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1502_41 | Campeonato Baiano
Campeonato Pernambucano
Campeonato Alagoano
Campeonato Sergipano
Campeonato Potiguar
Campeonato Maranhense
Campeonato Piauiense
Campeonato Cearense
Campeonato Paraibano
Midwest
Campeonato Matogrossense
Campeonato Sul-Matogrossense
Campeonato Goiano
Campeonato Brasiliense
Southeast
Campeonato Paulista
Campeonato Carioca
Campeonato Mineiro
Campeonato Capixaba
South
Campeonato Gaúcho
Campeonato Catarinense
Campeonato Paranaense
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Paraguay
Peru
Uruguay
Venezuela
OFC (Oceanian competitions)
This section lists the competitions ruled by the OFC (Oceania Football Confederation), or by federations member the OFC.
National teams |
1502_42 | OFC Nations Cup
Pacific Games
OFC Men’s Olympic Qualifier
OFC U-19 Championship
OFC U-16 Championship
OFC Women's Nations Cup : Women's cup ; Linked with Qualifiers for the FIFA Women's World Cup and Women's Olympic Football Tournament.
OFC U-19 Women's Championship : Women's
OFC U-16 Women's Championship : Women's
Wantok Cup
Polynesia Cup : defunct
Melanesia Cup : defunct
Clubs
OFC Champions League
Oceania Cup Winners' Cup : defunct
OFC President's Cup : defunct
Melanesian Super Cup : defunct
American Samoa
Cook Islands
Leagues
Cook Islands Round Cup : 1st-tier
Cups
Cook Islands Cup : National cup
Fiji
Leagues
Fiji Premier League : 1st-tier
Fiji Senior League : 2nd-tier
Inter-District Championship
Club Franchise League
Cups
FF Cup : National cup
Fiji Battle of the Giants
Fiji Champion versus Champion : Super cup
Girmit Soccer Tournament
Kiribati
Leagues
Kiribati National Championship : 1st-tier
New Caledonia
Leagues |
1502_43 | New Caledonia Super Ligue : 1st-tier
New Caledonia Second Level : 2nd-tier
Cups
Coupe de Calédonie : National cup
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
Leagues
Papua New Guinea National Soccer League : 1st-tier
Papua New Guinea National Club Championship : Amateur division
Cups
Papua New Guinea FA Cup : National cup
Samoa
Leagues
Samoa National League : 1st-tier
Cups
Samoa Cup : National cup
Solomon Islands
Leagues
Solomon Islands S-League : 1st-tier
Honiara FA League
The Solomon Islands Knockout Championship
Solomon Islands National Club Championship (2000–10)
Interprovincial Tournament 1977-1985
Cups
Solomon Cup : National cup
Malaita Cup
Tahiti
Leagues
Tahitian Ligue 1 : 1st-tier
Tahitian Ligue 2 : 2nd-tier
Cups
Tahiti Cup : National cup
Tahiti Coupe des Champions : Super cup
Tonga
Leagues
Tonga Major League : 1st-tier
Tonga Division 1 : 2nd-tier
Cups
Tonga Cup : National cup
Tuvalu
Leagues |
1502_44 | Tuvalu A-Division League : 1st-tier
Tuvalu B-Division League : 2nd-tier
Tuvalu A-Division League (Women's)
Cups
Taganoa Cup
NBT Cup : National cup
Independence Cup
Christmas Cup
Tuvalu Games Football Cup
Vanuatu
Leagues
Port Vila Football League
Port Vila Premier League : 1st-tier
Port Vila First Division : 2nd-tier
Port Vila Second Division : 3rd-tier
VFF National Super League
Cups
Port Vila Shield
Port Vila FA Cup : National cup
UEFA (European competitions)
This section lists the competitions ruled by the UEFA (Union of European Football Associations), or by federations member the UEFA.
National teams
Clubs
Albania
Andorra
Armenia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
England
Estonia
Leagues |
1502_45 | Meistriliiga : Men's 1st-tier league
Esiliiga : Men's 2nd-tier league
Esiliiga B : Men's 3rd-tier league
III liiga : Men's 4th-tier league
IV Liiga : Men's 5th-tier league
Naiste Meistriliiga : Women's 1st-tier league
Cups
Estonian Cup : Men's National cup
Estonian Supercup : Men's super cup
Estonian Small Cup : Men's lower league cup
Estonian Women's Cup : Women's National cup
Faroe Islands
Leagues
Faroe Islands Premier League : 1st-tier
1. Deild : 2nd-tier
2. Deild : 3rd-tier
3. Deild : 4th-tier
1. delid kvinnur : Women's league
Cups
Faroe Islands Cup : National cup
Faroe Islands Super Cup : Super cup
FSF Trophy : defunct
Faroese Women's Cup
Faroese Women's Super Cup
Finland
France
Georgia
Leagues
Erovnuli Liga : 1st-tier
Erovnuli Liga 2 : 2nd-tier
Georgian Liga 3 : 3rd-tier
Liga 4 : 4th-tier
Regionuli Liga : 5th-tier
Women's football championship
Cups
Georgian Cup : National cup
Georgian Super Cup : Super cup
Germany
Gibraltar
Leagues |
1502_46 | Gibraltar National League : 1st-tier
Gibraltar Premier Division : defunct
Gibraltar Second Division : defunct
Gibraltar Intermediate League
Gibraltar women's football championship
Cups
Rock Cup : National cup
Pepe Reyes Cup : Super cup
Gibraltar Division 2 Cup : defunct
Gibraltar Intermediate Cup
Gibraltar Premier Cup : defunct
Women's Rock Cup
Greece
Hungary
Leagues
NBI : 1st-tier
NBII : 2nd-tier
NBIII : 3rd-tier
Megyei Bajnokság I : 4th-tier
Megyei Bajnokság II : 5th-tier
Női NB I : Women's league
Cups
Magyar Kupa : National cup
Szuperkupa : Super cup
Hungarian Women's Cup
Iceland
Leagues
Men's
Úrvalsdeild karla : 1st-tier
1. deild karla : 2nd-tier
2. deild karla : 3rd-tier
3. deild karla : 4th-tier
4. deild karla : 5th-tier
Women's
Úrvalsdeild kvenna
1. deild kvenna
2. deild kvenna
Cups |
1502_47 | Men's
Icelandic Men's Football Cup : National cup
Icelandic Men's Football Super Cup : Super cup
Icelandic Men's Football League Cup : Pre-season cup
Fótbolti.net Cup : Annual pre-season tournament
Reykjavik Tournament : Annual pre-season tournament
Women's
Icelandic Women's Football Cup
Icelandic Women's Super Cup
Icelandic Women's Football League Cup
Israel
Leagues |
1502_48 | Men
Ligat Ha`Al : the top division operates at the national level and has 14 member clubs
Liga Leumit : the 2nd division operates at the national level and has 16 member clubs
Liga Alef : the 3rd division is split into 2 regional leagues (north and south) and has 32 member clubs (16 in each division)
Liga Bet : the 4th division is split into 4 regional leagues (2 in the north, 2 in the south) and has 64 member clubs (16 in each division)
Liga Gimel : the 5th division is split into 6 regional leagues and has 94 member clubs
Women
Ligat Nashim Rishona : the top division operates at the national level and has 8 member clubs
Ligat Nashim Shniya : the 2nd division operates at the national level and has 5 member clubs
Youth
Noar Premier League : the top division operates at the national level and has 16 member clubs
Noar Leumit League : the 2nd division is split into 2 regional leagues (north and south).
Noar Arzit : the 3rd division is split into 2 regional leagues (north and south). |
1502_49 | Cups
Men
Israel State Cup : National cup
Israel Super Cup : Super cup
Toto Cup : one for each of the top 2 divisions. (Ligat Ha`Al and Liga Leumit)
Women
Israeli Women's Cup
Youth
Israel Noar State Cup
Italy
Kazakhstan
Leagues
Kazakhstan Premier League : 1st-tier
Kazakhstan First Division : 2nd-tier
Kazakhstan Second League : 3rd-tier
Cups
Kazakhstan Cup : National cup
Kazakhstan Super Cup : Super cup
Women competitions
Kazakhstani women's football championship
Kazakhstani Women's Cup
Kosovo
Latvia
Leagues
Virsliga : 1st-tier
1. līga : 2nd-tier
2. līga : 3rd-tier
Rigas cempionats
Kurzemes zona
Latgales zona
Vidzemes zona
Livonijas liga
Latvian Women's League
Cups
Latvijas kauss : National cup
Latvian Supercup : Super cup
Virsligas Winter Cup : Defunct
Liechtenstein
Liechtenstein Cup—This is the only competition exclusively featuring clubs from Liechtenstein. All seven clubs in the country play their league football in the Swiss league system.
