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1889_3 | The total length of the railway line is 759 km, of which 754 km run between the two terminal stations at Sebeta and the Port of Doraleh. The remaining five kilometers are for shunting operations. A total of 666 km of the railway line is in Ethiopia, while a total of 93 km is in Djibouti. The 115 km section from Sebeta to Adama is the only double-track section of the line, and it also has the highest grades with a net elevation loss of 650 meters. It features several viaducts with lengths of up to 800 meters. The remainder of the railway is single-track, with passing loops distributed evenly along its length. |
1889_4 | The railway begins at Sebeta, just outside of Ethiopia's capital of Addis Ababa. The city is served by two stations in its southern outskirts, at and Indode. The line then runs southeast to Modjo and Adama, both towns located in the Ethiopian Great Rift Valley. At Modjo, a railway junction exists for the planned Modjo–Hawassa Railway. In addition, at Modjo the railway is connected to the Modjo Dry Port, Ethiopia's most important inland dry port and also Ethiopia's main hub for domestic and international freight services. |
1889_5 | At Adama, the railway turns northeast towards Dire Dawa. At Awash, there is a junction with the Awash–Hara Gebeya Railway, which is under construction as of 2018. Directly after Awash station, the line crosses 60 meters above the Awash River canyon over a 155 meter long bridge, the main bridge of the railway. The railway then proceeds to Dire Dawa, where it turns and heads directly for Djibouti. Crossing the Ethiopia-Djibouti border between Dewale and Ali Sabieh, the line reaches the Djibouti passenger terminal at Nagad railway station, near Djibouti–Ambouli International Airport. Freight trains continue the last 12 km to the Port of Doraleh on diesel power.
Stations |
1889_6 | There are 21 dedicated railway stations along the railway; all of them can serve as passing loop stations, as they have three tracks or more (except the Adigala station which has only two tracks). Four of the 21 railway stations are designed as passing loops only, so there is no freight loading / unloading or passenger service. Two of the remaining 17 stations are freight yards only and two others will be for passengers only. The remaining 13 stations can handle both passenger services as well as freight loading / unloading. |
1889_7 | The 15 passenger stations usually have a single boarding platform, with a station building attached to it. The platforms are about 200, 300, or 400 meters long. The Awash station, the only one with three platforms, is also located along the railway but also at the junction point with the Awash–Hara Gebeya Railway. The Furi-Labu and Dewale stations have two platforms. All station buildings along the line contain facilities for ticketing and refreshment, and they even have prayer rooms. The architecture of the station buildings (except that of Awash station) is eclectic, featuring traditional Ethiopian elements with some Chinese interpretation.
Specifications
The Addis Ababa–Djibouti Railway was based on the Chinese National Railway Class 2 Standard. However, some changes were made at the request of the Ethiopian Railway Corporation. Ethiopia is not a member of the Northern Corridor Integration Project, which has selected the Chinese Class 1 standard for all of its railways. |
1889_8 | Gauge: Standard gauge
Couplers: Janney AAR
Brakes: Air
Electrification: Overhead catenary 25 kV AC / 50 Hz
Target speed (passenger):
Target speed (freight):
Maximum train load (freight): gross
Designed transport capacity: 20 million tonnes annually
Gross transport capacity: 24.9 million tonnes annually (taking double-track sections into account)
Minimum railway curve radius: ( at difficult locations)
Maximum (ruling) gradient:1.85% (1 in 54)
Length of arrival & departure track at passing loops: 850 m (dual locomotive: 880 m) [resulting max. train length ~800 m]
Maximum vehicle loading gauge
height: 5300 mm
width: 3400 mm
Trains run on the: Left
Railway signalling & train protection system: automatic block signaling & ETCS-2 SIL4
Level crossings: permitted (no full grade separation)
Double-stack ISO containers = 2 x 2.4m or 2 x 2.9m (unknown). |
1889_9 | The operators of the railway consider an annual freight tonnage that is far below the railway limits. As a rule of thumb, the operators foresee an annual freight tonnage increase of about one million tonne per year, starting at 1–2 million tonnes in the first year of operations.
Although road traffic in Ethiopia drives on the right, trains drive on the left in the double-track sections. This is consistent with Chinese railway practice. The single-track sections are equipped with passing loops, each of which is triple-track so that two trains can wait for the main line to clear. Each station also serves as a passing loop. |
1889_10 | The railway line is almost fully electrified. Power is transmitted at 230 kV and 130 kV to eight substations. Traction power is supplied at 35.8 km intervals, with 18+1 stations in Ethiopia and three in Djibouti. General electrification ends after the Djibouti–Nagad passenger station. Trains are pulled by diesel locomotives to reach the Port of Doraleh and cargo terminals at inland dry ports. This is necessary to avoid interference between the overhead catenary and loading cranes.
Rolling stock
The rolling stock is allocated from the National Railway Network of Ethiopia. |
1889_11 | All the rolling stock had been purchased by Ethiopian Railways Corporation (ERC). All the rolling stock has been transferred to the Ethio-Djibouti Standard Gauge Railway Share Company (EDR) which operates the railway as a share kind contribution by ERC. EDR owns these rolling stocks. EDR is also expected to procure additional rolling stocks to expand its operations. Djibouti did not buy any rolling stock, and even shunting operations at Djibouti's Port of Doraleh will be performed by EDR rolling stock and EDR personnel. Djibouti chose to pay its share on railway construction instead of buying vehicles.
History
Construction began in 2011 and was largely complete in 2016, but final testing continued through 2017. The line was formally opened for commercial operations on 1 January 2018. |
1889_12 | Decline of the metre-gauge railway
The Addis Ababa–Djibouti railway supersedes the Ethio-Djibouti Railway, a metre-gauge railway that was originally built by the French from 1894 to 1917, which for some time in the 20th century was the only way to reach Ethiopia from the outside world. As the railway deteriorated in the 1980s due to a lack of spare parts and maintenance, Addis Ababa lost railroad access to the sea by 2004. Rail service ran between Dire Dawa and Djibouti City until 2010 and then again from 2013 to 2014. Since 2014, operation has only been possible on 213 km of rehabilitated tracks in Ethiopia between Dire Dawa and the border with Djibouti at Guelile. The connection between the commercial centres of Ethiopia (e.g. Addis Ababa) and the sea ports in Djibouti had been broken.
Construction (2011–2016) |
1889_13 | At that time, Ethiopia initiated an ambitious Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) to develop the country's economy through infrastructure investment. A new electrified standard gauge railway was expected to reduce cargo transit times from three days by road to twelve hours by train, and cargo transport costs to one-third of the cost of road transport. In 2011, the Ethiopian Railway Corporation (ERC) awarded contracts for railway construction from Addis Ababa to the Djibouti border to two Chinese state-owned companies, the China Railway Group (CREC) and the China Civil Engineering Construction Corporation (CCECC). |
1889_14 | The stretch from Sebeta to Mieso was awarded to CREC, and the section from Mieso to the Djibouti border was awarded to CRCC. In 2012, Djibouti selected CRCC to complete the final 100 km to the port of Djibouti. The total costs of the railway amounted to US$1.873 billion for the Sebeta-Mieso section, US$1.12 billion for the Mieso–Dewele section and US$525 million for the Dewele–Port of Doraleh section.
In 2013, loans totalling US$3 billion were secured from the Exim Bank of China, with US$2.4 billion going to the Ethiopian section of the railway and the balance to be spent in Djibouti. Additional funding was secured from the China Development Bank and the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China. 20,000 Ethiopians and 5,000 Djiboutians were hired for construction work. Track-laying was completed on the Mieso–Djibouti segment of the project in June 2015. |
1889_15 | In 2015, farmers in Ethiopia had suffered crop failures of between 50% and 90% due to a catastrophic drought, and the port of Djibouti was backed up with ships waiting to unload grain for hungry Ethiopians. Although construction was still in progress on some sections, the completed portion of the railway was put into emergency operation in November 2015 to carry grain to drought-stricken Ethiopia.
