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1365_2 | Common-law marriage vs. cohabitation
The term "common-law marriage" is often used incorrectly to describe various types of couple relationships, such as cohabitation (whether or not registered) or other legally formalized relations. Although these interpersonal relationships are often called "common-law marriage", they differ from its original meaning in that they are not legally recognized as "marriages" but are a parallel interpersonal status such as a "domestic partnership", "registered partnership", "conjugal union" or "civil union". Non-marital relationship contracts are not necessarily recognized from one jurisdiction to another.
In Canada, while some provinces may extend to couples in marriage-like relationships many of the rights and responsibilities of a marriage, they are not legally considered married. They may be legally defined as "unmarried spouses" and for many purposes such as taxes and financial claims, and within those contexts treated the same as married spouses. |
1365_3 | A 2008 poll in the UK showed that 51% of respondents incorrectly believed that cohabitants had the same rights as married couples.
History
In ancient Greece and Rome, marriages were private agreements between individuals and estates. Community recognition of a marriage was largely what qualified it as a marriage. The state had only limited interests in assessing the legitimacy of marriages. Normally, civil and religious officials took no part in marriage ceremonies and did not keep registries. There were several more or less formal ceremonies to choose from (partly interchangeable, but sometimes with different legal ramifications) as well as informal arrangements. It was relatively common for couples to cohabit with no ceremony; cohabiting for a moderate period of time was sufficient to make it a marriage. Cohabiting for the purpose of marriage carried with it no social stigma. |
1365_4 | In medieval Europe, marriage came under the jurisdiction of canon law, which recognized as a valid marriage one in which the parties stated that they took one another as wife and husband, even in absence of any witnesses. |
1365_5 | The Catholic Church forbade clandestine marriage at the Fourth Lateran Council (1215), which required all marriages to be announced in a church by a priest. The Council of Trent (1545–1563) introduced more specific requirements, ruling that future marriages would be valid only if witnessed by the pastor of the parish or the local ordinary (the bishop of the diocese) or by the delegate of one of said witnesses, the marriage being invalid otherwise, even if witnessed by a Catholic priest. The Tridentine canons did not bind the Protestants or the Eastern Orthodox, but clandestine marriages were impossible for the latter since their validity required the presence of a priest. England abolished clandestine or common-law marriages in the Marriage Act 1753, requiring marriages to be performed by a priest of the Church of England unless the participants in the marriage were Jews or Quakers. The Act applied to Wales but not to Scotland, which retained its own legal system by the Acts of Union |
1365_6 | 1707. To get around the requirements of the Marriage Act, such as minimum age requirements, couples would go to Gretna Green, in the south of Scotland, or other border villages such as Coldstream, to get married under Scots law. The Marriage Act 1753 also did not apply to Britain's overseas colonies of the time and so common-law marriages continued to be recognized in what are now the United States and Canada. |
1365_7 | Marriages per verba de praesenti, sometimes known as common-law marriages, were an agreement to marry, rather than a marriage.
Legislation
Australia
In Australia, the term de facto relationship is often used to refer to relationships between any two persons who are not married, but are effectively living in certain domestic circumstances. Since March 1, 2009, de facto relationships have been recognized in the Family Law Act (Commonwealth), applicable in states that have referred their jurisdiction on de facto couples to the Commonwealth's jurisdiction. In Western Australia, the only state that has not referred its jurisdiction, state legislation is still valid. There is also no federal recognition of de facto relationships existing outside of Australia (see Section 51(xxxvii) of the Australian Constitution), and so this is also a state matter.
The legal term for such relationships varies by state and territory; however, common-law marriage is not used anywhere in Australia. |
1365_8 | Although property aspects of these relationships are dealt with under state law, the law relating to children of such relationships is contained in the federal Family Law Act 1975. Most laws dealing with taxation, social welfare, pensions, etc., treat de facto marriages in the same manner as solemnized marriages.
The Family Law Act states that a de facto relationship can exist between two people of different or the same sex and that a person can be in a de facto relationship even if legally married to another person or in a de facto relationship with someone else. Family property laws, however, are excepted from jurisdiction when a person is both married and in a de facto relationship at the same time. This exception is due to federal polygamy laws. Same-sex de facto relationships have been recognized in New South Wales since 1999. There are a number of methods by which these relationships are recognized in Australian law and they include the same entitlements as de jure marriage. |
1365_9 | The federal Marriage Act 1961 provides for marriage, but does not recognize 'common-law marriages'. Since midnight 9 January 2018 same-sex marriage became legally effective throughout Australia.
Canada |
1365_10 | Canada does not currently have the original common-law marriage, although common-law relationships are recognized for certain purposes in Canada. The legal definition and many implications of marriage-like relationships fall under provincial jurisdiction. As family law varies between provinces, there are differences between the provinces regarding the recognition of common-law relationships. Only Saskatchewan and British Columbia sanction married persons to be capable in family law of having more than one recognized partner at the same time. In addition, the term "common law" appears informally in documents from the federal government. In many cases, couples in marriage-like relationships have the same rights as married couples under federal law. Various federal laws include "common-law status", which automatically takes effect when two people (of any gender) have lived together in a conjugal relationship for a minimum period. Common-law partners may be eligible for various federal |
1365_11 | government spousal benefits. In 1999, in its ruling M. v. H., the Supreme Court of Canada decided that same-sex partners would also be included in common-law relationships. |
1365_12 | Around one-fifth of Canadians are in common-law relationships, a three-fold increase from 1981, according to 2016 data from Statistics Canada.
Federal
Citizenship & Immigration Canada states that a common-law partner refers to a person who is living in a conjugal relationship with another person (opposite or same sex), and has done so continuously for a period of at least one year. A conjugal relationship exists when there is a significant degree of commitment between two people. This can be shown with evidence that the couple share the same home, that they support each other financially and emotionally, that they have children together, or that they present themselves in public as a couple. Common-law partners who are unable to live together or appear in public together because of legal restrictions in their home country or who have been separated for reasons beyond their control (for example, civil war or armed conflict) may still qualify and should be included on an application. |
1365_13 | Canada Revenue Agency (CRA) states, as of 2007, "living common-law" means living with a person in a conjugal relationship without being married and at least one of the following is true:
the couple has been living in a conjugal relationship for at least 12 continuous months;
the couple are parents of a child by birth or adoption; or
one of the couple has custody and control of the other's child (or had custody and control immediately before the child turned 19 years of age) and the child is wholly dependent on that person for support.
The complete CRA definitions for marital status is available.
Saskatchewan
In Saskatchewan, Queen's Bench justices have sanctioned common-law relationships as simultaneously existing in family law while one or more of the spouses were also civilly married to others. |
1365_14 | Ontario
In Ontario, section 29 of the Family Law Act specifically recognizes unmarried spouses in dealing with spousal support issues. The definition is having cohabited continuously for not less than three years or "in a relationship of some permanence" if parents of a child. However, common-law spouses do not have automatic rights under the Family Law Act to their spouses' property (section 29 applies only to the support sections of the Act). Thus, common-law partners do not have a statutory right to divide property in a breakup, and must ask courts to look to concepts such as the constructive or resulting trust to divide property in an equitable manner between partners.
Married people may also have a recognized common-law spouse even before being divorced from the first spouse.