Lithuania |
1502_50 | Luxembourg
Leagues
Luxembourg National Division : 1st-tier
Luxembourg Division of Honour : 2nd-tier
Luxembourg 1. Division : 3rd-tier
Luxembourg 2. Division : 4th-tier
Luxembourg 3. Division : 5th-tier
Dames Ligue 1 : Women's league
Cups
Luxembourg Cup : National cup
Luxembourg Women's Cup
Malta
Leagues
Maltese Football League
Maltese Premier League : 1st-tier
Maltese Challenge League : 2nd-tier
Maltese National Amateur League : 3rd-tier
For Gozo competitions, see non FIFA competitions section
Cups
Maltese FA Trophy : National cup
Maltese Super Cup : Super cup
Moldova
Montenegro
Netherlands
Northern Ireland
Leagues
Northern Ireland Football League
NIFL Premiership : 1st-tier
NIFL Championship : 2nd-tier
NIFL Premier Intermediate League : 3rd-tier
Cups |
1502_51 | Irish Cup : National cup
Northern Ireland Football League Cup : League cup
NIFL Charity Shield : Super cup
County Antrim Shield
Mid-Ulster Cup
North West Senior Cup
Irish Intermediate Cup
Steel & Sons Cup
Bob Radcliffe Cup
Craig Memorial Cup
George Wilson Cup
North Macedonia
Leagues
1. MFL : 1st-tier
2. MFL : 2nd-tier
3. MFL : 3rd-tier
Macedonian Regional Football Leagues : 4th/5th-tier
Macedonian women's football championship
Cups
Macedonian Football Cup : National cup
Macedonian Supercup : Super cup
Macedonian Women's Football Cup
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Republic of Ireland
Leagues
League of Ireland Premier Division : 1st-tier
League of Ireland First Division : 2nd-tier
Women's National League
Cups
FAI Cup : National cup
League of Ireland Cup : League cup
President of Ireland's Cup : Super cup
Leinster Senior Cup
Munster Senior Cup
FAI Women's Cup
Romania
Russia
San Marino
Leagues
Campionato Sammarinese di Calcio : 1st-tier
Cups |
1502_52 | Coppa Titano : National cup
Super Coppa Sammarinese : Super cup
Trofeo Federale : defunct
Torneo Repubblica di San Marino - Defunct friendly tournament held in San Marino
Scotland
Serbia
Slovakia
Leagues
Fortuna Liga : 1st-tier
2. liga : 2nd-tier
3. liga : 3rd-tier
Bratislava
Západ : West
Stred : Central
Východ : East
4. liga : 4th-tier
eight groups
5. liga : 5th-tier
Slovak Women's First League
Cups
Slovak Cup : National cup
Slovak Super Cup : Super cup
Slovak Women's Cup
Slovenia
Leagues
1.SNL : 1st-tier
2.SNL : 2nd-tier
3.SNL : 3rd-tier
3.SNL-zahod
3.SNL-vzhod
Slovenian Regional Leagues : 4th-tier
Regional FA Leagues
Slovenian Women's League
Cups
Hervis Pokal : National cup
Slovenian Women's Cup
Spain
Sweden
Leagues |
1502_53 | Allsvenskan : 1st-tier
Superettan : 2nd-tier
Division 1 : 3rd-tier
Division 2 : 4th-tier
Division 3 : 5th-tier
Division 4 : 6th-tier
Division 5 : 7th-tier
Division 6 : 8th-tier
Division 7 : 9th-tier
Division 8 : 10th-tier
Damallsvenskan : women's premier league
Cups
Svenska Cupen : National cup
Svenska Cupen (women)
Switzerland
Leagues
Swiss Super League : 1st-tier
Swiss Challenge League : 2nd-tier
Swiss Promotion League : 3rd-tier
Swiss 1. Liga : 4th-tier
2. Liga Interregional : 5th-tier
2. Liga : 6th-tier
3. Liga : 7th-tier
4. Liga : 8th-tier
5. Liga : 9th-tier
Nationalliga A : women's football
Nationalliga B
Cups
Schweizer Cup : National cup
Uhrencup
Cup of the Alps
Swiss League Cup : defunct
Swiss Super Cup : defunct
Swiss Women's Cup
Turkey
Ukraine
Wales
Leagues
Cymru Premier : 1st-tier
Cymru North : 2nd-tier
Cymru South : 2nd-tier
Ardal Leagues : 3rd-tier
North East
North West
South East
South West
Area leagues : 4th-tier
Welsh Premier Women's Football League
Cups |
1502_54 | Welsh Cup : National cup
FAW Premier Cup
Welsh League Cup
FAW Trophy
Welsh Football League Cup
Cymru Alliance League Cup
FAW Women's Cup
FAW Welsh Youth Cup
Non-FIFA competitions
This section lists the competitions ruled by associations outside FIFA or its confederations. This includes nations, territories, regions and dependencies. This does not include competitions in continental confederations who may not be a part of FIFA.
Worldwide |
1502_55 | Clericus Cup, organised by Centro Sportivo Italiano
ConIFA World Football Cup, organised by Confederation of Independent Football Associations
Viva World Cup, organised by New Federation Board
FIFI Wild Cup, organised by Federation of International Football Independents
Island Games
UNPO Cup, organised by Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization
Europeada, organised by Federal Union of European Nationalities
ELF Cup, organised by Cyprus Turkish Football Federation
Homeless World Cup
Unofficial Football World Championships
Women's Unofficial Football World Championships : Women's
Abkhazia
Leagues
Abkhazian Premier League : 1st-tier
Cups
Abkhazian Cup : National cup
Abkhazia Super Cup : Super cup
Republic of Artsakh
Leagues
Artsakh Football League : 1st-tier
Cups
Artsakh Cup
Ascension Island
Leagues
Ascension Island Football League : 1st-tier
Cups
Ascension Island League Cup
Ascension Island District Cup
J. Lawrence Knock-out Cup
Flipper Cup
Canada |
1502_56 | Leagues
Canadian Soccer League
CSL First Division : 1st-tier
CSL Second Division : 2nd-tier
Cups
Canadian Soccer League championship final
Open Canada Cup : Defunct
Christmas Island
Leagues
Christmas Island Soccer League
Crimea
Leagues
Crimean Premier League : 1st-tier
Falkland islands
Leagues
Falkland Islands Football League : 1st-tier
Federated States of Micronesia
Federated States of Micronesia Football Championship
Micronesian Games Football Tournament
Gozo
Leagues
Gozo Football League First Division : 1st-tier
Gozo Football League Second Division : 2nd-tier
Gozo Football Female League
Cups
G.F.A. Cup : National cup
Independence Cup
Freedom Day Cup
Second Division Knock-Out
Greenland
Leagues
Greenlandic Men's Football Championship : 1st-tier
Greenlandic Women's Football Championship
Cups
Greenland Cup
Guernsey
Leagues |
1502_57 | Priaulx League : 1st-tier
FNB Jackson League : 1st-tier
Railway League 1
Railway League 2
Guernsey Veterans League
Guernsey Women's League
Cups
Guernsey FA Cup
Frederick Martinez Cup
Stranger Charity Cup
Mauger Cup
Rouget Cup
Rawlinson Cup
Le Vallee Cup
Upton Park Trophy - Held between champions of Guernsey and champions of Jersey
Guernsey Women's Knock-out Cup
Guernsey Women's Secondary Cup
Iraqi Kurdistan
Leagues
Kurdistan Premier League : 1st-tier
Cups
Kurdistan Cup
Kurdistan Super Cup
Isle of Man
Leagues
Isle of Man Football League
Isle of Man Premier League : 1st-tier
Isle of Man Division 2 : 2nd-tier
Isle of Man Football Combination
Cups
Isle of Man FA Cup : National cup
Isle of Man Hospital Cup
Isle of Man Railway Cup
Isle of Man Gold Cup
Isle of Man Woods Memorial Cup
Isle of Man Charity Shield : Super cup
Isles of Scilly
Leagues
Isles of Scilly Football League : 1st-tier
Cups
The Wholesalers Cup
Foredeck Cup
Jersey
Leagues |
1502_58 | Jersey Football Combination : 1st-tier
Jersey Championship : 2nd-tier
Cups
Le Riche Cup : Domestic cup
Wheway Trophy : JFC league cup
Jersey Charity Cup : Community/charity trophy
Alex Scott Cup
Brian Beckett Cup
Colin Welsh cup
Cory Cup
David Melton Memorial Trophy
Eric Amy Cup
G4S Cup
Jason Lee Memorial Trophy
Lady Bingham Cup
Presidents Trophy
Riche Broken Memorial Cup
Touzel Cup
Tradesmen Trophy
Tregear Cup
Trinity Shield
Willis Cup
Zenith Cup
Upton Park Trophy - Held between champions of Guernsey and champions of Jersey
Marshall Islands
Leagues
Marshallese Soccer League
Mayotte
Leagues
Mayotte Division Honneur : 1st-tier
Cups
Coupe de Mayotte
Monaco
Competitions
Challenge Prince Rainier III : 1st-tier
Trophée Ville de Monaco : 2nd-tier
Challenge Monégasque : 3rd-tier
Nauru
Leagues
Nauru Amateurish Soccer League
Niue
Leagues
Niue Soccer Tournament : 1st-tier
Northern Cyprus
Leagues |
1502_59 | KTFF Süper Lig (English: CTFA Super League) : 1st-tier
KTFF 1. Lig : 2nd-tier
KTFF 2. Lig : 3rd-tier
KTFF Womens League
Cups
Cypriot Cup : National cup
KTFF Super Cup : Super cup
Palau
Leagues
Palua Soccer League : 1st-tier
Palua Youth Soccer League
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
Also known as Western Sahara
Cups
Sahrawi Republic Cup
Saint Barthélemy
Leagues
Saint-Barthelemy Championships : 1st-tier
Cups
Coupe de Saint-Barth
Taça Jose Veiga da Silva
Saint Helena
Leagues
St. Helena Island Football League : 1st-tier
Division 2
Division 3
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Leagues
Ligue de Football de Saint Pierre et Miquelon : 1st-tier
Somaliland
Leagues
Somaliland Football League
Cups
Telesom Cup
Somaliland Regional Games
South Ossetia
Leagues
South Ossetian Football League
South Ossetia Youth League
Tokelau
Leagues
Tokelau Amateurish Football League
Tuvalu
Leagues |
1502_60 | Tuvalu A-Division League : 1st-tier
Tuvalu B-Division League : 2nd-tier
Tuvalu A-Division League (Women's)
Cups
Taganoa Cup
NBT Cup : National cup
Independence Cup
Christmas Cup
Tuvalu Games Football Cup
Vatican City
Leagues
Vatican City Championship : 1st-tier
Cups
Coppa Sergio Valci : National cup
Supercoppa : Super cup
Other - Clericus Cup
Wallis and Futuna
Leagues
Wallis Première Division
Wallis Deuxième Division
Futuna Première Division
Futuna Deuxième Division
Cups
Coupe de l'Outre-Mer : Defunct
Outremer Champions Cup : Both of these cups were held for territories of France, both are now defunct
Competitions in former nations
This section lists competitions in former nations, unions, empires, protectorates and territories, all of which are defunct.