The officially completed Ethiopian section was formally inaugurated on 5 October 2016 in the new Furi-Labu railway station in Addis Ababa, by the presidents of Ethiopia and Djibouti. On 10 January 2017, the 100 km section of Djibouti side was inaugurated in a ceremony held in the new Nagad railway station of Djibouti City by Djibouti's President Ismail Omar Guelleh and Ethiopia’s prime minister Hailemariam Dessalegn, and the director general of the International Union of Railways (UIC), Jean-Pierre Loubinoux. |
1889_16 | A survey of East African railway projects by the Ugandan government in early 2017 revealed that the actual costs of the Addis Ababa–Djibouti Railway were around US $5.2m per km, resulting in total costs of around US $4.5b. This is approximately 30% more than originally planned.
Trial service (2016–2017)
The two prime contractors, CREC and CCECC, formed a consortium to operate the entire railway for the first 3–5 years, while local personnel are trained. Despite being inaugurated in October 2016 and January 2017, Djiboutian authorities still considered the railway to be under construction and expected it to become operational not before the end of 2017. |
1889_17 | An official trial service began on the railway after inauguration in October 2016. On 9 May 2017, the first thorough stress test was conducted, with more than 30 trains on the line at the same time. Passenger trains ran between Furi-Labu and Dire Dawa, while freight services ran between the Port of Doraleh and the Modjo Dry Port near Mojo railway station. Shortage of electrical power has been blamed for test failures. The railway finally began commercial operations on 1 January 2018.
Railway integration
The construction of the railway line was an EPC/Turnkey project. However, the accompanying infrastructure was neglected, and the railway was not ready to go into commercial operation at its commissioning.
Main issues |
1889_18 | The railway line was built without access roads, trunk lines, spur lines, branch lines, storage facilities, goods handling facilities or dry ports. It was official policy to build a "cheap railway line first", as the integration work was considered to be "easy and quick". Another official said that railway integration was too complex to consider at the planning stage, as many local authorities would have to coordinate their efforts. As one of the many consequences, most railway stations are far outside the city centers and even outside the towns and cities they are intended to serve. For example, the Dire Dawa train station is located 10 km away from Dire Dawa. Due to a lack of inter-country coordination, the Port of Doraleh in Djibouti, despite being the main cargo terminus for the railway, was not linked to the railway. No spur lines were built to the three different terminals in question, and the infrastructure for handling bulk goods and fuels was totally missing. |
1889_19 | After the inauguration of the Addis Ababa–Djibouti Railway at the end of 2016, the Ethiopian Railway Corporation (ERC) in Ethiopia found itself with debt equal to one-third of Ethiopia's annual state budget. As a result, there was no additional funding available to complete the surrounding infrastructure necessary to place the railway into commercial operation.
Measures to overcome the issues
State-owned companies other than the ERC stepped in to build and construct the needed infrastructure. Active in particular was the Ethiopian Shipping and Logistics Enterprise (ESL) to build spurs to facilities like dry ports and the dry ports as such. Construction of the Dire Dawa Dry Port with a spur line commenced in late 2017. However, it took 12 months just to negotiate the contract for the dry port construction and the construction works turned out to be much more expensive than originally expected. |
1889_20 | The construction of a spur line to Modjo Dry Port started in 2017 and was well underway in May 2017. The Modjo Dry Port railway loading and unloading facilities became partially operational at the end of 2017, but are (2018) still not completed.
The three missing railway facilities at the Port of Doraleh, connections and railway terminals (Djibouti Container Terminal (DCT), Doraleh Multipurpose Port (DMP) and the Horizon Oil Terminal (HDTL)) will "soon" be built through a combined effort of the two governments of Djibouti and Ethiopia. In the second half of 2017, construction works started at the Port of Doraleh near the DCT to link this container terminal with the railway. |
1889_21 | The Addis Ababa–Djibouti Railway project provided lessons for other railway projects in Ethiopia. The Awash–Hara Gebeya Railway and the Hara Gebeya–Mek'ele Railway construction projects were expanded to include supporting infrastructure. To make up for the current lack of railway revenues, new and existing railways could be partially outsourced or sold to private investors. To increase utilisation of the railways, any interested railway transportation service provider will be allowed to earn a license to use the existing railway infrastructure.
See also
Rail transport in Ethiopia
East African Railway Master Plan, railway network planned to be linked with this line.
Railway stations in Ethiopia
Further reading
References |
1889_22 | Djibouti–Ethiopia relations
Rail transport in Djibouti
Rail transport in Ethiopia
Railway lines in Djibouti
Railway lines in Ethiopia
Standard gauge railways in Africa
Transport in Addis Ababa
Transport in the Arab League
Railway lines opened in 2017
2017 establishments in Africa
International railway lines |
1890_0 | The Mexican professional wrestling promotion Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) has held a number of tournaments tag team or their "Trios" (three man teams) divisions over the years. Some of the tournaments were recurring, but have not been held in the last two to three years and others were one-off tournament held for a special event. Being professional wrestling tournaments, they are not won legitimately through competitive matches; instead they are won via predetermined outcomes to the matches that is generally kept secret from the general public.
Copa de Arena Mexico
CMLL held three tournaments under the name Copa de Arena Mexico, named after their main venue Arena Mexico, where all the tournaments also took place. The tournament was held in 1999, 2001 and 2002.
Copa de Arena Mexico winners
Copa de Arena Mexico 1999 |
1890_1 | The first Copa de Arena Mexico tournament was a one night, four team single-elimination tournament was held on December 10, 1999, and was also called Torneo Siglo XXI ("21st Century Tournament"). The tournament was won by "Los Guerreros del Infierno" (El Satánico, Rey Bucanero and Último Guerrero), a team name that Bucanero and Guerrero would later use when they split from El Satánico to form their own faction. The winners were given a trophy but no other tangible award was given as a result of the victory. The tournament included four teams who all teamed on a regular basis both before and after the tournament.
Tournament Participants
"Los Guapos": Bestia Salvaje, Scorpio Jr. and Shocker
"Los Guerreros del Infierno": El Satánico, Rey Bucanero and Último Guerrero (Tournament winners)
"Team Casas": Negro Casas, El Felino and Antifaz del Norte
"Team Emilio": Emilio Charles Jr., Mr. Niebla and Tarzan Boy
Tournament brackets
Copa de Arena Mexico 2001 |
1890_2 | The second Copa de Arena Mexico tournament was once again a one night single-elimination tournament, this time with eight teams instead of four. The tournament was held on December 28, 2001, and was won by "Team Shocker" (Black Warrior, Shocker, and Apolo Dantés). The winners were given a trophy but no other tangible award was given as a result of the victory. Some of the teams in the tournament worked together on a regular basis, others were created for the tournament.
