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The following are health and medical definitions of terms that appear in the lubiprostone, Amitiza article.
Abdominal: Relating to the abdomen, the belly, that part of the body that contains all of the structures between the chest and the pelvis. The abdomen is separated anatomically from the chest by the diaphragm, the powerful muscle spanning the body cavity below the lungs.
Abdominal pain: Pain in the belly. Abdominal pain can be acute or chronic. It may reflect a major problem with one of the organs in the abdomen, such as appendicitis or a perforated intestine, or it may result from a fairly minor problem, such as excess buildup of intestinal gas.
Bowel: The small and large intestine.
Chronic: In medicine, lasting a long time. A chronic condition is one that lasts 3 months or more. Chronic diseases are in contrast to those that are acute (abrupt, sharp, and brief) or subacute (within the interval between acute and chronic).
Colon: The long, coiled, tubelike organ that removes water from digested food. The remaining material, solid waste called stool, moves through the colon to the rectum and leaves the body through the anus. Also known as large bowel and large intestine.
Constipation: Infrequent and frequently incomplete bowel movements. Constipation is the opposite of diarrhea and is commonly caused by irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), diverticulosis, and medications. Paradoxically, constipation can also be caused by overuse of laxatives. Colon cancer can also narrow the colon and thereby cause constipation. A high-fiber diet can frequently relieve constipation. If the diet is not helpful, medical evaluation is warranted.
Diarrhea: A common condition that involves unusually frequent and liquid bowel movements. The opposite of constipation. There are many infectious and noninfectious causes of diarrhea. Persistent diarrhea is both uncomfortable and dangerous to the health because it can indicate an underlying infection and may mean that the body is not able to absorb some nutrients due to a problem in the bowels. Treatment includes drinking plenty of fluids to prevent dehydration and taking over-the-counter remedies. People with diarrhea that persists for more than a couple days, particularly small children or elderly people, should seek medical attention.
FDA: Food and Drug Administration.
Fecal: Relating to the feces, the stool. The excrement discharged from the intestines.
Flatulence: Excess gas in the intestinal tract. But excess flatulence is difficult to define without a yardstick to measure the "normal" frequency of gas passages. Symptom-free individuals have recorded approximately 14 passages of gas per 24 hours. From the Latin flastus, meaning blowing, as a breeze or snort.
Generic: 1. The chemical name of a drug. 2. A term referring to the chemical makeup of a drug rather than to the advertised brand name under which the drug may be sold. 3.A term referring to any drug marketed under its chemical name without advertising.
Headache: A pain in the head with the pain being above the eyes or the ears, behind the head (occipital), or in the back of the upper neck. Headache, like chest pain or back ache, has many causes.
Idiopathic: Of unknown cause. Any disease that is of uncertain or unknown origin may be termed idiopathic. For example, acute idiopathic polyneuritis, diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, idiopathic scoliosis, etc.
Incontinence: The inability to control excretions, to hold urine in the bladder, or to keep feces in the rectum.
Nausea: Stomach queasiness, the urge to vomit. Nausea can be brought on by many causes, including systemic illnesses (such as influenza), medications, pain, and inner ear disease.
Nursing: 1) Profession concerned with the provision of services essential to the maintenance and restoration of health by attending the needs of sick persons. 2) Feeding a infant at the breast.
Pain: An unpleasant sensation that can range from mild, localized discomfort to agony. Pain has both physical and emotional components. The physical part of pain results from nerve stimulation. Pain may be contained to a discrete area, as in an injury, or it can be more diffuse, as in disorders like fibromyalgia. Pain is mediated by specific nerve fibers that carry the pain impulses to the brain where their conscious appreciation may be modified by many factors.
Pregnancy: The state of carrying a developing embryo or fetus within the female body. This condition can be indicated by positive results on an over-the-counter urine test, and confirmed through a blood test, ultrasound, detection of fetal heartbeat, or an X-ray. Pregnancy lasts for about nine months, measured from the date of the woman's last menstrual period (LMP). It is conventionally divided into three trimesters, each roughly three months long.
Pregnant: The state of carrying a developing fetus within the body.
Prescription: A physician's order for the preparation and administration of a drug or device for a patient. A prescription has several parts. They include the superscription or heading with the symbol "R" or "Rx", which stands for the word recipe (meaning, in Latin, to take); the inscription, which contains the names and quantities of the ingredients; the subscription or directions for compounding the drug; and the signature which is often preceded by the sign "s" standing for signa (Latin for mark), giving the directions to be marked on the container.
Rash: Breaking out (eruption) of the skin. A rash can be caused by an underlying medical condition, hormonal cycles, allergies, or contact with irritating substances. Treatment depends on the underlying cause of the rash. Medically, a rash is referred to as an exanthem.
Shortness of breath: Difficulty in breathing. Medically referred to as dyspnea. Shortness of breath can be caused by respiratory (breathing passages and lungs) or circulatory (heart and blood vessels) conditions. See also dyspnea.
Stool: The solid matter that is discharged in a bowel movement.
Syndrome: A combination of symptoms and signs that together represent a disease process.
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Essentially contested concept
In a paper delivered to the Aristotelian Society on 12 March 1956, Walter Bryce Gallie (1912â1998) introduced the term essentially contested concept to facilitate an understanding of the different applications or interpretations of the sorts of abstract, qualitative, and evaluative notions â such as "art" and "social justice" â used in the domains of aesthetics, political philosophy, philosophy of history, and philosophy of religion.
Garver (1978) describes their use as follows:
- The term essentially contested concepts gives a name to a problematic situation that many people recognize: that in certain kinds of talk there is a variety of meanings employed for key terms in an argument, and there is a feeling that dogmatism (âMy answer is right and all others are wrongâ), skepticism (âAll answers are equally true (or false); everyone has a right to his own truthâ), and eclecticism (âEach meaning gives a partial view so the more meanings the betterâ) are none of them the appropriate attitude towards that variety of meanings.
Essentially contested concepts involve widespread agreement on a concept (e.g., "fairness"), but not on the best realization thereof.
They are "concepts the proper use of which inevitably involves endless disputes about their proper uses on the part of their users", and these disputes "cannot be settled by appeal to empirical evidence, linguistic usage, or the canons of logic alone".
Identifying the presence of a dispute
Although Gallieâs term is widely used to denote imprecise use of technical terminology, it has a far more specific application. And, although the notion could be misleadingly and evasively used to justify "agreeing to disagree", the term offers something more valuable:
- Since its introduction by W.B. Gallie in 1956, the expression "essentially contested concept" has been treated both as a challenge and as an excuse by social theorists. It has been treated as a challenge in that theorists consider their uses of terms and concepts to be in competition with the uses advocated by other theorists, each theorist trying to be deemed the champion. It has been treated as an excuse that, rather than acknowledge that the failure to reach agreement is due to such factors as imprecision, ignorance, or belligerence, instead theorists point to the terms and concepts under dispute and insist that they are always open to contest â that they are terms and concepts about which we can never expect to reach agreement.
The disputes that attend an essentially contested concept are driven by substantive disagreements over a range of different, entirely reasonable (although, perhaps, mistaken) interpretations of a mutually-agreed-upon archetypical notion, such as the legal precept "treat like cases alike; and treat different cases differently", with "each party [continuing] to defend its case with what it claims to be convincing arguments, evidence and other forms of justification").
Gallie speaks of how "This picture is painted in oils" can be successfully contested if the work is actually painted in tempera; while "This picture is a work of art" may meet strong opposition due to disputes over what "work of art" denotes. He suggests three avenues whereby one might resolve such disputes:
- 1. Discovering a new meaning of "work of art" to which all disputants could thenceforward agree.
- 2. Convincing all the disputants to conform to one meaning.
- 3. Declaring "work of art" to be a number of different concepts employing the same name.
- Has the term been incorrectly used, as in the case of mistakenly using decimated for devastated (catachresis)?
- Do two or more different concepts share the same word, as in the case of ear, bank, sound, corn, scale, etc. (homonymy)?
- Is there a genuine dispute about the term's correct application that, in fact, can be resolved?
- Or, is it really the case that the term is an essentially contested concept?
Contested versus contestable?
Clarke has made a valuable contribution to the overall debate by suggesting that, in order to determine whether a particular dispute was a consequence of true polysemy or inadvertent homonymy, one should seek to "locate the source of the dispute".
This source might be "within the concept itself", or "[within] some underlying non-conceptual disagreement between the contestants".
Clarke then drew attention to the substantial differences between the expressions "essentially contested" and "essentially contestable", that were being extensively used within the literature as though they were interchangeable.
Clarke argued that to state that a concept is merely contested, "is to attribute significance to the contest rather than to the concept". Yet, to state that a concept is contestable is to "attribute some part of any contest to the concept". In other words, this is "to claim that some feature or property of the concept makes it polysemantic, and that the concept contains some internal conflict of ideas"; and it is this fact that provides the "essentially contested concept" with its inherent potential for "generating disputes".
In 1956, Gallie proposed a set of seven conditions for the existence of an essentially contested concept. Gallie was very specific about the limits of his enterprise: it dealt exclusively with abstract, qualitative notions, such as art, religion, science, democracy, and social justice (and, if Gallieâs choices are contrasted with negatively regarded concepts such as evil, disease, superstition, etc., it is clear that the concepts he chose were exclusively positively regarded).
Freeden remarks that "not all essentially contested concepts signify valued achievements; they may equally signify disapproved and denigrated phenomena", and Gerring asks us to imagine just how difficult it would be to "[try] to craft definitions of slavery, fascism, terrorism, or genocide without recourse to "pejorative" attributes".
