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1522_33 | See also
Casualties in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict
Background to the Gaza war 2008-2009
References
Hamas
Gaza–Israel conflict
Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine
Rocket weapons of Palestine
Terrorist incidents in Israel in 2008
2008 in the Palestinian territories
Palestinian terrorism
Terrorist attacks attributed to Palestinian militant groups
Israeli–Palestinian conflict-related lists |
1523_0 | The Ford Falcon (AU) is a full-size car that was produced by Ford Australia from 1998 to 2002. It was the sixth generation Ford Falcon and also included the Ford Fairmont (AU)—the luxury-oriented model range. The AU series replaced the EL Falcon constructed on the new at the time EA169 platform, and was replaced by the updated BA series.
Development and design
The AU series was conceived under "Project Eagle" that begun in February 1993, and gained the official codename "EA169" in October 1994. It was developed and brought to market in 1998 only after Ford Australia had given consideration to a revamped fifth generation Falcon and a fully imported replacement such as the American front-wheel drive Ford Taurus or rear-wheel drive Ford Crown Victoria, the European rear wheel-drive Scorpio and, reportedly, even the Japanese rear-wheel drive Mazda 929 (then part of the Ford conglomerate). |
1523_1 | The above alternatives were eliminated in favour of a substantial redesign of the indigenous platform, due to concerns about the Australian market preference for high towing capacity, large interior size and local employment. Specific factors included, for example: research at the time indicated that 69% of Falcons were fitted with towbars and the perception that rear-wheel drive cars were better at towing; the fact that the import models had limited body style options (sedan only or sedan and wagon) and no capability to use a V8 engine. |
1523_2 | Stylistically, this new generation Falcon sported Ford's radically new global design language, labelled "New Edge". The aim of this design was to attract a younger generation of buyers with avant-garde looks, however, in Australia it polarized public opinion to the benefit of the more organically designed rival, the 1997 Holden Commodore (VT). The AU series had a very efficient for the sedan (an 11% improvement over the preceding EL series) and 0.34 for the wagon.
For the first time in Falcon's history, Independent Rear Suspension (IRS) became available as standard on some models and optional on others. It also featured Australian production firsts, such as Variable Cam Timing (VCT) on some 6-cylinder models and an adaptive automatic transmission on the high-performance T series with steering wheel gear shifting buttons. |
1523_3 | Key changes from the fifth generation Falcon included a reduction in weight for the base car, 17.5 per cent stiffer bodyshell, and an eight per cent improvement in fuel consumption. Peculiarly, Ford Australia decided to use the original 1950's font for the new "Falcon" and "Futura" badges. |
1523_4 | As stated previously, the AU was the first Falcon to offer IRS (a double wishbone design on an isolated subframe). IRS was made available as an costly option on the base Forte, Fairmont and 'S' models, and standard on Fairmont Ghia, XR6 VCT and XR8 models. The updated 6-cylinder engines incorporated advanced features such as VCT on some models and a temperature sensor in the cylinder head, which detected coolant loss and allowed the car to "limp home" safely by cutting cylinders. The engine range comprised: the base Intech model producing , with a revised cylinder head featuring smaller valve stems, larger exhaust valves, and different rocker ratio, as well as a revised piston and longer conrod and a cast aluminium cross-bolted oil sump (with the same power output as the EL series); an "HP" version reserved to the XR6 producing (thanks to: unique cylinder head; reshaped inlet port; redesigned exhaust port; ‘open’ combustion chamber shape to restrict pre-detonation from hot spot |
1523_5 | areas; unique camshaft; higher fuel pressure; recalibrated EEC V engine management system); the VCT version producing for the XR6 VCT; a "Windsor" V8 producing (also carried over from the EL series but without major upgrades). |
1523_6 | Transmissions were improved for better shift feel and the auto was recalibrated to better suit the upgraded engines. The six and eight cylinder models had a 4-speed BTR M93LE and M97LE automatic transmissions, respectively for the six and eight cylinder models, respectively. The automatic XR series models had an "adaptive shift" with five shifting strategies depending on driving conditions. The manual transmission, where available, was a 5-speed T5 model.
The program cost before product launch and key staff included chief designer, Steve Park, and Marcus Hotblack, Manager of Interior Design.
Model range
Series I (AU)
The first series of the AU Falcon was launched in September 1998 and remained on sale until a major upgrade in April 2000. It was marketed under the new slogan "I've come a long way, baby.". |
1523_7 | The standard AU range included:
Falcon Forté, 4.0L, "Intech" 6-cyl, Sedan/Wagon, ,
Falcon Forté, 5.0L, "Windsor" V8, Sedan, ,
Falcon Futura, 4.0L, "Intech" 6-cyl, Sedan/Wagon, ,
Falcon S, 4.0L, "Intech" 6-cyl, Sedan, ,
Falcon XR6, 4.0L, "HP Intech" 6-cyl, Sedan, ,
Falcon XR6 VCT, 4.0L, "Intech VCT" 6-cyl, Sedan, ,
Falcon XR8, 5.0L, "Windsor" V8, Sedan, ,
Fairmont, 4.0L, "Intech" 6-cyl, Sedan/Wagon, ,
Fairmont Ghia, 4.0L, "Intech VCT" 6-cyl, Sedan, ,
Fairmont Ghia, 5.0L, "Windsor" V8, Sedan, ,
Tickford Vehicle Engineering, was responsible for the XR models that carried the "Tickford" wings badge. From July 1999, the newly formed Ford Tickford Experience (FTE) launched the following higher-specification and performance T series (T1) models:
TE50, 5.0L, "Synergy 5000" V8, Sedan, ,
TS50, 5.0L, "Synergy 5000" V8, Sedan, , , automatic only. |
1523_8 | The new Forté model was the replacement of the old GLi designation. It was designed and marketed to attract to fleet buyers as well as younger, more inexperienced drivers. When new, the car was competitively priced at with automatic transmission and air conditioning (at the time an option on the other Australian-made rivals) fitted as standard.
The more 'up-spec' model was called the Falcon Futura, which was marketed as a family-oriented safety package in the same vogue as the rival Holden Commodore Acclaim. The Futura differed from the Forté in having a body coloured grille, standard ABS, cruise control, alloy wheels and a digital clock fitted in the centre console (series I only). The price of the car when new was . |
1523_9 | The Ford Falcon S (for Sporty) sedan was also based on the Forté but designed as an entry-level sports edition. It achieved this through additional features such as body-coloured grille, alloy wheels, S decals on the rear quarters and bootlid, and a high level spoiler. The colour choices were limited to Hot Chilli Red, Liquid Silver, White, Galaxy (Metallic Blue) and Silhouette (Black). Ford eventually offered a "ESP" option pack that added an LSD equipped IRS and ABS to the S-pack.
The XR series was the high performance end of the range. It originally comprised the XR6 HP, XR6 VCT, and XR8 models all sharing a unique quad-lamp front bumper bar and non-high end bonnet. All series I XR's could have the option of a full Tickford bodykit and unique bi-plane rear spoiler. |
1523_10 | The Fairmont was the entry level luxury model of the AU range to face-off its main rival, the Holden Berlina. It had all of the fittings of the Futura but included extras such as a honeycomb grille, an 80-second headlamp off delay, wood grain-look dash inserts, unique 15" wheels, dual horns, Fairmont badging on the boot lid and an analogue clock. The Fairmont was offered in sedan and station wagon bodystyles. Above the Fairmont was the Fairmont Ghia, which was the highest non-performance specification model in the range and sedan only. It had additional features that included unique wheels and even more wood grain-look dash inserts. Fairmont & Fairmont Ghia models were not badged as Falcons.