Tournament Participants
Team Boricua: Gran Markus Jr., The Killer, Bestia Salvaje
Team Brazo: Brazo de Plata, Brazo de Oro and Brazo de Platino
Team Casas: Negro Casas, El Felino and La Fiera
Team Demon: Blue Demon Jr., Mr. Niebla and Starman
Team Guerreros del Infierno: Black Tiger, Rey Bucanero and Máscara Mágica
Team Infernal: El Satánico, Averno and Mephisto
Team Shocker: Shocker, Apolo Dantés and Black Warrior
Team Villano: Villano III, Villano IV and Villano V
Tournament brackets
Copa de Arena Mexico 2002 |
1890_3 | The third and last Copa de Arena Mexico tournament was a one night eight team single-elimination tournament, held on July 5, 2002, and was won by "Team Tall" (Black Warrior, Lizmark Jr., and Rayo de Jalisco Jr.). The win made Black Warrior the only wrestler to win the tournament more than once. The winners were given a trophy but no other tangible award was given as a result of the victory. Some of the teams in the tournament worked together on a regular basis, others were created for the tournament. Team Giant only consisted of two members, Giant Silva and Mr. Niebla, due to the size of Giant Silva CMLL counted him as two wrestlers for this tournament and most of the matches he participated in. |
1890_4 | Tournament Participants
Team Giant: Giganté Silva and Mr. Niebla
Team Infernal: El Satánico, Averno and Mephisto
Team Japan: Black Tiger, Masada and Nosawa
Team Mexico: Gran Markus Jr., Poder Mexica and Mr. Mexico
Team Shocker: Shocker, Máscara Mágica and Apolo Dantés
Team Taliban: Emilio Charles Jr., Scorpio Jr. and Bestia Salvaje
Team Tall: Rayo de Jalisco Jr., Black Warrior and Lizmark Jr.
Team Villano: Villano III, Villano IV and Villano V
Tournament brackets
Copa de Oro 1994 |
1890_5 | On October 26, 1993 Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) wrestler Oro died as a direct result of a match at Arena Coliseo. The following year, on September 25, 1994, CMLL held a tag team tournament in Arena Coliseo to commemorate the loss of the popular wrestler and honor his memory. The tournament winners were presented with a trophy by Oro II, the original Oro's brother who had taken the name out of respect. The tournament was an eight-team single elimination tournament won by Apolo Dantés and El Dandy.
Tournament participants
Apolo Dantés and El Dandy
Brazo de Oro and Brazo de Plata
Dr. Wagner Jr. and Gran Markus Jr.
Hayabusa and Último Dragón
Javier Cruz and Cachorro Mendoza
La Fiera and Ringo Mendoza
Negro Casas and Emilio Charles Jr.
Pierroth Jr. and El Satánico
Tournament brackets
Copa de Oro 1995 |
1890_6 | On October 26, 1993 Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) wrestler Oro died as a direct result of a match at Arena Coliseo. CMLL held Copa de Oro one year later in 1994 and followed it with a second Copa de Oro in 1995 on October 24. The tournament winners were presented with a trophy by Oro II, the original Oro's brother who had taken the name out of respect. The tournament was an eight-team single elimination tournament won by Chicago Express and Pierroth Jr.
Tournament participants
Américo Rocca and Javier Cruz
Bestia Salvaje and Sangre Chicana
Blue Demon Jr. and Silver King
Brazo de Oro and El Brazo
Chicago Express and Pierroth Jr.
Emilio Charles Jr. and El Felino
Gran Markus Jr. and Hijo del Gladiador
Máscara Mágica and Ringo Mendoza
Tournament brackets
CMLL Second Generation Tag Team Tournament |
1890_7 | Wrestling is a family tradition in Lucha libre, with a large number of second or even third-generation wrestlers following in the footsteps of their relatives. Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) held a tag team tournament on September 1, 1995, to pay homage to the wrestling families by holding a tournament for second or third-generation wrestlers. In a few cases the family relationship was not a blood relationship, but more of a storyline with the "Junior" wrestler either paying to use the name or being given the name by the "Senior". The winners got a trophy and no other tangible reward. The second-generation concept led to CMLL creating the La Copa Junior tournament in early 1996. The CMLL Second Generation Tag Team Tournament was won by the team of Apolo Dantés and Emilio Charles Jr. |
1890_8 | Tournament Participants
Apolo Dantés and Emilio Charles Jr.
Blue Demon Jr. and Tinieblas Jr.
Brazo de Oro and Brazo de Plata
Dr. Wagner Jr. and Gran Markus Jr.
El Hijo del Santo and Rayo de Jalisco Jr.
El Hijo del Solitario and El Solitario
Espectro Jr. and Pierroth Jr.
Karloff Lagarde Jr. and Scorpio Jr.
Family Relationship
Tournament brackets
Salvador Lutteroth Trios Tournament |
1890_9 | In 1995 Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) held a one-night single elimination Trios tournament dedicated to the memory of Salvador Lutteroth, the founder of CMLL. The tournament filled the entire Friday night CMLL Super Viernes show, preceding the 1996 Homenaje a Salvador Lutteroth show becoming the unofficial forerunner for the event that is now known as Homenaje a Dos Leyendas ("Homage to two Legends") that CMLL holds every spring. The tournament was won by the team of Bestia Salvaje, Emilio Charles Jr. and Sangre Chicana, who received a trophy, but no other obvious awards for winning the tournament. |
1890_10 | Tournament participants
Apolo Dantés, Atlantis and Rayo de Jalisco Jr.
Bestia Salvaje, Emilio Charles Jr. and Sangre Chicana
Los Brazos (Brazo de Oro, Brazo de Plata and El Brazo)
Damian el Guerrero, Guerrero del Futuro and Guerrero Maya
Dos Caras, El Dandy and Héctor Garza
La Ola Blanca (Dr. Wagner Jr., El Hijo del Gladiador and Gran Markus Jr.
Espectro Jr., Cadaver de Ultratumba and Kahoz
Los Infernales (El Satánico, Pirata Morgan and MS-1)
Tournament brackets |
1890_11 | Salvador Lutteroth Tag Tournament
In 1999 Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) held a one night, single elimination tournament on their annual Homenaje a Dos Leyendas: El Santo y Salvador Lutteroth show, which took place on March 20, 1999. The tournament was dedicated to the memory of Salvador Lutteroth, the founder of CMLL and followed both a singles tournament to honor Lutteroth the preceding year at the 1998 Homenaje a Salvador Lutteroth show and a Trios tournament. The tournament featured 8 teams in total, four teams of wrestlers whose careers peaked in the 1980s and early 1990s and four teams who were looking to make a name for themselves at the time. The last match saw the veterans Ringo Mendoza and Super Astro defeat the team of Mr. Niebla and Shocker to win the tournament and the trophy. |
1890_12 | Veteran teams
Kahoz and Scorpio Jr.
Ringo Mendoza and Super Astro
Los Missioneros del Muerte ("The Missionaries of Death"; El Signo and Negro Navarro)
Fisman and Villano III
Younger generation
Último Guerrero and Violencia
El Felino and Máscara Mágica
Olímpico and Tony Rivera
Mr. Niebla and Shocker.
Torneo Tanque Dantes |
1890_13 | In 2009 Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) held a tag team tournament for wrestlers who work in CMLL's Guadalajara, Jalisco Arena Coliseo and its associated wrestling training school. The tournament was named after Guadalajara native and wrestling pioneer Tanque (Tank) Alfonso Dantés. The teams were paired up specifically for the tournament and did not work together on a regular basis prior to it. The teams all competed in a round robin league format, earning points for victories (two) or draws (one). The tournament started on February 15, 2009, and ran until April 12 of that year, spanning five shows in Arena Coliseo. During the tournament wrestler Boomerang had to be replaced with Meteoro for one match and Mr. Trueno replaced Rey Trueno after just one match. The team of Palacio Negro and Samurai won the tournament with four victories, 1 loss and a total of 8 points.
Teams and final standings
Torneo Increibles de Parejas, Arena Puebla 2013 |
1890_14 | Days after completing the 2013 Torneo Nacional de Parejas Increibles that concluded at the 2013 Homenaje a Dos Leyendas, CMLL held a similar tournament in Arena Puebla, in Puebla, Puebla. The tournament consisted of two qualifying blocks that took place on March 18 and 25, with a final on April 1, 2013. The tournament is based on the Lucha Libre Parejas Increibles match type where two wrestlers of opposite allegiance, portraying either villains, referred to as "Rudos" in Lucha Libre wrestling terminology or fan favorites, or "tecnicos". At times some of the team members were part of a pre-existing scripted feuds or storylines with each other. The tournament was won by Atlantis and Volador Jr. as they defeated Shocker and Rey Bucanero in the finals after the team failed to get along.
