Interactive art
L.S. Lowry
Fractal art |
725_29 | References
Adams, George (1813), Geometrical and Graphical Essays, W & S. Jones, London. (Courtesy of the Science Museum Library, London).
Banham, Reyner (1996 [1960]), Theory and Design in the First Machine Age, Architectural Press, Oxford.
Briggs, John (1994[1992]), Fractals: the Patterns of Chaos, Thames and Hudson, London.
Cambridge Encyclopaedia (1990), Crystal, D. (ed.), "Computer Art" by David Manning, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 289.
Cook, Theodore (1979[1914]), The Curves of Life: An account of spiral formations and their application to the growth in nature, science and art, Dover, New York.
Cybernetic Serendipity,[exh.cat] (1968). Reichardt, Jasia (ed.), Studio International, Special Issue, London.
Darley, Andy (1990), "From Abstraction to Simulation" in Philip Hayward (ed.)(1994[1990]) Culture, Technology and Creativity in the Late Twentieth Century, John Libbey & Company. London, pp. 39–64. |
725_30 | Darley, Andy (1991), 'Big Screen, Little Screen' in Ten-8:vol.2, no.2: Digital Dialogues, (ed. Bishton), pp. 80–84.
Davis, Douglas (1973) Art and The Future, Praeger, New York.
Franke, H.W (1971), Computer graphics, Computer Art, Phaedon, Oxford, p. 41.
Goodman, Cynthia (1987), Digital Visions: Computers and Art, Abrams, New York.
Goold, J., Benham, C.E., Kerr, R., Wilberforce, L.R., (1909), Harmonic Vibrations, Newton & Co., London.
Henry, D.P. (1962), A New Project for Art. Unpublished article submitted to Today 04/03/62.
Henry, D.P. (1964), "Art and Technology", in Bulletin of the Philosophy of Science Group, Newman Association, No. 53.
Henry, D.P (1969), "The End or the Beginning?" in Solem (Manchester Students' Union Magazine) pp. 25–27.
Henry, D.P (1972), Computer graphics: a case study. (lecture given to Aberdeen University art students).
Holtzapffel, John Jacob (1973[1894]), The Principles and Practice of Ornamental or Complex Turning, Dover, New York. |
725_31 | Jacobs, Peter (1996), The Lancaster Story, Silverdale Books, Leicester.
Levy, David (2006) Robots Unlimited-Life in a Virtual Age, A.K.Peters, Wellesley, USA, pp. 178–180.
Lucie-Smith, Edward (1980), Art in the Seventies, Phaedon, Oxford.
Meecham, Pam and Sheldon, Julie (2000), Modern Art: A Critical Introduction, Routledge, London.
O’Hanrahan, Elaine (2001)(interview) Intercultural Drawing Practice: the Art School Response In Jagjit Chuhan, (ed.) (2001), Responses: Intercultural Drawing Practice, Cornerhouse Publications, Manchester, pp.: 40–47.
O’Hanrahan, Elaine (2005), Drawing Machines: The machine produced drawings of Dr. D. P. Henry in relation to conceptual and technological developments in machine-generated art (UK 1960–1968). Unpublished MPhil. Thesis. John Moores University, Liverpool.
Peiry, Lucienne (1997), Art Brut- The Origins of Outsider Art, Flammarion, Paris.
Popper, Frank (1993), Art of the Electronic Age, Thames and Hudson, London. |
725_32 | Rosenberg, Harold (1972), The De-definition of Art, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Smith, Brian Reffin (1997), Post-modem Art, or: Virtual Reality as Trojan Donkey, or: horsetail tartan literature groin art in Stuart Mealing (ed.) (1997) Computers and Art, Intellect Books, Bristol, pp. 97–117.
Sumner, Lloyd (1968), Computer Art and Human Response, Paul B. Victorius, Charlottesville, Virginia.
Thompson, D'Arcy Wentworth (1961[1917]), On Growth and Form, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. |
725_33 | External links
Artist's Website http://www.desmondhenry.com/
Desmond Paul Henry: How World War II Changed One Man's Life for the Better
Works held by the Victoria and Albert Museum
1921 births
2004 deaths
British digital artists
Fractal artists
Analog computers
Academics of the Victoria University of Manchester
Mathematical artists
20th-century British philosophers |
726_0 | , also known as Rust-Eater Bisco, is a Japanese light novel series written by Shinji Cobkubo and illustrated by K Akagashi, with world-building art by mocha. ASCII Media Works have released eight volumes since March 2018 under their Dengeki Bunko label. The light novel is licensed in North America by Yen Press. A manga adaptation with art by Yūsuke Takahashi was serialized online between April 2019 and March 2021 via Square Enix's online manga magazine Manga UP!. It was collected in four tankōbon volumes. The second part of the manga with art by Sō Natsuki began serialization in the same magazine in December 2021 and has been collected in a single tankōbon volume. An anime television series adaptation by OZ premiered in January 2022. |
726_1 | Plot
Set in post-apocalyptic Japan, the land is ravaged by rust, a deadly plague-like wind which effects everything it touches, including humans. It is believed to originate from mushroom spores and so Bisco Akaboshi, a Mushroom Keeper and archer whose arrows instantly grow mushrooms wherever they land, is a wanted criminal. He and his giant crab Akutagawa team up with the young doctor Milo Nekoyanagi to search the wastelands for the legendary "Sabikui", a mushroom said to devour all forms of rust.
Characters
A Mushroom Keeper with the nickname of "Man-Eating Mushroom" who is regarded as a terrorist and has a price on his head. He commands the giant crab , which he regards as his brother, that is also used for transport. His primary weapon, common to all Mushroom Keepers, is a bow with arrows coated in a substance that causes a variety of giant mushrooms to instantly grow wherever the arrowheads pierce. |
726_2 | A young doctor with outstanding medical skills who runs the Panda Clinic. He has pale blue hair and is nicknamed "Panda" because of his pale skin and the dark spot over his left eye socket. To compensate for his amateur archery skills and lower physical prowess compared to Bisco, Milo modifies his arrows with various explosives and chemical agents.
Milo Nekoyanagi's older sister who is stricken with the Rust disease. She is Captain of the Imihama Watch, which defends society from "mushroom terrorists". Her weapon of choice is a heavy metal rod and, despite the advanced state of her affliction, she possesses incredible strength and agility.
An old Mushroom Keeper who is Bisco's mentor and father figure. He is stricken by a severe case of Rust disease, which has given him a month at best to live. |
726_3 | Chief of the Vigilantism and later Governor of Imihama Prefecture. He rules the region with a mafia-like iron fist, employing bunny-masked enforcers to carry out his will. His weapon of choice is a revolver that fires rusty bullets that infect targets with the Rust disease.
A young female mercenary with long plaited pink hair which prompts Bisco to nickname her "Jellyfish". She used to work as a mechanic on a Tetsujin project years ago, but fled when all of her co-workers succumbed to the Rust disease. She was initially employed by Kurokawa, but also has a side-job as a traveling merchant, selling various odds and ends such as weapon blueprints and snacks.
