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733_25 | Studies have shown that transformational leadership styles are associated with positive outcomes in relation to other leadership styles. It is suggested that transformational leadership augments transactional in predicating effects on follower satisfaction and performance. According to studies performed by Lowe, Kroeck, and Sivasubramaniam, productivity (or Idealized Influence) was found to be a variable that was most strongly related to leader effectiveness among MLQ scales. Other studies show that transformational leadership is positively associated with employee outcomes including commitment, role clarity, and well-being. However, the effectiveness of transformational leadership varies by the situational contexts. For example, it can be more effective when applied to smaller, privately held firms than complex organizations based on its outreach effect with members of the organization. However, it can be concluded that transformational leadership has a positive effect on |
733_26 | organizational effectiveness. This is because transformational leaders can encourage and facilitate change in their subordinates and encourage their development and creativity. |
733_27 | Transformational leadership focuses on discrepancy creation. Transformational leaders motivate employees to go above and beyond to surpass prior goal levels.
Transactional leadership
In contrast to transformational leadership, transactional leadership styles focus on the use of rewards and punishments in order to achieve compliance from followers. According to Burns, the transforming approach creates significant change
in the life of people and organizations. It redesigns perceptions and values, and changes expectations and aspirations
of employees. Unlike in the transactional approach, it is not based on a "give and take" relationship, but on the leader's personality, traits and ability to make a change through example, articulation of an energizing vision and
challenging goals. |
733_28 | Transformational leaders look towards changing the future to inspire followers and accomplish goals, whereas transactional leaders seek to maintain the status quo, not aiming for progress. Transactional leaders frequently get results from employees by using authority, while transformational leaders have a true vision for their company, are able to inspire people, and are entirely committed to their work. In summary, transformational leaders focus on vision, use charisma and enthusiasm for motivation, and are proactive in nature. On the other hand, transactional leaders focus on goals, use rewards and punishments for motivation, and are reactive in nature. |
733_29 | The MLQ does test for some transactional leadership elements – Contingent Reward and Management-by-Exception – and the results for these elements are often compared to those for the transformational elements tested by the MLQ. Studies have shown transformational leadership practices lead to higher satisfaction with leader among followers and greater leader effectiveness, while one transactional practice (contingent reward) lead to higher follower job satisfaction and leader job performance.
Laissez-faire leadership
In a laissez-faire leadership style, a person may be given a leadership position without providing leadership, which leaves followers to fend for themselves. This leads to subordinates having a free hand in deciding policies and methods. |
733_30 | Studies have shown that while transformational leadership styles are associated with positive outcomes, laissez-faire leadership is associated with negative outcomes, especially in terms of follower satisfaction with leader and leader effectiveness. Also, other studies comparing the leadership styles of men and women have shown that female leaders tend to be more transformational with their leadership styles, whereas laissez-faire leadership is more prevalent in male leaders. |
733_31 | Comparison of Styles among Public and Private Companies
Lowe, Kroeck, and Sivasubramaniam (1996) conducted a meta-analysis combining data from studies in both the private and public sector. The results indicated a hierarchy of leadership styles and related subcomponents. Transformational Leadership characteristics were the most effective; in the following order of effectiveness from most to least: productive-inspiration, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration. Transactional Leadership was the next most effective; in the following order of effectiveness from most to least: contingent reward and managing-by-exception. Laissez Faire leadership does not intentionally intervene, and as such, is not measured, and has no effectiveness score.
Table 2.3
Correlations With Effectiveness in Public and Private Organizations
Results of a meta-analysis of effectiveness of as adapted by Bass (2006) in Transformational Leadership. |
733_32 | Factors affecting use
Phipps suggests that the individual personality of a leader heavily affects their leadership style, specifically with regard to the following components of the Five-factor model of personality: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion/introversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism/emotional stability (OCEAN). |
733_33 | Phipps also proposed that all the Big Five dimensions would be positively related to transformational leadership. Openness to experience allows the leader to be more accepting of novel ideas and thus more likely to stimulate the follower intellectually. Conscientious leaders are achievement oriented and thus more likely to motivate their followers to achieve organizational goals. Extraverted and agreeable individuals are more outgoing and pleasant, respectively, and more likely to have successful interpersonal relationships. Thus, they are more likely to influence their followers and to be considerate towards them. Emotionally stable leaders would be better able to influence their followers because their stability would enable them to be better role models to followers and to thoroughly engage them in the goal fulfillment process. |
733_34 | A specific example of cultural background affecting the effectiveness of transformational leadership would be Indian culture, where a nurturant-task style of leadership has been shown to be an effective leadership style. Singh and Bhandarker (1990) demonstrated that effective transformational leaders in India are likes heads of Indian families taking personal interest in the welfare of their followers. Leaders in Indian organizations are therefore more likely to exhibit transformational behaviors if their followers are more self-effacing in approaching the leaders. It is also hypothesized in general that subordinates’ being socialized to be less assertive, self-confident, and independent would enhance superiors’ exhibition of transformational leadership. |
733_35 | Follower characteristics, combined with their perceptions of the leader and their own situation, did appear to moderate the connection between transformational leadership and subordinates’ willingness to take charge and be good organizational citizens. For instance, if subordinates in a work group perceive their leader to be prototypical of them, then transformational leadership would have less of an impact on their willingness to engage in organizational citizenship behaviors. Likewise, if subordinates are goal oriented and possess a traditional view of the organizational hierarchy, they tend to be less affected by transformational leadership. Self-motivated employees are less likely to need transformational leaders to prod them into action, while “traditionalists” tend to see positive organizational citizenship as something expected given their roles as followers—not something they need to be “inspired” to do. |
733_36 | Evidence suggests that the above sets of factors act, in essence, as both inhibitors of and substitutes for transformational leadership. As inhibitors, the presence of any of these factors—either independently or especially collectively—could make the presence of a transformational leader “redundant” since followers’ positive behavior would instead be sparked by their own motivations or perceptions. On the other hand, when these factors are not present (e.g., employees in a work group do not see their leader as “one of us”), then transformational leadership is likely to have a much greater impact on subordinates. In essence, when such “favorable conditions” are not present, managers—and the organizations they work for—should see a better return on investment from transformational leadership. |
733_37 | It was shown that leader continuity enhanced the effect of transformational leadership on role clarity and commitment, indicating that it takes time before transformational leaders actually have an effect on employees. Furthermore, co-worker support enhanced the effect on commitment, reflecting the role of followers in the transformational leadership process. However, there are also factors that would serve to balance the exhibition of transformational leadership, including the organizational structure, ongoing change, the leaders’ working conditions, and the leaders' elevated commitment of organizational value.
Outcomes
Bernard Bass in Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations states some leaders are only able to extract competent effort from their employees, while others inspire extraordinary effort. Transformational leadership is the key (Bass, 1985). |
733_38 | Implementing transformational leadership has many positive outcomes not only in the workplace but in other situations as well. Evidence shows that each of the previously talked about four components of transformational leadership are significantly associated with positive emotions and outcomes in the workplace as well as in team projects performed online. One recent study indicates that these four components are significantly associated with higher job satisfaction and the effectiveness of the employees. Both intellectual stimulation and inspirational motivation are associated with a higher degree of positive emotions such as enthusiasm, happiness, and a sense of pride in the follower's life and work. |
733_39 | Companies seem to be transforming everywhere; growth and culture change are a focus within their core strategies. It is not necessarily about cost structure, but about finding new ways to grow. Models need to be produced to help leaders create the future. Kent Thirty, CEO of DaVita, chose the name DaVita, Italian for “giving life,” and settled on a list of core values that included
service excellence, teamwork, accountability, and fun. A transformational leader inspires and follows the employee's self-interests, while a transactional leader manages and reinforces generally without employee consideration. Aligning the organization into transformational leaders by committing, being involved, and developing with the employees will lead to higher job satisfaction and motivation. |
733_40 | When transformational leadership was used in a nursing environment, researchers found that it led to an increase in organizational commitment. A separate study examined that way that transformational leadership and transactional leadership compare when implemented into an online class. The results of this study indicate that transformational leadership increases cognitive effort while transactional leadership decreases it.