Tournament Participants
Key |
1890_15 | Block A (March 18, 2013)
Ángel de Oro and Rey Escorpión
Atlantis and Volador Jr.
Blue Panther and Averno
Máscara Dorada and Puma
Rey Cometa and Okumura
La Sombra and Mr. Águila
Thunder and El Terrible
Valiente and Niebla Roja
Block B (March 25, 2013)
Diamante Azul and Psicosis
El Hijo del Fantasma and El Felino
La Máscara and Dragón Rojo Jr.
Máximo and Mephisto
Místico La Nueva Era and Último Guerrero
Brazo de Plata and Euforia
Shocker and Rey Bucanero
Stuka Jr. and Namajague
Tournament results |
1890_16 | Fantastica Mania tournaments
Fantastica Mania, is a series of annual professional wrestling major show co-promoted by Mexican professional wrestling promotion Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) and Japanese New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW). Fantastica Mania is a series of two to seven shows that have taken place in Japan, in January of each year since 2010. Starting in 2015 the Fantastica Mania tour has included a CMLL-wrestler only tournament each year, starting with a regular tag team tournament, followed by a tag team tournament featuring only brothers in 2018, while 2019 and 2020 featured tag team tournaments with teams made up of family members.
2015 Tag team tournament
Brackets
2018 Brothers tag team tournament
Brackets
2019 Family tag team tournament
Brackets
2020 Family tag team tournament
Brackets
Torneo de parejas familiares |
1890_17 | Torneo de parejas familiares (Spanish for "Family Tag Team Tournament") is aprofessional wrestling tournament, produced and scripted by the Mexican professional wrestling company Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL). The tag team]] tournament took place on February 24, 2020, at CMLL's regional Arena Puebla venue in Puebla, Puebla. The tournament involved eight teams of relatives, either brothers, fathers and sons or uncles and nephews.
Participants
Ángel de Oro and Niebla Roja brothers
El Cuatrero and Sansón brothers
Ephesto and Luciferno brothers
Euforia and Soberano Jr. father/son
El Felino and Negro Casas brothers
Gran Guerrero and Último Guerrero brothers
Máscara Año 2000 and Universo 2000 Jr. uncle/nephew
Rey Bucanero and Drone uncle/nephew
Brackets
Results
See also
List of CMLL singles wrestling tournaments
List of CMLL Mini-Estrellas tournaments
References |
1890_18 | 1993 in professional wrestling
1994 in professional wrestling
1995 in professional wrestling
1998 in professional wrestling
1999 in professional wrestling
2000 in professional wrestling
2001 in professional wrestling
2002 in professional wrestling
2009 in professional wrestling
2013 in professional wrestling
Lucha libre |
1891_0 | Mobile telephony is the provision of telephone services to phones which may move around freely rather than stay fixed in one location. Telephony is supposed to specifically point to a voice-only service or connection, though sometimes the line may blur.
Mobile phones connect to a terrestrial cellular network of base stations (cell sites), whereas satellite phones connect to orbiting satellites. Both networks are interconnected to the public switched telephone network (PSTN) to allow any phone in the world to be dialed.
In 2010 there were estimated to be five billion mobile cellular subscriptions in the world.
History
According to internal memos, American Telephone & Telegraph discussed developing a wireless phone in 1915, but were afraid that deployment of the technology could undermine its monopoly on wired service in the U.S. |
1891_1 | Public mobile phone systems were first introduced in the years after the Second World War and made use of technology developed before and during the conflict. The first system opened in St Louis, Missouri, USA in 1946 whilst other countries followed in the succeeding decades. The UK introduced its 'System 1' manual radiotelephone service as the South Lancashire Radiophone Service in 1958. Calls were made via an operator using handsets identical to ordinary phone handsets. The phone itself was a large box located in the boot (trunk) of the vehicle containing valves and other early electronic components. Although an uprated manual service ('System 3') was extended to cover most of the UK, automation did not arrive until 1981 with 'System 4'. Although this non-cellular service, based on German B-Netz technology, was expanded rapidly throughout the UK between 1982 and 1985 and continued in operation for several years before finally closing in Scotland, it was overtaken by the |
1891_2 | introduction in January 1985 of two cellular systems - the British Telecom/Securicor 'Cellnet' service and the Racal/Millicom/Barclays 'Vodafone' (from voice + data + phone) service. These cellular systems were based on US Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) technology, the modified technology being named Total Access Communication System (TACS). |
1891_3 | In 1947, Bell Labs was the first to propose a cellular radio telephone network. The primary innovation was the development of a network of small overlapping cell sites supported by a call switching infrastructure that tracks users as they move through a network and passes their calls from one site to another without dropping the connection. In 1956, the MTA system was launched in Sweden. The early efforts to develop mobile telephony faced two significant challenges: allowing a great number of callers to use the comparatively few available frequencies simultaneously and allowing users to seamlessly move from one area to another without having their calls dropped. Both problems were solved by Bell Labs employee Amos Joel who, in 1970 applied for a patent for a mobile communications system. However, a business consulting firm calculated the entire U.S. market for mobile telephones at 100,000 units and the entire worldwide market at no more than 200,000 units based on the ready |
1891_4 | availability of pay telephones and the high cost of constructing cell towers. As a consequence, Bell Labs concluded that the invention was "of little or no consequence," leading it not to attempt to commercialize the invention. The invention earned Joel induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2008. |
1891_5 | The development of metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) large-scale integration (LSI) technology, information theory and cellular networking led to the development of affordable mobile communications. The first call on a handheld mobile phone was made on April 3, 1973 by Martin Cooper, then of Motorola to his opposite number in Bell Labs who were also racing to be first. Bell Labs went on to install the first trial cellular network in Chicago in 1978. This trial system was licensed by the FCC to ATT for commercial use in 1982 and, as part of the divestiture arrangements for the breakup of ATT, the AMPS technology was distributed to local telcos. The first commercial system opened in Chicago in October 1983. A system designed by Motorola also operated in the Washington D.C./Baltimore area from summer 1982 and became a full public service later the following year. Japan's first commercial radiotelephony service was launched by NTT in 1979. |
1891_6 | The first fully automatic first generation cellular system was the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) system, simultaneously launched in 1981 in Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden. NMT was the first mobile phone network featuring international roaming. The Swedish electrical engineer Östen Mäkitalo started to work on this vision in 1966, and is considered as the father of the NMT system and some also consider him the father of the cellular phone. |
1891_7 | There was a rapid growth of wireless telecommunications towards the end of the 20th century, primarily due to the introduction of digital signal processing in wireless communications, driven by the development of low-cost, very large-scale integration (VLSI) RF CMOS (radio-frequency complementary MOS) technology. The advent of cellular technology encouraged European countries to co-operate in the development of a pan-European cellular technology to rival those of the US and Japan. This resulted in the GSM system, the initials originally from the Groupe Spécial Mobile that was charged with the specification and development tasks but latterly as the 'Global System for Mobile Communications'. The GSM standard eventually spread outside Europe and is now the most widely used cellular technology in the world and the de facto standard. The industry association, the GSMA, now represents 219 countries and nearly 800 mobile network operators. There are now estimated to be over 5 billion phone |
1891_8 | subscriptions according to the "List of countries by number of mobile phones in use" (although some users have multiple subscriptions, or inactive subscriptions), which also makes the mobile phone the most widely spread technology and the most common electronic device in the world. |
1891_9 | The first mobile phone to enable internet connectivity and wireless email, the Nokia Communicator, was released in 1996, creating a new category of multi-use devices called smartphones. In 1999 the first mobile internet service was launched by NTT DoCoMo in Japan under the i-Mode service. By 2007 over 798 million people around the world accessed the internet or equivalent mobile internet services such as WAP and i-Mode at least occasionally using a mobile phone rather than a personal computer.
