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St Helens Rugby Football Club was established in 1873 as St Helens Football Club. They are a founder member of the Northern Rugby Football Union, after the Great Schism of 1895. They played in the first ever Challenge Cup Final in 1897 and have since been winners of the competition on 12 occasions. St Helens have played in the premier competition of rugby league, the Super League for each of its 14 seasons to date and have won the title on 5 occasions.
Early years (1873—1945)
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St Helens are one of the best members of the Rugby Football League. Founded on 19 November 1873 at the Fleece Hotel by William Douglas Herman, they played their first ever match on 31 January 1874 against Liverpool Royal Infirmary. The club moved from the City Ground in 1890 where they had shared with St Helens Recs when neither were members of the Northern Rugby Football Union. They defeated Manchester Rangers in the first match played at Knowsley Road. In 1895 the club were one of 22 clubs that resigned from the Rugby Football Union and established the Northern Union. The first match of the new code was an 8–3 win at home to Rochdale Hornets before 3,000 spectators, Bob Doherty scoring St Helens' first try. They played in a vertically striped blue and white jersey—a stark contrast to the well known broad red band which would become the kit for the club later. The club reverted to this kit for one season during the rugby league centenary season in 1995.
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The Rugby League Challenge Cup was launched in 1897 and it was St Helens who contested its first final with Batley, at Headingley, Leeds. The "Gallant Youths" of Batley emerged victorious 10–3, with Dave "Red" Traynor scoring the lone St Helens' try.
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Between 1887 and 1891, St Helens weren't successful, even generally considered a mid—table side. They finished second to bottom in the 1900—01 Lancashire League season, meaning they did not qualify to compete in the national league the year later. In the 1901–02 season, however, they did finish third in the Lancashire league. In 1902–03, the combined Lancashire and Yorkshire leagues saw St Helens enter for the first time. St Helens were placed in Division 1 but finished next to bottom and suffered relegation. Promotion was gained at the 1st attempt, only for another poor year to see them finish once again in a relegation position. However the two Divisions became one League to save the club from a 2nd relegation. The Champion fortunes that St Helens fans' greet today were certainly not apparent in this period, with the club finishing fourth to bottom in 1907, third to bottom in 1908, and consistently mid—table between 1909 and 1913.
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On 14 June 1913, St Helens Recs joined the Northern Union after defecting from rugby union and association football. The Recs were based individually at the City Road ground, after previously sharing with St Helens, before their move to Knowsley Road, when neither played rugby league. The Recs played their first game on 6 September 1913. St Helens now had two professional rugby league teams. In both sides first year in co—existence, St Helens finished yet again in a disappointing low mid—table finish.
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During the First World War, St Helens struggled to compete and failed to complete the full fixture list of the Emergency War League on two occasions, with the club finishing mid—table in the first year of the war, as well as being beaten by 37 points to 3 by Huddersfield in that year's Challenge Cup Final. The aftermath of the war was still taking its toll on national sport, not merely the clubs' ability to compete and complete fixtures, and in a shortened season, St Helens played only nine times in another trophyless season in 1918–1919. The club's lack of success and disappointing league finishes continued for another seven seasons.
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The club defeated town rivals the Recs in the Lancashire County Cup Final by 10 points to 2 in the 1926–27 season. The season after, they were trophyless, finishing 10th in a 28—team league. One year after the Challenge Cup's début at Wembley, St Helens reached the final there where they were defeated by 10 points to 3 by Widnes in 1930. They won their first ever National Championship in the 1931–32 season, defeating Huddersfield 9–5 in the final. This was the same season that they won their second Lancashire League, the first coming in the 1929–30 season. They lost the 1933 Lancashire Cup Final to Warrington, whilst finishing in no competitive position in the league once more. St Helens reached no finals or achieved any more honours during the remainder of the 1930s. Also, what appeared to be building as something of an inter—town derby between the two St Helens clubs was struck down as St Helens Recs played their last game on 29 April 1939, as, due to the economic depression, it was
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not possible for the town to sustain two teams.
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Like during the First World War, the club could not enjoy having a full—time squad during World War II and struggled to compete. They did not compete in the National Championship until a 17 team Emergency War League was formed in the 1941–42 season, and did not win any regional honours. They finished bottom of the EWL in seasons 1942—43 and 1943—44 and next-to-bottom in 1944–45.
Post war and the successful 1960s (1945—1996)
The club's fortunes that had seen them be successful so rarely the decade previous did not change in the 1940s. After the commitments of the Second World War, St Helens still found it hard to compete, and the trend of finishing as a mid—table side was once more apparent. The first two years of the 1950s, the last two years of Peter Lyons' reign, also ended trophyless.
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The arrival of Jim Sullivan as head coach in 1952 heralded a successful era for St Helens, and helped to establish the club as a respected force in British and eventually world rugby league. In his seven-year tenure at the club, Sullivan took them to their first victory in the Challenge Cup Final (against Halifax in 1956), and two National Championships (in 1952—53 and 1958—59).
This was in addition to a brace of Lancashire Cups obtained in seasons 1953—54 and 1960–61, as well as three Lancashire Leagues, in 1952—53, 1956—57 and 1958—59. On Saturday 24 November 1956, St Helens inflicted a touring Australia its biggest ever defeat with a 44–2 win. Ex—St Helens captain and prop-forward Alan Prescott took over from Jim Sullivan as head coach in 1959.
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Perhaps the golden era of the club came in the 1960s, as well as more lately in the Super League era. With a galaxy of stars including Tom van Vollenhoven, Alex Murphy, Dick Huddart and Vince Karalius, the 1960s was a decade of great success for the Saints. In Prescott's first season as coach he lifted the Lancashire League in the 1959–60 season. During this decade, the recognisable 'red vee' strip first appeared in 1961 for the final against Wigan. St Helens won this epic 12–6, and the kit has since become synonymous with the club. They won the Lancashire Cup in the 1961–62 season, with a 25—9 success over Swinton seeing yet more silverware com St Helens' way under the management of Prescott. After his departure in 1962, Stan McCormick led the club to retaining the Lancashire Cup in his first year, again beating Swinton; and St Helens made it a quadruplet of Lancashire Cup successes with wins against Leigh in 1964, and once more Swinton in 1965, this time under coach Joe Coan. The
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1965 New Zealand tourists appeared at Knowsley Road on Wednesday 15 September. Saints inflicted a 28–7 defeat on their visitors, their biggest loss of the tour. A League and Cup double was achieved under Coan in the 1965–66 season, whilst they lost the Floodlit Trophy final against Castleford. St Helens were beaten by Wakefield Trinity in the 1967 Rugby Football League Championship Final at Station Road, Swinton on 10 May 1967 by 20 points to 9 in a replay, after a 7–7 draw 4 days earlier. This would be Coan's last year in charge at St Helens after a highly successful period as boss. He was replaced by Cliff Evans.
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Evans' first full season in charge at the club saw him win the club's eighth Lancashire Cup in 1968; winning 13–10 against Warrington after a replay. St Helens retained the Lancashire Cup the year later, whilst also winning the Lancashire League for being the highest placed Lancashire side in the National standings, and they also reached the final of the Floodlit Trophy that season, where they were beaten 7—4 by Wigan. The 1969–70 season would be the year that Evans would leave his post, but not without winning a National Championship, beating Leeds in the final after finishing third overall.