Media
Light novels |
726_4 | Manga
A manga adaptation with art by Yūsuke Takahashi was serialized online between April 10, 2019 and March 2, 2021 via Square Enix's online manga magazine Manga UP!. It was collected in four tankōbon volumes. The second part of the manga with art by Sō Natsuki began serialization in the same magazine on December 15, 2021 and has been collected in a single tankōbon volume. The first part is licensed digitally in North America by Comikey.
First part
Second part |
726_5 | Anime
During the "Kadokawa Light Novel Expo 2020" event on March 6, 2021, it was announced that the series will be receiving an anime television series adaptation by OZ. Atsushi Itagaki is directing the series, with Sadayuki Murai writing the series' scripts, Ai Asari and Ikariya designing the characters, and Takeshi Ueda and Hinako Tsubakiyama composing the series' music. It premiered on January 11, 2022 on Tokyo MX and other channels. The opening theme song is "Kaze no Oto Sae Kikoenai" (Even the Wind is Silent) by JUNNA, while the ending theme song is "Hōkō" (Howl) by Ryōta Suzuki and Natsuki Hanae as their respective characters. Funimation licensed the series outside of Asia. Muse Communication licensed the series in South and Southeast Asia; available to watch on iQiyi.
Episode list |
726_6 | Reception
In 2019, the light novel ranked first in the overall ranking and in the new work ranking in Takarajimasha's annual light novel guide book Kono Light Novel ga Sugoi!, in the bunkobon category, becoming the first series to do this. As of October 2021 the series has over 300,000 copies in circulation.
Notes
References
External links
2018 Japanese novels
2022 anime television series debuts
Adventure anime and manga
Anime and manga based on light novels
Dengeki Bunko
Funimation
Gangan Comics manga
Japanese webcomics
Kadokawa Dwango franchises
Light novels
Post-apocalyptic anime and manga
Post-apocalyptic novels
Shōnen manga
Square Enix manga
Webcomics in print
Yen Press titles |
727_0 | Tripiṭaka () or Tipiṭaka (), meaning "Triple Basket", is the traditional term for ancient collections of Buddhist sacred scriptures.
The Pāli Canon maintained by the Theravāda tradition in Southeast Asia, the Chinese Buddhist Canon maintained by the East Asian Buddhist tradition, and the Tibetan Buddhist Canon maintained by the Tibetan Buddhist tradition are some of the most important Tripiṭaka in contemporary Buddhist world.
Tripiṭaka has become a term used for many schools' collections, although their general divisions do not match a strict division into three piṭakas. |
727_1 | Etymology
Tripiṭaka (Sanskrit: त्रिपिटक), or Tipiṭaka (Pāli), means "Three Baskets". It is a compound Sanskrit word of tri (त्रि) or Pāli word ti, meaning "three", and piṭaka (पिटक) or piṭa (पिट), meaning "basket". The "three baskets" were originally the receptacles of the palm-leaf manuscripts on which were preserved the collections of texts of the Suttas, the Vinaya, and the Abhidhamma, the three divisions that constitute the Buddhist Canons. These terms are also spelled without diacritics as Tripiṭaka and Tipiṭaka in scholarly literature.
Textual categories
The Tripiṭaka is composed of three main categories of texts that collectively constitute the Buddhist canon: the Sutra Piṭaka, the Vinaya Piṭaka, and the Abhidhamma Piṭaka. |
727_2 | The Vinaya Piṭaka appears to have grown gradually as a commentary and justification of the monastic code (Prātimokṣa), which presupposes a transition from a community of wandering mendicants (the Sūtra Piṭaka period) to a more sedentary monastic community (the Vinaya Piṭaka period). The Vinaya focuses on the rules and regulations, or the morals and ethics, of monastic life that range from dress code and dietary rules to prohibitions of certain personal conducts.
Sutras were the doctrinal teachings in aphoristic or narrative format. The historical Buddha delivered all of his sermons in Magadhan. These sermons were rehearsed orally during the meeting of the First Buddhist council just after the Parinibbana of the Buddha. The teachings continued to be transmitted orally until eventually being written down in the first century BCE. Even within the Sūtra Piṭaka it is possible to detect older and later texts.
Earlier Tripitakas |
727_3 | Each of the early Buddhist Schools likely had their own versions of the Tripiṭaka. According to some sources, there were some Indian schools of Buddhism that had five or seven piṭakas. According to Yijing, an 8th-century Chinese pilgrim to India, the Nikaya Buddhist schools kept different sets of canonical texts with some intentional or unintentional dissimilarities. Yijing notes four main textual collections among the non-Mahayana schools:
The Mahāsāṃghika Tripiṭaka (amounting to 300,000 slokas)
The Sarvāstivāda Tripiṭaka (also 300,000 slokas)
The Sthavira Tripiṭaka (also 300,000 slokas)
The Saṃmitīya Tripiṭaka (in about 200,000 slokas) |
727_4 | Yijing notes that though there were numerous sub-schools and sects, the sub-sects shared the Tripiṭaka of their mother tradition (which he termed the "four principal schools of continuous tradition" or the "arya" traditions). However, this does not mean that the various sub-schools did not possess their own unique Tripiṭaka. Xuanzang is said to have brought to China the Tripiṭaka of seven different schools, including those of the above-mentioned schools as well as the Dharmaguptaka, Kāśyapīya, and Mahīśāsaka.
According to A. K. Warder, the Tibetan historian Bu-ston said that around or before the 1st century CE there were eighteen schools of Buddhism each with their own Tripiṭaka transcribed into written form. However, except for one version that has survived in full and others, of which parts have survived, all of these texts are lost to history or yet to be found. |
727_5 | Mahāsāṃghika
The Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya was translated by Buddhabhadra and Faxian in 416 CE, and is preserved in Chinese translation (Taishō Tripiṭaka 1425). |
727_6 | The 6th century CE Indian monk Paramārtha wrote that 200 years after the parinirvāṇa of the Buddha, much of the Mahāsāṃghika school moved north of Rājagṛha, and were divided over whether the Mahāyāna sūtras should be incorporated formally into their Tripiṭaka. According to this account, they split into three groups based upon the relative manner and degree to which they accepted the authority of these Mahāyāna texts. Paramārtha states that the Kukkuṭika sect did not accept the Mahāyāna sūtras as buddhavacana ("words of the Buddha"), while the Lokottaravāda sect and the Ekavyāvahārika sect did accept the Mahāyāna sūtras as buddhavacana. Also in the 6th century CE, Avalokitavrata writes of the Mahāsāṃghikas using a "Great Āgama Piṭaka," which is then associated with Mahāyāna sūtras such as the Prajñāparamitā and the Daśabhūmika Sūtra. |
727_7 | According to some sources, abhidharma was not accepted as canonical by the Mahāsāṃghika school. The Theravādin Dīpavaṃsa, for example, records that the Mahāsāṃghikas had no abhidharma. However, other sources indicate that there were such collections of abhidharma, and the Chinese pilgrims Faxian and Xuanzang both mention Mahāsāṃghika abhidharma. On the basis of textual evidence as well as inscriptions at Nāgārjunakoṇḍā, Joseph Walser concludes that at least some Mahāsāṃghika sects probably had an abhidharma collection, and that it likely contained five or six books. |
727_8 | Caitika
The Caitikas included a number of sub-sects including the Pūrvaśailas, Aparaśailas, Siddhārthikas, and Rājagirikas. In the 6th century CE, Avalokitavrata writes that Mahāyāna sūtras such as the Prajñāparamitā and others are chanted by the Aparaśailas and the Pūrvaśailas. Also in the 6th century CE, Bhāvaviveka speaks of the Siddhārthikas using a Vidyādhāra Piṭaka, and the Pūrvaśailas and Aparaśailas both using a Bodhisattva Piṭaka, implying collections of Mahāyāna texts within these Caitika schools. |
727_9 | Bahuśrutīya
The Bahuśrutīya school is said to have included a Bodhisattva Piṭaka in their canon. The , also called the , is an extant abhidharma from the Bahuśrutīya school. This abhidharma was translated into Chinese in sixteen fascicles (Taishō Tripiṭaka 1646). Its authorship is attributed to Harivarman, a third-century monk from central India. Paramārtha cites this Bahuśrutīya abhidharma as containing a combination of Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna doctrines, and Joseph Walser agrees that this assessment is correct.