Another difference that distinguishes common-law spouses from married partners is that a common-law partner can be compelled to testify against his or her partner in a court of law. |
1365_15 | Quebec
The Civil Code of Quebec has never recognized a common-law partnership as a form of marriage. However, many laws in Quebec explicitly apply to common-law partners (called ) in " unions" (marriages being " unions") as they do to married spouses. Same-sex partners are also recognized as in unions, for the purpose of social benefit laws. However, common-law partners do not have any legal rights between them, such as alimony, family patrimony, compensatory allowance and matrimonial regime. The Quebec Court of Appeal ruled this restriction to be unconstitutional in 2010; but on January 25, 2013 the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that common-law couples do not have the same rights as married couples. |
1365_16 | A 2002 amendment to the Civil Code, recognizes a type of domestic partnership called a civil union that is similar to marriage and is likewise available to same-sex partners. No citizen of Quebec can be recognized under family law to be in both a civilly married state and a within the same time frame. Divorce from one conjugal relationship must occur before another conjugal relationship may occur in family law.
Same-sex partners can also marry legally in Quebec, as elsewhere in Canada. |
1365_17 | British Columbia |
1365_18 | The term "common-law marriage" does not appear in BC law. A distinction is made between being a spouse and being married. Married couples include only those who have engaged in a legal marriage ceremony and have received a marriage licence. Spouses include married couples as well as those, of same or opposite gender, who satisfy criteria for being in a marriage-like relationship for a time period that depends on the law that is being considered. Hence the meaning of the term unmarried spouse in BC depends on the legal context. The criteria for a relationship being accepted as marriage-like include cohabitation for at least the specified period, unbroken by excessively long intervals that are unexplained by exigent circumstances. If dispute arises about whether the relationship was marriage-like, a court would consider a comprehensive set of further criteria including the domestic and financial arrangements, degree and nature of intimacy, and the sense of the relationship presented to |
1365_19 | friends and families (especially by each spouse to his/her own family). "Mere roommates will never qualify as unmarried spouses. There needs to be some other dimension to the relationship indicative of a commitment between the parties and their shared belief that they are in a special relationship with each other." The criteria do not exclude the existence of a previous marriage to a third person during the period of the marriage-like relationship of the unmarried spouses. Hence a person may have more than one spouse at the same time. |
1365_20 | The implications of becoming an unmarried spouse include: |
1365_21 | Child support. A spouse is responsible for contributing towards support of a child and possibly the other spouse if he/she is a biological or adoptive parent, or has contributed to support of the child for at least one year during the "marriage-like relationship" with the child's parent and the parent applies to the court for continuing support after separation and within one year of the last support contribution. (The contribution towards child support expected from a non-parent is not as great as from a parent.) |
1365_22 | Financial support and division of property and debts after separation. If the "marriage-like relationship" has continued for two years, the laws that apply upon separation are the same as those that apply to married couples, according to the "Estate Administration Act". All property and debts acquired prior to the relationship are exempt. If no agreement between the partners about property and/or debts is written during or after the relationship, then the law specifies equal sharing of all acquired during the relationship, as well as any changes in the value of those brought into the relationship. (There is an exemption from equal sharing for certain categories, such as gifts and inheritances received by one spouse.) The degree of participation of each spouse in the acquisition of property or debt does not affect the sharing. Financial support may also be requested from the former spouse. A claim for financial support or the division of property and debt must be made within two |
1365_23 | years of the date of separation. |
1365_24 | Inheritance. A spouse is eligible for inheritance if the "marriage-like relationship" has existed for at least two years immediately prior to the death of the other spouse. All property and debts held in common are fully inherited automatically by the surviving spouse. Those brought into the relationship are subject to any existing valid will, which may be vulnerable to challenge if it does not provide for the surviving spouse and any children.
Benefits from government programs. Access to benefits from government programs or policies can become more (or less) available upon becoming an unmarried spouse. In general, these become similar or identical to those of married couples, but the criteria for qualifying as unmarried spouses, such as longevity of the relationship, differ for the various programs. Social assistance is often immediately reduced when there is perceived to be a "spouse in the house", regardless of the nature of the relationship. |
1365_25 | Other provinces
The requirements in some other provinces are as follows:
In Nova Scotia, a couple must cohabit for two years in a marriage-like relationship, and may not have been married to another person during this time.
In New Brunswick, a couple must live together for three years or have a natural or adopted child together. They cannot have been married to another person during this time.
In Alberta, common-law relationships have been subsumed since 2003 under the terms of the Adult Interdependent Relationship Act, which may additionally apply to any two unrelated people living together in a mutually dependent relationship for three years. Only one interdependent relationship is allowed at a time. In the event either of the common-law spouses are married to other persons during this time, neither of the common-law couple can begin to be "interdependent" until divorce from other spouses occurs.
Denmark
§ 27 of the now-defunct Jyske Lov reads:
India |
1365_26 | In the case of D.Velusamy vs D.Patchaiammal (2010), the Supreme Court of India defined, with reference to the Domestic Violence Act of 2005, "a relationship in the nature of marriage" as "akin to a common law marriage". The Supreme Court declared that the following are required to satisfy the conditions for a common-law marriage or a relationship in the nature of marriage:
Must be of marriageable age.
Must not be already married and is qualified to marry.
Must be living together in a way that seems to society that the couple is married
Must have cohabited for a "significant" period of time.
Must be living together voluntarily. |
1365_27 | There is no specified time for the common-law marriage to actually take effect but needs it to be "significant". The case clarified that there was a difference between "live-in relationships", "a relationship in the nature of marriage", casual relationships and having a "keep". Only "a relationship in the nature of marriage" can afford the rights and protections conferred in the Domestics Violence Act of 2005 and Section 125 of the Criminal Code, which include alimony for the female partner (unless she leaves her partner for no reason, had an affair with another man, or left with a mutual understanding, in which case alimony amounts must be settled mutually too), allowances, shelter and protections for the female partner in case of abuse, right to live in her partner's house and child custody. Furthermore, children born in such relationships will be granted allowances until they reach full age and, provided the person is not a married adult daughter, if the person is of full age and |
1365_28 | is handicapped. Furthermore, the Hindu Marriage Act stipulates that children born out-of-wedlock (including live-in relationships, a relationship in the nature of marriage and casual relationships) are treated as equivalent to legitimate children in terms of inheritance. However, the Hindu Marriage Act is only applicable if the children’s parent is Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist or Jain. |
1365_29 | The law is silent on relationships involving transgender people (hijras) and homosexuals. Despite the aforementioned cases, sex out-of-marriage remains socially unacceptable in India and is very rare, with long-term non-marital relationships being limited to urban pockets. |
1365_30 | Israel
In Israel, courts and a few statutes (such as social security which grants death and disability benefits) have recognized an institute of yeduim batsibur () meaning a couple who are "known in the public" (lit. translation) as living together as husband and wife. Generally speaking the couple needs to satisfy two tests which are: 1) "intimate life similar to married couple, relationship based on same emotions of affection and love, dedication and faithfulness, showing they have chosen to share their fate" (Supreme Court of Israel, judge Zvi Berenson (intimacy test)), and 2) sharing household (economic test). In addition courts usually are more likely to recognize such relationship as marriage for granting benefits if the couple could not get married under the Israeli law.
Israel's Common-law status grant Israeli couples virtually the same benefits and privileges as married couples in Israel. |
1365_31 | Kuwait
Common-law marriage or partnerships have some limited recognition in Kuwait in the cases of expatriate familial disputes such as maintenance payments and child support dues. Family courts use the male partner or husband’s country of nationality’s law to deal with family matters and hence if the male partner comes from a country where partnerships or other similar unions are recognised, then a Kuwaiti court can also consider it. However, intercourse of out marriage is illegal in Kuwait so such recognition can only practically apply in exceptional cases like in cases of illegitimate children born aboard and the parents have since separated aboard but relocated to Kuwait. No recognition is extended to couples where one or both parties are Kuwaiti or to homosexual couples.