In terms of safety equipment, the Futura, XR and Fairmont models all had ABS brakes in addition to a driver's airbag, which was the only main safety feature on the Falcon S and Forté. The brakes featured 287x24 mm vented front discs and 287x10.5 mm solid rear discs. |
1523_11 | External model differentiation was achieved via the use of different grilles and bonnets (low bonnet and vertical "salad slicer" grille on Forté, horizontal single bar on Futura, integrated quad-lamp bumper bar and grille on the XR sports range; high bonnet and large grille on Fairmont range) and more basic fittings such as different alloy wheel design, rear light clusters (clear turn signals on Fairmont), body colour-coordination and chrome fittings. The wagons featured a new rear-end relative to the previous generation Falcons. Inside, the Fairmont and XR model featured full instrumentation (oil and battery meters) and the Fairmont twins also adopted a different dashboard. As opposed to the standard Falcon featuring a large oval pod incorporating air conditioning and stereo, the luxury twin featured a 2-level shared with the long-wheelbase AU Fairlane/LTD, with a separate upper level featuring a woodgrain-like trim across to the passenger side that incorporated an analogue clock, |
1523_12 | trip computer and climate control. |
1523_13 | Only the Falcon XR6 VCT and Fairmont Ghia featured "Intech" engines produced by Tickford Vehicle Engineering with variable valve timing. The VCT was developed by Tickford in conjunction with Unisia Jecs who also supplied Jaguar for its V8 engines. IRS was fitted as standard on the Falcon XR6 VCT, XR8 and Fairmont Ghia, and optional on most other sedan models; the XR models being the only ones that could also be fitted with a limited slip differential.
Despite competitive pricing and high standard equipment relative to its rivals, especially for the new entry Forté, sales of the AU did not match those of the previous model, the EL Falcon. This was partly due to a lack of enthusiasm by customers for the "New Edge" styling, alteration of fleet sale pricing as well as the long-term decline in the market for large cars. |
1523_14 | In May 1999, the AU range received a minor update, introducing a bigger brake booster, front power windows for the Forté and XR6 and lowering the rear suspension of non-XR variants by 24 mm. To heighten its interior quality, the Forté was offered with 'medium graphite' interior trim (slightly darker than originally) and the patterned seat material was changed from the bolsters to the seat centres. Buyers were also able to order the darker 'warm charcoal' colour scheme of other Falcon variants.
The only limited edition launched with this initial series, was the Falcon Classic of June 1999 marketed till October 1999 to boost sales. It inherited an eggcrate grille from the non-XR Utility range, dual airbags, ABS brakes, cruise control, upgraded sound system, a "warm charcoal" interior, power aerial, special trim, 15-inch alloys, low profile rear spoiler, bumper inserts and paint. Its recommended retail price was . |
1523_15 | Utility
The range of AU Falcon Utility vehicles was launched in June 1999. It offered Falcon XL, XLS, XR6 and XR8 style side utility models, a cab-chassis model and a cab-chassis with factory fitted drop-side tray. The latter was the first tray utility vehicle that Ford Australia had produced for several years.
The body of the AU Falcon utility differed in design from the competing Holden Ute in that the cargo tray was separate from the cab, whereas the tray was an integral part of the body shell in the Holden. As a result, this allowed the rear to accept different after market body types, including tray decks, service bodies, and camper van shells. Unlike the sedan, the AU Falcon utility vehicles were somewhat popular. |
1523_16 | Series II (AU II)
Many of these issues were addressed with the AU Series II (April 2000). They included:
the "high series" raised bonnet from the Fairmont models
a more conventional and common front grille for the volume Forté and Futura range
increase depth and width for the rear bumper
a laminated firewall, increased under-carpet asphalting and rubberised engine mounts to reduce NVH
upgraded braking system (as detailed below)
16" wheels (in lieu of the previous 15 due to the larger twin-piston calipers)
lowered ground clearance with new shock absorbers and ball-joints
higher quality interior plastics (e.g. less oval central dashboard pod with silver highlights)
standard cloth (in lieu of vinyl finishes) and darker "warm charcoal" interiors
uprated sound systems
upgraded SmartShield security system with a transponder located in the key (in lieu of the previous SmartLock that could not prevent thefts with copied keys)
standard front airbag across the range. |
1523_17 | Body strength increases, aimed at improving occupant safety and the Falcon's rating in the independent ANCAP crash test program, were also achieved. In the said tests, it received a three star adult occupant protection rating with a score of 24.2 and in the offset crash test, it was found that there was a low risk of injury to all bodily regions (including the driver’s foot and lower leg due to excessive brake pedal movement). New safety features included an airbag and seatbelt pretensioners and load limiters on the front seats across the range. Wagons were fitted with a three-point lap-sash rear centre seatbelt, with the retractor integrated into the seat back. |
1523_18 | The braking system now featured thicker front and rear discs, twin-piston aluminium-headed front calipers, bigger asbestos brake pads, larger master cylinder and a higher capacity booster. The discs were now ventilated 287x28 mm at the front and solid 287x16 mm at the back. The XR6 VCT and XR8 were also available with an optional Tickford Premium Brake setup that brought 329 mm grooved front brake discs with twin-piston C4 calipers.
Additional features included the introduction of a 10 watt stereo with single-slot CD player, variable intermittent wipers and door lock/unlock button on the instrument panel and the equipment upgrade (such as standard air conditioning, front power windows and automatic transmission) on the entry Forté model, to shrug off initial impressions the low budget perception associated with the first AU series. Also across the range, Ford now offered 3-years or 60,000 km worth of scheduled servicing included in the purchase price. |
1523_19 | The standard series II range included:
Falcon Forté, 4.0L, "Intech" 6-cyl, Sedan/Wagon, ,
Falcon Forté, 5.0L, "Windsor" V8, Sedan, ,
Falcon S, 4.0L, "Intech" 6-cyl, Sedan, ,
Falcon Futura, 4.0L, "Intech" 6-cyl, Sedan/Wagon, ,
Fairmont, 4.0L, "Intech" 6-cyl, Sedan/Wagon, ,
Falcon XR6, 4.0L, "Intech" 6-cyl, Sedan, ,
Falcon XR6 VCT, 4.0L, "Intech VCT" 6-cyl, Sedan, ,
Falcon XR8, 5.0L, "Windsor" V8, Sedan, , (to April 2001)
Falcon XR8, 5.0L, "Windsor" V8, Sedan, , (from May 2001)
Fairmont Ghia, 4.0L, "Intech VCT" 6-cyl, Sedan, ,
Fairmont Ghia, 5.0L, "Windsor" V8, Sedan, , |
1523_20 | As listed above, the engine range remained largely initially, except for increased output for the XR8 and the introduction, from July 2000, of a dedicated LPG engine, marketed as the "Intech E-Gas". It had a single-point, venturi-style carburetor rather than sequential injection as per the petrol engines. Other differences included: different spark plugs, inductive high tension leads and a unique engine management processor. The sedans were fitted with a 92-litre LPG cylinder, while wagons had 115 litre cylinders. |
1523_21 | Sedan-based limited editions included the: X-Pack (a Forté upgrade with a choice of two ROH alloy wheel designs from the Ford accessory line as standard and original XR rear wing), SR (Forté-based S successor now with ABS), Futura Classic, Futura & Fairmont Ghia 75th Anniversary sedans (to commemorate Ford Australia's birth in 1925), XR8 Rebel (featuring a limited edition Ford Racing bodykit, 18-inch wheels, MOMO steering wheel and gear shift and an in-car Sony PlayStation 2).
Augmenting the X-Pack, in late 2000 Stillwell Ford dealers in South Australia launched a Sportryder variant, which added an upgraded and lowered sport suspension using Pedders components plus locally sourced CSA alloy wheels for .
The Falcon Utility Series II range included the XL, XLS, XR and XR8 with limited editions including (by respective base model): Tradesman (XL); Sports Edition and Marlin (XLS); Pursuit (XR). |
1523_22 | The FTE T2 range comprised:
TE50, 5.0L, "Synergy 5000" V8, Sedan, ,
TS50, 5.0L, "Synergy 5000" V8, Sedan, ,
Series III (AU III)
This final AU-based Falcon was presented at the Sydney Motorshow in November 2001, by surprise
The Falcon's Series III range reflected that of the AU II, except for:
the discontinuance of the Falcon S
a limited edition Falcon XR6 VCT ST (with unique Ford Racing bodykit from the XR8 Rebel)
a Falcon XR8 Pursuit 250 Utility by TVE (250 kW upgrade).