Cellular systems |
1891_10 | Mobile phones receive and send radio signals with any number of cell site base stations fitted with microwave antennas. These sites are usually mounted on a tower, pole or building, located throughout populated areas, then connected to a cabled communication network and switching system. The phones have a low-power transceiver that transmits voice and data to the nearest cell sites, normally not more than 8 to 13 km (approximately 5 to 8 miles) away. In areas of low coverage, a cellular repeater may be used, which uses a long distance high-gain dish antenna or yagi antenna to communicate with a cell tower far outside of normal range, and a repeater to rebroadcast on a small short-range local antenna that allows any cellphone within a few meters to function properly. |
1891_11 | When the mobile phone or data device is turned on, it registers with the mobile telephone exchange, or switch, with its unique identifiers, and can then be alerted by the mobile switch when there is an incoming telephone call. The handset constantly listens for the strongest signal being received from the surrounding base stations, and is able to switch seamlessly between sites. As the user moves around the network, the "handoffs" are performed to allow the device to switch sites without interrupting the call.
Cell sites have relatively low-power (often only one or two watts) radio transmitters which broadcast their presence and relay communications between the mobile handsets and the switch. The switch in turn connects the call to another subscriber of the same wireless service provider or to the public telephone network, which includes the networks of other wireless carriers. Many of these sites are camouflaged to blend with existing environments, particularly in scenic areas. |
1891_12 | The dialogue between the handset and the cell site is a stream of digital data that includes digitised audio (except for the first generation analog networks). The technology that achieves this depends on the system which the mobile phone operator has adopted. The technologies are grouped by generation. The first-generation systems started in 1979 with Japan, are all analog and include AMPS and NMT. Second-generation systems, started in 1991 in Finland, are all digital and include GSM, CDMA and TDMA. |
1891_13 | The GSM standard is a European initiative expressed at the CEPT ("Conférence Européenne des Postes et Telecommunications", European Postal and Telecommunications conference). The Franco-German R&D cooperation demonstrated the technical feasibility, and in 1987 a Memorandum of Understanding was signed between 13 European countries who agreed to launch a commercial service by 1991. The first version of the GSM (=2G) standard had 6,000 pages. The IEEE/RSE awarded to Thomas Haug and Philippe Dupuis the 2018 James Clerk Maxwell medal for their contributions to the first digital mobile telephone standard. In 2018, the GSM was used by over 5 billion people in over 220 countries. The GSM (2G) has evolved into 3G, 4G and 5G. The standardisation body for GSM started at the CEPT Working Group GSM (Group Special Mobile) in 1982 under the umbrella of CEPT. In 1988, ETSI was established and all CEPT standardization activities were transferred to ETSI. Working Group GSM became Technical Committee |
1891_14 | GSM. In 1991, it became Technical Committee SMG (Special Mobile Group) when ETSI tasked the Committee with UMTS (3G). |
1891_15 | The nature of cellular technology renders many phones vulnerable to 'cloning': anytime a cell phone moves out of coverage (for example, in a road tunnel), when the signal is re-established, the phone sends out a 're-connect' signal to the nearest cell-tower, identifying itself and signalling that it is again ready to transmit. With the proper equipment, it's possible to intercept the re-connect signal and encode the data it contains into a 'blank' phone—in all respects, the 'blank' is then an exact duplicate of the real phone and any calls made on the 'clone' will be charged to the original account. This problem was widespread with the first generation analogue technology, however the modern digital standards such as GSM greatly improve security and make cloning hard to achieve. |
1891_16 | In an effort to limit the potential harm from having a transmitter close to the user's body, the first fixed/mobile cellular phones that had a separate transmitter, vehicle-mounted antenna, and handset (known as car phones and bag phones) were limited to a maximum 3 watts Effective Radiated Power. Modern handheld cellphones which must have the transmission antenna held inches from the user's skull are limited to a maximum transmission power of 0.6 watts ERP. Regardless of the potential biological effects, the reduced transmission range of modern handheld phones limits their usefulness in rural locations as compared to car/bag phones, and handhelds require that cell towers are spaced much closer together to compensate for their lack of transmission power.
Usage
By civilians |
1891_17 | An increasing number of countries, particularly in Europe, now have more mobile phones than people. According to the figures from Eurostat, the European Union's in-house statistical office, Luxembourg had the highest mobile phone penetration rate at 158 mobile subscriptions per 100 people, closely followed by Lithuania and Italy. In Hong Kong the penetration rate reached 139.8% of the population in July 2007. Over 50 countries have mobile phone subscription penetration rates higher than that of the population and the Western European average penetration rate was 110% in 2007 (source Informa 2007). |
1891_18 | There are over five hundred million active mobile phone accounts in China, as of 2007, but the total penetration rate there still stands below 50%. The total number of mobile phone subscribers in the world was estimated at 2.14 billion in 2005. The subscriber count reached 2.7 billion by end of 2006 according to Information, and 3.3 billion by November, 2007, thus reaching an equivalent of over half the planet's population. Around 80% of the world's population has access to mobile phone coverage, as of 2006. This figure is expected to increase to 90% by the year 2010. |
1891_19 | In some developing countries with little "landline" telephone infrastructure, mobile phone use has quadrupled in the last decade. The rise of mobile phone technology in developing countries is often cited as an example of the leapfrog effect. Many remote regions in the third world went from having no telecommunications infrastructure to having satellite based communications systems. At present, Africa has the largest growth rate of cellular subscribers in the world, its markets expanding nearly twice as fast as Asian markets.
The availability of prepaid or 'pay-as-you-go' services, where the subscriber is not committed to a long term contract, has helped fuel this growth in Africa as well as in other continents.
On a numerical basis, India is the largest growth market, adding about 6 million mobile phones every month. It currently has a mobile subscriber base of 937.06 million mobile phones.
Traffic |
1891_20 | Since the world is operating quickly to 3G and 4G networks, mobile traffic through video is heading high. It is expected that by end of 2018, the global traffic will reach an annual rate of 190 exabytes/year. This is the result of people shifting to smartphones.
It is predicted by 2018, mobile traffic will reach by 10 billion connections with 94% traffic comes from Smartphones, laptops and tablets. Also 69% of mobile traffic from Videos since we have high definition screens available in smart phones and 176.9 wearable devices to be at use. Apparently, 4G will be dominating the traffic by 51% of total mobile data by 2018.
By government agencies
Law enforcement |
1891_21 | Law enforcement have used mobile phone evidence in a number of different ways. Evidence about the physical location of an individual at a given time can be obtained by triangulating the individual's cellphone between several cellphone towers. This triangulation technique can be used to show that an individual's cellphone was at a certain location at a certain time. The concerns over terrorism and terrorist use of technology prompted an inquiry by the British House of Commons Home Affairs Select Committee into the use of evidence from mobile phone devices, prompting leading mobile telephone forensic specialists to identify forensic techniques available in this area. NIST have published guidelines and procedures for the preservation, acquisition, examination, analysis, and reporting of digital information present on mobile phones can be found under the NIST Publication SP800-101. |
1891_22 | In the UK in 2000 it was claimed that recordings of mobile phone conversations made on the day of the Omagh bombing were crucial to the police investigation. In particular, calls made on two mobile phones which were tracked from south of the Irish border to Omagh and back on the day of the bombing, were considered of vital importance.