These features distinguish Gallie's "essentially contested concepts" from others, "which can be shown, as a result of analysis or experiment, to be radically confused"; or, as Gray would have it, they are the features that relate to the task of distinguishing the "general words, which really denote an essentially contested concept" from those other "general words, whose uses conceal a diversity of distinguishable concepts":
- (1) Essentially contested concepts are evaluative, and they deliver value-judgements.
- (2) Essentially contested concepts denote comprehensively evaluated entities that have an internally complex character.
- (3) The evaluation must be attributed to the internally complex entity as a whole.
- (4) The different constituent elements of that internally complex entity are initially variously describable.
- (5) The different users of the concept will often allocate substantially different orders of relative importance, substantially different "weights", and/or substantially different interpretations to each of those constituent elements.
- (6) Psychological and sociological causes influence the extent to which any particular consideration is:
- (a) salient for a given individual,
- (b) regarded as a stronger reason by that individual than by another, and
- (c) regarded as a reason by one individual and not by another.
- (7) The disputed concepts are open-ended and vague, and are subject to considerable modification in the light of changing circumstances.
- (8) This further modification can neither be predicted nor prescribed in advance.
- (9) Whilst, by Gallieâs express stipulation, there is no best instantiation of an essentially contested concept -- or, at least, none knowable to be the best -- it is also obvious that some instantiations will be considerably better than others; and, furthermore, even if one particular instantiation seems best at the moment, there is always the possibility that a new, better instantiation will emerge in the future.
- (10) Each party knows and recognizes that its own peculiar usage/interpretation of the concept is disputed by others who, in their turn, hold different and quite incompatible views.
- (11) Each party must (at least to a certain extent) understand the criteria upon which the other participantsâ (repudiated) views are based.
- (12) Disputes centred on essentially contested concepts:
- (13) Each partyâs use of their own specific usage/interpretation is driven by a need to uphold their own particular (correct, proper and superior) usage/interpretation against that of all other (incorrect, improper and irrational) users.
- (14) Because the use of an essentially contested concept is always the application of one use against all other uses, any usage is intentionally aggressive and defensive.
- (15) Because it is essentially contested, rather than âradically confusedâ, the continued use of the essentially contested concept is justified by the fact that, despite all of their on-going disputation, all of the competitors acknowledge that the contested concept is derived from a single common exemplar.
- (16) The continued use of the essentially contested concept also helps to sustain and develop our understanding of the conceptâs original exemplar/s.
Concepts and conceptions
Scholars such as Hart, Rawls, Dworkin, and Lukes have variously embellished Gallieâs proposal by arguing that certain of the difficulties encountered with Gallieâs proposition may be due a consequence of the unintended conflation of two separate domains associated with the term concept:
- (a) the concepts (the abstract, ideal notions themselves), and
- (b) the conceptions (the particular instantiations, or realizations of those ideal and abstract notions).
In essence, Hart (1961), Rawls (1971), Dworkin (1972), and Lukes (1974) distinguished between the "unity" of a notion and the "multiplicity" of its possible instantiations.
From their work it is easy to understand the issue as one of determining whether there is a single notion that has a number of different instantiations, or whether there is more than one notion, each of which is reflected in a different usage.
In a section of his 1972 article in The New York Review of Books, Dworkin used the example of "fairness" to isolate and elaborate the difference between a concept (suum cuique) and its conception (various instantiations, for example utilitarian ethics).
He supposes that he has instructed his children not to treat others "unfairly" and asks us to recognize that, whilst he would have undoubtedly had particular "examples" (of the sorts of conduct he was intending to discourage) in mind at the time he spoke to his children, whatever it was that he meant when he issued such instructions was not confined to those "examples" alone, for two reasons:
- 1. "I would expect my children to apply my instructions to situations I had not and could not have thought about."
- 2. "I stand ready to admit that some particular act I had thought was fair when I spoke was in fact unfair, or vice versa, if one of my children is able to convince me of that later."
Dworkin argues that this admission of error would not entail any "change" to his original instructions, because the true meaning of his instructions was that "[he] meant the family to be guided by the concept of fairness, not by any specific conception of fairness [that he] might have had in mind". Therefore, he argues, his instructions do, in fact, "cover" this new case.
Exploring what he considers to be the "crucial distinction" between the overall concept of "fairness" and some particular, and specific conception of "fairness", he asks us to imagine a group whose members share the view that certain acts are unfair.
The members of this group "agree on a great number of standard cases of unfairness and use these as benchmarks against which to test other, more controversial cases".
In these circumstances, says Dworkin, "the group has a concept of unfairness, and its members may appeal to that concept in moral instruction or argument."
However, the members may still disagree over many of these "controversial cases"; and differences of this sort indicate that members have, or act upon, entirely different theories of why and how each of the "standard cases" are, in fact, genuine acts of "unfairness".
And, because each considers that certain principles "[which] must be relied upon to show that a particular division or attribution is unfair" are far a more "fundamental" sort of principle than certain other principles, it can be said that members of the group have different conceptions of "fairness".
Consequently, those responsible for giving "instructions", and those responsible for setting "standards" of "fairness", in this community may be doing one of two things:
- 1. Appealing to the concept of "fairness", by demanding that others act "fairly".
- In this case, those instructed to act "fairly" are responsible for "developing and applying their own conception of fairness as controversial cases arise".
- Each of those issuing the instructions (or setting the standards) may have quite different explanations underlying their actions; and, also, they may well change their explanations from time to time, without ever changing the standards they set.
- 2. Laying down a particular conception of "fairness"; by, for example, specifying that all hard cases were to be decided "by applying the utilitarian ethics of Jeremy Bentham".
It is important to recognize that rather than it just being a case of delivering two different instructions; it is a case of delivering two different kinds of instruction:
- 1. In the case of the appeal to the concept of "fairness", one invokes the ideal (and, implicitly, the universally agreed upon) notion of 'fairness"; and whatever one might believe is the best instantiation of that notion is, by and large, irrelevant.
- 2. In the case of laying down a conception of "fairness", one specifies what one believes to be the best instantiation of the notion "fairness"; and, by this action, one specifies what one means by "fairness"; and whatever one might believe is the ideal notion of "fairness" is, by and large, irrelevant.
As a consequence, according to Dworkin, whenever an appeal is made to "fairness", a moral issue is raised; and, whenever a conception of "fairness" is laid down, an attempt is being made to answer that moral issue.
Not "hotly disputed" concepts
Whilst Gallie's expression "essentially contested concepts" precisely denotes those "essentially questionable and corrigible concepts," which "...are permanently and essentially subject to revision and question,â close examination of the wide and varied and imprecise applications of Gallie's term subsequent to 1956, by those who have ascribed their own literal meaning to Gallie's term without ever consulting Gallie's work, have led many philosophers to conclude that "essentially disputed concepts" would have been far better choice for Gallie's meaning, for at least three reasons:
- 1. Gallieâs term has led many to the mistaken belief that he spoke of hotly disputed, rather than essentially disputed concepts.
- 2. Expressly stipulating that a specific issue can never be resolved, and then calling it a "contest" seems both absurd and misleading.
- 3. Any assertion that "essentially contested" concepts are incommensurable made at the same time as an assertion that "they have any common subject-matter" is incoherent; and, also, it reveals an "inconsistency in the idea of essential contestability".
Waldron's research has revealed that Gallieâs notion has ârun wildâ in the law review literature over the ensuing 60 years and is now being used to denote something like "very hotly contested, with no resolution in sight", due to an entirely mistaken view that the essential in Gallieâs term is an "intensifier", when, in fact, "[Gallieâs] term "essential" refers to the location of the disagreement or indeterminacy; it is contestation at the core, not just at the borderlines or penumbra of a concept".
Yet is also clear that "if the notion of logical justification can be applied only to such theses and arguments as can be presumed capable of gaining in the long run universal agreement, the disputes to which the uses of any essentially contested concept give rise are not genuine or rational disputes at all"[clarification needed] (Gallie, 1956a, p.188).
Thus, Gallie argued:
- So long as contestant users of any essentially contested concept believe, however deludedly, that their own use of it is the only one that can command honest and informed approval, they are likely to persist in the hope that they will ultimately persuade and convert all their opponents by logical means. But once [we] let the truth out of the bag â i.e., the essential contestedness of the concept in question â then this harmless if deluded hope may well be replaced by a ruthless decision to cut the cackle, to damn the heretics and to exterminate the unwanted. (Gallie, 1956a, pp.193-194)
- Published immediately as Gallie (1956a); a later, slightly altered version appears in Gallie (1964).
- They are "evaluative" in the sense that they deliver some sort of "value-judgement".
- Garver (1978), p. 168.
- Hart (1961, p.156) speaks of "a uniform or constant feature", and "a shifting or varying criterion used in determining when, for any given purposes, cases are alike or different".
- Gallie (1956a), p.169. The dispute is about the proper use of the concept; and all argue that the concept is being "used inappropriately" by others (Smith, 2002, p.332).
- Gray (1977), p.344.
- A statement that, in essence, is usually nothing more than a simple observation that the apparent dispute it is simply a consequence of the same label being applied to different referents.
- Rhodes (2000), p. 1.
- Gallie (1956a) p. 168.
- Gallie (1956a), p. 167.
- The embedded meaning of the term polysemy is that the polysemous wordâs meanings have multiplied over time (in the sense of its original meaning being extended).