Austria-Hungary
Leagues
Tagblatt Pokal
Cups
Austro-Hungarian Challenge Cup
Commonwealth of Independent States
CIS Super League : Proposed
United Tournament
United Supercup
Czechoslovakia
Leagues |
1502_61 | Czechoslovak First League
Czechoslovak Second League
Czechoslovak Third League
Cups
Czechoslovak Cup
Federal Republic of Germany
Also known as West Germany
Leagues
German championship (1949-1990)
German Democratic Republic
Also known as East Germany
Leagues
DDR-Oberliga
DDR-Liga Staffel A
DDR-Liga Staffel B
II. DDR-Liga
Bezirksliga : 15 Regional leagues
Bezirksliga Schwerin
Bezirksliga Rostock
Bezirksliga Neubrandenburg
Bezirksliga Magdeburg
Bezirksliga Potsdam
Bezirksliga Berlin
Bezirksliga Frankfurt/Oder
Bezirksliga Cottbus
Bezirksliga Halle
Bezirksliga Gera
Bezirksliga Erfurt
Bezirksliga Dresden
Bezirksliga Leipzig
Bezirksliga Karl-Marx-Stadt / Chemnitz
Bezirksliga Suhl
Cups
FDGB-Pokal
DFV-Supercup
Mandatory Palestine
Leagues |
1502_62 | Mandatory Palestine League : 1923-1947
Palestine Premier League (1945-1947)
Mis'chakei HaBechora
Haifa League
Jerusalem Services and Police League
Jerusalem League : 1940
Liga Bet (Division 2)
Samaria Division
Sharon Division
Liga Gimel (Division 3)
Palestine Youth League
Cups
Palestine Cup (1922-1947)
Hebrew Cup : 1922-1925
People's Cup (1928)
Tel Aviv District Cup
Palestine Mond Cup
Jerusalem Cup
Nashashibi Cup
Jaffa Mayor Cup
Mr. Guth Cup
Melchett Cup
Palestine Autumn Cup
Palestine National Shield
Nesher Cup : Cup for winners of the Samaria and Sharon Divisions
Haifa Cup : Following the cancellation of the Haifa league
Palestine North Cup
Jezreel Valley Cup
Jordan Valley Cup
The Wartime Cup
Netherlands Antilles
Leagues
Netherlands Antilles Championship
North Vietnam
Leagues
North Vietnam V-League |
1502_63 | Ottoman Empire
The İstanbul Lig and İstanbul Profesyonel Futbol Ligi ran after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire but continued under the Constantinople Football League and has since been defunct.
Leagues
Constantinople Football League
İstanbul Pazar Ligi
İstanbul Cuma Ligi
İstanbul Ligi
İstanbul Profesyonel Futbol Ligi
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen
Leagues
South Yemeni League
Cups
South Yemen Cup
Saar Protectorate
Amateurliga Saarland : The representing league of the Saar Protectorate 1947–1956, of Saarland, Germany
Serbia and Montenegro
Leagues
First League of Serbia and Montenegro
Second League of Serbia and Montenegro
Serbian First League (2004-2006)
Montenegrin First League (2004-2006)
Cups
Serbia and Montenegro Cup
South Vietnam
Leagues
South Vietnam V-League
South Vietnam V-League Division 2
Cups
South Vietnam League Cup
Soviet Union
Also known as the USSR. See also: Soviet Union football league system
Leagues |
1502_64 | Soviet Top League
Soviet First League
Soviet Second League
Soviet Second League B
Cups
Soviet Cup
Soviet Super Cup
USSR Federation Cup
All-Union Committee of Physical Culture and Sports Tournament
Soviet Season Opener Cup
Nedel Cup
USSR 60th Anniversary Cup
Valentin Granatkin Memorial Tournament
Snowdrop Tournament
Soviet Sport Prize
Yemen Arab Republic
Also known as North Yemen
Leagues
North Yemeni League
Cups
North Yemen Cup of the Republic
Yugoslavia
Leagues
Yugoslav First League
Yugoslav Second League
Yugoslav Third League
Yugoslav Republic Regional Leagues
Cups
Yugoslav Cup
Yugoslav Super Cup |
1502_65 | See also
Geography of association football
Geography of women's association football
International competitions in women's football
List of association football clubs
List of men's national association football teams
List of women's national association football teams
List of futsal competitions
Beach Soccer Worldwide
Exhibition/friendly/preseason match
Playoffs/postseason/finals
External links
FIFA official website
Soccerway.com - results from 120 different countries.
Scoresway - results from various countries, etc.
Flashscore.com - results from various countries, etc.
Global Sports Archive - results from various countries, etc.
FUTBOL24.com - results from various countries, etc.
LiveScore - results from various countries, etc.
The RSSSF -- Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation.
Competitions
Association football |
1503_0 | Palestinian costumes are the traditional clothing worn by Palestinians. Foreign travelers to Palestine in the 19th and early 20th centuries often commented on the rich variety of the costumes worn, particularly by the fellaheen or village women. Many of the handcrafted garments were richly embroidered and the creation and maintenance of these items played a significant role in the lives of the region's women.
Though experts in the field trace the origins of Palestinian costumes to ancient times, there are no surviving clothing artifacts from this early period against which the modern items might be definitively compared. Influences from the various empires to have ruled Palestine, such as Ancient Egypt, Ancient Rome and the Byzantine empire, among others, have been documented by scholars largely based on the depictions in art and descriptions in literature of costumes produced during these times. |
1503_1 | Until the 1940s, traditional Palestinian costumes reflected a woman's economic and marital status and her town or district of origin, with knowledgeable observers discerning this information from the fabric, colours, cut, and embroidery motifs (or lack thereof) used in the apparel.
In 2021, The art of embroidery in Palestine, practices, skills, knowledge and rituals was inscribed on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity
Origins
Geoff Emberling, director of the Oriental Institute Museum, notes that Palestinian clothing from the early 19th century to World War I show "traces of similar styles of clothing represented in art over 3,000 years ago." |
1503_2 | Hanan Munayyer, collector and researcher of Palestinian clothing, sees examples of proto-Palestinian attire in artifacts from the Canaanite period (1500 BCE) period such as Egyptian paintings depicting Canaanites/ in A-shaped garments. Munayyer says that from 1200 BC to 1940 AD, all Palestinian dresses were cut from natural fabrics in a similar A-line shape with triangular sleeves. This shape is known to archaeologists as the "Syrian tunic" and appears in artifacts such as an ivory engraving from Megiddo dating to 1200 BC.
In Palestine: Ancient and Modern (1949) produced by the Royal Ontario Museum of Archaeology, Winifred Needler writes that:
Needler also cites well-preserved costume artifacts from late Roman-Egyptian times consisting of "loose linen garments with patterned woven bands of wool, shoes and sandals and linen caps," as comparable to modern Palestinian costumes.[6] |
1503_3 | The shift from woven to embroidered designs was made possible by artisanal manufacture of fine needles in Damascus in the 8th century. Embroidered dress sections, like the square chest piece (qabbeh) and decorated back panel (shinyar) prevalent in Palestinian dresses, are also found in costume from 13th century Andalusia. Each village in Palestine had motifs that served as identifying markers for local women. Common patterns included the eight-pointed star, the moon, birds, palm leaves, stairs, and diamonds or triangles used as amulets to ward off the Evil eye.