Further example of criminal investigations using mobile phones is the initial location and ultimate identification of the terrorists of the 2004 Madrid train bombings. In the attacks, mobile phones had been used to detonate the bombs. However, one of the bombs failed to detonate, and the SIM card in the corresponding mobile phone gave the first serious lead about the terrorists to investigators. By tracking the whereabouts of the SIM card and correlating other mobile phones that had been registered in those areas, police were able to locate the terrorists.
Disaster response |
1891_23 | The Finnish government decided in 2005 that the fastest way to warn citizens of disasters was the mobile phone network. In Japan, mobile phone companies provide immediate notification of earthquakes and other natural disasters to their customers free of charge. In the event of an emergency, disaster response crews can locate trapped or injured people using the signals from their mobile phones. An interactive menu accessible through the phone's Internet browser notifies the company if the user is safe or in distress. In Finland rescue services suggest hikers carry mobile phones in case of emergency even when deep in the forests beyond cellular coverage, as the radio signal of a cellphone attempting to connect to a base station can be detected by overflying rescue aircraft with special detection gear. Also, users in the United States can sign up through their provider for free text messages when an AMBER Alert goes out for a missing person in their area. |
1891_24 | However, most mobile phone networks operate close to capacity during normal times, and spikes in call volumes caused by widespread emergencies often overload the system just when it is needed the most. Examples reported in the media where this has occurred include the September 11, 2001 attacks, the 2003 Northeast blackouts, the 2005 London Tube bombings, Hurricane Katrina, the 2006 Kiholo Bay earthquake, and the 2007 Minnesota bridge collapse.
Under FCC regulations, all mobile telephones must be capable of dialing emergency telephone numbers, regardless of the presence of a SIM card or the payment status of the account.
Impact on society
Human health |
1891_25 | Since the introduction of mobile phones, concerns (both scientific and public) have been raised about the potential health impacts from regular use. But by 2008, American mobile phones transmitted and received more text messages than phone calls. Numerous studies have reported no significant relationship between mobile phone use and health, but the effect of mobile phone usage on health continues to be an area of public concern.
For example, at the request of some of their customers, Verizon created usage controls that meter service and can switch phones off, so that children could get some sleep. There have also been attempts to limit use by persons operating moving trains or automobiles, coaches when writing to potential players on their teams, and movie theater audiences. By one measure, nearly 40% of automobile drivers aged 16 to 30 years old text while driving, and by another, 40% of teenagers said they could text blindfolded. |
1891_26 | 18 studies have been conducted on the link between cell phones and brain cancer; A review of these studies found that cell phone use of 10 years or more "give a consistent pattern of an increased risk for acoustic neuroma and glioma". The tumors are found mostly on the side of the head that the mobile phone is in contact with. In July 2008, Dr. Ronald Herberman, director of the University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, warned about the radiation from mobile phones. He stated that there was no definitive proof of the link between mobile phones and brain tumors but there was enough studies that mobile phone usage should be reduced as a precaution. To reduce the amount of radiation being absorbed hands free devices can be used or texting could supplement calls. Calls could also be shortened or limit mobile phone usage in rural areas. Radiation is found to be higher in areas that are located away from mobile phone towers. |
1891_27 | According to Reuters, The British Association of Dermatologists is warning of a rash occurring on people's ears or cheeks caused by an allergic reaction from the nickel surface commonly found on mobile devices’ exteriors. There is also a theory it could even occur on the fingers if someone spends a lot of time text messaging on metal menu buttons. In 2008, Lionel Bercovitch of Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island, and his colleagues tested 22 popular handsets from eight different manufacturers and found nickel on 10 of the devices.
Human behaviour
Culture and customs
Between the 1980s and the 2000s, the mobile phone has gone from being an expensive item used by the business elite to a pervasive, personal communications tool for the general population. In most countries, mobile phones outnumber land-line phones, with fixed landlines numbering 1.3 billion but mobile subscriptions 3.3 billion at the end of 2007. |
1891_28 | In many markets from Japan and South Korea, to Europe, to Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong, most children age 8-9 have mobile phones and the new accounts are now opened for customers aged 6 and 7. Where mostly parents tend to give hand-me-down used phones to their youngest children, in Japan already new cameraphones are on the market whose target age group is under 10 years of age, introduced by KDDI in February 2007. The USA also lags on this measure, as in the US so far, about half of all children have mobile phones. In many young adults' households it has supplanted the land-line phone. Mobile phone usage is banned in some countries, such as North Korea and restricted in some other countries such as Burma. |
1891_29 | Given the high levels of societal mobile phone service penetration, it is a key means for people to communicate with each other. The SMS feature spawned the "texting" sub-culture amongst younger users. In December 1993, the first person-to-person SMS text message was transmitted in Finland. Currently, texting is the most widely used data service; 1.8 billion users generated $80 billion of revenue in 2006 (source ITU). Many phones offer Instant Messenger services for simple, easy texting. Mobile phones have Internet service (e.g. NTT DoCoMo's i-mode), offering text messaging via e-mail in Japan, South Korea, China, and India. Most mobile internet access is much different from computer access, featuring alerts, weather data, e-mail, search engines, instant messages, and game and music downloading; most mobile internet access is hurried and short. |
1891_30 | Because mobile phones are often used publicly, social norms have been shown to play a major role in the usage of mobile phones. Furthermore, the mobile phone can be a fashion totem custom-decorated to reflect the owner's personality and may be a part of their self-identity. This aspect of the mobile telephony business is, in itself, an industry, e.g. ringtone sales amounted to $3.5 billion in 2005. |
1891_31 | Mobile phone use on aircraft is starting to be allowed with several airlines already offering the ability to use phones during flights. Mobile phone use during flights used to be prohibited and many airlines still claim in their in-plane announcements that this prohibition is due to possible interference with aircraft radio communications. Shut-off mobile phones do not interfere with aircraft avionics. The recommendation why phones should not be used during take-off and landing, even on planes that allow calls or messaging, is so that passengers pay attention to the crew for any possible accident situations, as most aircraft accidents happen on take-off and landing. |
1891_32 | Etiquette
Mobile phone use can be an important matter of social discourtesy: phones ringing during funerals or weddings; in toilets, cinemas and theatres. Some book shops, libraries, bathrooms, cinemas, doctors' offices and places of worship prohibit their use, so that other patrons will not be disturbed by conversations. Some facilities install signal-jamming equipment to prevent their use, although in many countries, including the US, such equipment is illegal.
Many US cities with subway transit systems underground are studying or have implemented mobile phone reception in their tunnels for their riders, and trains, particularly those involving long-distance services, often offer a "quiet carriage" where phone use is prohibited, much like the designated non-smoking carriage of the past. Most schools in the United States and Europe and Canada have prohibited mobile phones in the classroom, or in school in an effort to limit class disruptions. |
1891_33 | A working group made up of Finnish telephone companies, public transport operators and communications authorities has launched a campaign to remind mobile phone users of courtesy, especially when using mass transit—what to talk about on the phone, and how to. In particular, the campaign wants to impact loud mobile phone usage as well as calls regarding sensitive matters.
Use by drivers |
1891_34 | The use of mobile phones by people who are driving has become increasingly common, for example as part of their job, as in the case of delivery drivers who are calling a client, or socially as for commuters who are chatting with a friend. While many drivers have embraced the convenience of using their cellphone while driving, some jurisdictions have made the practice against the law, such as Australia, the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland and Labrador as well as the United Kingdom, consisting of a zero-tolerance system operated in Scotland and a warning system operated in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Officials from these jurisdictions argue that using a mobile phone while driving is an impediment to vehicle operation that can increase the risk of road traffic accidents. |
1891_35 | Studies have found vastly different relative risks (RR). Two separate studies using case-crossover analysis each calculated RR at 4, while an epidemiological cohort study found RR, when adjusted for crash-risk exposure, of 1.11 for men and 1.21 for women.