Prajñaptivāda
The Prajñaptivādins held that the Buddha's teachings in the various piṭakas were nominal (Skt. prajñapti), conventional (Skt. ), and causal (Skt. hetuphala). Therefore, all teachings were viewed by the Prajñaptivādins as being of provisional importance, since they cannot contain the ultimate truth. It has been observed that this view of the Buddha's teachings is very close to the fully developed position of the Mahāyāna sūtras. |
727_10 | Sārvāstivāda
Scholars at present have "a nearly complete collection of sūtras from the Sarvāstivāda school" thanks to a recent discovery in Afghanistan of roughly two-thirds of Dīrgha Āgama in Sanskrit. The Madhyama Āgama (Taishō Tripiṭaka 26) was translated by Gautama Saṃghadeva, and is available in Chinese. The Saṃyukta Āgama (Taishō Tripiṭaka 99) was translated by Guṇabhadra, also available in Chinese translation. The Sarvāstivāda is therefore the only early school besides the Theravada for which we have a roughly complete Sūtra Piṭaka. The Sārvāstivāda Vinaya Piṭaka is also extant in Chinese translation, as are the seven books of the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma Piṭaka. There is also the encyclopedic Abhidharma Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra (Taishō Tripiṭaka 1545), which was held as canonical by the Vaibhāṣika Sarvāstivādins of northwest India. |
727_11 | Mūlasārvāstivāda
Portions of the Mūlasārvāstivāda Tripiṭaka survive in Tibetan translation and Nepalese manuscripts. The relationship of the Mūlasārvāstivāda school to Sarvāstivāda school is indeterminate; their vinayas certainly differed but it is not clear that their Sūtra Piṭaka did. The Gilgit manuscripts may contain Āgamas from the Mūlasārvāstivāda school in Sanskrit. The Mūlasārvāstivāda Vinaya Piṭaka survives in Tibetan translation and also in Chinese translation (Taishō Tripiṭaka 1442). The Gilgit manuscripts also contain vinaya texts from the Mūlasārvāstivāda school in Sanskrit.
Dharmaguptaka |
727_12 | A complete version of the Dīrgha Āgama (Taishō Tripiṭaka 1) of the Dharmaguptaka school was translated into Chinese by Buddhayaśas and Zhu Fonian (竺佛念) in the Later Qin dynasty, dated to 413 CE. It contains 30 sūtras in contrast to the 34 suttas of the Theravadin Dīgha Nikāya. A. K. Warder also associates the extant Ekottara Āgama (Taishō Tripiṭaka 125) with the Dharmaguptaka school, due to the number of rules for monastics, which corresponds to the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya. The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya is also extant in Chinese translation (Taishō Tripiṭaka 1428), and Buddhist monastics in East Asia adhere to the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya. |
727_13 | The Dharmaguptaka Tripiṭaka is said to have contained a total of five piṭakas. These included a Bodhisattva Piṭaka and a Mantra Piṭaka (Ch. 咒藏), also sometimes called a Dhāraṇī Piṭaka. According to the 5th-century Dharmaguptaka monk Buddhayaśas, the translator of the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya into Chinese, the Dharmaguptaka school had assimilated the Mahāyāna Tripiṭaka (Ch. 大乘三藏).
Mahīśāsaka
The Mahīśāsaka Vinaya is preserved in Chinese translation (Taishō Tripiṭaka 1421), translated by Buddhajīva and Zhu Daosheng in 424 CE.
Kāśyapīya
Small portions of the of the Kāśyapīya school survive in Chinese translation. An incomplete Chinese translation of the Saṃyukta Āgama of the Kāśyapīya school by an unknown translator circa the Three Qin (三秦) period (352-431 CE) survives.
Pali Canon
The Pāli Canon is the complete Tripiṭaka set maintained by the Theravāda tradition is written and preserved in Pali. |
727_14 | The dating of the Tripiṭaka is unclear. Max Müller states that the current structure and contents of the Pali Canon took shape in the 3rd century BCE after which it continued to be transmitted orally from generation to generation until finally being put into written form in the 1st century BCE (nearly 500 years after the lifetime of Buddha). The Theravada chronicle called the Dipavamsa states that during the reign of Valagamba of Anuradhapura (29–17 BCE) the monks who had previously remembered the Tipiṭaka and its commentary orally now wrote them down in books, because of the threat posed by famine and war. The Mahavamsa also refers briefly to the writing down of the canon and the commentaries at this time. According to Sri Lankan sources more than 1000 monks who had attained Arahantship were involved in the task. The place where the project was undertaken was in Aluvihare, Matale, Sri Lanka. The resulting texts were later partly translated into a number of East Asian languages such |
727_15 | as Chinese, Tibetan and Mongolian by ancient visiting scholars, which though extensive are incomplete. |
727_16 | Each Buddhist sub-tradition had its own Tripiṭaka for its monasteries, written by its sangha, each set consisting of 32 books, in three parts or baskets of teachings: (“Basket of Discipline”), (“Basket of Discourse”), and Abhidhamma Piṭaka (“Basket of Special [or Further] Doctrine”). The structure, the code of conduct and moral virtues in the Vinaya basket particularly, have similarities to some of the surviving Dharmasutra texts of Hinduism. Much of the surviving Tripiṭaka literature is in Pali, with some in Sanskrit as well as other local Asian languages. The Pali Canon does not contain the Mahayana Sutras and Tantras as Mahayana schools were not influential in Theravada tradition as in East Asia and Tibet. Hence, there is no major Mahayana (neither Hinayana or Pratyekabuddhayana) schools in Theravada tradition. The Tantric schools of Theravada tradition use Tantric texts independently, and not as the part of the Collection. |
727_17 | Some of the well known preserved Pali Canons are the Chattha Sangayana Tipitaka, Buddha Jayanthi Tripitaka, Thai Tipitaka, etc.