- When discussing finance, "bank" is an essentially contested concept; because the discussion involves establishing the "correct" application, meaning or interpretation of this polysemous term.
- In a different dispute over banks, where one speaks of financial institutions and the other of riparian zones, it is obvious that two homonyms have been confused.
- Which is "a conflict between truth and error" (Garver, 1990, p. 259)
- Which is "a disagreement generated because the parties to the conflict are talking past each other" (Garver, 1990, p.259) â the "talking past each other" is an allusion to the interaction between Thrasymachus and Socrates over the question of "justice" in Plato's Republic I, where neither addressed any of the issues raised by the other. Gallie (1956a, p.168.) speaks of this as being a case in which "two different concepts about whose proper application no none need to have contested at all" having become "confused".
- Clarke (1979), p. 123.
- Clarke (1979), p. 124.
- See Gallie (1956a).
- Gallie (1956a), passim. Kekes (1977, p.71) offers art, morality, logic, the novel, nature, rationality, democracy, culture, science, and philosophy as another set of examples of "concepts" that are essentially contested.
- Freeden (1998), p.56.
- Gerring (1999), p.385.
- Gallie (1956a), p.180.
- Gray (1977), p.337.
- They are unpackings of, elaborations upon, or extensions of Gallie's original seven features that have been made by a very wide range of scholars spread over a wide range of academic and intellectual pursuits over the last 60 years.
- Baldwin stresses that whilst "not all value judgements are appraisive", "[any act of] appraisal presupposes an accepted set of criteria" (Baldwin (1997), p.10.
- For this reason, Benn and Gaus (1983, pp.3-5) advocate using the term "complex-structured concepts".
- Mason (1990), p.96.
- Gallie cites "democracy" an example of a concept being "open" in its character: "Politics being the art of the possible, democratic targets will be raised or lowered as circumstances alter, and democratic achievements are always judged in the light of such alterations" (Gallie, 1956a, p.186, emphasis added).
- Because, in the absence of this condition, it is possible that experience could establish one instantiation as "universally more acceptable than another" (Gallie, 1956a, p.174).
- Swanton (1985), p.815.
- Mason (1990), p.85.
- For, otherwise, it would only be, at best, an essentially "contestable" concept.
- Connolly (1974, p.40) expressed the view that once the participants in a particular political dispute realized that the concept was an essentially contested concept, the ensuing political discussions would be far more "enlightened" (Connolly, 1974, p.40).
- All from Gallie (1956a), p.169.
- This agreement is a pre-requisite for the argument, it is not a consequence of the argument. See McKnight (2003), p.261; and Perry (1977), p.25. In an attempt to account for cases where disputants trace their individual notions back to entirely different, but mutually compatible exemplars, Connolly (1974, p.14) proposes that we think of the shared exemplar as a "cluster concept ".
- The concept/conception terminology seems to originate with Gallieâs (1956a) own comment that, whilst they might still continue to employ the contested concept, the "different teams [could] come to hold⊠very different conceptions of how the game should be played" (p. 176, emphasis added).
- Dworkin (1972), pp.27-28 (an almost identical passage appears at Dworkin, 1972, pp.134-135). The four-paragraph passage is in Section II of the article . It commences with "But the theory of⊠" and ends with "âŠI try to answer it ".
- These unfair acts involve either "a wrongful division of benefits and burdens, or a wrongful attribution of praise or blame".
- Emphasis added to original.
- He notes that this does not "[grant] them a discretion to act as they like"; but, from the fact that "it assumes that one conception is superior to another", it is clear that "it sets a standard they must try â and may fail â to meet".
- Thus, we could say, there is a demand for orthopraxy (the correctness of action), not for orthodoxy (the correctness of thought).
- Hampshire (1965), p.230.
- See Waldron (2002).
- There seems to be a radical fault in the very notion of a contest that can not by its nature be won or lost. (Gray, 1999, p.96)
- Gray (1999), p.96.
- Waldron (2002, p.149) found that the following concepts had been labelled as essentially contested in the Westlaw database:
- alienation, autonomy, author, bankruptcy, boycott, citizenship, civil rights, coherence, community, competition, the Constitution, corruption, culture, discrimination, diversity, equality, equal protection, freedom, harm, justification, liberalism, merit, motherhood, the national interest, nature, popular sovereignty, pornography, power, privacy, property, proportionality, prosperity, prostitution, public interest, punishment, reasonable expectations, religion, republicanism, rights, sovereignty, speech, sustainable development, and textuality.
- Of course, the equivalent view about the term in general is reasonable: it merely uses the descriptive definition. The descriptive definition is still a definition, even if one may think it less interesting than Gallie's definition.
- Waldron (2002), pp.148-149.
- Abbey, R., "Is Liberalism Now an Essentially Contested Concept?", New Political Science, Vol.27, No.4, (December 2005), pp.461-480.
- Baldwin, D.A., "The Concept of Security", Review of International Studies, Vol.23, No.1, (January 1997), pp.5-26.
- Benn, S.I., A Theory of Freedom, Cambridge University Press, (Cambridge), 1988.
- Benn, S.I. & Gaus, G.F., "The Public and the Private: Concepts and Action", pp.3-27 in Benn, S.I. & Gaus, G.F., Public and Private in Social Life, Croom Helm, (London), 1983.
- Booth, W.C., "âPreserving the Exemplarâ: or, How Not to Dig Our Own Graves", Critical Inquiry, Vol.3, No.3, (Spring 1977), pp.407-423.
- Boulay, H., "Essentially Contested Concepts and the Teaching of Political Science", Teaching Political Science, Vol.4, No.4, (July 1977), pp.423-433.
- Care, N.S., "On Fixing Social Concepts", Ethics, Vol.84, No.1, (October 1973), pp.10-21.
- Clarke, B., "Eccentrically Contested Concepts", British Journal of Political Science, Vol.9, No.1, (January 1979), pp.122-126.
- Collier, D., Hidalgo, F.D., & Maciuceanu, A.O., "Essentially contested concepts: Debates and applications", Journal of Political Ideologies Vol.11, No.3, (October 2006), pp.211-246.
- Collier, D. & Mahon, J.E., "Conceptual âStretchingâ Revisited: Adapting Categories in Comparative Analysis", The American Political Science Review, Vol.87, No.4, (December 1993), pp.845-855.
- Connolly, W.E., "Essentially Contested Concepts in Politics", pp.10-44 in Connolly, W.E., The Terms of Political Discourse, Heath, (Lexington), 1974.
- Cooper, D.E., "Lewis on our Knowledge of Conventions", Mind, Vol.86, No.342, (April 1977), pp.256-261.
- Davidson, D., "On the Very Idea of a Conceptual Scheme", Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association, Vol.47, (1974), pp.5-20.
- Dworkin, R., Taking Rights Seriously: New Impression with a Reply to Critics, Duckworth, (Oxford), 1978.
- Dworkin, R., "The Jurisprudence of Richard Nixon", The New York Review of Books, Vol.18, No.8, (May 1972), pp.27-35.
- Freeden, M., Ideologies and Political Theory â A Conceptual Approach, Oxford University Press, (Oxford) 1998.
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- Gallie, W.B.(1956a), "Essentially Contested Concepts", Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Vol.56, (1956), pp.167-198.
- Gallie, W.B., "Essentially Contested Concepts", pp. 157-191 in Gallie, W.B., Philosophy and the Historical Understanding, Chatto & Windus, (London), 1964.
- Gallie, W.B., "What Makes a Subject Scientific?", The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, Vol.8, No.30, (August 1957), pp.118-139.
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- Garver, E., "Paradigms and Princes", Philosophy of the Social Sciences, Vol.17, No.1, (March 1987), pp.21-47.
- Garver, E., "Rhetoric and Essentially Contested Arguments", Philosophy and Rhetoric, Vol.11, No.3, (Summer 1978), pp.156-172.
- Gellner, E., "The Concept of a Story", Ratio, Vol.9, No.1, (June 1967), pp.49-66.
- Gerring, J., "What Makes a Concept Good? A Criterial Framework for Understanding Concept Formation in the Social Sciences", Polity, Vol.31, No.3, (Spring 1999), pp.357-393.
- Gilbert, M., "Notes on the Concept of a Social Convention", New Literary History, Vol.14, No.2, (Winter 1983), pp.225-251.
- Gingell, J. & Winch, C., "Essentially Contested Concepts", pp.88-89 in Gingell, J. & Winch, C., Key Concepts in the Philosophy of Education, Routledge, (London), 1999.
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- Hampshire, S., Thought and Action, Chatto and Windus, (London), 1965.
- HÀrlin, M. & Sundberg, P., "Taxonomy and Philosophy of Names", Biology and Philosophy, Vol.13, No.2, (April 1998), pp.233-244.
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Here are some suggestions for helping a friend whoâs being abused:
- Let your friend know they are not alone and you are there to listen if they want to talk.
- Believe what they say.
- Familiarize yourself with services at the local certified domestic violence center in your area and provide your friend with information about services that are available to people experiencing relationship violence.
- If you believe your friend is in danger, talk to a trusted adult.
- Tell your friend the abuse is not their fault and they are not to blame. No one deserves to be hurt by their partner, no matter what!
- Call 911 if you see or hear violence happening.
- Talk badly about your friend or their partner
- Make your friend choose between your friendship and their relationship
- Blame your friend for the abuse; itâs never the victimâs fault.
- Keep it a secret if your friend is in danger, no matter what.
What if your friend is being abusive?