Social and gender variations
Traditionally, Palestinian society has been divided into three groups: villagers, townspeople, and Bedouins. Palestinian costumes reflected differences in the physical and social mobility enjoyed by men and women in these different groups in Palestinian society. |
1503_4 | The villagers, referred to in Arabic as fellaheen, lived in relative isolation, so that the older, more traditional costume designs were found most frequently in the dress of village women. The specificity of local village designs was such that, "A Palestinian woman's village could be deduced from the embroidery on her dress."
Townspeople, (Arabic: beladin) had increased access to news and an openness to outside influences that was naturally also reflected in the costumes, with town fashions exhibiting a more impermanent nature than those of the village. By the early 20th century, well to-do women (and men) in the cities had mostly adopted a Western style of dress. Typically, Ghada Karmi recalls in her autobiography how in the 1940s in the wealthy Arab district of Katamon, Jerusalem, only the maids, who were local village women, donned traditional Palestinian dresses. |
1503_5 | Due to their nomadic life-style, Bedouin costume reflected tribal affiliations, rather than their affiliations to a localized geographic area.
As in most of the Middle East, clothing for men had a more uniform style than women's clothing.
Weaving and fabrics
Woolen fabrics for everyday use were produced by weavers in Majdal, Bethlehem, Ramallah, and Jerusalem. The wool could be from sheep, goats or camels. Weaving among the Bedouins was and is still traditionally carried out by women to create domestic items, such as tents, rugs, and pillow covers. Thread is spun from sheep's wool, colored with natural dyes, and woven into a strong fabric using a ground loom. |
1503_6 | Linen woven on hand-looms and cotton were mainstay fabrics for embroidered garments, though cotton was not widely used until the end of the 19th century when it began to be imported from Europe. Fabrics could be left uncoloured or dyed various colours, the most popular being deep blue using indigo, others being black, red and green. In 1870 there were ten dyeing workshops in the Murestan quarter of Jerusalem, employing around 100 men. |
1503_7 | According to Shelagh Weir, the colour produced by indigo (nileh) was believed to ward off the evil eye, and frequently used for coats in the Galilee and dresses in southern Palestine. Indigo dyed heavy cotton was also used to make sirwals or , cotton trousers worn by men and women that were baggy from the waist down but tailored tight around the calves or ankles. The wealthier the region, the darker the blue produced; cloth could be dipped in the vat and left to set as many as nine times. Dresses with the heaviest and most intricate embroidery, often described as 'black', were made of heavy cotton or linen of a very dark blue. Travellers to Palestine in the 19th and 20th centuries represented pastoral scenes of peasant women donned in blue going about their daily tasks, in art and literature. |
1503_8 | Because of the hot climate and for reasons of prestige, dresses were cut voluminously, particularly in the south, often running twice the length of the human body with the excess being wrapped up into a belt. For more festive dresses in southern Palestine, silks were imported from Syria with some from Egypt. For example, a fashion of the Bethlehem area was to interlay stripes of indigo-blue linen with those of silk.
Fashions in towns followed those in Damascus, Syria. Some producers in Aleppo, Hama and Damascus produced styles specifically for the Palestinian market. Weavers in Homs produced belts and some shawls exclusively for export to Nablus and Jerusalem. |
1503_9 | The production of cloth for traditional Palestinian costumes and for export throughout the Arab world was a key industry of the destroyed village of Majdal. Majdalawi fabric was produced by a male weaver on a single treadle loom using black and indigo cotton threads combined with fuchsia and turquoise silk threads. While the village no longer exists today, the craft of Majdalawi weaving continues as part of a cultural preservation project run by the Atfaluna Crafts organization and the Arts and Crafts Village in Gaza City.
Palestinian embroidery |
1503_10 | Diverse motifs were favored in Palestinian embroidery and costume as Palestine's long history and position on the international trade routes exposed it to multiple influences. Before the appearance of synthetically dyed threads, the colors used were determined by the materials available for the production of natural dyes: "reds" from insects and pomegranate, "dark blues" from the indigo plant: "yellow" from saffron flowers, soil and vine leaves, "brown" from oak bark, and "purple" from crushed murex shells. Shahin writes that the use of red, purple, indigo blue, and saffron reflected the ancient color schemes of the Canaanite and Philistine coast, and that Islamic green and Byzantine black were more recent additions to the traditional palette. Shelagh Weir, author of Palestinian costume (1989) and Palestinian embroidery (1970), writes that cross-stitch motifs may have been derived from oriental carpets, and that couching motifs may have origins in the vestments of Christian priests or |
1503_11 | the gold thread work of Byzantium. Simple and stylized versions of the cypress tree (saru) motif are found throughout Palestine. |
1503_12 | Longstanding traditions of embroidery were found in the Upper and Lower Galilee, in the Judean Hills and on the coastal plain. Research by Weir on embroidery distribution patterns in Palestine indicates there was little history of embroidery in the area from the coast to the Jordan River that lay to the south of Mount Carmel and the Sea of Galilee and to the north of Jaffa and from Nablus to the north. Decorative elements on women's clothing in this area consisted primarily of braidwork and appliqué. "Embroidery signifies a lack of work," an Arab proverb recorded by Gustaf Dalman in this area in 1937 has been put forward as a possible explanation for this regional variation. |
1503_13 | Village women embroidering in locally-distinctive styles was a tradition that was at its height in Ottoman-ruled Palestine. Women would sew in items to represent their heritage, ancestry, and affiliations. Motifs were derived from basic geometric forms such as squares and rosettes. Triangles, used as amulets, were often incorporated to ward off the "evil eye", a common superstition in the Middle East. Large blocks of intricate embroidery were used on the chest panel to protect the vulnerable chest area from the evil eye, bad luck and illness. To avoid potential jinxes from other women, an imperfection was stitched in each garment to distract the focus of those looking. |
1503_14 | Girls would begin producing embroidered garments, a skill generally passed to them by their grandmothers, beginning at the age of seven. Before the 20th century, most young girls were not sent to school, and much of their time outside of household chores was spent creating clothes, often for their marriage trousseau (or ) which included everything they would need in terms of apparel, encompassing everyday and ceremonial dresses, jewelry, veils, headdresses, undergarments, kerchiefs, belts and footwear. |
1503_15 | In the late 1930s, new influences introduced by European pattern books and magazines promoted the appearance of curvilinear motifs, like flowers, vines or leaf arrangements, and introduced the paired bird motif which became very popular in central Palestinian regions. John Whitting, who put together parts of the MOIFA collection, has argued that "anything later than 1918 was not indigenous Palestinian design, but had input from foreign pattern books brought in by foreign nuns and Swiss nannies". Others say that the changes did not set in before the late 1930s, up to which time embroidery motifs local to certain villages could still be found. Geometric motifs remained popular in the Galilee and southern regions, like the Sinai Desert. |
1503_16 | Men's clothing
Some professions, such as the Jaffa boatmen, had their own unique uniforms. The horse or mule drivers (mukaaris), widely used between the towns in an age before proper roads, wore a short embroidered jacket with long sleeves slit open on the inside, red shoes and a small yellow woolen cap with a tight turban.
Post-1948
The 1948 Palestinian exodus led to a disruption in traditional modes of dress and customs, as many women who had been displaced could no longer afford the time or money to invest in complex embroidered garments. Widad Kawar was among the first to recognize the new styles developing after the Nakba.
New styles began to appear in the 1960s. For example, the "six-branched dress" named after the six wide bands of embroidery running down from the waist. These styles came from the refugee camps, particularly after 1967. Individual village styles were lost and replaced by an identifiable "Palestinian" style. |
1503_17 | The shawal, a style popular in the West Bank and Jordan before the First Intifada, probably evolved from one of the many welfare embroidery projects in the refugee camps. It was a shorter and narrower fashion, with a western cut. |
1503_18 | Income generating projects in the refugee camps and in the Occupied Territories began to use embroidery motifs on non-clothing items such as accessories, bags and purses. With the evolution of the different groups distinct styles are beginning to be appear. Sulafa the UNRWA project in the Gaza Strip has exhibited work at Santa Fe, New Mexico. Atfaluna, also from Gaza, working with deaf people, sells its products through the internet. West Bank groups include the Bethlehem Arabs Women's Union, Surif Women's Cooperative, Idna, the Melkite Embroidery Project (Ramallah). In Lebanon Al-Badia, working in the Refugee Camps, is known for high quality embroidery in silk thread on dresses made of linen. The Jerusalem-based Fair Trade organisation Sunbula, is working to improve the quality and presentation of items so that they can be sold in European, American and Japanese markets. |
1503_19 | Geography
Jerusalem: The Jerusalem elite followed Damascus fashions which in turn were influenced by those of the Ottoman court in Istanbul. Fabrics were imported from Syria with several specialist shops on the Mamilla Road. Wedding dresses were ordered from Aleppo and Turkey. From the beginning of the 20th century the upper classes began to wear European styles. |
1503_20 | Galilee: Collections reveal that there was a distinct Galilee women's style from at least the middle of the 19th century. The standard form was a coat (Jillayeh), tunic and trousers. Cross-stitch was not used much, the women preferring patchwork patterns of diamond and rectangular shapes, as well as other embroidery techniques. In the 1860s, H.B. Tristram described costumes in the villages of El Bussah and Isfia as being either "plain, patched or embroidered in the most fantastic and grotesque shapes". Towards the beginning of the 20th century Turkish/Ottoman fashions began to dominate: such as baggy trousers and cord edging. Materials, particularly silks, were brought from Damascus. Before the arrival of European colour-fast dyes the Galilee was an important area for the growing of indago and sumac which were used for creating blue and red dyes.