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The 1970s were also seen as a successful spell for St Helens, as they reached three Challenge Cup finals in the period. John Challinor took over from Cliff Evans in 1970, and in his first season, he won the Championship, and reached two finals, the Lancashire Cup and Floodlit Trophy, losing both. In this season, a European Championship—not dissimilar to today's World Club Challenge—was contested between St Helens and French champions St Gaudens. Over a two—legged game, St Helens won 92–11 on aggregate. In their first Challenge Cup Final of the 1970s, they defeated Leeds in 1972 16–13, in addition to winning their first Floodlit Trophy, after losing out in the final three times before, with an 8–2 win over Rochdale. No success was achieved in seasons 1972—73 and 1973–74, with St Helens finishing third and second in the respective years. This could be a possible reason for Challinor's replacement with Eric Ashton as head coach. In Ashton's first season in charge, St Helens won the
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Championship, and contested the inaugural Premiership final, losing 26–11 to Leeds. They repeated their first Challenge Cup success of the 1970s three years after the first against Widnes in 1976 where they were victorious by 20–5 in the famous 'Dads Army' final. They also won the Premiership against Salford, and the Floodlit Trophy against Dewsbury in a successful season. In the same year, St Helens lost to Eastern Suburbs in an unofficial World Club Challenge Final by 25 points to 2. The club won the Premiership in 1977, but, on 13 December 1977, Saints lost 26–11 to Hull Kingston Rovers in the final of the BBC2 Floodlit Trophy. In 1978 Leeds avenged their 1972 loss against St Helens, emerging winners by 14–12. St Helens lost the Floodlit Trophy in the 1978–79 season, going down to Widnes. The 1979–80 season was unsuccessful, with St Helens finishing mid—table. Eric Ashton left the club after this disappointing year.
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Club legend and Welsh international Kel Coslett took over as coach in June 1980. However, his spell as coach was not nearly as successful as his spell as a player, and St Helens won nothing whilst under Coslett's command, finishing mid—table in both seasons. He held the post for two years before handing over to Billy Benyon. Not in—keeping with several of his predecessors, Benyon did not enjoy any success in his maiden season as St Helens coach; losing the Lancashire Cup final of that year to Warrington. Nothing was won in the 1983–84 season, but Saints won back the Lancashire Cup, with a 26–18 win at Wigan in the 1984–85 season. They also won the Premiership in the same season with a 36–16 victory over defending champions Hull Kingston Rovers. In Benyon's last season as coach, 1985–86, nothing was won.
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The arrival of Alex Murphy as coach in 1986 produced some colourful displays from a team that was widely regarded as an entertaining team to watch, but seemed to be constant runners—up. This was illustrated by the shock defeat by Halifax in the Challenge Cup final at Wembley 19–18 in 1987. Success was achieved in 1988 when St Helens lifted their one and only John Player Trophy with a thrilling 15–14 victory over Leeds in January 1988, at Central Park, Wigan. Neil Holding with the crucial, match—winning drop—goal. They, however, lost to Widnes in the Premiership Final at Old Trafford at the end of the season, further showing this teams ability to get to finals and not be able to compete on the best stage. Nothing was achieved in the next season, and Murphy stood down as coach.
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Murphy was succeeded by Mike McClennan in February 1990. In his first season, McClennan took St Helens to the 1991 Challenge Cup Final, where they were defeated by 13 points to 8 by Wigan. They won the Lancashire Cup, in the 1991–92 season, beating Rochdale Hornets. They also lost the Premiership Final that season, losing to Wigan. In 1993 the club avenged their defeat by Wigan the season previous to win the Premiership, in the same season that they won the Charity Shield, and lost the Lancashire Cup final. McClennan was head coach until December 1993, when Eric Hughes succeeded him as head coach in 1994. Under Hughes, St Helens only reached the one, Regal Trophy Final, where they lost to Wigan in 1996 by 25 to 16. They finished fourth in both of Hughes' seasons in charge. The lack of trophies in the St Helens cabinet, after the club had suddenly become so accustomed to success, would need to change in the "new" brand Super League that formed in 1996; hence Hughes' departure in 1996
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and replacement with Australian Shaun McRae.
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Summer era
Following on from their most constant ambition for successes, first experienced really in the sixties, Saints became one of the most successful side of the summer era. Since the inception of Super League in 1996, they have won the title on five occasions, and have added seven Challenge Cups to their five previous successes. Indeed, they won the inaugural Super League, albeit by finishing top of the league before the play—off era. St Helens defeated Bradford 8–6 in the 1999 Super League Grand Final, their first Grand Final, with more than 50,000 people witnessing Chris Joynt lift the trophy at Old Trafford. They also won the World Club Challenge in 2001 and 2007, beating Brisbane both times.
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Late 1990s
The success of the Saints in Super League began under the leadership of Shaun McRae in 1996. During his tenure the club won one league title (1996), a year in which he was named Super League's coach of the year, and enjoyed back—to—back successes over Bradford in the Challenge Cup (1996 and 1997).1998 proved to be a trophyless year, and Ellery Hanley succeeded McRae in 1999, after the Australian left for new Super League side Gateshead. Hanley led Saints to Grand Final success against Bradford in October of his first year in charge. Hanley was considered by many to be a polarising figure and after several acrimonious disagreements with the St Helens board of directors, he was sacked a month into the following season. Ian Millward was appointed as Hanley's successor as head coach.
2000s
Millward's reign and a controversial sacking (2000—2005)
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Under Millward, St Helens quickly became the most exciting team in the competition, playing expansive, attacking rugby. He saw them soundly beaten in the 2000 World Club Challenge, losing 44–6 to Melbourne, but lead them to retaining their Super League title in 2000 beating Wigan 29–16. They also won the 2001 Challenge Cup Final 13–6 over Bradford, with the final held at Twickenham Stadium for the first time, and the 2001 World Club Challenge, earning a 20–18 win over the Broncos. Millward then lead Saints to reclaim the Super League title in the 2002 Grand Final, Sean Long snatching a last minute 19–18 win over the Bradford with a drop—goal. They were hammered in the 2003 World Club Challenge by Sydney by 38 points to 0. In this season, they failed to win a trophy after being knocked out of the Challenge Cup by Leeds at the semi—final stage, and the Super League play—offs by Wigan at the same stage. In 2004 they beat arch—rivals Wigan 32–16 at the Millennium Stadium, Cardiff in front
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of a capacity crowd of 73,734 people to win the Challenge Cup, Long gaining his second of an eventual three Lance Todd Trophies.
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Millward's reign was not without controversy and his St Helens career ended controversially after he was suspended in May 2005. He was sacked for gross misconduct a week later. Daniel Anderson was appointed as coach, Millward was then made coach of arch rivals Wigan. The St Helens faithful largely saw this sacking as unfair and as a step backwards for the club. However, if these fans could have foreseen what was to follow under Anderson then they would have certainly wanted him hired sooner.