A simulation study from the University of Utah Professor David Strayer compared drivers with a blood alcohol content of 0.08% to those conversing on a cell phone, and after controlling for driving difficulty and time on task, the study concluded that cell phone drivers exhibited greater impairment than intoxicated drivers. Meta-analysis by The Canadian Automobile Association and The University of Illinois found that response time while using both hands-free and hand-held phones was approximately 0.5 standard deviations higher than normal driving (i.e., an average driver, while talking on a cell phone, has response times of a driver in roughly the 40th percentile). |
1891_36 | Driving while using a hands-free device is not safer than driving while using a hand-held phone, as concluded by case-crossover studies. epidemiological studies, simulation studies, and meta-analysis. Even with this information, California initiated new Wireless Communications Device Law (effective January 1, 2009) makes it an infraction to write, send, or read text-based communication on an electronic wireless communications device, such as a cell phone, while driving a motor vehicle. Two additional laws dealing with the use of wireless telephones while driving went into effect July 1, 2008. The first law prohibits all drivers from using a handheld wireless telephone while operating a motor vehicle. The law allows a driver to use a wireless telephone to make emergency calls to a law enforcement agency, a medical provider, the fire department, or other emergency services agency. The base fine for the FIRST offense is $20 and $50 for subsequent convictions. With penalty assessments, |
1891_37 | the fine can be more than triple the base fine amount. videos about California cellular phone laws; with captions (California Vehicle Code [VC] §23123). Motorists 18 and over may use a “hands-free device. The second law effective July 1, 2008, prohibits drivers under the age of 18 from using a wireless telephone or hands-free device while operating a motor vehicle (VC §23124)The consistency of increased crash risk between hands-free and hand-held phone use is at odds with legislation in over 30 countries that prohibit hand-held phone use but allow hands-free. Scientific literature is mixed on the dangers of talking on a phone versus those of talking with a passenger, with the Accident Research Unit at the University of Nottingham finding that the number of utterances was usually higher for mobile calls when compared to blindfolded and non-blindfolded passengers, but the University of Illinois meta-analysis concluding that passenger conversations were just as costly to driving |
1891_38 | performance as cell phone ones. |
1891_39 | Use on aircraft
As of 2007, several airlines are experimenting with base station and antenna systems installed on the airplane, allowing low power, short-range connection of any phones aboard to remain connected to the aircraft's base station. Thus, they would not attempt connection to the ground base stations as during take off and landing. Simultaneously, airlines may offer phone services to their travelling passengers either as full voice and data services, or initially only as SMS text messaging and similar services. The Australian airline Qantas is the first airline to run a test aeroplane in this configuration in the autumn of 2007. Emirates has announced plans to allow limited mobile phone usage on some flights. However, in the past, commercial airlines have prevented the use of cell phones and laptops, due to the assertion that the frequencies emitted from these devices may disturb the radio waves contact of the airplane. |
1891_40 | On March 20, 2008, an Emirates flight was the first time voice calls have been allowed in-flight on commercial airline flights. The breakthrough came after the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and the United Arab Emirates-based General Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA) granted full approval for the AeroMobile system to be used on Emirates. Passengers were able to make and receive voice calls as well as use text messaging. The system automatically came into operation as the Airbus A340-300 reached cruise altitude. Passengers wanting to use the service received a text message welcoming them to the AeroMobile system when they first switched their phones on. The approval by EASA has established that GSM phones are safe to use on airplanes, as the AeroMobile system does not require the modification of aircraft components deemed "sensitive," nor does it require the use of modified phones. |
1891_41 | In any case, there are inconsistencies between practices allowed by different airlines and even on the same airline in different countries. For example, Delta Air Lines may allow the use of mobile phones immediately after landing on a domestic flight within the US, whereas they may state "not until the doors are open" on an international flight arriving in the Netherlands. In April 2007 the US Federal Communications Commission officially prohibited passengers' use of cell phones during a flight.
In a similar vein, signs are put up in many countries, such as Canada, the UK and the U.S., at petrol stations prohibiting the use of mobile phones, due to possible safety issues. However, it is unlikely that mobile phone use can cause any problems, and in fact "petrol station employees have themselves spread the rumour about alleged incidents."
Environmental impacts |
1891_42 | Like all high structures, cellular antenna masts pose a hazard to low flying aircraft. Towers over a certain height or towers that are close to airports or heliports are normally required to have warning lights. There have been reports that warning lights on cellular masts, TV-towers and other high structures can attract and confuse birds. US authorities estimate that millions of birds are killed near communication towers in the country each year.
Some cellular antenna towers have been camouflaged to make them less obvious on the horizon, and make them look more like a tree. |
1891_43 | An example of the way mobile phones and mobile networks have sometimes been perceived as a threat is the widely reported and later discredited claim that mobile phone masts are associated with the Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) which has reduced bee hive numbers by up to 75% in many areas, especially near cities in the US. The Independent newspaper cited a scientific study claiming it provided evidence for the theory that mobile phone masts are a major cause in the collapse of bee populations, with controlled experiments demonstrating a rapid and catastrophic effect on individual hives near masts.
Mobile phones were in fact not covered in the study, and the original researchers have since emphatically disavowed any connection between their research, mobile phones, and CCD, specifically indicating that the Independent article had misinterpreted their results and created "a horror story". |
1891_44 | While the initial claim of damage to bees was widely reported, the corrections to the story were almost non-existent in the media. |
1891_45 | There are more than 500 million used mobile phones in the US sitting on shelves or in landfills, and it is estimated that over 125 million will be discarded this year alone. The problem is growing at a rate of more than two million phones per week, putting tons of toxic waste into landfills daily. Several companies offer to buy back and recycle mobile phones from users. In the United States many unwanted but working mobile phones are donated to women's shelters to allow emergency communication.
Tariff models
Payment methods |
1891_46 | There are two principal ways to pay for mobile telephony: the 'pay-as-you-go' model where conversation time is purchased and added to a phone unit via an Internet account or in shops or ATMs, or the contract model where bills are paid by regular intervals after the service has been consumed. It is increasingly common for a consumer to purchase a basic package and then bolt-on services and functionality to create a subscription customised to the users needs.
Pay as you go (also known as "pre-pay" or "prepaid") accounts were invented simultaneously in Portugal and Italy and today form more than half of all mobile phone subscriptions. USA, Canada, Costa Rica, Japan, Israel and Finland are among the rare countries left where most phones are still contract-based.
Incoming call charges |
1891_47 | In the early days of mobile telephony, the operators (carriers) charged for all air time consumed by the mobile phone user, which included both outbound and inbound telephone calls. As mobile phone adoption rates increased, competition between operators meant that some decided not to charge for incoming calls in some markets (also called "calling party pays").
The European market adopted a calling party pays model throughout the GSM environment and soon various other GSM markets also started to emulate this model.
In Hong Kong, Singapore, Canada, and the United States, it is common for the party receiving the call to be charged per minute, although a few carriers are beginning to offer unlimited received phone calls. This is called the "Receiving Party Pays" model. In China, it was reported that both of its two operators will adopt the caller-pays approach as early as January 2007. |
1891_48 | One disadvantage of the receiving party pays systems is that phone owners keep their phones turned off to avoid receiving unwanted calls, which results in the total voice usage rates (and profits) in Calling Party Pays countries outperform those in Receiving Party Pays countries. To avoid the problem of users keeping their phone turned off, most Receiving Party Pays countries have either switched to Calling Party Pays, or their carriers offer additional incentives such as a large number of monthly minutes at a sufficiently discounted rate to compensate for the inconvenience.