Chinese Buddhist Canon
The Chinese Buddhist Canon is the Tripiṭaka set maintained by the East Asian Buddhist tradition is written and preserved in Chinese. |
727_18 | Wu and Chia state that emerging evidence, though uncertain, suggests that the earliest written Buddhist Tripiṭaka texts may have arrived in China from India by the 1st century BCE. An organised collection of Buddhist texts began to emerge in the 6th century CE, based on the structure of early bibliographies of Buddhist texts. However, it was the 'Kaiyuan Era Catalogue' by Zhisheng in 730 that provided the lasting structure. Zhisheng introduced the basic six-fold division with sutra, vinaya, and abhidharma belonging to Mahāyāna, Pratyekabuddhayana and Sravakayana . It is likely that Zhisheng's catalogue proved decisive because it was used to reconstruct the Canon after the persecutions of 845 CE, however it was also considered a "perfect synthesis of the entire four-hundred-year development of a proper Chinese form of the Canon."
Some of the well known preserved Chinese Canons are the Taisho Tripitaka, Tripitaka Koreana, etc.
Tibetan Buddhist Canon |
727_19 | The Tibetan Buddhist canon is a collection of sacred texts recognized by various sects of Tibetan Buddhism. In addition to sutrayana texts, the Tibetan canon includes tantric texts. The Tibetan Canon underwent a final compilation in the 14th century by Buton Rinchen Drub.
The Tibetan Canon has its own scheme which divided texts into two broad categories:
Kangyur (Wylie: bka'-'gyur) or "Translated Words or Vacana", consists of works supposed to have been said by the Buddha himself. All texts presumably have a Sanskrit original, although in many cases the Tibetan text was translated from Chinese from Chinese Canon, Pali from Pali Canon or other languages.
Tengyur (Wylie: bstan-'gyur) or "Translated Treatises or Shastras", is the section to which were assigned commentaries, treatises and abhidharma works (both Mahayana and non-Mahayana). The Tengyur contains 3626 texts in 224 Volumes.
Some of the well known Tibetan Canons are the Dege, Jiang, Lhasa, etc. |
727_20 | As a title
The Chinese form of , "sānzàng" (三藏), was sometimes used as an honorary title for a Buddhist monk who has mastered the teachings of the Tripiṭaka. In Chinese culture, this is notable in the case of the Tang Dynasty monk Xuanzang, whose pilgrimage to India to study and bring Buddhist texts back to China was portrayed in the novel Journey to the West as "Tang Sanzang" (Tang Dynasty Tripiṭaka Master). Due to the popularity of the novel, the term "sānzàng" is often erroneously understood as a name of the monk Xuanzang. One such screen version of this is the popular 1979 Monkey (TV series).
The modern Indian scholar Rahul Sankrityayan is sometimes referred to as Tripiṭakacharya in reflection of his familiarity with the .
See also
Āgama (Buddhism)
Early Buddhist Texts
Buddhist texts
Pāli Canon
Tripiṭaka tablets at Kuthodaw Pagoda
Tripiṭaka Koreana
Zhaocheng Jin Tripiṭaka
Pali Text Society
Dhamma Society Fund
Xuanzang
Notes
Further reading |
727_21 | External links
Pali Canon:
Access to Insight has many suttas translated into English
Sutta Central Early Buddhist texts, translations, and parallels (Multiple Languages)
Tipiṭaka Network
List of Pali Canon Suttas translated into English (ongoing)
The Pali Tipiṭaka Project (texts in 7 Asian languages)
The Sri Lanka Tripiṭaka Project Pali Canons has a searchable database of the Pali texts
The Vietnamese Nikaaya (continuing, text in Vietnamese)
Search in English translations of the Tipiṭaka
New Guide to the Tipiṭaka has summaries of the entire Tipiṭaka in English
Tipiṭaka Online
Myanmar Version of Buddhist Canon (6th revision):
Buddhist Bible Myanmar Version (without original Pali text) |
727_22 | Chinese Buddhist Canon:
Buddhist Text Translation Society: Sutra Texts
BuddhaNet's eBook Library (English PDFs)
WWW Database of Chinese Buddhist texts (English index of some East Asian Tripiṭakas)
Tripiṭaka Titles and Translations in English
CBETA: Full Chinese language canon and extended canon (includes downloads)
Tibetan tradition:
Kangyur & Tengyur Projects (Tibetan texts)
Kangyur & Tengyur Translating Projects (Tibetan texts)
Tripiṭaka collections:
Extensive list of online Tripiṭakas
Theravada Buddhism Tipiṭaka
Sri Lankan version of Tipiṭaka:
Buddha Jayanthi Edition of Tipiṭaka in Sinhala (Sri Lankan version)
Tipiṭaka in Sinhala (Sri Lankan version) |
728_0 | Arthur Ollman (born March 6, 1947) is an American photographer, author, curator, professor emeritus (San Diego State University (2006—2019), and founding director of The Museum of Photographic Arts, San Diego. He served as MoPA director from 1983 to 2006, and as director of the School of Art, Design and Art History, SDSU, from 2006 to 2011. He was president of the board of directors for the Foundation for the Exhibition of Photography (2015—2019) and has authored and contributed to more than twenty-five books and catalogs. |
728_1 | Early life and education
Arthur Ollman was born in Milwaukee in 1947, the grandson of Jewish immigrants from Ukraine. He studied art history at the University of Wisconsin, Madison (1965—1969). After graduating with a BA, Ollman purchased fifty-three acres of forestland in Bucksport, Maine, and started a commune while pursuing an interest in photography. He left Maine in 1974 to attend San Francisco Art Institute, and in 1975, the MFA program at Lone Mountain College (now part of University of San Francisco). There he expanded on photographing at night with long exposures, switching from black and white to color.
Career
The first museum to purchase Ollman’s images was The Museum of Modern Art, in 1977. He went on to exhibit in one-person and group exhibitions at Whitney Museum of American Art, Centre Georges Pompidou, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, and Los Angeles County Museum of Art. His work is in many international museum collections. |
728_2 | Ollman was one of the founding members of the board of directors for San Francisco Camerawork and served as chairman of the board from 1979 to 1983. There he curated exhibitions of many well-known figures in contemporary photography. In 1976, he created The Photo History Video Project, producing oral historical video interviews with older Western photographers who had not yet been well researched. These included Laura Gilpin, Pirkle Jones and Ruth-Marion Baruch, Jack Welpott, Ruth Bernhard, Walter Chappell, and Edmund Teske.