Examples |
733_41 | Nelson Mandela |
733_42 | Nelson Mandela used transformational leadership principles while working to abolish apartheid and enforce change in South Africa. In 1995, he visited Betsie Verwoerd, the widow of the architect of apartheid Hendrik Verwoerd, at her home in Orania. Orania was an Afrikaner homeland and a striking anachronistic symbol of racial separation, and Mandela's recurring emphasis on forgiveness contributed toward the healing the prejudices of South Africa and as vast influence as a leader. In 2000, he was quoted as saying, "For all people who have found themselves in the position of being in jail and trying to transform society, forgiveness is natural because you have no time to be retaliative." This illustrates a common approach in the narratives of transformational leadership, of describing a collective or corporate effort in individualised terms, and pointing to the responsibility or opportunity for individuals to commit to making the effort a success. Such an approach is seen in community |
733_43 | organising. |
733_44 | He also set an example for others to follow in terms of sacrifice and philanthropy. Schoemaker describes one such instance:
Future
The evolution of transformational leadership in the digital age is tied to the development of organizational leadership in an academic setting. As organizations move from position-based responsibilities to task-based responsibilities, transformational leadership is redefined to continue to develop individual commitment to organizational goals by aligning these goals with the interests of their leadership community. The academic community is a front-runner in this sense of redefining transformational leadership to suit these changes in job definition. |
733_45 | The future of transformational leadership is also related to political globalization and a more homogenous spectrum of economic systems under which organizations find themselves operating. Cultural and geographical dimensions of transformational leadership become blurred as globalization renders ethnically specific collectivist and individualistic effects of organizational behavior obsolete in a more diversified workplace.
The concept of transformational leadership needs further clarification, especially when a leader is labelled as a transformational or transactional leader. While discussing Jinnah's leadership style, Yousaf (2015) argued that it is not the number of followers, but the nature of the change that indicates whether a leader is transformational or transactional.
References
Leadership |
734_0 | The Saint-Mathieu dome is a dome-like upwarp in the metamorphic basement of the northwestern French Massif Central. It exposes a very deep and normally hidden parautochthonous unit at the surface.
Geography and geology |
734_1 | The Saint-Mathieu dome, named after the small town Saint-Mathieu in the Haute-Vienne department, is situated at the very northwestern edge of the Massif Central. To the southwest the dome structure is bordered by sediments of the Aquitaine Basin, the contact usually being marked by a border fault. On its eastern side the upwarp is overthrust by augengneisses (A) of the Lower Gneiss Unit (LGU), which between Saint-Jean-de-Côle in the South and the hamlet of Peyrassoulat (commune of Chéronnac) in the North override the Parautochthonous Micaschist Unit (PMU). The dome is bounded to the North by paragneisses of the Lower Gneiss Unit. The northwestern corner of the basement high is cut off by the Le Lindois Fault separating the dome's interior from the Mazerolles Unit in the Northwest and from Lias to the Southwest.
The dome measures about 35 kilometers in its maximal meridional extension and about 25 kilometers in an East-West direction. |
734_2 | Within the dome the following geological units can be discerned:
Parautochthonous Micaschist Unit (PMU), bounded to the West by the intrusive Saint-Mathieu Leucogranite (SML) and to the North by the Chéronnac Leucogranite.
Paragneisses (P), intruded by the Piégut-Pluviers Granodiorite (PPG).
On its western side the upwarp is traversed by a North-South-striking fault zone, which separates the Piégut-Pluviers granodiorite from the paragneisses. This fault zone starts at Lacrète (commune of Étouars) in the South and terminates just south of Massignac in the North.
Formation |
734_3 | The interior of the dome structure is dominated by magmatic intrusive rocks, especially east of the North-South trending fault zone. These rocks occupy about 80% of the dome's surface area. It is therefore very likely that the basement upwarp was caused by a ballooning of the neovariscan intrusives. A direct tectonical cause of the structure caused by horsing thrust units during mediovariscan tectogenesis (continental collision 400 to 360 million years BP in the Limousin can be ruled out as the Saint-Mathieu leucogranite intruded well above the thrust plane and also sent many small apophyses into the augengneisses. |
734_4 | Age
The neovariscan intrusives within the dome were emplaced during the Pennsylvanian, the Piégut-Pluviers granodiorite is dated for instance at 315 to 314 million years BP. The Saint-Mathieu leucogranite is younger, its coarse-grained facies was dated at 304 million years. This terminal Carboniferous age is most probably also the date for the final arching of the upwarp.
Regional overview |
734_5 | The Saint-Mathieu dome is situated to the west of a large synform in the variscan nappe stack, the Saint-Germain-les-Belles Synform. South of Limoges this medium to high grade nappe stack consists of the Parautochthonous Micaschist Unit at the bottom, tectonically overlain by the Lower Gneiss Unit and the Upper Gneiss Unit (UGU) resting on top. The Upper Gneiss Unit is itself overthrust by the less metamorphic Thiviers-Payzac Unit (TPU) from the south. The Mazerolles Unit (MU), also of lower metamorphic grade and lithologically comparable to the TPU, overrides the paragneisses of the Lower Gneiss Unit from the southwest. The Saint-Mathieu dome has upturned the nappe pile at its eastern edge so that the normally hidden Parautochthonous Micaschist Unit now appears at the surface. |
734_6 | Similar structural relationships can be seen in the Millesvaches Massif east of the central synform. The Millesvaches Massif is also oriented North-South and consists like the Saint-Mathieu dome largely of intrusive rocks rimmed by micaschists of the PMU. With 160 kilometers it has a much larger meridional extension though. The 35 kilometers for the Saint-Mathieu dome most likely are only a minimal value as a possible extension of the dome underneath the sediments of the Aquitaine Basin has not been verified yet. |
734_7 | Literature
Briand, Bernard et al. Feuille Châlus. Carte géologique de la France à 1/50 000. BRGM, Orléans
Chèvremont, P. et al. Feuille Rochechouart. Carte géologique de la France à 1/50 000. BRGM, Orléans
Floc'h, J.-P. et al. Feuille La Rochefoucauld. Carte géologique de la France à 1/50 000. BRGM, Orléans
Floc’h, J.-P. et al. Feuille Montbron. Carte géologique de la France à 1/50 000. BRGM, Orléans
Floc’h, J.-P. et al. Feuille Nontron. Carte géologique de la France à 1/50 000. BRGM, Orléans
Guillot, P.-L. et al. Feuille Thiviers. Carte géologique de la France à 1/50 000. BRGM, Orléans
Geology of France
Geography of Haute-Vienne |
735_0 | "Walk of Punishment" is the third episode of the third season of HBO's fantasy television series Game of Thrones, and the 23rd episode of the series. Written by David Benioff and D. B. Weiss, and directed by Benioff, it aired on April 14, 2013.
The title of the episode alludes to a place called "The Walk of Punishment" in the series, a road where slaves are crucified and displayed as examples to the slaves who thought of disobeying their masters.
The episode received a nomination for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Costumes for a Series at the 65th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards.
Plot |
735_1 | In King's Landing
Tywin plans to have Baelish wed Lysa Arryn to deprive Robb of allies, and names Tyrion the new Master of Coin. Discovering that, as treasurer, Baelish borrowed millions in gold from Tywin and tens of millions from the Iron Bank of Braavos, Tyrion fears his father will not forgive the debt and the Iron Bank may fund the Crown's enemies. Tyrion also rewards Podrick with prostitutes, later surprised to learn they refused payment.
At Dragonstone
As Melisandre prepares to sail for an unknown destination, Stannis begs her to give him another son, but she says he does not have the strength and her magic requires king's blood, which must be acquired from others who share Stannis' blood.