Ireland
Ireland does not recognize common-law marriage, but the Civil Partnership and Certain Rights and Obligations of Cohabitants Act 2010 gives some rights to unmarried cohabitants. |
1365_32 | Netherlands
In the Netherlands, a couple can sign a samenlevingscontract (cohabitation agreement). This is commonly done by couples who don't want to get married legally.
United Kingdom |
1365_33 | England and Wales
The term "common-law marriage" has been used in England and Wales to refer to unmarried, cohabiting heterosexual couples. However, this is merely a social usage. The term does not confer on cohabiting parties any of the rights or obligations enjoyed by spouses or civil partners. Unmarried partners are recognised for certain purposes in legislation: e.g., for means-tested benefits. For example, in the Jobseekers Act 1995, "unmarried couple" was defined as a man and woman who are not married to each other but who are living together in the same household as husband and wife other than in prescribed circumstances. But in many areas of the law cohabitants enjoy no special rights. Thus when a cohabiting relationship ends ownership of any assets will be decided by property law. The courts have no discretion to reallocate assets, as occurs on divorce. |
1365_34 | It is sometimes mistakenly claimed that before the Marriage Act 1753 cohabiting couples would enjoy the protection of a "common-law marriage". In fact, neither the name nor the concept of "common-law marriage" was known at this time. Far from being treated as if they were married, couples known to be cohabiting risked prosecution by the church courts for fornication. |
1365_35 | "Contract marriages" (or more strictly marriages per verba de praesenti), could be presumed, before the Marriage Act 1753, to have been undertaken by mutual consent couples who lived together without undergoing a marriage ceremony. However, they were not understood as having the legal status of a valid marriage until the decision in Dalrymple clarified this in 1811. This decision affected the subsequent development of English law due to the fact that the Marriage Act 1753 did not apply overseas. English courts later held that it was possible to marry by a simple exchange of consent in the colonies although most of the disputed ceremonies involved the ministrations of a priest or other clergyman. |
1365_36 | The English courts also upheld marriages by consent in territories not under British control but only if it had been impossible for the parties to marry according to the requirements of the local law. The late 1950s and early 1960s saw a spate of cases arising out of the Second World War, with marriages in prisoner-of-war camps in German-occupied Europe posing a particular problem for judges. (Some British civilians interned by the Japanese during the Second World War were held to be legally married after contracting marriages under circumstances where the formal requirements could not be met.) To this limited extent, English law does recognise what has become known as a "common-law marriage". English legal texts initially used the term to refer exclusively to American common-law marriages. Only in the 1960s did the term "common-law marriage" begin to be used in its contemporary sense to denote unmarried, cohabiting heterosexual relationships and not until the 1970s and 1980s did the |
1365_37 | term begin to lose its negative connotations. The use of the term is likely to have encouraged cohabiting couples to believe falsely that they enjoyed legal rights. By the end of the 1970s a myth had emerged that marrying made little difference to one’s legal rights, and this may have fuelled the subsequent increase in the number of couples living together and having children together outside marriage. |
1365_38 | Scotland
Under Scots law, there have been several forms of "irregular marriage", among them:
Irregular marriage by declaration de praesenti – declaring in the presence of two witnesses that one takes someone as one's wife or husband.
Irregular marriage conditional on consummation
Marriage contracted by correspondence
Irregular marriage by cohabitation with habit and repute
The Marriage (Scotland) Act 1939 provided that the first three forms of irregular marriage could not be formed on or after 1 January 1940. However, any irregular marriages contracted prior to 1940 can still be upheld. This act also allowed the creation of regular civil marriages in Scotland for the first time (the civil-registration system started in Scotland on 1 January 1855). |
1365_39 | Until this act, the only regular marriage available in Scotland was a religious marriage. Irregular marriages were not socially accepted and many people who decided to contract them did so where they were relatively unknown. In some years up to 60% of the marriages in the Blythswood Registration District of Glasgow were "irregular".
In 2006, "marriage by cohabitation with habit and repute", the last form of irregular marriage that could still be contracted in Scotland, was abolished in the Family Law (Scotland) Act 2006. Until that act had come into force, Scotland remained the only European jurisdiction never to have totally abolished the old-style common-law marriage. For this law to apply, the minimum time the couple have lived together continuously had to exceed 20 days. |
1365_40 | As in the American jurisdictions that have preserved it, this type of marriage can be difficult to prove. It is not enough for the couple to have lived together for several years, but they must have been generally regarded as husband and wife. Their friends and neighbors, for example, must have known them as Mr. and Mrs. So-and-so (or at least they must have held themselves out to their neighbors and friends as Mr. and Mrs. So-and-so). Also, like American common-law marriages, it is a form of lawful marriage, so that people cannot be common-law spouses, or husband and wife by cohabitation with habit and repute, if one of them was legally married to somebody else when the relationship began. |
1365_41 | It is a testament to the influence of American legal thought and English colloquial usage that, in a study conducted by the Scottish Executive in 2000, 57% of Scots surveyed believed that couples who merely live together have a "common-law marriage". In fact, that term is unknown in Scots law, which uses "marriage by cohabitation with habit and repute".
Otherwise, men and women who otherwise behave as husband and wife did not have a common-law marriage or a marriage by habit and repute merely because they set up housekeeping together, but they must have held themselves out to the world as husband and wife. (In many jurisdictions, they must do so for a certain length of time for the marriage to be valid.) The Scottish Survey is not clear on these points. It notes that "common-law marriage" is not part of Scots law, but it fails to note that "marriage by cohabitation with habit and repute", which is the same thing but in name, was part of Scots law until 2006.
United States |
1365_42 | In the U.S., most states have abolished common-law marriage by statute. However, common-law marriage can still be contracted in seven states and the District of Columbia. Once they meet the requirements of common-law marriage, couples in those true common-law marriages are considered legally married for all purposes and in all circumstances.
Common-law marriage can still be contracted in Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Montana, Rhode Island, Texas, Utah, and the District of Columbia. Common law marriage may also be valid under military law for purposes of a bigamy prosecution under the Uniform Code of Military Justice. |
1365_43 | All U.S. jurisdictions recognize common-law marriages that were validly contracted in the originating jurisdiction, because they are valid marriages in the jurisdiction where they were contracted (see Full Faith and Credit Clause). However, absent legal registration or similar notice of the marriage, the parties to a common law marriage or their eventual heirs may have difficulty proving their relationship to be marriage. Some states provide for registration of an informal or common-law marriage based on the declaration of each of the spouses on a state-issued form. |
1365_44 | English-speaking Caribbean
Due to their colonial past, the islands of the English-speaking Caribbean have statutes concerning common-law marriage similar to those in England. However, in the Caribbean, the term "common-law" marriage is also widely described, by custom as much as by law, to any long term relationship between male and female partners. Such unions are widespread, making up a significant percentage of the families, many of which have children and may last for many years. The reasons for people choosing common-law arrangements is debated in sociological literature. Although the acceptance of this type of union varies, men being more inclined to consider them as legitimate than women, they have become an institution.
See also
Free love
Nikah 'urfi
Pacte civil de solidarité
Putative marriage
Notes and references
Notes
References
Family law
Types of marriage |
1366_0 | Jennifer Gross is an American politician and nurse serving as a member of the Ohio House of Representatives from the 52nd district. Elected in 2020, she took office in 2021. During her tenure in the state House, she has been a leading supporter of anti-vaccine legislation.
Career
Gross served as a United States Air Force lieutenant colonel and worked as a nurse practitioner with IMA, Inc. She spent 21 years in military service, nine of those years active and 12 in reserve. Gross is a nurse practitioner. When Ohio shut down for the pandemic in spring of 2020, Gross filed for unemployment. Afterwards, she was hired to perform COVID-19 tests. Afterwards, she was part of an Eli Lilly study on monoclonal antibodies.