Our friends are really important people in our lives and we should always try to be there for them. Sometimes though, friends disappoint us. They might always say offensive things about girls or women. Maybe youâve heard them talk down to their girlfriend and you can tell it upsets her. You can help to prevent dating violence by telling your friends the truth about their behavior in an honest and direct way.
Remember, DONâT react with violence. DONâT encourage or participate in the behavior. DONâT ignore abusive behavior!
For more information about how to get help, check out these resources |
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Alien Soil Could Be Used For Future Heat Shields
Lee Rannals for redOrbit.com â Your Universe Online
If all goes well in the next test, alien soil could be a key ingredient to a new generation of heat shield being developed.
Scientists are about to start an important test next week to see if whether a heat shield made up of soil from the moon, Mars or an asteroid would be able to protect a spacecraft from Earthâs atmosphere.
NASA is looking into the possibility of creating a heat shield with alien soil so that future spacecraft could leave Earth without carrying a heavy heat shield, but instead it would create one on another world and ride it home safely.
Being able to shave off the extra pounds opens up new possibilities ranging from using smaller rockets to carrying more supplies on an exploration mission.
Michael Hogue, a researcher at NASAâs Kennedy Space Center in Florida, came up with the idea during a brainstorming session last year, the space agency said. They were discussing how to use extraterrestrial soil, which is known as regolith.
âOthers were talking about how regolith can be used to make bricks or landing pads and I said, âWell, if itâs good for that, why canât it be used to make atmospheric entry heat shields?â â Hogue said in a press release.
Engineers have been trying out various mixtures and techniques to find out whether the idea has any potential, and so far tests have been very successful.
âI expected some to fail,â Hogue said in the release. âThere is an optimum range of density you need to hit for each material where itâs light enough to have low enough thermal conductivity, but also structurally strong enough to survive the forces of atmospheric entry. All of our formulations that we tested with a cutting torch at least passed that.â
The bricks created by the team, which are made up of a different combination of materials, will be facing their toughest test so far next week. Engineers will be placing them inside the arc jet facility at NASAâs Ames Research Center to send a scorching plasma stream across them. This will test out the durability of the bricks in conditions similar to those a spacecraft faces in reentry.
Although the new concept is promising, NASA said that it is far from becoming operational at this point. It is currently a one out of nine on the technology readiness scale.
The team will have to take the concept through a series of evaluations, adaptations, inventions and tests, including a sample disc being placed on the bottom of a cargo spacecraft returning from the International Space Station.
Hogue said his attitude towards the project has gone from being a skeptic, to a hopeful enthusiast.
NASA said that in order to make the heat shield in space, a robotic device or automated system would have to be developed. The spacecraft would have to mix the regolith with a rubbery substance in a mold or heat a large disc of regolith until the soil elements fuse together.
Another advantage of using regolith as a heat shield is that with the low gravity found on places like an asteroid or a moon, it would be easier to lift the spacecraft off the ground regardless of the extra weight.
âYou can make it massive and if it heats up and ablates off, all the better because the ablated mass takes heat with it.â Hogue said in the release. âAfter about five minutes you jettison the shield over water and youâre done.â |
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Testamentary Capacity is the ability to make a Will. This may be undermined by psychiatric illness or other factors.
The English case of Banks v Goodfellow (1870) sets out the factors required for a testatorâs Will to be considered valid. A Will-maker should:
- Understand the nature of the act and its effects
- Understand the extent of the property of which he is disposing;
- Be able to understand and appreciate the claims to which he ought to give effect;
- iv. Be free of any disorder of the mind that would poison his affections, pervert his sense of right or prevent the exercise of his natural faculties.
The individual must understand the nature of the making of a Will, its effects and the extent of their property and possessions. The person must also be able to appreciate the claims to the estate, which he ought to consider.
However, the judgement also notes that âtestamentary capacity does not require a sound and disposing mind in the highest degree otherwise very few people could make wills. It is enough if the mental faculties retain sufficient strength fully to comprehend the testamentary actâ. Furthermore, âThe Will-maker must clearly understand and make a sound assessment of all those things and all those circumstances which enter into the nature of a rational, fair and just Willâ.
Psychiatric expert testimony may be required to determine issues relating to the likelihood that a person is or was capable of making a will. |
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This Thanksgiving count your blessingsBy BY GARY ANDREWS [email protected],
What does Thanksgiving mean to you? Is it a day of family fun, visiting, eating, watching ballgames, etc. or is it a time that all of us should realize what the Almighty God has blessed us with?
Thanksgiving ceremonies first took place in 1565; however, we recognize Thanksgiving from the Pilgrims and the Indians at Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1623.
This day was set aside following a time of drought, when prayers for rain resulted in a subsequent rain shower and the Pilgrims were able to save their harvest. It was a time when the Indians helped the Pilgrims in their time of need and were invited to the celebration feast. Thanks, were offered to the Lord for His bounty and good blessings.
President George Washington issued a proclamation and created the first Thanksgiving Day designated by the national government on Oct. 3, 1789. Within this proclamation were the words: âNow therefore I do recommend and assign Thursday the 26th day of November next to be devoted by the People of these States to the service of that great and glorious Being, who is the beneficent Author of all the good that was, that is, or that will be.â
For the next few years the Presidents of the United States proclaimed a time for Thanksgiving Day because of the bountiful mercies that only God can give. The U.S. Congress in 1941 passed a bill requiring that Thanksgiving be observed annually on the fourth Thursday of November.
For many years the people of America have celebrated Thanksgiving because God has blessed them in so many ways. It is a time when all of us should count our blessings and be encouraged that we have a great and mighty God looking out for us. Remember what Jesus tells us in John 14:27; âPeace I leave with you, My peace I give to you; not as the world gives do I give to you. Let not your heart be troubled, neither let it be afraid.â
It is my sincere hope that each one of us will take time and count the many blessings that have come from the good Lord above. We can continue to have our fun, food, and fellowship with our family and friends but letâs remember why the first Thanksgiving began. |
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Hazardous household waste items are those items that can cause damage to health or the environment. More care and attention is required to recycle or dispose of these materials.
What types of domestic waste are hazardous?
This is not a comprehensive list. Hazardous waste requires special treatment so please contact us if you are unsure whether the items you are disposing of should be classed as hazardous waste.
- household and car batteries
- fluorescent tubes
- some paints
- some household and car batteries
- electrical equipment like TVs, fridges and freezers
- energy saving light bulbs (also known as CFLs)
How to dispose of hazardous waste
Most hazardous waste can be taken to your local household waste and recycling centre (external website). You can find your nearest recycling centre on My Wycombe.
Please don't put domestic hazardous waste into your household bins.
Help us improve our website
Got ten minutes to spare? We're running a quick exercise to help us organise the waste and recycling web content to make it easier to find.
Take part: navigation exercise
The exercise will run in a new window or tab. If the exercise is closed, don't worry. We'll be running further exercises over the next few weeks. Or you can contact the web team direct: Contact web services (Please don't use this link for bin queries.)
Contact the waste team |
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In the Amazon rainforest lives a tribe called the Jivaro. They hunt at night, carrying no torches or flashlights. Starlight and moonlight donât penetrate the canopy. But Jivaro hunters do not need to see. They listen. The technique resembles the echolocation of dolphins or bats, but itâs more complicated than that. Itâs a turn-by-turn aural GPS through a map based on a regionâs acoustic complexity.
I learned about the Jivaro from Bernie Krause, a bioacoustician who pioneered the study of human impacts on sonic ecosystems. Iâd called him in search of recordings of extinct animals â the roars of Tasmanian tigers, the peeps of Panamanian golden frogs, calling from the graves of their species.
"This is my 40th year in the field. Based on the data in my library, of the wild habitats that existed in North America in 1968, almost 50
percent of them are now extinct," said Krause. "Theyâre so radically altered that you canât hear the soundscape there anymore."
Krauseâs words gave me pause. Sure, animals go extinct â but habitats?
Yet it makes sense. There are many ways to look at life, from single individuals up to whole populations, their interactions with each other and their surroundings. I thought of my own favorite natural places:
northern pine forests at the edge of remote ponds, where at night frogs call and loons wail and moose crash through the reeds, and you can literally track wind through the trees.
These spaces have a character, a balance and composition, as distinct as the markings on any animal. And they can be changed: wetlands drained, roads built, properties developed, altering the terrain and species balances in ways that may be hidden to the eye, but not the ear.
"Imagine walking through the rainforest. As you walk the next few hundred meters to the next habitat, even though it looks the same visually, acoustically itâs defined differently," said Krause. "And it isnât that the rainforest is gone. Itâs that an important component of the forest is gone. Itâs like cutting off your finger, your balls, a toe, your ear."
Krause has installed natural soundscapes at museums around the country, with the latest scheduled to debut later this month at the California
Academy of Sciences. That exhibit will include audio rainforest habitats from Borneo, Madagascar, Costa Rica, and the Amazon jungles of Brazil and Belize.
Three of these â Borneo, Costa Rica and Madagascar â are now gone, said Krause. I asked whether they would ever return.
"In Costa Rica, itâs showing signs of coming back," said Krause.
"Having said that, the biophony itself, all of the critters that were part of the area that was clearcut or selectively logged, are gone. To build up that soundscape again, that complex of organisms that make up that particular habitat, will take decades, maybe millennia."
What does it matter if a habitat vanishes, or changes in some basic way? Does it matter if animals in one region die out, so long as they exist in another? Or if a species goes extinct, so long as a few remain in zoos? Maybe it doesnât matter. The answers arenât obvious. But while you think about these questions, listen to them.