FTE additionally introduced more powerful T3 models as follows:
TE50, 5.6L, "Windsor" V8, Sedan, ,
TS50, 5.6L, "Windsor" V8, Sedan, , |
1523_23 | Externally, the Series III, featured body-coloured mirrors and side strips plus standard side skirts and different wheels on some models. Headlights became a shade darker, side indicators clear and a dot matrix windscreen was added to reduce sun glare. In terms of interiors, additional features were added as standard: Futura – rear power windows and velour trim; Fairmont – 6-way power-adjustable driver's seat; Fairmont Ghia – 10-way power-adjustable driver’s seat and leather trim. Though ABS became standard across the range, the XR models lost equipment: XR6 – limited-slip differential (LSD) now optional; all XR's – stereo downgrade to a 4-speaker single-CD unit. A bodykit marketed as "Havoc" (with new front and rear bumpers featuring stainless mesh inserts; fog lights; side skirts and an optional rear spoiler) became optional on all Falcons with XR8 buyers also having the choice of a Tickford bodykit or the Ford Racing bodykit (originally featured on the AU II Falcon XR8 Rebel). |
1523_24 | Fairmont and XR could also optioned with the "REX" (Rear Entertainment XTreme) package, allowing rear passenger to play DVD movies or connect game consoles. |
1523_25 | The combined production of Falcon Series II and III to September 2002 totaled 237,701 units.
As of 2020, there are 44,816 AU Falcon's registered in Australia. 17,192 of which are within Victoria,
or equating to around 38% of the national fleet.
FTE T series
Due to inadequate sales of Ford performance sedans and Holdens success with its 5.7-litre GM produced V8 on its Commodore range. Ford were forced to up the ante with the XR8 and the other Falcon-derived higher performance sedans, that could give buyers a comparable between the two brands and aid the sales. |
1523_26 | Accordingly, Ford Tickford Experience (FTE) was established as a joint venture between Ford Australia and Tickford Vehicle Engineering (TVE). As listed above, the resulting T series range comprised the short wheelbase TE50 and TS50 plus the long-wheelbase TL50 (based on the Fairlane). In addition to higher mechanical specifications and performance, this range also benefitted from a "FTE Premium Assist" service with enhanced ownership benefits. |
1523_27 | Between 1999 and 2002, there were three T series (based on the respective Falcon series): T1 (AU), T2 (AU II) and T3 (AU III). Their powerplant was a modified "Windsor" V8 renamed "Synergy 5000" that were hand-built and featured an engraved plaque bearing the name of its builder. Over the AU II and AU III period, the production of the "Windsor" was phased out, with remaining units shipped to FTE becoming the most powerful naturally aspirated electronically fuel injected (EFI) "Windsor" engines in the world used to make the Ford Falcon XR8 sedan, and the Pursuit 250 utility.
The TE50 was available with a 5-speed manual or 4-speed automatic transmission. The TS50 and TL50, which were not available in manual, only had the automatic transmission with "Electronic Sport Shift" (ESS). This feature was an Australian-production first in that, it was the first locally made car to have steering-wheel mounted buttons that permitted manual gear shifting. |
1523_28 | Inside, all models featured a MOMO steering wheels and could be optioned with an upgraded Brembo braking system. Externally, FTE aimed for a more sophisticated look compared to its wilder styled rival, Holden Special Vehicles. The cars had distinctive front and rear styling highlighted by a chrome-mesh grille, 17-inch and 18-inch alloy wheels on the TE50 and TS50 models respectively, and discreet low-profile rear spoilers for the T1 series. The T2 saw the TE50 feature the XR-style rear wing, whereas the TS50 retained the low-profile version. All T3 models featured 18-inch wheels and louder V8 Racing-inspired bodykits with high-profile rear wings. |
1523_29 | Verte Automotive
In the UK, AU utilities were imported by Verte Automotive (then a subsidiary of AC Cars) as the Verte Tempest from March 2002. Sold in XL and XLS trim levels, it was powered by the 4.0-litre inline-six on LPG only. From the last quarter of 2002, plans included powering the AC Green and Black coupes with the same engine (LPG and petrol, respectively) and eventually selling a range of Tempest XR6 and XR8 utes and sedans, ahead of the Tempest T-Series and the long-wheelbase Fairlane/LTD duo. These plans, however, never eventuated. |
1523_30 | Hillier Coupes |
1523_31 | In 2000, the Hillier brothers created a two-door AU Falcon Coupe based on an forte’ spec ex-police car. This then debuted at the Summernats car festival that year. Following a deal with Ford Australia, the green car then became the red 300+ concept that then debuted at the 2001 Melbourne motor show in order to obtain some interest away from the Holden Monaro stand at the motor show which served as a marketing ploy. Following this Roman AutoTek (now AutoTek) approached the Hillier Brothers to produce another show car, however this time it would be made with a more extreme guise. The Ford ‘Arrow’ coupe then debuted the following year at the 2002 Melbourne motor show. Hillier with AEC and Ford began to plan a low-production run of 100 Hillier coupes which they planned to sell for $135,000. Orders were then taken for up to 20 cars instead of the original 100, and Ford then left the project, killing off the Hillier Coupe from small scale production. Only three coupes were made, the Ford |
1523_32 | 300+ concept car, the Autotek 'Arrow' Coupe and a red XR8 coupe. |
1523_33 | Concept cars |
1523_34 | Eager to improve Falcon's reception, Ford Australia and other companies presented a number of concept cars that were based on this sixth-generation Falcon over time. These included:
R5 utility: unveiled at the 2000 Sydney Motor Show, this was a V8-powered crew-cab, featuring rear suicide doors and ground clearance increased by 75 mm; it foreshadowed both the new design BA Falcon's dashboard as well as the 2003 standard-cab but elevated BA Falcon RTV utility range; moreover, when displayed again at the 2001 Melbourne Motor Show, it switched from rear-wheel drive to all-wheel drive as part of Ford Australia's then future plans for such a platform; the concept was painted in a special "Uluru Sunset" paint whose hues changed from yellow to purple depending on light conditions; |
1523_35 | Falcon XR8 Xplod sedan: unveiled in 2001 but never produced, it was a concept car painted in a distinctive "Firestorm" gold paint and powered by a , 5.0-Litre V8 engine benefitting from a custom Remus exhaust system and Pacemaker extractors; it also featured a full Tickford body kit with bonnet air scoops and Premium brake system, 18-inch MOMO alloy wheels, a black/gold Recaro leather-trimmed interior driving seats and, importantly, a Sony "Xplod" audio and DVD system from which it derived its name; |
1523_36 | Falcon 300+ coupé: unveiled at the 2001 Melbourne Motor Show, this car was produced by Advanced Engine Components (AEC) and Miller Design at a cost of A$1 million, with production aspirations originally supported by Ford Australia's Geoff Polites; it was fitted with a Fairmont interior and a supercharged Ford Mustang-sourced 4.6-Litre engine, which developed for a 0–100 km/h (0–62 mph) sprint in 4.6 seconds; despite an intended run of at least 100 units and 15 firm orders, it never reached full production.
Arrow coupé: unveiled at the 2002 Melbourne Motor Show, this was a more extreme coupé interpretation of the then current Falcon by aftermarket distributor Autotek and coachwork company Hillier Conversions; it featured an aggressive restyled front and was built in limited numbers at a price of A$100,000 to A$140,000 depending on specifications. |
1523_37 | Motorsports |
1523_38 | Despite its highly anticipated competitiveness the AU would bring to Ford in the V8 Supercars Championship and the return of a works Ford team in its debut season of 1999. The controversial signing of former Holden superstar Craig Lowndes in 2001 and the improvement and maturity of Marcos Ambrose, the AU only had very limited success, winning 8 out of 52 rounds in its 4 years of competitive competition. During those 52 championship rounds the AU Falcon also scored 22 pole positions, or a much healthier 42 percent of all poles which included three at the high-speed Mount Panorama circuit at Bathurst. The AU also claimed 46 fastest race laps of the 125 races held during that time, or 36 percent. The AU would be the only Falcon in the modern V8 Supercar era to not win a championship or a Bathurst 1000. Its most famous wins would be a win in the 2001 Queensland 500 by Paul Radisich and Steven Johnson in their #17 Shell Helix DJR Falcon. Again in 2002 with David Besnard and Simon Wills in |
1523_39 | their #9 Caltex Havoline SBR Falcon. The lack of success by Ford during the late 1990s and early 2000s prompted V8 Supercars to introduce a new platform known as "Project Blueprint" that would make the competition more evenly matched. |
1523_40 | Privateer racer Trevor Haines raced a TE50 to 13th place in the 2002 Australian GT Production Car Championship, and later the team finished 9th outright and a Class 5 win in the 2002 Bathurst 24 Hour. Warren Luff took back to back victories in 2002 and 2003 V8 Brute Ute's series racing an Au falcon xr8 ute.