In Astapor
Daenerys negotiates with slaver Kraznys mo Nakloz, offering her ship, followers, and her largest dragon in exchange for the 8,000 Unsullied and boys in training, and the slave translator Missandei. |
735_2 | Beyond the Wall
The wildling army finds decapitated horses arranged in a spiral by the White Walkers, and Rayder tells Jon the fallen Night's Watchmen have become wights. Ordering Tormund to take a party, including Jon, to climb the Wall, Rayder says he will signal them with a fire to attack the Night's Watch. Meanwhile, the remaining Night's Watchmen continue south and take refuge at Craster's Keep, where Sam witnesses Gilly give birth to a boy.
In The North
Freed by the cleaning boy, Theon rides east to Yara at Deepwood Motte. However, he is overtaken by his captors. Their leader prepares to rape him, but the boy arrives, deftly slaying the soldiers and freeing Theon. |
735_3 | In The Riverlands
At Riverrun, During Lord Hoster Tully's burial at sea, his son Edmure fails in lighting the pyre and is shamed by his uncle, Brynden "the Blackfish". In conference with Robb, Edmure is chastised for engaging Ser Gregor Clegane. Catelyn discusses her pain with Brynden, and Talisa tends to Tywin's captured nephews, Martyn and Willem Lannister.
Arya confronts the Hound for killing her friend Mycah, but he is taken away. Arya and Gendry bid farewell to Hot Pie, who remains at the inn as payment by the Brotherhood after proving his skill as a cook.
En route to Harrenhal, Jaime convinces Locke that Brienne's father is a rich lord, and Locke stops his men from raping her. Jaime promises that Tywin will reward Locke if Jaime is returned; an offended Locke feigns acceptance, then severs Jaime's sword hand, causing Jaime to scream in horror.
Production |
735_4 | Writing
"Walk of Punishment" was written by the show creators and executive producers David Benioff and D. B. Weiss, based on material from George R. R. Martin's novel A Storm of Swords. The episode adapts parts of chapters 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 28, 32, 34 and 36 of the book (Catelyn II, Jon II, Arya III, Tyrion III, Jaime III, Daenerys II, Daenerys III, Jaime IV, Samwell II and Catelyn IV). The writers also included original storylines including Theon's flight, Tyrion bringing Podrick to a brothel, and Melisandre departing Dragonstone. |
735_5 | In the scene at the brothel, Tyrion claims that the last prostitute he introduces is one of the few women in the world able to perform "the Meereenese Knot". This is an inside joke referring to the name that Martin gave (after the legendary Gordian Knot) to a complicated structural problem that he had to face while writing the fifth book of the series, A Dance with Dragons. This book had to synchronize the arrival of several characters in the city of Meereen while keeping the chronology and causations in line and informing the reader of events happening in places where no point-of-view character was present. Martin worked on solving "the Meereenese Knot" from 2005 to 2011, and it was one of the main causes behind the late delivery of the book. |
735_6 | Directing
The episode was directed by the writing team itself, although to comply with the rules of the Directors Guild of America only Benioff is credited for directing. For both Benioff and Weiss, it was their first direction experience though the former had previously directed an experimental short film "When the Nines Roll Over".
Casting
"Walk of Punishment" introduces the Tully family at Riverrun, marking the first appearances of Lady Catelyn's uncle Brynden Tully, played by Clive Russell, and her brother Edmure, played by Tobias Menzies. Edmure Tully is depicted in the show more harshly than in the books. Talking about his character, Menzies described him as "as comic as Game of Thrones gets ... He's a little flawed, really."
Dean-Charles Chapman first appears in the role of Martyn Lannister in this episode. In Season 4, however, Chapman returns portraying a different character: Tommen Baratheon, who was played by Callum Wharry in previous seasons.
Filming locations |
735_7 | The interiors of the episode were filmed at the Paint Hall Studios in Belfast, the show's base of operations. For the exterior shots the production used many other locations across Northern Ireland: the Redhall State (County Antrim) for the Inn at the Crossroads, the Clandeboye Estate (County Down) for Craster's Keep, Downhill Strand (County Londonderry) as the coast of Dragonstone, and the River Quoile (County Down) as the setting of Lord Hoster Tully's funeral.
The storylines led by Jon Snow and Daenerys Targaryen continued to be filmed in Iceland and in the Moroccan city of Essaouira respectively.
Music
The band of Locke's men sing "The Bear and the Maiden Fair", heard for the first time in the series with music composed by Ramin Djawadi. The song, a very popular song in Westeros both among the commoners and the nobility, appears often in the original novels. Singing at the head of the group is Snow Patrol's frontman Gary Lightbody, in a cameo appearance. |
735_8 | The closing credits reprise the song in a new version recorded specifically for the series by the indie band The Hold Steady. The group, one of Benioff and Weiss's favourite bands, was chosen because they wanted the rendition "to be bawdy and a little sloppy – drunken musicians getting up on the table and jamming while the rowdy party continues around them".
The decision to place the song at the end of the episode, right after the amputation of Jaime's hand, was made to reinforce the surprise of the viewers: "It's such a shocking ending and when we read the scene in the books it was so shocking to us. To really hammer home the shock of that moment you need something unexpected. There's no version of a traditional score that would keep you as off balance as we wanted that scene to leaving you feeling."
Reception |
735_9 | Ratings
"Walk of Punishment"'s first airing was seen by 4.7 million viewers, setting a new viewership record for the show. Taking into account the viewers of the later repeat the figures rose to 5.8 million. In the United Kingdom, the episode was seen by 1.173 million viewers on Sky Atlantic, being the channel's highest-rated broadcast that week. |
735_10 | Critical reception
The episode was praised by critics; review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes surveyed 21 reviews of the episode and judged 95% of them to be positive with an average score of 8.3 out of 10. The website's critical consensus reads, "A bit of well-placed levity perfectly complements the shocking final scenes of 'Walk of Punishment', adding up to hands down the most thrilling episode of the season so far—minus one hand." Matt Fowler, writing for IGN, rated the episode 8.8/10, writing "A shocking chop and a rollicking rock song led us out of a strong Thrones episode." Writing for the A.V. Club, David Sims rated the episode an A-. Also at The A.V. Club Emily VanDerWerff gave the episode another A-, praising its quickening of narrative pace. Time magazine reviewer James Poniewozik praised the episode, writing "...one thing I love about it – as a fan of fantasy fiction since I was a kid – is that it has a level of ugly realism missing from much of the genre."
References |
735_11 | External links
"Walk of Punishment" at HBO.com
2013 American television episodes
Game of Thrones (season 3) episodes
Television episodes written by David Benioff and D. B. Weiss |
736_0 | The 2007 MTV Video Music Awards, honoring the best music videos from the previous year between June 2006 to June 2007, took place on September 9, in Las Vegas at The Palms. The 2007 VMAs were the smallest VMAs ever held in MTV history, eliminating 13 awards, and renaming many of the remaining awards. The 2008 awards restored most of the categories.
Overview
On August 7, 2007, the nominees were announced live on TRL with a special performance by Kanye West. The week before the ceremony, the network aired VMA Week on TRL, along with VMA-related programming, including performances from top artists. |
736_1 | The VMAs aired live that evening at 9:00 p.m. ET on MTV. MTV originally announced that the show would never be re-aired in its entirety, but program listings eventually showed that that was not the case. Perhaps as a concession that TV viewing audiences for the VMAs were decreasing year over year, the 2007 VMAs were produced on a smaller budget and in front of a smaller crowd. Unlike in past years where the show was shown on MTV in 16:9 HDTV letterboxed format, this year the ceremony was aired in 4:3 on the main channel. However, it was still produced in high definition, and was scheduled to air in full on MHD (the current MTV Live), Viacom's high definition channel, on September 22. At the last moment, a 'best of' 90 minute clip show was substituted due to the various issues with the ceremony. |
736_2 | The venue at the Palms was criticized for its small stage. Only four performances took place on the main stage, which consisted of a small layered stage that led off to a number of "island" stages that served as guests' tables. Other performances occurred in other locations in the Palms, including guest suites. Kanye West was especially critical of this setup, claiming that he would "never return to MTV" after he was slotted to perform in the Hugh Hefner Sky Villa instead of the main stage.