Nablus:Women's dresses from villages in the Nablus area were the least ornate in the whole of Palestine. |
1503_21 | Bethlehem: Wadad Kawar describes Bethlehem as having been "the Paris of Central Palestine". Both it and neighbouring Bayt Jalla were known for their fine Couching Stitch work. This technique was used extensively in the panels for malak (queen) wedding dresses. The malak dress was popular amongst brides from the villages around Jerusalem. So much so that the panels began to be produced commercially in Bethlehem and Bayt Jalla. Amongst the wealthier families it was the fashion for the groom to pay for the wedding dress so the work often became a display of status.
Ramallah: great variety of very distinguishable finely executed patterns.
Lifta (near Jerusalem), and Bayt Dajan (near Jaffa) were known as being among the wealthiest communities in their areas, and their embroideresses among the most artistic.
Majdal (today a part of Ashkelon) was a center for weaving,
Garment types |
1503_22 | Basic dress
Thob, loose fitting robe with sleeves, the actual cut of the garment varied by region.
qabbeh; the square chest panel of the Thob, often decorated
[ Banayiq Side panels of the thob]
; brocaded back hem panel on the Bethlehem dress.
shinyar; lower back panel of the dress, decorated in some regions
Libas; pants,
Taqsireh; short embroidered jacket worn by the women of Bethlehem on festive occasions. The gold couching of the jackets often matched the dress. Simpler jackets were used over everyday dresses. The name is derived from the Arabic verb "to shorten", (Stillmann, p. 36),
Jubbeh; jacket, worn by men and women,
Jillayeh; embroidered jubbeh, often the embroidered outer garment of a wedding costume,
Shambar; large veil, common to the Hebron area and southern Palestine.
Headdress |
1503_23 | The women in each region had their distinctive headdress. The women embellished their headdresses with gold and silver coins from their bridewealth money. The more coins, the greater the wealth and prestige of the owner (Stillman, p. 38);
Shaṭweh, , , a distinctive conical hat, "shaped rather like an upturned flower pot", only carried by married women. Used mainly in Bethlehem, also in Lifta and Ain Karm, (in the District of Jerusalem), and Beit Jala and Beit Sahur (both near Bethlehem) (Stillman p. 37) |
1503_24 | Smadeh, used in Ramallah, consists of an embroidered cap, with a stiff padded rim. A row of coins, tightly placed against another, is placed around the top of the rim. Additional coins might be sown to the upper part or attached to narrow, embroidered bands. As with the other women's head-dresses, the smadeh represented the wearers bridal wealth, and acted as an important cash reserve. One observer wrote in 1935: "Sometimes you see a gap in the row of coins and you guess that that a doctor's bill has had to be paid, or the husband in America has failed to send money" (quoted in Stillman, p. 53.) |
1503_25 | Araqiyyeh, used in Hebron. The words araqiyyeh and taqiyyeh have been used since the Middle Ages in the Arab world to denote small, close-fitting head-caps, usually of cotton, which were used by both sexes. The original purpose was to absorb sweat (Arab: "araq"). In the whole of Palestine the word taqiyyeh continued to be used about the simple scull-cap used nearest to the hair. In the Hebron area, however, the word araqiyyeh came to denote the embroidered cap with a pointed top a married woman would wear over her taqiyyeh. During her engagement period a woman of the Hebron area would sow and embroider her araqiyyeh, and embellish the rim with coins from her bridal money. The first time she would wear her araqiyyeh would be on her wedding day. (Stillman, p. 61) |
1503_26 | The styles of headwear for men have always been an important indicator of a man's civil and religious status as well as his political affiliation: A turban being worn by a townsman and a kaffiyeh by a countryman. A white turban signifying an Islamic judge qadi. In the 1790s, the Ottoman authorities instructed the Mufti of Jerusalem, Hassan al-Husayni, to put a stop to the fashion of wearing green and white turbans which they regarded as the prerogative of officially appointed judges. In the 19th century, white turbans were also worn by supporters of the Yaman political faction, while the opposing Qais faction wore red. In 1912, the Palestine Exploration Fund reported that Muslim men from Jerusalem usually wore white linen turbans, called shash. In Hebron, it would be of red and yellow silk, in Nablus red and white cotton. Men in Jaffa wore white and gold turbans, similar to the style in Damascus. A green turban indicated a descendant of Muhammed. |
1503_27 | From 1880 the Ottoman style of tarboush or fez began to replace the turban amongst the effendi class. The tarboush had been preceded by a rounder version with blue tassel which originated from the Maghreb. The arrival of the more vertical Young Turk version was emancipating for the Christian communities since it was worn by all civil and military officials regardless of religion. The exception being the Armenians who adopted a black style.
The European styles, Franjy hat (burneiTah), were not adopted.
The kaffiyeh replaced the tarbush in the 1930s. |
1503_28 | Shoes
Residents of the major towns, Jerusalem, Jaffa, Ramleh, Lydd, Hebron, Gaza and Nablus, wore soft white sheepskin shoes with the point in front turned up: low cut, not above the ankle, and yellow for men. Before the mid-19th century non-Muslims wore black shoes. Village men wore a higher style fastened at the front with a leather button which provided protection from thorns in the fields. Bedouin wore sandals, made by wandering shoemakers, usually Algerian Jews. The Arabic name for sandal, na'l, is identical to that used in the Bible. On special occasions Bedouin men wore long red boots with blue tassels and iron heels, jizmet, which were made in Damascus.
Collections of Palestinian costumes
Examples of Palestinian costumes and related artifacts are housed in several museums and collections, both public and private.
Public collections |
1503_29 | The following is a list of some of the public collections:
British Museum in London. The British Museum holds over 1,000 pre-1948 items in its Palestinian costume collection. Though not on permanent display, highlights of the collection were featured in Shelagh Weir's major 1989 "Palestinian costume" exhibition. Weir's monograph remains the seminal publication on traditional Palestinian costume.
The Israel Museum in Jerusalem holds one of the most sizable collections of Palestinian costumes. In 1986-7, the Museum held a major exhibit, "Embroideries from the Holy Land" and, in 1988, published Ziva Amir's The Development and Dissemination of the Chest-Panel of the Bethlehem Embroidery. An art historian, Amir traces the development of motifs (e.g., the floral vase) and the geographic spread of styles. An Israeli, Amir worked closely with Palestinian locals in Gaza and the West Bank. |
1503_30 | L. A. Mayer Institute for Islamic Art in Jerusalem houses Palestinian costumes and embroidery, dating from the 18th and 19th centuries.
Museum of International Folk Art (MOIFA) at Museum of New Mexico at Santa Fe. John Whitting acquired Palestinian items directly from the owners and noted down the provenance of each, thereby making the collection especially informative. There are many items from villages which were destroyed/depopulated in the Nakba in 1948, e.g. al-Qubayba, al-Dawayima, Bayt Dajan, Lifta, Kafr Ana, Bayt Jibrin and az-Zakariyya. The oldest items are traced back to the 1840s, while later examples include a wedding dress from Zakariyya (c. 1930) and a dress from Yatta (c. 1910).
Palestine Costume Archive, in Canberra, Australia. The Archive's collections tour worldwide. |
1503_31 | Tareq Rajab Museum, Kuwait. Based on a private collection, this museum is open to the public and houses a significant Palestinian costume collection, as featured in Jehan Rajab's 1989 monograph Palestinian costume.
Olana State Historic Site in Hudson, New York. The collection of Palestinian and Syrian costumes held here, assembled by Frederic Edwin Church and his wife, Isabel, in 1868-1869, is one of the oldest extant. |
1503_32 | Private collections
Widad Kawar Arab Heritage collection. The collection of Ms. Widad Kawar. An important private collection now in Amman, Jordan, the Kawar collection of Palestinian and Jordanian dress toured extensively in the 1980s.
The Abed Al-Samih Abu Omar collection, Jerusalem. Private collection, mostly 20th century, featured in the book by Omar (1986): Traditional Palestinian embroidery and jewelry,
Palestinian Heritage Foundation; The Munayyer Collection. The largest private collection in America, the Munayyer collection includes costumes from most Palestinian regions well known for distinctive costumes. The collection has been displayed in several American museums.