References
External links
AU Falcon Facts
AU Falcon
Cars of Australia
Full-size vehicles
Coupé utilities
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Sedans
Station wagons
Cars introduced in 1998
2000s cars
AU Falcon |
1524_0 | The Bank of Mauritius () is the central bank of the Republic of Mauritius. It was established in September 1967 as the central bank of Mauritius. It was modelled on the Bank of England and was, in effect, set up with the assistance of senior officers of the Bank of England.
Amongst its responsibilities is the issuance of the Mauritian currency, the Mauritian rupee.
History
In the 19th Century three separate commercial banks, now all defunct, operated under the Bank of Mauritius name.
The first Bank of Mauritius started operations in 1813 or so, but survived only until 1825. |
1524_1 | The second Bank of Mauritius was a British overseas bank with two boards of directors, one in London and the other in Port Louis. It began operations in 1832 and favored the interests of the planter class. In 1838 traders established Mauritius Commercial Bank to give themselves an alternative source of credit as until its establishment the Bank of Mauritius had a monopoly on the island. The financial crisis of 1847 in London resulted in the collapse of the sugar market, and severe losses to both of Mauritius's banks. Bank of Mauritius ceased business in 1848, though the Mauritius Commercial Bank has survived to the present. |
1524_2 | Local interests established the third Bank of Mauritius in 1894 to take over the local business of the failed New Oriental Bank Corporation. In 1911 the bank opened a branch in the Seychelles. However, in 1916 the Mercantile Bank of India (est. 1893) acquired the bank. HSBC in turn acquired the Mercantile Bank in 1959. Because of this history, HSBC refers to itself as the oldest foreign bank in Mauritius. The next foreign bank to arrive, and to survive to the present, was National Bank of South Africa, an ancestor of Absa Bank Mauritius Limited formerly Barclays Bank Mauritius.
In addition to the above three banks, a bank by the name of the Colonial Bank of Mauritius, Bourbon, and Dependencies, operated between 1812 and 1813.
Board of Commissioners of Currency
Before the establishment of the Bank, the currency issue was managed by a Board of Commissioners of Currency. The duties of the Board were restricted to those of an issuing authority. |
1524_3 | The setting up of the Bank of Mauritius marked the beginning of a new phase in the monetary history of Mauritius, with the monetary system moving forward from the stage of 'Sterling Exchange Standard', under which currency was issued in exchange for sterling at a fixed rate of exchange, to that of a 'managed currency' in which the discretionary role of the monetary authority becomes important.
Objectives of the Bank
The Bank of Mauritius Act 1966 (as amended) lays down the purposes of the Bank which are to 'safeguard the internal and external value of the currency of Mauritius and its internal convertibility' and to 'direct its policy towards achieving monetary conditions conducive to strengthening the economic activity and prosperity of Mauritius.' |
1524_4 | The Bank has been set up as the authority which is responsible for the formulation and execution of monetary policy consistent with stable price conditions. It also has responsibility for safeguarding the stability and strengthening of the financial system of Mauritius.
Governors
Aunauth Beejadhur (July 1967 to December 1972)
Goorpersad Bunwaree (January 1973 to May 1982)
Indurduth Ramphul (June 1982 to March 1996)
Mitrajeet Dhaneswar Maraye (April 1996 to November 1998)
Rameswurlall Basant Roi (November 1998 to December 2006)
Yandraduth Googoolye (January 2007 to February 2007)
Rundheersing Bheenick (February 2007 to February 2010)
Yandraduth Googoolye (February 2010 to May 2010)
Rundheersing Bheenick (May 2010 to December 2014)
Rameswurlall Basant Roi (December 2014 to January 2018)
Yandraduth Googoolye (January 2018 to February 2020)
Harvesh Kumar Seegolam (Since March 2020 to present) |
1524_5 | Online Sales of commemorative coins
On 12 March 2008, the Bank of Mauritius launched the online sales of commemorative coins and Dodo Gold Coins to international buyers.
See also
Mauritian rupee
List of banks in Mauritius
Economy of Mauritius
List of central banks of Africa
List of central banks
References
External links
Official website
Details view on the banks of Mauritius, offers & special services
Mauritius
Companies based in Port Louis
Banks of Mauritius
1967 establishments in Mauritius
Banks established in 1967
Financial regulatory authorities of Mauritius |
1525_0 | Brenda Wootton (née Ellery) (10 February 1928 – 11 March 1994) was a Cornish folk singer and poet and was seen as an ambassador for Cornish tradition and culture in all the Celtic nations and as far as Australia and Canada.
Early life and career
Brenda Ellery was born in London, during a brief few months when her Cornish-born parents were there looking for work, but was back home in Cornwall at 6 months old. She grew up in the fishing village of Newlyn. In 1948 she married John Wootton, a radio engineer from Wolverhampton, and their daughter Susan was born in 1949. They lived in Sennen, then Penzance, with Brenda running a bed and breakfast business and very involved in amateur dramatics. In 1964 she switched careers and helped her brother Peter Ellery set up his Tremaen Pottery business - becoming a director and running the family shop in Penzance, Tremaen Craft Market. |
1525_1 | She first found her voice as a young schoolgirl, singing in chapel choirs and village halls in the remote communities of West Cornwall. Brenda became active on the Cornish music scene in the early 1960s, taking over the recently formed Count House Folk Music Club at Botallack near St Just in 1967, to found her own Pipers Folk Club, at St Buryan, Cornwall. She was later able to move Pipers back to the Count House, and subsequently into Penzance at the Western Hotel. In 1973 she was introduced to Richard Gendall, who taught her two songs in Cornish to sing at that year's Pan Celtic Festival in Killarney in Ireland, and she welcomed the opportunity to sing in Cornwall's own language, Kernewek, pledging to sing at least one song in Cornish at every concert. Richard wrote over 460 songs for Brenda, over 140 of them in the Cornish language. In 1974, Brenda handed Tremaen Craft Market over to daughter Sue to manage, and turned professional as a singer. |
1525_2 | Her early albums were recorded on Cornwall's Sentinel label, often with John the Fish (John Langford), with whom she sang for six years. Brenda later sang with Robert Bartlett and with guitarists Pete Berryman, Mike Silver, Al Fenn, David Penhale and Chris Newman.
Her repertoire over the years covered folk, rock, blues, jazz and even hymns, but she is best remembered for her Cornish "standards" such as Lamorna, The White Rose, Camborne Hill, The Stratton Carol and the ballads Mordonnow, Tamar, Silver Net and Lyonesse, those last all written by Richard Gendall. |
1525_3 | She was equally at home when singing in Cornish, Breton or English and was as famous in Brittany, which she visited regularly, as she was in her native Cornwall. She appeared in the first ever Lorient Interceltic Festival in Brittany in the early 1970s. Brenda became famous throughout the world where she was welcomed by Cornish exiles and others, and sang at the Kernewek Lowender in South Australia three times, and in Canada as well as all over Europe. She reached number 1 in the pop charts in Japan with the maxi single 'Walk Across the World'. |
1525_4 | Brenda was made a bard of the Gorsedh Kernow in 1977, and took as her bardic name Gwylan Gwavas (Seagull of Newlyn). In her later years, she became well known in Cornwall as a presenter for BBC Radio Cornwall where she hosted the popular weekly request show Sunday Best, until 1990. She was also the Honorary President of Radio Beacon, the hospital radio service for St Lawrences Hospital in Bodmin. She died in Penzance aged 66, in March 1994 after a long illness.