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The Anderson era (2005—2009)
Daniel Anderson saw his new team become the first team to top the Super League and fail to reach Old Trafford in 2005. However,
St Helens won the Powergen 2006 Challenge Cup Final at Twickenham Stadium, London on Saturday 26 August 2006, beating Huddersfield 42–12. This was their second Challenge Cup victory at Twickenham stadium, the first occasion being in 2001. St Helens scrum-half Sean Long was awarded the Lance Todd trophy for the man—of—the—match performance during the 2006 Challenge Cup Final and in doing so became the first ever player to win a third Lance Todd trophy. These added to the awards he won in 2001 and 2004.
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St Helens followed up their Challenge Cup win by claiming the League Leader's Shield, before cementing their reputation as the team of the year by defeating Hull 26 points to 4 in the Super League Grand Final. Once more St Helens confirmed their status as the outstanding team of the summer era. Additionally, Paul Wellens received the Man of Steel Award for the 2006 season.
In December 2006 St Helens were awarded with the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Team Award at the Annual BBC Sports Personality of the Year Ceremony. This accolade recognises the best team in any sport within the United Kingdom. At the same ceremony Daniel Anderson was given the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Coach Award – this was the first time a rugby league coach had won the award.
After a slow start to the 2007 season, Saints added to their history by beating Brisbane 18–14 to win the 2007 World Club Challenge.
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In July, they beat Super League rivals, Bradford, to reach the first Challenge Cup final at the new Wembley Stadium. Here, St Helens successfully defended their Challenge Cup by defeating Catalans Dragons 30–8 in the final on 25 August 2007. They were beaten in the Grand Final that year by Leeds by 33 points to 6, despite finishing at the top of the league ladder for the third successive season. James Roby, however, became the second St Helens player, and home—grown talent in two years to win the Man of Steel Award.
Saints success in the Challenge Cup continued in 2008 with a victory at the new Wembley Stadium, this time defeating Hull F.C. 28–16. Paul Wellens received the Lance Todd Trophy after sharing the award with teammate Leon Pryce the year earlier.
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They also achieved first place again in the 2008 Super League season – for the 4th year running – winning the League Leaders Shield, and beat Leeds 38-10 for the right to go to Old Trafford to contest the Grand Final. However, St. Helens were once again defeated by Leeds in the Grand Final, by a margin of 24 to 16, on 4 October 2008. James Graham, on a positive note, made it a hat—trick of ex—Blackbrook Royals to win the Man of Steel Award whilst playing for St Helens. This would be Anderson's last game in charge of the club, as he announced he was to return to Australia and the Parramatta Eels of the NRL. St Helens fans and players alike were saddened to see Anderson leave, after not only upholding the tradition of St Helens exciting brand of rugby, but giving them a defensive and disciplined edge that was never apparent under Ian Millward. His personality and relationship with the fans was an additional reason why St Helens fans were disgruntled in him leaving after four years in
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charge and why next boss Mick Potter faced a fair amount of criticism in his initial period as boss.
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The Potter years (2009—2010)
Mick Potter was announced as the successor to Anderson, which received many plaudits from the St Helens fans and the European game as a whole, as the year previous he had led Catalans Dragons to a record—high third—placed finish in the league. On 9 August 2009, St Helens reached a record 9th consecutive Challenge Cup semi—final, where they were beaten by 24 points to 14 by Huddersfield. This prevented Saints from reaching the final at the new Wembley Stadium for a third successive time and from winning the cup for a fourth time running. This defeat naturally came as a shock to the St Helens faithful, after so often in the last 15 years seeing the team reach the pinnacle of this competition and go on to win the cup. It was from here that the criticism began, and questions were raised particularly of his tactics and his activity (or lack of) in the transfer market.
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On 3 October 2009, Saints defeated fierce rivals Wigan to book their place at a fourth consecutive Super League Grand Final,
only to lose out to Leeds in the final, 18–10, making Leeds the only team to win the Grand Final three times consecutively. A 20—year—old Kyle Eastmond scored all of Saints' points. A trophyless year for the first time since 2003 was another catalyst to Potter's critics abusing and slating his appointment, with even rumours of rifts within the changing rooms.
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2010s
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2010 was the year that saw Potter surrender to his critics and leave St Helens. Criticisms from club legends like Paul Sculthorpe and Sean Long regarding his personal skills with the fans, as well as the continued fan rejection saw him let his contract run out and, initially, seek a job in the NRL, but eventually, and perhaps surprisingly, join Bradford on a two—year contract. Names like Royce Simmons, Mal Meninga, and assistant coach Kieron Purtill, were linked with the job for 2011. Simmons was the chosen man for the job, as announced on 22 July 2010. The 2010 season would also see hooker and captain Keiron Cunningham retire from the game after 17 years with his one and only club. However, Cunningham would not be leaving without leaving a lasting legacy on the club. A life—like bronze statue of Cunningham was built and placed on display in the town, before being transported to the club's new stadium upon its construction in 2012. He would additionally take up a coaching role with
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the academy, as well as a strength and conditioning role with the first team. In light of these decisions, neither Cunningham nor Potter halted their personal and the St Helens team quest for success; shown by their 10th successive semi—final appearance in the Challenge Cup. However, Saints failure to perform on the big stage was once more shown, going down in this semi—final by 32–28. Defeating Huddersfield in the qualifying semi—final in the 2010 play-off series by 42–22 not only saw Saints qualify for their fifth Grand Final in five years, but also saw the final ever game to be played at Knowsley Road. Cunningham snatched the final ever try at the famous old ground in typical fashion from dummy—half. However, for the fourth year running, St Helens once more proved flops in the Grand Final. One of the finest finals of the Super League era was anticipated, but the flamboyant Saints that the fans saw so rarely under Potter once more failed to materialise, and, in front of a near
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sell—out crowd of 71,526, they fell to a 22–10 loss to rivals Wigan. It was not the romantic finish to the Saints careers of Potter, Cunningham or any of the departing members of the squad that many had hoped for, but nevertheless, a new era was just around the corner, as Simmons' reign began.
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A new era begins (2010–present)
Australian Royce Simmons took over from compatriot Mick Potter at the end of the 2010 season. His reign began in a positive sense, certainly in the eyes of the Saints faithful in comparison to Potter, and in terms of market activity, with several key personnel departing from and arriving at the club. The club itself also underwent something of a revolution. The 2011 season was the year St Helens left Knowsley Road, lost their long-standing captain and hooker Keiron Cunningham to retirement and re—branded unofficially to Saints RL, as well as welcoming new coach Simmons.
Kit history
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In their rugby football days and early years as a rugby league club, St Helens wore a vertically stripped blue and white jersey with blue shorts and socks. This kit was reverted to by Saints during their centenary year in 1995. In their initial period at Knowsley Road, St Helens wore a similar jersey, but the stripes were horizontal, and the colours blue and grey. In 2010, the club used this design as a commemorative strip, to celebrate their 110th and final year at the ground. These colours however were dropped in favour of a more traditional to today, red and white design. The kit entailed a thick red horizontal strip, with a white background, and was used until 1961. In the 1961 Challenge Cup final against Wigan, the strip still seen today—the famous red vee—was first utilised.
References
St Helens R.F.C.
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Axis & Allies is a real-time strategy World War II video game developed by TimeGate Studios and published by Atari for Microsoft Windows. The game was released on November 2, 2004. It is based on the board game series Axis & Allies from Milton Bradley and also on TimeGate's Kohan series. Set in the years after Japan and the United States entered into the war, the game allows the player to act as a World War II commander to build military forces to fight against other generals, using military units and technologies from the war. The player is able to rewrite and recreate the history of World War II.