In 1979, Ollman was introduced to Ansel Adams, and the following year Adams asked Ollman to teach at his Ansel Adams Yosemite Workshop. For the next three summers, Ollman taught alongside Adams and some of the most prominent photographers of the day, including Roy DeCarava, Olivia Parker, Marie Cosindas, David Kennerly, and Arnold Newman. |
728_3 | In 1983, Ansel Adams recommended Ollman for the position of founding director of The Museum of Photographic Arts slated for San Diego’s Balboa Park. Ollman was hired in November 1982, and the museum opened in May 1983. He served as director for twenty-three years, overseeing two capital expansion projects, development of a permanent collection numbering over 7,000 objects by 2006, and a research library of more than twenty-five thousand books and ephemera. |
728_4 | Ollman curated more than seventy-five exhibitions, many worldwide, including photographers of the time, such as Manuel Alvarez Bravo, Roy DeCarava, Arnold Newman, Harry Callahan, William Klein, Ruth Bernhard, Eikoh Hosoe, Graciela Iturbide, Flor Garduño, Robert Heinecken, Lee Friedlander, Garry Winogrand, James Nachtwey, Sebastiao Salgado, Susan Meiselas, Duane Michals, and Bill Brandt. He also organized exhibitions of historical figures, William Henry Fox Talbot, Samuel Bourne, Carleton Watkins, F. Holland Day, Edweard Muybridge, Alfred Stieglitz, Dorothea Lange, and Roman Vishniac.
Upon leaving the Museum of Photographic Arts in 2006, Ollman was hired as Director of the School of Art, Design, and Art History at San Diego State University, overseeing university policies, seven staff and 101 full and part-time faculty; 1,200 majors and nearly 10,000 students per year in art, design, and/or art history classes, and an MFA program with approximately 30 candidates per year. |
728_5 | Under his leadership and fundraising the university opened its San Diego State University Downtown Gallery. In 2011, Ollman left that position and reverted to full-time teaching. He taught both color and black and white studio classes, history of photography, and museum studies. In 2019, Ollman retired and was awarded professor emeritus status.
In 2014, Ollman joined the board of The Foundation for the Exhibition of Photography “FEP” based in Lausanne, Switzerland; Paris, France; and Minneapolis, USA. In 2016 he curated FEP’s retrospective exhibition of the Brazilian contemporary artist, Vik Muniz, which has been seen in six international venues. In 2018, he co-curated Hard Truths with David Furst of The New York Times, an exhibition of five of the finest photojournalists working for the Times, which has traveled to five venues in Europe. |
728_6 | Ollman has taught photography for The Fred Roberts Photography Workshops (2015-2019), in Bhutan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, India, Portugal, Mozambique, Mexico, Canada, and the U.S.
Personal life
Ollman has two children.
Awards
National Endowment for the Arts Grantee
California Arts Council
National Endowment for the Arts, Fellow |
728_7 | Publications
Samuel Bourne: Images of India, Friends of Photography, Carmel, CA, 1983
Situational Photographs, Catalogue Introduction, San Diego State University, 1984
Victor Landweber, exhibition catalogue introduction, Museum of Photographic Arts, San Diego, CA, 1985
Max Yavno: Poetry and Clarity, exhibition catalogue introduction, Museum of Photographic Arts, San Diego, CA, 1986
Rosalind Solomon: Earth Rites, exhibition catalogue introduction, Museum of Photographic Arts, San Diego, CA 1986
Arnold Newman: Five Decades, exhibition catalogue introduction, Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, San Diego, CA, 1986
William Klein: An American in Paris, exhibition catalog introduction, Museum of Photographic Arts, San Diego, CA, 1987
Parallels And Contrasts: Photographs from The Stephen White Collection; Chapter on Landscape and Architecture. Stephen White editions, 1988
Rosalind Solomon: Photographs 1976-1987, Etherton Gallery, Tuscon, AZ, catalogue introduction |
728_8 | Revalaciones: The Art of Manuel Alvarez Bravo, exhibition catalogue introduction, Museum of Photographic Arts, San Diego, CA, 1990
Other Visions/Other Realities: Mexican Photography Since 1930, Rice University Press, 1990
Arnold Newman: Five Decades, Japanese exhibition catalogue introduction, Pacific Press Service, Tokyo, Japan, 1992
Persona, exhibition catalogue, Museum of Photographic Arts, 1992
Fata Morgana USA: The American Way of Life/Photomontages by Josep Renau, exhibition catalogue introduction, Museum of Photographic Arts and Instituto Valenciana Arte Moderno, Valencia, Spain, 1992
Seduced By Life: The Art of Lou Stoumen, exhibition catalogue, introduction and essay, Museum of Photographic Arts, 1992
Retratos Y Sueños/Portraits And Dreams: Wendy Ewald’s Photographs by Mexican Children, introduction essay of exhibition catalogue, Poloroid Corporation and Curatorial Assistance, 1993
Portrait Of Nepal: Kevin Bubriski, introduction essay, Chronicle Books, 1993 |
728_9 | Horace Bristol, catalog essay, Centre de Photographie de Lectoure, France, 1995
Points Of Entry: A Nation of Strangers, Museum of Photographic Arts, 1995
Exhibiting Photography: Twenty Years at the Center for Creative Photography, Book essay, Center for Creative Photography, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, 1996
Kenro Izu, introductory essay, 1998
Fragments of Document and Memory: Catalog of the 3rd International Photo-Biennale, Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography, 2 essays, 1999
The Beauty Of Darkness; Photographs by Connie Imboden, 1999
The Model Wife, Bulfinch Press, 1999
100 al 2000: il Secolo della Fotoarte, Photology, Milano, essay, 2000
Phillip Scholz Ritterman: Navigating by Light, MoPA, 2001
Double Vision: Photographs From The Strauss Collection; Essay, University Art Museum, California State University, Long Beach, CA, 2001
Visions of Passage: Artists, Writers and the American Scene, 2002 introduction essay, Arena Press |
728_10 | First Photographs: William Henry Fox Talbot and the Birth of Photography, Museum of Photographic Arts, 2002
Subway: Bruce Davidson, introduction to the second edition, 2003, St. Ann’s Press
Recollections: Three Decades of Photographs; John Sexton, Forward to book, 2006, Ventana Editions, Carmel Valley, Ca.
Piezas Selectas: Fotografias de la Coleccion del IVAM, Essay for book, Coleccionado Fotografias O El Significado De Todo, 2006, Generalitat Valenciana, Valencia, Spain
Walking Through The World: Sandi Haber Fifield, Introduction to book, 2009, Edizioni Charta, Milano
Arnold Newman: Master Class, book essay, 2011, Thames and Hudson, London, New York
Dorothy Kerper-Munnely, Monograph, 2015, Introduction essay
Vik Muniz, book, 2016, Delmonico-Prestel, New York |
728_11 | References
1947 births
Living people
University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Letters and Science alumni
Photography curators
Museum directors
Portrait photographers
American portrait photographers
American art historians
Place of birth missing (living people)
San Diego State University faculty
American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent |
729_0 | Le Domaine Forget de Charlevoix is an international Music Festival as well as a music and dance Academy located in Saint-Irénée, Charlevoix, in Quebec, in Canada. This domain is a operated by a non-profit organization occupying a large set of land and buildings located in Saint-Irénée, near La Malbaie. Concerts take place in the Concert Hall. Since the concert hall opened in 1996, it has also hosted a variety program. |
729_1 | A meeting place for great musical traditions from all over the world, it welcomes more than 400 artists to its various activities each year. Its International Festival presents each summer more than seventy events including more than thirty concerts focused mainly on classical music, but also relating to jazz and dance, a dozen brunches-music and twenty activities free awareness. The International Academy, at the heart of Domaine Forget's activities, welcomes some 120 pedagogues and nearly 500 students each year to its professional development sessions. Affecting different families of instruments or disciplines, these sessions include: Brass, Composition, Piano, Wood, Chamber music, Vocals and vocal accompaniment, Guitar, Dance, Strings, Conducting, String ensemble and Choir, Variety programming is devoted to popular music, song, humor, theater, cinema and much more. |
729_2 | History
At the turn of the twentieth century, Domaine Forget was three separate estates owned by three eminent Canadians. Les Sablons was owned by Joseph Lavergne, a judge and colleague of Sir Wilfrid Laurier; Hauterive was the property of Adolphe-Basile Routhier, a judge and the lyricist of the French language version of O Canada. Gil'Mont, which forms the major part of the property, was the estate of Rodolphe Forget, a Member of Parliament and investor and entrepreneur in the Charlevoix region.