Palestinian Heritage Center, a cultural center located in Bethlehem, established in 1991 by Maha Saca. Has a collection of traditional costumes, some have been exhibited at the Oriental Institute, Chicago.
List of worldwide collections of Palestinian costumes, from Palestine Costume Archive
See also |
1503_33 | Palestinian culture
Widad Kawar
Serene Husseini Shahid
Depopulated Palestinian locations in Israel
amwrri.org/palestine/
References |
1503_34 | Bibliography
Stillman, Yedida Kalfon (1979): Palestinian costume and jewellery, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, (A catalog of the Museum of International Folk Art (MOIFA) at Santa Fe's collection of Palestinian clothing and jewellery.)
Omar, Abed Al-Samih Abu (1986): Traditional Palestinian embroidery and jewellery, Jerusalem: Al-Shark, (mostly based on his own collection.)
Hafiz al - Siba'i, Tahira Abdul (1987): A Brief Look at Traditional Palestinian Costumes: a Presentation of Palestinian Fashion, T. A. Hafiz, English, French and Arabic text;
Needler, Winifred (1949). Palestine: Ancient and Modern — A handbook and guide to the Palestinian collection of the Royal Ontario Museum of Archaeology, Toronto. Royal Ontario Museum of Archaeology.
Völger, Gisela, Welck, Karin v. Hackstein, Katharina (1987): Pracht und Geheimnis: Kleidung und Schmuck aus Palästina und Jordanien : Katalog der Sammlung Widad Kawar. Köln: Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum, |
1503_35 | Völger, Gisela (1988): Memoire de soie. Costumes et parures de Palestine et de Jordanie Paris, (Exhibition catalogue from the Widad Kamel Kawar collection of the costume and jewelry of Palestine and Jordan.)
Weir, Shelagh and Shahid, Serene (1988): Palestinian embroidery: cross-stitch patterns from the traditional costumes of the village women of Palestine London: British Museum publications,
Rajab, J. (1989): Palestinian Costume, Kegan Paul International, London,
[](1995): Threads of Tradition: Ceremonial Bridal Costumes from Palestine: The Munayyer Collection. Brockton, MA: Fuller Museum, Brockton, MA,
Weir, Shelagh (August 1995): Palestinian Costume British Museum Pubns Ltd
Widad Kawar/Shelagh Weir: Costumes and Wedding Customs in Bayt Dajan.
A fuller bibliography can be found here: https://web.archive.org/web/20070613141917/http://www.palestinecostumearchive.org/bibliography.htm |
1503_36 | External links
Palestine costume archive
Widad Kawar Arab Heritage collection
The Munayyer collection: Palestinian Heritage Foundation
Woven Legacy, Woven Language
Middle Eastern clothing
Clothing by ethnicity |
1504_0 | The following events occurred in February 1937:
February 1, 1937 (Monday)
George VI released the New Year Honours list, one month late due to the abdication crisis. Queen Elizabeth was made Dame Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order.
Argentina defeated Brazil 2-0 at the Estadio Gasómetro in Buenos Aires to win the South American Championship of football.
The French aircraft manufacturer SNCASE was founded.
Born: Don Everly, member of The Everly Brothers rock and roll duo, in Brownie, Kentucky (d. 2021); Garrett Morris, comedian and actor, in New Orleans, Louisiana
February 2, 1937 (Tuesday)
Senjūrō Hayashi became the new Prime Minister of Japan.
Born: Remak Ramsay, actor, in Baltimore, Maryland; Tom Smothers, one-half of the Smothers Brothers musical comedy team, in New York City |
1504_1 | February 3, 1937 (Wednesday)
The Battle of Málaga began.
The 33rd International Eucharistic Congress opened in Manila, Philippines. It was the first eucharistic congress held in Asia.
Born: Billy Meier, author and ufologist, in Bülach, Switzerland; Alex Young, footballer, in Loanhead, Scotland (d. 2017) |
1504_2 | February 4, 1937 (Thursday)
Willie Gallacher, the lone Communist Member of Parliament, caused an uproar in the House when he asserted that the Regency Bill under discussion was clearly "directed towards the occupant of the Throne at the present time" because he was "suspect." Conservative Member Earl Winterton jumped to his feet and declared that not even a Member "who represents so small an amount of opinion in the country" as Gallacher "should be permitted to get away with the monstrous assertion which he has just made", and said it "could only have come from someone who approaches the subject with a distorted brain."
Joachim von Ribbentrop committed a social gaffe when he gave the Nazi salute to George VI, nearly knocking over the king who was stepping forward to shake Ribbentrop's hand.
Born: Magnar Solberg, biathlete, in Soknedal, Norway |
1504_3 | February 5, 1937 (Friday)
Judicial Procedures Reform Bill: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt delivered a surprise message to Congress recommending a drastic revision of the Supreme Court. The plan would increase the number of judges from 9 to 15 if judges past the age of 70 refused to retire.
Died: Lou Andreas-Salomé, 75, Russian-born psychoanalyst and author
February 6, 1937 (Saturday)
The Battle of Jarama began.
Benito Mussolini's 20-year-old son Vittorio married Orsola Buvoli in Rome. About 1,000 people stood in the rain outside the church to view the comings and goings.
February 7, 1937 (Sunday)
40,000 leftists marched in Paris in observance of the third anniversary of the 6 February 1934 counter-demonstrations. Prime Minister Léon Blum stood in the rain to review them.
Born: Juan Pizarro, baseball player, in Santurce, Puerto Rico (d. 2021)
Died: Swami Akhandananda, 72, Indian monk; Elihu Root, 91, American lawyer and statesman |
1504_4 | February 8, 1937 (Monday)
The Battle of Málaga ended in a decisive Nationalist victory with the capture of the city. The Málaga–Almería road massacre ensued.
Born: Manfred Krug, actor and singer, in Germany (d. 2016)
February 9, 1937 (Tuesday)
A United Air Lines passenger plane crashed into San Francisco Bay with the loss of all 11 people aboard. It was the first aviation accident to involve a Douglas DC-3.
Born: Clete Boyer, baseball player, in Cassville, Missouri (d. 2007); William Lawvere, mathematician, in Muncie, Indiana
February 10, 1937 (Wednesday)
A German appeals court ruled that children who failed to live up to the mental and physical standards of Nazi education could be taken away from their families and placed in state-run homes.
Born: Anne Anderson, reproductive physiologist, in Forres, Scotland (d. 1983), Roberta Flack, singer, in Black Mountain, North Carolina (some sources give birth date as 1939) |
1504_5 | February 11, 1937 (Thursday)
The Flint sit-down strike ended when General Motors agreed to recognize the United Auto Workers.
Joachim von Ribbentrop formally presented the British Foreign Office with a demand for the return of Germany's colonies.
An issue of the British weekly news magazine Cavalcade was banned for running an article referring to rumors of the king having suffered an attack of epilepsy.
Aviator Amelia Earhart announced she would attempt to circumnavigate the globe as close to the equator as possible.
Born: Bill Lawry, cricketer, in Thornbury, Victoria, Australia; Eddie Shack, ice hockey player, in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada (d. 2020)
Died: Walter Burley Griffin, 60, American architect |
1504_6 | February 12, 1937 (Friday)
The International Brigades halted the Nationalist advance at Jarama.
The National Football League admitted the Cleveland Rams.
The musical film When You're in Love starring Grace Moore and Cary Grant was released.
Born: Charles Dumas, Olympic high jumper, in Tulsa, Oklahoma (d. 2004); Vittorio Emanuele, Prince of Naples, in Naples, Italy
Died: Christopher Caudwell, 29, British Marxist writer (killed in the Spanish Civil War)
February 13, 1937 (Saturday)
A movie theater fire in Andong, China killed 685 people.
The Boston Redskins NFL team moved to Washington, D.C. and became the Washington Redskins.
Felix Kaspar of Austria won the men's competition of the World Figure Skating Championships in Vienna.
Born: Rupiah Banda, President of Zambia, in Gwanda, Southern Rhodesia |
1504_7 | February 14, 1937 (Sunday)
A Nationalist warship shelled the Republican capital of Valencia for 30 minutes until counterfire from shore batteries forced its retreat.
Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg indicated that a referendum on the question of restoring the Habsburg Monarchy might be held.
Born: Magic Sam, blues musician, in Grenada, Mississippi (d. 1969)
February 15, 1937 (Monday)
An underground explosion in a coal mine in Wonthaggi, Australia killed thirteen men.
11 were reported dead in flooding around southern Los Angeles.
February 16, 1937 (Tuesday)
To celebrate the birth of Vittorio Emanuele, Prince of Naples, Mussolini proclaimed a general amnesty cancelling or reducing prison sentences for many types of offences.
American chemist Wallace Carothers received a patent for nylon.
Died: Rodmond Roblin, 84, Canadian businessman and politician |
1504_8 | February 17, 1937 (Wednesday)
10 men working on construction of the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco fell to their deaths when a section of scaffolding collapsed. 2 other workmen survived the fall.