Note: To listen to Bernie Krauseâs recordings from each ecosystem, click on the pictures. You can also use these links: Belize.mp3,
- A Listening Party for Nature
- Yucatan Jungles Are Feral Maya Gardens
- Anthropologists Find New Type of Urbanism in Amazon Jungles
- Evolution Races Cancer to Save Tasmanian Devils
- Latest Extinction is the Greatest
- A Species Waves Goodbye |
Total Tooth Replacement for Older Adults
According to the Oral Health web page of the Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 25% of adults aged 65 and older no longer have any natural teeth remaining. The CDC also estimates the size of this age group to be more than 41 million. Meaning that more than 10 million Americans of retirement age need total tooth replacement. Since this is also the fastest growing age group in the US, as the Baby Boomer generation reaches retirement age, this problem will continue to grow.
"Interestingly, toothlessness varies greatly by state. Roughly 42 percent of Americans over age 65 living in West Virginia are toothless Compared to only 13 percent of those living in California. Having missing teeth can affect nutrition. Mainly because people without teeth often prefer soft, easily chewed foods. Because dentures are not as efficient for chewing food as natural teeth, denture wearers also may choose soft foods and avoid fresh fruits and vegetables."
Do Not Fear Tooth Replacement
The leading causes of tooth loss among this age group are tooth decay and gum disease. Surprisingly, older adults may suffer from new tooth decay at a higher rate than children. In fact, this is especially true with the tooth root, due to gum recession. Further, about Œ of adults in the 65-74 years, age group suffer from severe gum disease or periodontal diseases. Men are more likely to suffer from this condition than women. Further, those with lower incomes will experience an even higher incidence of gum disease. (This is true regardless of age, in fact.)
Not only do diseases associated with aging lead to oral health issues, but poor oral hygiene can exacerbate many diseases we associate with aging. In short, oral health care among older Americans has become an important issue, which will continue for decades to come.
The CDC recommends these steps to improve the oral health of older adults:
- Drink fluoridated water and use fluoride toothpaste; fluoride provides protection against dental decay at all ages.
- Practice good oral hygiene. Careful tooth brushing and flossing to reduce dental plaque can help prevent periodontal disease.
- It is important to see your dentist on a regular basis. Professional care helps to maintain the overall health of the teeth and mouth, and provides for early detection of pre-cancerous or cancerous lesions.
- Avoid tobacco. In addition to the general health risks posed by tobacco use, smokers have seven times the risk of developing periodontal disease compared to non-smokers. Tobacco used in any formâcigarettes, cigars, pipes, and smokeless (spit) tobaccoâincreases the risk for periodontal disease. Further, oral and throat cancers, and oral fungal infection (candidiasis). Spit tobacco containing sugar also increases the risk of cavities.
- Limit alcohol. Drinking a high number of alcoholic beverages is a risk factor for oral and throat cancers. Alcohol and tobacco used together are the primary risk factors for these cancers.
- Make sure that you or your loved one gets dental care prior to having cancer chemotherapy or radiation to the head or neck. These therapies can damage or destroy oral tissues. Resulting in severe irritation of the oral tissues and mouth ulcers, loss of salivary function, rampant tooth decay, and destruction of bone.
- Caregivers should reinforce the daily oral hygiene routines of elders who are unable to perform these activities independently.
- Sudden changes in taste and smell should not be considered signs of aging, but should be a sign to seek professional care.
- If medications produce a dry mouth, ask your doctor if there are other drugs that can be substituted. If dry mouth cannot be avoided, drink plenty of water, chew sugarless gum, and avoid tobacco and alcohol.
Dr. Dhawanf at The Colorado Center for Implant and Prosthetic Dentistry are available to help you determine effective solutions to all of your dental problems. If you would like more information from your Littleton Prosthodontist, please call to make an appointment today. |
Today Iâm going to be looking at what I consider to be the foundation of Photoshop; Layers. Understanding layers is an essential skill as a photographer. It will not only help you with your editing process, but itâll also influence your shooting style and technique in ways you would have never imagined.
So what is a layer?
Think of a layer as a transparent slide that sits on top of an image. Slides, or layers are used to separate editing elements from our original file.
Elements can be a brightness adjustment, color overlay, a border/frame, blur effects or even text overlays.
Why do we want to separate editing elements onto layers?
When we separate the editing elements from the source image, weâre able to more effectively edit our image. Itâs this separation that gives the photographer more control over his/her post processing techniques.
Iâll demonstrate this concept with three simple Photoshop editing processes; moving, cropping and an exposure adjustment to show you the advantage of using layers.
In part II of my Layerâs Tutorial, Iâll show you how to use the power of masking and layers to edit and process your photos. |
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The Great Depression of the 1930s did not spare the churches. In First Christian Church for instance, membership dropped by 25%, while attendance frequently dipped below 100 on a Sunday morning. Giving to the church fell by 60%. The minister took a 30% cut in salary just to keep the doors open. It was a discouraging time for the church. We were fortunate to have at that time, a pastor who still saw many opportunities for service and ministry to the community and to the wider world. His name was Caspar Garrigues, and he shepherded the church through a bleak time, from 1931 to 1938. Caspar Garrigues had a distinguished career before he came to Iowa City. In addition to lengthy ministries in churches in St. Louis and Joplin, Missouri, he had served as general secretary of the National Benevolent Association for three years and general secretary of the Missouri Christian Missionary Society for eleven years. He was already sixty years old when he came to Iowa City, but rather than simply coast to retirement, he threw all his energies into the church and especially, the community. 126 persons became members of the church during his time, including one Irish immigrant boy, Peter Bannon, who was so inspired by the church and the minister that he became a missionary to China.
Garrigues was very active in the Iowa City community, and in the relations between the university and the city. He was a member of the university Committee on Religious Activities and the Commission on Campus Activities, as well as being an advisor to the Inter-Church Student Council. His activities in the community were broad. He was four times president of the Ministerial Association. He helped organize and was president for three years of the Inter-Faith Fellowship Council, consisting of Protestants, Catholics and Jews, the first truly inter-faith organization in Iowa City. He was also a member of the Iowa City Council of Christian Education and the Iowa City Peace Council, and served on the board of the Community Chest. He worked with the Oakdale Christian Union (tuberculosis sanitarium) and with the committee on jail meetings.
But the most unique project which Caspar Garrigues undertook in Iowa City was the organization of the Faith Cabin Library Club in 1937. With the support of the Ministerial Association, Garrigues organized the âIowa City Faith Cabin Clubâ, whose purpose was to gather books for a black school in South Carolina which had no library. The Faith Cabin Library movement was the brainchild of a young South Carolina man named Willie Buffington who had himself struggled with poverty to get an education. In January of 1937, Garrigues organized the Iowa City Faith Cabin Library Club, which consisted of representatives from eleven Protestant churches, two Catholic churches, the Jewish community, the YMCA, the YWCA, the public library, the university library, the U of I School of Religion, Iowa City Womenâs Club, Business and Professional Womenâs Club, and numerous service and fraternal clubs such as the Kiwanis, Elks and Lions. Garrigues recruited virtually the entire Iowa City community in this effort. The books were sent to the Bettis Academy, an impoverished black school in Edgefield, South Carolina. Another drive to collect books was mounted in 1938, and two more shipments were made. In all, about 10,000 books, plus an unknown number of magazines were sent to Bettis Academy. The report of the last shipment appeared in the Iowa City Press- Citizen on December 7, 1938, along with the acknowledgement that without Garrigues (who had resigned in October) the library club could probably not be maintained.
When Garrigues left Iowa City, Willard Lampe, head of the School of Religion at the university, said: âNo man in Iowa City has given himself more unsparingly or in such a variety of ways, to the religious and civic welfare of this community. He has carried responsibility in literally a multitude of good causes and his heart has reached out beyond all divisions of race, color or creed. He has dignified and exalted his calling, bringing inspiration constantly to those of us who are engaged in the same or similar work.â |
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Climate neutral, net zero and climate positive â whatâs the difference?
Net zero is one of the hottest topics in the climate action space. Itâs become synonymous with our best hope for tackling the worst impacts of climate change, and governments, cities, companies, and investors are all making net zero commitments. But how is net zero different from being climate neutral? Or being climate positive? Weâve got the answers for you in this simple guide to big concepts.
Climate neutral: the journey begins
Climate neutrality means an organisation has âneutralisedâ its greenhouse gas emissions by buying an equivalent number of carbon credits. Thereâs no âofficialâ definition (unlike net zero, which is comprehensively defined by the Science Based Targets Initiative) but in general, it means that youâve offset your emissions. Climate neutrality can only be claimed...
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European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP)
Through its European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), the EU works with its Southern and Eastern Neighbours to achieve the closest possible political association and the greatest possible degree of economic integration.
16 countries are covered by the ENP. These are: in the South - Algeria, Morocco, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Palestine [this designation shall not be construed as recognition of a State of Palestine and is without prejudice to the individual positions of the Member States on this issue], Syria and Tunisia; and in the East -Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine in the East.
The ENP is a key part of the European Union's foreign policy, and builds on common interests and on values â democracy, the rule of law, respect for human rights, and social cohesion. Building bridges between people, facilitating mobility and fostering intercultural understanding are among the most relevant aims for the culture sector.
Recent events have required a new approach and a re-prioritisation. Therefore in November 2015 the High Representative and the Commission presented a Joint Communication "Review of the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP): stronger partnerships for a stronger neighbourhood".