Ohio House of Representatives |
1366_1 | Campaign
Running for the open seat in the 52nd House District for the Ohio House of Representatives, she and her Republican primary opponent Mark Welch were both anti-abortion conservatives and supporters of Donald Trump. In the November 2020 general election, Gross defeated Democrat Chuck Horn with 63% of the vote. As a representative, she said she supports the three Christian "B's," or "businesses, babies, and bullets."
Tenure
In January 2021, Gross said that she opposes the nuclear bailout in House Bill 6 for having "too much baggage."
In February 2021, she held a political event at Holtman's Donuts at West Chester. Ultimately, when attendees violated state COVID-19 protocols, police were called by the restaurant to end the event. Gross criticized the police response, although she did note she and some of the 20 attendees had been walking in the restaurant without masks in violation of state protocols, and that they had not warned the venue ahead of time about the event. |
1366_2 | Anti-vaccination legislation
In 2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic in Idaho, Gross was the primary sponsor of an anti-vaccine bill that would prohibit employers (both public and private) from requiring workers to receive vaccinations (for any disease). The bill, supported by anti-vaccination interest groups, would "prohibits people, public officials, governments, day-care centers, nursing homes, health care providers, insurers, and others from mandating vaccination or requesting people to do so." The bill would also repeal a state law that requires college students to disclose whether they received the hepatitis B vaccine and meningococcal meningitis vaccine. The measure (House Bill 248) was co-sponsored by 16 House Republicans. Gross described the bill as "a freedom bill" and "not a scientific bill" and framed it as a way to stop "discrimination." |
1366_3 | When introducing the legislation in May 2021, Gross attracted controversy when she described businesses requiring vaccination as "eerily similar" to the Holocaust and Nazis forcing Jews to wear identifying badges, and likened the vaccine to Nazi human experimentation. Gross's remarks were condemned by the Anti-Defamation League, which said that they would "normalize dangerous rhetoric while diluting the true horrors of Nazi Germany and insulting the memories of the millions brutalized and murdered by Nazis" and added that "Comparing efforts to save the lives of Ohioans during this pandemic to Nazis is unconscionable." When asked in a separate interview with the Ohio Capital Journal about how the vaccine requirements and the Holocaust were similar, Gross declined to comment. |
1366_4 | Gross's bill was strongly opposed by healthcare providers, hospitals, and others, who cited the risks of the bill to public health and to children. The bill was also criticized by business leaders such as the Ohio Chamber of Commerce, Ohio Manufacturers Association, and others who cited the risk of low vaccination rates to the state's economy. Gross's legislation was also opposed by Democrats; for example, Representative Beth Liston said that the legislation was "a dangerous bill that will lead to death" and, if enacted, would lead to "worsening measles outbreaks, meningitis in the dorms, and children once again suffering from polio."
In June 2021, the Ohio House Health Committee lacked the votes to advance Gross' bill. Gross discussed the measure with Speaker Bob Cupp and said she planned to introduce amendments. The bill was again debated in August 2021. |
1366_5 | In September 2021, text messages between Gross and Representative Scott Lipps, the chairman of the House Health Committee, were obtained by the Cincinnati Enquirer through a public records request. The messages show the pair's behind-the-scenes efforts to advance the bill. In the messages, Gross and Lipps closely coordinate, but at times Lipps appeared frustrated, accusing Gross of failing to control rumors circulating among anti-vaccination activists and of coordinating with Candice Keller, a far-right Republican who has promoted anti-vaccine disinformation and threatened to generate a primary challenger to Lipps.
Personal life
She lives in West Chester, Ohio. She has a husband and two sons.
See also
2020 Ohio House of Representatives election
References
Living people
Ohio Republicans
Members of the Ohio House of Representatives
21st-century American politicians
Year of birth missing (living people)
People from Butler County, Ohio |
1367_0 | Shuowen Jiezi () is an ancient Chinese dictionary from the Han dynasty. Although not the first comprehensive Chinese character dictionary (the Erya predates it), it was the first to analyze the structure of the characters and to give the rationale behind them, as well as the first to use the principle of organization by sections with shared components called radicals (bùshǒu 部首, lit. "section headers").
Circumstances of compilation
Xu Shen, a Han Dynasty scholar of the Five Classics, compiled the Shuowen Jiezi. He finished editing it in 100 CE, but due to an unfavorable imperial attitude towards scholarship, he waited until 121 CE before having his son Xǔ Chōng present it to Emperor An of Han along with a memorial. |
1367_1 | In analyzing the structure of characters and defining the words represented by them, Xu Shen strove to disambiguate the meaning of the pre-Han Classics, so as to render their usage by government unquestioned and bring about order, and in the process also deeply imbued his organization and analyses with his philosophy on characters and the universe. According to Boltz (1993:430), Xu's compilation of the Shuowen "cannot be held to have arisen from a purely linguistic or lexicographical drive." His motives were more pragmatic and political. During the Han era, the prevalent theory of language was Confucianist Rectification of Names, the belief that using the correct names for things was essential for proper government. Xu's postface (xù 敘) to the Shuowen Jiezi (tr. O'Neill 2013: 436) explains: "Now, as for writing systems and their offspring characters, these are the root of the classics, the origin of kingly government, what former men used to hand down to posterity, and what later men |
1367_2 | use to remember antiquity." Compare how the postface describes the legendary invention of writing for governmental rather than for communicative purposes: |
1367_3 | The Scribe of the Yellow Emperor, Cangjie, observing the traces of the footprints and tracks of birds and wild animals, understood that their linear structures could be distinguished from one another by the differences between them. When he first created writing by carving in wood, the hundred officials became regulated, and the myriad things became discriminated. (tr. O'Neill 2013: 430) |
1367_4 | Pre-Shuowen Chinese dictionaries like the Erya and the Fangyan were limited lists of synonyms loosely organized by semantic categories, which made it difficult to look up characters. Xu Shen analytically organized characters in the comprehensive Shuowen Jiezi through their shared graphic components, which Boltz (1993:431) calls "a major conceptual innovation in the understanding of the Chinese writing system."
Structure
Xu wrote the Shuowen Jiezi to analyze seal script (specifically xiǎozhuàn 小篆 "small seal") characters that evolved slowly and organically throughout the mid-to-late Zhou dynasty in the state of Qin, and which were then standardized during the Qin dynasty and promulgated empire-wide. Thus, Needham et al. (1986: 217) describe the Shuowen jiezi as "a paleographic handbook as well as a dictionary". |
1367_5 | The dictionary includes a preface and 15 chapters. The first 14 chapters are character entries; the 15th and final chapter is divided into two parts: a postface and an index of section headers. Xǔ Shèn states in his postface that the dictionary has 9,353 character entries, plus 1,163 graphic variants, with a total length of 133,441 characters. The transmitted texts vary slightly in content, owing to omissions and emendations by commentators (especially Xú Xuàn, see below), and modern editions have 9,831 characters and 1,279 variants.