Born: Mary Ann Mobley, actress and Miss America 1959, in Brandon, Mississippi (d. 2014)
February 18, 1937 (Thursday)
6 U.S. Marines were killed and 10 injured in a shell explosion aboard the battleship during military exercises off the coast of San Clemente Island.
Film actress Mary Astor and film editor Manuel del Campo were married in Yuma, Arizona.
Died: Horatio Clarence Hocken, 79, Canadian politician and founder of the Toronto Star newspaper
February 19, 1937 (Friday)
Yekatit 12: Ethiopians attempted to assassinate Italian Viceroy Rodolfo Graziani in a grenade attack. Graziani and several of his staff were wounded. Italians would massacre 30,000 Ethiopians in reprisal killings over the next three days.
Born: Robert Walker, blues musician, near Clarksdale, Mississippi (d. 2017) |
1504_9 | February 20, 1937 (Saturday)
Paraguay gave notice of its intent to withdraw from the League of Nations.
Hitler opened an auto show in Berlin featuring three test models of the Volkswagen.
The Indian National Congress won a majority of seats in six Indian provincial elections.
Born: Robert Huber, biochemist and Nobel laureate, in Munich, Germany; George Leonardos, author, in Alexandria, Egypt; Roger Penske, race car driver and team owner, in Shaker Heights, Ohio; Nancy Wilson, jazz singer, in Chillicothe, Ohio (d. 2018) |
1504_10 | February 21, 1937 (Sunday)
Nearly 40,000 Republican militia launched an attack on Oviedo.
The Spanish government dismissed General José Asensio Torrado after the fall of Málaga.
France closed its border with Spain to keep foreign fighters and weapons out of the Civil War.
The Italians captured the leader of the Ethiopian resistance, Desta Damtew.
The first successful flying car, the Waterman Arrowbile, made its first flight.
Born: Ron Clarke, athlete and politician, in Melbourne, Australia (d. 2015); King Harald V of Norway, in Skaugum
February 22, 1937 (Monday)
Mussolini decreed that any native chieftain or officer who opposed Italian colonial troops, even in territory as yet unoccupied, would be put to death.
Died: James P. Buchanan, 69, American politician |
1504_11 | February 23, 1937 (Tuesday)
Italy protested to Britain for inviting Haile Selassie to send an envoy to the king's coronation ceremony.
The seventh known victim of the Cleveland Torso Murderer was found.
Murray Murdoch of the New York Rangers became the first player in NHL history to appear in 500 consecutive games.
Died: Henry T. Mayo, 80, American admiral
February 24, 1937 (Wednesday)
In the Battle of Jarama, Republicans tried to take strategic Pingarrón Hill southeast of Madrid but were pushed back.
Died: Desta Damtew, 45?, leader of Ethiopian resistance (executed); Vladimir Ippolitovich Lipsky, 73, Ukrainian scientist and botanist; Humphrey Pearson, 43, American screenwriter and playwright (shot); Guy Standing, 63, English actor |
1504_12 | February 25, 1937 (Thursday)
The British liner Llandovery Castle was sailing from Gibraltar to Marseilles carrying 100 passengers when it hit a naval mine off Cap de Creus. A large hole was torn in its hull but it managed to limp to Port-Vendres.
The John Steinbeck novella Of Mice and Men was published.
Born: Tom Courtenay, actor, in Hull, England; Bob Schieffer, television journalist, in Austin, Texas
February 26, 1937 (Friday)
The play The Ascent of F6 by W. H. Auden and Christopher Isherwood premiered at the Mercury Theatre in London.
February 27, 1937 (Saturday)
The Battle of Jarama ended in a strategic Republican victory.
The French government passed a new defense plan extending the Maginot Line.
Canada won the World Ice Hockey Championships, held in London.
Died: Charles Donnelly, 22, Irish poet and activist (killed in the Spanish Civil War) |
1504_13 | February 28, 1937 (Sunday)
Spanish Foreign Minister Julio Álvarez del Vayo scolded the European democracies for "lamentable weakness ... in the face of the tactics of Fascist nations to make themselves masters of the continent." Álvarez del Vayo declared that "the defense of Madrid is the defense of Paris and London tomorrow."
Died: Harrington Mann, 72, Scottish painter
References
1937
1937-02
1937-02 |
1505_0 | In C. S. Lewis's Chronicles of Narnia series of novels, Calormen is a large country to the southeast of Narnia. Lewis probably derived its name from the Latin calor, meaning "heat". When using the name as an adjective or an ethnonym, Lewis spelled the name with an 'e' at the end: a Calormene soldier; "The Calormenes have dark faces and long beards."
Narnia and Calormen are separated by the country of Archenland and a large desert. In The Horse and His Boy, Calormen is described as being many times the size of its northern neighbours, and it is implied that its army is always either conquering more land or keeping down rebellions, in wars with which neither Narnia nor Archenland are involved. The border of the Calormene Empire extends from the Western Mountains to the Great Eastern Ocean. The Calormene capital is Tashbaan, a large walled city located on an island hill at the mouth of a river and close to the northern desert. |
1505_1 | History |
1505_2 | The country of Calormen was first mentioned by Lewis in a passing reference in chapter 2 of Prince Caspian, though in the first edition it was spelt Kalormen. He first wrote about Calormene characters in the subsequent Voyage of the Dawn Treader, though neither of these is their first chronological appearance in the series. They are presented with the following words: "The Calormenes have dark faces and long beards. They wear flowing robes and orange-coloured turbans, and they are a wise, wealthy, courteous, cruel and ancient people". As narrated in that book, after the Telmarine kings cut Narnia off from the sea, the Lone Islands—though in theory remaining a Narnian possession—fell into the Calormene sphere of influence, becoming a major source of slaves for Calormen and adopting the Calormene Crescent as the islands' currency. After Caspian the Seafarer restored Narnian rule and abolished slavery in the islands, there was some apprehension of Calormen resorting to war to regain its |
1505_3 | influence there. The book's plot then moves away and it remains unknown whether such a war took place. However, Lewis later placed Calormen at the focus of The Horse and His Boy—set a thousand years earlier, at the time of High King Peter. |
1505_4 | The origins of Calormen and the Calormenes are not made clear during the Chronicles. According to the Narnian timeline published by Walter Hooper, Calormen was founded by Archen outlaws, who traveled over the Great Desert to the south some 24 years after Archenland's founding. In an alternative theory, Calormen was founded by people accidentally crossing into Calormen from our world through a Middle Eastern portal (similar to the English wardrobe in The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe), which was subsequently lost or destroyed, preventing their return. The Calormenes speak a flowery version of the standard English favoured by both human and animal Narnians, which might support this argument; however, Jadis also speaks English. The reason for the ancient Persian, Moorish, Mughal, Indian and Ottoman Turkish aspects of Calormene culture, or the origin of their religion, was not satisfactorily explained, but stand in strong counterpoint to the largely European, Anglo and Greco-Roman (and |
1505_5 | Christian) aspects of Narnia and Archenland. |
1505_6 | Throughout the times covered by the Chronicles of Narnia, Calormen and Narnia maintain an uneasy, albeit generally peaceable, coexistence. The Horse and His Boy and The Last Battle contain plot lines that focus on Calormen, while some of the other books have peripheral references. In The Horse and His Boy the main characters (one a young member of the Calormene nobility) escape from Calormen to Archenland and Narnia whilst the Calormene cavalry under Prince Rabadash attempts to invade Narnia and capture the Narnian Queen Susan for his bride. The rather small (200 horse) Calormene invasion force is rebuffed at the gates of the Kingdom of Archenland. In The Last Battle, there is a reference to King Erlian having fought a war with the Calormenes. King Tirian is—until the events narrated in the book—at peace with them, and some level of trade and travel exist between Narnia and Calormen. The Narnian King maintains a supply of Calormene armour and weapons for the purpose of conducting |
1505_7 | undercover operations in their country—suggesting a kind of cold war. |
1505_8 | Calormenes are described as dark-skinned, with the men mostly bearded. Flowing robes, turbans and wooden shoes with an upturned point at the toe are common items of clothing, and the preferred weapon is the scimitar. Lavish palaces are present in the Calormene capital Tashbaan. The overall leitmotif of Calormene culture is portrayed as ornate to the point of ostentation. The people of Calormen are concerned with maintaining honour and precedent, often speaking in maxims and quoting their ancient poets. Veneration of elders and absolute deference to power are marks of Calormene society. Power and wealth determine class and social standing, and slavery is commonplace. The unit of currency is the Crescent. Narnians hold Calormenes in disdain for their treatment of animals and slaves. Conversely, Calormenes refer to the human inhabitants of Narnia as "barbarians". All of this appears quite consistent with the Osmanli Turkish Ottoman Empire (1299-1923), its known and purported splendor, |
1505_9 | rigid class structure, and the always-volatile relationship with many of its European neighbors. |
1505_10 | The ruler of Calormen is called the Tisroc and is believed by the Calormene people to have descended in a direct line from the god Tash, whom the people worship in addition to other gods and goddesses. The illustrations of Tash, a vulture headed god, by Pauline Baynes appear to be inspired by Hindu as opposed to Islamic imagery, with multiple arms and a distinct resemblance to the ancient Indian deity Garuda. Calormenes always follow a mention of the Tisroc with the phrase "may he live forever". Ranking below the Tisroc are his sons (princes), a Grand Vizier, and the noble classes, who are addressed as Tarkaan (male) and Tarkheena (female). The nobility have a band of gold on their arm and their marriages are usually arranged at a young age. Beneath them are soldiers of the empire's vast army, merchants, and the peasantry, with slaves being the lowest rung on the social ladder. The Calormene leaders are portrayed as quite war-like, and the Tisrocs generally seem to have a wish to |
1505_11 | conquer the "barbarian" lands to their north - to some degree deterred, however, by the magical reputation of the countries, their various rulers and their being known to be under the protection of Aslan. Significantly, the final, successful invasion of Narnia by the Calormene military, which precipitates the end of the Narnian universe, was conducted in close cooperation with the appearance of the false Aslan and the proclamation that Aslan and Tash are one and the same. |
1505_12 | Calormene social and political institutions are depicted as essentially unchanged between the time of The Horse and His Boy and The Last Battle—more than a thousand years, in which Narnia has profoundly changed several times. This is clearly an artifact of the order in which C. S. Lewis wrote and published the stories, with the two stories above and The Magician's Nephew which also references ancient Mesopotamian civilisation in its depiction of Queen Jadis and Charn, appearing last three of the seven.