Rediscovered Bobino tapes |
1525_5 | In 2010 Wootton's recording engineer John Knight rediscovered the analogue master tapes of a live performance from June 1984, at the peak of her international career. The concert, which took place at the Bobino music hall theatre in Paris, featured Wootton with the Camborne Town Band, and musicians Ray Roberts, Dave Freeman and Chris Newman. The recording was subsequently digitally mastered and released as All of Me, featuring nineteen tracks and a sixteen-page booklet of unpublished photographs, many from Wootton's own private collection. |
1525_6 | Legacy |
1525_7 | In 2017, BBC Radio Cornwall awarded Brenda a Blue Plaque as Cornwall's best loved 'music legend', voted on by their listeners. In 2021, the Blue Plaque will be erected on the walls of the Count House at Botallack near St Just, the site of her Pipers Folk Club, and from where her music career began. Following on from her publication of Brenda's poems, 'Pantomime Stew', in 1995, Brenda's daughter Sue Ellery-Hill has privately produced three new CDs with recordings of Brenda old and new, many songs previously unheard. In 2018 she published her mother's biography 'Brenda: For the Love of Cornwall - the Life and Times of Brenda Wootton, Cornwall's First Lady of Song', and in 2021 has brought out a new Songbook with two CDs of Brenda singing in Kernewek, the Cornish language, all written for Brenda by Richard Gendall. A new project is now underway to produce a film, exhibition and archive of Brenda's life and music, being run by Bosena in Penzance. The exhibition will run in October 2021. |
1525_8 | Recordings
Singles and EPs
"Apple Wine / Silver Net", Transatlantic, 1979
"Berceuses Celtiques Iles Britanniques (EP), (with pop-up cover), Le Chant du Monde: 100406, CM 650, 1981
"Hark the Glad Sound", RCA Victor: PB 61264, 1983
"Dus Tre" / "Paris - What's In A Name?" (Promo), RCA: DB 61311, 1984
"Tamar" / "Waiting for the Tide" / "Towl Ros" / "Kenavo Dewgenoughwhy" (French promo), Disc'Az: 1061, 1986
"Everybody Knows" Maxi Single 45rpm, Edition23 France, EDM039 |
1525_9 | AlbumsPiper's Folk, with John the Fish & Piper's Folk, (Private pressing, produced & distributed by Piper's Folk), 1968Pasties & Cream, with John the Fish, Sentinel Records, SENS 1006, 1971Way Down to Lamorna, Sentinel, SENS 1056, 1972Crowdy Crawn, with Richard Gendall, Sentinel, SENS 1016, 1973Pamplemousse, with Robert Bartlett, Barclay (French label), 1973No Song To Sing, with Robert Bartlett and "guest" Alex Atterson on piano, Sentinel, SENS 1021, 1974Tin in the Stream, with Robert Bartlett, Stockfisch (German label), 1974 (voted West Germany's folk album of the year)Starry Gazey Pie, with Robert Bartlett, Sentinel, SENS 1031, 1975Children Singing, with Richard Gendall, Sentinel, SENS 1036, 1976Carillon, Transatlantic Records, TRA 360, 1979Boy Jan ... Cornishman, with David Penhale (voice, guitar and bouzouki) and Richard Gendall (composer), Burlington Records, BURL 005, 1980La Grande Cornouaillaise, Burlington Records, BURL 007, 1980Gwavas Lake, with The Four Lanes Male Choir, |
1525_10 | Burlington Records, BURL 008, 1980Lyonesse, with David King (acoustic guitar), RCA, PL 70299, 1982My Land, RCA, PL 70234, 1983B Comme Brenda, Disc'Az (French label), AZ 494, 1985Tamar, Disc'Az, AZ 505, 1986The Voice of Cornwall, Keltia Musique KMCD67, 1996All of Me, with Brenda's Trio and Camborne Town Band Label- Knight Design, Cat. No. KDBWAOM00001 Dec. 2010.Brenda At Buryan: Live At Pipers Folk Club St. Buryan 1967 with John the Fish (2013 CD)Brenda at Christmas (2017 CD)Brenda Sings Ballads (2019 CD)Brenda Yn Kernewek: Brenda sings over 30 of Richard Gendall's songs in Cornish (2021 Songbook + 2 CDs) |
1525_11 | Publications
Pantomime Stew – An Anthology of Poetry, Doggerel and Nonsense by Brenda Wootton (Book, 1995, Publ. privately)
Brenda: For the Love of Cornwall - The Life & Times of Brenda Wootton, Cornwall's First Lady of Song (Biography Book, 2018 TJINK Publ.)
Brenda Yn Kernewek: Brenda sings over 30 of Richard Gendall's songs in Cornish (2021 Songbook + 2 CDs)
See also
References
External links
Official Brenda Wootton website
Brenda Wootton Paris concert unearthed at bbc.co.uk
Cornwall Heritage Trust: Blue Plaque for Brenda
Cornwall National Music Archive
Bosena's Brenda Wootton page: Mordonnow
1928 births
1994 deaths
Bards of Gorsedh Kernow
Cornish-speaking people
People from Newlyn
Cornish folk singers
English people of Cornish descent
Place of death missing
20th-century English singers
Transatlantic Records artists
20th-century English women singers
20th-century English musicians |
1526_0 | Pocahontas is a city in Randolph County, Arkansas, United States, along the Black River. According to the 2010 Census Bureau, the population of the city was 6,608. The city is the county seat of Randolph County.
Pocahontas has a number of historic buildings, including the Old Randolph County Courthouse built in 1871, the St. Mary's AME Church, and the Pocahontas Colored School built in 1918, the latter of which is now home to the Eddie Mae Herron Center.
History
This city was named after the Native American from Jamestown, Virginia. A statue of her is located in Overlook Park along the Black River.
The family of Dr. Ransom S. Bettis is given the credit for being the first settlers on the land now called Pocahontas. Dr. Bettis' daughter, Cinderella, married Thomas S. Drew, and lived on 800 acres where the town of Biggers now exists. Bettis and Drew led the founding of Pocahontas as the county seat of Randolph County. |
1526_1 | Randolph County is famous for many "firsts"; Arkansas' oldest town, Davidsonville, was established in 1815. The first Arkansas post office was built in Davidsonville in 1817, and the first state courthouse was established in 1818. The earliest land claim was in 1809 near what is now Ravenden Springs. The first actual term of court convened in Arkansas was in 1815 in a part of Lawrence County that was given over to Randolph County. And the country's first overland route, the Natchitoches Trail, went through parts of Randolph County.
In 1835, the Territorial Legislature granted the formation of Randolph County from part of the area then called Lawrence County. The county was named after John Randolph, who was one of the first settlers in the area. |
1526_2 | Randolph County encompasses the rolling hills of the Ozarks to the west and rich, flat farmland of the Mississippi Delta to the east. Five rivers flow through the county, providing access to fishing and canoeing. Soybeans, rice, and other grains are the principal crops in the Delta region, while cattle ranching dominates the hill country. The poultry industry is also a vital part of the area economy.
During the early part of the Civil War, Camp Shaver, located in Pocahontas, was the headquarters for Confederate forces west of the Mississippi River.
The industrial base is diversified, with products such as shoes, large truck trailers, technical components for communications, picture frames, golf bags and luggage, tool boxes, wood products and more.
Pocahontas is the county seat with a population of 6,616. The other 10,407 residents of Randolph County live in rural areas and five incorporated communities - Maynard, Biggers, Reyno, Ravenden Springs and O'Kean. |
1526_3 | Local legend holds that Pocahontas was named the county seat through an act of trickery. Supposedly, at the county meeting to determine which city would receive the title, the delegation from Pocahontas brought in large quantities of alcohol and distributed them to the other delegations. When the time came to vote, the only delegation not passed out or otherwise influenced was that from Pocahontas.
Geography
Pocahontas is located at (36.263560, -90.973349).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and (2.78%) is water.
Climate
The climate is of the city is characterized by relatively high temperatures and evenly distributed precipitation throughout the year. The Köppen climate classification subtype for this climate is "Cfa" (humid subtropical climate).