Sections |
1367_6 | Xu Shen categorized Chinese characters into 540 sections, under "section headers" (bùshǒu, now the standard linguistic and lexicographical term for character radicals): these may be entire characters or simplifications thereof, which also serve as components shared by all the characters in that section. The number of section headers, 540, numerologically equals 6 × 9 × 10, the product of the symbolic numbers of Yin and Yang and the number of the Heavenly Stems. The first section header was 一 (yī "one; first") and the last was 亥 (hài, the last character of the Earthly Branches). |
1367_7 | Xu's choice of sections appears in large part to have been driven by the desire to create an unbroken, systematic sequence among the headers themselves, such that each had a natural, intuitive relationship (e.g., structural, semantic or phonetic) with the ones before and after, as well as by the desire to reflect cosmology. In the process, he included many section headers that are not considered ones today, such as 炎 (yán "flame") and 熊 (xióng "bear"), which modern dictionaries list under the 火 or 灬 (huǒ "fire") heading. He also included as section headers all the sexagenary cycle characters, that is, the ten Heavenly Stems and twelve Earthly Branches. As a result, unlike modern dictionaries which attempt to maximize the number of characters under each section header, 34 Shuowen headers have no characters under them, while 159 have only one each. From a modern lexicographical perspective, Xu's system of 540 headings can seem "enigmatic" and "illogical". For instance, he included the |
1367_8 | singular section header 409 惢 (ruǐ "doubt"), with only one rare character (ruǐ 繠 "stamen"), instead of listing it under the common header 408 心 (xīn "heart; mind"). |
1367_9 | Character entries
The typical Shuowen format for a character entry consists of a seal graph, a short definition (usually a single synonym, occasionally in a punning way as in the Shiming), a pronunciation given by citing a homophone, and analysis of compound graphs into semantic and/or phonetic components. Individual entries can additionally include graphic variants, secondary definitions, information on regional usages, citations from pre-Han texts, and further phonetic information, typically in dúruò (讀若 "read like") notation.
In addition to the seal graph, Xu included two kinds of variant graphs when they differed from the standard seal, called ancient script (gǔwén 古文) and Zhòu script (Zhòuwén 籀文, not to be confused with the Zhou dynasty). |
1367_10 | The Zhòu characters were taken from the no-longer extant Shizhoupian, an early copybook traditionally attributed to a Shĭ Zhòu, or Historian Zhou, in the court of King Xuan of Zhou (r. 827–782 BCE). Wang Guowei and Tang Lan argued that the structure and style of these characters suggested a later date, but some modern scholars such as Qiu Xigui argue for the original dating.
The guwen characters were based on the characters used in pre-Qin copies of the classics recovered from the walls of houses where they had been hidden to escape the burning of books ordered by Qin Shihuang. Xu believed that these were the most ancient characters available, since Confucius would have used the oldest characters to best convey the meaning of the texts. However, Wang Guowei and other scholars have shown that they were regional variant forms in the eastern areas during the Warring States period, from only slightly earlier than the Qin seal script. |
1367_11 | Even as copyists transcribed the main text of the book in clerical script in the late Han, and then in modern standard script in the centuries to follow, the small seal characters continued to be copied in their own (seal) script to preserve their structure, as were the guwen and Zhouwen characters.
Character analysis |
1367_12 | The title of the work draws a basic distinction between two types of characters, wén 文 and zì 字, the former being those composed of a single graphic element (such as shān 山 "mountain"), and the latter being those containing more than one such element (such as hǎo 好 "good" with 女 "woman" and 子 "child") which can be deconstructed into and analyzed in terms of their component elements. Note that the character 文 itself exemplifies the category wén 文, while 字 (which is composed of 宀 and 子) exemplifies zì 字. Thus, Shuōwén Jiězì means "commenting on" (shuō "speak; talk; comment; explain") the wén, which cannot be deconstructed, and "analyzing" (jiě "untie; separate; divide; analyze; explain; deconstruct") the zì. |
1367_13 | Although the "six principles" of Chinese character classification (liùshū 六書 "six graphs") had been mentioned by earlier authors, Xu Shen's postface was the first work to provide definitions and examples. He uses the first two terms, simple indicatives (zhǐshì 指事) and pictograms (xiàngxíng 象形) to explicitly label character entries in the dictionary, e.g., in the typical pattern of "(character) (definition) ...simple indicative" (A B 也...指事 (也)). Logographs belonging to the third principle, phono-semantic compound characters (xíngshēng 形聲), are implicitly identified through the entry pattern A… from B, phonetically resembles C (A...從 B, C 聲), meaning that element B plays a semantic role in A, while C gives the sound. The fourth type, compound indicatives (huìyì 會意), are sometimes identified by the pattern A...from X from Y (A...從 X 從 Y), meaning that the compound A is given meaning through the graphic combination and interaction of both constituent elements. The last two of the six |
1367_14 | principles, borrowed characters (aka phonetic loan, jiǎjiè 假借) and derived characters (zhuǎnzhù 轉注), are not identifiable in the character definitions. |
1367_15 | According to Imre Galambos, the function of the Shuowen was educational. Since Han studies of writing are attested to have begun by pupils of 8 years old, Xu Shen's categorization of characters was proposed to be understood as a mnemonic methodology for juvenile students.
Textual history and scholarship
Although the original Han dynasty Shuōwén Jiězì text has been lost, it was transmitted through handwritten copies for centuries. The oldest extant trace of it is a six-page manuscript fragment from the Tang dynasty, amounting to about 2% of the entire text. The fragment, now in Japan, concerns the mù (木) section header. The earliest post-Han scholar known to have researched and emended this dictionary, albeit badly, was Lǐ Yángbīng (李陽冰, fl. 765–780), who "is usually regarded as something of a bête noire of [Shuowen] studies," writes Boltz, "owing to his idiosyncratic and somewhat capricious editing of the text." |
1367_16 | Shuowen scholarship improved greatly during the Southern Tang-Song dynasties and later during the Qing dynasty. The most important Northern Song scholars were the Xú brothers, Xú Xuàn (徐鉉, 916–991) and Xú Kǎi (徐鍇, 920–974). In 986, Emperor Taizong of Song ordered Xú Xuàn and other editors to publish an authoritative edition of the dictionary.
This was published as the 説文解字繫傳 Shuowen Jiezi xichuan. |
1367_17 | Xu Xuan's textual criticism has been especially vital for all subsequent scholarship, since his restoration of the damage done by Lǐ Yángbīng resulted in the closest version we have to the original, and the basis for all later editions. Xu Kai, in turn, focused on exegetical study, analyzing the meaning of Xu Shen's text, appending supplemental characters, and adding fǎnqiè pronunciation glosses for each entry. Among Qing Shuowen scholars, some like Zhū Jùnshēng (朱駿聲, 1788–1858), followed the textual criticism model of Xu Xuan, while others like Guì Fù (桂馥, 1736–1805) and Wáng Yún (王筠, 1784–1834) followed the analytical exegesis model of Xu Kai. One Qing scholar, Duan Yucai, stands above all the others due to the quality of his research in both areas. His annotated Shuowen edition (Shuowen Jiezi Zhu) is the one most commonly used by students today. |
1367_18 | Although the Shuowen Jiezi has had incalculable value to scholars and was traditionally relied upon as the most important early source on the structure of Chinese characters, many of its analyses and definitions have been eclipsed as vague or inaccurate since the discovery of oracle bone inscriptions in the late 19th century. It therefore can no longer be relied upon as the single, authoritative source for definitions and graphic derivations. Xu Shen lacked access to oracle bone inscriptions from the Shang dynasty and bronzeware inscriptions from the Shang and Western Zhou dynasty, to which scholars now have access; they are often critical for understanding the structures and origins of logographs. For instance, he put lǜ (慮 "be concerned; consider") under the section heading 思 (sī "think") and noted it had a phonetic of hǔ (虍 "tiger"). However, the early bronze graphs for lǜ (慮) have the xīn (心 "heart") semantic component and a lǚ (呂 "a musical pitch") phonetic, also seen in early |
1367_19 | forms of lǔ (盧 "vessel; hut") and lǔ (虜 "captive"). |
1367_20 | Scholarship in the 20th century offered new understandings and accessibility. Ding Fubao collected all available Shuowen materials, clipped and arranged them in the original dictionary order, and photolithographically printed a colossal edition. Notable advances in Shuowen research have been made by Chinese and Western scholars like Mǎ Zōnghuò (馬宗霍), Mǎ Xùlún (馬敘倫), William G. Boltz, Weldon South Coblin, Thomas B.I. Creamer, Paul Serruys, Roy A. Miller, and K.L. Thern.