When at the end of The Last Battle the characters cross into the Real Narnia and find there the counterparts of all the places they had known in the destroyed Narnia, there is a reference to a counterpart of Calormen being also there to its south, complete with the capital Tashbaan—presumably without the nastier aspects of Calormene culture, but this is not discussed in detail. |
1505_13 | Tashbaan
The capital of Calormen is the walled city of Tashbaan, situated on a river mouth located on the southern verge of the great desert dividing the empire from the northern states of Narnia and Archenland. |
1505_14 | Tashbaan is described as one of the wonders of the world.
The city is a hot and crowded place, though with fine streets, magnificent palaces, and gardens. It is built on a natural slope, rising to the palace of the Tisroc and the great Temple of Tash at the pinnacle of the hill. The palace of the Tisroc is referred to as being magnificent beyond description and opens onto gardens that run right down to the river wall. Tashbaan is surrounded by a strong wall that rises out of the water and is reached by long bridges from both banks, providing the only place where crossing the great river of Calormen is possible for many miles. The banks of the river are lined with gardens and country houses. The Tombs of the Ancient Kings, believed by the Carlomens to be haunted, lie directly across the river from Tashbaan, on the edge of the desert. |
1505_15 | Calormene Poetry
The poetry of Calormen is prolix, sententious, and moralizing. Quotations from Calormen poets are often quoted as proverbs. These include such as the following:
Calormenes disparage Narnian poetry, contending that it is all about things like love and war and not about useful maxims, but when the Calormen-raised Cor and Aravis first hear Narnian (or Cor's native Archenlandish) poetry they find it much more exciting. Calormen also prizes the art of story-telling, which, according to Lewis, forms part of the education of the nobility. The talking horse Bree, though not fond of most things Calormene, thoroughly enjoys a story told in Calormene style by Aravis. He also has the habit of rolling like inarticulate Calormene horses. |
1505_16 | Concepts of freedom and slavery
In The Horse and His Boy, Lewis uses the cultural settings of Narnia, Archenland, and Calormen to develop a theme of freedom in contrast to slavery. Lewis depicts the Calormene culture as one in which a primary guiding principle is that the weak must make way for the strong: For in Tashbaan there is only one traffic regulation, which is that everyone who is less important has to get out of the way for everyone who is more important; unless you want a cut from a whip or a punch from the butt end of a spear.
He also reveals the motivation for Calormene attempts to invade Archenland and, ultimately, Narnia, as a refusal to abide the thought of free countries so close to the border of the Calormene empire, as illustrated by this speech given by the Tisroc: "These little barbarian countries that call themselves free (which is as much to say, idle, disordered, and unprofitable) are hateful to the gods and to all persons of discernment". |
1505_17 | In contrast, the kings and queens of Narnia and Archenland, as rulers of free people, hold themselves responsible for the well-being of their subjects. As King Lune tells Shasta/Cor: "For this is what it means to be a king: to be first in every desperate attack and last in every desperate retreat, and when there's hunger in the land (as must be now and then in bad years) to wear finer clothes and laugh louder over a scantier meal than any man in your land". |
1505_18 | Accusations of racism
C.S. Lewis has been accused of racism, particularly in his depiction of the Calormenes. In the Companion to Narnia, the Catholic theologian Paul F. Ford wrote "C. S. Lewis was a man of his time and socioeconomic class. Like many English men of this era, Lewis was unconsciously but regrettably unsympathetic to things and people Middle Eastern. Thus he sometimes engages in exaggerated stereotyping in contrasting things Narnian and things Calormene. He intends this in a broadly comic way, almost vaudevillian. But in our post-September 11, 2001, world, he would, I am sure, want to reconsider this insensitivity." Outspoken atheist critic and novelist Philip Pullman has called the Chronicles of Narnia "blatantly racist" and in an interview with The Observer, criticised the film adaptation of The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe by saying the books contained "a peevish blend of racist, misogynistic, and reactionary prejudice". |
1505_19 | Calormenes live south of a desert, wear turbans and pointed shoes, their noblemen are called Tarkaans (similar to the medieval Central Asian title tarkhan), they are armed with scimitars, and their money is called "crescents".
Of Lewis, Kyrie O'Connor writes: "In his time, people thought it was amusing to make fun of other cultures. We don't. Read the stories, ask questions, and remember that the person who wrote this story was altogether too human." Claims of racism can be seen as countered by Lewis's positive portrayal of two Calormenes and the lack of racism shown to them by Narnian nobility. Lewis writes in The Last Battle that those who worship Tash and who are virtuous are in fact worshipping Aslan, and those who are immoral and who worship Aslan are in fact worshipping Tash:
I and [Tash] are of such different kinds that no service which is vile can be done to me, and none which is not vile can be done to him. |
1505_20 | In foreign languages
In the Russian translation of the Narnia books, Calormen is known as "Tarkhistan" (Тархистан), as a reference to the Tarkaan nobles and its Turkish and Persian cultural influences.
See also
Narnia (world)
Haradrim - A similar Persian-influenced civilisation that appears in the books of fellow Inkling JRR Tolkien.
Saracens
References
Notes
Sources
Fictional elements introduced in 1951
The Chronicles of Narnia countries
Fictional empires |
1506_0 | Zahir al-Umar al-Zaydani, alternatively spelled Daher al-Omar or Dahir al-Umar (, 1689/90 – 21 or 22 August 1775) was the autonomous Arab ruler of northern Palestine in the mid-18th century, while the region was still part of the Ottoman Empire. For much of his reign, starting in the 1730s, his domain mainly consisted of the Galilee, with successive headquarters in Tiberias, Arraba, Nazareth, Deir Hanna and finally Acre, in 1746. He fortified Acre, and the city became the center of the cotton trade between Palestine and Europe. In the mid-1760s, he reestablished the port town of Haifa nearby. |
1506_1 | Zahir withstood assaults and sieges by the Ottoman governors of the Sidon and Damascus provinces, who attempted to limit or eliminate his influence. He was often supported in these confrontations by the rural Shia Muslim clans of Jabal Amil. In 1771, in alliance with Ali Bey al-Kabir of the Egypt Eyalet and with backing from Russia, Zahir captured Sidon, while Ali Bey's forces conquered Damascus, both acts in open defiance of the Ottoman sultan. At the peak of his power in 1774, Zahir's autonomous sheikhdom extended from Beirut to Gaza and included the Jabal Amil and Jabal Ajlun regions. By then, however, Ali Bey had been killed, the Ottomans entered into a truce with the Russians, and the Sublime Porte felt secure enough to check Zahir's power. The Ottoman Navy attacked his Acre stronghold in the summer of 1775 and he was killed outside of its walls shortly after. |
1506_2 | The wealth Zahir accumulated through monopolizing Palestine's cotton and olive oil trade to Europe financed his sheikhdom. For much of his rule, he oversaw a relatively efficient administration and maintained domestic security, although he faced and suppressed several rebellions by his sons. The aforementioned factors, along with Zahir's flexible taxation policies and his battlefield reputation made him popular among the local peasantry. Zahir's tolerance of religious minorities encouraged Christian and Jewish immigration to his domain. The influx of immigrants from other parts of the empire stimulated the local economy and led to the significant growth of the Christian communities in Acre and Nazareth and the Jewish community in Tiberias. He and his family, the Zaydani clan, also patronized the construction of commercial buildings, houses of worship and fortifications throughout the Galilee. Zahir's rule over a virtually autonomous area in Palestine has made him a national hero among |
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