The ENP Review recognized that ''in many neighbourhood countries ethnic, religious and cultural identities and traditions play a crucial role as regards the way society functions'' and that ''cross-cultural dialogue, such as that promoted by the Anna Lindh foundation, will be key''. It also highlighted that ''the EU will continue to foster a realistic and fair narrative on migration and to combat vigorously all forms and manifestations of racism and discrimination promoting intercultural dialogue, cultural diversity and mutual understanding''.
There are EU-funded cultural programmes under the ENP in both the Eastern and Southern Neighbourhood, described in more detail below.
The ENP is chiefly a bilateral policy between the EU and each partner country. Bilateral Action Plans or Association Agendas are negotiated between the EU and each ENP partner. These set out an agenda of political and economic reforms with short and medium-term priorities of 3 to 5 years. Cultural provisions, including the promotion of the implementation of the Convention, are also part of these agendas.
The ENP is complemented by regional and multilateral cooperation initiatives, notably the Eastern Partnership and the Union for the Mediterranean Partnership.
In the context of the Eastern Partnership, âPlatform 4 â contacts between people'' fosters cooperation in the fields of education, youth, culture and audio-visual, through policy dialogue and dedicated programmes (in the field of culture, mainly Creative Europe and the Eastern Partnership Culture and Creativity programme). The Eastern Partnership Civil Society Forum serves as a civil society and people-to-people dimension of the Eastern Partnership. Its Working Group âContacts between Peopleâ deals with the main issues on the agenda of EaP Thematic Platform 4 of the same name.
In the Southern Neighbourhood , the EU has supported the work done by The Union for the Mediterranean (UfM), an intergovernmental organisation enhancing regional cooperation and dialogue in the Euro-Mediterranean region. The major actor in the field of intercultural and interreligious dialogue in the Mediterranean is the Anna Lindh Foundation, active since 2005. It is an inter-governmental institution, co-financed by 42 countries of the UfM and the EC, aiming at bringing together civil society and citizens across the Mediterranean to build trust and improve mutual understanding.
A number of regional and bilateral programmes in the Southern Neighbourhood are specifically dedicated to the development of culture as a vector of economic, social and human development. For more details see below.
The Eastern Partnership Culture and Creativity programme is expected to contribute to:
- developing and further strengthening cultural and creative industries;
- creating synergies between public and private actors;
- enhancing the contribution of civil society to cultural policy development and reform in the region;
- strengthening the capabilities of EaP countries to facilitate their participation in international culture cooperation initiatives, including the EU Creative Europe programme;
- enhancing cultural heritage protection at local level.
The Media and culture programme for development in the Southern Mediterranean region (2014-17) supports activities expected to foster cultural policy reform and reinforce the capacity of cultural policy makers, as well as promote investment and the development of cultural operators' business capabilities.
The MedFilm programme (2015-17) is expected to promote freedom of expression, notably among female filmmakers, by allowing them to tackle sensitive issues on a regional level.
In addition, two important bilateral cooperation programmes dedicated to Culture worth mentioning are:
In Tunisia, where the EU is supporting the redefinition of cultural policy and cultural sector in order to assert its strategic role as driver for economic and social reforms. This programme is expected to promote freedom of expression and diversity, and to support Tunisian cultural production as an element of social cohesion, economic development and tolerance.
In Syria, where the EU supports the UNESCO-run Action Plan "Emergency Safeguarding of the Syrian Cultural Heritage". The expected result is to contribute to restoring social cohesion, stability and sustainable development through the protection and safeguarding of cultural heritage.
Eastern Partnership Culture Programme I (2011-2015): 12M â¬
Eastern Partnership Culture Programme II (2015-2018): 4.9 M â¬.
Media and culture for development in the Southern Mediterranean region (2014-17): 9 M⬠for Culture.
"Development of Clusters in Cultural and Creative Industries in the Southern Mediterranean" (2013-2018): 5Mâ¬
MedFilm programme (2015-17): 4.5 M â¬.
Tunisia: EU support on culture: 6M â¬.
Syria: EU financial support to UNESCO-run Action Plan "Emergency Safeguarding of the Syrian Cultural Heritage": 2.5M â¬
EU support to the Anna Lindh Foundation: phase III (2012-2014): 10 MEUR (7Mio EUR for the functioning of the Foundation, 3 MEUR for the programme âCitizens for Dialogueâ; phase IV (2015-2017): 7 M EUR. |
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# ãµãã¯ãšãª
ConditionBeanã«ãããå®ååããããµãã¯ãšãªã®å©çšã«ã€ããŠèª¬æãããŸãã
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- ã¯ããŒãžã£ã欲ãããªããŸã
## ã¿ã€ãã»ãŒããªãµãã¯ãšãª
ConditionBean ã§ã¯ãµãã¯ãšãªããµããŒããããŠããŸãã
ãµãã¯ãšãªãšèããšè€éãªã€ã¡ãŒãžããããŸãããå®ã¯æ¥åã§äœ¿ããµãã¯ãšãªã®å€ãã¯èŠä»¶çã«ãã¿ãŒã³åãããŠããŸãã
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ãããã£ãããšãããConditionBean ã§ã¯ç©æ¥µçã«ã
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## åããŒãã«ã®æ¡ä»¶ã§çµã蟌ã¿
äŸãã°ã2000å以äžã®(äžåã®)賌å
¥ãããããšã®ããäŒå¡ãæ€çŽ¢ããããšãããããªæ¡ä»¶ãããã¯ãexsits å¥ã®çžé¢ãµãã¯ãšãªã§å®çŸããŸãããã®æ©èœã ExistsReferrer ãšåŒã³ãŸãã
e.g. 2000å以äžã®è³Œå
¥ãããããšã®ããäŒå¡ @Java
cb.query().existsPurchaseList(new SubQuery<PurchaseCB>() {
public void query(PurchaseCB subCB) {
// 2000å以äžã®è³Œå
¥ãããããšã®ããäŒå¡
}
});
e.g. 2000å以äžã®è³Œå
¥ãããããšã®ããäŒå¡ @DisplaySql
)
## åããŒãã«ã®å°åºã«ã©ã
åããŒãã«ã®å°åºã«ã©ã ã«å¯ŸããŠã¢ãããŒãããæ©èœãããŒã¿ååŸãšçµã蟌ã¿æ¡ä»¶ã§äºã€ãããŸãã
### åããŒãã«ã®å°åºã«ã©ã (ããŒã¿ååŸ)
äŸãã°ãããããã®äŒå¡ã®æçµãã°ã€ã³æ¥æãäŒå¡ã®ããŒã¿ãšäžç·ã«ååŸããããšãããããªæ€çŽ¢ãããã¯ãselect å¥ã§ã®çžé¢ãµãã¯ãšãªã§å®çŸããŸãããã®æ©èœã (Specify)DerivedReferrer ãšåŒã³ãŸãã
e.g. (Specify)DerivedReferrerã䜿ã£ãŠ(ã¢ãã€ã«é€ã)æçµãã°ã€ã³æ¥æãååŸ @Java
cb.specify().derivedMemberLoginList().max(new SubQuery<MemberLoginCB>() {
public void query(MemberLoginCB subCB) {
subCB.specify().columnLoginDatetime(); // å°åºã«ã©ã ã®æå®
subCB.query().setMobileLoginFlg_Equal_False(); // çµã蟌ã¿æ¡ä»¶
}, Member.ALIAS_latestLoginDatetime);
List<Member> memberList = memberBhv.selectList(cb);
for (Member member : memberList) {
Date latestLoginDatetime = member.getLatestLoginDatetime();
e.g. (Specify)DerivedReferrerã䜿ã£ãŠ(ã¢ãã€ã«é€ã)æçµãã°ã€ã³æ¥æãååŸ @DisplaySql
select dfloc.MEMBER_ID as c1, dfloc.MEMBER_NAME as c2, ...