Note that when a user roaming in another country, international roaming tariffs apply to all calls received, regardless of the model adopted in the home country.
Technologies used
The list below is a non-comprehensive attempt at listing the technologies used in mobile telephony:
0G (mobile radio telephone)
1G networks (analog networks) |
1891_49 | 2G networks (the first digital networks):
GSM
Digital AMPS
cdmaOne
GPRS
EDGE(IMT-SC)
Evolved EDGE
3G networks:
UMTS
W-CDMA (air interface)
TD-CDMA (air interface)
TD-SCDMA (air interface)
HSPA
HSDPA
HSPA+
CDMA2000
OFDMA (air interface)
EVDO
SVDO
4G networks:
LTE (TD-LTE)
LTE Advanced
LTE Advanced Pro
WiMAX
WiMAX-Advanced (WirelessMAN-Advanced)
Ultra Mobile Broadband (never commercialized)
5G networks:
5G NR
Starting with EVDO the following techniques can also be used to improve performance:
MIMO, SDMA and Beamforming
See also
Cellular network
Mobile Internet
Mobile phone
OpenBTS
References |
1891_50 | Further reading
Chen, Adrian, "The Confidence Game: How Silicon Valley broke the economy", The Nation, vol. 309, no. 11 (4 November 2019), pp. 27–30. The multifarious abuses perpetrated by individuals, organizations, corporations, and governments, using the Internet and mobile telephony, prompt Adrian Chen to muse whether "a technical complex born... of Cold War militarism and mainstreamed in a free-market frenzy might not be fundamentally always at odds with human flourishing." (p. 30.)
American inventions |
1892_0 | Seven Jewish Children: A Play for Gaza is a six-page, 10-minute play by British playwright Caryl Churchill, written in response to the 2008-2009 Israel military strike on Gaza, and first performed at London's Royal Court Theatre on 6 February 2009. Churchill, a patron of the Palestine Solidarity Campaign, has said that anyone wishing to produce it may do so gratis, so long as they hold a collection for the people of Gaza at the end.
The play, which does not include the words "Israel" or "Zionist" but does reference "Jews" in several places, consists of seven scenes spread over roughly seventy years, in which Jewish adults discuss what, or whether, their children should be told about certain events in recent Jewish history that the play alludes to only indirectly. |
1892_1 | The play has been widely criticized as antisemitic. The Board of Deputies of British Jews has criticized it as "horrifically anti-Israel", and "beyond the boundaries of reasonable political discourse", and Jeffrey Goldberg of The Atlantic called the play a blood libel, "the mainstreaming of the worst anti-Jewish stereotypes,", while playwright Tony Kushner and academic Alisa Solomon, both Jewish-American critics of Israeli policy, argue in The Nation that the play is dense, beautiful and elusive, and that "[a]ny play about the crisis in the Middle East that doesn't arouse anger and distress has missed the point." |
1892_2 | Description
The play takes the form of a litany, repeating the phrases "Tell her", "Don't tell her" to reflect an ostensible tension within Israel and the Jewish community over how to describe events in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict: "Tell her for miles and miles all round they have lands of their own/Tell her again this is our promised land/Don't tell her they said it was a land without people/Don't tell her I wouldn't have come if I'd known/Tell her maybe we can share/Don't tell her that." Churchill has been particularly criticized for a monologue within the play purportedly representing a hardline Israeli view: "tell her I look at one of their children covered in blood and what do I feel? tell her all I feel is happy it's not her/Don't tell her that." |
1892_3 | The play is based around the increasingly urgent repetition of "Tell her," and "Don't tell her". Occasionally breaking into this pattern is the injunction "don't frighten her", three significant words that are also the last in the play.
These motifs can be seen in the opening lines of the play:
Tell her it’s a game
Tell her it’s serious
But don’t frighten her
Don’t tell her they’ll kill her
Although Churchill indicates that the scenes concern different children, thus speakers change between them, she leaves it for each production to decide how many adults take part and how the lines are shared between them. The Guardian, for example, has produced a version with Jennie Stoller that is a simple monologue throughout. |
1892_4 | The first two scenes concern the Holocaust, featuring one family that are hiding from Nazis and another wondering how to tell their child of the many family members who have been killed. Later scenes are about episodes in the development of the Israeli–Arab conflict: one family is migrating to Jerusalem, another wondering what to tell their daughter about Palestinian Arabs, the next discusses an Israeli victory, and the next are speaking as the Israeli West Bank barrier is being built and when a Palestinian child has been shot. The culminating scene is during the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict. |
1892_5 | Mission
Churchill has said she sees the play as a political event. Anyone wishing to produce it may do so for free so long as they take a collection for the people of Gaza after the performance, with proceeds to be sent to Medical Aid for Palestinians, a British medical aid and political advocacy organization. She has made the script of the play available as a downloadable PDF on the website of the Royal Court Theatre. A one-woman video performance of the play is also available online from The Guardians website.Brown, Mark, Churchill's Children: Guardian reading for Caryl Churchill's Gaza play, The Guardian, 25 April 2009
Reception |
1892_6 | Praise
The Guardian theatre critic Michael Billington awarded the play four of five stars and wrote that the play captures his belief that "security has become the pretext for indiscriminate slaughter." "Mr. Billington’s sympathetic review describes the context of the cryptic play and points to some of the lines from the script that have disturbed readers like Mr. Goldberg." The Times'''s Dominic Maxwell also awarded the play four of five stars and praised it for an "impassioned response to the events in Gaza that is elliptical, empathetic and illuminating." In Saudi Arabian Saudi Gazette, London-based freelance journalist Susannah Tarbush wrote that the play "succinctly dramatizes the tragedies and ironies of history for both sides" and builds to what she calls "a devastating final scene set during the Gaza onslaught". |
1892_7 | Noting the comments by the Board of Deputies, in The Nation, award-winning dramatist and essayist Tony Kushner and academic journalist and critic Alisa Solomon, both Jewish American critics of modern Israeli politics, wrote:
"We emphatically disagree. We think Churchill's play should be seen and discussed as widely as possible... To see anti-Semitism here is to construe erroneously the words spoken by the worst of Churchill's characters as a statement from the playwright about all Jews as preternaturally filled with a viciousness unique among humankind. But to do this is, again, to distort what Churchill wrote."
Charlotte Higgins, The Guardians chief arts writer, defended the work by writing:
The play did not strike me as antisemitic.... I cleave strongly to the view that it is possible to be critical of Israel without being antisemitic, and I do not believe that Churchill is making or otherwise implying universal claims about the Jewish people in this play. |
1892_8 | Criticism |
1892_9 | Christopher Hart of The Sunday Times, condemning the play for its "straitjacketed political orthodoxy," criticized Churchill's "ludicrous and utterly predictable lack of even-handedness," typical, he said, of the "enclosed, fetid, smug, self-congratulating and entirely irrelevant little world of contemporary political theatre." Theatre critic Jan Dalley of the Financial Times described the play as "agitprop" harking back to long-discredited revolutionary ideas, similar to Bret Stephens's criticism in The Wall Street Journal. and Susannah Clapp's criticism in The Observer. Jeffrey Goldberg of The Atlantic also calls the play a blood libel and said it was "the mainstreaming of the worst anti-Jewish stereotypes -- for instance, that Jews glory in the shedding of non-Jewish blood -- is upon us". Columnist Melanie Phillips wrote that the play is "An open vilification of the Jewish people... drawing upon an atavistic hatred of the Jews" and called it an "open incitement to hatred". Patrick |
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