In 1945, Les Petites Franciscaines de Marie, a religious order, first purchased Gil'Mont as the school "Institut Familial" (Family Institute), and a year later bought the properties belonging to Judges Laverge and Routhier in order to protect the privacy of the educational institution. In 1977, the school was converted into what is now known as Le Domaine Forget, a non-profit corporation with a mission of promoting music and dance. |
729_3 | International Festival
The festival features dance, jazz, and, most prominently, classical music. Concerts run from June to September and feature well-known artists from all over the world.
The festival concerts take place almost exclusively in the Concert Hall, a 600-seat concert hall constructed in 1996 by Le Domaine Forget and known for its remarkable acoustics.
International Music and Dance Academy
The Academy plays host to a number of different masterclass sessions: Brass. Composition, Piano, Chamber Music, Voice & Vocal Accompaniment, Guitar, Dance, Strings, Conducting, String Ensemble and Choir. All occur at different times of the summer and fall and feature faculty from around Quebec, Canada, and the world. Domaine features the Paul-Lafleur Pavilion, a complex of double-occupancy rooms with 1 shared bathroom per 4 people and a recently renovated dormitory. At the end of each session, a public concert is offered featuring student performances. |
729_4 | Notable International Festival performers
Violinist Martin Beaver
Clarinetist Jonathan Cohler
Oboist Hansjörg Schellenberger
Pianist Oliver Jones
Pianist Gabriela Montero
Jazz Guitarist and Vocalist John Pizzarelli
Bassist François Rabbath
Hornist James Sommerville
Conductor Benjamin Zander
Violinist, Violist, and Conductor Pinchas Zukerman
National Youth Orchestra of Canada
Orchestre Symphonique de Québec
Youth Orchestra of the Americas |
729_5 | Notable International Music and Dance Academy teachers
Violist Atar Arad
Tubist Roger Bobo
Trombonist James Box
Clarinetist Jonathan Cohler
Clarinetist Larry Combs
Bassoonist Daniele Damiano
Oboist Elaine Douvas
Jazz Trumpeter Tiger Okoshi
Violist James Dunham
Bassist Paul Ellison
Cellist Matt Haimovitz
Flutist Jeffrey Khaner
Cellist Hans Jorgen Jensen
Trumpeter Jens Lindemann
Violinist Darren Lowe
Clarinetist Jean-François Normand
Flutist Emmanuel Pahud
Violinist Régis Pasquier
Bassist François Rabbath
Oboist Hansjörg Schellenberger
Hornist James Sommerville
Trombonist Peter Sullivan
Hornist Barry Tuckwell
Hornist Radovan Vlatkovic
Trumpeter James Watson
Hornist Gail Williams
Hornist Froydis Ree Wekre
Guitarist Fabio Zanon
References
External links
Official Website
See also
Saint-Irénée, a municipality
Classical music festivals in Canada
Festivals in Quebec
Music festivals in Quebec
Recurring events established in 1982 |
730_0 | Fairchild Air Force Base (AFB) is a United States Air Force base, located approximately southwest of Spokane, Washington.
The host unit at Fairchild is the 92nd Air Refueling Wing (92 ARW) assigned to the Air Mobility Command's Eighteenth Air Force. The 92 ARW is responsible for providing air refueling, as well as passenger and cargo airlift and aero-medical evacuation missions supporting U.S. and coalition conventional operations as well as U.S. Strategic Command strategic deterrence missions.
Fairchild AFB was established in 1942 as the Spokane Army Air Depot. and is named in honor of General Muir S. Fairchild a World War I aviator from the state, he was the Vice Chief of Staff of the Air Force at the time of his death.
As of 2018, the 92d Air Refueling Wing was commanded by Colonel Derek Salmi Its Command Chief Master Sergeant was Chief Master Sergeant Lee Mills.
History |
730_1 | Fairchild AFB is named in honor of General Muir S. Fairchild (1894–1950). Born in Bellingham, he graduated from Olympia High School and attended the University of Washington in Seattle. Fairchild received his wings and commission in 1918, and served as a pilot during World War I. He held various air staff positions during World War II and received his fourth star in 1948, and died on 17 March 1950 while serving as USAF Vice Chief of Staff.
Operational history
Since 1942, Fairchild Air Force Base/Station has been a key part of the United States' defense strategy—from World War II repair depot, to Strategic Air Command bomber wing during the Cold War, to Air Mobility Command air refueling wing during Operation IRAQI FREEDOM. Today, Fairchild's aircraft and personnel make up the backbone of the Air Force's tanker fleet on the west coast. |
730_2 | Fairchild's location, west of Spokane, resulted from a competition with the cities of Seattle and Everett in western Washington. The War Department chose Spokane for several reasons: better weather conditions for flying, the location from the coast, and the Cascade Range providing a natural barrier against possible Japanese attack.
As an added incentive to the War Department, many Spokane businesses and public-minded citizens donated money to purchase land for the base. At a cost of more than $125,000, these people bought and presented the title to the War Department in January 1942. That year, the government designated $14 million to purchase more land and begin construction of a new Spokane Army Air Depot.