Demographics
2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 7,371 people, 2,748 households, and 1,575 families residing in the city. |
1526_4 | 2000 census
As of the census of 2000, 6,518 people, 2,693 households, and 1,742 families resided in the city. The population density was 886.6 people per square mile (342.4/km). The 2,924 housing units averaged a density of 397.7 per square mile (153.6/km). The racial makeup of the city was 97.27% Caucasian, 1.10% African American, 0.44% Native American, 0.08% Asian, 0.20% from other races, and 0.91% from two or more races, with about 0.89% of the population Hispanic or Latino of any race.
Of the 2,693 households, 30.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.0% were married couples living together, 13.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.3% were not families. Around 31.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.32 and the average family size was 2.94. |
1526_5 | In the city, the population was distributed as 23.7% under the age of 18, 9.7% from 18 to 24, 25.5% from 25 to 44, 20.1% from 45 to 64, and 21.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 84.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $24,450, and for a family was $29,525. Males had a median income of $26,382 versus $18,750 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,529. About 15.6% of families and 18.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.9% of those under age 18 and 16.5% of those age 65 or over. |
1526_6 | Education
Pocahontas is home to the Pocahontas School District. Public schools include Alma Spikes Elementary School, M. D. Williams Intermediate School, Pocahontas Junior High School, and Pocahontas High School. Pocahontas' school mascot is the Redskins. Pocahontas is also home to St. Paul Elementary School, a private Catholic school serving pre-kindergarten through sixth grade. St Paul's mascot is the Sabers.
Pocahontas is the home of Black River Technical College.
Media
Newspapers
The Pocahontas Star Herald is published weekly, on Thursdays. It began publication in 1880, and is owned by Corning Publishing. |
1526_7 | Radio stations
Pocahontas is home to KPOC/KRLW/KIYS radio stations. The stations' "better known names" are: KPOC-FM is better known as Lite 104.1 FM; KPOC is News Sports Talk 1420 AM; KIYS is Country 106.3 FM; and KRLW is Oldies 1320 AM. While the KRLW and KIYS radio stations are broadcast centrally to the Walnut Ridge/Hoxie area (a community some 15 miles away), the broadcasting site and main offices are centered with KPOC inside Pocahontas. The stations are operated by Combined Media Group Inc.
Infrastructure
Highways
Highway 90
Highway 115
Highway 166
Highway 251
Highway 304
Medical care
St. Bernards Five Rivers Medical Center
Pocahontas Medical Clinic
Airport
Pocahontas Municipal Airport (M70)
Culture
A 17-block area of downtown Pocahontas has been designated a National Historic Landmark District. Pocahontas is also a Preserve America Community, and is home to the Imperial Dinner Theatre, the Studio for the Arts and the Downtown Playhouse. |
1526_8 | Notable people
William Herbert Allaire Jr.- U.S. Army general
Larry P. Arnn, a Pocahontas native, president of Hillsdale College, Hillsdale, Mich. Co-founder of Claremont Institute, Claremont, California, he served as its president from its founding in 1985 until his appointment as Hillsdale president in 2000. While studying at Oxford University, Arnn served as director of research for Sir Martin Gilbert, the official biographer of Winston Churchill.
Edwin Bethune, a former member of the United States House of Representatives, graduated from Pocahontas High School, but left the community in 1972. He was elected to Congress from the Second Congressional District in Arkansas (Randolph County falls under the First District).
Drew Bowers, Arkansas Republican politician and lawyer, was born near Pocahontas in 1886.
Jim Johnston, former composer for World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE Music Group. |
1526_9 | Billy Lee Riley, Pocahontas native, was an American rockabilly musician, singer, record producer and songwriter.
Wear Schoonover, Pocahontas native, was the first University of Arkansas athlete in any sport named to an All-American team. Schoonover starred as a wide receiver for the Razorbacks in 1927–1929. He was named All-American in 1929, and was named to the College Football Hall of Fame in 1967. All-Southwest Conference in basketball, he also excelled at college baseball and track and field, and achieved the highest GPA of any Arkansas athlete through the 1980s. His name is reflected in the name of the local high school basketball court (Schoonover Fieldhouse), as well as the high school football field (Schoonover Stadium).
Linda Collins-Smith, Republican member of the Arkansas Senate and owner of Days Inn in Pocahontas.
Edward J. Steimel, Louisiana political activist and researcher, was born in Pocahontas in 1922. |
1526_10 | References
External links
Ozark weather and radar
Randolph County Heritage Museum
Downtown Art Association of Pocahontas
Eddie Mae Herron Center - Museum of African American History and Heritage and Community Center
Randolph County Tourism Association
Pocahontas Star Herald newspaper
Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture entry: Pocahontas (Randolph County)
Cities in Randolph County, Arkansas
Cities in Arkansas
County seats in Arkansas |
1527_0 | Emmanuel Levinas (; ; 12 January 1906 – 25 December 1995) was a French philosopher of Lithuanian Jewish ancestry who is known for his work within Jewish philosophy, existentialism, and phenomenology, focusing on the relationship of ethics to metaphysics and ontology. |
1527_1 | Life and career
Emmanuelis Levinas (later adapted to French orthography as Emmanuel Levinas) was born in 1906 into a middle-class Litvak family in Kaunas, in present-day Lithuania, then Kovno district, at the Western edge of the Russian Empire. Because of the disruptions of World War I, the family moved to Charkow in the Region of Ukraine in 1916, where they stayed during the Russian revolutions of February and October 1917. In 1920 his family returned to the Republic of Lithuania. Levinas's early education was in secular, Russian-language schools in Kaunas and Charkow. Upon his family's return to the Republic of Lithuania, Levinas spent two years at a Jewish gymnasium before departing for France, where he commenced his university education. |
1527_2 | Levinas began his philosophical studies at the University of Strasbourg in 1923, and his lifelong friendship with the French philosopher Maurice Blanchot. In 1928, he went to the University of Freiburg for two semesters to study phenomenology under Edmund Husserl. At Freiburg he also met Martin Heidegger, whose philosophy greatly impressed him. Levinas would in the early 1930s be one of the first French intellectuals to draw attention to Heidegger and Husserl by translating in 1931 Husserl's Cartesian Meditations (with the help of Gabrielle Peiffer and with advice from Alexandre Koyré) and by drawing on their ideas in his own philosophy, in works such as (The Theory of Intuition in Husserl's Phenomenology; his 1929/30 doctoral thesis), (From Existence to Existents; 1947), and (Discovering Existence with Husserl and Heidegger; first edition, 1949, with additions, 1967). In 1929 he was awarded his doctorate (Doctorat d'université degree) by the University of Strasbourg for his thesis |
1527_3 | on the meaning of intuition in the philosophy of Husserl, published in 1930. |
1527_4 | Levinas became a naturalized French citizen in 1939. When France declared war on Germany, he reported for military duty as a translator of Russian and French. During the German invasion of France in 1940, his military unit was surrounded and forced to surrender. Levinas spent the rest of World War II as a prisoner of war in a camp near Hannover in Germany. Levinas was assigned to a special barrack for Jewish prisoners, who were forbidden any form of religious worship. Life in the Fallingbostel camp was difficult, but his status as a prisoner of war protected him from the Holocaust's concentration camps. Other prisoners saw him frequently jotting in a notebook. These jottings were later developed into his book De l'Existence à l'Existant (1947) and a series of lectures published under the title Le Temps et l'Autre (1948). His wartime notebooks have now been published in their original form as Œuvres: Tome 1, Carnets de captivité: suivi de Écrits sur la captivité ; et, Notes |
1527_5 | philosophiques diverses (2009). |
1527_6 | Meanwhile, Maurice Blanchot helped Levinas's wife and daughter spend the war in a monastery, thus sparing them from the Holocaust. Blanchot, at considerable personal risk, also saw to it that Levinas was able to keep in contact with his immediate family through letters and other messages. Other members of Levinas's family were not so fortunate; his mother-in-law was deported and never heard from again, while his father and brothers were killed in Lithuania by the SS.