See also
List of Kangxi radicals – a later way to classify Chinese characters
Shuowen Jiezi (television program)
References
Citations
Sources
Atsuji Tetsuji (阿辻哲次). Kanjigaku: Setsumon kaiji no sekai 漢字学―説文解字の世界. Tôkyô: Tôkai daigaku shuppankai, 1985. ,
Bottéro Françoise. (1996). «Sémantisme et classification dans l'écriture chinoise : Les systèmes de classement des caractères par clés du Shuowen Jiezi au Kangxi Zidian. Collège de France-IHEC. (Mémoires de l'Institut des Hautes Études Chinoises; 37). |
1367_21 | Creamer, Thomas B.I. (1989) "Shuowen Jiezi and Textual Criticism in China," International Journal of Lexicography 2:3, pp. 176–187.
Ding Fubao (丁福保). 1932. Shuowen Jiezi Gulin (說文解字詁林 "A Forest of Glosses on the Shuowen Jiezi"). 16 vols. Repr. Taipei: Commercial Press. 1959. 12 vols.
Duan Yucai (1815). "說文解字注" (Shuōwén Jĭezì Zhù, commentary on the Shuōwén Jíezì), compiled 1776–1807. This classic edition of Shuowen is still reproduced in facsimile by various publishers, e.g., in Taipei by Li-ming Wen-hua Co Tiangong Books (1980, 1998), which edition conveniently highlights the main entry seal characters in red ink, and adds the modern kǎi 楷 standard script versions of them at the tops of the columns, with bopomofo phoneticization alongside.
(English translation of Wénzìxué Gàiyào 文字學概要, Shangwu, 1988.) |
1367_22 | Needham, Joseph, Lu Gwei-djen, and Huang Hsing-Tsung (1986). Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 6 Biology and Biological Technology, Part 1 Botany. Cambridge University Press.
O'Neill, Timothy (2013), "Xu Shen's Scholarly Agenda: A New Interpretation of the Postface of the Shuowen jiezi," Journal of the American Oriental Society 133.3: 413-440.
Serruys, Paul L-M. (1984) "On the System of the Pu Shou 部首 in the Shuo-wen chieh-tzu 說文解字", Zhōngyāng Yánjiūyuàn Lìshǐ Yǔyán Yánjiùsuǒ Jíkān (中央研究院歷史語言研究所集刊, Journal of the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica), v.55:4, pp. 651–754.
Wang Guowei (1979). "史籀篇敘錄" [Commentary on the Shĭ Zhoù Piān] and "史籀篇疏證序" [Preface to a Study of the Shĭ Zhòu Piān], in 海寧王靜安先生遺書‧觀堂集林 [The Collected works of Mr. Wáng Jìng-Ān of Hǎiníng (Guan Tang Ji Lin)]. Taipei: 商務印書館 Commercial Press reprint, pp. 239–295.
Xu Zhongshu :zh:徐中舒. "丁山說文闕義箋" [Commentary on the errors in Shuowen by Ding Shan] |
1367_23 | External links
Explicatives
pages 28–29 : List of the 540 radicals in Xiaozhuan.
Shuowen jiezi 說文解字 – Chinaknowledge (Archive)
「説文解字」の540部首系統図 – がらんどう文字講座, Shuōwén Jiězì radical chart (Archive)
Copies
《說文解字》, comparative database of different editions – Beijing Normal University
《說文解字》, electronic edition – Chinese Text Project
《说文解字注》 全文检索 – 许慎撰 段玉裁注, facsimile edition
Scanned editions at the Internet Archive:
from the Siku Quanshu: chapters 1, 2–3, 4–5, 6–7, 8–9, 10–11, 12–13 and 14–15.
from the Siku Quanshu Huiyao: chapters 1–2, 3, 4–5, 6–7, 8–9, 10–11, 12–13 and 14–15.
Various
《說文解字》全文檢索測試版
《說文解字》在线查询
Chinese Etymology, online dictionary with Shuowens definitions – Richard Sears
– 漢字データベースプロジェクト/Kanji Database Project
Shuowen online text version with Duàn Yùcái "說文解字注", 釋名 Shiming, 爾雅 Erya, 方言 Fangyan, 廣韻 Guangyun définitions and glosses by Alain Lucas & Jean-Louis Schott and with "集韻 Jiyun" and "玉篇 Yupian" texts by Jean-Louis Schott. |
1367_24 | Han dynasty texts
Chinese classic texts
Chinese dictionaries
Chinese characters
History of linguistics
2nd-century books |
1368_0 | Martin Winckler (born Marc Zaffran; 22 February 1955, in French Algeria) is a French M.D. and short story, novel and essay writer. His main topics are the French medical system, the relationships between caregivers and patients and Women's Health. One of the first TV series critics in France, he has written numerous articles and books on the subject (ER; Grey's Anatomy; House, MD; Law & Order).
Biography
His family emigrated from Algeria first to Israel in 1961 then to France in 1962. He was a dedicated young reader and writer. After graduating from Medical School in Tours, he practised in a small country town in Sarthe (western rural France) from 1983 to 1993. From 1983 to 1989, he worked as an editor then as assistant editor-in-chief for the independent medical journal La Revue Prescrire under his real name, Marc Zaffran. |
1368_1 | In the mid-80's, his first short stories were published under the pseudonym "Martin Winckler". This name is a tribute to the French writer Georges Perec: Gaspard Winckler is one of the main characters in La Vie mode d'emploi (Life : A User's Manual), a very important book in Marc Zaffran's literary education. His first novel La Vacation (pub. 1989) introduces the central character of his major novels, Bruno Sachs M.D., who became famous in France with his second published novel La Maladie de Sachs ; (in English The Case of Dr Sachs Translated by Linda Asher, Seven Stories Press, NY, 2000). It became a motion picture, written, produced and directed by Rosalinde and Michel Deville (1999). Albert Dupontel plays Bruno Sachs. |
1368_2 | He opened a rural medical practice in 1983 which he left in 1993 to spend most of his time as a writer and translator. However, he remained a part-time doctor at the Le Mans public hospital, in the Abortion and Contraception clinic until 2008. His practice as a women's health physician lasted for 25 years. Many of his books were based on his experience as a medical practitioner.
Created in 2004, his web site "Winckler's Webzine" has published numerous texts about healthcare, contraception, TV serials. The "Contraception / Gynecology" section is the most frequently viewed.
In 2009 he immigrated to Montreal, Quebec where he first worked as a guest researcher at the Centre de Recherches en éthique de l'Université de Montréal (CREUM), on a research project about the training of medical personnel. He became a Canadian citizen in 2019.
Several of his books address the French medical culture and describe it as "archaic, violent and sexist and based on abuse of power". |
1368_3 | Most of his novels and essays address patient rights, the right to accept or reject treatments, power struggles between physicians and patients, and women's health.
The Case of Dr Sachs (P.O.L, 1998) is a very detailed description of a country physician's activities, as described by patients, relatives, colleagues and friends. The book sold 300,000 copies in its first edition alone.
Les Trois Médecins (P.O.L, 2004) was inspired by Alexandre Dumas' "The Three Musketeers". It is set in a French Medical school in the 70s and tells how Bruno Sachs and three of his friends dedicated themselves to General Practice.