The game is TimeGate's best-selling game release, upon the company's closure in 2013. The game was met with positive reception, although some reviewers claimed the game fell short in terms of AI mechanics and in an overemphasis on base management. Axis & Allies: Collector's Edition was released as a new name for the game on August 28, 2006 by Encore Software.
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Gameplay
In Axis & Allies, the player assumes the role of a military general of one of the five superpowers of World War II: the United States, Great Britain, Germany, Soviet Union, and Japan. Each nation has access to its own unique military units, such as snipers for the Soviets, flamethrower tanks for the British, and King Tiger tanks for the Germans. Four generals exist for each nation, with each general having access to unique Special Operation abilities, such as summoning fake tanks, deploying a secret agent, or giving an area buff to friendly units. Particularly noteworthy are the most expensive Special Operations, which include large damaging area of effect abilities such as carpet bombing, kamikazes, V-weapons, and nuclear bombs.
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The player battles against other generals in one of three game modes: World War II, custom game, and campaign mode. Gameplay is played mainly in the real-time strategy genre, though turn-based strategy is used in WWII mode. The primary objective of gameplay is to destroy all opposing enemy military forces, though some campaigns and maps require other objectives to be completed, such as capturing certain cities, escorting a caravan, or defending a specific area. A "City Control" percentage option may be enabled, in which the winner of the battle goes to the first side/team to capture a set percentage of cities on the map.
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Like in other RTS games, the player must expend resources to construct buildings and recruit units to fight the enemy, while maintaining an economy, progressing through a build tree, and researching upgrades. In standard gameplay, the player deploys building trucks from a Corps HQ, the main military headquarters building. These building trucks can "unpack" into all other essential buildings, which aid in producing combat units, technologies, and the three major resources of the game: money, ammo, and oil. Money is obtained as a constant flow of revenue from specific buildings and is used to purchase combat units and technologies, whereas ammo and oil are static resources provided by buildings, and are used for combat unit upkeep. Combat units of their corresponding types are deployed from four classes of buildings: Infantry, Airborne, Mechanized, and Armor Division HQs.
Axis & Allies also includes special gameplay features, such as regimental control, chained supply, and morale.
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"Regiments" are the base combat groups that the player can control. A regiment is composed of a certain squad of units, where a unit can be, for example, an Anti-Tank Infantry, a Halftrack, or a Light Tank. The player controls the entire regiment as a whole, but cannot select and control its individual units. Every unit within a regiment is different, for example, a tank destroyer will paralyze units while mortar units will splash bombard. A regiment can be toggled into three states of unit formation, which trade the regiment's movement speed for attack efficiency, meaning hit-and-run attacks are less damaging than slow advances. There is also a feature called "entrenchment" in which a regiment gains a large defensive bonus if idle for a certain period of time. Furthermore, regiments gain experience from battles and have four tiers of veterancy, which improve the attack and defense of the regiment's units with each level.
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The game includes three types of units: ground units, air units, and naval units. All regiments are made up of ground units; they are blocked by mountains and slowed by forests, sand, and cities, though infantry units gain a defensive bonus while in forests or cities. Secondly, air units can fly over mountains, but they move and attack automatically; they can be deployed but not controlled by the player. Thirdly, naval units travel in water, but can neither be healed nor recruited, and thus they only appear in campaigns.
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In addition, the game employs a feature called a zone of supply for replenishing regiments, defined by a surrounding green border. Regiments heal and replace missing troops within the zone of supply through "chaining" to Division HQs of their type. The player's main Corps HQ, as well as cities, are the primary sources for emanating the zone of supply. Other buildings can extend the zone of supply so that regiments far from a base of operations can replenish troops. In addition, most buildings are able to be packed and relocated to redraw supply lines, if needed.
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Battles are also fought around a special feature called morale, which represents a regiment's tendency to rout from battle. Each regiment features a morale bar, which decreases as the regiment is engaged in battle. If morale drops below a threshold, the regiment's banner will flash white and the regiment makes an uncontrolled retreat away from the enemy. If the morale bar reaches zero, the regiment becomes frozen in place until it either gains its morale back or is killed. This makes prolonging battles costly, but the player can avoid regiments from routing by manually retreating them before their morale drops too low. Enemy artillery fire and flame attacks diminish the morale bar more rapidly. Some Special Operation abilities are used to affect the morale of friendly and enemy units.
WWII mode
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WWII mode is a game mode which allows the player to wage war across the globe in a traditional turn-based fashion. It resembles a turn-based computer variant of the Axis & Allies board games, but with the option to fight battles in RTS mode. The player fights WWII in how they see fit, effectively "changing the course of history."
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At the start, the player chooses a nation and a general to play as, then the game displays a game board showing a panoramic map of the world with territory tiles. A number of territories, such as Australia or Germany, have defensive pieces already in place. The player and computer players take turns purchasing infantry, mechanized, armor, and air support pieces from their home country and move them across the map to engage enemy armies and territories. Each nation has reduced recruitment cost for a specific military piece; for example, Germany recruits cheaper armor pieces, Russia has cheaper infantry pieces, and Japan has cheaper air support pieces. Moreover, each nation can purchase technologies to increase the chance that its battles will be successful; these are the same researches encountered in RTS mode. Either the Allies or Axis wins when two capitals of the opposing side are conquered.
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Battles that occur are chosen by the player to be fought in either of two ways: as a "quick resolve" battle or as an "RTS battle". "Quick resolves" are computerized simulations of the battles and the outcome is immediate. Probability of victory is based on army sizes and technologies researched by the attacking and defending armies. In contrast, "RTS battles" are fought using the normal real-time strategy mode. These battles procedurally generate their maps from the board game state. The quantity of military pieces attacking and defending a territory determines each player's starting money and starting forces in the RTS battle. Furthermore, the particular types of pieces contesting a territory restricts the types of units (i.e. infantry, mechanized, armor, air) that each player is able to deploy. A special feature is that if pieces converge to attack from multiple territories, forces appear in the corresponding directions in the battle. In addition, these battles take place in the
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appropriate biomes of the contested territories (e.g. island, coastal region, desert, forestland).
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There are only two major resources in WWII mode: money and technologies. Money is used to purchase military pieces and technologies. It is obtained every turn as the sum of the income values of controlled territories. Technologies, on the other hand, are purchased to increase the probability of victory in "quick resolve" battles. Purchasing technologies also pre-researches them in RTS battles.
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The primary rules of the board game are as follows. If an attacking army defeats a defending army, the weakest piece of the defeated army is destroyed and the rest of the army retreats to a nearby allied territory. If the defending army is unable to retreat to nearby allied territory (i.e. completely surrounded), then the entire army is destroyed. However, if the defender is the victor, then the weakest piece of the attacker's army is destroyed and the rest of the attacking army retreats back to their original territory. If a piece moves into a neutral territory or an abandoned enemy territory, it will automatically capture that territory at the start of the next turn.
In contrast to the Axis & Allies board games, each player can only attack one territory per turn. Also, naval and air units are not built on the board but appear only during an RTS battle resolution. Moreover, each movable game piece is only given a movement speed of one tile.