After the Second World War, he studied the Talmud under the enigmatic Monsieur Chouchani, whose influence he acknowledged only late in his life. |
1527_7 | Levinas's first book-length essay, Totality and Infinity (1961), was written as his Doctorat d'État primary thesis (roughly equivalent to a Habilitation thesis). His secondary thesis was titled Études sur la phénoménologie (Studies on Phenomenology). After earning his habilitation, Levinas taught at a private Jewish High School in Paris, the , eventually becoming its director. He began teaching at the University of Poitiers in 1961, at the Nanterre campus of the University of Paris in 1967, and at the Sorbonne in 1973, from which he retired in 1979. He published his second major philosophical work, Autrement qu'être ou au-delà de l'essence, in 1974. He was also a Professor at the University of Fribourg in Switzerland. In 1989 he was awarded the Balzan Prize for Philosophy. |
1527_8 | According to his obituary in The New York Times, Levinas came to regret his early enthusiasm for Heidegger, after the latter joined the Nazis. Levinas explicitly frames several of his mature philosophical works as attempts to respond to Heidegger's philosophy in light of its ethical failings.
His son is the composer Michaël Levinas, and his son-in-law is the French mathematician Georges Hansel. Among his most famous students is Rabbi Baruch Garzon from Tetouan (Morocco), who learnt Philosophy with Levinas at the Sorbonne, and later went on to become one of the most important Rabbis of the Spanish-speaking world. |
1527_9 | Philosophy
In the 1950s, Levinas emerged from the circle of intellectuals surrounding the philosopher Jean Wahl as a leading French thinker. His work is based on the ethics of the Other or, in Levinas's terms, on "ethics as first philosophy". For Levinas, the Other is not knowable and cannot be made into an object of the self, as is done by traditional metaphysics (which Levinas called "ontology"). Levinas prefers to think of philosophy as the "wisdom of love" rather than the "love of wisdom" (the usual translation of the Greek "φιλοσοφία"). In his view, responsibility toward the Other precedes any "objective searching after truth". |
1527_10 | Levinas derives the primacy of his ethics from the experience of the encounter with the Other. For Levinas, the irreducible relation, the epiphany, of the face-to-face, the encounter with another, is a privileged phenomenon in which the other person's proximity and distance are both strongly felt. "The Other precisely reveals himself in his alterity not in a shock negating the I, but as the primordial phenomenon of gentleness." At the same time, the revelation of the face makes a demand, this demand is before one can express, or know one's freedom, to affirm or deny. One instantly recognizes the transcendence and heteronomy of the Other. Even murder fails as an attempt to take hold of this otherness. |
1527_11 | While critical of traditional theology, Levinas does require that a "trace" of the Divine be acknowledged within an ethics of Otherness. This is especially evident in his thematization of debt and guilt. "A face is a trace of itself, given over to my responsibility, but to which I am wanting and faulty. It is as though I were responsible for his mortality, and guilty for surviving." The moral "authority" of the face of the Other is felt in my "infinite responsibility" for the Other. The face of the Other comes toward me with its infinite moral demands while emerging out of the trace. |
1527_12 | Apart from this morally imposing emergence, the Other’s face might well be adequately addressed as "Thou" (along the lines proposed by Martin Buber) in whose welcoming countenance I might find great comfort, love and communion of souls—but not a moral demand bearing down upon me from a height. "Through a trace the irreversible past takes on the profile of a ‘He.’ The beyond from which a face comes is in the third person." It is because the Other also emerges from the illeity of a He (il in French) that I instead fall into infinite debt vis-à-vis the Other in a situation of utterly asymmetrical obligations: I owe the Other everything, the Other owes me nothing. The trace of the Other is the heavy shadow of God, the God who commands, "Thou shalt not kill!" Levinas takes great pains to avoid straightforward theological language. The very metaphysics of signification subtending theological language is suspected and suspended by evocations of how traces work differently than signs. |
1527_13 | Nevertheless, the divinity of the trace is also undeniable: "the trace is not just one more word: it is the proximity of God in the countenance of my fellowman." In a sense, it is divine commandment without divine authority. |
1527_14 | Following Totality and Infinity, Levinas later argued that responsibility for the other is rooted within our subjective constitution. The first line of the preface of this book is "everyone will readily agree that it is of the highest importance to know whether we are not duped by morality." This idea appears in his of recurrence (chapter 4 in Otherwise than Being), in which Levinas maintains that subjectivity is formed in and through our subjection to the other. Subjectivity, Levinas argued, is primordially ethical, not theoretical: that is to say, our responsibility for the other is not a derivative feature of our subjectivity, but instead, founds our subjective being-in-the-world by giving it a meaningful direction and orientation. Levinas's thesis "ethics as first philosophy", then, means that the traditional philosophical pursuit of knowledge is secondary to a basic ethical duty to the other. To meet the Other is to have the idea of Infinity. |
1527_15 | The elderly Levinas was a distinguished French public intellectual, whose books reportedly sold well. He had a major influence on the younger, but more well-known Jacques Derrida, whose seminal Writing and Difference contains an essay, "Violence and Metaphysics", that was instrumental in expanding interest in Levinas in France and abroad. Derrida also delivered a eulogy at Levinas's funeral, later published as Adieu à Emmanuel Levinas, an appreciation and exploration of Levinas's moral philosophy. In a memorial essay for Levinas, Jean-Luc Marion claimed that "If one defines a great philosopher as someone without whom philosophy would not have been what it is, then in France there are two great philosophers of the 20th Century: Bergson and Lévinas." |
1527_16 | His work has been a source of controversy since the 1950s, when Simone de Beauvoir criticized his account of the subject as being necessarily masculine, as defined against a feminine other. While other feminist philosophers like Tina Chanter and the artist-thinker Bracha L. Ettinger have defended him against this charge, increasing interest in his work in the 2000s brought a reevaluation of the possible misogyny of his account of the feminine, as well as a critical engagement with his French nationalism in the context of colonialism. Among the most prominent of these are critiques by Simon Critchley and Stella Sandford. However, there have also been responses which argue that these critiques of Levinas are misplaced. |
1527_17 | Cultural influence
For three decades, Levinas gave short talks on Rashi, a medieval French rabbi, every Shabbat morning at the Jewish high school in Paris where he was the principal. This tradition strongly influenced many generations of students.
Jean-Pierre and Luc Dardenne, renowned Belgian filmmakers, have referred to Levinas as an important underpinning for their filmmaking ethics.
In his book Levinas and the Cinema of Redemption: Time, Ethics, and the Feminine, author Sam B. Girgus argues that Levinas has dramatically affected films involving redemption.
Magician, Derren Brown, A Book of Secrets references Levinas.
Published works
A full bibliography of all Levinas's publications up until 1981 is found in Roger Burggraeve Emmanuel Levinas (1982).