Awards
Winners are in bold text
Video of the Year
Rihanna (featuring Jay-Z) – "Umbrella"
Beyoncé – "Irreplaceable"
Justice – "D.A.N.C.E."
Justin Timberlake – "What Goes Around... Comes Around"
Kanye West – "Stronger"
Amy Winehouse – "Rehab"
Male Artist of the Year
Justin Timberlake
Akon
Robin Thicke
T.I.
Kanye West
Female Artist of the Year
Fergie
Beyoncé
Nelly Furtado
Rihanna
Amy Winehouse
Best Group
Fall Out Boy
Gym Class Heroes
Linkin Park
Maroon 5
The White Stripes |
736_3 | Best New Artist
Gym Class Heroes
Lily Allen
Peter Bjorn and John
Carrie Underwood
Amy Winehouse
Quadruple Threat of the Year
Justin Timberlake
Beyoncé
Bono
Jay-Z
Kanye West
Most Earthshattering Collaboration
Beyoncé and Shakira – "Beautiful Liar"
Akon (featuring Eminem) – "Smack That"
Gwen Stefani (featuring Akon) – "The Sweet Escape"
Justin Timberlake (featuring Timbaland) – "SexyBack"
U2 and Green Day – "The Saints Are Coming"
Monster Single of the Year
Rihanna (featuring Jay-Z) – "Umbrella"
Daughtry – "Home"
Fall Out Boy – "Thnks fr th Mmrs"
Avril Lavigne – "Girlfriend"
Lil Mama – "Lip Gloss (No Music)"
Mims – "This Is Why I'm Hot"
Plain White T's – "Hey There Delilah"
Shop Boyz – "Party Like a Rockstar"
T-Pain (featuring Yung Joc) – "Buy U a Drank (Shawty Snappin')"
Timbaland (featuring D.O.E., Keri Hilson and Sebastian) – "The Way I Are" |
736_4 | Best Director
Justin Timberlake – "What Goes Around... Comes Around" (Director: Samuel Bayer)
Christina Aguilera – "Candyman" (Directors: Matthew Rolston and Christina Aguilera)
Beyoncé and Shakira – "Beautiful Liar" (Director: Jake Nava)
Linkin Park – "What I've Done" (Director: Joseph Hahn)
Rihanna (featuring Jay-Z) – "Umbrella" (Director: Chris Applebaum)
Kanye West – "Stronger" (Director: Hype Williams)
Best Choreography in a Video
Justin Timberlake (featuring T.I.) – "Let Me Talk to You/My Love" (Choreographer: Marty Kudelka)
Beyoncé and Shakira – "Beautiful Liar" (Choreographer: Frank Gatson)
Chris Brown – "Wall to Wall" (Choreographers: Rich & Tone and Flii Stylz)
Ciara – "Like a Boy" (Choreographer: Jamaica Craft)
Eve (featuring Swizz Beatz) – "Tambourine" (Choreographer: Tanisha Scott and Jamaica Craft) |
736_5 | Best Editing in a Video
Gnarls Barkley – "Smiley Faces" (Editor: Ken Mowe)
Beyoncé and Shakira – "Beautiful Liar" (Editor: Jarrett Fijal)
Linkin Park – "What I've Done" (Editor: Igor Kovalik)
Justin Timberlake – "What Goes Around... Comes Around" (Editor: Holle Singer)
Kanye West – "Stronger" (Editors: Peter Johnson and Corey Weisz)
MTV2 On The Rise Contest
Flowers for Dorian won the MTV2 On The Rise contest. The prize for winning was getting flown to New York City to film 5 live videos in front of a green screen. The 5 videos were on Comcast's On Demand and one of the videos premiered at the VMAs. Flowers for Dorian's video for the song Love Remains premiered at the VMAs.
Performances
Unlike previous editions of the MTV Video Music Awards, the 2007 awards featured performances in different suites, each with its own host band and guests performing. The Main Show performances occurred at the same location where the awards were being televised. |
736_6 | Pre-show
Nicole Scherzinger featuring Lil Wayne – "Whatever U Like" (MTV-mix)
Main Show
Britney Spears – "Trouble" intro/"Gimme More"
Chris Brown featuring Rihanna – "Wall to Wall" / "Umbrella" (Rihanna intermission)/ "Billie Jean" / "Kiss Kiss" medley
Linkin Park – "Bleed It Out" (surprise performance at Rain Night club) with intro by Timbaland
Alicia Keys – "No One"/"Freedom" medley
Closing Medley by Timbaland and guests: Nelly Furtado – "Do It" / D.O.E. and Sebastian – "The Way I Are" rap interlude / Timbaland featuring Keri Hilson – "The Way I Are" / Justin Timberlake – "LoveStoned" / Timbaland featuring Nelly Furtado and Justin Timberlake – "Give It to Me"
Small Mark Ronson Band Performances at the Main Show
Mark Ronson featuring Akon – "Smack That"
Mark Ronson featuring Adam Levine – "Wake Up Call"
Mark Ronson featuring Wale – "W.A.L.E.D.A.N.C.E."
Mark Ronson featuring Daniel Merriweather – "Stop Me" |
736_7 | Timbaland & Timberlake Fantasy Suite show
T.I. (with beat-box by Justin Timberlake) – "Big Things Poppin' (Do It)"
Justin Timberlake featuring Timbaland – "Chop Me Up"
Petey Pablo – "Freak-a-Leek"
50 Cent featuring Justin Timberlake and Timbaland – "Ayo Technology"
50 Cent – "I Get Money"
50 Cent – "Straight To The Bank"/"In Da Club" |
736_8 | Fall Out Boy Fantasy Suite show
Fall Out Boy – "Sugar, We're Goin Down"
Rihanna featuring Fall Out Boy – "Shut Up and Drive"
Fall Out Boy – "Thnks fr th Mmrs"
Fall Out Boy – "Beat It"/"The Carpal Tunnel of Love" medley
Fall Out Boy – Don't Matter
Fall Out Boy – "Top Gun Anthem"
Fall Out Boy featuring Lil Wayne , Brendon Urie and Travie McCoy – "This Ain't a Scene, It's an Arms Race"
Gym Class Heroes featuring Ne-Yo and Patrick Stump – "Clothes Off!!"