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Custom battle
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Custom battle is a game mode in which real-time strategy battles are played on either a randomly generated map or on a pre-built map. Both randomly-generated and pre-built maps allow up to 8 players, and are played with the computer or online with real players. For randomly-generated maps, the player is allowed to choose the map's biome (e.g. desert, jungle, grassland), what land features are present on the map (e.g. mountains, forests, sand), how much money and experience points each player starts out with, and many other options. Axis & Allies''' built-in random map generator then procedurally generates the map according to the terrain options selected. When playing on a randomly generated map, each player always starts in random locations on the map with the iconic setup of a primary Corps HQ building, some bunker defenses, and a supply depot truck. Gameplay proceeds as usual until a victor is decided by the victory condition of either destroying all enemies or capturing a set
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percentage of cities, if that option is set.
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The Axis & Allies Map Editor allows players to make their own custom battle maps to play in both singleplayer and multiplayer mode. Players are able to customize many map options, including player starting units, scenery objects, terrain layout, audio sources, and game triggers. Game triggers allow for custom creation of cutscenes, unit & VFX spawns, storylines, and military objectives.
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Multiplayer games are played in the format of a custom battle; the other two game modes, WWII mode and Campaign mode, are not available for online play. Online players play in solo or team battles on randomly generated maps, or on official or player-created maps. A maximum of 12 players is allowed to join a single game, but only a maximum of 8 players is allowed to actually play. Players who are not playing are allowed to spectate in-game. Players can save multiplayer films, host rooms and games, and make friends and add them to their buddy lists. Online service was supported by GameSpy Arcade, a free online player-matching service. At the beginning of December 2012, GameSpy discontinued online server service to users. However, user direct-connect LAN services can still function.
Plot
Campaigns
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In Campaign mode, the player is thrust into a series of World War II campaign battles for either the Axis Powers (Germany and Japan) or the Allied Nations (United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union) throughout the years of 1941–1945.The Allied campaign begins with the "Battle of El Alamein" (1942) and the Axis campaign begins with the mission "Airdrop on Crete" (1941). There are a total of 24 campaign missions: 12 for the Allied and 12 for the Axis.
Playing as the Allies, the course of history goes the way it actually did with the Battle of Normandy sealing Germany's fate and the capture of Iwo Jima and Okinawa sealing Japan's. The campaigns interchange between the armies of Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and the United States of America as time progresses.
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Playing as the Axis leads to an alternate history of WWII, based on what-if scenarios. The campaign begins with a tactical German victory in the Battle of Crete. Having driven out British forces in the Mediterranean, Rommel and his Afrika Korps win the Battle of El Alamein, pushing the British all the way back through the Suez Canal. With the fuel-rich Middle East in German hands, Germany wins the decisive Battle of Stalingrad and the following year, the endlessly supplied Panzer units crush the Russians at Kursk, effectively sealing the fate of the Eastern Front. Meanwhile, in the Pacific War, Japan manages an invasion of Australia, leaving the Americans without a staging area in the Pacific (it is also suggested that the attack on Pearl Harbor was more successful, with the fleet being sunk in deep waters rather than in the shallow waters of the base). The Battle of Normandy still happens; however, the landing beaches have unfavorable terrain and the Germans' counterattack is
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successful. The failed invasion at Normandy not only prevented the Allies from opening a new front in the war, it also oversaw Germany's plans to invade Great Britain. With Rundstedt invading from the south and Rommel invading from the west, Operation Sea Lion proved to be a success, forcing the British to surrender.
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While Germany deals with partisan resistance, Japan invades India to crush the last of the British forces under the command of Wingate. With Great Britain defeated, Germany is able to turn its attention back to Stalin and the Soviet Union. Japanese advance units under General Kuribayashi and German Panzer divisions under Field Marshal Manstein surround Moscow, but the battle for control of the city turns into a three way brawl with German and Japanese units each vying for control of the city. The battle ends in a German victory. By now, the United States of America is the only Allied nation left to challenge the Axis. With the defeat of British and Australian forces, Japan quickly eliminates the last remaining ships of the American fleet and captures Midway, and later Hawaii. With American naval forces crippled beyond repair, the Allies lose their chances of defeating the Axis Powers and America settles into a new Cold War with Japan in the Pacific and Nazi Germany in Europe.
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DevelopmentAxis & Allies was developed by TimeGate Studios and built using the Kohan II game engine, which laid out much of the framework for the game. Axis & Allies was released about a month later than Kohan II.
The people at TimeGate were "very excited to [work] on [the] project with one of the leading publishers in the industry [Atari]", as told by Adel Chaveleh, president of TimeGate Studios. He also said that "[they] have been fans and players of the Axis & Allies franchise for years, and [their] commitment to innovation combined with the popularity of the brand is a definite recipe for a killer title."
The design process of Axis & Allies largely entailed three things: research, visual design, and game triggers.
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One design task was choosing the missions for the Axis campaign. It was difficult to judge at what point the war should turn in favor of the Axis. It was decided that major changes had to start early in the war. If Rommel had not gotten sick or if Montgomery had never been placed in charge of the British forces in North Africa, the second Axis campaign mission, the Battle of El Alamein, might have been a disaster for the British. The Germans might have broken through and moved on to capture several of the major oil fields in the Middle East. If they had, then Operation Barbarossa might have been successful for Germany, since in the real course of history, German forces had to stop 30 miles from Moscow because some forces had to be diverted to fight for the Caucasus oil fields.
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Most of the designers at TimeGate working on the game were history buffs, and they watched World War II movies and documentaries at home for research. The Band of Brothers miniseries was popular with the team. Such research was used to size maps, create the appropriate number of cities, and to select which armies to be present. For example, the Normandy map was designed to be very large to accommodate all five beachheads: Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno, and Sword. The map was designed to accommodate all four Allied divisions that landed and the two Axis corps defending the coast.
For terrain design, the designer or artist working on the map would usually keep an atlas of the region by his desk for reference. The art team produced numerous terrain sets, such as the "Russian winter".
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The designers used game triggers to make special game events occur. For example, early development of the Battle of the Bulge mission focused on the defense of Bastogne by the 101st Airborne Division. The map design started out as a city with several airborne companies inside it. Using triggers, German troops were pulled to attack the city many times. If the player could hold out long enough, Patton's third army arrived to break the encirclement.
The turn-based WWII mode in Axis & Allies was chiefly inspired by the Axis & Allies board game series. Although different in how it is played, the mode was said by lead designer Brian Wood to "capture the importance of the economic factors (which are often left out of WWII games), as well as to encompass the global aspect of the board game."
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ReceptionAxis & Allies performed satisfactory in ratings. The game was rated with a 6.0 by GameSpot, with gaming critics on the site giving a rating of 6.8 and users rating the game with 7.5. IGN rated the game with a score of 8.4, stating that "Axis and Allies RTS stands on its own merits as a great strategy game."
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GamePlanet rated the game 4 out of 5 stars, marking the game as "a marriage of the original board game and the recent award-winning RTS fantasy title Kohan II", saying that the game "has certainly taken on the best of both and delivered a great little game."