Spokane Air Depot was served by a rail connection to the Great Northern Railway. |
730_3 | From 1942 until 1946, the base served as a repair depot for damaged aircraft returning from the Pacific Theater. The depot command at the base went through several name changes, at one point being designated the Spokane Air Technical Service Command. Effective at 2359L on 31 August 1947, the base was transferred to the Strategic Air Command (SAC) and assigned to the 15th Air Force (15 AF). Beginning in the summer of 1947, the 92nd and 98th Bomb Groups arrived. Both of the units flew the most advanced bomber of the day, the B-29 Superfortress. In January 1948, the base received the second of its three official names: Spokane Air Force Base. |
730_4 | With the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, both groups deployed to Japan and Guam. The 92d departed on 4 July 1950 and the 98th followed in August. After only a few months, General MacArthur released the 92nd to return to the states while the 98th remained in the Far East. The 98th was then reassigned to Nebraska. Upon its return to Fairchild, the 92nd was re-designated the 92d Bombardment Wing (Heavy). In November 1950, the base took its current name in memory of Air Force Vice Chief of Staff, General Muir S. Fairchild, a native of Bellingham. The general entered service as a sergeant with the Washington National Guard in June 1916 and was an aviator in World War I. He died at his quarters at Fort Myer while on duty in the Pentagon in March 1950. The formal dedication ceremony was held 20 July 1951, to coincide with the arrival of the wing's first B-36 Peacemaker. |
730_5 | B-52 Stratofortress and KC-135 Stratotanker
In 1956, the wing began a conversion that brought the first of 45 B-52 Stratofortress bomber on 26 March 1957 to Fairchild, followed by first of twenty KC-135 Stratotanker on 21 February 1958. In 1961, the 92d became the first "aerospace" wing in the nation with the acquisition of the Atlas-E intercontinental ballistic missile, operated by the 567th Strategic Missile Squadron. With the new role and the addition of missiles, the 92d Bomb Wing was re-designated the 92d Strategic Aerospace Wing. However, the designation remained longer than the missiles, as the Atlas missiles were soon obsolete and removed in 1965. |
730_6 | The weapons storage area (WSA) for the bombers was located south of the runway at Deep Creek Air Force Station, a separate installation constructed from 1950 to 1953 by the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) and operated by the Air Materiel Command. The facility was one of the thirteen original sites built for storage, maintenance, and operational readiness of the nuclear stockpile. Deep Creek became part of Fairchild AFB on 1 July 1962, with operations transferred to SAC.
On 15 March 1966, the 336th Combat Crew Training Group was established at Fairchild. In 1971, the group became a wing and assumed control over all Air Force survival schools. Later reduced to a group level command, the unit, now known as the 336th Training Group, continues this mission for the Air Education and Training Command (AETC). |
730_7 | To provide air defense of the base, U.S. Army Nike-Hercules surface-to-air missile sites were constructed during 1956/1957. Sites were located near Cheney (F-37) ; Deep Creek (F-87) ; Medical Lake (F-45) , and Spokane (F-07) . The Cheney site was active between 1957 – June 1960; Deep Creek Sep 1958 – March 1966; Medical Lake 1957 – March 1966 and the Spokane site between 1957 and June 1960.
On 16 October 1984, an unarmed B-52G (57-6479) from Fairchild crashed in northeast Arizona during a nighttime low-level training flight, with five survivors and two fatalities: the gunner and a colonel in the observer jump seat.
In 1985, Fairchild's fifteen B-52G aircraft were replaced with nineteen B-52H; a slightly newer version with more powerful turbofan engines. |
730_8 | Air refueling
As military operations in Vietnam escalated in the mid-1960s, the demand for air refueling increased. Fairchild tanker crews became actively involved in Operation YOUNG TIGER, refueling combat aircraft in Southeast Asia. The wing's B-52s were not far behind, deploying to Andersen AFB on Guam for Operation Arc Light and the bombing campaign against enemy strongholds in Vietnam.
On 10 September 1962, an inbound KC-135A from Ellsworth AFB in South Dakota with 44 aboard crashed into fog-shrouded Mount Kit Carson, just west of Mount Spokane. The incident occurred late in the morning and there were no survivors; it was attributed to a navigational error by the crew. Less than five years later, another crash occurred in the same general area. Returning from Hickam AFB in Hawaii on 19 January 1967, a Fairchild-based KC-135A crashed southeast of Mount Spokane shortly after sunset; all nine on board were killed. |
730_9 | In late 1974, the Air Force announced plans to convert the 141st Fighter Interceptor Group of the Washington Air National Guard, an F-101 Voodoo unit at Geiger Field, to an air refueling mission with KC-135 aircraft. The unit would then be renamed the 141st Air Refueling Wing (141 ARW) and move to Fairchild. Work began soon thereafter and by 1976 eight KC-135E aircraft transferred to the new 141 ARW. Today, the 141 ARW continues its air mobility mission, flying the KC-135R model. |
730_10 | On 23 January 1987, following the inactivation of the 47th Air Division at Fairchild, the 92nd Bombardment Wing was reassigned to the 57th Air Division at Minot AFB in North Dakota. Less than two months later on 13 March, a KC-135A crashed into a field adjacent to the 92nd Bomb Wing headquarters and the taxiway during a practice flight for a low-level in-flight refueling demonstration planned for later that month. Seven were killed in the crash, all USAF personnel, six aboard the aircraft, and a motorist on the ground.
Following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, a total of 560 base personnel deployed to Desert Shield and Desert Storm from August 1990 to March 1991. The 43d and 92d Air Refueling Squadrons flew a combined total of 4,004 hours, 721 sorties, and off-loaded a total of 22.5 million pounds of fuel to coalition aircraft. |
730_11 | On 1 September 1991, under Air Force reorganization, the 92d Bombardment Wing (Heavy) was re-designated the 92d Wing, emphasizing a dual bombing and refueling role.
With the inactivation of the Strategic Air Command (SAC) in June 1992, the B-52 portion of the wing became part of the newly established Air Combat Command (ACC) and was re-designated the 92d Bomb Wing. As SAC finished 46 years of service to the nation, Fairchild bomber and tanker crews took top honors at Proud Shield '92, SAC's final bombing/navigation competition. The wing won the Fairchild Trophy for best bomber/tanker team as well as the Saunders Trophy for the tanker unit attaining the most points on all competition missions. |
730_12 | 7 December 1993 marked the beginning of a significant change in the mission of Fairchild when the B-52s were transferred to another ACC base while the KC-135s, now assigned to the newly established Air Mobility Command (AMC) would remain. This was the first step in Fairchild's transition to an air refueling wing. The departure of B-52s continued throughout the spring of 1994, with most of the bombers gone by 25 May 1994.
Air refueling wing
On 1 July 1994, the 92d Bomb Wing was re-designated the 92d Air Refueling Wing (92 ARW), and Fairchild AFB was transferred from ACC to Air Mobility Command (AMC) in a ceremony marking the creation of the largest air refueling wing in the Air Force. Dubbed as the new "tanker hub of the Northwest," the wing was capable of maintaining an air bridge across the nation and the world in support of US and allied forces. |
730_13 | Since 1994, the 92 ARW has been involved in many contingency missions around the world. 92 ARW KC-135s have routinely supported special airlift missions in response to world events or international treaty compliance requirements.
In 1995 aircraft from Fairchild flew to Travis AFB, California in support of its first Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) mission, transporting Russian inspectors to sites in the Western U.S. The wing has flown START missions in the U.S. every year since. And in May 2000, the wing became the first active duty KC-135 unit to transport U.S. inspectors on a START mission into Ulan Ude, Russia.
Throughout much of the 1990s, the wing was actively involved in missions against Iraqi president Saddam Hussein. The wing also deployed aircraft and personnel in 1999 to support Operation Allied Force. |
730_14 | Following the destruction of the World Trade Center, the wing began providing around-the-clock air refueling of Combat Air Patrol fighter aircraft and initiated 24-hour ground alert operations in support of Operation Noble Eagle. The wing also began a series of extended Operation Enduring Freedom deployments for aircrews and maintainers as well as combat support and medical personnel.