Gym Class Heroes – "The Queen And I"
Panic! at the Disco – "Nine in the Afternoon"
Cobra Starship featuring William Beckett and Travie McCoy – "Bring It (Snakes on a Plane)"
Cobra Starship – "The Church of Hot Addiction"
Kanye West Fantasy Suite show
Kanye West – Touch The Sky
Kanye West – Champion
Soulja Boy – Crank That
Kanye West – Can't Tell Me Nothing
Kanye West – I Wonder
Kanye West – Stronger
Kanye West featuring T-Pain – Good Life
Kanye West featuring Jamie Foxx – Gold Digger |
736_9 | Foo Fighters Fantasy Suite show
Foo Fighters – "Shake Your Blood Part 1"
Foo Fighters – "Everlong"
Foo Fighters – "Best of You"
Foo Fighters – "All My Life"
Foo Fighters featuring Pat Smear – "The Pretender"
Foo Fighters featuring Serj Tankian – "Holiday in Cambodia"
Foo Fighters featuring Cee-Lo – "Darling Nikki"
Queens of the Stone Age featuring Cee-Lo and Dave Grohl – "Make It wit Chu"
Mastodon featuring Josh Homme – "Colony of Birchmen"
Foo Fighters featuring Lemmy – "I'll Be Your Sister"
Foo Fighters featuring Lemmy – "Shake Your Blood Part 2"
Eagles of Death Metal featuring Dave Grohl – "Speaking in Tongues"
Eagles of Death Metal featuring Dave Grohl – "I Want You So Hard" |
736_10 | Appearances
Ashanti
Boys Like Girls
Sarah Silverman
Eve
Kevin Connolly
Kid Rock
Seth Rogen
Adrian Grenier
Bill Hader
Rosario Dawson
Megan Fox
Jamie Foxx
Jennifer Garner
Paris Hilton
Lauren Conrad
Audrina Patridge
Whitney Port
Shia LaBeouf
Nicole Scherzinger
Jennifer Hudson
Robin Thicke
Nelly
Mary J. Blige
Dr. Dre
Diddy
Yung Joc
Jermaine Paul
Caitlin Upton
Ryan Sheckler
Ryan Leslie
Kanye West |
736_11 | Britney Spears' performance |
736_12 | Britney Spears served as the opening act for the show, performing her new single "Gimme More". She appeared in a black, jewel encrusted bikini and black boots. She performed the opening lines of "Trouble" before segueing into "Gimme More". The performance was universally panned by critics. Jeff Leeds of The New York Times said that "no one was prepared for Sunday night's fiasco, in which a listless Ms. Spears teetered through her dance steps and mouthed only occasional words in a wan attempt to lip-synch her new single". Vinay Menon of the Toronto Star commented Spears "looked hopelessly dazed. She was wearing the expression of somebody who had been deposited at the Palms Casino Resort by a tornado, one that promptly twisted away, taking her clothing and sense of purpose. ... [She was] lumbering, in slow motion, as if somebody had poured cement into her streetwalker boots". David Willis of BBC stated her performance would "go down in the history books as being one of the worst to |
736_13 | grace the MTV Awards". |
736_14 | Immediately following Spears' performance, comedian Sarah Silverman presented a monologue that included numerous derogatory jokes about Spears, her career, and her children. Silverman joked that Spears, "at 25, had already accomplished in her life everything she ever will," and called her sons "most adorable mistakes you will ever see." Silverman's monologue received criticism for its harshness towards Spears and her children; Silverman responded to backlash by saying "it never occurred to me that would be deemed hurtful or over the line." Silverman's monologue garnered renewed criticism in 2021, following the release of the documentary Framing Britney Spears; Silverman expressed regret for her monologue, saying that MTV had hired her to perform a "mini-roast" of Spears, and that Silverman had not seen Spears' performance before going on stage. |
736_15 | The day after the performance, American vlogger Cara Cunningham, using the name Chris Crocker, posted a video to YouTube titled "Leave Britney alone!", in which she cried and defended Spears's performance, explaining that she did not want Spears to spiral out of control like Anna Nicole Smith, who had died in February 2007. Within the first 24 hours of its posting, the video accumulated over 2 million views. "Leave Britney alone!" turned Cunningham into an internet celebrity, and was featured on television shows such as The View and The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. It was also parodied by dozens of other YouTube users, most famously by actor Seth Green. An editor for YouTube said "the melodramatic two-minute clip made [Cunningham] an instant YouTube star" and named it one of the top videos of 2007. Wired named it the top video of 2007.
Kid Rock/Tommy Lee altercation |
736_16 | Kid Rock and Tommy Lee were involved in an altercation at the Video Music Awards during the come-back performance of Alicia Keys. A source reported that Tommy Lee was sitting with magician Criss Angel when the two went to visit Diddy, who was sitting close to Kid Rock. Shortly after the two went over to see Diddy, "all hell broke loose", that source told Access Hollywood. It is reported that Kid Rock sucker-punched Tommy Lee in his back. The two, both ex-husbands of Pamela Anderson were broken up, and both were escorted from the resort. Angel was removed a short time later. The cause of the fight is unknown.
An eyewitness reported to TMZ that "Tommy got it pretty bad." The incident was confirmed by Palms Hotel and Casino public relations representative Larry Fink. MTV Host Sway Calloway said "Tommy Lee was sitting by P-Diddy and Kid Rock just got off stage and from what I saw he walked up to Lee and just decked him." |
736_17 | On-air reactions
Presenter Jamie Foxx said "Let's stop all of this white-on-white crime."
Diddy made a remark that "It's not just the hip-hop artists that sometimes have a problem."
Non-music entertainment
Caitlin Upton, Miss South Carolina Teen USA 2007 – famous for her incoherent response to why she thought 1/5 of Americans can't locate the US on a world map, performed a parody of her response when she was presenting.
Shia LaBeouf revealed the name of the fourth Indiana Jones film: Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. It was confirmed by the official site.
Lineup changes
Amy Winehouse's record label canceled her performance for the show following Lily Allen's withdrawal from the event due to issues obtaining a visa. The two were rumored to perform a duet. |
736_18 | The French electronic group Justice was going to perform at the show with Mark Ronson during one of his VMA spots with an additional special guest. The group had to drop out due to their very, very late arrival in Las Vegas stemming from having to fly in from Europe.
See also
Los Premios MTV Latinoamérica 2007
2007 MTV Europe Music Awards
2007 MTV Video Music Brasil
References
External links
2007 MTV Video Music Awards website
MTV Video Music Awards ceremonies
MTV Video Music Awards
MTV Video Music Awards
MTV Video Music Awards
Palms Casino Resort |
737_0 | The Gbe languages (pronounced ) form a cluster of about twenty related languages stretching across the area between eastern Ghana and western Nigeria. The total number of speakers of Gbe languages is between four and eight million. The most widely spoken Gbe language is Ewe (3 million speakers in Ghana and Togo), followed by Fon (1.7 million, mainly in Benin). The Gbe languages were traditionally placed in the Kwa branch of the Niger–Congo languages, but more recently have been classified as Volta–Niger languages. They include five major dialect clusters: Ewe, Fon, Aja, Gen (Mina), and Phla–Pherá. |
737_1 | Most of the Gbe peoples came from the east to their present dwelling-places in several migrations between the tenth and the fifteenth century. Some of the Phla–Pherá peoples however are thought to be the original inhabitants of the area who have intermingled with the Gbe immigrants, and the Gen people probably originate from the Ga-Adangbe people in Ghana. In the late eighteenth century, many speakers of Gbe were enslaved and transported to the New World: it is believed that Gbe languages played some role in the genesis of several Caribbean creole languages, especially Haitian Creole. |
737_2 | Around 1840, German missionaries started linguistic research into the Gbe languages. In the first half of the twentieth century, the Africanist Diedrich Hermann Westermann was one of the most prolific contributors to the study of Gbe. The first internal classification of the Gbe languages was published in 1988 by H.B. Capo, followed by a comparative phonology in 1991. The Gbe languages are tonal, isolating languages and the basic word order is subject–verb–object.
Languages
Geography and demography
The Gbe language area is bordered to the west and east by the Volta River in Ghana and the Weme River in Benin. The northern border is between 6 and 8 degrees latitude and the southern border is the Atlantic coast. The area is neighbored mainly by other Kwa languages, except for the east and north-east, where Yorùbá is spoken. To the west, Ga–Dangme, Guang and Akan are spoken. To the north, it is bordered by Adele, Aguna, Akpafu, Lolobi, and Yorùbá. |
737_3 | Estimates of the total number of speakers of Gbe languages vary considerably. Capo (1988) gives a modest estimate of four million, while SIL's Ethnologue (15th edition, 2005) gives eight million. The most widely spoken Gbe languages are Ewe (Ghana and Togo) and Fon (Benin, eastern Togo) at four million and 3 million speakers, respectively. Ewe is a language of formal education for secondary schools and universities in Ghana, and is also used in non-formal education in Togo. In Benin, Aja (740,000 speakers) and Fon were two of the six national languages selected by the government for adult education in 1992.