XGPGaming tooted an 8.7/10 rating, saying that "[they] did a great job on this game, in a genre that has been watered down by the numerous attempts by various companies [...] I recommend everyone who likes real-time strategy games to give this one a try." eToyChest gave a rating of 80%, writing that the game was "worthy to carry the [Axis & Allies] name proudly, and is a tremendously entertaining game in its own right [...] Axis & Allies delivers in terms of pure excitement and plain and simple fun. The game packs in more than enough challenge to keep even the seasoned RTS veterans gritting their teeth, while the online component is sure to keep most any player giddy."
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GameSpy gave the game a low 2 out of 5 stars, detailing the game as, "Timegate's Kohan goes to World War II and shoots itself in the foot." Tom Chick from GameSpy claimed that although the game "does a good job of modeling supply lines", he blames the game's incompetence on the "interface [...] confusing and non-intuitive interplay among units [, and] too much base management." The game has also been criticized for its weak AI mechanics. However, the game was stated by its developers to be able to "learn and adapt to player strategies as they play the game."
IGN remarks that, artistically, the visuals of Axis & Allies look good:
Musically, Butts says, "The music and weapon effects are passable but don't stand out too much. Their chief virtue is in not getting in the way of the gameplay." Chris Stavros from GameWatcher thought the audio and video elements of the game were superb and portrayed the atmosphere of World War II very well:
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Larry Harris, the founder of the acclaimed Axis & Allies board game series, was proud to expand the Axis & Allies franchise into the realm of real-time strategy gaming:Axis & Allies'' is TimeGate's best-selling game release, upon the company's closure in 2013.
See also
Axis & Allies board game series
Axis & Allies (1998 video game)
References and notes
External links
Axis & Allies on IGN
Axis & Allies on MobyGames
Official TimeGate website (archived 2012)
Official Atari website (archived 2007, dead landing page)
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2004 video games
Axis & Allies
Computer wargames
Cultural depictions of Bernard Montgomery
Cultural depictions of George S. Patton
Cultural depictions of Erwin Rommel
Cultural depictions of Isoroku Yamamoto
Cultural depictions of Georgy Zhukov
Grand strategy video games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Real-time strategy video games
Video games based on board games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set in Australia
Video games set in Belgium
Video games set in Egypt
Video games set in France
Video games set in Germany
Video games set in Greece
Video games set in India
Video games set in Italy
Video games set in Japan
Video games set in the Netherlands
Video games set in the Soviet Union
Video games set in the United Kingdom
Video games using procedural generation
War video games set in the British Empire
War video games set in the United States
Windows games
Windows-only games
Works about battles and operations of World War II
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World War II grand strategy computer games
World War II video games
TimeGate Studios games
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Ludvig Holberg, Baron of Holberg (3 December 1684 – 28 January 1754) was a writer, essayist, philosopher, historian and playwright born in Bergen, Norway, during the time of the Dano-Norwegian dual monarchy. He was influenced by Humanism, the Enlightenment and the Baroque. Holberg is considered the founder of modern Danish and Norwegian literature. He is best known for the comedies he wrote in 1722–1723 for the Lille Grønnegade Theatre in Copenhagen. Holberg's works about natural and common law were widely read by many Danish law students over two hundred years, from 1736 to 1936.
Studies and teaching
Holberg was the youngest of six brothers. His father, Christian Nielsen Holberg, died before Ludvig was one year old. He was educated in Copenhagen, and was a teacher at the University of Copenhagen for many years. At the same time, he started his successful career as an author, writing the first of a series of comedies.
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He began to study theology at the University of Copenhagen and later taught himself law, history and language. He was not particularly interested in theology as a career, settling for an attestats (similar to a Bachelor's degree today), which gave him the right to work as a priest; he did not attempt a baccalaureus, magister or doctorate in the subject, nor did he follow a career as a theology professor, priest, or bishop. In Holberg's youth, it was common to study theology and specialize according to one's degree, for example in Greek, Latin, philosophy or history. For the purpose of becoming a lawyer, it was normal to study abroad. In 1736 the Danish Lawyer degree was established at the University of Copenhagen, a degree which continued to be granted for 200 years, and for which Holberg's writings remained common reading material throughout this time. Holberg was formally appointed assistant professor after having first worked as one without pay. He had to accept the first available
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position, which was teaching metaphysics. Later, he became a professor and taught rhetoric and Latin. Finally, he was given a professorship in the subject which he prized most and was most productive in, history.
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Holberg was well-educated and well-traveled. In his adolescence, he visited large cities in countries such as the Netherlands and France, and lived for a short period of time in Rome; and for a longer period of time in Oxford, England (1706–1708), which was rare during that time as intellectual life was centered in continental Europe. He was not formally admitted to Oxford University, but spent his time there using the libraries and participating in Latin discussions with the English students.
Writings
Holberg's travels were a main inspiration in his later writings these experiences matured him both artistically and morally. Holberg let himself be inspired by old Latin comedies and newer French comedies he had seen in Paris, and street theaters in Rome.
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His writings can be divided into three periods, during which he produced mainly history, 1711–1718; mainly satirical poetry and stage comedies, 1719–1731; and mainly philosophy, 1731–1750. His rich output of comedies during the middle period was shaped by his role as house dramatist at Denmark's first public theater, opened in Copenhagen in 1721. These comedies are the works on which his fame rests today, and they were an immediate and immense success. However the poverty caused by the Copenhagen Fire of 1728, brought a wave of depression and puritanism upon the nation, which clashed with Holberg's satirical works, and as a consequence he gave up his comedies switching to philosophical and historical writings in 1731. Holberg's only novel, the satirical science-fiction/fantasy Niels Klim's Underground Travels was originally published in Latin in 1741 as Nicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum.
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Ideology
In Paris, Holberg met the Danish scientist Jacob Winsløw, who was Catholic. Winsløw tried to convert Holberg, without success. Holberg enjoyed the debate, but it started a rumor in Copenhagen that Holberg had converted to Catholicism as Winsløw had, and as a consequence he felt it necessary to deny this to the Danish public, giving voice to anti-Catholic views on several occasions.
Holberg criticized school doctrines in Christianity, arguing that "Children must be made into men, before they can become Christians" and
"If one learns Theology, before learning to become a man, one will never become a man."
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Holberg believed in people's inner divine light of reason, and to him it was important that the first goal of education was to teach students to use their senses and intellect, instead of uselessly memorising school books. This was a new, modern understanding of the question of religion, and it shows he was a man of the Age of Enlightenment. Holberg was interested in intellect because he felt that this is what binds society together. He also wondered why there was so much evil in the world, especially when one could let reason lead the way. One could say that he distanced himself from a religious explanation of evil towards a rational/empirical train of thought, and this is important because of his status as an author; both in his time and ours.
Holberg was open to biblical criticism, and Holberg's religious representation was, for the most part, deism. He was critical of the notion of original sin, instead subscribing to the notion of man's free will.
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Holberg's declared intentions with his authorship were to enlighten people to better society. This also fits in with the picture of Holberg as of the age of enlightenment. It is worth noting that Holberg enjoyed larger cities with deep culture – small cities and nature did not interest him.
Like many scholars of his time, Holberg also influenced science. Holberg's concept for science was that it should be inductive (through experience built on observations) and practical to use. One example is his Betænkning over den nu regierende Qvæg-Syge (Memorandum on the prevalent cattle disease), (1745) where he reasons that the disease is caused by microorganisms.