and sub1loc.MOBILE_LOGIN_FLG = 0
) as LATEST_LOGIN_DATETIME
### åããŒãã«ã®å°åºã«ã©ã (çµã蟌ã¿æ¡ä»¶)
äŸãã°ãæ倧賌å
¥äŸ¡æ Œã10000å以äžã®äŒå¡ãæ€çŽ¢ããšãããããªæ¡ä»¶ãããã¯ãwhere å¥ã§ã®çžé¢ãµãã¯ãšãªã§å®çŸããŸãããã®æ©èœã (Query)DerivedReferrer ãšåŒã³ãŸãã
e.g. (Query)DerivedReferrerã䜿ã£ãŠ(æ¯ææžã¿)æ倧賌å
¥äŸ¡æ Œã10000å以äžã®äŒå¡ãååŸ @Java
cb.specify().derivedPurchaseList().max(new SubQuery<PurchaseCB>() {
subCB.specify().columnPurchasePrice(); // å°åºã«ã©ã ã®æå®
subCB.query().setPaymentCompleteFlg_Equal_True(); // çµã蟌ã¿æ¡ä»¶
}).greaterEqual(10000) // åŒæ°ã«æ¡ä»¶å€ãèšå®
e.g. (Query)DerivedReferrerã䜿ã£ãŠ(æ¯ææžã¿)æ倧賌å
¥äŸ¡æ Œã10000å以äžã®äŒå¡ãååŸ @DisplaySql
) >= 10000
## å°åºå€ãšã®æ¯èŒã§çµã蟌ã¿
äŸãã°ãäžçªè¥ãäŒå¡ã®ããŒã¿ãæ€çŽ¢(ç幎ææ¥ãšæ倧ã®ç幎ææ¥ã®çå€)ããšãããããªæ¡ä»¶ãããã¯ãwhere å¥ã§ã®åºç¹ããŒãã«(察å¿ããŒãã«)ã®ãµãã¯ãšãªã§å®çŸããŸãã
e.g. ScalarConditionã䜿ã£ãŠäžçªè¥ãæ£åŒäŒå¡(ã®ã¬ã³ãŒã)ãååŸ @Java
cb.query().scalar_Equal().max(new SubQuery<MemberCB>() {
public void query(MemberCB subCB) { // äžçªè¥ãæ£åŒäŒå¡
subCB.specify().columnBirthdate(); // æ¯èŒå¯Ÿè±¡ã«ã©ã ã®æå®
subCB.query().setMemberStatusCode_Equal_Formalized(); // çµã蟌ã¿æ¡ä»¶
e.g. ScalarConditionã䜿ã£ãŠäžçªè¥ãæ£åŒäŒå¡(ã®ã¬ã³ãŒã)ãååŸ @DisplaySql
where sub1loc.MEMBER_STATUS_CODE = 'FML'
## é¢é£ããŒãã«ã®æ¡ä»¶ã§çµã蟌ã¿
InScope (inå¥) ã§ã®é¢é£ããŒãã«ã®ãµãã¯ãšãª(çžé¢ã§ãªã)ãå©çšããŠãåºç¹ããŒãã«ãçµã蟌ã¿ãŸãã ããã¯ä»£æ¿æ©èœã§ããã芪ããŒãã«ã«å¯ŸããŠå©çšããå Žå㯠Query(Relation) ã§çµã蟌ã¿æ¡ä»¶ãä»äžãããšããšçµæã¯åãã«ãªããåããŒãã«ã«å¯ŸããŠå©çšããå Žå㯠ExistsReferrer ãšçµæã¯åãã«ãªããŸããããã©ãŒãã³ã¹ãªã©ã®èŠä»¶ã§ãSQLã§ã®å±éã®ä»æ¹ã埮調æŽããããšãã«æå¹ã§ãã
## ã«ã©ã ãšå°åºã«ã©ã
ã«ã©ã å士ã®æ¯èŒæ¡ä»¶ãã§ãã ColumnQuery ãš (Specify)DerivedReferrer ã®ã³ã©ãã¬ãŒã·ã§ã³ã«ãããColumnQuery ã®æå®ããã«ã©ã ãå°åºã«ã©ã ã«ããããšã§æè»ãªæ¯èŒãã§ããŸãã
e.g. çãŸããåããããã¯çãŸããç¬éã«è³Œå
¥ãããããšã®ããäŒå¡ @Java
cb.columnQuery(new SpecifyQuery<MemberCB>() {
public void specify(MemberCB cb) {
cb.specify().columnBirthdate();
}).lessEqual(new SpecifyQuery<MemberCB>() {
cb.specify().derivedPurchaseList().min(new SubQuery<PurchaseCB>() {
subCB.query().setPaymentCompleteFlg_Equal_True();
}, null); // ãšãªã¢ã¹åã¯å©çšããªãã®ã§ null åºå®
e.g. çãŸããåããããã¯ãçãŸããç¬éã«(æ¯ææžã¿)賌å
¥ãããããšã®ããäŒå¡ @DisplaySql
where dfloc.BIRTHDATE <= (select min(sub1loc.PURCHASE_DATETIME)
### å¿çšã®å©ãæ©èœ
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èŠã¯ãããŸãããã çµã¿ç«ãŠã極ããŠãããšããªãé«åºŠãªDBã¢ã¯ã»ã¹ãŸã§ãã¿ã€ãã»ãŒãå®è£
ã®ç¯çãšããããšãã§ããŸãã
ç¹ã«ãã® ColumnQuery ã¯ããµãã¯ãšãªãšã®ã³ã©ãã¬ãŒã·ã§ã³ãååã«çºæ®ã§ãããšãŠãæè»æ§ã®é«ãæ©èœã§ããã©ããã£ãæ¡ä»¶ãå®çŸã§ããã®ãïŒ ãã£ãããããŒèªèº«ãæ¢ã£ãŠçºèŠããŠããããšããµãã¯ãšãªãæ§é çã«æãããã£ããã«ããªãããšæããŸãã
## ãµãã¯ãšãªããã©ãŒããã
ConditionBean ã§çµã¿ç«ãŠããµãã¯ãšãªã¯ããã£ãã人ã®èŠããã圢ã«ãã©ãŒããããããŸãã éã«ãããã§ããªããšããããã¿ã€ãã»ãŒãã ãããšãã£ãŠãæ¬åœã«èªåãæå³ããã¯ãšãªã«ãªã£ãŠãããã©ãããäžå®ã«ãªã£ãŠä»æ¹ãããŸããã ãã°ã®SQLãã³ããŒããŠSQLããŒã«ã«è²Œãä»ããŠãã©ãŒãããã§ããªãã¯ãªãã§ããå€å°é¢åã§ããã ãªããªããµãã¯ãšãªãŸã§ç¶ºéºã«ãã©ãŒãããããŠãããããŒã«ãå€ãã¯ãããŸããã
ãããèžãŸããäžã§ã®å®çŸãå
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## å€ã ãSQLã®åå°ã«ãå©çš
æåããå€ã ãSQLã§æžãããšæ±ºãŸã£ãŠããå Žåã§ãããã® ConditionBean ã®ãµãã¯ãšãªã®æ©èœã䜿ã£ãŠå®è£
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## ã¯ããŒãžã£ã欲ãããªããŸã
ç¹ã«ãµãã¯ãšãªã®å®è£
ãèŠããšãJava ã«ã¯ããŒãžã£ã欲ãããªããŸããC# ã§ã¯ãdelegate ãããããããããããå°ãã·ã³ãã«ãªèšè¿°ãã§ããŸãããJava ã§ã¯ã©ãããŠãç¡åã€ã³ããŒã¯ã©ã¹åœ¢åŒã§ãã決ãŸãã®ã¡ãœãã宣èšãå¿
èŠã«ãªããŸãã ä»åŸã® Java ã®ååããç®ãé¢ããŸããã
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For bumper crops, fruit trees need to be trained in their infancy. First off, set up a post and wire support system to allow pruning, tying in and picking to take place from both sides. Take two 2.5m lengths of 10x 10cm wood and bury at least 60cm in the ground (an angled strut will give extra support). Leave 2.5-3.5m between posts and attach heavy-gauge galvanised wire horizontally between each post and fix with a straining bolt. Trees respond differently to each training system, so seek advice before you begin.
Espaliers are trained to form a vertical main stem with pairs of branches stretched horizontally to form tiers. In spring attach three canes to the wire where new growth has occurred: one supporting the vertical main stem, two supporting the stems to the left and right. In the winter remove the two side canes and tie the branches into the horizontal wire. Repeat until fully grown.
Cordons are trained vertically along the main stem and supported by canes. Cut the tip off the main stem when the top wire is reached, and prune side shoots in summer to focus fruit formation.
Fans are trained to form a series of main branches that spread like the ribs of a fan. For best results, buy a partially trained, two- to three- year-old tree. The canes of the two primary branches should be fixed to the wires at a 45-degree angle from the ground; the rest of the branches should be spread and supported evenly to create a fan shape. Cut back to the framework in February to encourage new branches to form. |
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Science and the Young Doctor
Dr. Cadwallader Coldenâs influences upon medicine occurred by way of several sciences related to this field. During the latter half of the 18th century, the age of enlightment was nearing a peak in history, with scientific discoveries playing important roles in nearly every field of study. Coldenâs interests in science and the applications of new discoveries in science to his personal philosophy made him more aware of any additional discoveries and more certain about their application to his own perspective about things.
Dr. Coldenâs best-known communications with scientists, aside from those already mentioned such as Linnaeus and numerous other botanists, were his communications with Isaac Newton and Benjamin Franklin. These two sets of communications shared some aspects of the natural philosophy discussions often underlying his communications with Newton about light and energy, and Franklinâs fascination with the study of electricity. Both of these studies scientists felt were intimately related in the natural philosophical realm, and had much to do with the philosophies that underline many of the medical practices for the time. Through Newtonâs rendering of the universal forces, such as gravity, light and electricity, came a variety of new arguments using these Newtonian concepts to define the equations used to explain the astronomical features like cyclicity and predictability, as well as the reason nature is capable of generating such events as thunderstorms, lightning, earthquakes, tidal rhythyms, tornaodes, and comet and meteor events. The philosophy, science and math underlying these features in turn were also related to how the human body functions, the reasons for its vitality of ability to produce its own energy-based way of living, and how and why certain natural events could extinguish life in just a split second. Dr. Colden wasnât like just any physician in the United States for the time. His education at Edinburgh made him the scholar and successful writer that he was, and the highly educated philosopher, engineer, scientist, and physician that he became in the Province of New York.
Coldenâs influences upon science have several main topics of research or avenues of approach to the topics that he studies and wrote about as a scholar, physician and later lieutenant-governor of New York. The following are these topics:
- The co-authoring of an article about the cycling of comets and meteor shower events; the underlying mathematics to these events and the relationship of these events to Newtonian physics.
- The design of a printing press invention unique for the time
- The development of a theory in matter and energy comparable and in contrast to Newtonâs theory of universal forces and energy, with an emphasis on the roles of light in universal events and cycles.
- The development of a philosophy and theory regarding the utilization of energy within the body, in the form of producing muscular contractions and mobility.