Classification
Greenberg, following Westermann (1952), placed the Gbe languages in the Kwa family of the Niger–Congo languages. The extent of the Kwa branch has fluctuated through the years, and Roger Blench places the Gbe languages in a Volta–Niger branch with former East Kwa languages to their east. |
737_4 | Gbe is a dialect continuum. Based on comparative research, Capo (1988) divides it into five clusters, with each cluster consisting of several mutually intelligible dialects. The borders between the clusters are not always distinct. The five clusters are:
Angela Kluge (2011) proposes that the Gbe languages consist of a dialect continuum that can be split into three large clusters.
Western Gbe varieties (Ewe, Gen, and Northwestern Gbe): Adan, Agoi/Gliji, Agu, Anexo, Aveno, Awlan, Be, Gbin, Gen, Kpelen, Kpési, Togo, Vhlin, Vo, Waci, Wance, Wundi (also Awuna?)
Central Gbe varieties: Aja (Dogbo, Hwe, Sikpi, Tado, Tala)
Eastern Gbe varieties (Fon, Eastern Phla–Pherá, and Western Phla–Pherá): Agbome, Ajra, Alada, Arohun, Ayizo, Ci, Daxe, Fon, Gbekon, Gbesi, Gbokpa, Gun, Kotafon, Kpase, Maxi, Movolo, Saxwe, Se, Seto, Tofin, Toli, Weme, Xwela, Xwla (Eastern), Xwla (Western) (also Wudu?) |
737_5 | Naming
The dialect continuum as a whole was called 'Ewe' by Westermann, the most influential writer on the cluster, who used the term 'Standard Ewe' to refer to the written form of the language. Other writers have called the Gbe languages as a whole 'Aja', after the name of the local language of the Aja-Tado area in Benin. However, use of this single language's name for the language cluster as a whole was not only not acceptable to all speakers but also rather confusing. Since the establishment of a working group at the West African Languages Congress at Cotonou in 1980, H. B. Capo's name suggestion has been generally accepted: Gbe, which is the word for 'language/dialect' in each of the languages.
History |
737_6 | Before 1600
Ketu, settlement in present-day Benin Republic (formerly known as Dahomey), might be an appropriate starting point for a brief history of the Gbe-speaking peoples. Ewe traditions refer to Ketu as Amedzofe ("origin of humanity") or Mawufe ("home of the Supreme Being"). It is believed that the inhabitants of Ketu were pressed westward by a series of wars between the tenth and the thirteenth century. In Ketu, the ancestors of the Gbe-speaking peoples separated themselves from other refugees and began to establish their own identity.
Attacks between the thirteenth and the fifteenth century drove a large section of the group still further westward. They settled in the ancient kingdom of Tado (also Stado or Stádó) on the Mono river (in present-day Togo). The Tado kingdom was an important state in West Africa up to the late fifteenth century. |
737_7 | In the course of the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the Notsie (or Notsé, Notsye, Wancé) kingdom was established by emigrants from the Tado kingdom; Notsie would later (around 1500) become the home of another group of migrants from Tado, the Ewe people. Around 1550, emigrants from Tado established the Allada (or Alada) kingdom, which became the center of the Fon people. Tado is also the origin of the Aja people; in fact, the name Aja-Tado (Adja-Tado) is frequently used to refer to their language.
Other peoples that speak Gbe languages today are the Gen people (Mina, Ge) around Anexo, who are probably of Ga and Fante origin, and the Phla and Pherá peoples, some of whom consist of the traditional inhabitants of the area intermingled with early migrants from Tado.
European traders and the transatlantic slave trade |
737_8 | Little is known of the history of the Gbe languages during the time that only Portuguese, Dutch and Danish traders landed on the Gold Coast (roughly 1500 to 1650). The trade of mostly gold and agricultural goods did not exercise much influence on social and cultural structures of the time. No need was felt to investigate the indigenous languages and cultures; the languages generally used in trade at this time were Portuguese and Dutch. Some loanwords remain from this period, for example atrapoe 'stairs' from Dutch trap and duku '(piece of) cloth' from Dutch doek or Danish dug. The few written accounts that stem from this period focus on trade. As more European countries established trade posts in the area, missionaries were sent out. As early as 1658, Spanish missionaries translated the Doctrina Christiana into the language of Allada, making it one of the earliest texts in any West African language. The Gbe language used in this document is thought to be a somewhat mangled form of |
737_9 | Gen. |
737_10 | The relatively peaceful situation was profoundly changed with the rise of the transatlantic slave trade, which reached its peak in the late eighteenth century when as many as 15,000 slaves per year were exported from the area around Benin as part of a triangular trade between the European mainland, the west coast of Africa and the colonies of the New World (notably the Caribbean). The main actors in this process were Dutch (and to a lesser extent English) traders; captives were supplied mostly by cooperating coastal African states. |
737_11 | The Bight of Benin, precisely the area where the Gbe languages are spoken, was one of the centers of the slave trade at the turn of the eighteenth century. The export of 5% of the population each year resulted in overall population decline. Moreover, since the majority of the exported captives were male, the slave trade led to an imbalance in the female/male ratio. In some parts of the Slave Coast the ratio reached two adult women for every man. Several wars (sometimes deliberately provoked by European powers in order to divide and rule) further distorted social and economical relations in the area. The lack of earlier linguistic data makes it difficult to trace the inevitable linguistic changes that resulted from this turbulent period. |
737_12 | Colonisation and onwards
Around 1850, the transatlantic slave trade had virtually ceased. As the grip of European colonial powers strengthened, slave raiding became prohibited, trading focused on goods once more and the Europeans took it to be their calling to Christianize the colonized parts of Africa. In 1847 the Norddeutsche Missions-Gesellschaft (Bremen) started its work in Keta. |
737_13 | In 1857, the first Ewe grammar, Schlüssel der Ewesprache, dargeboten in den Grammatischen Grundzügen des Anlodialekts, was published by missionary J. B. Schlegel of the Bremen mission. Five different dialects of Gbe (at that time called the Ewé Language-Field) were already distinguished by Schlegel, notes Robert Needham Cust in his Modern Languages of Africa (1883). The dialects listed by Cust do not map exactly onto the five subgroups now distinguished by Capo, which is not too surprising since Cust himself admits that he relies on a multitude of often conflicting sources. Fon is in fact listed twice (once as 'the dialect of the province of Dahomé' and once as 'Fogbe'). |
737_14 | Where previous literature consisted mostly of travel journals sometimes accompanied by short word lists, Schlegel's work marked the beginning of a period of prolific lexicographic and linguistic research into the various Gbe languages. Important writers of this period include Johann Gottlieb Christaller (Die Volta-Sprachen-Gruppe, 1888), Ernst Henrici (Lehrbuch der Ephe-Sprache, 1891, actually the first comparative Gbe grammar), J. Knüsli (Ewe-German-English Vocabulary, 1892) and Maurice Delafosse (Manuel Dahoméen (Fon), 1894). |
737_15 | In 1902 the missionary Diedrich Hermann Westermann contributed an article titled "Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Yewe-Sprachen in Togo" to Zeitschrift für Afrikanische und Oceanische Sprachen. Westermann became one of the most productive and influential writers on the Gbe languages, and his output dominated the Gbe literature and analysis of the first half of the twentieth century. He wrote mainly on the Western Gbe languages, especially on Ewe (though he often used the term 'Ewe' to denote the Gbe dialect continuum as a whole). Among his most important works on Ewe are his A Study of the Ewe language (1930) and Wörterbuch der Ewe-Sprache (1954).