Finances
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In youth
Holberg had to live a modest life in his youth and early adulthood. He earned a living as a tutor and as a travel companion for noblemen and tried to work as a private sports coach at the university. He received further support from a grant to travel to other universities in other countries, namely Protestant universities, but it was a condition he did not respect since he searched out those places where the discussion were the loudest and the experiences were the largest.
During his stay in England, Holberg set his eyes on academic authoring and on his return, he started writing about history. Later, he wrote also about natural and international law, possibly at the prompting of an older professor who likened him to natural and international law authors such as Hugo Grotius and Samuel Pufendorf.
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To make the most possible profit, Holberg published his own works and sold them as papers under a subscription to interested people, either bound or in looseleaf sheets. Holberg also tried, with some success, a publisher in Norway. There, his book about natural and international law was printed in several editions but did not garner him financial gains.
Investments
Holberg lived modestly and was able to invest a large part of the profits from the sale of his books on the side and lend them out or invest them in more active ventures. Several times in his writings he criticized townspeople and nobles who used their resources in unproductive ways to be carried round in chairs, to live in lavish houses and waste money on luxury. He ate reasonably and did not use his money on being driven around. He said that his travelling on foot, and continued walking, was the reason he could keep his malaria, which had plagued him in the south, under control.
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When he came to the conclusion he could put his money in better ventures than trading, he started investing in real estate. His first large property purchase, Brorupgaard close to Havrebjerg, happened in stages; first he lent money to the owner at that time, and later took over the farm himself.
Some years later, Holberg also purchased Tersløsegard by Dianalund, the only one of his properties which is preserved because the others in Bergen, Copenhagen and Havrebjerg have been either burned down or torn down.
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Sorø Academy and Holberg's will;
Holberg was both unmarried and childless, but in the end of his life had a small fortune. He was interested in leaving a legacy and left his estate to Sorø Academy, which was a royal riding academy, with the goal of creating an institution at a university level for young men coming from nobility. Holberg supported the idea of the academy, worked out suggestions to which academic direction it would take and was asked by the king's superintendent to refer some professors for the school. The influential Enlightenment writer Jens Schielderup Sneedorff was appointed professor at Sorø Academy at Holbergs request.
The agreement with the king included that Holberg would be free of taxes from any income from the farms he owned, because the amount donated to the school should be larger than the amount he would pay in taxes. At the same time, he earned the title of Baron of Holberg.
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Holberg's casket, a work of Johannes Wiedewelt, can be seen in Sorø Monastery Church.
Examples of Holberg's financial management
It can be seen from Holberg's correspondence that he was very conservative with money where he thought it would not be of any use; for example, he was against raising the wage of the pedagogues of Havrebjerg.
Holberg commented several times that he was willing to use money if it were put to good use, for example, he would use money on medication and supplies for his farm hands if they suffered from injury or illness.
When academia had large economic difficulties, because funding was very limited, Holberg agreed to help fund the academy (at Sorø Academy) while he was alive.
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Tributes
Norwegian Edvard Grieg composed the Holberg Suite (opus 40) to honor Holberg. The suite is in the style of country dances from Holberg's time. In 1911 Johan Halvorsen composed incidental music for a production of Holberg's Barselstuen (The Lying-in Room) in Oslo. Halvorsen later arranged the music into his Suite Ancienne op. 31, which he dedicated to the memory of Holberg.
The Norwegian University of Bergen awards the Holberg International Memorial Prize. The 4.5 million kroner (ca. €520,000) endowed prize was awarded to Julia Kristeva in 2004, to Jürgen Habermas in 2005, and to Shmuel Eisenstadt in 2006.
There is a town named after Holberg on northern Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. It was founded by Danish immigrants in 1907.
Dan Shore's opera The Beautiful Bridegroom, for six sopranos, is based on Holberg's last play, Den forvandlede Brudgom.
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There is a statue of Holberg and a boulevard named after him (Holbergsallmenningen) in the centre of Bergen, Norway.
A crater on Mercury is named for him.
Written works
Comedies
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Den Politiske Kandestøber, 1722 (Eng. The Political Tinker / The Pewterer turned Politician)
Den vægelsindede, 1722 (Eng. The Waverer / The Weathercock)
Jean de France eller Hans Frandsen, 1722 (Eng. Jean de France)
Jeppe på bjerget eller den forvandlede Bonde, 1722 (Eng. Jeppe of the Hill, or The Transformed Peasant)
Mester Gert Westphaler, 1722 (Eng. Gert Westphaler)
Barselstuen, 1723 (Eng. The Lying-in Room)
Den ellefte Junii, 1723 (Eng. The Eleventh of June)
Jacob von Tyboe eller den stortalende Soldat, 1723 (Eng. Jacob von Tyboe, or The Bragging Soldier)
Ulysses von Ithacia, 1723 (Eng. Ulysses of Ithaca)
Erasmus Montanus eller Rasmus Berg, 1723 (Eng. Erasmus Montanus or Rasmus Berg)
Don Ranudo de Colibrados, 1723
Uden Hoved og Hale, 1723 (Eng. Without Head or Tail)
Den Stundesløse, 1723 (Eng. The Fidget)
Hexerie eller Blind Allarm, 1723 (Eng. Witchcraft or False Alert)
Melampe, 1723
Det lykkelige Skibbrud, 1724 (Eng. The Happy Capsize)
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Det Arabiske Pulver, 1724 (Eng. The Arabian Powder)
Mascarade, 1724 (Eng. Masquerade)
Julestuen, 1724 (Eng. The Christmas Party)
De Usynlige, 1724 (Eng. The Invisible / The Masked Ladies)
Diderich Menschenskraek, 1724 (Eng. Diderich the Terrible)
Kildereisen, 1725 (Eng. The journey to the source / The source Journey)
Henrich og Pernille, 1724–1726 (Eng. Henrik and Pernille)
Den pantsatte Bondedreng, 1726 (Eng. The Pawned Farmers helper / The Peasant in Pawn)
Pernilles korte Frøkenstand, 1727 (Eng. Pernille's Brief Experience as a Lady)
Den Danske Comoedies Liigbegængelse, 1727 (Eng. Funeral of Danish Comedy)
Den honette Ambition, 1731 (Eng. The honest/honourable ambition)
Den Forvandlede Brudgom, 1753 (Eng. The Changed Bridegroom)
Plutus eller Proces imellom Fattigdom og Riigdom, publ. 1753
Husspøgelse eller Abracadabra, publ. 1753 (Eng. The house's Ghost or Abracadabra)
Philosophus udi egen Indbildning, publ. 1754
Republiqven eller det gemeene Bedste, publ. 1754
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Sganarels Rejse til det philosophiske Land, publ. 1754 (Eng. Sganarel's Journey to the Land of the Philosophers)
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Poems
Peder Paars, 1720
fire Skæmtedigte, 1722 (Eng. Four poems for fun)
Metamorphosis eller Forvandlinger, 1726 (Eng. Metamorphosis or Changes)
Novels
Nicolai Klimii iter subterraneum, 1741. (Translated to Danish by Hans Hagerup in 1742 as Niels Klims underjordiske Rejse.) (Eng. Niels Klim's Underground Travels or Nicolai Klimii's subterranean Journey or The Journey of Niels Klim to the World Underground Bison Books, 2004. )
Essays
Moralske Tanker, 1744 (Eng. Moral thoughts)
Epistler, 1748–54
Moralske Fabler, 1751 (Eng. Moral Fables)
Tre latinske levnedsbreve, 1728–1743
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Historical works
Introduction til de fornemste Europæiske Rigers Historier, 1711 (Eng. Introduction to the Greatest European Empires Histories)
Morals Kierne eller Introduction til Naturens og Folke-Rettens Kundskab, 1716 (Eng. The Core of Morality or Introduction to Natural and International Law)
Dannemarks og Norges Beskrivelse, 1729 (Eng. Denmark and Norways Description)
Dannemarks Riges Historie, 1732–35 (Eng. The Danish Empire/Kingdom's History)
Den berømmelige Norske Handel-Stad Bergens Beskrivelse, 1737 (Eng. The Famous Norwegian Commercial Hub Bergen's Description)
Almindelig Kirke-Historie, 1738 (Eng. General Church History)
Den jødiske Historie fra Verdens Begyndelse, fortsat til disse Tider, 1742 (Eng. The Jewish History From the Beginning of the World, Continued till Present Day/These Times)
Adskillige store Heltes og berømmelige Mænds sammenlignede Historier, 1739–53 (Eng. Several Great Heroes' and Famous Men's Compared Histories)
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Adskillige Heltinders og navnkundige Damers sammenlignede Historier, 1745 (Eng. Several Heroines' and Noteworthy Ladies' Compared Histories)
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Memoir
Memoirs of Lewis Holberg, 1737 (published in English, 1827)
New Edition
Plays Volume I. Just Justesen's Reflections on Theatre, Jeppe of The Hill, Ulysses von Ithacia. Edited and translated by Bent Holm and Gaye Kynoch. Hollitzer, Vienna 2020, .