Each one of the above has some form of written essay or mansucript documenting this work as it was engaged in by Cadwallader Colden. A number of these documents are found as part of the Colden collection in the New York State library in Albany, others are in the possession of the New York City Library. Descriptions and copies of these writings are also found at times scattered about the magazines, journals and books published since the 1720s Transactions of various types and topics of interest published by the professional and academic Royal Societies in England.
Planets and Stars
Coldenâs first publication in a scientific journal is the study of the eclipses in relation to Juniper. The author of this work was New York Governor William Burnet. Colden was only a primary researcher of this field, responsible for documenting the observatory notes and calculating the planetary flow-time relationships related to the eclipse.
At the time of this publication, Colden was also working in service to Burnet. The following is this article, extracted from Philosophical Transactions, No. 385, Oct-Nov-Dec 1725.
The Printing Press
The effective use of the Printing Press is an accomplishment typically related to famous publishers like Rittenhouse of Philadelphia, Samuel Loudon of the New York Packet and Thomas Paine of New York. The improvements made in the printing process itself were ongoing throughout the colonial period, with important contributions relative to local New York history made by Ben Franklin and Cadwallader Colden. The mention of Cadwallader Coldenâs association with printing is only an occasional event for most of the writings published about his life. The reason for this of course is the greater importance history has assigned to him due to his other accomplishments, as a politician and as a scientist.
The impacts of Coldenâs attempt to take on the engineering task at hand related to printing may not in itself represent much of a milestone for himself, nor for the region of Newburgh, NY or the history of the colony, state or nation. Nevertheless, a story about this accomplishment of Colden exists and so is presented at this site, although not on this page. This story appears as part of another biography of Colden provided on a separate page (Colden â biographies).
There are a couple of other colonial history tales that correlate well with this piece of Coldenâs activities and history in the Hudson Valley. Newburgh is noted as one of several major paper manufacturers and distributors in the Colonies around 1760. It is also a site fairly close to the Revolutionary War hospital setting, where during the war years numerous governmental documents, papers and even paper currency were printed just across the river in Fishkill. Whether or not Coldenâs influences also assisted the people of Newburgh of developing this important part of American history requires further review. What we do know is that Colden was very industrious during his years of stay in this part of New York. We are also provided with a little more detail about his life history, and how Colden also deserves recognition for his accomplishments across numerous professional avenues. The Hudson Valley equivalent to Ben Franklin, were it not for his history as a Loyalist.
Cadwallader Colden was very much interested in Isaac Newtonâs philosophy and teachings. Like other scientists Colden regularly interacted with, such as Halley, the astronomer and discoverer of the path and predictability of Halleyâs Comet. Other scientists he would learn to respect through their publications in the Transactions included Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (the Fahrenheit thermometer), Leewuenhook (who used the microscope to study everything from body tissues to the components of the blood), and Sir Hans Sloane, a collector and cataloguer of plants grown for the famous Chelsea garden. Coldenâs most important communique and comrade in the Royal Society network was none other than Isaac Newton. The professional relation Colden developed with Newton would have long term effect upon how each came to interpret and express their concepts about God and the universe.
Coldenâs Physiology and Metaphysics
The Works of Cicero |
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The Black swan (Cygnus atratus) is not common in Britain, where white Mute swans predominate, but they can still be seen here. Like peacocks, they were introduced to join the collections of exotic birds adorning the parks and estates of the wealthy, and some have since escaped those boundaries.
Many people think of the Black swan as an Australian bird â it is, after all, both are the state symbol and the state emblem of Western Australia. However, scientists have discovered that the Black swan was present in New Zealand at the time of first human settlement, but had been hunted to extinction by the time Europeans first arrived in the early 1800s. In the 1860s, they were deliberately reintroduced from Australia and, judging by how quickly the local population grew, they may, at the same time, also have re-colonised New Zealand naturally â flown or been blown across the Tasman Sea from Australia.
The Black swanâs Latin name atratus means âto be clothed in black for mourningâ. Perhaps thatâs why some people believe it to be a harbinger of bad luck. Personally, I think the swan dressed all in black is a very stylish and elegant-looking bird (except, perhaps, when itâs doing its morning exercises ð ). |
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ogame = are (verb "to be"/"to exist" - we are - 1st person plural) (some things Google found for "ogame": a very common term; OGame is a German, real time, multiplayer, text-based, space-war themed online browser game - an overwhelming search result; user name; a last name that can be Japanese)
Word derivation for "are" (we are) (to exist) :
Basque = gara, Finnish = olemme
Miresua = ogame
In my opinion this is an odd looking word, but "ogame" is the letter combination that makes the best sense. The first letter is the first letter from the Finnish word. The second letter is the first letter from the Basque word. The last two letters are the verb conjugation ending (and both are doubled letters) from the Finnish word. The third letter is the vowel from the Basque word.
This Miresua conlang word has been changed. The word for "are (we are)" is now "orame". |
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From 2009 to 2015, states across the country adopted teacher evaluation reforms for the purpose of making evaluation more meaningful. Historically, teacher evaluation has been a seriously underutilized tool, where virtually all teachers received the same rating and almost no one was provided with actionable feedback. Teacher evaluation reformsâsuch as increasing the number of ratings teachers could earn, increasing the frequency of evaluations, and incorporating objective measures of student growthâsought to provide more nuanced and comparable data that would both help teachers improve their practice and support efforts to distribute teacher talent more equitably among all students.
In NCTQ's newly released report, part of our State of the States series, we find that a large number of states have backed away from many of their recent evaluation reforms. The decisions by 30 states to withdraw some of their new evaluation requirements puts the onus squarely on school districts to make teacher evaluation a more meaningful process.
In this month's District Trendline, we examine some key characteristics of teacher evaluation systems in the nation's largest school districts, and how those characteristics align with what research indicates makes teacher evaluations most meaningful.
Since 2011, most states have required that teacher evaluation systems have more than two rating categories. School districts have overwhelmingly adopted this policy, with 90 percent of large districts requiring at least three rating categories for teachers and most more. Having more than two rating categories, as compared to binary evaluation systems, increases the useful information available to individual educators and policymakers.
Frequency of evaluations
Annual evaluations benefit all educators, regardless of effectiveness levels. Unfortunately, most states no longer require that all teachers are evaluated each year. Only 42 percent of large districts ensure all teachers get this regular feedback. While these districts almost all require that inexperienced, untenured, or teachers with less-than-effective ratings are evaluated annually, it is more common to exempt experienced teachers with a satisfactory rating on their record. In 21 of the 124 districts we track, teachers can go without a formal evaluation for five years!
Classroom observations remain a staple of teacher evaluation. The reforms adopted between 2009 and 2015 upped the ante, based on evidence that it takes multiple observations to produce a valid assessment of performance. Most states and, in turn, most large districts (58 percent) still require teachers to be observed multiple times as part of an evaluation. These observations can be formal or informal walk-throughs, and most often include a feedback conference between the teacher and their observer.
Teacher evaluation components
One of the most controversial topics in teacher evaluation over the past several years has been what components should be factored into a teacher's rating.
All the large districts in our sample of 124 except one87 require a measure of 'professional practice' to be included. Professional practice is typically based on classroom observations and rates teachers in areas such as curriculum, instruction, lesson planning, classroom environment, student and family engagement, and professionalism. It most often makes up 50 percent of a teacher's evaluation, but counts for 100 percent of the evaluation in 16 large districts.
Student survey data provide important information about a teacher's performance. Seven states require student surveys be factored into teacher evaluations, and another 24 states explicitly allow student surveys. However, of the 48 districts in our sample located in states that explicitly allow student surveys, only four districts use them in their teacher evaluations: Albuquerque Public Schools (NM), Denver Public Schools (CO), Greenville County Schools (SC), and Shelby County Schools (TN).
Four large districts include all four measures (student growth, professional practice, professional development, and student surveys) in their teacher evaluations: Alpine School District (UT), Granite School District (UT), Mobile County Public Schools (AL), and Shelby County Schools (TN).
Digging in to student growth
Among the major evaluation reforms of the past decade was the inclusion of objective measures of student growth. In 2015, 43 states (including the District of Columbia) required objective measures of student growth in teacher evaluation systems, but that number has since dropped dramatically to 34 states.
Absent state requirements, it falls to districts to determine how to measure student growth. Student growth measures as required in district teacher evaluation systems (illustrated above) are not necessarily objective, as they often rely on subjective measures such as student learning objectives set at the classroom- or grade-level.
Objective measures of student growth based on state and district-wide standardized assessments (often calculated as value-added measures or student growth percentiles) substantially improve the validity of evaluations and help capture the more genuine range of educator talent within a school, district, or state. Currently, 44 percent of large districts specify that a state standardized assessment is used to measure student growth for teachers in tested grades and subjects, while 28 percent use a measure based on student learning objectives that are established by individual teachers, generally with the approval of their principals.
Neither the optimal ratio of objective to subjective data nor the optimal mix of data sources are firmly established in the research. However, objectivity and comparability of teacher effectiveness data make it easier to determine the targeted support a teacher needs to improve her practice and for education leaders to make the personnel, compensation, and resource allocation decisions that best serve both teachers and students.
Read the new NCTQ State of the States 2019: Teacher and Principal Evaluation Policy for the full set of findings on changes in state educator evaluation policies.
Explore teacher evaluation policies in the nation's largest districts for yourself with the Custom Report Tool on the Teacher Contract Database.
See examples of best practices in teacher evaluation systems in Making a Difference: Six Places Where Teacher Evaluation Systems are Getting Results. |
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