Le Chœur des femmes (P.O.L, 2009) is a novel set in a Women's Health Clinic in central France. Another best seller, it sold 65,000 copies in its first edition and has been a paperback best seller since 2011 (240,000 copies and counting).
En souvenir d'André (P.O.L, 2012) is a short novel whose protagonist provides Medical Assistance in Dying. |
1368_4 | Les Brutes en Blanc ("Brutes in white coats"), an essay published in 2016, made the French medical establishment very angry by its description of ongoing and institutionalized medical brutality in France. The "Ordre des médecins" (France's medical regulatory board) issued a statement to condemn the book as "a caricature of reality". Many other books addressing the very same topic have since been published, confirming Winckler's description and analysis through extended research.
L'Ecole des soignantes (P.O.L, 2019) a Science-Fiction Novel, is the sequel to Le Choeur des femmes. Set in 2032, it describes a medical training school mostly run by female healthcare workers who have set aside all kind of hierarchy between professionals and provide care respectful of patients' preferences, choices and decisions. |
1368_5 | Works
Non Fiction |
1368_6 | Contraceptions mode d'emploi, 2001 ; Second ed. reviewed, Au Diable Vauvert, 2003. Third ed., J'ai Lu, 2007
C’est grave docteur ? Ce que disent les patients, ce qu'entendent les médecins, La Martinière, 2002.
Nous sommes tous des patients, interview with Catherine Nabokov, Le Livre de poche, 2005.
Les Droits du Patient, with Salomé Viviana, Collection "Soigner", Fleurus 2007
Choisir sa contraception, Collection "La Santé en questions", Fleurus 2007.
Tout ce que vous vouliez savoir sur les règles... sans jamais avoir osé le demander, Collection "La Santé en questions", Fleurus 2008.
Profession Médecin de famille, Presses de l'Université de Montréal, 2012
Le patient et le médecin, Presses de l'Université de Montréal, 2014
Les Brutes en blanc, Flammarion 2016.
Tu comprendras ta douleur - Pourquoi nous avons mal et que faire pour que ça cesse, en collaboration avec Alain Gahagnon, Fayard 2019 |
1368_7 | C'est mon corps - Tout ce que veulent savoir les femmes sur leur santé, L'Iconoclaste, 2020 |
1368_8 | Fiction |
1368_9 | La Vacation, POL, 1989.
La Maladie de Sachs, POL, 1998; (in English : The Case of Dr Sachs Seven Stories Press, NY, 2000).
Les Trois Médecins, POL, 2004.
Le Poulpe, « Touche pas à mes deux seins », Baleine n°221 (2001) puis Librio n°559 (2002).
Légendes, autobiographic text, P.O.L, 2002
Plumes d'Ange, autobiographic text, P.O.L, 2003
Mort in vitro, Fleuve noir & Mutualité française, 2003.
Camisoles, Fleuve Noir, 2006.
Noirs scalpels (anthology collection Néo ) au Cherche Midi, 2006.
J'ai Mal Là ..., Les Petits Matins, 2006
Le numéro 7 collection Néo au Cherche Midi, 2007; (inspired by the classic British TV show The Prisoner)
Histoires en l'air, P.O.L, 2008
Un pour Deux, "La Trilogie Twain, tome 1" Calmann-Lévy, 2008
L'un ou l'autre, "La Trilogie Twain, tome 2", Calmann-Lévy, 2009
Deux pour Tous, "La Trilogie Twain, tome 3", Calmann-Lévy, 2009 |
1368_10 | Le Chœur des femmes, P.O.L, 2009 (A novel set in a Women's Health Clinic in central France. Another best seller - close to 300,000 copies sold.)
En souvenir d'André, P.O.L, 2012
Abraham et fils, P.O.L, 2016 (The first in a series about a physician and his son setting in rural France in 1963 after being forced to leave their native Algeria.)
Les Histoires de Franz, P.O.L, 2017 (Second in the Abraham et fils series)
L'Ecole des soignantes, P.O.L, 2019 |
1368_11 | Cultural criticism
1993: Mission impossible with Alain Carrazé (Néo - Huitième art)
1997: Les Nouvelles Séries américaines et britanniques 1996-1997 (coll. co-dirigé avec Alain Carrazé), Belles Lettres
1999: Les Séries télé (with Christophe Petit & Jean-Jacques Schléret), Larousse, collection « Guide Totem » ; dictionnaires de séries.
2003-2005: Histoire des séries américaines:
tome 1, Les Miroirs de la vie, Le Passage
tome 2 (collective), Les Miroirs obscurs, Le Diable Vauvert
2004: Les séries TV et le soap opera, lecture at the Université de tous les savoirs; you can watch it at .
2005: Séries télé : De Zorro à Friends, 60 ans de téléfictions américaines, Éditions J'ai Lu, Collection Librio Repères
2005: Le Rire de Zorro, Ed. Bayard
2007: Le meilleur des séries, (ed.), Éditions Hors Collection
2008: L'année des Séries 2008, (ed.), Éditions Hors Collection
2012: Petit éloge des séries télé, Librio
2014: Docteur House, l'esprit du shaman, Ed. du Boréal
Others |
1368_12 | Les Cahiers Marcœur, 1991; never published, available at Martin Winckler's website. Fragments have been published as Le mystère Marcœur (L’amourier, 2001).
Neuf contes pour nos enfants, CD, De Vive Voix, 2002.
Le corps en suspens, stories by Martin Winckler - photographs by Henri Zerdoun, 50 pictures of patients and caregivers, in the hospital and in private practices, Zulma, 2002
Super Héros, EPA, 2003; (a History of classic comic-book superheroes).
Odyssée. Une aventure radiophonique, Le Cherche-Midi, 2003; anthology of radio chronicles on France Inter.
Docteur Je sais tout, chronicles in Spirou HeBDo, readers asked questions to which he gave ironic answers. Illustrations by Johan de Moor.
Préface
Changer de sexe, Identités transsexuelles, by Stéphanie Nicot and Alexandra Augst-Merelle, Editions Le Cavalier Bleu, 2006
References |
1368_13 | External links
Martin Winckler's personal website
Lecture by Martin Winckler
Trois pour un: Une lecture évolutionniste de l'oeuvre de Martin Winckler'', Presses de l'Université du Québec, 2012, by Marc Lapprand. The first essay ever written on the work of Martin Winckler.
People from Algiers
Living people
1955 births
French crime fiction writers
French medical writers
Prix du Livre Inter winners
English–French translators
20th-century French novelists
21st-century French novelists
20th-century French essayists
21st-century French essayists |
1369_0 | Esophagitis, also spelled oesophagitis, is a disease characterized by inflammation of the esophagus. The esophagus is a tube composed of a mucosal lining, and longitudinal and circular smooth muscle fibers. It connects the pharynx to the stomach; swallowed food and liquids normally pass through it.
Esophagitis can be asymptomatic; or can cause epigastric and/or substernal burning pain, especially when lying down or straining; and can make swallowing difficult (dysphagia). The most common cause of esophagitis is the reverse flow of acid from the stomach into the lower esophagus: gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).
Signs and symptoms
The symptoms of esophagitis include:
Heartburn – a burning sensation in the lower mid-chest
Nausea
Dysphagia – swallowing is painful, with difficulty passing or inability to pass food through the esophagus
Vomiting (emesis)
Abdominal pain
Cough |
1369_1 | Complications
If the disease remains untreated, it can cause scarring and discomfort in the esophagus. If the irritation is not allowed to heal, esophagitis can result in esophageal ulcers. Esophagitis can develop into Barrett's esophagus and can increase the risk of esophageal cancer.