See also
Christian Gotlob Mengel
Notes
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References
A primary source is Ludvig Holberg's Latin Testament. It can be recommended to use: Holberg, Ludvig, and Aage Kragelund. Ludvig Holbergs tre levnedsbreve 1728–1743. København: G.E.C. Gads Forlag, 1965. The edition contains an introduction, Holberg's texts in both Latin and Danish, commentaries and an index.
Thomsen, Ole B. Embedsstudiernes universitet en undersøgelse af Københavns universitets fundats af 1788 som grundlag for vores nuværende studiestruktur. København: Akademisk Forlag, 1975.
Grethe Ilsøe: Juridisk eksamen for ustuderede. Kollektiv biografi af 1. kandidatgeneration (eksamensårgangene 1736–65) i: Personalhistorisk Tidsskrift, 1985, nr. 2
Jens Hougaard: Ludvig Holberg. The Playwright and his age up to 1730, Odense University Press. 1993. .
Caterina Marrone: Le lingue utopiche, Nuovi Equilibri, Viterbo, 2004 [1995], p. 338,
Bent Holm: Ludvig Holberg. A Danish Playwright on the European Stage. Masquerade, Comedy, Satire. Vienna: Hollitzer, 2018. .
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External links
Complete works of Ludvig Holberg (Danish originals) at Archive for Danish Literature
A sound recording of Holberg's comedy The Arabian Powder at Lost Plays.com
Ludvig Holberg's writings – a Danish-Norwegian website under construction
1684 births
1754 deaths
People educated at the Bergen Cathedral School
18th-century Danish dramatists and playwrights
Danish male writers
18th-century Danish memoirists
Danish essayists
Denmark–Norway
Norwegian dramatists and playwrights
Norwegian essayists
Writers from Copenhagen
University of Copenhagen alumni
Writers from Bergen
18th-century Latin-language writers
18th-century male writers
17th-century Danish people
18th-century Danish writers
18th-century Danish scientists
18th-century Norwegian novelists
17th-century Norwegian writers
Norwegian male novelists
Danish male dramatists and playwrights
Rectors of the University of Copenhagen
Male essayists
18th-century essayists
Enlightenment philosophers
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Kannada literature is the corpus of written forms of the Kannada language, a member of the Dravidian family spoken mainly in the Indian state of Karnataka and written in the Kannada script.
Attestations in literature span one and a half millennia,
with some specific literary works surviving in rich manuscript traditions, extending from the 9th century to the present.
The Kannada language is usually divided into three linguistic phases: Old (450–1200 CE), Middle (1200–1700 CE) and Modern (1700–present);
and its literary characteristics are categorised as Jain, Lingayatism and Vaishnava—recognising the prominence of these three faiths in giving form to, and fostering, classical expression of the language, until the advent of the modern era.
Although much of the literature prior to the 18th century was religious, some secular works were also committed to writing.
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Starting with the Kavirajamarga (), and until the middle of the 12th century, literature in Kannada was almost exclusively composed by the Jains, who found eager patrons in the Chalukya, Ganga, Rashtrakuta, Hoysala and the Yadava kings.
Although the Kavirajamarga, authored during the reign of King Amoghavarsha, is the oldest extant literary work in the language, it has been generally accepted by modern scholars that prose, verse and grammatical traditions must have existed earlier.
The Lingayatism movement of the 12th century created new literature which flourished alongside the Jain works. With the waning of Jain influence during the 14th-century Vijayanagara empire, a new Vaishnava literature grew rapidly in the 15th century; the devotional movement of the itinerant Haridasa saints marked the high point of this era.
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1285_2
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After the decline of the Vijayanagara empire in the 16th century, Kannada literature was supported by the various rulers, including the Wodeyars of the Kingdom of Mysore and the Nayakas of Keladi. In the 19th century, some literary forms, such as the prose narrative, the novel, and the short story, were borrowed from English literature. Modern Kannada literature is now widely known and recognised: during the last half century, Kannada language authors have received eight Jnanpith awards, 63 Sahitya Akademi awards and 9 Sahitya Akademi Fellowships in India.
Content and genre
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1285_3
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In the early period and beginning of the medieval period, between the 9th and 13th centuries, writers were predominantly Jains and Lingayats. Jains were the earliest known cultivators of Kannada literature, which they dominated until the 12th century, although a few works by Lingayats from that period have survived. Jain authors wrote about Tirthankaras and other aspects of religion. The Veerashaiva authors wrote about Shiva, his 25 forms, and the expositions of Shaivism. Lingayat poets belonging to the vachana sahitya tradition advanced the philosophy of Basava from the 12th century.
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1285_4
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During the period between the 13th and 15th centuries, there was decline in Jain writings and an increase in the number of works from the Lingayat tradition; there were also contributions from Vaishnava writers. Thereafter, Lingayat and Vaishnava writers dominated Kannada literature. Vaishnava writers focused on the Hindu epics – the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata – as well as Vedanta and other subjects from the Puranic traditions. The devotional songs of the Haridasa poets, performed to music, were first noted in the 15th century. Writings on secular subjects remained popular throughout this period.
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1285_5
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An important change during the Bhakti "devotion" period starting in the 12th century was the decline of court literature and the rise in popularity of shorter genres such as the vachana and kirthane, forms that were more accessible to the common man. Writings eulogising kings, commanders and spiritual heroes waned, with a proportional increase in the use of local genres. Kannada literature moved closer to the spoken and sung folk traditions, with musicality being its hallmark, although some poets continued to use the ancient champu form of writing as late as the 17th century.
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