Previous names
Established as Galena Field (popular designation), renamed Spokane Air Depot, 1 March 1942
Spokane Army Airfield, 9 July 1942
Spokane Air Force Base, 13 January 1948
Fairchild Air Force Base, 1 November 1950 |
730_15 | Major commands to which assigned
Air Service Command, 1 March 1942
AAF Materiel and Services, 17 July 1944
Redesignated: AAF Technical Service Command, 31 August 1944
Redesignated: Air Technical Service Command, 1 July 1945
Redesignated: Air Materiel Command, 9 March 1946
Strategic Air Command, 1 September 1947
Air Combat Command, 1 June 1992
Air Mobility Command, 1 July 1994 – present
Base operating units
15th Station Complement, 15 August 1942
498th Base HQ and Air Base Sq, 1 February 1943
4134th AAF Base Unit, 1 April 1944
203d AAF Base Unit, 1 September 1947
92d Airdrome Gp, 17 November 1947 (rdsgd 92d Air Base Gp, 12 July 1948)
814th Air Base Gp, 8 August 1952
92d Air Base Gp, 4 September 1957 (rdsgd several times since)-Present
Major units assigned |
730_16 | 2d Air Service Area Command, 1 July 1941 – 9 September 1942
41st Air Base HQ & Air Base Group, 22 April 1941 – 31 March 1944
15th Station Complement Air Depot, 21 June 1942 – 4 February 1943
Spokane Air Depot, 1 March 1942 – 1 September 1953
85th AAF Base Unit, 7 August 1944 – 20 October 1946
98th Bombardment Wing, 24 October 1947 – 15 August 1953
92d Bombardment (later Air Refueling) Wing, 17 November 1947 – present
90th Bombardment Wing, 2 January – 13 March 1951
111th Strategic Reconnaissance Group, 10 April 1951 – 1 January 1953
99th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing, 1 January 1953 – 1 September 1956 |
730_17 | 567th Strategic Missile Squadron (ICBM-Atlas), 1 April 1960 – 25 June 1965
3636th Combat Crew Training Wing, 2 April 1966 – 1 January 1993
Redesignated: 336th Air Refueling Wing, 1–29 January 1993
Redesignated: 336th Crew Training Group, 29 January 1993 – 1 April 1994
Resesignated: 336th Training Group (USAF Survival School), 1 April 1994 – present
47th Air Division, 30 June 1971 – 27 February 1987
Major aircraft and missiles assigned
B-29 Superfortress, 1947–1952
B-36 Peacemaker, 1951–1957
B-52 Stratofortress, 1957–1994
KC-135 Stratotanker, 1958–present
SM-65E Atlas 1961–1965
UH-1N Twin Huey, 1971–present
Intercontinental ballistic missile facilities |
730_18 | The 567th Strategic Missile Squadron operated nine SM-65E Atlas ICBM sites (1 April 1960 – 25 June 1965).
567–1, 3.4 mi ENE of Deer Park, WA
567–2, 3.1 mi SE of Newman Lake, WA
567–3, 5.3 mi ESE of Rockford, WA
567–4, 4.0 mi NE of Sprague, WA
567–5, 0.7 mi NW of Lamona, WA
567–6, 6.5 mi S of Davenport, WA
567–7, 4.4 mi E of Wilbur, WA
567–8, 6.2 mi SW of Deer Meadows, WA
567–9, 8.9 mi NNE of Reardan, WA |
730_19 | On 14 July 1958, the Army Corps of Engineers Northern Pacific Division directed its Seattle District to begin survey and mapping operations for the first Atlas-E site to be located in the vicinity of Spokane. Originally, the Air Force wanted three sites with three missiles at each (3 x 3); however, in early 1959, the Air Force opted to disperse the missiles to nine individual sites as a defensive safety measure. Work started at Site A on 12 May 1959, and completion at Site I occurred on 10 February 1961. Auxiliary support facilities for each site were built concurrent with the launchers. Support facilities at Fairchild AFB, including a liquid oxygen plant, were completed by January 1961. |
730_20 | Activation of the 567th Strategic Missile Squadron on 1 April 1960, marked the first time SAC activated an E series Atlas unit. On 3 December 1960, the first Atlas E missile arrived at the 567th SMS. Construction continued and SAC accepted the first Series E Atlas complex on 29 July 1961. Operational readiness training, which previously had been conducted only at Vandenberg AFB, California, began at Fairchild during the following month. On 28 September 1961, Headquarters SAC declared the squadron operational and during the following month, the 567th placed the first Atlas E missile on alert status. The bulk of the Fairchild force was on alert status in November. |
730_21 | As a result of Defense Secretary Robert McNamara's May 1964 directive accelerating the phaseout of Atlas and Titan I ICBMs, the first Atlas missiles came off line at Fairchild in January 1965. On 31 March, the last missile came off alert status, which marked the completion of Atlas phaseout. The squadron was inactivated within three months.
Today all of the former missile sites still exist and most appear to be in good condition. Most of them are in agricultural areas and presumably are being used to support farmers by storage of equipment and other material. Site "1" and "2" appear to be redeveloped into light industrial estates; "4" and "6" appear to be converted into private residences.
Incidents
1994 shooting
On 20 June 1994, Dean Mellberg, an ex-Air Force member, entered the base hospital and shot and killed four people and wounded 22 others. |
730_22 | Previously, psychologists Major Thomas Brigham and Captain Alan London at Fairchild AFB had found him unfit for duty, which resulted in a transfer to the Wilford Hall Medical Center at Lackland AFB for further psychological examination. With Congressional pressure brought by Mellberg's mother, Airman Mellberg was found to be fit for military service. Airman Mellberg then was reassigned to Cannon Air Force Base where similar events led to him being returned to psychologists for evaluation. After this evaluation, he was discharged from Cannon AFB as being unfit for military service; he had been diagnosed with mild autism, generalized anxiety disorder and paranoid personality disorder. He traveled to Spokane, Washington, near Fairchild AFB, where he purchased a rifle and planned his attack on the base.At the time of the shooting, Fairchild's hospital was an ungated facility. The gunman, armed with a Chinese-made MAK-90, an AK-47 clone, entered the office of Brigham and London and killed |
730_23 | both men. Mellberg continued to move through the hospital, injuring several people, and killing eight-year-old Christin McCarron. The gunman then walked out of the building into the parking lot and killed Anita Lindner. He then was confronted by a security policeman, Senior Airman Andy Brown. From approximately 70 yards away, Brown ordered Mellberg to drop his weapon. After Mellberg refused, Brown fired four shots from his 9mm pistol, with two rounds hitting the perpetrator in the head and shoulder, killing him. After an investigation it was concluded that Airman Brown was justified in his actions, probably having saved lives, and he was awarded the Airman's Medal by President Bill Clinton. In 2016, Brown published Warnings Unheeded: Twin Tragedies at Fairchild Air Force Base. The book reveals the pre-incident indicators of the shooting and the fatal crash of a B-52 bomber that occurred four days afterward. |
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