Renaissance du Gbe |
737_16 | From 1930 on, publications on various Gbe languages appeared rapidly, the vast majority of them dealing with individual Gbe languages. A significant exception is formed by the extensive comparative linguistic research of Hounkpati B Christophe Capo, which resulted in an internal classification of the Gbe languages and a reconstruction of the proto-Gbe phonology. Much of the comparative research for Capo's classification of the Gbe languages was carried out in the 1970s, and partial results were published in the late 1970s and early 1980s in the form of articles on specific phonological developments in various branches of Gbe and, notably, in the form of a unified standard orthography of Gbe. In his Renaissance du Gbe (1988), the internal classification of Gbe was published in full for the first time. In 1991, Capo published a comparative phonology of Gbe. In this period, Capo also initiated Labo Gbe (Int.), the 'Laboratory for research on Gbe languages', based in Benin, which has |
737_17 | since fostered research and published several collections of papers on the Gbe languages. |
737_18 | In the early 1990s, SIL International initiated a study to assess which Gbe communities could benefit from existing literacy efforts and whether additional literacy campaigns in some of the remaining communities would be needed. Synchronised linguistic research carried out in the course of this study shed more light on the relations between the various varieties of Gbe. In general, the SIL studies corroborated many of Capo's findings and led to adjustment of some of his more tentative groupings.
Phonology
Consonants
The following phonetic segments are attested in Gbe languages: |
737_19 | Notes
The apico-postalveolar consonants are generally written and transcribed with the symbols for the corresponding alveolar consonants, except for the voiced stop, which uses the symbol for the voiced retroflex stop . This is only to distinguish it from the lamino-dental voiced stop, and is not to be interpreted as the consonant being subapical.
The above table lists the attested phonetic segments. Some of the sounds listed here are in free variation with other sounds (e.g. r and r̃ with l and l̃). The reader is referred to the individual languages for an overview of their phoneme inventory.
No Gbe language exhibits all of the above forty-two phonetic segments. According to Capo (1991), all of them have the following twenty-three consonants in common: b, m, t, d, ɖ, n, k, g, kp, gb, ɲ, f, v, s, z, χ, ʁ, r, r̃, l, l̃, y, w.
Vowels
The following vowels are found in Gbe languages: |
737_20 | In general, each Gbe variety makes use of a subset of twelve vowels, seven oral and five nasalised. The vowels are attested in all Gbe languages.
Nasalization plays an important role in the vowel inventory: every vowel in the Gbe languages occurs in a non-nasalized and a nasalized form. Capo (1991) observes that the degree of nasality of nasal vowels is less when they occur after nasal consonants than after non-nasal ones. |
737_21 | Nasalization in Gbe
Capo (1981) has argued that nasalization in Gbe languages should be analyzed phonemically as a feature relevant to vowels and not to consonants. This means that nasal vowels are distinct from oral vowels, while nasal and voiced oral stops are treated as predictable variants. For example, non-syllabic nasal consonants are always followed by a nasal vowel, and syllabic nasal consonants are analyzed as reduced forms of consonant–vowel syllables. This analysis is in line with reconstructions of the proto-Volta–Congo language, for which similar proposals have been made. |
737_22 | Tone
The Gbe languages are tonal languages. In general, they have three tone levels, High (H), Mid (M), and Low (L), of which the lower two are not phonemically contrastive. Thus, the basic tonemes of Gbe are 'High' and 'Non-High', where the High toneme may be realised as High or Rising and the Non-High toneme may be realised as Low or Mid. The tones of Gbe nouns are often affected by the consonant of the noun stem. The voicing of this consonant affects the realisation of the Non-High toneme roughly as follows: If the consonant is a voiced obstruent, the Non-High toneme is realised as Low (è-ḏà 'snake') and if the consonant is a voiceless obstruent or a sonorant, the Non-High toneme is realised as Mid (ām̲ē 'person', à-f̱ī 'mouse'). The consonants that induce tonal alternations in this way are sometimes called depressor consonants. |
737_23 | Morphology
The basic syllable form of Gbe languages is commonly rendered (C1)(C2)V(C3), meaning that there at least has to be a nucleus V, and that there are various possible configurations of consonants (C1-3). The V position may be filled by any of the vowels or by a syllabic nasal. It is also the location of the tone. While virtually any consonant can occur in the C1 position, there exist several restrictions on the kind of consonants that can occur in the C2 and C3 positions. In general, only liquid consonants may occur as C2 , while only nasals occur in the C3 position. |
737_24 | Most verbs in Gbe languages have one of the basic syllable forms. Gbe nominals are generally preceded by a nominal prefix consisting of a vowel (cf. the Ewe word , 'tooth'). The quality of this vowel is restricted to the subset of non-nasal vowels. In some cases the nominal prefix is reduced to schwa or lost: the word for 'fire' is izo in Phelá, in Wací-Ewe and in Pecí-Ewe. The nominal prefix can be seen as a relic of a typical Niger–Congo noun class system.
The Gbe languages are isolating languages, and as such express many semantic features by lexical items. Of a more agglutinative nature are the commonly used periphrastic constructions. In contrast to Bantu languages, a major branch of the Niger–Congo language family, Gbe languages have very little inflectional morphology. There is for example no subject–verb agreement whatsoever in Gbe, no gender agreement, and no inflection of nouns for number. The Gbe languages make extensive use of a rich system of tense/aspect markers. |
737_25 | Reduplication is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word, or part of it, is repeated. The Gbe languages, like most other Kwa languages, make extensive use of reduplication in the formation of new words, especially in deriving nouns, adjectives and adverbs from verbs. Thus in Ewe, the verb lã́, 'to cut', is nominalised by reduplication, yielding lãlã́, 'the act of cutting'. Triplication is used to intensify the meaning of adjectives and adverbs, e.g. Ewe ko 'only' → kokooko 'only, only, only'.
Grammar
The basic word order of Gbe clauses is generally subject–verb–object, except in the imperfective tense and some related constructions. The Gbe languages, notably Ewe, Fon and Anlo, played a role in the genesis of several Caribbean creole languages—Haitian Creole for example is classifiable as having a French vocabulary with the syntax of a Gbe language. |
737_26 | The Gbe languages do not have a marked distinction between tense and aspect. The only tense that is expressed by a simple morphological marker in Gbe languages is the future tense. The future marker is ná or a, as can be seen from the examples below.
Other tenses are arrived at by means of special time adverbs or by inference from the context, and this is where the tense/aspect distinction becomes blurred. For example, what is sometimes referred to as perfective aspect in Gbe blends with the notion of past tense since it expresses an event with a definite endpoint, located in the past (see example sentences below).
Focus, which is used to draw attention to a particular part of the utterance, to signify contrast or to emphasize something, is expressed in Gbe languages by leftward movement of the focused element and by way of a focus marker wɛ́ (Gungbe, Fongbe), yé (Gengbe) or é (Ewegbe), suffixed to the focused element. |
737_27 | Questions can be constructed in various ways in Gbe languages. A simple declarative sentence can be turned into an interrogative utterance by the use of the question marker à at the end of the sentence. Another way of forming questions is by using question words. These so-called question word questions are much akin to focus constructions in Gbe. The question word is found at the beginning of the sentence, as is the focus marker. The close relationship to focus is also clear from the fact that in Gbe, a sentence cannot contain a question word and a focused element simultaneously.
Topicalization, the signalling of the subject that is being talked about, is achieved in Gbe languages by the move of the topicalized element to the beginning of the sentence. In some Gbe languages, a topic marker is suffixed to the topicalized element. In other Gbe languages the topic has to be definite. A topicalized element precedes the focused element in a sentence containing both. |
737_28 | Negation is expressed in various ways in the Gbe languages. In general, three methods of negation can be distinguished: Languages like Gungbe express negation by a preverbal marker má; Fongbe-type languages express negation either like Gungbe, or with a sentence-final marker ã; and languages like Ewegbe require both the preverbal marker mé and a sentence-final marker o.
Gbe languages share an areal feature found in many languages of the Volta basin, the serial verb construction. This means that two or more verbs can be juxtaposed in one clause, sharing the same subject, lacking conjunctive markings, resulting in a meaning that expresses the consecutive or simultaneous aspect of the actions of the verbs.