A list of works, translated into English but not appearing in any collections, may be found in Critchley, S. and Bernasconi, R. (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Levinas (publ. Cambridge UP, 2002), pp. 269–270. |
1527_18 | Books
1929. Sur les « Ideen » de M. E. Husserl
1930. La théorie de l'intuition dans la phénoménologie de Husserl (The Theory of Intuition in Husserl's Phenomenology)
1931. Der Begriff des Irrationalen als philosophisches Problem (with Heinz Erich Eisenhuth)
1931. Fribourg, Husserl et la phénoménologie
1931. Les recherches sur la philosophie des mathématiques en Allemagne, aperçu général (with W. Dubislav)
1931. Méditations cartésiennes. Introduction à la phénoménologie (with Edmund Husserl and Gabrielle Peiffer)
1932. Martin Heidegger et l'ontologie
1934. La présence totale (with Louis Lavelle)
1934. Phénoménologie
1934. Quelques réflexions sur la philosophie de l'hitlérisme
1935. De l'évasion
1935. La notion du temps (with N. Khersonsky)
1935. L'actualité de Maimonide
1935. L'inspiration religieuse de l'Alliance
1936. Allure du transcendental (with Georges Bénézé)
1936. Esquisses d'une énergétique mentale (with J. Duflo)
1936. Fraterniser sans se convertir |
1527_19 | 1936. Les aspects de l'image visuelle (with R. Duret)
1936. L'esthétique française contemporaine (with Valentin Feldman)
1936. L'individu dans le déséquilibre moderne (with R. Munsch)
1936. Valeur (with Georges Bénézé)
1947. De l'existence à l'existant (Existence and Existents)
1948. Le Temps et l'Autre (Time and the Other)
1949. En Découvrant l’Existence avec Husserl et Heidegger (Discovering Existence with Husserl and Heidegger)
1961. Totalité et Infini: essai sur l'extériorité (Totality and Infinity: An Essay on Exteriority)
1962. De l'Évasion (On Escape)
1963 & 1976. Difficult Freedom: Essays on Judaism
1968. Quatre lectures talmudiques
1972. Humanisme de l'autre homme (Humanism of the Other)
1974. Autrement qu'être ou au-delà de l'essence (Otherwise than Being or Beyond Essence)
1976. Sur Maurice Blanchot
1976. Noms propres (Proper Names) - includes the essay "Sans nom" ("Nameless")
1977. Du Sacré au saint – cinq nouvelles lectures talmudiques
1980. Le Temps et l'Autre |
1527_20 | 1982. L'Au-delà du verset: lectures et discours talmudiques (Beyond the Verse: Talmudic Readings and Lectures)
1982. Of God Who Comes to Mind
1982. Ethique et infini (Ethics and Infinity: Dialogues of Emmanuel Levinas and Philippe Nemo)
1984. Transcendence et intelligibilité (Transcendence and Intelligibility)
1988. A l'Heure des nations (In the Time of the Nations)
1991. Entre Nous
1995. Altérité et transcendence (Alterity and Transcendence)
1998. De l’obliteration. Entretien avec Françoise Armengaud à propos de l’œuvre de Sosno (»On Obliteration: Discussing Sacha Sosno, trans. Richard A. Cohen, in: Art and Text (winter 1989), 30-41.)
2006. Œuvres: Tome 1, Carnets de captivité: suivi de Écrits sur la captivité ; et, Notes philosophiques diverses, Posthumously published by Grasset & Fasquelle |
1527_21 | Articles in English
"A Language Familiar to Us". Telos 44 (Summer 1980). New York: Telos Press.
See also
Alterity
Authenticity
Face-to-face
Ethic of reciprocity
Ecstasy in philosophy
The Other
Jewish philosophy
Martin Buber
Knud Ejler Løgstrup
References
Further reading |
1527_22 | Adriaan Theodoor Peperzak, Robert Bernasconi & Simon Critchley, Emmanuel Levinas (1996).
Astell, Ann W. and Jackson, J. A., Levinas and Medieval Literature: The "Difficult Reading" of English and Rabbinic Texts (Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University press, 2009).
Simon Critchley and Robert Bernasconi (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Levinas (2002).
Theodore De Boer, The Rationality of Transcendence: Studies in the Philosophy of Emmanuel Levinas, Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben, 1997.
Roger Burggraeve, The Wisdom of Love in the Service of Love: Emmanuel Levinas on Justice, Peace, and Human Rights, trans. Jeffrey Bloechl. Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 2002.
Roger Burggraeve (ed.) The awakening to the other: a provocative dialogue with Emmanuel Levinas, Leuven: Peeters, 2008
Cristian Ciocan, Georges Hansel, Levinas Concordance. Dordrecht: Springer, 2005.
Hanoch Ben-Pazi, Emmanuel Levinas: Hermeneutics, Ethics, and Art, Journal of Literature and Art Studies 5 (2015), 588 - 600 |
1527_23 | Richard A. Cohen, Out of Control: Confrontations Between Spinoza and Levinas, Albany: State University of New York Press, 2016.
Richard A. Cohen, Levinasian Meditations: Ethics, Philosophy, and Religion, Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 2010.
Richard A. Cohen, Ethics, Exegesis and Philosophy: Interpretation After Levinas, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Richard A. Cohen, Elevations: The Height of the Good in Rosenzweig and Levinas, Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1994.
Joseph Cohen, Alternances de la métaphysique. Essais sur Emmanuel Levinas, Paris: Galilée, 2009. [in French]
Simon Critchley, "Emmanuel Levinas: A Disparate Inventory," in The Cambridge Companion to Levinas, eds. S. Critchley & R. Bernasconi. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Jutta Czapski, Verwundbarkeit in der Ethik von Emmanuel Levinas, Königshausen u. Neumann, Würzburg 2017 |
1527_24 | Derrida, Jacques, Adieu to Emmanuel Levinas, trans. Pascale-Anne Brault and Michael Naas. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999.
Derrida, Jacques, "At This Very Moment in This Work Here I Am," trans. Ruben Berezdivin and Peggy Kamuf, in Psyche: Inventions of the Other, Vol. 1, ed. Peggy Kamuf and Elizabeth G. Rottenberg. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007. 143-90.
Bracha L. Ettinger, conversation with Emmanuel Levinas, (1991–1993). Time is the Breath of the Spirit. Oxford: MOMA, 1993.
Bracha L. Ettinger, Que dirait Eurydice?/What Would Eurydice Say?, conversation with Emmanuel Levinas, (1991–1993). Paris: BLE Atelier, 1997. Reprinted in Athena: Philosophical Studies Vol. 2, 2006.
Bernard-Donals, Michael, "Difficult Freedom: Levinas, Memory and Politics", in Forgetful Memory, Albany: State University of New York Press, 2009. 145-160. |
1527_25 | Derrida, Jacques, "Violence and Metaphysics: An Essay on the Thought of Emmanuel Levinas," in Writing and Difference, trans. Alan Bass. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1978. 79-153.
Michael Eldred, 'Worldsharing and Encounter: Heidegger's ontology and Lévinas' ethics' 2010.
Michael Eskin, Ethics and Dialogue in the Works of Levinas, Bakhtin, Mandel'shtam, and Celan, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Alexandre Guilherme and W. John Morgan, 'Emmanuel Levinas (1906-1995)-dialogue as an ethical demand of the other', Chapter 5 in Philosophy, Dialogue, and Education: Nine modern European philosophers, Routledge, London and New York, pp. 72–88, . |
1527_26 | Mario Kopić, The Beats of the Other, Otkucaji drugog, Belgrade: Službeni glasnik, 2013.
Nicole Note, "The impossible possibility of environmental ethics, Emmanuel Levinas and the discrete Other" in: Philosophia: E-Journal of Philosophy and Culture – 7/2014.
Marie-Anne Lescourt, Emmanuel Levinas, 2nd edition. Flammarion, 2006. [in French]
Emmanuel Levinas, Ethics and Infinity: Conversations with Philippe Nemo, trans. R.A. Cohen. Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1985.
Emmanuel Levinas, "Signature," in Difficult Freedom: Essays on Judaism, trans. Sean Hand. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990 & 1997.
John Llewelyn, Emmanuel Levinas: The Genealogy of Ethics, London: Routledge, 1995
John Llewelyn, The HypoCritical Imagination: Between Kant and Levinas, London: Routledge, 2000.
John Llewelyn, Appositions – of Jacques Derrida and Emmanuel Levinas, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002. |
1527_27 | Paul Marcus, Being for the Other: Emmanuel Levinas, Ethical Living, and Psychoanalysis, Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press, 2008.
Paul Marcus, In Search of the Good Life: Emmanuel Levinas, Psychoanalysis and the Art of Living, London: Karnac Books, 2010.
Seán Hand, Emmanuel Levinas, London: Routledge, 2009
Benda Hofmeyr (ed.), Radical passivity – rethinking ethical agency in Levinas, Dordrecht: Springer, 2009
Diane Perpich The ethics of Emmanuel Levinas, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008
Fred Poché, Penser avec Arendt et Lévinas. Du mal politique au respect de l'autre, Chronique Sociale, Lyon, en co-édition avec EVO, Bruxelles et Tricorne, Genève, 1998 (3e édition, 2009).
Jadranka Skorin-Kapov, The Aesthetics of Desire and Surprise: Phenomenology and Speculation, Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2015.
Tanja Staehler, Plato and Levinas – the ambiguous out-side of ethics, London: Routledge 2010 [i.e. 2009] |
1527_28 | Toploski, Anya. 2015. Arendt, Levinas, and politics of relationality. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Wehrs, Donald R.: Levinas and Twentieth-Century Literature: Ethics and the Reconstruction of Subjectivity. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2013. |
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