Causes
Esophagitis cannot be spread. However, infections can be spread by those who have infectious esophagitis. Esophagitis can develop due to many causes. GERD is the most common cause of esophagitis because of the backflow of acid from the stomach, which can irritate the lining of the esophagus. |
1369_2 | Other causes include:
Medicines – Can cause esophageal damage that can lead to esophageal ulcers
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) – aspirin, naproxen sodium, and ibuprofen. Known to irritate the GI tract.
Antibiotics – doxycycline and tetracycline
Quinidine
Bisphosphonates – used to treat osteoporosis
Steroids
Potassium chloride
Chemical injury by alkaline or acid solutions
Physical injury resulting from nasogastric tubes.
Alcohol use disorder – Can wear down the lining of the esophagus.
Crohn's disease – a type of IBD and an autoimmune disease that can cause esophagitis if it attacks the esophagus.
Stress – Can cause higher levels of acid reflux
Radiation therapy - Can affect the immune system.
Allergies (food, inhalants) – Allergies can stimulate eosinophilic esophagitis.
Infection - People with an immunodeficiencies have a higher chance of developing esophagitis. |
1369_3 | Vitamins and supplements (iron, vitamin C, and potassium) – Supplements and minerals can be hard on the GI tract.
Vomiting – Acid can irritate esophagus.
Hernias – A hernia can poke through the diaphragm muscle and can inhibit the stomach acid and food from draining quickly.
Surgery
Eosinophilic esophagitis, a more chronic condition with a theorized autoimmune component |
1369_4 | Mechanism
The esophagus is a muscular tube made of both voluntary and involuntary muscles. It is responsible for peristalsis of food. It is about 8 inches long and passes through the diaphragm before entering the stomach. The esophagus is made up of three layers: from the inside out, they are the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa. The mucosa, the inner most layer and lining of the esophagus, is composed of stratified squamous epithelium, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae. At the end of the esophagus is the lower esophageal sphincter, which normally prevents stomach acid from entering the esophagus.
If the sphincter is not sufficiently tight, it may allow acid to enter the esophagus, causing inflammation of one or more layers. Esophagitis may also occur if an infection is present, which may be due to bacteria, viruses, or fungi; or by diseases that affect the immune system. |
1369_5 | Irritation can be caused by GERD, vomiting, surgery, medications, hernias, and radiation injury. Inflammation can cause the esophagus to narrow, which makes swallowing food difficult and may result in food bolus impaction.
Diagnosis
Esophagitis can be diagnosed by upper endoscopy, biopsy, upper GI series (or barium swallow), and laboratory tests.
An upper endoscopy is a procedure to look at the esophagus by using an endoscope. While looking at the esophagus, the doctor is able to take a small biopsy. The biopsy can be used to confirm inflammation of the esophagus. |
1369_6 | An upper GI series uses a barium contrast, fluoroscopy, and an X-ray. During a barium X-ray, a solution with barium or pill is taken before getting an X-ray. The barium makes the organs more visible and can detect if there is any narrowing, inflammation, or other abnormalities that can be causing the disease. The upper GI series can be used to find the cause of GI symptoms. An esophagram is if only the throat and esophagus are looked at.
Laboratory tests can be done on biopsies removed from the esophagus and can help determine the cause of the esophagitis. Laboratory tests can help diagnose a fungal, viral, or bacterial infection. Scanning for white blood cells can help diagnose eosinophil esophagitis.
Some lifestyle indicators for this disease include stress, unhealthy eating, smoking, drinking, family history, allergies, and immunodeficiency.
Types
Reflux esophagitis |
1369_7 | Although it usually assumed that inflammation from acid reflux is caused by the irritant action on the mucosa by hydrochloric acid, one study suggests that the pathogenesis of reflux esophagitis may be cytokine-mediated.
Infectious esophagitis
Esophagitis happens due to a viral, fungal, parasitic or bacterial infection. More likely to happen to people who have an immunodeficiency. Types include:
Fungal
Candida (Esophageal candidiasis)
Viral
Herpes simplex (Herpes esophagitis)
Cytomegalovirus
Drug-induced esophagitis
Damage to the esophagus due to medications. If the esophagus is not coated or if the medicine is not taken with enough liquid, it can damage the tissues.
Eosinophilic esophagitis |
1369_8 | Eosinophilic esophagitis is caused by a high concentration of eosinophils in the esophagus. The presence of eosinophils in the esophagus may be due to an allergen and is often correlated with GERD. The direction of cause and effect between inflammation and acid reflux is poorly established, with recent studies (in 2016) hinting that reflux does not cause inflammation. This esophagitis can be triggered by allergies to food or to inhaled allergens. This type is still poorly understood.
Lymphocytic esophagitis
Lymphocytic esophagitis is a rare and poorly understood entity associated with an increased amount of lymphocytes in the lining of the esophagus. It was first described in 2006. Disease associations may include Crohn's disease, gastroesophageal reflux disease and coeliac disease. It causes similar changes on endoscopy as eosinophilic esophagitis including esophageal rings, narrow-lumen esophagus, and linear furrows.
Caustic esophagitis |
1369_9 | Caustic esophagitis is the damage of tissue via chemical origin. This occasionally occurs through occupational exposure (via breathing of fumes that mix into the saliva which is then swallowed) or through pica. It occurred in some teenagers during the fad of intentionally eating Tide pods.
By severity
The severity of reflux esophagitis is commonly classified into four grades according to the Los Angeles Classification:
Prevention
Since there can be many causes underlying esophagitis, it is important to try to find the cause to help to prevent esophagitis. To prevent reflux esophagitis, avoid acidic foods, caffeine, eating before going to bed, alcohol, fatty meals, and smoking. To prevent drug-induced esophagitis, drink plenty of liquids when taking medicines, take an alternative drug, and do not take medicines while lying down, before sleeping, or too many at one time. Esophagitis is more prevalent in adults and does not discriminate.
Treatment |
1369_10 | Lifestyle changes
Losing weight, stop smoking and alcohol, lowering stress, avoid sleeping/lying down after eating, raising the head of the bed, taking medicines correctly, avoiding certain medications, and avoiding foods that cause the reflux that might be causing the esophagitis.
Medications
Antacids
To treat reflux esophagitis, over the counter antacids, medications that reduce acid production (H-2 receptor blockers), and proton pump inhibitors are recommended to help block acid production and to let the esophagus heal. Some prescription medications to treat reflux esophagitis include higher dose H-2 receptor blockers, proton pump inhibitors, and prokinetics, which help with the emptying of the stomach. However prokinetics are no longer licensed for GERD because their evidence of efficacy is poor, and following a safety review, licensed use of domperidone and metoclopramide is now restricted to short-term use in nausea and vomiting only. |
1369_11 | For subtypes
To treat eosinophilic esophagitis, avoiding any allergens that may be stimulating the eosinophils is recommended. As for medications, proton pump inhibitors and steroids can be prescribed. Steroids that are used to treat asthma can be swallowed to treat eosinophil esophagitis due to nonfood allergens. The removal of food allergens from the diet is included to help treat eosinophilic esophagitis.
For infectious esophagitis, medicine is prescribed based on what type of infection is causing the esophagitis. These medicines are prescribed to treat bacterial, fungal, viral, and/or parasitic infections.
Procedures
An endoscopy can be used to remove ill fragments.
Surgery can be done to remove the damaged part of the esophagus.
For reflux esophagitis, a fundooplication can be done to help strengthen the lower esophageal sphincter from allowing backflow of the stomach into the esophagus.
For esophageal stricture, a gastroenterologist can perform a dilation of the esophagus. |
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