See also
List of Proto-Gbe reconstructions (Wiktionary)
Notes and references
Notes |
737_29 | References
Aboh, O. Enoch (2004) The Morphosyntax of Complement-Head Sequences (Clause Structure and Word Order Patterns in Kwa) New York etc.: Oxford University Press.
Amenumey, D.E.K. (2002) History of the Ewe. Retrieved May 11, 2005.
Ansre, Gilbert (1961) The Tonal Structure of Ewe. MA Thesis, Kennedy School of Missions of Hartford Seminary Foundation.
Ameka, Felix Kofi (2001) 'Ewe'. In Garry and Rubino (eds.), Facts About the World's Languages: An Encyclopedia of the World's Major Languages, Past and Present, 207–213. New York/Dublin: The H.W. Wilson Company.
Blench, Roger (2006) Archaeology, Language, and the African Past. AltaMira Press.
Capo, Hounkpati B.C. (1981) 'Nasality in Gbe: A Synchronic Interpretation' Studies in African Linguistics, 12, 1, 1–43.
Capo, Hounkpati B.C. (1988) Renaissance du Gbe: Réflexions critiques et constructives sur L'EVE, le FON, le GEN, l'AJA, le GUN, etc. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag. |
737_30 | Capo, Hounkpati B.C. (1991) A Comparative Phonology of Gbe, Publications in African Languages and Linguistics, 14. Berlin/New York: Foris Publications & Garome, Bénin: Labo Gbe (Int).
Cust, Robert Needham (1883) Modern Languages of Africa.
Duthie, A.S. & Vlaardingerbroek, R.K. (1981) Bibliography of Gbe – publications on and in the language Basel: Basler Afrika Bibliographien.
Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966) The Languages of Africa (2nd ed. with additions and corrections). Bloomington: Indiana University.
Greene, Sandra E. (2002) Sacred Sites: The Colonial Encounter. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. (online version)
Henrici, Ernst (1891) Lehrbuch der Ephe-Sprache (Ewe) Anlo-, Anecho- und Dahome-Mundart (mit Glossar und einer Karte der Sklavenküste). Stuttgart/Berlin: W. Spemann. (270 p.) |
737_31 | Labouret, Henir and Paul Rivet (1929) Le Royaume d'Arda et son Évangélisation au XVIIe siècle. Paris: Institut d'Ethnologie.
Lefebvre, Claire (1985) 'Relexification in creole genesis revisited: the case of Haitian Creole'. In Muysken & Smith (eds.) Substrate versus Universals in Creole Genesis. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Kluge, Angela (2000) 'The Gbe language varieties of West Africa – a quantitative analysis of lexical and grammatical features'. [unpublished MA thesis, University of Wales, College of Cardiff].
Kluge, Angela (2005) 'A synchronic lexical study of Gbe language varieties: The effects of different similarity judgment criteria' Linguistic Discovery 3, 1, 22–53.
Kluge, Angela (2006) 'Qualitative and quantitative analysis of grammatical features elicited among the Gbe language varieties of West Africa' Journal of African Languages and Linguistics 27, 1, 53–86.
Pasch, Helma (1995) Kurzgrammatik des Ewe Köln: Köppe. |
737_32 | Stewart, John M. (1989) 'Kwa'. In: Bendor-Samuel & Hartell (eds.) The Niger–Congo languages. Lanham, MD: The University Press of America.
Westermann, Diedrich Hermann (1930) A Study of the Ewe Language London: Oxford University Press. |
737_33 | Volta–Niger languages
Languages of Ghana
Languages of Togo
Languages of Benin
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738_0 | Sir William Petty FRS (26 May 1623 – 16 December 1687) was an English economist, physician, scientist and philosopher. He first became prominent serving Oliver Cromwell and the Commonwealth in Ireland. He developed efficient methods to survey the land that was to be confiscated and given to Cromwell's soldiers. He also remained a significant figure under King Charles II and King James II, as did many others who had served Cromwell.
Petty was also a scientist, inventor, and merchant, a charter member of the Royal Society, and briefly a Member of the Parliament of England. It is for his theories on economics and his methods of political arithmetic that he is best remembered, however, and to him is attributed the philosophy of "laissez-faire" in relation to government activity. He was knighted in 1661. He was the great-grandfather of the 1st Marquess of Lansdowne (better known to history as the 2nd Earl of Shelburne), who served as Prime Minister of Great Britain, 1782–1783. |
738_1 | Early life
Petty was born in Romsey, where his father and grandfather were clothiers. He was a precocious and intelligent youth and in 1637 became a cabin boy, but was set ashore in Normandy after breaking his leg on board. After this setback, he applied in Latin to study with the Jesuits in Caen, supporting himself by teaching English. After a year, he returned to England, and had by now a thorough knowledge of Latin, Greek, French, mathematics, and astronomy.
After an uneventful period in the Navy, Petty left to study in Holland in 1643, where he developed an interest in anatomy. Through an English professor in Amsterdam, he became the personal secretary to Hobbes allowing him contact with Descartes, Gassendi and Mersenne. In 1646, he returned to England and, after developing a double-writing instrument with little success in sales, he studied medicine at Oxford. He befriended Hartlib and Boyle and became a member of the Oxford Philosophical Club. |
738_2 | Academic and surveyor
By 1651, Petty was an anatomy instructor at Brasenose College, Oxford, as deputy to Thomas Clayton the younger. He was one of the physicians involved in treating Anne Greene, a woman who survived her own hanging and was pardoned because her survival was widely held to be an act of divine intervention. The event was widely written about at the time, and helped to build Petty's career and reputation. He was also Gresham Professor of Music in London. |
738_3 | In 1652, he left on a leave of absence and travelled with Oliver Cromwell's army in Ireland, as physician-general. His opposition to conventional universities, being committed to 'new science' as inspired by Francis Bacon and imparted by his afore-mentioned acquaintances, perhaps pushed him from Oxford. He was pulled to Ireland perhaps by sense of ambition and desire for wealth and power. His breadth of interests was such that he successfully secured the contract for charting Ireland in 1654, so that those who had lent funds to Cromwell's army might be repaid in land – a means of ensuring the army was self-financing. This enormous task, which he completed in 1656, became known as the Down Survey, later published (1685) as Hiberniae Delineatio. As his reward, he acquired approximately in Kenmare, in southwest Ireland, and £9,000. This personal gain to Petty led to persistent court cases on charges of bribery and breach of trust, until his death. |
738_4 | Back in England, as a Cromwellian supporter, he ran successfully for Parliament in 1659 for West Looe.
Natural philosopher
Despite his political allegiances, Petty was well-treated at the Restoration in 1660, although he lost some of his Irish lands. Charles II at their first meeting brushed aside Petty's apologies for his past support for Cromwell, "seeming to regard them as needless", and discussed his experiments into the mechanics of shipping instead.
In 1661 he was elected MP for Inistioge in the Parliament of Ireland. In 1662, he was admitted a charter member of the Royal Society of the same year. This year also saw him write his first work on economics, his Treatise of Taxes and Contributions. Petty counted among his many scientific interests naval architecture: he had become convinced of the superiority of double-hulled boats, although they were not always successful; a ship called the Experiment reached Porto in 1664, but sank on the way back. |
738_5 | Ireland and later life
Petty was knighted in 1661 by Charles II and returned to Ireland in 1666, where he remained for most of the next twenty years.
The events that took him from Oxford to Ireland marked a shift from medicine and the physical sciences to the social sciences, and Petty lost all his Oxford offices. The social sciences became the area that he studied for the rest of his life. His primary interest became Ireland's prosperity, and his works describe that country and propose many remedies for its then backward condition. He helped found the Dublin Society in 1682. Returning ultimately to London in 1685, he died in 1687. He was buried in Romsey Abbey. |
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